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+ margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing, by +George Barton Cutten</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing</p> +<p>Author: George Barton Cutten</p> +<p>Release Date: October 22, 2007 [eBook #23101]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL HEALING***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by David Clarke, Turgut Dincer,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h1>THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF</h1> +<h1>MENTAL HEALING</h1> + +<h1> </h1> + +<p class="two">BY</p> + +<p class="three"><b>GEORGE BARTON CUTTEN, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span></b></p> + +<p class="two"><b>(YALE)</b></p> + +<p class="two"><b>PRESIDENT OF ACADIA UNIVERSITY</b></p> + +<h5>ILLUSTRATED</h5> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="two"><small>NEW YORK</small></p> + +<p class="two"><b>CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</b></p> + +<p class="two"><small>1911</small></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"><img src="images/printers.jpg" +width="100" alt="printer's mark." /></div> + +<h1> </h1> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a><a href="images/illus1.jpg"><img src="images/illus1-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="330" alt="BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING THE GALLIC ÆSCULAPIUS +DISPATCHING A DEMON." /></a><br /> +<span class="caption"> </span></div> + +<table width="90%" border="1" summary="Bas-relief"> +<tr> +<td class="cell_illus">BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING THE GALLIC ÆSCULAPIUS<br /> +DISPATCHING A DEMON</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h1> </h1> +<p class="two">THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY</p> + +<p class="two">OF</p> + +<p class="three"><b>Artemus Wyman Sawyer, D.D., LL.D.</b></p> + +<p class="two">PRESIDENT OF ACADIA UNIVERSITY</p> + +<p class="two">1869-1896</p> + +<h5> +HE HID FROM US HIS HEART WHILE WE THOUGHT THAT HE LOVED<br /> +ONLY HIS STUDIES; WE LATER LEARNED THAT HE LAID<br /> +EMPHASIS ON THAT WHICH HE LOVED ONLY LESS—TRUE<br /> +KNOWLEDGE, IN ORDER THAT HE MIGHT INTRODUCE<br /> +IT TO THOSE THAT HE LOVED MOST—HIS<br /> +PUPILS. HE TAUGHT AS NONE OTHER<br /> +</h5> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> + + +<table width="100%" summary="TOC"> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">CHAPTER</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"> </td> +<td class="cell_toc1">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">I.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Introduction—Mental Healing</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">II.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Early Civilizations</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">III.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">The Influence of Christianity</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">IV.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Relics and Shrines</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">V.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Healers</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">VI.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Talismans</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">VII.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Amulets</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">VIII.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Charms</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">189</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">IX.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Royal Touch</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">X.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Mesmer and After</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">249</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1">XI.</td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">The Healers of the Nineteenth Century</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">273</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc1"> </td> +<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS">273</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>PREFACE</h3> + + +<p>The present decade has experienced an intense +interest in mental healing. This has come as a +culmination of the development along these lines +during the past half century. It has shown itself +in the beginning of new religious sects with this as +a, or the, fundamental tenet, in more wide-spread +general movements, and in the scientific study and +application of the principles underlying this form +of therapeutics.</p> + +<p>Many have been led astray because, being ignorant +of the mental healing movements and vagaries +of the past, the late applications, veiled in metaphysical +or religious verbiage, have seemed to them +to be new in origin and principle. No one could +consider an historical survey of the subject and +reasonably hold this opinion. It is on account of +the ignorance of similar movements, millenniums old, +that so much, if any, originality can be credited to +the founders.</p> + +<p>The object of this volume is to present a general +view of mental healing, dealing more especially +with the historical side of the subject. While this is +divided topically, the topics are presented in a comparatively +chronological order, and thereby trace the +development of the subject to the present century.</p> + +<p>The term "mental healing" is given the broadest +possible use, and comprehends any cures which may +be brought about by the effect of the mind over the +body, regardless of whether the power back of the +cure is supposed to be deity, demons, other human +beings, or the individual mind of the patient.</p> + +<p>It is hoped that this may contribute to the knowledge +of a subject which is of such wide-spread popular +interest.</p> + +<p class="quotsig2"><span class="smcap">George Barton Cutten</span>.</p> +<p><small><span class="smcap">Wolfville, Nova Scotia</span>,<br /> +<i>December 1, 1910.</i></small><br /> +</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3> + +<table width="100%" summary="TOC"> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Bas-relief representing the Gallic Æsculapius<br /> +dispatching a demon</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"> </td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><span class="smcap"><small>Facing<br />Page</small></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Cure through the Intercession of a Healing Saint</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus2">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Valentine Greatrakes</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus3">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Sir Kenelm Digby</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus4">152</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">King's Touch-pieces</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus5">226</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">F. A. Mesmer</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus6">232</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">John Alexander Dowie</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus7">276</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">George O. Barnes</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus8">290</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Mary Baker Eddy</span></td> +<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus9">302</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1-2" id="Page_1-2">1-2</a></span></p> +<h3>THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF</h3> +<h3>MENTAL HEALING</h3> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_003" id="Page_003"> 3</a></span></p> + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<h4>INTRODUCTION—MENTAL HEALING</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"'Tis painful thinking that corrodes our clay."—<span class="smcap">Armstrong</span>.</p> + +<p>"Oh, if I could once make a resolution, and determine to be well!"—<span class="smcap">Walderstein</span>.</p> + +<p>"The body and the mind are like a jerkin and a jerkin's lining, +rumple the one and you rumple the other."—<span class="smcap">Sterne</span>.</p> + +<p>"I find, by experience, that the mind and the body are more than +married, for they are most intimately united; and when the one +suffers, the other sympathizes."—<span class="smcap">Chesterfield</span>.</p> + +<p>"Sublime is the dominion of the mind over the body, that for a +time can make flesh and nerve impregnable, and string the sinews +like steel, so that the weak become so mighty."—<span class="smcap">Stowe</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The surest road to health, say what they will,</span> +<span class="i05">Is never to suppose we shall be ill;</span> +<span class="i05">Most of those evils we poor mortals know</span> +<span class="i05">From doctors and imagination flow."—<span class="smcap">Churchill</span>.</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The fact that there is a reciprocal relation between +mental states and bodily conditions, acting +both for good and ill, is nothing new in human +experience. Even among the most crude and unobserving, +traditions and incidents have given +witness to this knowledge. For centuries stories of +the hair turning white during the night on account +of fright or sorrow, the cause and cure of diseases +through emotional disturbances, and death, usually +directly by apoplexy, caused by anger, grief, or joy, +have been current and generally accepted. On the +other hand, irritability and moroseness caused by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_004" id="Page_004"> 4</a></span> +disordered organs of digestion, change of acumen or +morals due to injury of the brain or nervous system, +and insanity produced by bodily diseases, are also +accepted proofs of the effect of the body on the +mind.</p> + +<p>Recent scientific investigation has been directed +along the line of the influence of the mind over the +body, and to that phase of this influence which +deals with the cure rather than the cause of disease. +In addition to what the scientists have done along +this line, various religious cults have added the +application of these principles to their other tenets +and activities, or else have made this the chief +corner-stone of a new structure. There are some +reasons why this connection with religion should +continue to exist, and why it has been a great help +both to the building up of these particular sects and +the healing of the bodies of those who combine religion +with mental healing.</p> + +<p>We must not forget that in early days the priest, +the magician, and the physician were combined in +one person, and that primitive religious notions are +difficult to slough off. Shortly before the beginning +of the Christian era there were some indications that +healing was to be freed from the bondage of religion, +but the influence of Jesus' healing upon Christians, +and the overwhelming influence of Christianity upon +the whole world, delayed this movement, so that it +did not again become prominent until the sixteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_005" id="Page_005"> 5</a></span> +century. About this time, when therapeutics as a +science began to shake off the shackles of religion +and superstition, another startling innovation was +noticeable, viz., the division of mental healing into +religious and non-religious healing. This change +came gradually, and as is usual in all reform, certain +prophets saw and proclaimed the real truth +which the people were not able to follow or receive +for centuries.</p> + +<p>Paracelsus, who lived during the first half of the +sixteenth century, wrote these shrewd words: +"Whether the object of your faith is real or false, +you will nevertheless obtain the same effects. Thus, +if I believe in St. Peter's statue as I would have believed +in St. Peter himself, I will obtain the same +effects that I would have obtained from St. Peter; +but that is superstition. Faith, however, produces +miracles, and whether it be true or false faith, it will +always produce the same wonders." We have also +this penetrating observation from Pierre Ponponazzi, +of Milan, an author of the same century: +"We can easily conceive the marvellous effects +which confidence and imagination can produce, particularly +when both qualities are reciprocal between +the subject and the person who influences them. +The cures attributed to the influence of certain +relics are the effect of this imagination and confidence. +Quacks and philosophers know that if the +bones of any skeleton were put in the place of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_006" id="Page_006"> 6</a></span> +saint's bones, the sick would none the less experience +beneficial effects, if they believed they were +near veritable relics."</p> + +<p>What seemed to be a movement whereby mental +healing should be divided so that only a portion of +it should be connected with religion proved to be +too far in advance of its time, and not until the +advent of Mesmer was this accomplished. Healing +other than mental, however, did obtain its freedom +at this time. While Mesmer and his followers emphasized +non-religious mental healing, it should not be +thought that mental therapeutics was ever entirely +separated from the church. There have always been +found some sects which laid particular emphasis on it, +and both Roman Catholic and Protestant orthodox +Christianity have always admitted it. It has been +considered, even if not admitted, that the power of +the Infinite was more clearly shown by the healing of +the body than by the restoration of the moral life. +It is natural, then, that the sects which showed this +special proof of God's presence and power would +grow faster than their spiritual competitors, but +that they would decline more rapidly and surely +than those which espoused more spiritual doctrines.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, it is not difficult to see why +mental healing would be helped by its connection +with religion. Religion grips the whole mind more +firmly than any other subject has ever done, and +when one accepts the orthodox conception of God,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_007" id="Page_007"> 7</a></span> +he naturally expects to come in contact with One +whose sympathies are in favor of the cure of his +diseases, and whose power is sufficient to bring about +this cure. With this basis there is set up in the mind +of the patient an expectancy which has always +proven to be a most valuable precursor of a cure. +The devout religious attitude of mind is one most +favorable for the working of suggestion, and persons +of the temperament adapted to the religious expression +most valued in the past are those who +could be most readily affected by mental means. +For these reasons, it can be easily understood why +mental healing has continued to be associated with +religion, and why when thus associated it has been +so successful.</p> + +<p>To those not very familiar with mental healing, +it has seemed strange that any law could be formulated +which would comprehend every variety. In +the following pages many different forms will be +described, and in examining the subject it will be +found that many and varied are the explanations +given for the results produced. We find also a general +distrust of all the others, or else a claim that +this particular sect is the only real and true exponent +of mental healing, and that it produces the +only genuine cures. Those which claim to be +Christian sects, however divergent the direct explanation +of their results, give the final credit to +God, and base their <i>modus operandi</i> upon the Bible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_008" id="Page_008"> 8</a></span> +—in fact, they claim to be the direct successors of +Jesus and his disciples in this respect.</p> + +<p>We find, however, that the healer connected with +the Christian sect has no advantage over his Mohammedan +or Buddhist brother, and that neither is +able to succeed better than the non-religious healer +in all cases. We recognize that when one class of +healers fails in a case another may succeed, but the +successful one is just as liable to fail in a second +case when the first one cures. What particular form +of suggestion is most effective in any given case depends +upon the temperament of the individual and +his education, religious training, and environment. +When we consider the whole matter we are forced to +the conclusion that mental cures are independent +of any particular sect, religion, or philosophy; some +are cured by one form and some by another. Not +the creed, but some force which resides in the mind +of every one accomplishes the cure, and the most +that any religion or philosophy can do is to bring +this force into action.</p> + +<p>As a general rule, one sharp distinction is noticed +between the religious and the non-religious healers, +viz., the religious healer sees no limit to his healing +power, and affirms that cancer and Bright's disease +are as easily cured, in theory at least, as neuralgia +or insomnia; the non-religious healer, sometimes +designated as the "scientific healer," on the contrary, +recognizes that there are some diseases which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_009" id="Page_009"> 9</a></span> +are more easily cured than others, and that of those +others some are practically incurable by psycho-therapeutic +methods.</p> + +<p>The line has been drawn in the past between functional +and organic diseases, the former including +diseases where there is simply a derangement of +function, like indigestion, and the latter comprehending +the diseases where the organ is affected, +like ulcer of the stomach. The more we know about +diseases the less sure we seem to be about their +classification; some of which we were formerly sure +have recently caused us considerable doubt. For +example, we have formerly classed cancer as an organic +disease and consequently incurable by mental +means. The question is now asked, "Is cancer an +organic disease, or is it some functional derangement +of the epithelium tissue which causes it to grow indefinitely +until it invades some vital organ?"</p> + +<p>A further question arises due to further study. +Some of the latest investigators claim that most if +not all persons have cancer at some time in life, +but that anti-toxin or some other remedy is supplied +by the body itself, and the growth is stopped and the +tissue absorbed. The question then seems to be +pertinent, "If the body can produce the cure within +itself, and this would be functional, why cannot +mental means stimulate the body to produce it?" +or "Does not mental influence stimulate the body +to produce it?" What the cancer experts tell us of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_010" id="Page_010"> 10</a></span> +the wide-spread extension of the disease and its +spontaneous cure, the tuberculosis experts affirm of +tuberculosis, and certainly of the latter disease spontaneous +cures are not uncommon. We also know +that mental influence may, in fact does, have an +indirect but no less beneficial influence in the cure +of tuberculosis. From these examples one seems to +be forced to either one of two conclusions, either of +which is contrary to generally accepted ideas, viz., +first, that these are not organic diseases; or, second, +organic diseases are aided or cured by means of +mental healing. In general, however, the distinction +holds good; the so-called functional cases are +amenable to cure by mental means, and the organic +are much less so.</p> + +<p>Coming back, then, to the common law which +underlies all cases or forms of mental healing, we +find two general principles upon which it is built—the +power of the mind over the body, and the importance +of suggestion as a factor in the cure of the +disease. The law may be tersely stated in the first +person as follows: My body tends to adjust itself so +as to be in harmony with my ideas concerning it. +This law is equally applicable to the cause or cure of +disease by mental means. To apply this law in a +universal way as far as mental healing is concerned, +we should notice that however the thought of cure +may come into the mind, whether by external or +auto-suggestion, if it is firmly rooted so as to im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_011" id="Page_011"> 11</a></span>press +the subconsciousness, that part of the mind +which rules the bodily organs, a tendency toward +cure is at once set up and continues as long as that +thought has the ascendancy.</p> + +<p>Hack Tuke quotes Johannes Müller, a physiologist +who lived during the first half of the last century, +as follows: "It may be stated as a general fact +that any state of body which is conceived to be approaching, +and which is expected with certain confidence +and certainty of occurrence, will be very +prone to ensue, as the mere result of the idea, if it +do not lie beyond the bounds of possibility." This +is a fair statement of the law from the stand-point of +consciousness, but does not include all of the vast +influence of subconscious ideas which are so potent +in the cure of diseases by mental means. Müller's +observation was in advance of his times, but could +not be expected to include the results of the latest +researches of modern science.</p> + +<p>For a great many years physicians have recognized +that not only are all diseases made worse by +an incorrect mental attitude, but that some diseases +are the direct result of worry and other mental disturbances. +The mental force which causes colored +water to act as an emetic, or postage-stamps to produce +a blister, can also produce organic diseases of +a serious nature. The large mental factor in the +cause of diseases is generally admitted, and it seems +reasonable to infer that what is caused by mental<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_012" id="Page_012"> 12</a></span> +influence may be cured by the same means. There +is no restriction in the power of the mind in causing +disease, and should we restrict the mind as a factor +in the cure? The trouble seems to be in the explanation. +People ask, "How can the mind have +such an effect upon the body?" and to the answer +of this question we must now turn our attention.</p> + +<p>We all recognize that involuntarily certain bodily +effects take place. We blush when we do not wish +to; we betray our fears by our blanched faces. +Some other factors of mind than the conscious mental +processes have charge, and rule certain functions. +The heart, the respiratory apparatus, the glands, +and digestive organs all carry on their regular functions +during sleep and also better without our +direction when we are awake. What is the explanation +of this? We have recently been saying that the +subconsciousness rules these physical organs, and +through this that the effects already referred to +take place. So much has been written recently +regarding the subconsciousness that anything more +at this time would be superfluous; suffice it to say +that the general conclusions on that subject are +accepted as the basis of faith cure. We may, however, +go further in our endeavor to explain.</p> + +<p>In such mental troubles as psychasthesia much +has lately been heard about psycho-analysis and re-education. +What does that mean in the language +of the psychology of a few years ago? In cases of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_013" id="Page_013"> 13</a></span> +unreasonable fears or phobias, for example, there +is a firmly rooted system of ideas which refuses to +depart at the command of consciousness. We analyze +the mental store to find out the cause of the +unreasonable persistence, and sometimes, quite frequently +in fact, have to resort to hypnosis or +hypnodization to find the initial trouble. It is then +corrected, and re-education consists in living over +again from the first experience, the events connected +with that fear and correcting them up to +date. In this process minutes only are used where +the original experiences took weeks. Putting it in +other words, we have certain systems of ideas; as a +psychological fact of long standing we know that +other elements may be injected into that system so +as to change it, or that one system may be destroyed +and another system built up to take its place. This +is the secret of cures of this nature—of mental +troubles—the irritating factor, the thorn in the +mind, is extracted.</p> + +<p>We have heard in modern psychology of the hot +and cold places in consciousness, or, to use other +terms for the same idea, the central and peripheral +ideas, meaning the ideas which dominate consciousness, +and those which are in the background. The +mind can readily attend to only one thing at a time; +if that be pain, for example, that takes up all of our +attention. On the other hand, if for some reason +some other ideas suddenly become central, then the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_014" id="Page_014"> 14</a></span> +pain is driven away to the periphery and we say we +have no pain, or we have less pain. The sufferer +from neuralgia experiences no pain as he responds +to the fire alarm, and the toothache stops entirely +as we undergo the excitement and fear of entering +the dentist's office. Serious lesions yield to profound +emotion born of persuasion, confidence, or +excitement; either the gouty or rheumatic man, +after hobbling about for years, finds his legs if pursued +by a wild bull, or the weak and enfeebled invalid +will jump from the bed and carry out heavy +articles from a burning house. The central idea is +sufficient to command all the reserve energy, and +that idea which has suddenly and unexpectedly +become central may remain so. What Chalmers +called "the expulsive power of a new affection" in +the cure of souls, is the precise method of operation +in the cure of some bodily ills.</p> + +<p>I have here made two suggestions which may +help to show how mental healing may be brought +about. Not simply the alleviation of bodily ills, +but the complete cure may result from the influence +on the subconsciousness. A large number of cures +are brought about by faith in certain religious practices, +this faith amounting to a certainty in the +minds of the patients before the cure is started or +while it is in progress. Trustful expectation in any +one direction acts powerfully through the subconsciousness +because it absorbs the whole mind, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_015" id="Page_015"> 15</a></span> +thus competition with other ideas, either consciously +or subconsciously, is largely excluded. It is this +which acts in mental healing under the caption of +faith, although some abnormal conditions may also +arise to assist the suggestion.</p> + +<p>That this confident expectation of a cure is the +most potent means of bringing it about, doing that +which no medical treatment can accomplish, may +be affirmed as the generalized result of experiences +of the most varied kind, extending through a long +series of ages. It is this factor which is common to +methods of the most diverse character. It is noticeable +that any system of treatment, however +absurd, that can be puffed into public notoriety for +efficacy, any individual who by accident or design +obtains a reputation for a special gift of healing, is +certain to attract a multitude of sufferers, among +whom will be many who are capable of being really +benefited by a strong assurance of relief. Thus, +the practitioner with a great reputation has an advantage +over his neighboring physicians, not only +on account of the superior skill which he may have +acquired, but because his reputation causes this +confident expectation, so beneficial in itself.</p> + +<p>There have been fashions in cures as in other +things. At one time a certain relic, or healer, would +attract and cure, and shortly afterward it would +be deserted and inefficacious, not because it had lost +its power, but because it had lost its reputation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_016" id="Page_016"> 16</a></span> +and the people had consequently lost their faith in +it. Some other relics would then acquire a reputation, +spring into popular favor, and the crowds +would flock to them. We have many modern instances +of this kind. If sufficient confidence in the +power of a concoction, a shrine, a relic, or a person +can be aroused, genuine cures can be wrought regardless +of the healing properties of the dose.</p> + +<p>The whole system of mental therapeutics may be +divided into two parts; what we may designate as +metaphysical cure denies that either matter or evil +exists, and heals by inspiring the belief that the +disease cannot assail the patient because he is pure +spirit; the other class, faith cure, recognizes the +disease, but cures by faith in the power of divinity, +persons, objects, or suggestion.</p> + +<p>Without doubt the best example of the former +theory and the most successful application of it are +found in Christian Science. Perhaps it is not so +difficult to understand the frame of mind which +brought about this theory on the part of Mrs. Eddy. +Here was an hysterical, neurotic woman who knew +nothing all her life but illness and misfortune. She +had suffered much from many physicians and was +none the better but rather worse. One physician +had called her disease one thing, another had designated +it another, until confusion and uncertainty +were increased with every physician consulted. She +began to despair of ever either knowing about her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_017" id="Page_017"> 17</a></span> +disease or of having it cured. As a last resort she +went to Quimby, and he told her there was no disease +and no need of suffering. He denied the suffering, +and she accepted his teaching; she followed him in +denying disease and then matter, and kept on with +her theory of negation and denial until she evolved +her present theory. It was a natural reaction from +all conceivable pains characteristic of hysteria, to +no pain; from all conceivable diseases which different +physicians had opined, to no disease; from the +infirmity of body with its inhibitory discomfitures, +to no body. The history of the founder of Christian +Science is its best <i>raison d'être</i>, especially from a +psychological stand-point, and the rather strange +thing is that a reaction from an abnormality, going +as it naturally does to another abnormality, should +find a response in the religious cravings of so many; +the philosophy undoubtedly would not attract as it +does were there not connected with it, in the practical +working of the system, the lure of mental +healing.</p> + +<p>Faith cure, the other form of mental healing, has +such a variety of forms that it is practically impossible +to describe a typical one. Faith in some +power, or, what amounts to the same thing, the uncritical +reception of suggestions concerning the cure, +is the common factor in all forms.</p> + +<p>The question naturally arises, Which is the best +form of mental healing? There is no best form for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_018" id="Page_018"> 18</a></span> +all diseases and all persons. For example, it matters +not how new associational systems are formed so +long as they are substituted for the pernicious ones. +It may be in the common experiences of every-day +life, through the pleading of a friend, during sleep +or trance, in some abnormal state of a hypnotic +character, or during religious ecstasy, and we cannot +well say in any given case that one form will be more +efficacious than another. Mental healing creates +nothing new, but simply makes use of the normal +mechanism of the mind and body. The question +then is, What method of mental healing is most +likely to stimulate the mental mechanism so that +physiological processes will be set up leading to a +cure? The great power of faith and expectancy +may decide the question, and the answer may be in +favor of the form in which the patient has the most +faith, either on account of its reputation, or on account +of some prejudice on the part of the patient.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_019" id="Page_019"> 19</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<h4>EARLY CIVILIZATIONS</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The office of the physician extends equally to the purification +of mind and body; to neglect the one is to expose the other to +evident peril. It is not only the body that by its sound constitution +strengthens the soul, but the well-regulated soul by its authoritative +power maintains the body in perfect health."—<span class="smcap">Plato</span>.</p> + +<p>"Aristotle mapped out philosophy and morals in lines the world +yet accepts in the main, but he did not know the difference between +the nerves and the tendons. Rome had a sound system of jurisprudence +before it had a physician, using only priest-craft for healing. +Cicero was the greatest lawyer the world has seen, but there +was not a man in Rome who could have cured him of a colic. The +Greek was an expert dialectician when he was using incantations +for his diseases. As late as when the Puritans were enunciating +their lofty principles, it was generally held that the king's touch +would cure scrofula. Governor Winthrop, of colonial days, treated +'small-pox and all fevers' by a powder made from 'live toads baked +in an earthen pot in the open air.'"—<span class="smcap">Munger</span>.</p> + +<p>"There is nothing so absurd or ridiculous that has not at some +time been said by some philosopher. Fontenelle says he would +undertake to persuade the whole republic of readers to believe that +the sun was neither the cause of light or heat, if he could only get +six philosophers on his side."—<span class="smcap">Goldsmith</span>.</p></div> + +<p>A glance at the history of medicine will show +three fairly well defined periods. The beginning of +the first is hidden in the uncertain days of prehistoric +ages and the period continues down to early +Christian times—perhaps the end of the second +century when Galen died. The second period extends +from this time to the fifteenth or sixteenth +centuries, and the third period embraces the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_020" id="Page_020"> 20</a></span> +three or four centuries. The second period was almost +wholly stationary, and this, we are ashamed +to say, was largely due to the prohibitive attitude +of the church. The science of medicine, then, is +almost wholly the result of the investigations and +study of the last period. This means that medicine +is one of the youngest of the sciences, while from the +very nature of the case it is one of the oldest of +arts.</p> + +<p>From the beginning of the art of therapeutics, +mental healing has been a large factor in the cure. +This was not recognized, of course, for only in the +last century has the psychic element been admitted +to any extent as a therapeutic agent. We can read +back now, however, and see what a large element +this really was. The cruder the art, the more +powerful was the mental influence. The ways of +primitive therapeutics are completely hidden from +us except what we can gather from the races which +retained their primitive practices in historic times. +We can well understand, though, that the concoctions +of medicine-men and witch-doctors could have +little effect except in a suggestive way. Snakes' +heads, toads' toes, lizards' tails, and beetles' wings +have a small place in the pharmacopœia of to-day, +except as placebos, and it is extremely doubtful if +they were ever valuable for any other purpose.</p> + +<p>The object of the primitive practitioner seems to +have been to make an impression upon the patient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_021" id="Page_021"> 21</a></span> +either by the explanation of his disease or by the +effort made to effect a cure. The explanation most +frequently given was that demons were responsible +for the trouble, and the cure of the disease was an +attempted exorcism of the demon. The more fantastic +the ceremony, the more likely the cure, on +account of the mental influence upon the patient. +The primitive man's religion and therapeutics were +inextricably interwoven and, unless we make an exception +of the past few years, this has always been +an unprofitable union for one or both. All the +early civilizations with the exception of the Greeks, +as well as the Christian nations up to the sixteenth +century, were handicapped by this partnership, and +it was only by divorcing the two that therapeutics +was able to make the great advance during the last +period. The nature of the primitive religions was +responsible to a great extent for the nature of the +method of healing, therefore, appeasing the offended +deity and exorcising the demon were therapeutic as +well as religious ceremonies.</p> + +<p>The Chinese of to-day, except in some of the seaboard +cities, must be classed among the earliest +civilizations, for their mode of living has not changed +much in the last two or three milleniums. Their +system of medical practice partakes of the character +of that found among the early people, with some +slight modifications which show some relationship +to the European practice during the Dark Ages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_022" id="Page_022"> 22</a></span></p> + +<p>All sorts of disgusting doses are administered, and +incantations and exorcisms are among the most +effective methods of healing. For example, Hardy +reports that a missionary told him of his being called +in to see a man suffering from convulsions; he found +him smelling white mice in a cage, with a dead fowl +fastened on his chest, and a bundle of grass attached +to his feet. This had been the prescription of a +native physician.</p> + +<p>Medicines are made from asses' sinews, fowls' +blood, bears' gall, shaving of a rhinoceros' horn, +moss grown on a coffin, and the dung of dogs, pigs, +fowl, rabbits, pigeons, and bats. Cockroach tea, +bear-paw soup, essence of monkey paw, toads' eye-brows, +and earth-worms rolled in honey are common +doses. The excrement of a mosquito is considered +as efficacious as it is scarce, and here, as in Europe +in the Middle Ages, the hair of the dog that bit you +is used to heal the bite and to prevent hydrophobia. +An infusion from the bones of a tiger is believed to +confer courage, strength, and agility, and the flesh +of a snake is boiled and eaten to make one cunning +and wise. Chips from coffins which have been let +down into the grave are boiled and are said to possess +great virtue for catarrh. Flies, fleas, and bed-bugs +prepared in different ways are given for various +diseases. Medicines are given in all forms, and not +infrequently pills are as large as a pigeon's egg. If +any of these medicines ever had any beneficent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_023" id="Page_023"> 23</a></span> +effect it must have been through mental rather than +through physical means.</p> + +<p>Nevius has left us in no doubt concerning the belief +in demons among the Chinese, and of the effect +this belief has on their theory of disease. Certain +forms are daily observed to drive away the evil +spirits. For this purpose Taoist priests are hired +to recite formulæ, ring bells, and manipulate bowls +of water, candles, joss-sticks, and curious charms. +Sometimes the family insists that one of the priests +shall ascend a ladder, the rounds of which are +formed of swords or knives with the sharp edge +uppermost, and go through his exorcisms at the +top. Instead of the priest, the mother may make a +fire of paper and wave a small garment of her sick +child over it.</p> + +<p>A relative or friend of a sick person will visit a +temple and beat the drum, which notifies the god +that there is urgent need of his help. To be sure +that the god hears, his ears are tickled, and the part +of the image which corresponds to the afflicted part +of the sick person's body is rubbed. Some ashes +from the censor standing before the image may be +taken to the sick-room and there reverenced. Holy +water is brought from the temple, boiled with tea, +and drunk as a certain cure for disease. Spells are +written on paper and burned; the ashes are then +put into water and drunk as medicine. Charms and +magical tricks of all kinds are tried in order to drive +away the demon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_024" id="Page_024"> 24</a></span></p> + +<p>There were schools of medicine in Egypt in the +fifteenth century before the Christian era, and the +Egyptians made great progress in the study and +practice of medicine. Notwithstanding this, we +find many examples of mental healing, or at least +attempts at healing by mental means, among the +recipes and prescriptions which have come down to +us. Poor and superstitious persons, especially, had +recourse to dreams, to wizards, to donations, to +sacred animals, and to exvotos to the gods. Charms +were also written for the credulous, some of which +have been found on small pieces of papyrus, which +were rolled up and worn, as by the modern Egyptians.</p> + +<p>The Ebers papyrus, an important and very ancient +manual of Egyptian medicine, has thrown much +light on early Egyptian practices. It shows that +an important part of the treatment prior to 1552 +B. C., consisted in the laying on of hands, combined +with an extensive formulary and ceremonial rites. +The physicians were the priests, and among the interesting +contents of this manuscript are several +formulæ to be used as prayers while compounding +medicaments. Some of the prescriptions given here +are accompanied by exorcisms which were to be +used at the same time. Many of the prescriptions +could have had little but mental influence because +the remedies recommended consisted of horrible +mixtures of unsavory ingredients, the theory, if we +can judge by the medicines, being that the more dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_025" id="Page_025"> 25</a></span>gusting +the dose the more efficacious the remedy; +this is true from a mental stand-point.</p> + +<p>Demonism was not unknown; in fact, it underlay +much of the treatment. People did not die, but they +were assassinated. The murderer might belong to +this or to the spirit world. He might be a god, a +spirit, or the soul of a dead man that had cunningly +entered a living person. The physician must first +discover the nature of the possessing spirit, and then +attack it. Powerful magic was the weapon used, +and the healer must be an expert in reciting incantations +and skilful in making amulets. On account +of this, the Egyptians became the most skilled +in magic of any people, and have their equals only +in the Hindus of to-day. The experiences of Joseph +and Moses, as recorded in the Bible, give us some +idea of their skill at that time. After the exorcism +the physician used medicine to relieve the disorders +which the presence of the strange being had produced +in the body.</p> + +<p>Maspéro gives us the following information: +"The cure-workers are divided into several categories. +Some incline towards sorcery, and have +faith in formulas and talismans only; they think +they have done enough if they have driven out the +spirit. Others extol the use of drugs; they study +the qualities of plants and minerals, describe the +diseases to which each of the substances provided +by nature is suitable, and settle the exact time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_026" id="Page_026"> 26</a></span> +when they must be procured and applied; certain +herbs have no power unless they are gathered +during the night at the full moon, others are efficacious +in summer only, another acts equally well +in winter or summer. The best doctors carefully +avoid binding themselves exclusively to either +method."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> + +<p>Among the early Egyptians the human body +was divided into thirty-six parts, each of which was +thought to be under the particular government of +one of the aerial demons, who presided over the +triple divisions of the twelve signs. The priests +practised a separate invocation for each genius, +which they used in order to obtain for them the +cure of the particular member confided to their +care. We have the authority of Origen for saying +that in his time when any part of the body was +diseased, a cure was effected by invoking the demon +to whose province it belonged. Perhaps this is +why the different parts of the body were assigned +to the different planets, and later to different saints. +It undoubtedly accounts for the fact that an Egyptian +physician treated only one part of the body +and refused to infringe on the domain of his brother +physician.</p> + +<p>Incubation was commonly practised at the temples +of Isis and Serapis as it was afterward among +the Greeks. This "temple sleep" was closely akin +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_027" id="Page_027"> 27</a></span>in its effects to hypnotism and was undoubtedly +efficacious in the case of some diseases.</p> + +<p>The Babylonian system of therapeutics was not +unlike the Egyptian as far as incantations were concerned. +Many of these have been discovered. The +formulas usually consist of a description of the disease +and its symptoms, a desire for deliverance from +it, and an order for it to depart. Some draughts +were given which may have had some medicinal +effect, but they were supposed to be enchanted +drinks. Knots were supposed to have some magical +effect on diseases, and conjurations were also wrought +by the power of numbers. The Book of Daniel +shows the official recognition given to magicians, +astrologers, and sorcerers.</p> + +<p>The Jews seem to have got their early medical +knowledge from the Egyptians, and changed it only +in so far as their religion made it necessary, for with +them as with others the healing art was a part of the +religion, and the Levites were the sole practitioners. +Much valuable medical knowledge was mixed with +much that could only have had a mental influence. +Disease was considered a punishment for sin, and +hence the cure was religious rather than medical. +The disease might be inflicted by God direct, and +the cure would be a proof of his forgiveness; it +might also be inflicted by Satan or the spirits of the +air with the permission of Jehovah, and the cure +would then be brought about by exorcism.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_028" id="Page_028"> 28</a></span>There seems to have been a rather elaborate +system of demonology among the Jews, who were at +one time the chief exponents of the doctrine, and +consequently the principal exorcists. Among the +Jews a prominent "demoness of sickness is Bath-Chorin. +She touches the hands and lower limbs by +night. Many diseases are caused by demons." +According to Josephus, "to demons may be ascribed +leprosy, rabies, asthma, cardiac diseases, nervous +diseases, which last are the specialty of evil demons, +such as epilepsy." Incantations were in use among +the later Jews, and amulets of neck-chains like +serpents and ear-rings were employed to protect +the wearers against the evil eye and similar +troubles.</p> + +<p>In India, medicine became a separate science very +early, according to the sacred books, the Vedas. +Notwithstanding this, demonology played a large +part in the production of disease according to their +theories, and religious observances were helpful in +the cures.</p> + +<p>Among the oldest documents which we possess +relative to the practice of medicine, are the various +treatises contained in the collection which bears the +name of Hippocrates (460-375 B. C.). He was the +first physician to relieve medicine from the trammels +of superstition and the delusions of philosophy.</p> + +<p>The Greeks undoubtedly believed in demons, but, +different from the nations around them, considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_029" id="Page_029"> 29</a></span> +the demons to be well-intentioned. Homer (c. 1000 +B. C.) speaks frequently of demons, and in one instance +in the Odyssey tells of a sick man pining +away, "one upon whom a hateful demon had gazed." +Empedocles (c. 490-430 B. C.) taught that demons +"were of a mixed and inconstant nature, and are +subjected to a purgatorial process which may finally +end in their ascension to higher abodes." Yet he +attributed to them nearly all the calamities, vexations, +and plagues incident to mankind. Plato +(427-347 B. C.) writes of demons good and bad, +and Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), the son of a physician, +speaks directly of "demons influencing and inspiring +the possessed." Socrates (470-399 B. C.) +claimed to have continually with him a demon—a +guardian spirit.</p> + +<p>In Greece, in early days, physicians were looked +upon as gods. Even after the siege of Troy, the +sons of the gods and the heroes were alone supposed +to understand the secrets of medicine and surgery. +At a late period Æsculapius, the son of Apollo, was +worshipped as a deity. When we speak of the art of +healing in Greece, one naturally thinks of the apparent +monopoly of the Æsclepiades, who ministered +unto the Grecian sick for centuries.</p> + +<p>The original seat of the worship of Æsculapius was +at Epidaurus, where there was a splendid temple, +adorned with a gold and ivory statue of the god, +who was represented sitting, one hand holding a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_030" id="Page_030"> 30</a></span> +staff, the other resting on the head of a serpent, the +emblem of sagacity and longevity; a dog crouched +at his feet. The temple was frequented by harmless +serpents, in the form of which the god was supposed +to manifest himself. According to Homer, +his sons, Machaon and Podalirius, who were great +warriors, treated wounds and external diseases only; +and it is probable that their father practised in the +same manner, as he is said to have invented the +probe and the bandaging of wounds. His priests, +the Æsclepiades, however, practised incantations, +and cured diseases by leading their patients to believe +that the god himself delivered his prescriptions +in dreams and visions; for this imposture they were +roughly satirized by Aristophanes in his play of +"Plutus." It is probable that the preparations, +consisting of abstinence, tranquillity, and bathing, +requisite for obtaining the divine intercourse, and, +above all, the confidence reposed in the Æsclepiades, +were often productive of benefit.</p> + +<p>The excavations of Cavvadias at Epidaurus have +furnished us with much interesting material concerning +the cures performed at this ancient shrine, +five hundred years before the beginning of the Christian +era. If the modern physician still recognizes +Æsculapius as his patron saint, he must have great +respect for mental healing. It appears certain from +inscriptions found upon "stelæ" that were dug up +at Epidaurus and published in 1891, that the system<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_031" id="Page_031"> 31</a></span> +of Æsculapius was based upon the miracle-working +of a demi-god, and not upon medical art as we now +know it. The <i>modus operandi</i> was unique in some +details. The patients, mostly incurables, came +laden with sacrifices. After prayer, they cleansed +themselves with water from the holy well, and +offered up sacrifices. Certain ceremonial acts were +then performed by the priests, and the patients were +put to sleep on the skins of the animals offered at the +altar, or at the foot of the statue of the divinity, +while the priests performed further sacred rites. +The son of Apollo then appeared to them in dreams, +attended to the particular ailments of the sufferers, +and specified further sacrifices or acts which would +restore health. In many cases the sick awoke suddenly +cured. Large sums of money were asked for +these cures; from one inscription we learn that a +sum corresponding to $12,000 was paid as a fee. +The record of the cure was carved on the temple as +at Lourdes to-day, <i>e.g.</i>:</p> + +<p>"Some days back, a certain Caius, who was blind, +learned from an oracle that he should repair to the +temple, put up his fervent prayers, cross the sanctuary +from right to left, place his five fingers on the +altar, then raise his hand and cover his eyes. He +obeyed, and instantly his sight was restored, amid +the loud acclamations of the multitude. These +signs of the omnipotence of the gods were shown in +the reign of Antoninus."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_032" id="Page_032"> 32</a></span>"A blind soldier, named Valerius Apes, having +consulted the oracle, was informed that he should +mix the blood of a white cock with honey, to make +up an ointment to be applied to his eyes for three +consecutive days. He received his sight, and returned +public thanks to the gods."</p> + +<p>"Julian appeared lost beyond all hope, from a +spitting of blood. The gods ordered him to take +from the altar some seeds of the pine, and to mix +them with honey, of which mixture he was to eat +for three days. He was saved, and came to thank +the gods in the presence of the people."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> + +<p>It was not until five centuries later, when credulity +concerning miracles was on the wane, that the +priests began to study and to apply medical means +in order to sustain the reputation of the place, and +to keep up its enormous revenues.</p> + +<p>Temples similar to this one at Epidaurus existed +at numerous places, among which were Rhodes, +Cnidus, Cos, and one was to be found on the banks +of the Tiber. The temple at Cos was rich in votive +offerings, which generally represented the parts of +the body healed, and an account of the method of +cure adopted. From these singular clinical records, +Hippocrates, a reputed descendant of Æsculapius, +is reported to have constructed his treatise on +Dietetics.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_033" id="Page_033"> 33</a></span></p> +<p>For a long time after the age of Hercules and the +heroic times, invalids in Greece sought relief from +their sufferings from these descendants of Æsculapius +in the temples of that god, which an enlightened +policy had raised on elevated spots, near medicinal +springs, and in salubrious vicinities. Those men +who pretended in right of birth to hold the gift of +curing, finally learned the art of it. The preservation +in the temple of the history of those diseases, +the cure of which had been sought by them, aided +greatly in this happy culmination.</p> + +<p>Of Æsculapius himself, it is said that he employed +the trumpet to cure sciatica; he claimed that its +continued sound made the fibres of the nerves to +palpitate, and the pain vanished. In line with this +treatment, Democritus affirmed that diseases are +capable of being cured by the sound of a flute, when +properly played.</p> + +<p>Herbs were also used among the Greeks, but almost +wholly in the form of charms rather than on +account of what we claim now as real medicinal +value. For example, great virtues were ascribed to +the herb alysson which was pounded and eaten with +meat to cure hydrophobia. If suspended in the +house, it promoted the health of the inmates and +protected both men and cattle from enchantments; +when bound in a piece of scarlet flannel round the +necks of the latter, it preserved them from all +diseases.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_034" id="Page_034"> 34</a></span>There seems to have been no independent school +of Roman medicine. From early times there was a +very complicated system of superstitious medicine, +as a part of the religion, which is supposed to have +been borrowed from the Etruscans. This comprehended +both the theory and cure of disease. The +Romans got along for centuries without doctors; +in fact, doctors were a Grecian importation, not +made until about two centuries before Christ.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> G. Maspéro, <i>Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria</i>, chap. VII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at Lourdes," <i>Nineteenth +Century</i>, October, 1895.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_035" id="Page_035"> 35</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h3> + +<h4>THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +"The Alchemist may doubt the shining gold +His crucible pours out, +But faith, fanatic faith, once wedded fast +To some dear falsehood, +Hugs it to the last." +</p> + +<p>"Death is the cure of all diseases. There is no <i>catholicon</i> or universal +remedy I know, but this, which though nauseous to queasy +stomachs, yet to prepared appetites is nectar, and a pleasant potion +of immortality."—<span class="smcap">Browne</span>.</p> + +<p> +"I'll tell you what now of the Devil:<br /> +He's no such horrid creature; cloven-footed,<br /> +Black, saucer-ey'd, his nostrils breathing fire,<br /> +As these lying Christians make him."—<span class="smcap">Massinger</span>.<br /> +</p> + +<p>"If the cure be wrought, what matters it to the happy invalid +... whether the cure is wrought by the touch of the Divine hand +or the overpowering influence of a great idea upon the nervous +system? If our hunger be appeased, it matters little whether it is +by manna rained down from heaven, or a wheaten loaf raised from +the harvest field. Miraculous water from the rock does not quench +the thirst better than that which bubbles from the village spring."—<span class="smcap">Berdoe</span>.</p></div> + + +<p>The advent of the Christian religion into the +world, while purporting to minister especially to the +spiritual life, had a wide-reaching and potent influence +on the art of healing the body. We cannot +sum up the effect by saying that this influence was +either wholly good or bad—its relation to therapeutics +was a mixed one. It can be truthfully said that +nothing has retarded the science of medicine during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_036" id="Page_036"> 36</a></span> +the past two thousand years so much as the iron +grip of decadent orthodoxy, and, on the other hand, +no power has caused men and women so to sacrifice +time, money, and even life itself for the care and +nurture of the sick, as the example and precepts of +Jesus Christ.</p> + +<p>For eighteen centuries this paradoxical position +was held by the church, and the antithetical attitudes +of hindrance and help continued to exist. As +valuable as was the spirit instilled into the hearts +of His followers by the tenderness of the Master, it +was never sufficient to counterbalance the deterrent +effects of the religion which they espoused. The retardation +was caused by two related beliefs which +permeated the church: The first was the doctrine +of the power of demons in the lives of men, especially +in the production of disease; and the second was the +prevalence of the idea of the possibility and probability +of the performance of miracles, particularly +in the healing of diseases.</p> + +<p>A rather complicated science of demonology had +come down from primitive sources through Egyptian, +Babylonian, and Greek civilization, although the +demons of the Greeks were principally good spirits. +At the time of Christ, however, the Jews were the +most ardent advocates of demonology, and hence +the chief exorcists. They expelled demons partly +by adjuration and partly by means of a certain +miraculous root named Baaras. They considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_037" id="Page_037"> 37</a></span> +it nothing at all out of the ordinary to meet men +who were possessed by demons, and just as common +an experience to see them healed by having the +demon exorcised. Josephus assures us that in the +reign of Vespasian he had himself seen a Jew named +Eleazar perform an exorcism; by means of adjuration +and the Baaras root he drew a demon through +the nostrils of a possessed person, who fell to the +ground on the accomplishment of the miracle, while +on the command of the magician the demon, to prove +that it had really left its victim, threw down a cup +of water which had been placed at a distance.</p> + +<p>Knowing as we do the close relationship between +Judaism and Christianity, it does not surprise us to +discover that the Christians inherited the doctrine +and practice of the Jews in this matter. This is +more readily understood when we remember the +connection of Jesus with cases of demoniacal possession, +and Paul's frequent references to the spirits +of the air. Following the example of their Master, +Christians everywhere became exorcists. Through +the influence of Philo's writings, Jewish demonology +was propagated among Christian converts, and the +Gnostics quickly absorbed and spread the notion of +preternatural interposition. Next to the belief in +the second coming of Christ, the doctrine which +most influenced the action of the early church was +that of a spiritual world and its hierarchy. Terrestrial +things were ruled by all sorts of spiritual beings.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_038" id="Page_038"> 38</a></span>Some philosophers, as well as the founders of different +religions, expelled demons, and the Christians +fully recognized the power possessed by the Jewish +and gentile exorcists; the followers of Christ, however, +claimed to be in many respects the superior of +all others. The fathers maintained the reality of +all pagan miracles as fully as their own, except that +doubt was sometimes cast on some forms of healing +and prophecy. Demons which had resisted all the +enchantments of the pagans might be cast out, +oracles could be silenced, and unclean spirits compelled +to acknowledge the truth of the Christian +faith by the Christians, who simply made the sign +of the cross, or repeated the name of the Master.</p> + +<p>The power of the Christian exorcists was shown +by still more wonderful feats. Demons, which were +sometimes supposed to enter animals, were expelled. +St. Hilarion (288-371), we are told, courageously +confronted and relieved a possessed camel. "The +great St. Ambrose [340-397] tells us that a priest, +while saying mass, was troubled by the croaking of +frogs in a neighboring marsh; that he exorcised +them, and so stopped their noise. St. Bernard +[1091-1153], as the monkish chroniclers tell us, +mounting the pulpit to preach in his abbey, was interrupted +by a crowd of flies; straightway the saint +uttered the sacred formula of excommunication, +when the flies fell dead upon the pavement in heaps, +and were cast out with shovels! A formula of ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_039" id="Page_039"> 39</a></span>orcism +attributed to a saint of the ninth century, +which remained in use down to a recent period, +especially declares insects injurious to crops to be +possessed of evil spirits, and names, among the +animals to be excommunicated or exorcised, moles, +mice, and serpents. The use of exorcism against +caterpillars and grasshoppers was also common. In +the thirteenth century a bishop of Lausanne, finding +that the eels in Lake Leman troubled the fishermen, +attempted to remove the difficulty by exorcism, +and two centuries later one of his successors +excommunicated all the May-bugs in the diocese. +As late as 1731 there appears an entry on the municipal +register of Thonon as follows: '<i>Resolved</i>, that +this town join with other parishes of this province +in obtaining from Rome an excommunication +against the insects, and that it will contribute <i>pro +rata</i> to the expense of the same.'"</p> + +<p>Scripture was cited to prove the diabolical character +of some animals during the Middle Ages. +Says White: "Did anyone venture to deny that +animals could be possessed by Satan, he was at once +silenced by reference to the entrance of Satan into +the serpent in the Garden of Eden, and to the casting +of devils into swine by the Founder of Christianity +himself."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the pleasing theory adopted by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_040" id="Page_040"> 40</a></span>the earlier Christian writers that the powers of darkness +were unable to harm the faithful without the +permission of divinity, to whom demoniacal spirits +were ultimately subjected, unlimited power was +conceded to those beings who existed under divine +sanction. Demoniacal æons or emanations were +acknowledged to be the primitive source of earthly +sufferings, pestilence among men, sickness and other +bodily afflictions, but inflicted with the consent of +God, whose messengers they were.</p> + +<p>Early Christian writers boldly asserted that all +the disorders of the world originated with the devil +and his sinister companions, because they were +stirred with the unholy desire to obtain associates +in their miseries. It was impossible to fix a limit +to the number of these malevolent spirits constantly +provoking diseases and infirmities upon men. They +were alleged to surround mankind so densely that +each person had a thousand to his right and ten +thousand to the left of him. Endowed with the +subtlest activity, they were able to reach the remotest +points of earth in the twinkling of an eye.</p> + +<p>According to Salverte, Tatian, a sincere defender +of Christianity, who lived in the second century, +"does not deny the wonderful cures effected by the +priests of the temples of the Polytheists; he only +attempts to explain them by supposing that the +pagan gods were actual demons, and that they introduced +disease into the body of a healthy man, an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_041" id="Page_041"> 41</a></span>nouncing +to him, in a dream, that he should be +cured if he implored their assistance; and then, by +terminating the evil which they themselves had produced, +they obtained the glory of having worked the +miracle."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> + +<p>So firm was the belief that Christians could exorcise +these demons that from the time of Justin +Martyr (100-163), for about two centuries, there is +not a single Christian writer who does not solemnly +and explicitly assert the reality and frequent employment +of this power. In his Second Apology, +Justin says: "And now you can learn this from +what is under your own observation. For numberless +demoniacs throughout the whole world, and in +your city, many of our Christian men exorcising +them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified +under Pontius Pilate, have healed and do heal, +rendering helpless and driving the possessing demons +out of the men, though they could not be cured by +all the other exorcists, and those who used incantations +and drugs."</p> + +<p>Irenæus (130-202) held that mankind, through +transgressions of divine command, fell absolutely +from the time of Adam into the power of Satan. +On the other hand, he assures us that all Christians +possessed the power of working miracles; that they +prophesied, cast out devils, healed the sick, and +sometimes even raised the dead; that some who had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_042" id="Page_042"> 42</a></span>been thus resuscitated lived for many years among +them, and that it would be impossible to reckon the +wonderful acts that were daily performed.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p> + +<p>Tertullian (160-220) insisted that a malevolent +angel was in constant attendance upon every person, +but in writing to the pagans in a time of persecution +he challenged his opponents to bring forth +any person who was possessed by a demon or any +of those prophets or virgins who were supposed to +be inspired by a divinity. He asserted that all +demons would be compelled to confess their diabolical +character when questioned by any Christians, +and invited the pagans, if it were otherwise, +to put the Christian immediately to death, for this, +he thought, was the simplest and most decisive +demonstration of the faith.</p> + +<p>Lecky tells us of the attitude of the fathers +toward demonism in the following words: "Justin +Martyr, Origen, Lactantius, Athanasius, and Minucius +Felix, all in language equally solemn and explicit, +call upon the pagans to form their own +opinions from the confessions wrung from their own +gods. We hear from them, that when a Christian +began to pray, to make the sign of the cross, or to +utter the name of his Master in the presence of a +possessed or inspired person, the latter, by screams +and frightful contortions, exhibited the torture that +was inflicted, and by this torture the evil spirit was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_043" id="Page_043"> 43</a></span>compelled to avow its nature. Several of the +Christian writers declare that this was generally +known to pagans."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p> + +<p>Origen (185-254) said: "It is demons which +produce famine, unfruitfulness, corruptions of the +air, pestilence; they hover concealed in clouds in +the lower atmosphere, and are attracted by the +blood and incense which the heathen offer to them +as gods." He thought, though, that Raphael had +special care of the sick and the infirm. Cyprian +(186-258) charged that demons caused luxations +and fractures of the limbs, undermined the health, +and harassed with diseases. Up to this time it was +the privilege of any Christian to exorcise demons, +but Pope Fabian (236-250) assigned a definite +name and functions to exorcists as a separate order. +To-day the priest has included in his ordination +vows those of exorcist. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) +declared that bodily pains are provoked by +demons, and that medicines are useless, but that +demoniacs are often cured by laying on of consecrated +hands. St. Augustine (354-430) said: "All +diseases of Christians are to be ascribed to these +demons; chiefly do they torment fresh-baptized +Christians, yea, even the guiltless new-born infants."</p> + +<p>Baltus<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> says: "De tous les anciens auteurs ecclésiastiques, +n'y en ayant pas un qui n'ait parlé de +ce pouvoir admirable que les Chrétiens avoient de +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_044" id="Page_044"> 44</a></span>chasser les démons," and Gregory of Tours (538-594) +says that exorcism was common in his time, +having himself seen a monk named Julian cure by +his words a possessed person. This testimony of +Gregory's concerning the prevalence of exorcisms +at the end of the sixth century is interesting in view +of the facts that the Council of Laodicea, in the +fourth century, forbade any one to exorcise, except +those duly authorized by the bishop, and that in +the very beginning of the fifth century a physician +named Posidonius denied the existence of possession. +The fathers of the church, however, ridiculed the +solemn assertion of physicians that many of these +alleged demoniacal infirmities were attributable to +material agencies, and were fully persuaded in their +own minds that demons took possession of the +organism of the human body.</p> + +<p>At about this time, such a broad-minded man as +Gregory the Great (540-604) solemnly related that +a nun, having eaten some lettuce without making +the sign of the cross, swallowed a devil, and that, +when commanded by a holy man to come forth, the +devil replied: "How am I to blame? I was sitting +on the lettuce, and this woman, not having made +the sign of the cross, ate me along with it." This +is but an example of the ideas concerning the entrance +of demons into the possessed.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> Besides the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_045" id="Page_045"> 45</a></span> +possibility of being taken into the mouth with one's +food, they might enter while the mouth was opened +to breathe. Exorcists were therefore careful to +keep their mouths closed when casting out evil +spirits, lest the imps should jump into their mouths +from the mouths of the patients. Another theory +was that the devil entered human beings during +sleep, and at a comparatively recent period a king of +Spain, Charles II (1661-1700), kept off the devil while +asleep by the presence of his confessor and two friars.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> + +<p>Shortly before the reign of Gregory, there came +into vogue the fashion of exorcising demons by +means of a written formula rather than by the +earlier means of making the sign of the cross and +invoking the name of Jesus. The theory of demonology +was never very clear nor consistent. By +some it was claimed that in the practice of the +magical arts evil spirits provided cure for sickness, +others maintained that they could not heal any +diseases, and hence the true test of Christianity was +the ability to cure bodily ills. A compromise position +was that demons were only successful in eliminating +diseases which they had themselves caused. +There was not a little doubt in some cases about the +character of the possessing spirits, and it behooved +people to be careful; demons might use men as +habitations, and while posing as good angels vitiate +health and provoke disease.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_046" id="Page_046"> 46</a></span></p> +<p>At the beginning of the seventh century, we have +an account of an exorcism by St. Gall (556-640), +and during the Carlovingian age the healing at +Monte Cassino was based on the Satanic origin of +disease. When the conversion of northern races to +Christianity began, demonology received a stimulus. +An unlimited number of demons, similar in individuality +and prowess, were substituted for the pagan +demons, and the pagan gods were added as additional +demons. When proselytes were taken into +the church, care was taken to exorcise all evil +spirits. During the baptismal service the Satanic +hosts, as originators of sin, vice, and maladies, were +expelled by insufflation of the officiating clergyman, +the sign of the cross, and the invocation of +the Triune Deity. The earliest formulas for such +expulsion directed a double exhalation of the +priest.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> + +<p>In all epidemics of the Middle Ages, such persons +as were afflicted by pestilent diseases were +declared contaminated by the devil, and carried to +churches and chapels, a dozen at a time, securely +bound together. They were thrown upon the +floor, where they lay, according to the attestation +of a pitying chronicler, until dead or restored to +health.</p> + +<p>Unsound mind was universally accepted as a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_047" id="Page_047"> 47</a></span>specific distinction of diabolical power, and caused +by the corporeal presence of an impure spirit. +Imbeciles and the insane were, throughout the +Middle Ages, especially conceded to be the abode +of avenging and frenzied demons. In aggravated +cases, the actual presence of the medicinal saint was +necessary; in less vexatious maladies, the bare imposition +of hands, accompanied by plaintive prayer, +quickly healed the diseased.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a></p> + +<p>As early as the fifth century before Christ, Hippocrates +of Cos asserted that madness was simply a +disease of the brain, but notwithstanding the reiteration +of this scientific truth the church repudiated +it, and as late as the Reformation, Martin +Luther maintained that not only was insanity +caused by diabolical influences, but that "Satan +produces all the maladies which afflict mankind." +Even much later, however, when other diseases +were assigned a physical origin, insanity was still +thought to be demoniacal possession. As late as +Bossuet's time, lunacy was thought to be the work +of demons. The cultured and progressive Bishop +of Meaux, while trying to throw off the shackles of +superstition, delivered and published two great +sermons in which demoniacal possession is defended. +To show how the idea has clung, notwithstanding +the advancement and enlightenment of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_048" id="Page_048"> 48</a></span>late years, we may notice a trial which took place +at Wemding, in southern Germany, in 1892, of +which White tells us.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A boy had become hysterical, and the Capuchin +Father Aurelian tried to exorcise him, and charged +a peasant's wife, Frau Herz, with bewitching him, +on evidence that would have cost the woman her +life at any time during the seventeenth century. +Thereupon the woman's husband brought suit +against Father Aurelian for slander. The latter +urged in his defence that the boy was possessed of +an evil spirit, if anybody ever was; that what had +been said and done was in accordance with the +rules and regulations of the Church, as laid down in +decrees, formulas, and rituals sanctioned by popes, +councils, and innumerable bishops during ages. All +in vain. The court condemned the good father to +fine and imprisonment."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p></div> + +<p>I cannot refrain from quoting in this connection +the now famous epitaph of Lord Westbury's, suggested +by the decision given by him as Lord Chancellor +in the case against Mr. Wilson in which it was +charged that the latter denied the doctrine of eternal +punishment. The court decided that it did "not +find in the formularies of the English Church any +such distinct declaration upon the subject as to require +it to punish the expression of a hope by a +clergyman that even the ultimate pardon of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_049" id="Page_049"> 49</a></span>wicked who are condemned in the day of judgment +may be consistent with the will of Almighty +God." The following is the epitaph:</p> + + + +<p class="two">"RICHARD BARON WESTBURY,<br /><br /> +Lord High Chancellor of England.<br /> +He was an eminent Christian,<br /> +An energetic and merciful Statesman,<br /> +And a still more eminent and merciful Judge.<br /> +During his three years' tenure of office<br /> +He abolished the ancient method of conveying land,<br /> +The time-honored institution of the Insolvents' Court,<br /> +And<br /> +The Eternity of Punishment.<br /> +Toward the close of his earthly career,<br /> +In the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council,<br /> +He dismissed Hell with costs,<br /> +And took away from Orthodox members of the<br /> +Church of England<br /> +Their last hope of everlasting damnation."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a><br /> +</p> + +<p>In the Middle Ages there was a strange and incongruous +mixture of medicine and exorcism. Notice +the following prescriptions:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"If an elf or a goblin come, smear his forehead +with this salve, put it on his eyes, cense him with +incense, and sign him frequently with the sign of +the cross."</p> + +<p>"For a fiend-sick man: When a devil possesses a +man, or controls him from within with disease, a +spew-drink of lupin, bishopwort, henbane, garlic. +Pound these together, add ale and holy water." +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_050" id="Page_050"> 50</a></span> +"A drink for a fiend-sick man, to be drunk out of +a church bell: Githrife, cynoglossum, yarrow, lupin, +flower-de-luce, fennel, lichen, lovage. Work up to +a drink with clear ale, sing seven masses over it, +add garlic and holy water, and let the possessed sing +the <i>Beati Immaculati</i>; then let him drink the dose +out of a church bell, and let the priest sing over +him the <i>Domine Sancte Pater Omnipotens</i>."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p></div> + +<p>Three methods of driving out demons from the +insane were used: the main weapon against the +devil and his angels has always been exorcism by +means of ecclesiastical formula and signs. These +formulas degenerated at one time to the vilest +cursings, threatenings, and vulgarities. A second +means was by an effort to disgust the demon and +wound his pride. This might simply precede the +exorcism proper. To accomplish this purpose of +offending the demons, the most blasphemous and +obscene epithets were used by the exorcist, which +were allowable and perfectly proper when addressing +demons. Most of these are so indecent that +they cannot be printed, but the following are +some examples:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Thou lustful and stupid one,... thou lean +sow, famine-stricken and most impure,... thou +wrinkled beast, thou mangy beast, thou beast of all +beasts the most beastly,... thou mad spirit,... +thou bestial and foolish drunkard,... most greedy +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_051" id="Page_051"> 51</a></span>wolf,... most abominable whisperer,... thou +sooty spirit from Tartarus!... I cast thee down, +O Tartarean boor,... into the infernal kitchen!... +Loathsome cobbler,... dingy collier,... +filthy sow (<i>scrofa stercorata</i>),... perfidious boar,... +envious crocodile,... malodorous drudge,... +wounded basilisk,... rust-colored asp,... +swollen toad,... entangled spider,... lousy +swineherd (<i>porcarie pedicose</i>),... lowest of the +low,... cudgelled ass," etc.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p></div> + +<p>The pride of the demon was also to be wounded +by the use of the vilest-smelling drugs, by trampling +underfoot and spitting upon the picture of the devil, +or even by sprinkling upon it foul compounds. +Some even tried to scare the demon by using large-sounding +words and names.</p> + +<p>The third method of exorcism was punishment. +The attempt was frequently made to scourge the +demon out of the body. The exorcism was more +effective if the name of the demon could be ascertained. +If successful in procuring the name, it was +written on a piece of paper and burned in a fire previously +blessed, which caused the demons to suffer +all the torments in the accompanying exorcisms. +All forms of torture were employed, and in the +great cities of Europe, "witch towers," where +witches and demoniacs were tortured, and "fool +towers," where the more gentle lunatics were im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_052" id="Page_052"> 52</a></span>prisoned, +may still be seen. The treatment of the +insane in the Middle Ages is one of the darkest blots +on the growing civilization.</p> + +<p>The exorcism being completed, when some of the +weaker demons were put to flight an after service +was held in which everything belonging to the patient +was exorcised, so that the demon might not +hide there and return to the patient. The exorcised +demons were forbidden to return, and the +demons remaining in the body were commanded to +leave all the remainder of the body, and to descend +into the little toe of the right foot, and there to rest +quietly.</p> + +<p>After the Reformation, two contests shaped themselves +in the matter of exorcisms. The Protestants +and the Roman Catholics vied with each other in +the power, rapidity, and duration of the exorcisms. +Both put forth miraculous claims, and with as much +energy denied the power of the other. They agreed +in one thing, and that was the erroneous position +and teaching of the physicians. This, however, +was but a continuation of that rivalry between the +advancement of science and the conservation of +theology, which is as old as history. In our examination +of the influence of Christianity upon mental +healing, it may be well for us to glance at the discouraging +attitude of Christianity toward medicine.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_053" id="Page_053"> 53</a></span></p> +<p>The usurpation of healing by the church, which +was a most serious drawback to the therapeutic art, +will be traced in the following chapters; there are, +however, some other ways in which the church retarded +the work of physicians. Chief among these +was the theory propagated by Christians that it was +unlawful to meddle with the bodies of the dead. +This theory came down from ancient times, but was +eagerly accepted by the church, principally on account +of the doctrine of the bodily resurrection. +In addition to this, surgery was forbidden because +the Church of Rome adopted the maxim that "the +church abhors the shedding of blood." A recent +English historian has remarked that of all organizations +in human history, the Church of Rome has +caused the spilling of most innocent blood, but it +refused to allow the surgeons to spill a drop.</p> + +<p>Monks were prohibited the practice of surgery in +1248, and by subsequent councils, and all dissections +were considered sacrilege. Surgery was considered +dishonorable until the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries. +The use of medicine was also discouraged. Down +through the centuries a few churchmen and many +others, especially Jews and Arabs, took up the study. +The church authorities did everything possible to +thwart it. Supernatural means were so abundant +that the use of drugs was not only irreligious but +superfluous. Monks who took medicine were punished, +and physicians in the thirteenth century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_054" id="Page_054"> 54</a></span> +could not treat patients without calling in ecclesiastical +advice.</p> + +<p>We are told that in the reign of Philip II of Spain +a famous Spanish doctor was actually condemned +by the Inquisition to be burnt for having performed +a surgical operation, and it was only by royal favor +that he was permitted instead to expiate his crime +by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where he died in +poverty and exile.</p> + +<p>This restriction was continued for three centuries, +and consequently threw medical work into the +hands of charlatans among Christians, and of Jews. +The clergy of the city of Hall protested that "it were +better to die with Christ than to be cured by a Jew +doctor aided by the devil." The Jesuit professor, +Stengal, said that God permits illness because of His +wish to glorify Himself through the miracles wrought +by the church, and His desire to test the faith of men +by letting them choose between the holy aid of the +church and the illicit resort to medicine.</p> + +<p>There was another reason for the antagonism +of the church to physicians; the physicians in +this case were inside the church. The monks converted +medicine to the basest uses. In connection +with the authority of the church, it was employed +for extorting money from the sick. They knew +little or nothing about medicine, so used charms, +amulets, and relics in healing. The ignorance and +cupidity of the monks led the Lateran Council, un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_055" id="Page_055"> 55</a></span>der +the pontificate of Calixtus II, in 1123, to forbid +priests and monks to attend the sick otherwise than +as ministers of religion. It had little or no effect, +so that Innocent II, in a council at Rheims in 1131, +enforced the decree prohibiting the monks frequenting +schools of medicine, and directing them to confine +their practice to their own monasteries. They +still disobeyed, and a Lateran Council in 1139 +threatened all who neglected its orders with the +severest penalties and suspension from the exercise +of all ecclesiastical functions; such practices were +denounced as a neglect of the sacred objects of their +profession in exchange for ungodly lucre. When +the priests found that they could no longer confine +the practice of medicine to themselves, it was stigmatized +and denounced. At the Council of Tours +in 1163, Alexander III maintained that through +medicine the devil tried to seduce the priesthood, +and threatened with excommunication any ecclesiastic +who studied medicine. In 1215, Innocent +III fulminated an anathema against surgery and +any priest practising it. Even this was not effectual.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p> + +<p>What we see in connection with dissection and +surgery and medicine was repeated at a later date +with inoculation, vaccination, and anæsthetics. +There were the same objections by the church on +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_056" id="Page_056"> 56</a></span>theological grounds, the same stubborn battle, and +the same inevitable defeat of the theological position.</p> + +<p>So long as disease was attributed to a demoniacal +cause, so long did exorcisms and other miraculous +cures continue, and so far as these cures were efficacious, +they must be classed as mental healing. +Probably they continued longer in insanity and +mental derangement on account of the beneficent +and soothing effect of religion upon a diseased mind. +Priestly cures of all kinds were largely, if not wholly, +suggestive, and no history of mental healing would +be complete without a résumé of ecclesiastical therapeutics. +Many vagaries of healing which the church +introduced might be mentioned to show to what extent +the people may be misled in the name of religion. +For example, the doctrine of signatures, to +be later discussed, was disseminated by priests and +monks, and if these medicines were ever effective it +must have been by mental means.</p> + +<p>The demon theory of disease, which began before +the age of history, and continued down through the +savage ages and religions, through the early civilizations, +through the gospel history, and dominated +early Christianity, was finally, in the sixteenth century, +to be vigorously assailed and largely overcome. +The cost of this was considerable; attached as it was +to the Christian church, it seemed necessary to destroy +the whole Christian fabric in order to unravel +this one thread. Atheism, therefore, was rampant,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_057" id="Page_057"> 57</a></span> +and science and atheism became almost synonymous, +and continued so until the church freed science from +its centuries of bondage and allowed it to develop +so as to be again in these days a co-laborer.</p> + +<p>In pleasing contrast to the destructive and deterrent +efforts of the church against the development +of medicine is the helpful care of the sick exercised +by Christians. The example of Jesus as +shown by his tender sympathy, his helpful acts, +and his instruction to his followers, bore fruit in +the relief and care of sufferers by individuals and +religious asylums. About the year 1000 and later, +the infirmaries which were attached to numerous +monasteries, and the <i>hospitia</i> along the routes of +travel which opened their doors to sick pilgrims, +were but the development of a less portentous attempt +on the part of individuals and societies to +care for the sick. The Knights of St. John, or the +Hospitalers as they were called, assumed as their +special duty the nursing and doctoring of those in +need of such attention, especially of sick and infirm +pilgrims and crusaders.</p> + +<p>Hospitals for the sick, orphanages for foundlings, +and great institutions for the proper care of paupers +developed with immense strides, and during the +twelfth century expanded into gigantic proportions. +In the ensuing age, the mediæval mind was fired +with a faith in the efficacy of unstinted charity; +members of society, from holy pontiff to the hum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_058" id="Page_058"> 58</a></span>blest +recluse by the wayside, rivalled each other in +gratuities of clothing and food, founding of hospitals, +and endowment of beneficent public institutions. +St. Louis's highest claim to pious glory arose from +his restless and unstinted charities to the indigent +and sick. Even the lepers, which were shunned or +segregated, were treated by Christian institutions; +and saints and saintesses found pious expression +for their humility in personal attendance and even +loving embraces of these unsightly beings covered +with repulsive sores. For the last millennium there +has not been a time when Christian love and benevolence +have not sought the opportunity of ministering +to the sick.</p> + +<p>One can easily recognize the effect which this fact +would have on mental healing. The church fostered +the ideas of exorcism and the cures by relics and +shrines, and deprecated the use of medicine. If the +hospitals and infirmaries were almost wholly in the +hands of the monks and churchmen, there was little +hope for the development of other than ecclesiastical +mental healing. The untold good which Christian +ministrations to the sick accomplished must +be acknowledged, but it was not an unmixed benefit +to the race as a whole.</p> + +<p>We may more easily see, perhaps, the connection +between the church and the development of medicine, +and the despotic power of the church in this +regard, when we remember that physicians were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_059" id="Page_059"> 59</a></span> +formerly a part of the clergy, and it was not until +1542 that the papal legate in France gave them permission +to marry. In 1552 the doctors in law obtained +like permission. An early priestly physician has survived +to fame by the name of Elpideus, sometimes +confused with Elpidius Rusticus. He was both a +deacon of the church and a skilled surgeon, and was +very favorably mentioned by St. Ennodius as a +person of fine culture. He was sufficiently dexterous +and skilful to heal the Gothic ruler, Theodoric, +of a grievous illness.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Salverte gives us additional +examples: "Richard Fitz-Nigel, who died +Bishop of London, in 1198, had been apothecary to +Henry II. The celebrated Roger Bacon, who flourished +in the thirteenth century, although a monk, +yet practised medicine. Nicolas de Farnham, a +physician to Henry III, was created Bishop of +Durham; and many doctors of medicine were at +various times elevated to ecclesiastical dignities."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p> + +<p>The grip of the church accomplished its purpose, +and science, especially the science of medicine, was +strangled, almost to the death. Even the people +of the time recognized the shortcomings of the physicians. +Henricus Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), +writing in 1530, said with pleasant irony that physic +was "a certaine Arte of manslaughter," and that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_060" id="Page_060"> 60</a></span>"well neare alwaies there is more daunger in the +Physition and the Medicine than in the sicknesse +itselfe." He also gives the following picture of a +fashionable doctor of his time: "Clad in brave apparaile, +having ringes on his fingers glimmeringe +with pretious stoanes, and which hath gotten fame +and credence for having been in farre countries, or +having an obstinate manner of vaunting with stiffe +lies that he hath great remedies, and for having continually +in his mouth many wordes halfe Greeke +and barbarous.... But this will prove to be true, +that Physitians moste commonlye be naught. They +have one common honour with the hangman, that +is to saye, to kill menne and to be recompensed +therefore."<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, +p. 113.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II, p. 94.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, p. 378.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, p. 383.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> <i>Réponse a l'histoire des oracles</i>, p. 296.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, +p. 101.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> H. T. Buckle, <i>History of Civilization in England</i>, II, p. 270.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 201.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D. White, <i>History of +the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, pp. 97-134.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, +p. 128.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Nash, <i>Life of Lord Westbury</i>, II, p. 78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Cockayne, <i>Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Star-craft of Early +England</i>, II, p. 177.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> M. H. Dziewicki, "Exorcizo Te," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXIV, p. +580.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D. White, <i>History of +the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, pp. 1-167.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and +Practice of Surgery and Medicine</i>, pp. 51 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +pp. 142 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II, p. 96.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 151. +</p><p> +For further references to the effect of demonism, see J. F. Nevius, +<i>Demon Possession and Allied Themes</i>; J. M. Peebles, <i>The Demonism +of the Ages and Spirit Obsessions</i>; articles on "Demon," "Demonism," +"Demoniacal Possession," and "Devil," in the <i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i>, +the <i>New International Encyclopedia</i>, and the <i>Encyclopedia +Britannica</i>.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_061" id="Page_061"> 61</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h3> + +<h4>RELICS AND SHRINES</h4> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"A fouth o' auld knick-knackets,</span> +<span class="i0">Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets,</span> +<span class="i0">Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets,</span> +<span class="i8">A towmond guid;</span> +<span class="i0">An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets,</span> +<span class="i8">Afore the flood."—<span class="smcap">Burns</span>.</span> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"For to that holy wood is consecrate</span> +<span class="i0">A virtuous well, about whose flowery banks</span> +<span class="i0">The nimble-footed fairies dance their rounds</span> +<span class="i0">By the pale moonshine, dipping oftentimes</span> +<span class="i0">Their stolen children, so to make them free</span> +<span class="i0">From dying flesh and dull mortality."—<span class="smcap">Fletcher</span>.</span> +</div> +</div> + + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Ne was ther such another pardoner,</span> +<span class="i0">For in his male he hadde a pilwebeer,</span> +<span class="i0">Which that he saide was oure lady veyl;</span> +<span class="i0">He seide, he hadde a gobet of the seyl</span> +<span class="i0">That seynt Peter hadde, whan that he wente</span> +<span class="i0">Uppon the see, til Jhesu Crist him pente.</span> +<span class="i0">He hadde a cros of latoun ful of stones,</span> +<span class="i0">And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.</span> +<span class="i0">But with these reliques, whanne that he fond</span> +<span class="i0">A poure persoun dwelling uppon lond,</span> +<span class="i0">Upon a day he gat him more moneye</span> +<span class="i0">Than that the persoun gat in monthes tweye.</span> +<span class="i0">And thus with feyned flaterie and japes,</span> +<span class="i0">He made the persoun and the people his apes."</span> +<span class="i0">—<span class="smcap">Chaucer</span>.</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>A wide-spread movement developed in the early +church as a result of which innumerable miracles of +healing were credited to the power of saints, indirectly +through the medium of streams and pools +of water which were reputed to have some connec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_062" id="Page_062"> 62</a></span>tion +with a particular saint, or through the efficacy +still clinging to the relics of holy persons.</p> + +<p>On account of the growth of the belief in demonism +in the Christian church, and the need of supernatural +means to counteract diabolic diseases, +saintly relics came into common use for this purpose, +and afterward when demonism was not so +thoroughly credited as the cause of diseases, relics +were still considered to hold their power over physical +infirmities. In addition to this, the missionary +efforts and successes of the church had some influence +in establishing and continuing cures by relics +and similar means. The missionaries found that +their converts had formerly employed various amulets +and charms for the healing of diseases, and +that they continued to have great faith in them for +that purpose. To wean them from their heathen +customs, Christian amulets and charms had to be +substituted, or, as was sometimes the case, the +heathen fetich was continued, but with a Christian +significance.</p> + +<p>The early Scandinavians carried effigies carved +out of gold or silver as safeguards against disease, +or applied those made out of certain other materials, +as the mandragora root or linen or wood, to the diseased +part as a cure of physical infirmities. Some +of these images were carried over into Christianity, +for in Charlemagne's time, headache was frequently +cured by following the saintly recommendation to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_063" id="Page_063"> 63</a></span> +shape the figure of a head and place it on a cross. +Fort tells us that "The introduction of Christianity +among the Teutonic races offered no hindrance to a +perpetuation, under new forms, of those social observances +with which Norse temple idolatry was so +intimately associated. Offering to proselytes an +unlimited number of demoniacal æons, similar in +individuality and prowess to those peopling the invisible +universe, Northern mythology readily united +with Christian demonology."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p> + +<p>The relics of the saints came to be the favorite +substitute for the heathen charms. With the acceptance +of the demoniacal cause of disease, exorcism +by relics gradually grew in importance until +it was firmly established and a preferred form in +the sixth and subsequent centuries. Down to this +time there still existed a feeble recognition of a possible +system adapted to the cure of maladies, so far, +perhaps, as the practice was restricted to municipalities. +The rapid advancement of saintly remedies, +consecrated oils, and other puissant articles of ecclesiastical +appliance, enabled and encouraged numerous +churchmen to exercise the Æsculapian art; this, +together with the ban put upon physicians and scientific +means, soon gave the church the monopoly +of healing. Perhaps the most thorough attestation +of the contempt into which physicians had fallen,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_064" id="Page_064"> 64</a></span> +compared with saintly medicists, is the fact that +cures were invariably attempted after earthly medicine +had been exhausted.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> + +<p>Islam, Buddhism, and other religions have their +shrines where some pilgrims are undoubtedly cured, +but Christianity seems to have had the most varied +and numerous collection. As early as the latter +part of the fourth century miraculous powers were +ascribed to the images of Jesus and the saints which +adorned the walls of most of the churches of the +time, and tales of wonderful cures were related of +them. The intercessions of saints were invoked, +and their relics began to work miracles.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a></p> + +<p>St. Cyril, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and others +of the early church fathers of note maintained that +the relics of the saints had great efficacy in the cure +of diseases. St. Augustine tells us: "Besides many +other miracles, that Gamaliel in a dream revealed to +a priest named Lacianus the place where the bones +of St. Stephen were buried; that those bones being +thus discovered, were brought to Hippo, the diocese +of which St. Augustine was bishop; that they raised +five persons to life; and that, although only a portion +of the miraculous cures they effected had been +registered, the certificates drawn up in two years +in the diocese, and by the orders of the saint, were +nearly seventy. In the adjoining diocese of Calama<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_065" id="Page_065"> 65</a></span> +they were incomparably more numerous."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> This +great and intellectual man also mentions and evidently +credits the story that some innkeeper of his +time put a drug into cheese which changed travellers +who partook of it into domestic animals, and +he further asserts after a personal test that peacock's +flesh will not decay.</p> + +<p>St. Ambrose declared that "the precepts of medicine +are contrary to celestial science, watching, and +prayer." When the conflict between St. Ambrose +and the Arian Empress Justina was at its height, the +former declared that it had been revealed to him that +relics were buried in a certain spot which he indicated. +When the earth was removed, there was exposed a +tomb filled with blood, and containing two gigantic +skeletons with their heads severed from their bodies. +These were pronounced to be the remains of St. +Gervasius and St. Protasius, two martyrs of gigantic +physical proportions, who were said to have been +beheaded about three centuries before. To prove +beyond doubt the genuineness of these relics, a +blind man was restored to sight by coming in contact +with them, and demoniacs were also cured +thereby. Before being exorcised, however, the +demons, who were supposed to have supernatural +and indubitable knowledge, declared that the relics +were genuine; that St. Ambrose was the deadly +enemy of hell; that the doctrine of the Trinity was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_066" id="Page_066"> 66</a></span> +true; and that those who rejected it would certainly +be damned. To be sure that the testimony +of the demons should have its proper weight in the +controversy, on the following day St. Ambrose delivered +an invective against all who questioned the +miracle.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p> + +<p>Late researches concerning the Catacombs of +Rome have thrown much light upon the early use +of relics. The former opinion of the Catacombs was +that they were used for secret worship by the persecuted +Christians, but now we know that they were +burial-places under the protection of Roman law, +with entrances opening on the public roads. Their +chapels and altars were for memorial and communion +services. Great reverence was felt for the bodies of +all Christians, so that for the first seven centuries +the bodies were not disturbed, and relics, in the +modern sense of the word, were unknown. People +prayed at the tombs, or if they wished to take something +away, they touched the tomb with a handkerchief, +or else they took some oil from the lamps +which marked the tombs. These mementos were +regarded as true relics, so that when the Lombard +Queen, Theodelinda, sent the abbot John for relics +to put in her cathedral at Monza, he came back with +over seventy little vials of oil, each with the name of +the saint from whose tomb the oil was procured, +and many of them are still preserved.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_067" id="Page_067"> 67</a></span>The oil from altar lamps was of therapeutic +value, as St. Chrysostom tells us in speaking of the +superiority of the church over ordinary houses. +"For what is here," he asks, "that is not great and +awful? Thus both this Table [the altar] is far more +precious and delightful than that [any table at home], +and this lamp than that; and this they know, as +many as have put away diseases by anointing themselves +with oil in faith and due season." If the +body of a saint lay beneath the altar, the oil was +then known as the "Oil of the Saints," and was +even more efficacious for healing. Notice the following +quotations on the subject taken from Dearmer's +work.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Far more common are stories of healing by oil +from a lamp burnt in honor of Christ or the saints. +The following examples are from the East. The +wounded hand of a Saracen was healed by oil from a +lamp before the icon of St. George."</p> + +<p>"St. Cyrus and St. John appeared to a person +suffering from gout, and bade him take a little oil +in a small ampulla from the lamp that burnt before +the image of the Saviour, in the great tetrapyle at +Alexandria, and anoint his feet with it."</p> + +<p>"Similar stories are found in Western writers. +Thus Nicetius of Lyons, by means of the oil of the +lamp which burnt daily at his sepulchre, restored +sight to the blind, drove demons from bodies possessed, +restored soundness to shrunken limbs," etc.</p> + +<p>"An epileptic was cured by oil from the lamp +that burnt night and day at the tomb of St. Severin."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_068" id="Page_068"> 68</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It was revealed to a blind woman, that oil from +the lamp of St. Geneviève would restore her sight, +if the warden of the church were to anoint her with +it. A week after she brought a blind man, who was +healed in the same manner."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p></div> + +<p>At the time of Gregory of Tours, application was +made of sainted reliquaries as a remedy against the +devil and his demons. Gregory narrates the miraculous +efficacy of a small pellet of wax, taken from +the tomb of St. Martin, in extinguishing an incendiary +fire started by his Satanic majesty, which was +instigated by malicious envy, because this omnipotent +talisman was in the custody of an ecclesiastic! This +Turonese bishop records many instances of cures +being effected at Martin's tomb. He himself was +relieved of severe pains in the head by touching the +disordered spot with the sombre pall of St. Martin's +sepulchre. This remedy was applied on three different +occasions with equal success. Once he was +cured of an attack of mortal dysentery by simply +dissolving into a glass of water a pinch of dust scraped +from the tomb of St. Martin and drinking the strange +concoction. At another time, his tongue having +become swollen and tumefied, it was restored to its +natural size and condition by licking the railing of +the tomb of this saint. He knew of others who had +been equally successful. An archdeacon, named +Leonastes had sight restored to his blind eyes at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_069" id="Page_069"> 69</a></span> +tomb of St. Martin, but unfortunately the fact that +he later applied to an Israelitish physician caused +his infirmity to return. Even a toothache was +cured by St. Martin's relics.</p> + +<p>The following is an apostrophe to the relics of St. +Martin by Bishop Gregory: "Oh ineffable theriac! +ineffable pigment! admirable antidote! celestial +purge! superior to all drugs of the faculty! sweeter +than aromatics! stronger than unguents together; +thou cleanest the stomach like scammony, the lungs +like hyssop, thou purgest the head like pyre-thrig!"<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p> + +<p>From the end of the fifth century the exercise of +the medical art was almost exclusively appropriated +by cloisters and monasteries, whose occupants boldly +vended the miraculous remedial properties of relics, +chrism, baptismal fluids, holy oil, rosy crosses, etc., +as of unquestioned virtue. In these early days +living saints seem to have rivalled dead ones in +their power over diseases, but of these we shall +speak in a later chapter.</p> + +<p>A renewed interest sprang up when pilgrims began +to return from their journeys to Palestine, +bringing with them, as was natural, some souvenirs +of their sojourn. A most interesting quotation +from Mackay reveals the condition of these times. +"The first pilgrims to the Holy Land brought back +to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the +purchase of which they had expended all their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_070" id="Page_070"> 70</a></span> +store. The greatest favorite was the wood of the +true cross, which, like the oil of the widow, never +diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions +of the Romish Church, that the Empress +Helen, the mother of Constantine the Great, first +discovered the veritable '<i>true cross</i>' in her pilgrimage +to Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius +made a present of the greater part of it to St. Ambrose, +Bishop of Milan, by whom it was studded +with precious stones and deposited in the principal +church of that city. It was carried away by the +Huns, by whom it was burnt, after they had extracted +the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments, +purporting to have been cut from it, were, in +the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to be found in +almost every church in Europe, and would, if collected +together in one place, have been almost sufficient +to have built a cathedral. Happy was the +sinner who could get a sight of one of them; happier +he who possessed one! To obtain them the +greatest dangers were cheerfully braved. They +were thought to preserve from all evils and to cure +the most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages +were made to the shrines that contained them and +considerable revenues collected from the devotees.</p> + +<p>"Next in renown were those precious relics, the +tears of the Saviour. By whom and in what manner +they were preserved, the pilgrim did not enquire. +Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_071" id="Page_071"> 71</a></span> +the Holy Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of +the Virgin Mary, and tears of St. Peter, were also +to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets, which +the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the +tears, the next most precious relics were drops of the +blood of Jesus and the martyrs, and the milk of the +Virgin Mary. Hair and toe-nails were also in great +repute, and were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands +of pilgrims annually visited Palestine in the +eleventh and twelfth centuries, to purchase pretended +relics for the home market. The majority +of them had no other means of subsistence than the +profits thus obtained. Many a nail, cut from the +filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic, was +sold at a diamond's price, within six months after +its severance from its parent toe, upon the supposition +that it had once belonged to a saint or an apostle. +Peter's toes were uncommonly prolific, for there +were nails enough in Europe, at the time of the +Council of Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of +which were devoutly believed to have grown on +the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of them +are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. +The pious come from a distance of a hundred German +miles to feast their eyes upon them."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p> + +<p>While some of these relics enumerated by Mackay +seem to be such apparent frauds that none could +credit them, they were surpassed in audacity by one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_072" id="Page_072"> 72</a></span> +offered for sale at a monastery in Jerusalem. Here +was presented to the prospective buyers one of the +fingers of the Holy Ghost.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a></p> + +<p>In addition to the popular relics already noted, +an extensive and lucrative trade was carried on in +iron filings from the chains with which, it was +claimed, Peter and Paul were bound. These filings +were deemed by Pope Gregory I as efficacious in +healing as were the bones of saints or martyrs.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus2" id="illus2"></a><a href="images/illus2.jpg"><img src="images/illus2-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="253" alt="CURE THROUGH THE INTERCESSION OF A HEALING SAINT" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">CURE THROUGH THE INTERCESSION OF A HEALING SAINT</span></div> + + +<p>As an example of healing at shrines in early days, +I will reproduce Bede's description of a cure effected +at the tomb of St. Cuthbert in 698. "There was in +that same monastery a brother whose name was +Bethwegan, who had for a considerable time waited +upon the guests of the house, and is still living, having +the testimony of all the brothers and strangers +resorting thither, of being a man of much piety and +religion, and serving the office put upon him only +for the sake of the heavenly reward. This man, +having on a certain day washed the mantels or +garments which he used in the hospital, in the sea, +was returning home, when on a sudden about half-way, +he was seized with a sudden distemper in his +body, insomuch that he fell down, and having lain +some time, he could scarcely rise again. When at +last he got up, he felt one-half of his body from the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_073" id="Page_073"> 73</a></span>head to the foot, struck with palsy, and with much +difficulty he got home with the help of a staff. The +distemper increased by degrees, and as night approached +became still worse, so that when day returned, +he could not rise or walk alone. In this weak +condition, a good thought came into his mind, which +was to go to church, the best way he could, to the +tomb of the reverend Father Cuthbert, and there on +his knees, to beg of the Divine Goodness either to +be delivered from that disease, if it were for his +good, or if the Divine Providence had ordained him +longer to lie under the same for his punishment, +that he might bear the pain with patience and a +composed mind. He did accordingly, and supporting +his weak limbs with a staff, entered the church, +and prostrating himself before the body of the man +of God, he with pious earnestness, prayed, that +through his intercession, our Lord might be propitious +to him. In the midst of his prayers he fell as +it were, into a stupor, and as he was afterwards +wont to relate, felt a large and broad hand touch +his head where the pain lay, and by that touch all +the part of his body which had been affected with the +distemper, was delivered from the weakness, and +restored to health down to his feet. He then awoke, +and rose up in perfect health, and returning thanks +to God for his recovery, told the brothers what had +happened to him; and to the joy of them all, returned +the more zealously, as if chastened by his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_074" id="Page_074"> 74</a></span> +affliction, to the service which he was wont before +so carefully to perform. The very garments which +had been on Cuthbert's body, dedicated to God, +either while living, or after he was dead, were not +exempt from the virtue of performing cures, as may +be seen in the book of his life and miracles, by such +as shall read it."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> It should be noticed that in this +account God alone seemed to have been the healer.</p> + +<p>Nearly every country had its long list of saints, +each with his special power over some organ or disease. +This saintly power, however, was not applied +directly, but through their relics or through shrines +consecrated to them. Melton, in his <i>Astrologaster</i>, +says: "The saints of the Romanists have usurped +the place of the zodiacal constellations in their +governance of the parts of man's body, and that +'for every limbe they have a saint.' Thus St. Otilia +keepes the head instead of Aries; St. Blasius is appointed +to governe the necke instead of Taurus; St. +Lawrence keepes the backe and shoulders instead of +Gemini, Cancer, and Leo; St. Erasmus rules the +belly with the entrayles, in the place of Libra and +Scorpius; in the stead of Sagittarius, Capricornus, +Aquarius, and Pisces, the holy church of Rome hath +elected St. Burgarde, St. Rochus, St. Quirinus, St. +John, and many others, which governe the thighes, +feet, shinnes, and knees."</p> + +<p>But the influence of the saints is distributed more +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_075" id="Page_075"> 75</a></span>minutely, as <i>e.g.</i>, "<i>Right Hand</i>: the top joint of the +thumb is dedicated to God, the second joint to the +Virgin; the top joint of the fore-finger to St. Barnabas, +the second joint to St. John, and the third to +St. Paul; the top joint of the second finger to Simon +Cleophas, the second joint to Tathideo, the third to +Joseph; the top joint of the third finger to Zaccheus, +the second to Stephen, the third to the evangelist +Luke; the top joint of the little finger to Leatus, +the second to Mark, the third to Nicodemus." +Thus the body was cared for.</p> + +<p>Pettigrew makes the following enumeration which +shows the division of labor among the saints in the +Middle Ages. In this, not the different portions of +the body but the various diseases and infirmities +are distributed.</p> + +<p>"The following list, though doubtless very imperfect, +will yet serve to show how general was the +appropriation of particular diseases to the Roman +Catholic saints:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +St. Agatha, against sore breasts.<br /> +St. Agnan and St. Tignan, against scald head.<br /> +St. Anthony, against inflammations.<br /> +St. Apollonia, against toothache.<br /> +St. Avertin, against lunacy.<br /> +St. Benedict, against the stone, and also for poisons.<br /> +St. Blaise, against the quinsey, bones sticking in the throat, etc.<br /> +St. Christopher and St. Mark, against sudden death.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_076" id="Page_076"> 76</a></span> +St. Clara, against sore eyes.<br /> +St. Erasmus, against the colic.<br /> +St. Eutrope, against dropsy.<br /> +St. Genow and St. Maur, against the gout.<br /> +St. Germanus, against diseases of children.<br /> +St. Giles and St. Hyacinth, against sterility.<br /> +St. Herbert, against hydrophobia.<br /> +St. Job and St. Fiage, against syphilis.<br /> +St. John, against epilepsy and poison.<br /> +St. Lawrence, against diseases of the back and shoulders.<br /> +St. Liberius, against the stone and fistula.<br /> +St. Maine, against the scab.<br /> +St. Margaret and St. Edine, against danger in parturition.<br /> +St. Martin, against the itch.<br /> +St. Marus, against palsy and convulsions.<br /> +St. Otilia and St. Juliana, against sore eyes and<br /> +the headache.<br /> +St. Pernel, against the ague.<br /> +St. Petronilla, St. Apollonia, and St. Lucy, against the toothache.<br /> +----, and St. Genevieve, against fevers.<br /> +St. Phaire, against hemorrhoids.<br /> +St. Quintan, against coughs.<br /> +St. Rochus, and St. Sebastian, against the plague.<br /> +St. Romanus, against demoniacal possession.<br /> +St. Ruffin, against madness.<br /> +St. Sigismund, against fevers and agues.<br /> +St. Valentine, against epilepsy.<br /> +St. Venise, against chlorosis.<br /> +St. Vitus, against madness and poisons.<br /> +St. Wallia and St. Wallery, against the stone.<br /> +St. Wolfgang, against lameness."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a><br /> +</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_077" id="Page_077"> 77</a></span></p> +<p>Wax from the tapers illuminating the altar which +enclosed St. Gall's mortal remains was an instantaneous +cure for toothache, diseased eyes, and total +deafness; a vase used by the martyred Willabrod +for bathing thrice a year, still holding its partially +solidified water by divine invocation after her +death, had great remedial energy in diverse ailments; +the water in which the ring of St. Remigius +was immersed cured certain obstinate fevers; and +the wine in which the bones of the saints were +washed restored imbeciles to instant health. In +the thirteenth century, hairs of saints, especially of +St. Boniface, were used as a purge, and a single hair +from the beard of St. Vincent, placed about the +neck of an idiot, restored normal mental operations. +With the water in which St. Sulpicius washed her +hands aggravated infirmities were instantly cured; +and in the twelfth century, an invalid being advised +in a dream to drink the water in which St. Bernard +washed his hands, the Abbot of Clairvaux went to +him, gave him the wash water, and healed an incurable +disease. Flowers reposing on the tomb of a +saint, when steeped in water, were supposed to be +especially efficacious in various diseases, and those +blooming in aromatic beauty at the tomb of St. +Bernard instantly cured grievous sicknesses.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> The +belt of St. Guthlac, and the belt of St. Thomas of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_078" id="Page_078"> 78</a></span> +Lancaster, were sovereign remedies for the headache, +whilst the penknife and boots of Archbishop +Becket, and a piece of his shirt, were found most +admirably to aid parturition. Fragments of the +veil of the saintess Coleta, and the use of her well-worn +cloak, immediately cured a terrible luxation, +and a cataleptic patient was restored to sanity by +drinking from her cup.</p> + +<p>To show how thoroughly the idea of the efficacy +of these relics must have been indued in the thought +of the times, White quotes the following: "Two +lazy beggars, one blind, the other lame, try to avoid +the relics of St. Martin, borne about in procession, +so that they may not be healed and lose their claim +to alms. The blind man takes the lame man on +his shoulders to guide him, but they are caught in +the crowd and healed against their will." He also +says: "Even as late as 1784 we find certain authorities +in Bavaria ordering that anyone bitten by a +mad dog shall at once put up prayers at the shrine +of St. Hubert, and not waste his time in any attempts +at medical or surgical cure."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p> + +<p>In addition to what Dr. White says here about +the treatment for threatened hydrophobia in the +eighteenth century, we find a curious mixture of +science and superstition in the nineteenth century +in connection with the same trouble. Early in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_079" id="Page_079"> 79</a></span> +century physicians discovered that the most effectual +remedy against the bite of a rabid animal was +the cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron. +In Tuscany, however, the iron which they heated +was one of the nails of the true cross, and in the +French provinces it was the key of St. Hubert. +This, though, was only to be used in the hands of +those who could trace their genealogy to this noble +saint. At the abbey of St. Hubert, in the diocese +of Liege, the intercession of the saint still continued +to be sufficient to effect a cure, provided it was +seconded by some religious ceremonies, and a diet +which would reassure the patient.</p> + +<p>After the discovery of the "true cross," portions +of this relic were much used for aid in any emergency. +In addition to sanitary and healing powers, +fragments suspended to a tree manifested the proper +location of sacred edifices. St. Magnus, who seems +to have carried pieces around with him, completely +vanquished demons who frequented a locality selected +for a chapel. Eyesight was restored to a +humble merchant seeking the blood-stained marks +upon the chapel of this same St. Magnus. The +blind man was feeling his uncertain way to the +place, where these discolorations reappeared more +distinctly after each washing with heavy layers of +lime.</p> + +<p>St. Louis, almost in the agonies of earthly dissolution, +with rigid body, rigorous limbs, and fluctu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_080" id="Page_080"> 80</a></span>ating +spirit, was brought to full health by the application +to his moribund body of a piece of the true +cross, about the year 1244; and later in the century +miracles took place at his tomb. M. Littré, in his +<i>Fragment de Medecine Rétrospective</i>, describes seven +miracles which occurred at his tomb, some of which +cures, however, were very gradual. We are also +told that when a humble hunchback bowed the +knee in adoration at the tomb of St. Andreas, his +irresistible faith instantly released him from his unnatural +rotundity. In 1243 a Ferrara writer was at +Padua, and while attending vespers at the tomb +where the sainted body of the Minorite Anthony +reposed, he affirms that he saw a person who had +been mute from his birth recover his voice and +speak audibly.</p> + +<p>Saintly remedies were used to cure hemorrhages, +readjust luxations, unite fractures, remove calculi, +moderate the agonizing pangs of parturition, restore +vision to the blind, and hearing to the deaf—in fact, +in an endeavor to perform cures which modern +medicine and surgery are counting among their +greatest and most recent triumphs. Some things +even more strange were attempted: paradoxical as +it may seem, they were used to cover up crime. +Fort tells us that among nuns and consecrated +women in convents, some erring sisters applied the +preventive talismanic influence of a sacred shirt or +girdle to suppress the manifestation of conventual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_081" id="Page_081"> 81</a></span> +irregularities of a sexual character. Animals as well +as human beings were treated for sickness, and relics +were used to free captive birds and animals. At a +banquet, a costly urn was shattered by ecclesiastics, +and through the power of Odilo it was restored to +its original integrity. At the tombs of both St. +Severin and St. Gall, when the light had been +quenched, miraculous fire burst forth to renew the +splendor.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p> + +<p>The allotment of certain diseases to certain saints +did not end with the Middle Ages. I have in my +hand a little manual entitled: <i>De l'Invocation +miraculeuse des Saints dans les maladies et les besoins +particuliers, par Mme. la Baronne d'Avout</i>, published +in 1884. An invocation is given for every day in +the year to some particular saint, who is thought to +be especially efficacious in the cure of some specific +disease. I shall quote but one for illustration.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="two"> +"30 MAI<br /> +S. HUBERT DE BRÉTIGNY<br /> +Près Noyons (Oise).<br /> +Honoré au diocèse de Beauvais.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"L'illustre saint Hubert, apôtre des Ardennes, fut +son protecteur et lui donna son nom. Il lui obtint +les plus heureuses dispositions pour la vertu. Lui +aussi hérita du pouvoir de guérir de la rage.</p> + +<p>"Les habitants de Noyon et des environs n'ont +pas cessé de recourir à son intercession. Les per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_082" id="Page_082"> 82</a></span>sonnes +qui touchent ses reliques ou portent sur elles +son nom béni espérent échapper pendant leur vie +aux atteintes des démons, de la rage et du tonnerre.</p> + +<p>"À Aire, diocèse de Fréjus, on invoque aussi sainte +Quitère contre la rage.</p> + + +<p class="two">INVOCATION</p> + +<p>"Dieu tout-puissant, qui avez formé le cœur de +vos saints avec une admirable bonté, afin qu'ils +deviennent pour nous une source de bienfaits et de +consolation; assistez-nous dans le pressant besoin +où nous nous trouvons et sauvez-nous de la mort, +par les prières at les mérites de saint Hubert de +Brétigny, afin que nous puissions vous louer et vous +bénir. Par N.-S. J.-C. Ainsi soit-il."</p> + +<p>"<i>Saint Hubert, qui préservez de la morsure des +bêtes enragées, ou qui guérissez leur morsures mortelles, +priez pour tous les affligés qui vous invoquent.</i>"</p></div> + +<p>While there was probably some advance when +the saints of the church took the place of the zodiacal +constellations in the government of the human +body, the church prevented the development along +scientific lines, although there were many ramifications +of saintly influence. Not the least among +these was the healing efficacy of holy wells, pools, +and streams, which had been empowered in some +way by the saints. In some cases the bones of holy +men have been buried in different parts of the continent, +and after a certain lapse of time, water was +said to have oozed from them, which soon formed +a spring and cured all the diseases of the faithful.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_083" id="Page_083"> 83</a></span>Perhaps the cure of leprous Naaman by bathing +in the Jordan, and the restoration of the sight of the +blind man by washing in the Pool of Siloam may +have served as examples which the credulous were +only too ready to follow. We must also note, however, +as a reason for their use, that in classical times +the greater number of thermal waters, more frequently +used then than in the present day, remained +consecrated to the gods, to Apollo, to Æsculapius, +and, above all, to Hercules, who was named Iatricos, +or the able physician. At any rate, many wells +and fountains were dedicated to different saints, +and various rites were performed there at Easter +and other particular days, where offerings were also +made to the saints.</p> + +<p>In Ireland, many such sacred places have been +visited by the sick for centuries, and England and +Scotland have them also. Not only in the British +Isles, but in all parts of Europe they were much +frequented in the Middle Ages, and they are not +without their visitors to-day. As late as 1805 the +eminent Roman Catholic prelate, Dr. John Milner, +gave a detailed account of a miraculous cure performed +at a sacred well in Flintshire. Gregory of +Tours was one of the first to notice the healing power +of springs in connection with the saints. He asserted +that the diseases of the sick and infirm were +banished upon the contact of a few drops of water +drawn from a spring dug by St. Martin's own hands.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_084" id="Page_084"> 84</a></span>From Fosbrooke's <i>British Monachism</i> we learn +that "on a spot called Nell's Point, is a fine well, to +which great numbers of women resort on Holy +Thursday, and, having washed their eyes in the +spring, they drop a pin into it. Once a year, at +St. Mardrin's well, also, lame persons went on Corpus +Christi evening, to lay some small offering on +the altar, there to lie on the ground all night, drink +of the water there, and on the next morning to take +a good draught more of it, and carry away some of +the water each in a bottle at their departure. At +Muswell Hill was formerly a chapel, called our Lady +of Muswell, from a well there, near which was her +image; this well was continually resorted to by +way of pilgrimage. At Walsingham, a fine green +road was made for the pilgrims, and there was a +holy well and cross adjacent, at which pilgrims used +to kneel while drinking the water. It is remarkable +that the Anglo-Saxon laws had proscribed this as +idolatrous. Such springs were consecrated upon +the discovery of cures effected by them. In fact," +Fosbrooke adds, "these consecrated wells merely +imply a knowledge of the properties of mineral +waters, but, through ignorance, a religious appropriation +of their properties was made to supernatural +causes."</p> + +<p>"Holywell, in the county of Flint," we are informed +by Salverte, "derives its name from the +Holy Well of St. Winifred, over which a chapel was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_085" id="Page_085"> 85</a></span> +erected by the Stanley family, in the reign of +Henry VII. The well was formerly in high repute +as a medicinal spring. Pennant says that, in his +time, Lancashire pilgrims were to be seen in deep +devotion, standing in the waters up to the chin for +hours, sending up prayers, and making a prescribed +number of turnings; and this excess of piety was +carried so far, as in several instances to cost the +devotees their lives."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p> + +<p>Pennant also tells us of a small spring outside the +bathing well at Whiteford, which was once famed +for the cure of weak eyes. The patient made an +offering of a crooked pin, and at the same time repeated +some words. The well still remains, but the +efficacy of its waters is lost. In recounting his tour +of Wales, the same author describes the church of +St. Tecla, virgin and martyr, at Llandegla. He +says: "About two hundred yards from the church, +in a Quillet called Gwern Degla, rises a small spring. +The water is under the tutelage of the Saint, and to +this day held to be extremely beneficial in the falling +sickness. The patient washes his limbs in the +well; makes an offering into it of four-pence; walks +round it three times; and thrice repeats the Lord's +Prayer. These ceremonies are never begun till +after sun-set, in order to inspire the votaries with +greater awe. If the afflicted be of the male sex, like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_086" id="Page_086"> 86</a></span> +Socrates, he makes an offering of a cock to his +Æsculapius, or rather to Tecla Hygeia; if of the +fair sex, a hen. The fowl is carried in a basket, +first round the well; after that into the church-yard; +when the same orisons and the same circum-ambulations +are performed round the church. The votary +then enters the church; gets under the communion +table; lies down with the Bible under his or +her head; is covered with the carpet or cloth, and +rests there till break of day; departing after offering +sixpence, and leaving the fowl in the church. +If the bird dies, the cure is supposed to have been +effected, and the disease transferred to the devoted +victim."<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p> + +<p>"At Withersden," says Hasted, "is a well, which +was once famous, being called St. Eustache's well, +taking its name from Eustachius, Abbot of Flai, +who is mentioned by Matt. Paris, An. 1200, to have +been a man of learning and sanctity, and to have +come and preached at Wye, and to have blessed a +fountain there, so that afterwards its waters were +endowed by such miraculous power, that by it all +diseases were cured."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Unfortunately, wells do +not always benefit the bathers. Lilly<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> relates that +in 1635 Sir George Peckham died in St. Winifred's +Well, "having continued so long mumbling his pater +nosters and Sancta Winifreda ora pro me, that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_087" id="Page_087"> 87</a></span> +cold struck into his body, and after his coming forth +of that well he never spoke more."</p> + +<p>The people of the Highlands of Scotland regarded +fountains with particular veneration. According to +the Statistical Account of Scotland, the minister of +Kirkmichael, Banffshire, said: "The sick who resort +to them for health, address their vows to the presiding +powers, and offer presents to conciliate their +favor. These presents generally consist of a small +piece of money, or a few fragrant flowers. The same +reverence in ancient times seems to have been entertained +by every people in Europe." Near Kirkmichael +there was a fountain dedicated to St. +Michael, and once celebrated for its cures. "Many +a patient have its waters restored to health, and +many more have attested the efficacy of their virtues. +But, as the presiding power is sometimes +capricious, and apt to desert his charge, it now lies +neglected, choked with weeds, unhonored and unfrequented."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p> + +<p>The most noted well in Perthshire is in Trinity +Gask. Again from the Statistical Account we quote: +"Superstition, aided by the interested artifices of +Popish Priests, raised, in times of ignorance and +bigotry, this well to no small degree of celebrity. +It was affirmed that every person who was baptized +with the water of this well would never be seized +with the plague. The extraordinary virtue of Trin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_088" id="Page_088"> 88</a></span>ity +Gask well has perished with the downfall of +superstition."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p> + +<p>Pinkerton, in speaking of the river Fillan in Scotland, +says: "In this river is a pool consecrated +by the ancient superstition of the inhabitants of +this country. The pool is formed by the eddying +of the stream round a rock. Its waves were many +years since consecrated by Fillan, one of the saints +who converted the ancient inhabitants of Caledonia +from paganism to the belief of Christianity. It has +ever since been distinguished by his name, and +esteemed of sovereign virtue in curing madness. +About two hundred persons afflicted in this way are +annually brought to try the benefits of its salutary +influence. These patients are conducted by their +friends, who first perform the ceremony of passing +with them thrice through a neighbouring cairn: on +this cairn they then deposit a simple offering of +clothes, or perhaps a small bunch of heath. More +precious offerings used once to be brought. The +patient is then thrice immerged in the sacred pool. +After the immersion, he is bound hand and foot, +and left for the night in a chapel which stands near. +If the maniac is found loose in the morning, good +hopes are conceived of his full recovery. If he is +still bound, his cure remains doubtful. It sometimes +happens that death relieves him, during his +confinement, from the troubles of life."</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_089" id="Page_089"> 89</a></span></p> +<p>Mrs. Macaulay,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> speaking of a consecrated well +in St. Kilda, called Tobirnimbuadh, or the spring of +diverse virtues, says that "near the fountain stood +an altar, on which the distressed votaries laid down +their oblations. Before they could touch sacred +water with any prospect of success, it was their +constant practice to address the genius of the place +with supplication and prayer. No one approached +him with empty hands.... Shells and pebbles, +rags of linen or stuffs worn out, pins, needles, or +rusty nails were generally all the tribute that was +paid."</p> + +<p>Collinson<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> mentions a well in the parish Wembton, +called St. John's Well, to which in 1464 "an immense +concourse of people resorted: and ... many who +had for years labored under various bodily diseases, +and had found no benefit from physick and +physicians, were, by the use of these waters (after +paying their due offerings), restored to their primitive +health."</p> + +<p>Brome, in his <i>Travels</i>, 1700, observes: "In Lothien, +two miles from Edinburg southward, is a +spring called St. Katherine's Well, flowing continually +with a kind of black fatness, or oil, above the +water, proceeding (as it is thought) from the parret +coal, which is frequent in these parts; 'tis of a marvellous +nature, for as the coal, whereof it proceeds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_090" id="Page_090"> 90</a></span> +is very apt quickly to kindle into a flame, so is the +oil of a sudden operation to heal all scabs and tumors +that trouble the outward skin, and the head and +hands are speedily healed by virtue of this oil, +which retains a very sweet smell; and at Aberdeen +is another well very efficacious to dissolve the stone, +to expel sand from the reins and bladder, being +good for the collick and drunk in July and August, +not inferiour, they report, to the Spaw in Germany."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p> + +<p>Grose tells us of a well dedicated to St. Oswald, +between the towns of Alton and Newton. The +neighbors have the opinion that a sick person's +shirt thrown into the well will prognosticate the +outcome of the disease; if it floats the sick one will +recover, if it sinks he will die. To reward the saint +for the information, they tear a rag off the shirt and +hang it on the briers near by; "where," says the +writer, "I have seen such numbers as might have +made a fayre rheme in a paper-myll." Similar +practices are related by other authors. Ireland +formerly had a sanctified well in nearly every parish. +They were marked by rude crosses and surrounded +by fragments of cloth left as memorials. St. Ronague's +Well, near Cork, was very popular at one +time. Near Carrick-on-Suir is the holy well of +Tubber Quan, the waters of which are reputed to +have performed many miraculous cures. The well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_091" id="Page_091"> 91</a></span> +was dedicated to two patron saints, St. Quan and +St. Brogawn. These saints are supposed to exert +a special influence the last three Sundays in June. +"It is firmly believed," says Brand, "that at this +period the two saints appear in the well in the shape +of two small fishes, of the trout kind; and if they do +not so appear, that no cure will take place. The +penitents attending on these occasions ascend the +hill barefoot, kneel by the stream and repeat a +number of paters and aves, then enter it, go through +the stream three times, at a slow pace, reciting +their prayers. They then go on the gravel walk, +and traverse it round three times on their bare +knees, often till the blood starts in the operation, +repeat their prayers, then traverse three times +round a tree on their bare knees, but upon the +grass. Having performed these exercises they cut +off locks of their hair and tie them on the branches +of the tree as specifics against headache."</p> + +<p>After being three times admonished in a dream, +a man washed in St. Madern's Well in Cornwall and +was miraculously cured, so say Bishop Hall and +Father Francis. Ranulf Higden, in his <i>Polychronicon</i>, +relates the wonderful cures performed at the +holy well at Basingwerk. The red streaks in the +stones surrounding it were symbols of the blood of +St. Wenefride, martyred by Carodoc.</p> + +<p>The Scotch considered certain wells to have healing +properties in the month of May. In the Ses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_092" id="Page_092"> 92</a></span>sions +Records (June 12, 1628) it is reported that a +number of persons were brought before the Kirk +Sessions of Falkirk, accused of going to Christ's +Well on the Sundays of May to seek their health, +and the whole being found guilty were sentenced to +repent "in linens" three several sabbaths. "In 1657 +a number of persons were publicly rebuked for visiting +the well at Airth. The custom was to leave a +piece of money and a napkin at the well, from which +they took a can of water, and were not to speak a +word either in going or returning, nor on any account +to spill a drop of the water. Notwithstanding +these proceedings, many are known to have +lately travelled many miles into the Highlands, +there to obtain water for the cure of their sick +cattle."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p> + +<p>To-day, probably the most efficacious waters are +to be found at the sacred fountain at La Salette +and at the holy spring at Lourdes.</p> + +<p>We have another specific form of healing which +should be noticed. It was especially common in +Eastern churches, and was found to some extent in +the West. I refer to Incubation, or "Temple-sleep." +This practice came down through early civilizations +and was an adopted practice among Christians. +The patient went to some church well known for its +cures, which was provided with mattresses or low<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_093" id="Page_093"> 93</a></span> +couches, and attended by priests and assistants. +Devotions being finished he lay down to sleep. +Sometimes he slept immediately, at other times +sleep must be wooed by fast and vigil. At any +rate, during the sleep he dreamed that the saint +touched him, or prescribed some remedy, and in +the first case he awoke cured, and in the second the +prescribed medicine brought about the relief.</p> + +<p>Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, wrote +about 640 as follows: "Cyrus appeared to the sick +man in the form of a monk, not in a dream, as he +appears to many; but in a waking vision, just as he +was and is represented. He told the patient to rise +and to plunge into the warm water. Zosimos said +it was impossible for him to move, but when the +order was repeated, he slid like a snake into the +bath. When he got into the water, he saw the +saint at his side, but when he came out, the vision +had vanished." Beside the cure of this paralytic +at the church of Cyrus and John, he mentions the +cure of many other diseases by this method of incubation. +Among them are dumbness, blindness, +barrenness, possession, scrofula, dyspepsia, a broken +leg, deformities of limbs, lameness, gout, diseases of +the eyes, cataract, ulcer, and dropsy.</p> + +<p>Among the churches of Greece and southern +Italy incubation is still common. The climate may +have some effect in limiting the area of this practice. +Miss M. Hamilton furnishes us with some modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_094" id="Page_094"> 94</a></span> +examples. In speaking of a new picture of St. +George in the church at Arachova, she says: "It is +a votive offering of a Russian, who came a paralytic +to Arachova in July, 1905. He spent several weeks +praying and sleeping in the church, and departed +completely cured. The festival of St. George is +held on April 23rd. They have three days of dancing +and feasting, and at night all suppliants bring +their rugs and sleep round the shrines in the church. +Every year many of the sick are found to be cured +when morning comes."</p> + +<p>The Church of the Evangelestria, our Lady of the +Annunciation, is visited by about forty-five thousand +pilgrims every year. It is situated at Tenos, and +Miss Hamilton tells us what she saw during her +visit there in 1906:<br /></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the morning before Annunciation Day this +year, the pilgrims could be seen making their way +to the church. Among them were cripples, armless, +and legless, half-rolling up the street; blind people +groping their way along; men and women with deformities +of every kind; one or two showing the +pallor of death on their faces were being carried up +on litters. These evidently were coming to Tenos +as a last resource, when doctors were of no avail. +Other pilgrims were ascending after their own +fashion, according to vows they had made. One +woman toiled laboriously along on her knees, kissing +the stones of the way, and clasping a silver +Madonna and Child. Last year her daughter had +been seized with epilepsy, and she vowed to carry in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_095" id="Page_095"> 95</a></span> +this way this offering to the Madonna of Tenos if she +would cure her daughter. The girl recovered and +the other now with thankful heart was fulfilling her +part of the bargain.</p> + +<p>"The eve of Annunciation Day is the time when +the Panagia is believed to descend among the sick +and work miraculous cures among them. Then all +the patients are gathered together in the crypt or in +the upper church. The Chapel of the Well is the +popular place for incubation. There is more chance +for miraculous cure there than in the church. The +little crypt can accommodate only a comparatively +small number, but they are packed together as +tightly as possible. From the entrance up to the +altar, they lie in two lines of three or four deep, +with a passage down the middle large enough for +only one person. Down the narrow way two +streams of people press the whole evening. They +worship at the shrines along the wall, purchase holy +earth from the spot where the picture was discovered, +drink at the sacred well, and are blessed by the +priest at the altar. The cripples and the sick desiring +healing have been engaged all day in such acts +of worship; they have received bread and water +from the priests in the upper church, paid homage +to the all-powerful picture, offered their candles to +the Madonna, and all the time sought to endue +themselves with her presence. Now at night, still +fixing their thoughts upon her, and permeated by +this spirit of worship, they settle down to sleep in +order that she may appear to them in a dream.</p> + +<p>"Disappointment, of course, awaits the vast majority, +but on the evening of the vigil all are filled +with hope. They know the precedents of former +years, how such things have happened to some unfortunate +people among the pilgrims every year. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_096" id="Page_096"> 96</a></span> +Usually eight or nine miracles take place, and lists +of them are published for distribution....</p> + +<p>"The church records contain accounts of the +miracles which now amount to many hundreds. +They are practically all of the type I have described—cure +during a vision while incubation was +being practised. For example, the case of a man +from Moldavia is on record. He had become paralyzed +during a night-watch, and the doctor could +effect no relief. He was taken to the Chapel of the +Well, and when asleep he thought he heard a voice +telling him to arise. He awoke, thought it was a +dream, and fell asleep again. A second time he +heard a voice, and saw a white-robed woman of +great beauty entering the church. In his fear he +rose and walked about. His recovery was so complete +that he could walk in the procession round the +town the following day."<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> +</p></div> + +<p>The medicinal power imputed to the sainted relics +and shrines would naturally be considered very +valuable. So it proved. Wealth flowed to a conventual +treasury or a cathedral chapter where were +deposited fragments of the martyred dead endowed +with miraculous puissance. When the Frankish +forces sacked Constantinople at the beginning of +the thirteenth century, the principal object of their +ferocious cruelties and vigilant searches was the +acquisition of precious relics. Concerning these +relics Fort gives the following account:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_097" id="Page_097"> 97</a></span>"These relics, captured in Constantinople, were +divided by the troops under Marquis de Montfort, +with the same justice as prevailed in the division of +other booty. In this way the Venetians were enabled +to enrich their metropolis with a piece of the +sainted cross, an arm of St. George, part of the head +of St. John the Baptist, the entire skeleton of St. +Luke, that of the prophet St. Simeon, and a small +bottle of Jesus Christ's blood. The Greek capital +from the remotest times appears to have monopolized +this traffic in sacred wares, claiming to possess +a fragment of the stone on which Jacob slept, and +the staff transformed into a serpent by Moses.</p> + +<p>"Here also were guarded the Holy Virgin's vestments, +her spindle, drops of her milk, the cradle in +which the Saviour had lain, a tooth from his adolescent +jaw, a hair of his beard, a particle of the bread +used in the Last Supper, and a portion of the royal +purple worn by him before Pilate. Naturally clerical +adventurers among the occidental Crusaders, +pending the sacking of the Byzantine city, sought out +most zealously these valuable remnants of pristine +glory, and in obtaining them were by no means scrupulous +with menaces and violence. When scattered +through Western Europe, in the monasteries and other +religious places, their curative properties increased +the pilgrimages thither of the sick and diseased."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> +</p> +<p>He further gives us more in detail<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> an idea of the +continual accumulation of riches which were derived +from the exposure of these relics to the sick and infirm +and the consequent growth in wealth of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_098" id="Page_098"> 98</a></span> +monasteries and cathedrals. The monastic system +was probably most responsible for the change from +the simple adoration of the early Christians to the use +of relics as a miraculous means of healing. Those +which were transported with elaborate ceremonies, +enclosed in a magnificent stone sarcophagus, and +covered by an edifice of imposing proportions were +almost sure to bring to their custodians great wealth. +It is said that when the body of St. Sebastian, which +was legitimately obtained from Rome, together with +the purloined remains of St. Gregory, reached the +cloister of Soissons, so great was the crowd of invalids +who were cured, and so generous were they +in their donations, that the monks actually counted +eighty measures of money and one hundred pounds +in coin. The great value of such objects may be +calculated when it is remembered that in the year +1056 securities amounting to ten thousand solidi +were pledged for the production of the relics of St. +Just and St. Pastor, consequent upon the legal +decision of ownership between Berenger, a French +ruler, and a Narbonnese archbishop. The Reichberg +annals provide a further example. They state +that the emperor demanded certain hostages, or the +holy arm of St. George, as a suitable guarantee for +the institution of a public mart in Germany.</p> + +<p>Venetian merchants were among the first to realize +the commercial value of relics, and enjoyed a +lucrative traffic in this holy merchandise. It was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_099" id="Page_099"> 99</a></span> +not until the eleventh century, however, that the +government of Venice founded public marts or fairs +for the commercial exchange of saintly relics, although +Rome and Pavia had long conducted such +enterprises. These fairs were placed under the +tutelary protection of some patron saint, the Venetians, +of course, thus honoring St. Mark. They +were not always particular how these relics were +procured, for it is stated that when negotiations for +the exchange of a well-preserved body of St. Tairise +proved unsuccessful, because the Greek monks who +possessed it refused absolutely to sell or barter, +these enterprising traders quietly stole the desired +skeleton.</p> + +<p>Relics provided a suitable method of acquiring +ecclesiastical fortunes for denuded cloisters or impoverished +nunneries; and if the old relics lost their +power it was not difficult to procure episcopal assurance +of the miraculous powers of new ones. For +the procuring of special funds the venerated objects +were taken from place to place, under priestly surveillance, +presented to the sick and infirm with +assurance of relief, and with the demand for large +sums of money.</p> + +<p>We can easily understand, then, why such donations +were regarded as most precious presents, and +chronicled in the conventual records as events of +high importance. As early as the ninth century, +documentary evidence of authenticity frequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> +accompanied a gift of relics, and furnished legal +proof of ownership.</p> + +<p>The gift of St. Peter's knife to a German monastery +by a benevolent abbot was deemed a most +illustrious act. About the same time a noble pilgrim +succeeded, after great importunity and a lavish +outlay of money, in obtaining trifling particles of +the relics of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, which he +enclosed in a priceless box and donated to the monastery +of St. Gall. This gift was considered the +greatest event of the year, but when it is considered +that this and similar presents insure in the community, +where they are deposited uninterrupted +peace, unstinted plenty, absence of catastrophies, +and the cure of diseases, their value is explained.</p> + +<p>The commercial aspect of ecclesiastical cures, +however, was discovered by other than priestly or +monkish eyes, and different forms began to be presented. +Of these White says: "Very important +among these was the Agnus Dei, or piece of wax +from the Paschal candles, stamped with the figure +of a lamb and consecrated by the Pope. In 1471 +Pope Paul II expatiated to the Church on the efficacy +of this fetich in preserving men from fire, shipwreck, +tempest, lightning, and hail, as well as in +assisting women in childbirth; and he reserved to +himself and his successors the manufacture of it. +Even as late as 1517 Pope Leo X issued, for a consideration, +tickets bearing a cross and the following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span> +inscription: 'This cross measured forty times makes +the height of Christ in his humanity. He who kisses +it is preserved for seven days from falling-sickness, +apoplexy, and sudden death.'"<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p> + +<p>The enormous revenues procured through the +means of relics, and the lack of certain means of +identifying them, would naturally encourage the +imposition of fraud. The crime would not appear +so great after one experience, for the perpetrators +could readily see that it really made no difference +so far as efficacy in the cure of diseases was concerned, +whether or not the relics were genuine. +The history of some of the relics unfortunately +proves them not to be relics at all, or at least not to +be the relics which the faithful supposed them to be. +Notice a few instances. In a magnificent shrine in +the cathedral at Cologne are the skulls of the three +kings, or wise men from the East, who brought gifts +to the infant Lord. They have rested here since the +twelfth century and have been the source of enormous +wealth and power to the cathedral chapter. +Not to be outdone by the cathedral, for the church +of St. Gereon a cemetery has been depopulated, +and the bones thus procured have been placed upon +the walls and are known as the relics of St. Gereon +and his Theband band of martyrs! Further competition +arose in the neighboring church of St.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> +Ursula. Another cemetery was despoiled and the +bones covering the interior of the walls are known +as the relics of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand +virgin martyrs. Anatomists now declare that many +of the bones are those of men, but this made no +more difference in their healing efficacy in the +Middle Ages than the fact that the relics of St. +Rosalia at Palermo, famed for their healing power, +have lately been declared by Professor Buckland, +the eminent osteologist, to be the bones of a goat.</p> + +<p>Two different investigations have been conducted +by the French courts concerning the fountain of +La Salette, and in both cases the miracles which +make the shrine famous were pronounced to be +fraudulent. The recent restoration of the cathedral +at Trondhjem has revealed a tube in the walls, not +unlike the apparatus discovered in the Temple of +Isis at Pompeii; the healing power of this sacred +spring was augmented by angelic voices which +issued from the supposedly solid walls.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p> + +<p>While the golden age of the therapeutic use of +relics was from the sixth to the sixteenth centuries, +modern times, with its physicians, hospitals, and +drugs, has not been deprived of this method of cure. +Mackay, writing in the latter half of the past century, +touches this subject.</p> + +<p>At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care +a thorn, which the priests of that seminary assert to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> +be one of the identical thorns that bound the holy +head of the Son of God. How it came there, and +by whom it was preserved, has never been explained. +This is the famous thorn which the long dissensions +of the Jansenists and the Molenists have made celebrated, +and which worked the miraculous cure upon +Mademoiselle Perier, an account of which is so interesting +that I give it. The cure occurred on +March 14, 1646.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A young pensioner in the monastery, by name +Margaret Perier, who for three years and a half had +suffered from a lachrymal fistula, came up in her +turn to kiss it; and the nun, her mistress, more horrified +than ever at the swelling and deformity of her +eye, had a sudden impulse to touch the sore with the +relic, believing that God was sufficiently able and +willing to heal her. She thought no more of the +matter, but the little girl having retired to her room, +perceived a quarter of an hour after that her disease +was cured; and when she told her companions, it +was indeed found that nothing more was to be seen +of it. There was no more tumor; and her eye, +which the swelling (continuous for three years) had +weakened and caused to water, had become as dry, +as healthy, as lively as the other. The spring of +the filthy matter, which every quarter of an hour +ran down from nose, eye, and mouth, and at the +very moment before the miracle had fallen upon +her cheek (as she declared in her deposition), was +found to be quite dried up; the bone, which had +been rotted and putrified, was restored to its former +condition; all the stench, proceeding from it, which +had been so insupportable that by order of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>physicians and surgeons she was separated from +her companions, was changed into a breath as sweet +as an infant's; and she recovered at the same +moment her sense of smell....</p> + +<p>"Mons. Felix, Chief Surgeon to the King, who +had seen her during the month of April, was curious +enough to return on the 8th of August, and having +found the cure as thorough and marvellous as it had +seemed to him at the time, declared under his hand +that 'he was obliged to confess that God alone had +the power to produce an effect so sudden and +extraordinary.'"<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p></div> + +<p>Mackay gives the following account of the distribution +of relics about the middle of the nineteenth +century: "Europe still swarms with these religious +relics. There is hardly a Roman Catholic Church +in Spain, Portugal, France, or Belgium, without one +or more of them. Even the poorly endowed churches +of the villages boast the possession of miraculous +thighbones of the innumerable saints of the Romish +calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable +<i>châsse</i>, or thighbone of Charlemagne, which cures +lameness. Halle has a thighbone of the Virgin +Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be undoubted +relics. Brussels at one time preserved, +and perhaps does now, the teeth of St. Gudule. +The faithful who suffered from the toothache, had +only to pray, look at them, and be cured."<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span></p> +<p>The miracles performed at the tomb of the +Deacon Paris in the cemetery of St. Médard are of +comparatively recent occurrence, and well attested. +For example, we have the case of "la demoiselle +Coirin," which, to say the least, is out of the ordinary. +"In 1716," says Dearmer, "this lady, then +aged thirty-one, fell from her horse; paralysis and +an ulcer followed; by 1719 the ulcer was in a horrible +condition; in 1720 her mother refused an operation +preferring to let her die in peace. In 1731—after +fifteen years of an open breast—she asked a woman +to say a novena at the tomb of François de Paris, +to touch the tomb with her shift, and to bring back +some earth. This was done on August 10th; on the +11th she put on the shift and at once felt improved; +on the 12th she touched the wound with the earth +and it at once began to heal. By the end of August +the skin was completely healed up, and on September +24th she went out of doors."<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p> + +<p>Among the most noted relics at the present time +are the Holy Coat of Treves,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> the Winding-sheet of +Christ at Besançon, and the Santa Scala at Rome. +The last are said to be the steps which Jesus ascended +and descended when he was brought before +Pontius Pilate, and are held in great veneration. +It is sacrilegious to walk upon them; the knees of +the faithful alone must touch them, and that only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> +after they have reverently kissed them. Cures are +still performed by all these relics.</p> + +<p>The two shrines at present best known and which +have proved most efficacious are those of Lourdes +in France<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> and St. Anne de Beaupré in the province +of Quebec. Lourdes owes its reputed healing +power to a belief in a vision of the Virgin received +there during the last century. Over 300,000 persons +visit there every year, and no small proportion +of them return with health restored as a reward for +their faith. At Lourdes and many other shrines +bathing forms a part of the ceremony, and on account +of the unsanitary conditions in the former +place, there is some danger that the French Government +will cause its abandonment. Charcot, who established +the Salpétrière hospital where hypnotism +was so successfully used, sent fifty or sixty patients +to Lourdes every year. He was firmly convinced of +the healing power of faith. One commendable feature +of the management at Lourdes is the opportunity +given for investigation; in fact, this is courted. +Most of the sick bring medical details of their +diseases; an examining committee of medical men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> +examine them after they arrive there and after the +cure. About two hundred and fifty doctors visit +there every year, and the widest opportunity is +given to them for examination of the cases, regardless +of their nationality or religious belief or scepticism. +This attitude might well be assumed by +these in control of other shrines or of healing cults.</p> + +<p>In America thousands flock to the shrine of St. +Anne de Beaupré annually. Here are to be found +bones, supposed to be the wrist bones of the holy +mother of the Virgin, and many sufferers are able +to testify to their value in the healing of various +diseases.</p> + +<p>On all parts of the Continent there are shrines of +more or less renown as healing centres. In Normandy +the springs of Fécamp or Grand-Andely are +much frequented; in Austria, at Mariazell, Styria, +the church is visited by two hundred thousand pilgrims +a year, and has been a centre of healing since +1157; in Italy, the church of S. Maria dell' Arco, +near Naples, has been a local Lourdes for four hundred +years, and here, as at Amalfi, Palermo, and +other places, the ancient practice of incubation is +still prevalent. The adherents of the Eastern Church +also have their shrines, and among the visitors to +the shrines of Greece, many pilgrims are rewarded +for their faith by being healed.</p> + +<p>It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in +all ages, and in all countries, to obtain possession of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> +some relic of any person who had been much spoken +of, if for nothing more than for his crimes.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> Snuff-boxes +made from Shakespeare's mulberry-tree, twigs +from Napoleon's willow, or bullets from the field of +Waterloo have all been much sought after. Souvenirs +of everything and anything are still much +in demand. It is within the last decade that a +foreign war-ship anchored in New York harbor, and +after the officers courteously opened the ship for +the inspection of visitors they found that even their +silver toilet articles and plate had been carried away +by the relic maniacs. A United States admiral, +rather more facetiously than patriotically, remarked +that "the American people of to-day would steal +anything but a cellarful of water." I suppose the +remark, so far as it applies to the relic-crazed crowd, +would be as applicable to any other people of any +other time.</p> + +<p>We have a right to ask, in closing this chapter, +how it was possible for men to believe in the power +of relics to cure diseases. The practice seems to +have developed from the reasoning that the saints +who helped men while in the imperfections of the +flesh, could be of even more benefit when they were +with God in the perfections of the spiritual life. +St. Augustine (426), for example, speaks of comparing +the wonders performed by pagan "deities +with our dead men," and that the miracles wrought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> +by idols "are in no way comparable to the wonders +wrought by our martyrs." Some might agree with +this, and yet find no warrant for using relics. There +was, however, the remembrance of the dead man +who was restored to life by contact with the bones +of Elisha, and of the handkerchiefs and aprons +which touched Paul's body and were thereby filled +with healing efficacy. Even to-day we do not fail +to recognize the value of the association of places +and objects, and one finds it difficult to enter Westminster +Abbey, for instance, without feeling a thrill +on account of the sacred clay reposing there. When +we remember the beginning of the use of relics in +the catacombs we can better understand the development +of the practice.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 201.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 142 and 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> G. P. Fisher, <i>History of the Christian Church</i>, p. 117.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, pp. 378 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, p. 379.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 268 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> J. Moses, <i>Pathological Aspects of Religions</i>, p. 133.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, II, pp. <a href="#Page_303">303</a> f.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> J. W. Draper, <i>History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science</i>, +p. 270.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> J. Moses, <i>Pathological Aspects of Religions</i>, pp. 132 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Bede, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, ed. J. A. Giles, bk. IV, chap. XXXI.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and +Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 55-57.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +pp. 224 f., 273-277, 457.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, +pp. 40 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 273.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>The Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II, +p. 93.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> <i>Tour of Wales</i>, I, p. 405.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Hasted, <i>Kent</i>, III, p. 176.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> <i>History of His Life and Times</i>, p. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> <i>Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, VII, p. 213, and XII, p. 464.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XVIII, p. 487.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> C. S. Macaulay, <i>History of St. Kilda</i>, p. 95.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> <i>Somersetshire</i>, III, p. 104.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> I am much indebted to J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, pp. 1-17, +for some of the quotations used in the discussion of this subject.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. +57-61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> I am indebted to P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 278-281, 314-318, +for the material on incubation. For fuller study, see L. Deubner, +<i>De Incubatione</i>, and M. Hamilton, <i>Incubation</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 227.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 210-214, 226 f., 278.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, +p. 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, II, pp. 21, 29, 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 374 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, II, p. <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 105 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> R. F. Clarke, <i>The Holy Coat of Treves</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> A. T. Myers and F. W. H. Myers, "Mind Cure, Faith Cure, and +the Miracles at Lourdes," <i>Proceedings Society Psychical Research</i>, +IX, pp. 160-409; E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at +Lourdes," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, October, 1895; J. B. Estrade, <i>Les +apparitions de Lourdes, Souvenirs intimes d'un témoin</i>; H. Bernheim, +<i>Suggestive Therapeutics</i>, pp. 200-202; A. Imbert-Gourbyzee, <i>La Stigmatisation, +l'extase divine, et les miracles de Lourdes</i>, II, chaps. XXI +and XXVII; E. Zola, <i>Lourdes</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, II, p. 306.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h3> + +<h4>HEALERS</h4> + +<div class="poem2"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">"This is an art</span> +<span class="i0">Which doth mend nature—but</span> +<span class="i0">The art itself is nature."—<i>Winter's Tale.</i></span> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Some are molested by Phantasie; so some, again, by Fancy alone +and a good conceit, are as easily recovered.... All the world +knows there is no virtue in charms, &c., but a strong conceit and +opinion alone, as Pomponatius holds, which forceth a motion of the +humours, spirits, and blood, which takes away the cause of the +malady from the parts affected. The like we may say of the magical +effects, superstitious cures, and such as are done by montebanks +and wizards. As by wicked incredulity many are hurt (so +saith Wierus), we find, in our experience, by the same means, many +are relieved."</p></div> + +<p>In discussing the subject of healers one must keep +in mind the fact that the healers of the first millennium +of our era were almost wholly exorcists, on +account of the prevailing theory, and even after that +time exorcism, on the one hand, and the faith in +relics and shrines on the other, formed the principal +means of cure. It is therefore difficult to differentiate +the other healers from the exorcists, and to +decide whether certain cures were performed by +healers or by relics.</p> + +<p>Another difficulty confronts us. Many authentic +cures have probably been wrought by saints, but +unfortunately most of those performed by them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> +have little contemporary evidence to support them, +but rest on the very shaky testimony of tradition. +White,<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> in a keen analysis, shows how the legends +of miraculous cures have grown around great benefactors +of humanity, taking Francis Xavier as a +pertinent example.</p> + +<p>We must also remember, however, that what are +called miracles formed part of the evidence which +led to the canonization of a saint, and a large number +of healing miracles was usually included in the +list. The procedure of the court connected with +the canonization was conducted with the greatest +rigor. Sitting as examiners were learned and upright +men from all nations, and the witness must be +irreproachable as far as character was concerned. +The two witnesses required for each miracle must +testify concerning the nature of the disease and the +cure, and sign the deposition after it had been read +to them. Following that, the examiners sifted the +evidence in a hypercritical way and emphasized the +weak places. Benedict XIV justly said: "The degree +of proof required is the same as that required +for a criminal case, since the cause of religion and +piety is that of the commonweal." Some consideration +must be thus given to this testimony, but +the value of it depends on the number of years +elapsing after the cures were performed and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>direct connection of the witnesses with the cure in +question.</p> + +<p>The craving for the miraculous in bodily cures +prejudiced many historians, especially when the desire +to emphasize the importance of the church was +uppermost in the minds of the writers. We can +consider, though, the material at hand, always +recognizing that marvellous cures can be performed +when the authority of the physician has all the +weight of an infallible church behind it and the +patient is credulous. We must notice in this connection +that the healers up to the time of the magnetizers +depended on religious ceremonies for their +efficiency, with the exception of those who endorsed +and propagated "sympathetic cures."</p> + +<p>As we well know, the first healing among Christians +was done by Jesus himself and the apostles; +after this for two centuries the exorcists performed +most of the cures. We have accounts of one non-Christian +healer whose cures have probably been +handed down to us on account of his exalted position. +Tacitus and Suetonius describe how Vespasian +(9-79) healed in at least two cases. The +first was a blind man well known in Alexandria. +In the second case the historians disagree; one says +it was a leg and the other a hand which was diseased +and cured. According to the story, the god +Serapis revealed to the patients that they would be +cured by the emperor. Tacitus says that Vespasian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> +did not believe in his own power and it was only +after much persuasion that he was induced to try +the experiment.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p> + +<p>The Christians, however, were not to be outdone +as healers. Irenæus (130-202) gives a long list of +infirmities which were cured by the representatives +of the church, and in writing, about the year 180, +draws a comparison between them and the heretics. +"For they [the heretics] can neither confer sight on +the blind nor hearing on the deaf, nor chase away +all sorts of demons (except those which are sent +into others by themselves—if they can ever do as +much as this): nor can they cure the weak, or the +lame, or the paralytic; or those who are distressed +in any other part of the body, as has often been done +in regard to bodily infirmity. Nor can they furnish +effective remedies for those external accidents +which may occur. And so far are they from being +able to raise the dead, as the Lord raised them +(and the Apostles did by means of prayer, as has +been frequently done in the brotherhood on account +of some necessity—the entire church in that +particular locality entreating with much fasting and +prayer, the spirit of the dead man has returned, and +he has been bestowed in answer to the prayers of +the saints—) that they do not even believe that this +could possibly be done." He further says: "Others +again heal the sick by laying their hands upon them, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span>and they are made whole. Yea, moreover, as I have +said, the dead even have been raised up, and remained +among us for many years."</p> + +<p>The great Origen (185-254), writing when he +would be certain to have his words most severely +criticised, says, after referring to the miracles of +the apostles: "And there are still preserved among +Christians traces of that Holy Spirit which appeared +in the form of a dove. They expel evil spirits, and +perform many cures, and foresee certain events, according +to the will of the Logos." In another of +his works we find the following: "For they [the +Jews] have no longer prophets or miracles, traces of +which to a considerable extent are still found among +Christians, and some of them more remarkable than +ever have existed among the Jews; and these we +ourselves have witnessed."</p> + +<p>As has already been seen, different methods were +used by various healers, and we must not omit a +brief account of healing by unction. The very definite +instructions laid down in the Epistle of James +were evidently strictly carried out in the early +church, but the first definite mention of anointing +after that made by Mark and James is found in the +writings of Tertullian (160-220). He speaks of the +pagan emperor Severus being graciously mindful of +Christians: "For he sought out the Christian Proculus, +surnamed Torpacion, the steward of Euhodias, +and in gratitude for his having once cured him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> +by anointing, he kept him in his palace till the day +of his death."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p> + +<p>If the Christians anointed pagans it is legitimate +to suppose that they also anointed fellow-Christians, +and that if this was performed without special mention +about the end of the second century, it must +have been common from the time of James to that +period. It is probable that during the first seven +centuries of our era the practice of praying with the +sick and anointing them with oil never ceased. +There may be some objection to our considering the +subject of anointing with oil as purely mental healing, +but according to the instructions given for its +use there was scarcely enough oil employed to be +of benefit otherwise, and especially as food. Mental +healing, then, is the rationale of the cures.</p> + +<p>Puller<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> gives us three of the earliest incidents of +healing by unction, the original accounts all being +written by contemporaries and friends. Some time +between the years 335 and 355, St. Parthenius, +Bishop of Lampsacus, anointed a man who was +described as "altogether withered." The account +says: "Then getting up, he gently and gradually +softened the man's body with the holy oil, and +straightway made him to rise up healed." Refinus, +a well-known writer and an eye-witness to this heal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>ing, +tells of St. Macarius of Alexandria and four +monks restoring, about the year 375, "a man, withered +in all his limbs and especially in his feet." He +says: "But when he had been anointed all over by +them with oil in the Name of the Lord, immediately +the soles of his feet were strengthened. And when +they said to him, 'In the name of Jesus Christ ... +arise, and stand on thy feet, and return to thy +house,' immediately arising and leaping, he blessed +God." Some years later, Palladius, the friend of St. +Chrysostom, writes of another of St. Macarius's cures +which he witnessed: "But at the time that we were +there, there was brought to him from Thessalonica +a noble and wealthy virgin, who during many years +had been suffering from paralysis. And when she +had been presented to him, and had been thrown +down before the cell of the blessed man, he, being +moved with compassion for her, with his own hands +anointed her during twenty days with holy oil, +pouring out prayers for her to the Lord, and so sent +her back cured to her own city."</p> + +<p>The Sacramentary of Serapion, Bishop of Thmuis, +Egypt, written about 350, provides for the consecration +of bread and water, as well as oil, for healing; +and in a prayer concerning oil and water there contained, +the following words are used: "Grant healing +power upon these creatures, that every fever +and every demon and every sickness may depart +through the drinking and the anointing, and that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> +the partaking of these creatures may be a healing +medicine and a medicine of complete soundness in +the Name of the Only begotten, Jesus Christ," etc. +The Apostolic Constitutions of about 375 contain +a prayer of consecration used over oil and water +brought by members of the congregation, as follows: +"Do thou now sanctify this water and this +oil, through Christ, in the name of him that offered +or of her that offered, and give to these things a +power of producing health and of driving away +diseases, of putting to flight demons, of dispersing +every snare through Christ our Hope," etc.</p> + +<p>About 390, St. Jerome wrote a life of St. Hilarion +(291-371) in which the latter is thus set forth as a +healer: "But lo! that parched and sandy district, +after the rain had fallen, unexpectedly produced +such vast numbers of serpents and poisonous animals +that many, who were bitten, would have died +at once if they had not run to Hilarion. He therefore +blessed some oil, with which all the husbandmen +and shepherds touched their wounds and found +an infallible cure."</p> + +<p>Oil was not always employed for anointing, but +might be drunk by the sick, and this use of it was +made in healing a girl, by St. Martin of Tours, about +395. St. Germain, Bishop of Auxerre (418-448), +when the physicians were powerless during a plague, +blessed some oil and anointed the swollen jaws of +those who were sick, whereupon they recovered;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span> +and St. Genevieve of Paris, who died about 502, +used to heal the sick with oil.</p> + +<p>In Bede's biography of St. Cuthbert we find an +instance of this saint healing a girl about the year +687. A young woman was troubled for a whole +year with an intolerable pain in her head and side +which the physicians were unable to relieve. Cuthbert +"in pity anointed the wretched woman with +oil. From that time she began to get better, and +was well in a few days."</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the eighth century the +anointing of the sick began to decline, largely on +account of the changed attitude of the church. At +this time this ceremony began to be used for spiritual +ills rather than for bodily diseases. Before +long, anointing was monopolized by the church for +spiritual advantage, and is still so used by the +Roman Catholic Church in the ceremony of Extreme +Unction.</p> + +<p>In returning to the more direct methods of healing, +we find that St. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) +confirmed the reports of the marvellous cures +wrought by the martyrs, Cosmo and Damian, who +were beheaded in 303. During the life of Gregory +of Tours (538-594), the healing efficacy of the saints' +relics was rivalled by the miraculous aid rendered +to the sick by St. Julian. The solitude of the holy +anchorite was interrupted by the persistent and +despairing clamor of the sick to whom he gave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span> +health. The great Turonese pontiff also tells us +that one day Aredius, traversing Paris, found Chilperic +prostrate with a grievous fever. The royal +sufferer sought the saint's prayers as an irresistible +curative.</p> + +<p>The daughter of a Teutonic nobleman was brought +to St. Gall (556-640) seriously ill with an incurable +disorder, presenting the livid appearance of an animated +cadaver. The saint approached the unconscious +invalid as she reclined on her mother's knee, +and assuming the bended attitude of invocation by +her side, made a fervent prayer and evoked the +demon producing the sickness to instantly depart. +The effort was all that was desired. Shortly after +this, about the year 648, St. Vardrille, the founder +of Fontanelle, exercised his remedial potency in +healing the palsied arm of a forester whose indiscreet +zeal had induced him to transfix the sainted +abbot with a lance.</p> + +<p>We have rather a strange case from the beginning +of the seventh century, where the moral and mental +element seems to have been strong. Abbe Eustasius +returning from Rome, whither a mission of +Clothair II had called him, was urgently summoned +by the sorrowful parent of a Burgundian maiden, in +the last agonies of a frightful malady, to appear and +cure the moribund daughter. On answering the call +he found that the child had in her youth been consecrated +by the vows of chastity, and on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> +of this shrunk from a marriage sanctioned by her +parents. Eustasius reproached the father for his +efforts to violate the solemn obligations of the0 +virgin, and upon obtaining a formal renunciation of +further attempts to coerce her into matrimony, the +saint, by personal intercession, obtained a complete +cure.</p> + +<p>It was found that certain remedies in the hands +of certain saints were efficacious, but they did not +have the same power if administered by others. +For instance, Franciscus de Paula succored an anchylosed +joint by the energetic surgery of three +dried figs which he gave the suffering patient to eat. +Similarly, a maiden grieving under a cancerous +disease which surgical skill had frankly admitted +was incurable, was restored to robust vigor by the +administering of some mild herbs. This savored +rather too much of medicine, and other holy healers +used more orthodox means. Hugo the Holy abstracted +a serpent from the infirm body of a woman +by the use of holy water, and Coleta, the saintess, +awakened from the dreamless slumber of death +more than one hundred slain infants by the efficacy +of a cross.</p> + +<p>Even such a serious disorder as leprosy was said +to have been healed by saintly care. St. Martin, +who gave special attention to sufferers with this +disease, cured a leper by kissing him, we are told. +Toward the middle of the sixth century, St. Rade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>gonde +displayed her faith by first washing the repulsive +sores and afterward applying her pure +lips to them. On one occasion an insolent leper +asserted that unless his putrefying limbs were kissed +by this candidate for canonical honors he could +not be cured.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p> + +<p>Bede (673-735), the great English historian, in +his careful way tells us of cures performed by St. +John of Beverly during the first part of the eighth +century. According to this record, St. John cured +a dumb youth, who had never spoken a word, by +the sign of the cross on his tongue, and he afterward +had "ready utterance." He used holy water +on a woman so that, like Peter's wife's mother, she +arose and ministered to them, healed a friend who +was injured by being thrown from a horse, cured a +nun of a grievous complaint, and restored a servant, +an account of which I shall give in Bede's +words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The bishop went in and saw him in a dying condition, +and the coffin by his side, whilst all present +were in tears. He said a prayer, blessed him, and +on going out, as is the usual expression of comforters, +said, 'May you soon recover.' Afterwards when +they were sitting at table, the lad sent to his lord, +to desire he would let him have a cup of wine, because +he was thirsty. The earl, rejoicing that he +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> +could drink, sent him a cup of wine, blessed by the +bishop; which, as soon as he had drunk, he immediately +got up, and shaking off his late infirmity, +dressed himself, and going in to the bishop, saluted +him and the other guests, saying, 'He would also +eat and be merry with them.' They ordered him +to sit down with them at the entertainment, rejoicing +at his recovery. He sat down, ate and drank +merrily, and behaved himself like the rest of the +company; and living many years after, continued +in the same state of health."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p></div> + +<p>Skipping a few centuries, we find that Bernard of +Clairvaux (1091-1153), the most prominent figure +of the twelfth century, performed an abundance of +cures, as his biographers testify. "The cures were +so many that the witnesses themselves were unable +to detail them all. At Doningen, near Rheinfeld, +where the first Sunday of Advent was spent, Bernard +cured, in one day, nine blind persons, ten who +were deaf or dumb, and eighteen lame or paralytic. +On the following Wednesday, at Schaffhausen, the +number of miracles increased."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> Concerning these +cures Morison says: "Thirty-six miraculous cures +in one day would seem to have been the largest +stretch of supernatural power which Bernard permitted +to himself. The halt, the blind, the deaf, +and the dumb were brought from all parts to be +touched by Bernard. The patient was presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> +to him, whereupon he made the sign of the cross +over the part affected, and the cure was perfect."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></p> + +<p>The following case in which details are more fully +given is of much interest: "At Toulouse, in the +church of St. Saturninus, in which we were lodged, +was a certain regular canon, named John. John +had kept his bed for seven months, and was so reduced +that his death was expected daily. His legs +were so shrunken that they were scarcely larger than +a child's arms. He was quite unable to rise to satisfy +the wants of nature. At last his brother canons +refused to tolerate his presence any longer among +them, and thrust him out into the neighbouring village. +When the poor creature heard of Bernard's +proximity, he implored to be taken to him. Six +men, therefore, carrying him as he lay in bed, brought +him into a room close to that in which he was lodged. +The abbot heard him confess his sins, and listened +to his entreaties to be restored to health. Bernard +mentally prayed to God: 'Behold, O Lord, they +seek for a sign, and our words avail nothing, unless +they be confirmed with signs following.' He then +blessed him and left the chamber, and so did we all. +In that very hour the sick man arose from his couch, +and running after Bernard, kissed his feet with a +devotion which cannot be imagined by any one +who did not see it. One of the canons, meeting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> +him, nearly fainted with fright, thinking he saw his +ghost."</p> + +<p>St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), the great founder +of the Franciscan Order, was not less famed for his +miracles of healing than for his Christ-like life and +his stigmata. Among those cured were epileptics, +paralytics, and the blind. A typical case of cure by +this humble saint is given to show his method and +its results: "Once when Francis the Saint of God +was making a long circuit through various regions +to preach the gospel of God's kingdom he came to +a city called Toscanella. Here ... he was entertained +by a knight of that same city whose only son +was a cripple and weak in all his body. Though +the child was of tender years he had passed the age +of weaning; but he still remained in a cradle. The +boy's father, seeing the man of God to be endued +with such holiness, humbly fell at his feet and besought +him to heal his son. Francis, deeming himself +to be unprofitable and unworthy of such power +and grace, for a long time refused to do it. At last, +conquered by the urgency of the knight's entreaties, +after offering up prayer, he laid his hand on the boy, +blessed him, and lifted him up. And in the sight +of all, the boy straightway arose whole in the name +of the Lord Jesus Christ, and began to walk hither +and thither about the house."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span></p> +<p>St. Thomas of Hereford (1222-1282) was the last +Englishman to be officially canonized. The extant +documents of his canonization record no less than +four hundred and twenty-nine miracles alleged to +have been performed by him. The following case +of resurrection from the dead occurred, however, +twenty-one years after his death. I quote the account +in full:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the 6th of September, 1303, Roger, aged two +years and three months, the son of Gervase, one of +the warders of Conway Castle, managed to crawl out +of bed in the night and tumble off a bridge, a distance +of twenty-eight feet; he was not discovered +till the next morning, when his mother found him +half naked and quite dead upon a hard stone at +the bottom of the ditch, where there was no water +or earth, but simply the rock, which had been quarried +to build the castle. Simon Waterford, the +vicar, who had christened the child, John de Bois, +John Guffe, all sworn witnesses, took their oaths on +the Gospel that they saw and handled the child +dead. The King's Crowners (Stephen Ganny and +William Nottingham) were presently called and +went down into the moat. They found the child's +body cold and stiff, and white with hoar-frost, +stark dead, indeed. While the Crowners, as their +office requires, began to write what they had seen, +one John Syward, a near neighbour, came down +and gently handled the child's body all over, and +finding it as dead as ever any, made the sign of the +cross upon its forehead, and earnestly prayed after +this manner: 'Blessed St. Thomas Cantelope, you +by whom God has wrought innumerable miracles, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>show mercy unto this little infant, and obtain he +may return to life again. If this grace be granted +he shall visit your holy sepulchre and render humble +thanks to God and you for the favor.' No sooner +had Syward spoken these words, than the child began +to move his head and right arm a little, and +forthwith life and vigor came back again into every +part of his body. The Crowners, and many others +who were standing by, saw the miracle, and in that +very place, with great admiration, returned humble +thanks to God and St. Thomas for what they had +seen. The mother, now overjoyed, took the child in +her arms, and went that day to hear mass in a +church not far off, where, upon her knees, she recognized +with a grateful heart that she owed the life +of her infant to God and St. Thomas. Her devotion +ended, she returned home, and the child, feeling +no pain at all, walked as he was wont to do up and +down the house, though a little scar still continued +in one cheek, which after a few days, quite vanished +away."<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">66</a></p></div> + +<p>St. Catharine of Siena (1347-1380) obtained considerable +reputation as a healer, principally, however, +in the line of exorcism; this, though, meant +the cure of any disease. Like St. Paul, she was one +of a large number of saints who healed others but +did not cure herself; she died at the age of thirty-three. +A woman was presented to the immaculate +saintess for prompt remedy; by the virtue of divine +magic a demon was forced from each part of her +body where he had taken refuge, but resisting ab<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>solute +ejectment from this carnal abode, made a +desperate conflict in the throat, where by uninterrupted +scratches he reproduced himself in the form +of an abscess.</p> + +<p>On another occasion the saint was more successful. +Laurentia, a maiden of youthful years, placed by +her father within the sheltering walls of a cloister, +to assume ultimately monastic vows, was quickly +captured by an errant demon. As an irrefutable +demonstration of the impure origin of her infirmity, +an annalist asserts, this spirit promptly answered in +elegant Latinity all questions propounded; but the +strongest confirmation of this belief was the miraculous +ability which enabled her to disclose the most +secret thoughts of others, and divulge the mysterious +affairs of her associates. St. Catharine at +length liberated the suffering female from her diabolical +tenant. More extraordinary claims are made +for her. It is said that she stayed a plague at Varazze, +and healed a throng at Pisa.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p> + +<p>Raimondo da Capua, her faithful friend and constant +companion, wrote her biography and gives +us different instances of remarkable cures performed +by her. For example, he tells us that Father Matthew +of Cenni, the director of the Hospital of la +Misericordia, was stricken when the plague was +raging in Siena in 1373, and of his marvellous cure.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span></p> +<p>Perhaps we had better allow him to tell of Catharine's +power in his own words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"One day on entering, I saw some of the brothers +carrying Father Matthew like a corpse from the +chapel to his room; his face was livid, and his +strength was so far gone that he could not answer +me when I spoke to him. 'Last night,' the brothers +said, 'about seven o'clock, while ministering to a +dying person, he perceived himself stricken, and +fell at once into extreme weakness.' I helped to +put him on his bed; ... he spoke afterwards, and +said that he felt as if his head was separated into +four parts. I sent for Dr. Senso, his physician; +Dr. Senso declared to me that my friend had the +plague, and that every symptom announced the approach +of death. 'I fear,' he said, 'that the House +of Mercy (Misericordia) is about to be deprived of +its good director.' I asked if medical art could not +save him. 'We shall see,' replied Senso, 'but I +have only a very faint hope; his blood is too much +poisoned.' I withdrew, praying God to save the +life of this good man. Catharine, however, had +heard of the illness of Father Matthew, whom she +loved sincerely, and she lost no time in repairing to +him. The moment she entered the room, she cried, +with a cheerful voice, 'Get up, Father Matthew, +get up! This is not a time to be lying idly in bed.' +Father Matthew roused himself, sat up on his bed, +and finally stood on his feet. Catharine retired; +and the moment she was leaving the house, I entered +it, and ignorant of what had happened, and +believing my friend to be still at the point of death, +my grief urged me to say, 'Will you allow a person +so dear to us, and so useful to others, to die?' She +appeared annoyed at my words, and replied, 'In +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>what terms do you address me? Am I like God, to +deliver a man from death?' But I, beside myself +with sorrow, pleaded, 'Speak in that way to others +if you will, but not to me; for I know your secrets; +and I know you obtain from God whatever you ask +in faith.' Then Catharine bowed her head, and +smiled just a little; after a few minutes she lifted +up her head and looked at me full in the face, her +countenance radiant with joy, and said, 'Well, let +us take courage; he will not die this time,' and she +passed on. At these words I banished all fear, for +I understood that she had obtained some favor +from heaven. I went straight to my sick friend, +whom I found sitting on the side of his bed. 'Do +you know,' he cried, 'what she has done for me?' +He then stood up and narrated joyfully what I have +here written. To make the matter more sure, the +table was laid, and Father Matthew seated himself +at it with us; they served him with vegetables and +other light food, and he, who an hour before could +not open his mouth, ate with us, chatting and laughing +gaily."</p></div> + +<p>None of Catharine's biographers fail to relate +wonderful instances of her healing power.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">68</a></p> + +<p>Martin Luther (1483-1546), the great leader of +the Reformation, and St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552), +the leader of the Counter-Reformation, were +both healers, so it is said. Luther's cure of his +friend and helper, Melanchthon, by prayer for and +encouragement of the patient, is well known. +Xavier's miracles were legion, but have been somewhat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> +discredited by a recent author.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> I add but +one example. "A certain Tomé Paninguem, a fencing-master, +says, I knew Antonio de Miranda, who +was a servant of the Father Francis, and assisted +him when saying Mass. He told me that when going +one night on business to Combature, he was +bitten by a venomous serpent. He immediately fell +down as though paralyzed and became speechless. +He was found thus lying unconscious. Informed of +the fact, Father Francis ordered Antonio to be carried +to him: and when he was laid down speechless +and senseless, the Father prayed with all those +present. The prayer finished, he put a little saliva +with his finger on the bitten place on Antonio's +foot, and at the same moment, Antonio recovered +his senses, his memory and his speech, and felt himself +healed. I have since heard details of this occurrence +from the mouths of several eye-witnesses."<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">70</a></p> + +<p>If we accept Görres's account,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> the most remarkable +instance of curative power possessed by a saint +is that afforded by St. Sauveur of Horta (1520-1567). +Outside of this one work I have been unable +to find any reference to this saint, so I will +give a sketch of his apparently remarkable life. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> +was born in Catalonia, and received the first part +of his name from a presentiment of his sponsors +that he was to be a savior of men, and the second +part because he entered the monastery at Horta. +A short time after he finished his novitiate, people +in some way got the idea that he had a wonderful +gift of healing, and soon patients came to him in +crowds from all parts of the country. He continued +healing for several years. At one time during the +feast of the Annunciation he cured six thousand +persons, and at another time he found ten thousand +patients, from viceroy to laborer, waiting for him +at Valencia before the convent of St. Marie de Jesus. +Notwithstanding his apparently great success, his +brother monks complained to the bishop concerning +the dirt and disorder caused by the crowds, and +after a reprimand he was sent at midnight to the +monastery at Reus, where he was known as Alphonse +and assigned to the kitchen. In spite of this, crowds +continued to come and he was transferred from +monastery to monastery, but always with the same +result—the crowd sought him to be healed. He was +known as simple, open, and obedient in his relations +with men, and austere toward himself. He +was patient and resigned, compassionate toward +the poor and sick, and full of zeal for their conversion. +The number of patients he is said to have +cured is incredible, and it is even said that he resuscitated +three dead persons. After his death<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> +miracles were performed at his tomb. Why he +was not in favor with his superiors and his brother +monks is unknown; his friends say they were jealous; +his enemies, that his cures were not genuine.</p> + +<p>St. Philip Neri (1551-1595), the founder of the +Oratorians, was renowned as a healer. He cured +Clement VIII of gout by touching and prayer, a +woman of cancer of the breast by the mere touch +and assurance, a man of grievous symptoms such as +loss of speech and internal pain by simply laying on +of hands, and many similar and equally serious +cases. The following case was counted nearly equal +to a resurrection: "In 1560 Pietro Vittrici of Parma, +being in the service of Cardinal Boncompagni, +afterward Pope Gregory XIII, fell dangerously ill. +He was given up by the physicians, and was supposed +to be as good as dead. In this extremity he +was visited by Philip who, as soon as he entered the +sick man's room, began, as was his wont, to pray +for him. He then put his hand on Pietro's forehead, +and at the touch he instantly revived. In two +days' time he was out of the house perfectly well +and strong and went about telling people how he +had been cured by Father Philip."<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p> + +<p>George Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the +Quakers, performed some simple cures of which he +himself tells us. The most famous case was that +of the cure of a lame arm by command, the account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span> +of which we take from his pen. He thus records it: +"After some time I went to the meeting at Arnside +where Richard Meyer was. Now he had been long +lame of one of his arms; and I was moved by the +Lord to say unto him, among all the people, +'Prophet Meyer stand up upon thy legs' (for he was +sitting down) and he stood up and stretched out +his arm that had been lame a long time, and said: +'Be it known unto all you people that this day I am +healed.' But his parents could hardly believe it, +but after the meeting was done, had him aside and +took off his doublet; and then they saw it was true. +He soon after came to Swarthmore meeting, and +there declared how the Lord had healed him. But +after this the Lord commanded him to go to York +with a message from him; and he disobeyed the +Lord; and the Lord struck him again, so that he +died about three-quarters of a year after."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> The +cure evidently was not permanent.</p> + +<p>Valentine Greatrakes (1628-1683) was born in +Affane, Ireland. He was the son of an Irish gentleman, +had a good education, and was a Protestant. +In 1641, at the outbreak of the Irish rebellion, he +fled to England, and from 1649-1656 he served under +Cromwell. In 1661, after a period of melancholy +derangement, he believed that God had given +him power of curing "king's evil" by touching or +stroking and prayer. After some success with this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span> +disease, he added to his list ague, epilepsy, convulsions, +paralysis, deafness, ulcers, aches, and lameness, +and for a number of years he devoted three +days in every week, from 6 <span class="smcap">A. M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, to the +exercise of his healing gifts. The crowds which +thronged around him were so great that the neighboring +towns were not able to accommodate them. +He thereupon left his house in the country and +went to Youghal, where sick people, not only from +all parts of Ireland but from England, continued to +congregate in such great numbers that the magistrates +were afraid they would infect the place with +their diseases.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus3" id="illus3"></a><a href="images/illus3.jpg"><img src="images/illus3-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="467" alt="VALENTINE GREATRAKES" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">VALENTINE GREATRAKES</span></div> + +<p>In some instances he exorcised demons; in fact, +he claimed that all diseases were caused by evil +spirits, and every infirmity was, with him, a case +of diabolic possession. The church endeavored to +prohibit his operations but without avail. He was +invited to London, and, notwithstanding that an +exhibition before the nobility failed, thousands +flocked to his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields. In +the "Miscellanies" of St. Evremond a graphic sketch +is given of his work. The results of his healing are +there summed up as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"So great was the confidence in him, that the +blind fancied they saw the light which they did not +see—the deaf imagined that they heard—the lame +that they walked straight, and the paralytic that +they had recovered the use of their limbs. An idea +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span>of health made the sick forget for a while their +maladies; and imagination, which was not less +active in those merely drawn by curiosity than in +the sick, gave a false view to the one class, from the +desire of seeing, as it operated a false cure on the +other from the strong desire of being healed. Such +was the power of the Irishman over the mind, and +such was the influence of the mind over the body. +Nothing was spoken of in London but his prodigies; +and these prodigies were supported by such great +authorities that the bewildered multitude believed +them almost without examination, while more enlightened +people did not dare to reject them from +their own knowledge."</p></div> + +<p>That there were real cures, however, seems most +probable. The Bishop of Dromore testifies thus +from his own observation: "I have seen pains +strangely fly before his hands till he had chased +them out of the body; dimness cleared, and deafness +cured by his touch. Twenty persons at several +times, in fits of the falling sickness, were in two or +three minutes brought to themselves.... Running +sores of the 'King's evil' were dried up; grievous +sores of many months' date in a few days healed, +cancerous knots dissolved, etc." <a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">74</a></p> + +<p>The celebrated Flamstead, the astronomer, when +a lad of nineteen, went into Ireland to be touched +by Greatrakes, and he testifies that he was an eyewitness +of several cures, although he himself was +not benefited. In a letter to Lord Conway, Great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span>rakes +says: "The King's doctors, this day (for the +confirmation of their majesties' belief), sent three +out of the hospital to me, who came on crutches; +but, blessed be God! they all went home well, to +the admiration of all people, as well as the doctors."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">75</a></p> + +<p>Several pamphlets were issued by medical men +and others criticising his work, and in 1666 he published +a vindication of himself entitled "A Brief +Account." This contained numerous testimonials +by Bishop Wilkins, Bishop Patrick, Dr. Cudworth, +Dr. Whichcote, and others of distinction and intelligence. +After the retirement of Greatrakes, John +Leverett, a gardener, succeeded to the "manual +exercise," and declared that after touching thirty +or forty a day, he felt so much goodness go out of +him that he was fatigued as if he had been digging +eight roods of ground.</p> + +<p>About the same time that Greatrakes was working +among the people of London, an Italian enthusiast, +named Francisco Bagnone, was operating in +Italy with equal success. He had only to touch +the sick with his hands, or sometimes with a relic, +to accomplish cures which astonished the people.</p> + +<p>Hardly less famous than Greatrakes was Johann +Jacob Gassner (1727-1779). He was born at Bratz, +near Bludenz, and became Roman Catholic priest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> +at Klösterle. He believed that most diseases were +caused by evil spirits which could be exorcised by +conjuration and prayer. He began practising and +soon attracted attention. In 1774 he received a +call from the bishop at Ratisbon to Ellwangen, +where by the mere word of command, "Cesset" +(Give over), he cured the lame and blind, but especially +those who were afflicted with epilepsy and +convulsions, and who were thereby supposed to be +obsessed. His cures were not permanent in some +cases, and before he died he lost power and respect.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, +pp. 5-22.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, pp. 347 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 252 f. I am indebted to this +excellent book for my material on the subject of Unction, as well as +for many other quotations in this chapter.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> F. W. Puller, <i>Anointing of the Sick</i>, pp. 155-158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +gives this and the other incidents just quoted. See pp. 155, 160, +272, 275, 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Bede, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, bk. V, chap. V.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> Quoted by P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, p. 359.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> J. Cotter Morison, <i>Life and Times of St. Bernard</i>, pp. 422 and +460, for this and the following incident.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Thomas of Celano, <i>Lives of St. Francis of Assisi</i> (trans. A. G. F. +Howell).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> <i>Dublin Review</i>, January, 1876, pp. 8-10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +pp. 278 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> See J. Butler, <i>Life of St. Catharine of Siena</i>, for many examples.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> See A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, +already referred to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> Jos. Marie Cros, <i>St. François de Xavier, Sa vie et ses lettres</i>, II, +p. 392.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> Görres, <i>La mystique divine naturelle et diabolique</i> (trans. Sainte-foi), +I, pp. 470-473.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> P. J. Bacci, <i>Life of St. Philip Neri</i> (trans. Antrobus), II, p. 168.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> G. Fox, <i>Journal</i>, I, p. 103.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> J. Moses, <i>Pathological Aspects of Religions</i>, p. 188.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>The Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II, p. +81.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h3> + +<h4>TALISMANS</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"He had the ring of Gyges, the talisman of invisibility."—<span class="smcap">Hamerton.</span></p> + +<p>"The quack astrologer offers, for five pieces, to give you home +with you a Talisman against Flies; a Sigil to make you fortunate at +gaining; and a Spell that shall as certainly preserve you from being +rob'd for the future; a sympathetic Powder for violent pains of the +Tooth-ache."—<i>Character of a Quack Astrologer.</i></p> + +<p>"So far are they distant from the true knowledge of physic which +are ignorant of astrology, that they ought not rightly to be called +physicians, but deceivers; for it hath been many times experimented +and proved that that which many physicians could not cure +or remedy with their greatest and strongest medicines, the astronomer +hath brought to pass with one simple herb, by observing the +moving of the signs."—<span class="smcap">Fabian Withers.</span></p></div> + +<p>In the minds of most persons the terms talisman, +amulet, and charm are synonymous. This may be +more or less true as far as they are used to-day, but +in the days when these terms meant something in +real life there was a distinction. The talisman was +probably at first an astronomical figure, but later +the term became more comprehensive. Pope portrays +this astrological import in his couplet,</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Of talismans and sigils knew the power,</span> +<span class="i05">And carefully watch'd the planetary hour."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The amulet was always carried about the person, +while the other two might be in the possession of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> +the person in the case of the talisman, or, in the case +of the charm, if a material object it could be placed +entirely outside of one's care. The talisman and +amulet must be a compound of some substance, the +charm might be a gesture, a look, or a spoken word. +Notice the example of charms according to Tennyson's +words,</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Then, in one moment, she put forth the charm</span> +<span class="i05">Of woven paces and of waving hands."</span> +</div> +</div> + + +<p>They were all used for defensive purposes, <i>i. e.</i>, to +keep away evil, in the form of demons, disease, or +misfortune, but they might, especially the talisman, +also attract good. Their power was of a magical +character, and was exercised in a supernatural manner.</p> + +<p>The idea of the talisman probably originated from +the belief that certain properties or virtues were impressed +upon substances by planetary influences. +"A talisman," says Pettigrew, "may in general +terms be defined to be a substance composed of +certain cabalistic characters engraved on stone, +metal, or other material, or else written on slips of +paper." Hyde quotes a Persian writer who defines +the Telesm or Talismay as "a piece of art compounded +of the celestial powers and elementary +bodies, appropriated to certain figures or positions, +and purposes and times, contrary to the usual +manner."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>We are told by Maimonides that images or idols +were called Tzelamim on account of the power or +influence which was supposed to reside in them, +rather than on account of their particular figure or +form. Townley has opined that the reason for the +production of astrological or talismanic images was +probably the desire of early peoples to have some +representation of the planets during their absence +from sight, so that they might at all times be able +to worship the planetary body itself or its representative. +To accomplish this purpose, the astrologers +chose certain colors, metals, stones, trees, etc., to +represent certain planets, and constructed the talismans +when the planets were in their exaltation and +in a happy conjunction with other heavenly bodies. +In addition to this, incantations were used in an +endeavor to inspire the talisman with the power and +influence of the planet for which it stood.</p> + +<p>Pettigrew says: "The Hebrew word for talisman +(magan) signifies a paper or other material, drawn +or engraved with the letters composing the sacred +name <span class="smcap">Jehovah</span>, or with other characters, and improperly +applied to astrological representations, because, +like the letters composing 'The Incomparable +Name,' they were supposed to serve as a defence +against sickness, lightning, and tempest. It +was a common practice with magicians, whenever +a plague or other great calamity infested a country, +to make a supposed image of the destroyer, either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> +in gold, silver, clay, wax, etc., under a certain configuration +of the heavens, and to set it up in some +particular place that the evil might be stayed."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">76</a></p> + +<p>The Jewish phylacteries must therefore be considered +talismans and not amulets. The writings +contained in them are portions of the law and are +prepared in a prescribed manner. Three different +kinds are used: one for the head, another for the +arm, and the third is attached to the door-posts. +The following is a Hebrew talisman supposed to +have considerable power: "It overflowed—he did +cast darts—Shadai is all sufficient—his hand is +strong, and is the preserver of my life in all its variations."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p> + +<p>Arnot gives an account of some Scottish talismans +not unlike the phylacteries of the Jews, which +were for use on the door-posts. "On the old houses +still existing in Edinburgh," he says, "there are remains +of talismanic or cabalistical characters, which +the superstitious of earlier days had caused to be +engraven on their fronts. These were generally +composed of some text of Scripture, of the name of +God, or, perhaps, of an emblematic representation +of the resurrection."<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p> + +<p>The connection of astrology, or, as he calls it, +"astronomy," and the talisman with medicine is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span>well portrayed by Chaucer in his picture of a good +physician of his day. He says:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"With us there was a doctor of phisike;</span> +<span class="i05">In al the world, was thar non hym lyk</span> +<span class="i05">To speke of physik and of surgerye,</span> +<span class="i05">For he wos groundit in astronomie.</span> +<span class="i05">He kept his pacient a ful gret del</span> +<span class="i05">In hourys by his magyk naturel;</span> +<span class="i05">Wel couth he fortunen the ascendent</span> +<span class="i05">Of his ymagys for his pacient."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Fosbrooke has divided talismans into five classes, +examples of some of which I have already given. +They are: "1. The <i>astronomical</i>, with celestial signs +and intelligible characters. 2. The <i>magical</i>, with +extraordinary figures, superstitious words, and names +of unknown angels. 3. The <i>mixed</i>, of celestial signs +and barbarous words, but not superstitious, or with +names of angels. 4. The <i>sigilla planetarum</i>, composed +of Hebrew numeral letters, used by astrologers +and fortune-tellers. 5. <i>Hebrew names and characters</i>. +These were formed according to the cabalistic +art."</p> + +<p>The doctrine of signatures bears a close resemblance +to talismans, and some believe that talismans +have largely grown out of this doctrine. Dr. Paris<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> +defines the doctrine as the belief that "every natural +substance which possesses any medical virtues indicates, +by an obvious and well-marked external<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> +character, the disease for which it is a remedy or +the object for which it should be employed." Southey +says,<a name="FNanchor_80_77" id="FNanchor_80_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_77" class="fnanchor">80</a> "The signatures [were] the books out of which +the ancients first learned the virtues of herbs—Nature +having stamped on divers of them legible +characters to discover their uses." Some opined +that the external marks were impressed by planetary +influences, hence their connection with talismans; +others simply reasoned it out that the Almighty +must have placed a sign on the various +means which he had provided for curing diseases.</p> + +<p>Color and shape were the two principal factors +in interpreting the signatures. White was regarded +as cold and red as hot, hence cold and hot qualities +were attributed to different medicines of these +colors respectively. Serious errors in practice resulted +from this opinion. Red flowers were given +for disorders of the sanguiferous system; the petals +of the red rose, especially, bear the "signature" of +the blood, and blood-root, on account of its red +juice, was much prescribed for the blood. Celandine, +having yellow juice, the yellow drug, turmeric, +the roots of rhubarb, the flowers of saffron, and other +yellow substances were given in jaundice; red flannel, +looking like blood, cures blood taints, and therefore +rheumatism, even to this day, although many +do not know why <i>red</i> flannel is so efficacious.</p> + +<p>Lungwort, whose leaves bear a fancied resem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span>blance +to the surface of the lungs, was considered +good for pulmonary complaints, and liverwort, having +a leaf like the liver, cured liver diseases. Eye-bright +was a famous application for eye diseases, +because its flowers somewhat resemble the pupil of +the eye; bugloss, resembling a snake's head, was +valuable for snake bite; and the peony, when in +bud, being something like a man's head, was "very +available against the falling sickness." Walnuts +were considered to be the perfect signature of the +head, the shell represented the bony skull, the irregularities +of the kernel the convolutions of the two +hemispheres of the brain, and the husk the scalp. +The husk was therefore used for scalp wounds, the +inner peel for disorders of the meninges, and the +kernel was beneficial for the brain and tended to +resist poisons. Lilies-of-the-valley were used for +the cure of apoplexy, the signature reasoning being, +as Coles says, "for as that disease is caused by the +drooping of humors into the principal ventrices of +the brain, so the flowers of this lily, hanging on the +plants as if they were drops, are of wonderful use +herein."</p> + +<p>Capillary herbs naturally announced themselves +as good for diseases of the hair, and bear's grease, +being taken from an animal thickly covered with +hair, was recommended for the prevention of baldness. +Nettle-tea is still a country remedy for nettle +rash; prickly plants like thistles and holly were pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>scribed +for pleurisy and stitch in the side, and the +scales of the pine were used in toothache, because +they resemble front teeth. "Kidney-beans," says +Berdoe, "ought to have been useful for kidney diseases, +but seem to have been overlooked except +as articles of diet." Poppy-heads were used "with +success" to relieve diseases of the head, and the +root of the "mandrake," from its supposed resemblance +to the human form, was a very ancient +remedy for barrenness and was evidently so esteemed +by Rachel, in the account given in Genesis +30:14 ff.</p> + +<p>In the treatment of small-pox red bed coverings +were employed in order to bring the pustules to +the surface of the body. The patient must be indued +with red; the bed furniture and hangings +should be red and red substances were to be looked +upon by the patient; burnt purple, pomegranate +seeds, mulberries or other red ingredients were dissolved +in their drink. John of Gladdesden, physician +to Edward II, prescribed the following treatment +as soon as the eruption appeared: "Cause the +whole body of your patient to be wrapped in scarlet +cloth, or any other red cloth, and command everything +about the bed to be made red." He further +says that "when the son of the renowned King of +England (Edward II) lay sick of the small-pox I +took care that everything around the bed should be +of a red color; which succeeded so completely that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> +the Prince was restored to perfect health, without a +vestige of a pustule remaining."</p> + +<p>The Emperor Francis I, when infected with smallpox, +was rolled up in a scarlet cloth, by order of his +physicians, as late as 1765; notwithstanding this +treatment he died. Kampfer says that "when any +of the Japanese emperor's children are attacked +with the small-pox, not only the chamber and bed +are covered with red hangings, but all persons who +approach the sick prince must be clad in scarlet +gowns." By a course of reasoning similar to that +used in the treatment of small-pox, it was supposed +that flannel dyed nine times in blue was efficacious +in removing glandular swellings.<a name="FNanchor_81_78" id="FNanchor_81_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_78" class="fnanchor">81</a></p> + +<p>The astrological factor in talismans was most important +because it was considered that certain stars +and planets in certain relations produced certain +diseases and contagious disorders. Astrologers, for +example, attributed the plague to a conjunction of +Saturn and Jupiter in Sagittarius, on the tenth of +October, or to a conjunction of Saturn and Mars in +the same constellation, on the twelfth of November. +Burton makes the most generous melancholy, as +that of Augustus, to come from the conjunction of +Saturn and Jupiter in Libra; the bad, as that of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> +Catiline, from the meeting of Saturn and the moon +in Scorpio. If these disorders were produced by +planets it was reasonable to suppose that they +could be cured by planets.</p> + +<p>The virtue of herbs depended upon the planet +under which they were sown or gathered. For example, +verbena or vervain should be gathered at +the rising of the dog-star, when neither the sun nor +the moon shone, but an expiatory sacrifice of fruit +and honey should previously have been offered to +the earth. If this was carried out it had power to +render the possessor invulnerable, to cure fevers, +to eradicate poison, and to conciliate friendship. +Notice also, that black hellebore, to be effective, was +to be plucked not cut, and this with the right hand, +which was then to be covered with a portion of the +robe and secretly to be conveyed to the left hand. +The person gathering it was to be clad in white, to be +barefooted, and to offer a sacrifice of bread and wine.</p> + +<p>Not only the planets and the stars, but the moon +has had a potent influence on medicine. For instance, +mistletoe was to be cut with a golden knife, +and when the moon was only six days old. Brand<a name="FNanchor_82_79" id="FNanchor_82_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_79" class="fnanchor">82</a> +quotes from <i>The Husbandman's Practice, or Prognostication +Forever</i>, published in 1664, the following +curious passage, "Good to purge with electuaries, +the moon in Cancer; with pills, the moon in Pisces; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>with potions, the moon in Virgo; good to take +vomits, the moon being in Taurus, Virgo, or the +latter part of Sagittarius; to purge the head by +sneezing, the moon being in Cancer, Leo, or Virgo; +to stop fluxes and rheumes, the moon being in +Taurus, Virgo, or Capricorne; to bathe when the +moon is in Cancer, Libra, Aquarius, or Pisces; to +cut the hair off the head or beard when the moon is +in Libra, Sagittarius, Aquarius, or Pisces."</p> + +<p>The Loseley manuscripts provide us with further +examples. "Here begyneth ye waxingge of ye +mone, and declareth in dyvers tymes to let blode, +whiche be gode. In the furste begynynge of the +mone it is profetable to yche man to be letten blode; +ye ix of the mone, neyther be nyght ne by day, it is +not good." They also tell of a physician named +Simon Trippe, who wrote to a patient in excuse for +not visiting him, as follows: "As for my comming +to you upon Wensday next, verely my promise be +past to and old pacient of mine, a very good gentlewoman, +one Mrs. Clerk, wch now lieth in great extremity. +I cannot possibly be with you till Thursday. +On Fryday and Saterday the signe wilbe in +the heart; on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, in +the stomake; during wch time it wilbe no good +dealing with your ordinary physicke untill Wensday +come sevenight at the nearest, and from that time +forwards for 15 or 16 days passing good."<a name="FNanchor_83_80" id="FNanchor_83_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_80" class="fnanchor">83</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span></p> +<p>Not unlike this is an incident of the year 686, +given by Bede, where "a holy Bishop having been +asked to bless a sick maiden, asked 'when she had +been bled?' and being told that it was on the fourth +day of the moon, said: 'You did very indiscreetly +and unskilfully to bleed her on the fourth day of +the moon; for I remember that Archbishop Theodore, +of blessed memory, said that bleeding at that +time was very dangerous, when the light of the +moon and the tide of the ocean is increasing; and +what can I do to the girl if she is like to die?'"<a name="FNanchor_84_81" id="FNanchor_84_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_81" class="fnanchor">84</a></p> + +<p>"So great, indeed," says Fort, "became the abuse +of medical astrology, whether by the direct juxtaposition +of stellar influence, or through apposite +images, that a celebrated Church Council at Paris +declared that images of metal, wax, or other materials +fabricated under certain constellations or +according to fixed characters—figures of peculiar +form, either baptized, consecrated, or exorcised, or +rather desecrated by the performance of formal +rites at stated periods which it was asserted, thus +composed, possessed miraculous virtues set forth in +superstitious writings—were placed under the ban +and interdicted as errors of faith."<a name="FNanchor_85_82" id="FNanchor_85_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_82" class="fnanchor">85</a></p> + +<p>We shall see that magnetism developed from +astrology, and some other forms of mental healing +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span>from magnetism. One of these, sympathetic cures, +was talismanic in its character, and therefore I +give a brief account of its method of working, in +this place.</p> + +<p>Sympathetic cures probably started with Paracelsus, +although Von Helmont tells us that the +secret was first put forth by Ericcius Wohyus, of +Eburo. As a development from magnetism the +former originated the "weapon salve" which excited +so much attention about the middle of the seventeenth +century. The following was a receipt given +by him for the cure of any wound inflicted by a +sharp weapon, except such as had penetrated the +heart, the brain, or the arteries. "Take the moss +growing on the head of a thief who has been hanged +and left in the air; of real mummy; of human +blood, still warm—of each, one ounce; of human +suet, two ounces; of linseed oil, turpentine, and +Armenian bole—of each, two drachms. Mix all +well in a mortar, and keep the salve in an oblong, +narrow urn." With the salve the weapon (not the +wound), after being dipped in blood from the wound, +was to be carefully anointed, and then laid by in +a cool place. In the meantime, the wound was +washed with fair, clean water, covered with a clean +soft linen rag, and opened once a day to cleanse off +purulent matter. A writer in the <i>Foreign Quarterly +Review</i> says there can be no doubt about the success +of the treatment, "for surgeons at this moment +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span>follow exactly the same method, <i>except</i> anointing +the weapon!"</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus4" id="illus4"></a><a href="images/illus4.jpg"><img src="images/illus4-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="517" alt="SIR KENELM DIGBY" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">SIR KENELM DIGBY</span></div> + +<p>The weapon-salve continued to be much spoken +of on the Continent, and Dr. Fludd, or A Fluctibus, +the Rosicrucian, introduced it into England. He +tried it with great success in several cases, but in +the midst of his success an attack was made upon +him and his favorite remedy, which, however, did +little or nothing to diminish the belief in its efficacy. +One "Parson Foster" wrote a pamphlet entitled +"Hyplocrisma Spongus; or a Spunge to wipe away +the Weapon-salve," in which he declared that it +was as bad as witchcraft to use or recommend such +an unguent; that it was invented by the devil, +who, at the last day, would seize upon every person +who had given it the least encouragement. "In +fact," said Parson Foster, "the Devil himself gave +it to Paracelsus; Paracelsus to the emperor; the +emperor to the courtier; the courtier to Baptista +Porta; and Baptista Porta to Dr. Fludd, a doctor of +physic, yet living and practising in the famous city +of London, who now stands tooth and nail for it." +Dr. Fludd, thus assailed, took up his pen and defended +the unguent in a caustic pamphlet.</p> + +<p>The salve changed into a powder in the hands of +Sir Kenelm Digby, the son of Sir Edward Digby +who was executed for his participation in the Gunpowder +Plot. Sir Kenelm was an accomplished +scholar and an able man, but at the same time a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> +most extravagant defender of the powder of sympathy +for the healing of wounds. This powder +came into sudden and public notoriety through an +accident to a distinguished person. Mr. James +Howell, the well-known author of the Dendrologia, +in endeavoring to part two friends in a duel, received +a severe cut on the hand. Alarmed by the +accident, one of the combatants bound up the cut +with his garter and conveyed him home. The king +sent his own surgeon to attend Mr. Howell, but in +four or five days the wound was not recovering very +rapidly and he made application to Sir Kenelm. +The latter first inquired whether he possessed anything +that had the blood upon it, upon which Mr. +Howell produced the garter with which his hand +had been bound. A basin of water in which some +powder of vitriol had been dissolved was procured, +and the garter immediately immersed in it, whereupon, +to quote Sir Kenelm, Mr. Howell said, "I +know not what ails me, but I find that I feel no more +pain. Methinks that a pleasing kind of freshness, +as it were a wet cold napkin, did spread over my +hand, which hath taken away the inflammation +that tormented me before." He was then advised +to lay away all plasters and keep the wound clean +and in a moderate temperature.</p> + +<p>To prove conclusively the efficacy of the powder +of sympathy, after dinner the garter was taken out +of the basin and placed to dry before the fire. No<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> +sooner was this done than Mr. Howell's servant +came running to Sir Kenelm saying that his master's +hand was again inflamed, and that it was as bad as +before. The garter was again placed in the liquid +and before the return of the servant all was well and +easy again. In the course of five or six days the +wound was cicatrized and a cure performed.</p> + +<p>This case excited considerable attention at court, +and on inquiry Sir Kenelm told the king that he +learned the secret from a much-travelled Carmelite +friar who became possessed of it while journeying +in the East. Sir Kenelm communicated it to Dr. +Mayerne, the king's physician, and from him it was +known to even the country barbers. Even King +James, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Buckingham, +and many other noble personages believed in +its efficacy.</p> + +<p>It would be a waste of time, had we space, to present +fully Sir Kenelm's profound and lengthy explanation +of the cure. He tried to make the cure +more reasonable and acceptable by bringing forth +certain alleged phenomena which he thought proved +sympathy, and were therefore analogous in character. +Surgeon-General Hammond calls attention +to the fact that these inferences were invariably +false. "It is a very curious circumstance," says +he, "that of these, there is not one which is true. +Thus he is wrong when he says that if the hand be +severely burnt, the pain and inflammation are re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>lieved +by holding it near a hot fire; that a person +who has a bad breath is cured by putting his head +over a privy and inhaling the air which comes from +it; that those who are bitten by vipers or scorpions +are cured by holding the bruised head of either of +those animals, as the case may be, near the bitten +part; that in times of great contagion, carrying a +toad, or a spider, or arsenic or some other venomous +substance, about the person is a protection; that +hanging a toad about the neck of a horse affected +with farcy dissipates the disease; that water evaporated +in a close room will not be deposited on the +walls, if a vessel of water be placed in the room; +that venison pies smell strongly at those periods in +which the 'beasts which are of the same nature +and kind are in rut'; that wine in the cellar undergoes +a fermentation when the vines in the field are +in flower; that a table-cloth spotted with mulberries +or red wine is more easily whitened at the season in +which the plants are flowering than at any other; +that washing the hands in the rays of moonlight +which fall into a polished silver basin (without +water) is a cure for warts; that a vessel of water put +on the hearth of a smoky chimney is a remedy for +the evil, and so on—not a single fact in all that he +adduces. Yet these circumstances were regarded +as real, and were spoken of at the times as irrefragable +proofs of the truth of Sir Kenelm's views."<a name="FNanchor_86_83" id="FNanchor_86_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_83" class="fnanchor">86</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span></p> +<p>We need have no doubt concerning the operation +of sympathetic cures, for Sir Kenelm has told us of +their virtue in his own words.<a name="FNanchor_87_84" id="FNanchor_87_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_84" class="fnanchor">87</a> His method was what +was called the cure by the wet way, but the cure +could also be effected in a dry way. Straus, in a +letter to Sir Kenelm, gives an account of a cure +performed by Lord Gilbourne, an English nobleman, +upon a carpenter who had cut himself severely +with his axe. "The axe, bespattered with blood, +was sent for, besmeared with an anointment, +wrapped up warmly, and carefully hung up in a +closet. The carpenter was immediately relieved, and +all went well for some time, when, however, the +wound became exceedingly painful, and, upon resorting +to his lordship it was ascertained that the +axe had fallen from the nail by which it was suspended, +and thereby become uncovered."</p> + +<p>Dryden in "The Tempest" (Act V, Sc. I) makes +Ariel say, in reference to the wound received by +Hippolito from Ferdinand:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"He must be dress'd again, as I have done it.</span> +<span class="i05">Anoint the sword which pierced him with this weapon-salve,</span> +<span class="i2">and wrap it close from air, till I have</span> +<span class="i2">time to visit him again."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>And in the next scene we have the following dialogue +between Hippolito and Miranda:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p> +"<i>Hip.</i> O my wound pains me.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Mir.</i> I am come to ease you.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 8em;">[<i>She unwraps the sword.</i></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Hip.</i> Alas! I feel the cold air come to me;<br /> +My wound shoots worse than ever.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 8em;">[<i>She wipes and anoints the sword.</i></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mir.</i> Does it still grieve you?<br /> +<br /> +<i>Hip.</i> Now methinks, there's something<br /> +Laid just upon it.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Mir.</i> Do you find ease?<br /> +<br /> +<i>Hip.</i> Yes, yes, upon the sudden, all the pain<br /> +Is leaving me. Sweet heaven, how I am eased!"<br /> +</p></div> + +<p>Werenfels says: "If the superstitious person be +wounded by any chance, he applies the salve, not to +the wound, but, what is more effectual, to the weapon +by which he received it. By a new kind of art, he +will transplant his disease, like a scion, and graft it +into what tree he pleases."</p> + +<p>The practice at the time was varied and general. +All sorts of disgusting ingredients were gathered +together to form the salve. Some idea of the condition +of the science of medicine at that time may +be gathered when we remember that a serious discussion +was long maintained between two factions +in the sympathetic school concerning the question +"whether it was necessary that the moss should +grow absolutely in the skull of a thief who had hung +on the gallows, and whether the ointment, while +compounding, was to be stirred with a murderer's +knife."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span>There is no doubt that the sympathetic cures +were really the most rapid and effective. The modern +surgeon wonders how a wound ever healed prior +to this treatment. There seemed to be little that +could be imagined to prevent a wound from healing +that the pre-sympathetic surgeon did not try. When +the manipulations, doses, and treatments were +transferred from the wound to the weapon, they did +not injure the weapon, and did give the wound a +chance to heal. In fact, leaving out the weapon +part of the treatment, which could have none but a +mental influence, the treatment would be recommended +to-day. The wound was kept clean, the +edges were brought in apposition, temperature was +modified, and rest given. Under these circumstances, +wounds which the surgeon had irritated so +as to take weeks to heal, united in as many days. +Mark this, however: the wounds treated were simple +incisions, the ones which most readily united if +cleansed, brought together, and left alone. Gunshot +and similar wounds were not treated by this +process.<a name="FNanchor_88_85" id="FNanchor_88_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_85" class="fnanchor">88</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">76</span></a>T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 63 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">77</span></a><i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, LVIII, pp. 586 and 695.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">78</span></a>H. Arnot, <i>History of Edinburgh</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> <i>Pharmacologia</i>, p. 51.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_77" id="Footnote_80_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_77"><span class="label">80</span></a> <i>The Doctor</i>, p. 59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_78" id="Footnote_81_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_78"><span class="label">81</span></a> For a discussion on the doctrine of signatures see T. J. Pettigrew, +<i>Superstitions</i>, etc., pp. 33 f.; E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of +the Healing Art</i>, pp. 327 and 416 f.; A. D. White, <i>History of the +Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, pp. 38 f.; Eccles, <i>Evolution of +Medical Science</i>, pp. 140 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_79" id="Footnote_82_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_79"><span class="label">82</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 153. In references to this +work, the edition used was that edited by W. Carew Hazlitt.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_80" id="Footnote_83_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_80"><span class="label">83</span></a> <i>The Loseley Manuscripts</i>, pp. 263 f., quoted by Berdoe.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_81" id="Footnote_84_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_81"><span class="label">84</span></a> Bede, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, bk. V, chap. III.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_82" id="Footnote_85_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_82"><span class="label">85</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 299</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_83" id="Footnote_86_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_83"><span class="label">86</span></a> W. A. Hammond, <i>Spiritualism and Nervous Derangement</i>, p. 175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_84" id="Footnote_87_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_84"><span class="label">87</span></a> Sir Kenelm Digby, <i>A late discovery made in solemne assembly of +nobles and learned men, at Montpellier, in France, touching the cure +of wounds, by the Powder of Sympathy</i>, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_85" id="Footnote_88_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_85"><span class="label">88</span></a> I am indebted to T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with +the History and Practice of Surgery and Medicine</i>, pp. 201-213; C. +Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, pp. 266-268; W. A. +Hammond, <i>Spiritualism and Nervous Derangement</i>, pp. 170-176; for +the material on the subject of sympathetic cures.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h3> + +<h4>AMULETS</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"He loved and was beloved; what more could he desire as an +amulet against fear?"—<span class="smcap">Bulwer-Lytton</span>.</p> + +<p>"Such medicines are to be exploded that consist of words, characters, +spells, and charms, which can do no good at all, but out of +a strong conceit, as Pomponatius proves; or the Devil's policy, +who is the first founder and teacher of them."—<span class="smcap">Burton</span>.</p> + +<p>"Old wives and starres are his councellors; his nightspell is his +guard, and charms his physician. He wears Paracelsian characters +for the toothache; and a little hallowed wax is his antidote for all +evils."—<span class="smcap">Bishop Hall</span>.</p> + +<p>"Neither doth Fansie only cause, but also as easily cure Diseases; +as I may justly refer all magical and jugling Cures thereunto, performed, +as is thought, by Saints, Images, Relicts, Holy-Waters, +Shrines, Avemarys, Crucifixes, Benedictions, Charms, Characters, +Sigils of the Planets and of Signs, inverted Words, &c., and therefore +all such Cures are rather to be ascribed to the Force of the +Imagination, than any virtue in them, or their Rings, Amulets, +Lamens, &c."—<span class="smcap">Ramesey</span>.</p></div> + +<p>Attention has already been called to the fact +that the characteristic of the amulet is that it must +be worn about the person, while the talisman may +simply be in possession of a person wherever it may +be, or deposited at a certain place by or for the person. +The Arabic equivalent of the word Amulet +means "that which is suspended."</p> + +<p>The derivation of the word is uncertain, but there +are at least two Latin antecedents claimed for it. +Some claim that it is derived from the barbarous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> +Latin word "amuletum," from amolior, to remove; +others consider that it comes from "amula," the +name of a small vessel with lustral water in it, which +the Romans sometimes carried in their pockets for +purification and expiation. Pliny says that many +of these amulæ were carved out of pieces of amber +and hung about children's necks. Whatever the +derivation of the word, it is doubtless of Eastern +origin.</p> + +<p>There is also little doubt concerning the early +belief in the efficacy of an amulet to ward off diseases, +and to protect against supernatural agencies. +So powerful were they supposed to be that an oath +was formerly administered to persons about to fight +a legal duel "that they had ne charme ne herb of +virtue." St. Chrysostom and others of the church +fathers condemned the practice very severely, and +the Council of Laodicea (366) wisely forbade the +priesthood from studying and practising enchantments, +mathematics, astrology, and the binding of +the soul by amulets.<a name="FNanchor_89_86" id="FNanchor_89_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_86" class="fnanchor">89</a></p> + +<p>Burton has the following passage on the subject: +"Amulets, and Things to be borne about, I find +prescribed, taxed by some, approved by Renodeus, +Platerus, and others; looke for them in Mizaldus, +Porta, Albertus, &c. ... A Ring made of the +Hoofe of an Asse's right fore-foot carried about, &c.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span></p> +<p>I say with Renodeus they are not altogether to +be rejected. Piony doth help epilepsies. Pretious +Stones, most diseases. A Wolf's dung carried about +helps the Cholick. A spider, an Ague, &c. ... +Some Medicines are to be exploded, that consist of +Words, Characters, Spells, and Charms, which can +do no good at all, but out of a strong conceit, as +Pomponatius proves; or the Devil's policy, who is +the first founder and teacher of them."<a name="FNanchor_90_87" id="FNanchor_90_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_87" class="fnanchor">90</a></p> + +<p>"To this kind," says Bingham, "belong all Ligatures +and Remedies, which the Schools of Physitians +reject and condemn; whether in Inchantments or +in certain marks, which they call Characters, or in +some other things which are to be hanged and +bound about the Body, and kept in a dancing +posture. Such are Ear-rings hanged upon the tip +of each ear, and Rings made of an Ostriche's bones +for the Finger; or, when you are told, in a fit of +Convulsions or shortness of Breath, to hold your +left Thumb with your right hand."<a name="FNanchor_91_88" id="FNanchor_91_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_88" class="fnanchor">91</a></p> + +<p>Unfortunately the wearing of amulets did not +stop with the early civilizations or even with the +Middle Ages. People in our own supposedly enlightened +age indulge in them. The negro carries +the hind foot of a rabbit, and the children see great +virtue in a four-leafed clover; men carry luck pennies, +and certain stones are worn in rings and scarf +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span>pins; camphor is worn about the person to avert +febrile contagion, and anodyne necklaces of "Job's +tears" and other equally harmless and inefficacious +substances are placed on babies to assist them in +teething. The camphor and necklaces are probably +not supposed to be endowed with magical power, +but a mistaken medical virtue is assigned to them.</p> + +<p>There was neither rule nor reason for the composition +of most amulets, and one would have to be +well acquainted with the superstitions of the various +ages to account for them. Sometimes the shape, +rather than the material of which they were composed +or the inscription on them, was the efficacious +factor. Perhaps material, shape, and inscription +would be combined in one object; or many objects, +each purporting to contain magical properties, +might be grouped for special efficacy, as when +inscribed pieces of different stones of peculiar shape +were formed into necklaces or bracelets.</p> + +<p>Precious stones were often employed as amulets, +and some even ground them up and took them internally +in order to be more sure of their magical +effects. "Butler quotes from Encelius, who says +that the Garnet, if hung about the neck or taken in +drink, much assisteth sorrow and recreates the heart; +and the chrysolite is described as the friend of +wisdom and the enemy of folly. Renodeus admires +precious stones because they adorn king's crowns, +grace the fingers, enrich our household stuff, defend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> +us from enchantments, preserve health, cure diseases, +drive away grief, cares, and exhilarate the mind."<a name="FNanchor_92_89" id="FNanchor_92_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_89" class="fnanchor">92</a></p> + +<p>Some further quotations portray to us the efficacy +of other stones:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Heliotropius stauncheth blood, driveth away +poisons, preserveth health; yea, and some write +that it provoketh raine, and darkeneth the sunne, +suffering not him that beareth it to be abused."</p> + +<p>"A topaze healeth the lunaticke person of his +passion of lunacie."</p> + +<p>"Corneolus (cornelian) mitigateth the heate of +the minde, and qualifieth malice, it stancheth +bloodie fluxes."</p> + +<p>"A sapphire preserveth the members and maketh +them livelie, and helpeth agues and gowts, and suffereth +not the bearer to be afraid; it hath virtue +against venoms, and staieth bleeding at the nose, +being often put thereto."</p> + +<p>Aetius "attributed great obstetrical properties to +the lapis aetites, and gagates stone. The sapphire +when taken as a potion pulverized in milk, cured +internal ulcers and checked excessive perspiration. +The amargdine was highly recommended for strabismus...."</p> + +<p>"Jasper, hematite and hieratite stones were +strongly recommended for unusual sanative virtues, +but the sapphire excelled as a remedy for scorpion +bites."</p> + +<p>"The Bezoar stone had a great reputation in +melancholic affections. Manardus says it removes +sadness and makes him merry that useth it."</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Noblemen wore the smargdum attached to a +chain, in the belief of its potential virtues against +epilepsy. The sard prevented terrible dreams, and +the cornelian worn on the finger or suspended from +the neck pacified anger and provoked contentment. +Onyx superinduced troubled sleep, but fastened to +the throat, stimulated the salivary glands. Saphirs +cured internal ulcers and excessive perspiration, +when taken as a potion dissolved in lacteal fluids."</p> + +<p>"Of the stone which hight agate. It is said that +it hath eight virtues. One is when there is thunder, +it doth not scathe the man who hath this stone with +him. Another virtue is, on whatsoever house it is, +therein a fiend may not be. The third virtue is, +that no venom may scathe the man who hath the +stone with him. The fourth virtue is, that the man, +who hath on him secretly the loathly fiend, if he +taketh in liquid any portion of the shavings of the +stone, then soon is exhibited manifestly in him, +that which before lay secretly hid. The fifth virtue +is, he who is afflicted with any disease, if he taketh +the stone in liquid, it is soon well with him. The +sixth virtue is, that sorcery hurteth not the man +who has the stone with him. The seventh virtue +is, that he who taketh the stone in drink, will have +so much the smoother body. The eighth virtue of +the stone is, that no bite of any kind of snake may +scathe him who tasteth the stone in liquid."</p></div> + +<p>Even as late as 1624, Sir John Harrington, writing +in his "School of Salerne," says: "Alwaies in your +hands use eyther Corall or yellow Amber, or a chalcedonium, +or a sweet Pommander, or some like +precious stone to be worne in a ring upon the little +finger of the left hand; have in your rings eyther a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> +Smaragd, a Saphire, or a Draconites, which you +shall bear for an ornament; for in stones, as also in +hearbes, there is great efficacie and vertue, but they +are not altogether perceived by us; hold sometime +in your mouth eyther a Hyacinth, or a Crystall, or a +Garnat, or pure Gold, or Silver, or else sometimes +pure Sugar-candy. For Aristotle doth affirme, and +so doth Albertus Magnus, that a Smaragd worne +about the necke, is good against the Falling-sickness; +for surely the virtue of an hearbe is great, but +much more the vertue of a precious stone, which is +very likely that they are endued with occult and +hidden vertues."</p> + +<p>Precious metals as well as precious stones were +used in the manufacture of amulets. The Scandinavians +carried metal effigies carved out of gold or +silver, or incised upon tiles, perpetually as amulets. +They were safeguards against diseases and physical +infirmities. They were also administered internally +in cases where powerful cures were needed. Chaucer +says:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"For gold in physic is a cordial,</span> +<span class="i05">Therefore he loved gold in special."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The Basilideans, and other sects developed from +the Gnostic systems, assigned great power to stone +amulets, and prepared them for their initiates, who +used them for identification and for curative purposes. +They quickly acquired a celebrity undi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span>minished +for ages, and were known under the general +name of Abraxas. They were composed of various +materials, glass, paste, sometimes metals, but principally +of various kinds of stones. Through the +irresistible might of Abrax, their supreme divinity, +the Basilideans were protected and cured. Clement +of Alexandria strictly interdicted the use of gems +for personal ornamentation, with evident allusion to +the Abraxas stones. These stones had various inscriptions +carved upon them, most of which had +some hidden meaning of great puissance. One of +them, for example, is engraven with Armenian letters, +and contains a standing invocation for fruitful +delivery; in its medicinal property it was evidently +a cure for sterility.<a name="FNanchor_93_90" id="FNanchor_93_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_90" class="fnanchor">93</a></p> + +<p>From the stone itself the word "Abraxas" came +to be used as an amulet when written on paper. +The numerical equivalent of the Greek letters +when added together thus, A = 1, B = 2, P = 100, +A = 1, Ξ = 60, A = 1, Σ = 200, is 365. The significance +of this was that the deity was the ruler of 365 heavens, +or of the angels inhabiting these heavens; he +was also ruler over the 365 days of the year. Notwithstanding +the fact that it was referred to by +the Greek fathers, the name was evidently Egyptian +in origin, some of the figures on the stones being +strictly Egyptian.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p> +<p>Amulets in the form of inscriptions were called +"Characts," the word Abraxas being an example. +The very powerful word "Abracadabra" was derived +from Abraxas, and when written in the proper +way and worn about the person was supposed to +have a magical efficacy as an antidote against ague, +fever, flux, and toothache. Serenus Samonicus, a +physician in the reign of Caracalla, recommends it +very highly for ague, instructing how it should be +written, and commanding it to be worn around the +neck. It might be written in either of two ways: +reading down the left side and up the right must +spell the same word as at the top; or, having the +left side always start the same, reading up the right +side should be the same as the top line. Below are +the two forms:</p> + +<table width="100%" summary="ABRACADABRA"> +<tr> +<td class="abra">ABRACADABRA<br /> +BRACADABR<br /> +RACADAB<br /> +ACADA<br /> +CAD<br /> +A</td> +<td class="abra">ABRACADABRA<br /> +ABRACADABR<br /> +ABRACADAB<br /> +ABRACADA<br /> +ABRACAD<br /> +ABRACA<br /> +ABRAC<br /> +ABRA<br /> +ABR<br /> +AB<br /> +A</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Julius Africanus says that pronouncing the word in +the same manner is as efficacious as writing it. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> +Jews attributed an equal virtue to the word "Aracalan" +employed in the same way.<a name="FNanchor_94_91" id="FNanchor_94_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_91" class="fnanchor">94</a></p> + +<p>Bishop Pilkington, writing in 1561, protests against +a then current practice in this way: "What wicket +blindenes is this than, to thinke that wearing Prayers +written in rolles about with theym, as S. Johns +Gospell, the length of our Lord, the measure of our +Lady, or other like, thei shall die no sodain death, +nor be hanged, or yf he be hanged, he shall not die. +There is so manye suche, though ye laugh, and +beleve it not, and not hard to shewe them with a +wet finger." The same author observes that our +devotion ought to "stande in depe sighes and groninges, +wyth a full consideration of our miserable +state and Goddes majestye, in the heart, and not in +ynke or paper: not in hangyng writtin <span class="smcap">Scrolles</span> +about the Necke, but lamentinge unfeignedlye our +Synnes from the hart."</p> + +<p>The following charact was found in a linen purse +belonging to a murderer named Jackson, who died +in Chichester jail in February, 1749. He was +"struck with such horror on being measured for +his chains that he soon after expired."</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Ye three holy Kings,</span> +<span class="i05">Gaspar, Melchior, Balthasar,</span> +<span class="i05">Pray for us now, and in the hour of our death."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>"These papers have touched the three heads of +the holy Kings at Cologne. They are to preserve +travellers from accidents on the road, headaches, +falling sickness, fevers, witchcraft, all kinds of mischief, +and sudden death."</p></div> + +<p>Belgrave prescribes a cure of agues, by a certain +writing which the patient wears, as follows: "When +Jesus went up to the Cross to be crucified, the Jews +asked him, saying Art thou afraid? or hast thou the +ague? Jesus answered and said, I am not afraid, +neither have I the ague. All those which bear the +name of Jesus about them shall not be afraid, nor +yet have the ague. Amen, sweet Jesus, Amen, +sweet Jehovah, Amen." He adds: "I have known +many who have been cured of the ague by this writing +only worn about them; and I had the receipt +from one whose daughter was cured thereby, who +had the ague upon her two years."<a name="FNanchor_95_92" id="FNanchor_95_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_92" class="fnanchor">95</a></p> + +<p>Among other written amulets, the first Psalm, +when written on doeskin, was supposed to be efficacious +in childbirth. It was necessary, however, for +the writer of such amulets to plunge into a bath as +soon as he had written one line, and after every new +line it was thought necessary that he should repeat +the plunge.</p> + +<p>The following process for avoiding inflamed eyes +is taken from Marcellus, 380 A. D.: "Write on a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>clean sheet of paper ουβαικ, +and hang this round +the patient's neck, with a thread from the loom. +In a state of purity and chastity write on a clean +sheet of paper φυρφαραν +and hang it round the +man's neck; it will stop the approach of inflammation. +The following will stop inflammation coming +on, written on a clean sheet of paper: <i>ρουβος, +ρνονειας +ρηελιος ως' +καντεφορα +και παντες +ηακοτει</i>; +it must be hung to the neck by a thread; and if +both the patient and operator are in a state of +chastity, it will stop inveterate inflammation. +Again, write on a thin plate of gold with a needle of +copper, <i>ορνω ουρωδη</i>; do this on a Monday; observe +chastity; it will long and much avail."<a name="FNanchor_96_93" id="FNanchor_96_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_93" class="fnanchor">96</a></p> + +<p>In Africa, prayers taken from the Koran are written +and worn as amulets at the present time.</p> + +<p>After the death of the philosopher Pascal some +manuscript was found sewed in his doublet. This +was a "profession of faith" which he always wore +stitched in his clothing as a sort of amulet.</p> + +<p>In the East, generally, the amulet consists of certain +names of the Deity, verses of the Koran, or particular +passages compressed into a very small space, +and is to be found concealed in the turban. The +Christians wore amulets with verses selected from +the Old and New Testaments, and particularly from +the Gospel of John. The amulets or charms, called +"grigris" by the African priests, are of similar <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>description. +These were used for preservatives against +thunderbolts and diseases, to procure many wives +and to give them easy deliveries, to avert shipwreck +or slavery, and to secure victory in battle. One, to +be used for the last purpose, which had belonged to +a king of Brak, in Senegal, was found on his body +after he had the misfortune to be killed in battle +with the amulet upon him. It had the following +sentences from the Koran: "In the name of the +merciful God! Pray to God through our Lord Mohammed. +All that exists is so only by his command. +He gives life, and also calls sinners to an account. +He deprives us of life by the sole power of his name: +these are undeniable truths. He that lives owes +his life to the peculiar clemency of his Lord, who by +his providence takes care of his subsistence. He is +a wise prince or governor."<a name="FNanchor_97_94" id="FNanchor_97_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_94" class="fnanchor">97</a></p> + +<p>The Jews used as amulets some sacred name, such +as the true pronunciation of the name of Jehovah, +written down. The Mischna permitted the Jews to +wear amulets provided they had been found efficacious +in at least three cases by an approved person. +One of the most famous amulets is that known as +"Solomon's Seal."</p> + +<p>Ligatures, similar to the earlier amulets, a heritage +from the northern pagan races, were freely +applied for the prevention and cure of maladies.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span></p> +<p>After imposing invocations and the addition of +mystical characters, these medical charms were presumed +to be of the greatest efficacy, and ready for +suspension from the neck. Their efficacy was admitted +by Christians, but they were condemned on account +of their pagan and consequently satanic origin.</p> + +<p>Alexander of Tralles recommended a number of +amulets, some of which I will mention later, but +admits that he had no faith in them, but merely +ordered them as placebos for rich and fastidious +patients who could not be persuaded to adopt a +more rational treatment. Baas tells us that "A +regular Pagan amulet was found in 1749 on the +breast of the prince bishop Anselm Franz of Würzburg, +count of Ingolstadt, after his death."</p> + +<p>Amulets were also worn to protect the wearer +from charms exercised by others. The "Leech +Book" gives us one to be worn and another to be +taken internally for this purpose. To be used +"against every evil rune lay, and one full of elvish +tricks, writ for the bewitched man, this writing in +Greek letters: Alfa, Omega, Iesvm, BERONIKH. +Again, another dust and drink against a rune lay; +take a bramble apple, and lupins, and pulegium, +pound them, then sift them, put them in a pouch, +lay them under the altar, sing nine masses over them, +administer this to drink at three hours."</p> + +<p>The powers of the mandragora, as an amulet, +place it almost in a class by itself. Fort tells us that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> +in addition to its power to protect herds of cattle +and horses, to prevent misfortunes of various kinds, +to preserve the exhilarating wine and beer against +loss of their intoxicating property, to render successful +commercial negotiations, and promote infallibly, +rapid and enormous influence, "other virtues +of a surprising character were awarded the omnipotent +mandragora. It conciliated affection and maintained +friendship, preserved conjugal fealty and +developed benevolence. The immensity of worth +inherent in this mystical medicament, its vital essence, +was by no means confined to sustaining +health and providing certain remedies for infirmities; +its power manipulated tribunals and secured judicial +favor at court; and when this resistless amulet was +held under the arm by a suitor at law, however +unjust his cause, the vegetable Rune controlled the +forum and obtained the verdict."<a name="FNanchor_98_95" id="FNanchor_98_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_95" class="fnanchor">98</a></p> + +<p>It may be well at this point to enumerate at +least a number of the most noted amulets, according +to the disease for which they were supposed to +be efficacious.</p> + +<p><i>Ague.</i>—On account of the periodic character of +this disease it was considered to be a supernatural +complaint and hence many unnatural cures were +suggested, among which were a number of amulets. +The Abracadabra amulet was supposed to be es<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span>pecially +efficacious in ague. The chips of a gallows +put into a bag and worn around the neck, or next +the skin, have been said to have served as a cure, at +least, so reports Brand.<a name="FNanchor_99_96" id="FNanchor_99_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_96" class="fnanchor">99</a> Millefolium or yarrow, +worn in a little bag on the pit of the stomach is +reported to have cured this disease, and Alexander of +Tralles advises, for a quartan ague, that the patient +must carry about some hairs from a goat's chin.<a name="FNanchor_100_97" id="FNanchor_100_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_97" class="fnanchor">100</a></p> + +<p>Elias Ashmole, in his Diary, April 11, 1681, has +entered the following: "I tooke early in the morning +a good dose of Elixir, and hung three spiders +about my neck, and they drove my Ague away. +Deo Gratias!"<a name="FNanchor_101_98" id="FNanchor_101_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_98" class="fnanchor">101</a></p> + +<p>Wristbands, called pericarpia, were employed in +the cure. Robert Boyle says he was cured of a +violent quotidian ague, after having in vain resorted +to medical aid, by applying to his wrists "a mixture +of two handfuls of bay salt, the same quantity +of fresh English hops, and a quarter of a pound of +blue currants, very diligently beaten into a brittle +mass, without the addition of anything moist, and +so spread upon linen and applied to his wrists."<a name="FNanchor_102_99" id="FNanchor_102_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_99" class="fnanchor">102</a></p> + +<p>Burton gives us a leaf from his own experience.<a name="FNanchor_103_100" id="FNanchor_103_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_100" class="fnanchor">103</a> +"Being in the country in the vacation time, not +many years since, at Lindly, in Leicestershire, my +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span>father's house, I first observed this amulet of a +spider in a nut-shell, wrapped in silk, &c., so applyed +for an ague by my mother; whom, although +I knew to have excellent skill in chirurgery, sore +eyes, aches, &c., and such experimental medicines, +as all the country where she dwelt can witness, to +have done many famous and good cures upon divers +poor folks that were otherwise destitute of help, +yet among all other experiments, this methought +was most absurd and ridiculous. I could see no +warrant for it. <i>Quid aranea cum Febre?</i> For what +antipathy? till at length rambling amongst authors +(as I often do), I found this very medicine in Dioscorides, +approved by Matthiolus, repeated by Aldrovandus, +<i>cap. de Aranea, lib. de Insectis</i>, I began +to have a better opinion of it, and to give more +credit to amulets, when I saw it in some parties +answer to experience."</p> + +<p>A narrative of not a little interest, concerning Sir +John Holt, Lord Chief Justice of the Court of King's +Bench, 1709, should be given in this connection. +He was extremely wild in his youth, and being once +engaged with some of his rakish friends in a trip +into the country, in which they had spent all their +money, it was agreed they should try their fortune +separately. Holt arrived at an inn at the end of a +straggling village, ordered his horse to be taken care +of, bespoke a supper and a bed. He then strolled +into the kitchen, where he observed a little girl of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> +thirteen shaking with ague. Upon making inquiry +respecting her, the landlady told him that she +was her only child, and had been ill nearly a year, +notwithstanding all the assistance she could procure +for her from physic. He gravely shook his +head at the doctors, bade her be under no further +concern, for that her daughter should never have +another fit. He then wrote a few unintelligible +words in a court hand on a scrap of parchment, +which had been the direction fixed to a hamper, +and rolling it up, directed that it should be bound +upon the girl's wrist and there allowed to remain +until she was well. The ague returned no more; +and Holt, having remained in the house a week, +called for his bill. "God bless you, sir," said the +old woman, "you're nothing in my debt, I'm sure. +I wish, on the contrary, that I was able to pay you +for the cure which you have made of my daughter. +Oh! if I had had the happiness to see you ten months +ago, it would have saved me forty pounds." With +pretended reluctance he accepted his accommodation +as a recompense, and rode away. Many years +elapsed, Holt advanced in his profession of the law, +and went a circuit, as one of the judges of the Court +of King's Bench, into the same county, where, +among other criminals brought before him, was an +old woman under a charge of witchcraft. To support +this accusation, several witnesses swore that +the prisoner had a spell with which she could either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span> +cure such cattle as were sick or destroy those that +were well, and that in the use of this spell she had +been lately detected, and that it was now ready to +be produced in court. Upon this statement the +judge desired that it might be handed up to him. +It was a dirty ball, wrapped round with several +rags, and bound with packthread. These coverings +he carefully removed, and beneath them found a +piece of parchment which he immediately recognized +as his own youthful fabrication. For a few +moments he remained silent. At length, recollecting +himself, he addressed the jury to the following +effect: "Gentlemen, I must now relate a particular +of my life, which very ill suits my present character +and the station in which I sit; but to conceal it +would be to aggravate the folly for which I ought +to atone, to endanger innocence, and to countenance +superstition. This bauble, which you suppose to +have the power of life and death, is a senseless scroll +which I wrote with my own hand and gave to this +woman, whom for no other reason you accuse as a +witch." He then related the particulars of the +transaction, with such an effect upon the minds of +the people that his old landlady was the last person +tried for witchcraft in that county.<a name="FNanchor_104_101" id="FNanchor_104_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_101" class="fnanchor">104</a></p> + +<p><i>Calculus.</i>—Boyle tells us<a name="FNanchor_105_102" id="FNanchor_105_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_102" class="fnanchor">105</a> that the <i>Lapis Nephriticus</i>, +a species of jasper, when bound to the left +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span>wrist, was a cure for this trouble. Others have borne +evidence to its efficacy.</p> + +<p><i>Childbirth.</i>—Among the ancient Britons, when +a birth was difficult or dangerous, a girdle, made +for this purpose, was put around the woman and +afforded immediate relief. Until quite recently they +were kept by many families in the Highlands of +Scotland. They were marked with certain figures +and were applied with certain ceremonies derived +from the Druids. Women in labor were also +supposed to be quickly delivered if they were girded +with the skin which a snake has sloughed off.<a name="FNanchor_106_103" id="FNanchor_106_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_103" class="fnanchor">106</a></p> + +<p><i>Cholera.</i>—Bontius declared the <i>Lapis Porcinus</i> to +be good for cholera, but dangerous to pregnant +women. If the females of Malaica held the stone +in their hands an abortion was produced. When +cholera was prevalent during the early part of the +last century, it was common in many parts of Austria, +Germany, and Italy to wear an amulet at the +pit of the stomach, in contact with the skin. Pettigrew +describes one of these which was sent to him +from Hungary. "It consists merely of a circular +piece of copper two inches and a half in diameter, +and is without characters."</p> + +<p><i>Colic.</i>—Says Pliny, the extremity of the intestine +of the ossifrage, if worn as an amulet, is well known +to be an excellent remedy for colic. A tick from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span>a dog's left ear, worn as an amulet, was recommended +to allay this and all other kinds of pain, +but one must be careful to take it from a dog that +is black. Alexander of Tralles recommended the +heart of a lark to be fastened to the left thigh as a +remedy for colic. Mr. Cockayne, the editor of +<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, gives us further remedies for colic +which Alexander prescribed. "Thus for colic, he +guarantees by his own experience, and the approval +of almost all the best doctors, dung of a wolf, with +bits of bone in it if possible, shut up in a pipe, and +worn during the paroxysm, on the right arm, or +thigh, or hip, taking care it touches neither the earth +or a bath."<a name="FNanchor_107_104" id="FNanchor_107_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_104" class="fnanchor">107</a></p> + +<p><i>Cramp.</i>—The following amulets are mentioned +as specifics against cramp:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"—Wear bone Ring on thumb, or tye</span> +<span class="i05">Strong Pack-thread below your thigh."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The subject of cramp rings will be considered in +another connection.</p> + +<p><i>Demoniacal Possession.</i>—In the sixth century exorcists +frequently wrote the formula on parchment +and suspended it from the neck of the patient. This +was as efficacious as the uttered words.</p> + +<p><i>Epilepsy.</i>—The elder tree has been the foundation +of many superstitions, chief among which have +been some connected with epilepsy. Blochwick<a name="FNanchor_108_105" id="FNanchor_108_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_105" class="fnanchor">108</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span> +tells us how to prepare an amulet from an elder +growing on a sallow. "In the month of October, +a little before the full moon, you pluck a twig of the +elder, and cut the cane that is betwixt two of its +knees, or knots, in nine pieces, and these pieces being +bound in a piece of linen, be in a thread, so +hung about the neck, that they touch the spoon of +the heart, or the sword-formed cartilage; and that +they may stay more firmly in that place, they are +to be bound thereon with a linen or silken roller +wrapt about the body, till the thread break of itself. +The thread being broken and the roller removed, +the amulet is not at all to be touched with bare +hands, but it ought to be taken hold on by some +instrument and buried in a place that nobody may +touch it." Some hung a cross, made of the elder +and the sallow entwined, about the children's neck.</p> + +<p>Rings of various kinds have always been supposed +to have some superstitious power. Brand<a name="FNanchor_109_106" id="FNanchor_109_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_106" class="fnanchor">109</a> +tells us of some of their uses. A ring made from a +piece of silver collected at the communion is a cure +for convulsions and fits of every kind. If the silver +is collected on Easter Sunday its efficacy is greatly +increased. This was the receipt in Berkshire, but +in Devonshire silver was not necessary. Here they +prefer a ring made from three nails or screws dug +out of a church-yard, which had been used to fasten +a coffin. We are also informed that another kind +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>of ring will cure fits. It must be made from five +sixpences collected from five different bachelors, +conveyed by the hand of a bachelor to a silversmith +who is a bachelor. None of the persons who +gave the sixpences, however, are to know for what +purpose, or to whom, they gave them.<a name="FNanchor_110_107" id="FNanchor_110_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_107" class="fnanchor">110</a></p> + +<p>A silver ring contributed by twelve young women, +and constantly worn on one of the pattens fingers, +has been successfully employed in the cure of epilepsy +after various medical means failed.<a name="FNanchor_111_108" id="FNanchor_111_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_108" class="fnanchor">111</a> Lupton +says: "A piece of a child's navel-string borne in a +ring is good against the falling-sickness, the pains +of the head, and the collick."<a name="FNanchor_112_109" id="FNanchor_112_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_109" class="fnanchor">112</a></p> + +<p>Alexander of Tralles recommended for epilepsy a +metal cross tied to the arm, or, in lieu of that, bits +of sail-cloth from a shipwrecked vessel might be +tied to the right arm and worn for seven weeks; +the latter was a preventive as well as a cure. Among +the ancients, Serapion prescribed crocodile's dung +and turtle's blood as a cure for this disease.<a name="FNanchor_113_110" id="FNanchor_113_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_110" class="fnanchor">113</a> Lemius +remarks that "Coral, Piony, Misseltoe, drive away +the falling Sicknesse, either hung about the neck +or drunk with wine."</p> + +<p><i>Erysipelas.</i>—The elder seems to have been efficacious +in erysipelas as well as in epilepsy, at least so +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span> +we are told in the "Anatomie of the Elder." The +following is the method of preparing the amulet. +It is to be made of "Elder on which the sun never +shined. If the piece betwixt the two knots be hung +about the patient's neck, it is much commended. +Some cut it in little pieces, and sew it in a knot in a +piece of a man's shirt, which seems superstitious."</p> + +<p><i>Evil-eye.</i>—Coral was supposed to avert the baneful +consequences of the evil-eye, and Paracelsus +recommends it to be worn about the necks of children. +Douce has given engravings of several Roman +amulets which were intended to be used against +fascinations in general, but more particularly against +that of the evil-eye.<a name="FNanchor_114_111" id="FNanchor_114_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_111" class="fnanchor">114</a></p> + +<p><i>Eye Diseases.</i>—Cotta relates, so says Pettigrew, +"a merrie historie of an approved famous spell for +sore eyes. By many honest testimonies it was a +long time worne as a Jewell about many necks, +written in paper and enclosed in silke, never failing +to do sovereigne good when all other helpes were +helplesse. No sight might dare to reade or open. +At length a curious mind, while the patient slept, +by stealth ripped open the mystical cover, and +found the powerful characters Latin: 'Diabolus +effodiat tibi oculos impleat foramina stercoribus.'"</p> + +<p>Vivisection was practised to procure an amulet +for sore eyes, according to the following prescription: +"If a man have a white spot, as cataract, in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span>his eye, catch a fox alive, cut his tongue out, let him +go, dry his tongue and tie it up in a red rag and +hang it round the man's neck." Pliny's way was to +"take the tongue of a foxe, and hange the same +about his necke, so long it hangeth there his sight +shall not wax feeble."</p> + +<p>Like was also used to cure like, at least in the following +directions: "Take the right eye of a Frogg, +lap it in a piece of russet cloth and hang it about +the neck; it cureth the right eye if it bee enflamed +or bleared. And if the left eye be greved, do the +like by the left eye of the said Frogg."<a name="FNanchor_115_112" id="FNanchor_115_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_112" class="fnanchor">115</a></p> + +<p><i>Fevers.</i>—Charms rather than amulets were employed +in fevers, yet we find that among the ancients +Chrysippus believed in amulets for quartan +fevers and Pliny taught that the longest tooth of +a black dog cured quartan fevers.</p> + +<p><i>Gout.</i>—Alexander of Tralles has preserved for us +a remedy for gout as follows: "A remedy for the +gout. Write, on a golden plate at the wane of the +moon, what follows, rolling round it the sinews of +a crane. Put it in a little bag, and wear it near +the ankles. The words are meu, treu, mor, phor, +teux, za, zor, phe, lou, chri, ge, ze, ou, as the sun is +consolidated in these names, and is renewed every +day; so consolidate this plaster as it was before, +now, now, quick, quick, for, behold, I pronounce +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span>the great name, in which are consolidated things in +repose, iaz, azuf, zuon, threux, bain, choog; consolidate +this plaster as it was at first, now, now, +quick, quick."</p> + +<p><i>Headache.</i>—Pliny's amulet for this disease was an +herb picked from the head of a statue, tied with a +red thread, and worn upon the body.</p> + +<p><i>Hysteria.</i>—Monardes is quoted as saying: "When +hysterical persons feel an attack coming on, they +may be relieved by a stone, which will prevent, if +constantly worn about the person, any subsequent +attack. From my knowledge of cases of this kind, +I attach credit to this amulet."</p> + +<p><i>Melancholy.</i>—Burton has treated much under the +name of melancholy, and in respect of cure mentions +several "amulets and things to be borne about." +He recommends for head melancholy such things +as hypericon, or St. John's-wort, gathered on a +Friday in the hour of Jupiter, "... borne or hung +about the neck, it mightily helps this affection, and +drives away all fantastical spirits."<a name="FNanchor_116_113" id="FNanchor_116_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_113" class="fnanchor">116</a></p> + +<p><i>Plague.</i>—During the visitations of the plague, the +inhabitants of London wore, in the region of the +heart, amulets composed of arsenic, probably on +account of the theory that one poison would neutralize +the power of the other. Concerning this, +however, Herring, in writing concerning preservatives +against the pestilence, says: "Perceiving many +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span> +in this Citie to weare about their Necks, upon the +region of the Heart, certaine Placents or Amulets, +(as preservatives against the pestilence,) confected +of Arsenicke, my opinion is that they are so farre +from effecting any good in that kinde, as a preservative, +that they are very dangerous and hurtfull, if +not pernitious, to those that weare them." Quills +of quicksilver were commonly worn about the neck +for the same purpose, and the powder of toad was +employed in a similar way.</p> + +<p>Pope Adrian is reported to have continually carried +an amulet composed of dried toad, arsenic, tormental, +pearl, coral, hyacinth, smarag, and tragacanth. +Among the Harleian Manuscripts is a letter +from Lord Chancellor Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith +written at a time of an alarming epidemic. Among +other things he writes: "I am likewise bold to +recommend my most humble duty to our dear mistress +(Queen Elizabeth) by this LETTER AND +RING, which hath the virtue to expell infectious +airs, and is <i>to be worn betwixt the sweet duggs</i>, the +chaste nest of pure constancy. I trust, sir, when +the virtue is known, it shall not be refused for the +value."<a name="FNanchor_117_114" id="FNanchor_117_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_114" class="fnanchor">117</a></p> + +<p><i>Safety from Wounds.</i>—Pettigrew gives us the two +following examples: "De Barros, the historian, says +that the Portuguese in vain attempted to destroy +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>a Malay so long as he wore a bracelet containing a +bone set in gold, which rendered him proof against +their swords. This amulet was afterward transmitted +to the Viceroy Alfonso d'Alboquerque, as a +valuable present.</p> + +<p>"In the travels of Marco Polo, we read that in an +attempt by Kublai Khan to make a conquest of the +island of Zipangu, a jealousy arose between the +two commanders of the expedition, which led to an +order for putting the whole of the inhabitants of +the garrison to the sword; and that in obedience +thereto, the heads of all were cut off, excepting of +eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a diabolical +charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced +into the right arm, between the skin and the flesh, +were rendered secure from the effects of iron, either +to kill or wound. Upon this discovery being made, +they were beaten with a heavy wooden club, and +presently died."<a name="FNanchor_118_115" id="FNanchor_118_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_115" class="fnanchor">118</a></p> + +<p><i>Scrofula.</i>—Lupton says: "The Root of Vervin +hanged at the neck of such as have the King's Evil, +it brings a marvellous and unhoped help." To this +Brand adds: "Squire Morley of Essex used to say +a Prayer which he hoped would do no harm when +he hung a bit of vervain root from a scrophulous +person's neck. My aunt Freeman had a very high +opinion of a baked Toad in a silk Bag, hung round +the neck."<a name="FNanchor_119_116" id="FNanchor_119_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_116" class="fnanchor">119</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span></p> +<p><i>Toothache.</i>—People in North Hampshire, England, +sometimes wore a tooth taken from a corpse, kept +in a bag and hung around the neck, as a remedy +for toothache.</p> + +<p><i>Whooping-Cough.</i>—About the middle of the last +century there appeared the following in the <i>London +Athenæum</i>: "The popular belief as to the origin of +the mark across the back of the ass is mentioned +by Sir Thomas Browne, in his 'Vulgar Errors,' and +from whatever cause it may have arisen it is certain +that the hairs taken from the part of the animal +so marked are held in high estimation as a cure for +the hooping-cough. In this metropolis, at least so +lately as 1842, an elderly lady advised a friend who +had a child dangerously ill with that complaint, to +procure three such hairs, and hang them round the +neck of the sufferer in a muslin bag. It was added +that the animal from whom the hairs are taken for +this purpose is never worth anything afterwards, +and, consequently, great difficulty would be experienced +in procuring them; and further, that it was +essential to the success of the charm that the sex of +the animal, from whom the hairs were to be procured, +should be the contrary to that of the party +to be cured by them."</p> + +<p>The <i>Worcester Journal</i> (England), in one of its +issues for 1845, had this astounding item: "A party +from the city, being on a visit to a friend who lived +at a village about four miles distant, had occasion to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span> +go into the cottage of a poor woman, who had a child +afflicted with the hooping-cough. In reply to some +inquiries as to her treatment of the child, the mother +pointed to its neck, on which was a string fastened, +having nine knots tied in it. The poor woman +stated that it was the stay-lace of the child's godmother +which, if applied exactly in that manner +about the neck, would be sure to charm away the +most troublesome cough! Thus it may be seen that, +with all the educational efforts of the present day, +the monster Superstition still lurks here and there +in his caves and secret places."<a name="FNanchor_120_117" id="FNanchor_120_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_117" class="fnanchor">120</a></p> + +<p>We find that not only human beings but animals +profited by amulets. An amulet is used in the cure +of a blind horse which could hardly have helped on +the cure by his faith in it. "The root of cut Malowe +hanged about the neck driveth away blemishes of +the eyen, whether it be in a man or a horse, as I, +Jerome of Brunsweig, have seene myselfe. I have +myselfe done it to a blind horse that I bought for +X crounes, and was sold agayn for XL crounes."<a name="FNanchor_121_118" id="FNanchor_121_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_118" class="fnanchor">121</a> +That was a trick worth knowing.</p> + +<p>Brockett tells us that "Holy-stones, or <i>holed-stones</i>, +are hung on the heads of horses as a charm +against Diseases—such as sweat in their stalls are +supposed to be cured by this application." The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> +efficacy of the elder also extended to animals, for +a lame pig was formerly cured by boring a hole in +his ear and putting a small peg into it. We are +also told that "wood night-shade, or bitter-sweet, +being hung about the neck of Cattell that have the +Staggers, helpeth them."</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_86" id="Footnote_89_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_86"><span class="label">89</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 51 and 66 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_87" id="Footnote_90_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_87"><span class="label">90</span></a> R. Burton, <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, pt. II, sec. V.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_88" id="Footnote_91_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_88"><span class="label">91</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 281 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_89" id="Footnote_92_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_89"><span class="label">92</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, p. 70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_90" id="Footnote_93_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_90"><span class="label">93</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +pp. 94-100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_91" id="Footnote_94_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_91"><span class="label">94</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 74 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_92" id="Footnote_95_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_92"><span class="label">95</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 278 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_93" id="Footnote_96_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_93"><span class="label">96</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 262 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_94" id="Footnote_97_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_94"><span class="label">97</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 68 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_95" id="Footnote_98_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_95"><span class="label">98</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 182.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_96" id="Footnote_99_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_96"><span class="label">99</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 242.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_97" id="Footnote_100_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_97"><span class="label">100</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_98" id="Footnote_101_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_98"><span class="label">101</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_99" id="Footnote_102_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_99"><span class="label">102</span></a> R. Boyle, <i>Usefulness of Natural Philosophy</i>, II, p. 157.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_100" id="Footnote_103_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_100"><span class="label">103</span></a> R. Burton, <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, pt. II, sec. V.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_101" id="Footnote_104_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_101"><span class="label">104</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 96-98.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_102" id="Footnote_105_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_102"><span class="label">105</span></a> R. Boyle, <i>Usefulness of Natural Philosophy</i>, Works II, p. 156.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_103" id="Footnote_106_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_103"><span class="label">106</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 257 +and 259.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_104" id="Footnote_107_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_104"><span class="label">107</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 251 f and 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_105" id="Footnote_108_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_105"><span class="label">108</span></a> <i>Anatomie of the Elder</i>, p. 52.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_106" id="Footnote_109_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_106"><span class="label">109</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 231.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_107" id="Footnote_110_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_107"><span class="label">110</span></a> <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, 1794, p. 889.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_108" id="Footnote_111_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_108"><span class="label">111</span></a> <i>London Medical and Physical Journal</i>, 1815.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_109" id="Footnote_112_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_109"><span class="label">112</span></a> <i>Book of Notable Things</i>, p. 92.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_110" id="Footnote_113_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_110"><span class="label">113</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 253 f and +256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_111" id="Footnote_114_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_111"><span class="label">114</span></a> <i>Illustrations of Shakespeare</i>, I, p. 493.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_112" id="Footnote_115_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_112"><span class="label">115</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_113" id="Footnote_116_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_113"><span class="label">116</span></a> R. Burton, <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, pt. II, sec. V.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_114" id="Footnote_117_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_114"><span class="label">117</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Surgery and +Medicine</i>, p. 91.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_115" id="Footnote_118_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_115"><span class="label">118</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_116" id="Footnote_119_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_116"><span class="label">119</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_117" id="Footnote_120_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_117"><span class="label">120</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, III, p. 238.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_118" id="Footnote_121_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_118"><span class="label">121</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 148.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h3> + +<h4>CHARMS</h4> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"With the charmes that she saide,</span> +<span class="i05">A fire down fro' the sky alight."—<span class="smcap">Gower</span>.</span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"She drew a splinter from the wound,</span> +<span class="i05">And with a charm she staunch'd the blood."—<span class="smcap">Scott</span>.</span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Thrice on my breast I spit to guard me safe</span> +<span class="i05">From fascinating Charms."—<span class="smcap">Theocritus</span>.</span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Mennes fortunes she can tell;</span> +<span class="i05">She can by sayenge her Ave Marye,</span> +<span class="i05">And by other Charmes of Sorcerye,</span> +<span class="i05">Ease men of the Toth ake by and bye</span> +<span class="i05">Yea, and fatche the Devyll from Hell."—<span class="smcap">Bale</span>.</span> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"I clawed her by the backe in way of a charme,<br /> +To do me not the more good, but the less harme."—<span class="smcap">Heywood</span> +</p></div> + + +<p>Charms, as already noticed, are not unlike amulets +in significance and similarity of power. The +amulet must consist of some material substance so +as to be suspended when employed, but the charm +may be a word, gesture, look, or condition, as well +as a material substance, and does not need to be +attached to the body. The word "charm" is derived +from the Latin word "carmen," signifying a verse +in which the charms were sometimes written, examples +of which will be given later. The medical +term "carminative," a comforting medicine, really +means a charm medicine, and has the same derivation.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span>A charm has been defined as "a form of words or +letters, repeated or written, whereby strange things +are pretended to be done, beyond the ordinary +power of nature." It can be seen, though, that +this definition is not sufficiently comprehensive.</p> + +<p>For ages, people have had great faith in odd numbers. +They have often been used as charms and +for medicine. Some one says: "Some philosophers +are of opinion that all things are composed of number, +prefer the odd before the other, and attribute +to it a great efficacy and perfection, especially in +matters of physic: wherefore it is that many doctors +prescribed always an odd pill, an odd draught, +or drop to be taken by their patients. For the perfection +thereof they allege these following numbers: +as 7 Planets, 7 wonders of the World, 9 Muses, 3 +Graces, God is 3 in 1, &c." Ravenscroft, in his +comedy of "Mammamouchi or the Citizen Turned +Gentleman," makes Trickmore as a physician say: +"Let the number of his bleedings and purgations be +odd, <i>numero Deus impare gaudet</i>" [God delights in +an odd number].</p> + +<p>Nine is the number consecrated by Buddhism; +three is sacred among Brahminical and Christian +people. Pythagoras held that the unit or monad is +the principle and end of all. One is a good principle. +Two, or the dyad, is the origin of contrasts +and separation, and is an evil principle. Three, or +the triad, is the image of the attributes of God.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span> +Four, or the tetrad, is the most perfect of numbers +and the root of all things. It is holy by nature. +Five, or the pentad, is everything; it stops the +power of poisons, and is dreaded by evil spirits. +Six is a fortunate number. Seven is powerful for +good or evil, and is a sacred number. Eight is the +first cube, so is man four-square or perfect. Nine, +as the multiple of three, is sacred. Ten, or the decade, +is the measure of all it contains, all the numerical +relations and harmonies.<a name="FNanchor_122_119" id="FNanchor_122_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_119" class="fnanchor">122</a></p> + +<p>Cornelius Agrippa wrote on the power of numbers, +which he declares is asserted by nature herself; +thus the herb called cinquefoil, or five-leafed +grass, resists poison, and bans devils by virtue of +the number five; one leaf of it taken in wine twice +a day cures the quotidian, three the tertian, four +the quartan fever.<a name="FNanchor_123_120" id="FNanchor_123_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_120" class="fnanchor">123</a></p> + +<p>The seventh son of a seventh son was supposed to +be an infallible physician as the following quotations +would indicate: "The seventh son of a seventh +son is born a physician; having an intuitive knowledge +of the art of curing all disorders, and sometimes +the faculty of performing wonderful cures by touching +only." "Plusieurs croyent qu'en France, les +septièmes garçons, nez de légitimes mariages, sans +que la suitte des sept ait esté interrompue par la +naissance d'aucune fille, peuvent aussi guérir des +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span>fièvres tierces, des fièvres quartes, at mesme des +écrouelles, après avoir jeûné trois ou neuf jours +avant que de toucher les malades. Mais ils font +trop de fond sur le nombre septenaire, en attribuant +au septième garçon, préférablement à tous autres, +une puissance qu'il y a autant de raison d'attribuer +au sixième ou au huitième, sur le nombre +de trois, et sur celuy de neuf, pour ne pas s'engager +dans la superstition. Joint que de trois que je connois +de ces septième garçons il y en a deux qui ne +guérissent de rien, et que le troisieme m'a avoué +de bonne foy, qu'il avoit eu autrefois la reputation +de guérir de quantité des maux, quoique en effet +il n'ait jamais guery d'aucun. C'est pourquoy +Monsieur du Laurent a grande raison de rejetter ce +prétendu pouvoir, et de la mettre au rang des +fables, en ce qui concerne la guérison des écrouelles."<a name="FNanchor_124_121" id="FNanchor_124_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_121" class="fnanchor">124</a></p> + +<p>Charms were used to avert evil and counteract +supposed malignant influences of all kinds, but it is +in their connection with diseases of the body that +we are chiefly interested. There is scarcely a disease +for which a charm has not been given, but it +will be seen that those which are most affected by +charms are principally derangements of the nervous +system, or those periodical in character—diseases, +in fact, which have proved to be most easily influenced +by suggestion.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span></p> +<p>Charms might be of the most varied composition. +The material was selected from the animal, vegetable, +or mineral kingdom, and might consist of +anything to which any magical property was considered +to belong. Rags, old clothes, pins, and +needles were frequently employed in this way. Sir +Walter Scott had in his possession a pretended +charm taken from an old woman who was said to +charm and injure her neighbor's cattle. It consisted +of feathers, parings of nails, hair, and similar +material, wrapped in a lump of clay.</p> + +<p>The theory of <i>similia similibus curantur</i> seems +to have entered into mediæval medicine, and especially +into the manufacture of charms. The following +prescriptions are examples: "The skin of a +Raven's heel is good against gout, but the right +heel skin must be laid upon the right foot if that be +gouty, and the left upon the left.... If you would +have man become bold or impudent let him carry +about with him the skin or eyes of a Lion or Cock, +and he will be fearless of his enemies, nay, he will +be very terrible unto them. If you would have him +talkative, give him tongues, and seek out those of +water frogs and ducks and such creatures notorious +for their continuall noise making."<a name="FNanchor_125_122" id="FNanchor_125_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_122" class="fnanchor">125</a></p> + +<p>King also tells us that "Hartes fete, Does Fete, +Bulles fete, or any ruder beastes fete should ofte +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> +be eaten; the same confort the sinewes. The elder +these beastes be, the more they strengthen." It is noticeable +that not age but youth is now honored, and +to-day only calves' feet are accorded medicinal value.</p> + +<p>Fort<a name="FNanchor_126_123" id="FNanchor_126_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_123" class="fnanchor">126</a> gives the following account of the origin +of cabbalism: "Towards the close of the fourth +century an unknown scholiast collected the exegetical +elucidations, explanations and interpretations +produced by the Gemara, and united them to +the Mishna, as a commentary out of which arose +the Talmud. The word 'cabbala,' whose original +significance was used in the sense of reception, or +transmission, obtained at a later period the meaning +of secret lore, because the metaphysical and +theosophic idealities which had been developed in +the Rabbinical schools, were communicated only to +a few, and consequently remained the undisputed +property of a limited and close organization." From +this there developed a varied and complicated system +of words and numbers which showed their +power in all forms of magical marvels. Not the +least common or puissant of these was the healing +of the sick.</p> + +<p>Knots were sometimes used as charms, and Cockayne +gives us an example in the preface of <i>Saxon +Leechdoms</i>: "As soon as a man gets pain in his +eyes, tie in unwrought flax as many knots as there +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> +are letters in his name, pronouncing them as you +go, and tie it round his neck."</p> + +<p>Long before and long after New Testament days +when Jesus used spittle on the blind, and the time +when Vespasian healed the blind by the same means, +spittle was considered a most efficacious remedy for +various diseases. Levinus Lemnius tells us: "Divers +experiments shew what power and quality there +is in Man's fasting Spittle, when he hath neither +eat nor drunk before the use of it: for it cures all +tetters, itch, scabs, pushes, and creeping sores: and +if venomous little beasts have fastened on any part +of the body, as hornets, beetles, toads, spiders, and +such like, that by their venome cause tumours and +great pains and inflammations, do but rub the place +with fasting Spittle, and all those effects will be +gone and dispersed. Since the qualities and effects +of Spittle come from the humours, (for out of them +is it drawn by the faculty of Nature, as Fire draws +distilled Water from hearbs) the reason may be +easily understood why Spittle should do such strange +things, and destroy some creatures."<a name="FNanchor_127_124" id="FNanchor_127_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_124" class="fnanchor">127</a></p> + +<p>In <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i> a cure for gout runs thus: +"Before getting out of bed in the morning, spit +on your hand, rub all your sinuews, and say, 'Flee, +gout, flee,' etc." Sir Thomas Browne, however, is +not quite sure that fasting spittle really is poisonous +to snakes and vipers.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p> +<p>Alexander of Tralles tells us that even Galen did +homage to incantations, and quotes him as saying: +"Some think that incantations are like old wives' +tales; as I did for a long while. But at last I was +convinced that there is virtue in them by plain +proofs before my eyes. For I had trial of their +beneficial operations in the case of those scorpion-stung, +nor less in the case of bones stuck fast in the +throat, immediately, by an incantation thrown up. +And many of them are excellent, severally, and +they reach their mark."</p> + +<p>Even before our day, however, there were some +sceptics. Andrews, quoting Reginald Scot, says: +"The Stories which our facetious author relates of +ridiculous Charms which, by the help of credulity, +operated Wonders, are extremely laughable. In one +of them a poor Woman is commemorated who +cured all diseases by muttering a certain form of +Words over the party afflicted; for which service +she always received one penny and a loaf of bread. +At length, terrified by menaces of flames both in +this world and the next, she owned that her whole +conjuration consisted in these potent lines, which +she always repeated in a low voice near the head of +her patient:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Thy loaf in my hand,</span> +<span class="i05">And thy penny in my purse,</span> +<span class="i05">Thou art never the better—</span> +<span class="i05">And I am never the worse.'"</span> +</div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>Lord Northampton quite fittingly inquires: "What +godly reason can any Man alyve alledge why Mother +Joane of Stowe, speaking these wordes, and neyther +more nor lesse,</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Our Lord was the fyrst Man,</span> +<span class="i05">That ever Thorne prick'd upon:</span> +<span class="i05">It never blysted nor it never belted,</span> +<span class="i05">And I pray God, nor this not may,'</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>should cure either Beasts, or Men and Women from +Diseases?"<a name="FNanchor_128_125" id="FNanchor_128_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_125" class="fnanchor">128</a></p> + +<p>Perhaps it would be well for us to treat the subject +of charms as we have that of amulets, and present +the different charms under the heading of the +diseases which they were supposed to cure.</p> + +<p><i>Ague.</i>—Many charms were given for this disease, +some of which seem to us to-day most ridiculous. +Brand gives a quotation from the <i>Life of Nicholas +Mooney</i> who was a notorious highwayman, executed +with others at Bristol, in 1752. It is as follows: +"After the cart drew away, the hangman +very deservedly had his head broke for attempting +to pull off Mooney's shoes; and a fellow had like to +have been killed in mounting the gallows to take +away the ropes that were left after the malefactors +were cut down. A young woman came fifteen miles +for the sake of the rope from Mooney's neck, which +was given to her, it being by many apprehended +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> +that the halter of an executed person will charm +away the ague and perform many other cures."</p> + +<p>Pettigrew relates that "In Skippon's account of +a 'Journey through the Low Countries,' he makes +mention of the lectures of Ferrarius and his narrative +of the cure of the ague of a Spanish lieutenant, +by writing the words FEBRA FUGE, and cutting +off a letter from the paper every day, and he observed +the distemper to abate accordingly; when +he cut the letter F last of all the ague left him. In +the same year, he says, fifty more were reported to +be cured in the same manner."</p> + +<p>Another charm for ague was only effective when +said up the chimney on St. Agnes Eve, by the eldest +female of the family. It was as follows:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Tremble and go!</span> +<span class="i2">First day shiver and burn.</span> +<span class="i05">Tremble and quake!</span> +<span class="i2">Second day shiver and learn:</span> +<span class="i0">Tremble and die!</span> +<span class="i2">Third day never return."<a name="FNanchor_129_126" id="FNanchor_129_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_126" class="fnanchor">129</a></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Pliny said: "Any plant gathered from the bank +of a brook or river before sunrise, provided that no +one sees the person who gathers it, is considered as +a remedy for tertian ague." Lodge, in glancing at +the superstitious creed with respect to charms, says: +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> +"Bring him but a Table of Lead, with Crosses (and +'Adonai,' or 'Elohim,' written in it), and he thinks +it will heal his ague."</p> + +<p>Mr. Marsden, while among the Sumatrans, accidentally +met with the following charm for the ague: +"(Sign of the cross.) When Christ saw the cross +he trembled and shaked and they said unto him, +hast thou ague? and he said unto them, I have +neither ague nor fever; and whosoever bears these +words, either in writing or in mind, shall never be +troubled with ague or fever. So help thy servants, +O Lord, who put their trust in thee!"</p> + +<p>From Douce's notes, Mr. Brand informs us that +it was usual with many persons about Exeter who +had ague "to visit at dead of night the nearest +cross road five different times, and there bury a +new-laid egg. The visit is paid about an hour before +the cold fit is expected; and they are persuaded +that with the Egg they shall bury the Ague. If +the experiment fail, (and the agitation it occasions +may often render it successful) they attribute it +to some unlucky accident that may have befallen +them on the way. In the execution of this matter +they observe the strictest silence, taking care not +to speak to anyone, whom they may happen to +meet. I shall here note another Remedy against +the Ague mentioned as above, viz., by breaking a +salted Cake of Bran and giving it to a Dog, when +the fit comes on, by which means they suppose the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span> +malady to be transferred from them to the Animal."<a name="FNanchor_130_127" id="FNanchor_130_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_127" class="fnanchor">130</a> +This and similar methods were designated transplantation.</p> + +<p><i>Bites of Venomous Animals.</i>—It is an old medical +superstition that every animal whose bite is poisonous +carries the cure within itself, but external +charms were also used. It was thought that the +poison of the Spanish fly existed in the body, while +the head and wings contained the antidote. "A +hair of the dog that bites you" is the cure for hydrophobia, +the fat of the viper was the remedy for +its bite, and "three scruples of the ashes of the witch, +when she had been well and carefully burnt at a +stake, is a sure catholicon against all the evil effects +of witchcraft."<a name="FNanchor_131_128" id="FNanchor_131_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_128" class="fnanchor">131</a></p> + +<p>Serpents' bites, which were always considered +very dangerous, were said to be healed by people +called sauveurs, who had a mark of St. Catharine's +wheel upon their palates. Snake stones, originally +brought from Java, were supposed to absorb the +poison by being simply placed over the bite. Russel +mentions a charm against mosquitoes, used in +Aleppo. It consisted of certain unintelligible characters +inscribed on a little slip of paper, which was +pasted over the windows or upon the lintel of the +door. One family has obtained, through heredity, +the power of making these charms, and they distrib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>ute +them on a certain day of the year without remuneration.</p> + +<p>Navarette was told that the best remedy against +scorpions was to make a commemoration of St. +George when going to bed. This, he says, never +failed, but he also rubbed the bed with garlic. The +following is given as a cure for the sting of the scorpion: +"The patient is to sit on an ass, with his face +to the tail of the animal, by which the pain will be +transmitted from the man to the beast." Or again, +a person who was bitten by either a tarantulla or +a mad dog must go nine times round the town on +the Sabbath, calling upon and imploring the assistance +of the saint. On the third night—the prayers +being heard and granted, and the health restored—the +madness was removed. The prayer was as follows:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Thou who presidest over the Apulian shores,</span> +<span class="i05">Thou who curest the bites of mad dogs,</span> +<span class="i05">Thou, O Sacred One, ward off this cruel plague,</span> +<span class="i05">Get thee far hence, O madness, O fury."<a name="FNanchor_132_129" id="FNanchor_132_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_129" class="fnanchor">132</a></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><i>Burns.</i>—The following is "A Charme for a burning":</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"There came three angels out of the east;</span> +<span class="i05">The one brought fire, the two brought frost—</span> +<span class="i05">Out fire; in frost;</span> +<span class="i05">In the name of the Father, and Son, and Holy Ghost.</span> +<span class="i15">—Amen."<a name="FNanchor_133_130" id="FNanchor_133_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_130" class="fnanchor">133</a></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span>Childbirth.</i>—Many superstitious practices have +grown up around this condition. In 1554, Bonner, +Bishop of London, forbade "a mydwife of his diocese +to exercise any witchecrafte, charmes, sorcerye, +invocations, or praiers, other than such as be allowable +and may stand with the lawes and ordinances +of the Catholike Church." In 1559, the first year +of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, an inquiry was +instituted "whether you knowe any that doe use +charmes, sorcery, enchauntementes, invocations, circles, +witchecraftes, southsayinge, or any lyke craftes +or imaginacions invented by the devyl, and specially +in the tyme of woman's travaylle." Two years +before this, the midwives took an oath among themselves, +so Strype tells us, not to "suffer any other +bodies' child to be set, brought, or laid before any +woman delivered of child in the place of her natural +child, so far forth as I can know and understand. +Also I will not use any kind of sorcerye or incantation +in the time of the travail of any woman."</p> + +<p>The eagle stone and iris were supposed to promote +an easy delivery, and the sardonyx was laid +<i>inter mammas</i> to procure an easy birth; a sardonyx +formerly belonged to the monastery of St. Albans +to be used for this purpose. In some countries, +during childbirth, the men lie in, keep their beds, +and are attended as if really sick, sometimes as +long as six weeks.<a name="FNanchor_134_131" id="FNanchor_134_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_131" class="fnanchor">134</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span><i>Chorea.</i>—Of all the charms against this disease, +St. Vitus' dance, none seemed so effectual as an +application to the saint. In the translation of +Naogeorgus, Barnabe Googe says:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The nexte is VITUS sodde in oyle, before whose ymage faire</span> +<span class="i05">Both men and women bringing hennes for offring doe repaire:</span> +<span class="i05">The cause whereof I doe not know, I think, for some disease</span> +<span class="i05">Which he is thought to drive away from such as him doe please."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><i>Colic.</i>—This disorder was cured by a person drinking +the water in which he had washed his feet; we +might well consider the cure worse than the disease.</p> + +<p><i>Consumption.</i>—Shaw<a name="FNanchor_135_132" id="FNanchor_135_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_132" class="fnanchor">135</a> speaks of a cure for consumptive +diseases used in his time in Moray. "They +pared the Nails of the Fingers and Toes of the Patient, +put these Parings into a Rag cut from his +clothes, then waved their Hand with the Rag thrice +round his head crying <i>Deas soil</i>, after which they +buried the Rag in some unknown place." Dr. +Baas<a name="FNanchor_136_133" id="FNanchor_136_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_133" class="fnanchor">136</a> declares that natural pills of rabbit's dung +were in use on the Rhine as a cure for consumption.</p> + +<p>"There is a disease," says the minister of Logierait, +writing in 1795, "called Glacach by the Highlanders, +which, as it affects the chest and lungs, is +evidently of a consumptive nature. It is called +Macdonald's disease, 'because there are particular +tribes of Macdonalds, who were believed to cure it +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> +with the Charms of their touch, and the use of a +certain set of words. There must be no fee given +of any kind. Their faith in the touch of a Macdonald +is very great.'"<a name="FNanchor_137_134" id="FNanchor_137_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_134" class="fnanchor">137</a></p> + +<p><i>Cramp.</i>—Among the many charms for cramp, the +following is taken from <i>Pepys' Diary</i>:<a name="FNanchor_138_135" id="FNanchor_138_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_135" class="fnanchor">138</a></p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Cramp be thou faintless,</span> +<span class="i05">As our Lady was sinless</span> +<span class="i05">When she bare Jesus."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><i>Demoniacal Possession.</i>—To know when a person +is possessed, try the following, says King: "Take the +harte and liver of a fysshe called a Pyck, and put +them into a pot wyth glowynge hot coles, and hold +the same to the patient so that the smoke may entre +into hym. If he is possessed he cannot abyde that +smoke, but rageth and is angry." "It is good also +to make a fyre in hys chamber of Juniper wood, +and caste into the fire Franckincense and S. John's +wort, for the evill spirits cannot abyde thys sent, +and Waxe angry, whereby may be perceived whether +a man be possessed or not."<a name="FNanchor_139_136" id="FNanchor_139_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_136" class="fnanchor">139</a> I am afraid that +possession would be sadly common if either of these +tests were applied.</p> + +<p><i>Dislocation.</i>—Among the oldest charms we have +is one given by Cato the Censor for the reduction of +a dislocated limb, and passed on to us by Pettigrew.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span></p> +<p>"A dislocation may be cured by this charm. Take +a reed four or five feet long; cut it in the middle, and +let two men hold the points towards each other for +insertion. While this is doing repeat these words: +<i>In Alio S. F. Motas vœta, Daries Dardaries Astataries +Dissunapitur</i>. Now jerk a piece of iron upon +the reeds at their juncture, and cut right and left. +Bind them to the dislocation or fracture, and it will +effect a cure."<a name="FNanchor_140_137" id="FNanchor_140_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_137" class="fnanchor">140</a></p> + +<p><i>Dropsy.</i>—Toads were formed into a powder called +Pulvis Æthiopicus, the mode of preparation being +given in Bates's Pharmacopœia. This powder was +used externally, and also given internally in cases +of dropsy and other diseases.</p> + +<p><i>Epilepsy.</i>—The liver of a dead athlete was a +sovereign remedy against epilepsy in early days. +In Lincolnshire a portion of a human skull taken +from a grave was grated and given to epileptics as +a cure for fits, and the water in which a corpse had +been washed was given to a man in Glasgow for +the same purpose.<a name="FNanchor_141_138" id="FNanchor_141_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_138" class="fnanchor">141</a> Another remedy was also proposed: +"If a man be greved wyth the fallinge sicknesse, +let him take a he-Wolves harte and make it +to pouder and use it: but if it be a woman, let her +take a she-Wolves harte."<a name="FNanchor_142_139" id="FNanchor_142_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_139" class="fnanchor">142</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span></p> +<p>John of Gladdesden, who was court physician from +1305-1317, spoke thus concerning epilepsy: "Because +there are many children and others afflicted +with the epilepsy, who cannot take medicines, let +the following experiment be tried, which I have +found to be effectual, whether the patient was a +demoniac, a lunatic, or an epileptic. When the +patient and his parents have fasted three days, let +them conduct him to church. If he be of a proper +age, and of his right senses, let him confess. Then +let him hear Mass on Friday, and also on Saturday. +On Sunday let a good and religious priest read over +the head of the patient, in the church, the gospel +which is read in September, in the time of vintage, +after the feast of the Holy Cross. After this, let +the priest write the same gospel devoutly, and let +the patient wear it about his neck, and he shall be +cured. The gospel is, 'This kind goeth not out but +by prayer and fasting.'"<a name="FNanchor_143_140" id="FNanchor_143_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_140" class="fnanchor">143</a></p> + +<p>Among some African tribes the foot of an elk is +considered a splendid remedy against epilepsy. One +foot only of each animal possesses virtue, and the +way to ascertain the valuable foot is to "knock the +beast down, when he will immediately lift up that +leg which is most efficacious to scratch his ear. +Then you must be ready with a sharp scymitar to +lop off the medicinal limb, and you shall find an +infallible remedy against the falling sickness treasured +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> +up in his claws." The American Indians and +mediæval Norwegians also considered this a sure +remedy. The person afflicted, however, must apply +it to his heart, hold it in his left hand, and rub his +ear with it.<a name="FNanchor_144_141" id="FNanchor_144_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_141" class="fnanchor">144</a></p> + +<p><i>Evil-eye.</i>—Children were supposed to be most +susceptible to the evil-eye. Charms and amulets +were furnished against fascination in general. Certain +figures in bronze, coral, ivory, etc., representing +a closed hand with the thumb thrust out between +the first and second fingers called the <i>fig</i>, +were common. In Henry IV, Part II, Pistol +says:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"When Pistol lies, do this; and fig me, like</span> +<span class="i05">The bragging Spaniard."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><i>Eye Diseases.</i>—Among the early Germans, ambulatory +female medicists were not uncommon, and +they cured largely through charms. The following +is a charm used for eye diseases:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Three maidens once going</span> +<span class="i0">On a verdant highway;</span> +<span class="i0">One could cure blindness,</span> +<span class="i0">Another cured cataract,</span> +<span class="i0">Third cured inflammation;</span> +<span class="i0">But all cured by one means."<a name="FNanchor_145_142" id="FNanchor_145_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_142" class="fnanchor">145</a></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span><i>Fevers.</i>—This charm was used for fever: "Wryt +thys Wordys on a lorell lef♰Ysmael♰Ysmael♰ +adjuro vos per Angelum ut soporetur iste Homo N. +and ley thys lef under hys head that he wete not +therof, and let hym ete Letuse oft and drynk Ip'e +seed smal grounden in a morter, and temper yt with +Ale."<a name="FNanchor_146_143" id="FNanchor_146_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_143" class="fnanchor">146</a></p> + +<p>"The fever," says Werenfels, "he will not drive +away by medicines, but, what is a more certain remedy, +having pared his nails and tied them to a crayfish, +he will turn his back, and as Deucalion did the +stones from which a new progeny of men arose, +throw them behind him into the next river."<a name="FNanchor_147_144" id="FNanchor_147_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_144" class="fnanchor">147</a></p> + +<p>The "Leech book"<a name="FNanchor_148_145" id="FNanchor_148_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_145" class="fnanchor">148</a> says that for typhus fever +the patient is to drink of a decoction of herbs over +which many masses have been sung, then say the +names of the four "gospellers" and a charm and a +prayer. Again, a man is to write a charm in silence, +and just as silently put the words in his left breast +and take care not to go in-doors with the writing +upon him, the words being EMMANUEL VERONICA. +The Loseley MSS. prescribe the following +for all manner of fevers: "Take iii drops of a woman's +mylke yt norseth a knave childe, and do it +in a hennes egge that ys sedentere (or sitting), and +let hym suppe it up when the evyl takes hym."</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span></p> +<p><i>Goitre.</i>—The dew collected from the grave of the +last man buried in a church-yard has been used as +a lotion for goitre, and a correspondent of <i>Notes +and Queries</i> for May 24, 1851, furnishes two remedies +then in use at Withyam, Sussex. "A common +snake, held by its head and tail, is slowly drawn by +someone standing by nine times across the front +part of the neck of the person affected, the reptile +being allowed, after every third time, to crawl about +for awhile. Afterwards the snake is put alive in a +bottle, which is corked tightly, and then buried in +the ground. The tradition is, that as the snake +decays, the swelling vanishes. The second mode +of treatment is just the same as the above, with the +exception of the snake's doom. In this case it is +kidded, and its skin, sewn in a piece of silk, is worn +round the diseased neck. By degrees the swelling +in this case also disappears."</p> + +<p><i>Headache.</i>—In Brand's day, the rope which remained +after a man had been hanged and cut down +was an object of eager competition, being regarded +as of great virtue in attacks of headache, and Gross +says: "Moss growing on a human skull, if dried, +powdered, and taken as snuff, will cure the Headach." +Loadstone was also recommended as a sovereign +remedy for this malady. Pliny said that any +person might be immediately cured of the headache +by the application of any plant which has grown on +the head of a statue, provided it be folded in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> +shred of a garment, and tied to the part affected +with a red string.</p> + +<p><i>Hemorrhage.</i>—The following charm has been used +to stop bleeding at the nose and other hemorrhages:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"In the blood of Adam Sin was taken,</span> +<span class="i05">In the blood of Christ it was all shaken,</span> +<span class="i05">And by the same blood I do the charge,</span> +<span class="i05">That the blood of (insert name) run no longer at large."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Pepys in his <i>Diary</i> gives us a Latin charm of which +the following is a translation:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Blood remain in Thee,</span> +<span class="i05">As Christ was in himself;</span> +<span class="i05">Blood remain in thy veins,</span> +<span class="i05">As Christ in his pains;</span> +<span class="i05">Blood remain fixed,</span> +<span class="i05">As Christ was on the crucifix."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Brand, the historian of Orkney, says: "They +have a charm whereby they stop excessive bleeding +in any, whatever way they come by it, whether by +or without external violence. The name of the Patient +being sent to the Charmer, he saith over some +words, (which I heard,) upon which the blood instantly +stoppeth, though the bleeding Patient were +at the greatest distance from the Charmer. Yea, +upon the saying of these words, the blood will stop +in the bleeding throats of oxen or sheep, to the +astonishment of Spectators. Which account we had +from the Ministers of the Country."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span>Boyle says: "Having been one summer frequently +subject to bleeding at the nose, and reduced to employ +several remedies to check that distemper; that +which I found the most effectual to stanch the blood +was some moss of a dead man's skull, (sent for a +present out of Ireland, where it is far less rare than +in most other countries,) though it did but touch +my skin, till the herb was a little warmed by it."<a name="FNanchor_149_146" id="FNanchor_149_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_146" class="fnanchor">149</a></p> + +<p>Brand gives "A charme to staunch blood: Jesus +that was in Bethleem born, and baptyzed was in +the flumen Jordane, as stente the water at hys +comyng, so stente the blood of thys man N. thy +servvaunt, thorw the virtu of thy holy Name ♰ +Jesu ♰ & of thy Cosyn swete Sent Jon. And sey +thys charme fyve tymes with fyve Pater Nosters, +in the worschep of the fyve woundys."<a name="FNanchor_150_147" id="FNanchor_150_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_147" class="fnanchor">150</a></p> + +<p>"In the year 1853," says Berdoe, "I saw among +the more precious drugs in the shop of a pharmaceutical +chemist at Leamington a bottle labelled in +the ordinary way with the words, Moss from a +Dead-Man's Skull. This has long been used, superstitiously, +dried, powdered, and taken as snuff, for +headache and bleeding at the nose."</p> + +<p><i>Herpes.</i>—Turner<a name="FNanchor_151_148" id="FNanchor_151_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_148" class="fnanchor">151</a> notices a prevalent charm +among old women for the shingles, and which is not +uncommonly heard of to-day. It was to smear on +the affected part the blood from a black cat's tail. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span> +He says that in the only case when he saw it used +it caused considerable mischief.</p> + +<p><i>Incubus.</i>—Stones with holes through them were +commonly called hag-stones, and were often attached +to the key of the stable door to prevent witches riding +the horses. One of these suspended at the head +of the bed was celebrated for the prevention of +nightmare. In the "Leech book"<a name="FNanchor_152_149" id="FNanchor_152_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_149" class="fnanchor">152</a> we find the following: +"If a mare or hag ride a man, take lupins, +garlic, and betony, and frankincense, bind them on +a fawn skin, let a man have the worts on him, and +let him go into his house." Notice the following +from Lluellin's poems:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Some the night-mare hath prest</span> +<span class="i0">With that weight on their brest,</span> +<span class="i2">No returnes of their breath can passe,</span> +<span class="i0">But to us the tale is addle,</span> +<span class="i0">We can take off her saddle,</span> +<span class="i2">And turn out the night-mare to grasse."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><i>Insomnia.</i>—In the Loseley MSS. we find a receipt +"For hym that may not slepe. Take and +wryte yese wordes into leves of lether: Ismael! +Ismael! adjuro te per Angelum Michaelum ut soporetur +homo iste; and lay this under his bed, so yt +he wot not yerof and use it allway lytell, and lytell, +as he have nede yerto."</p> + +<p><i>Jaundice.</i>—This disease was sometimes cured by +transplantation, and Paracelsus gives us a method +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span> +for carrying this out. Make seven or nine—it must +be an odd number—cakes of the newly emitted and +warm urine of the patient with the ashes of ash wood, +and bury them for some days in a dunghill.</p> + +<p>In the journal of Dr. Edward Browne, transmitted +to his father, Sir Thomas Browne, we read +of a magical cure for jaundice: "Burne wood under +a leaden vessel filled with water; take the ashes of +that wood, and boyle it with the patient's urine; +then lay nine long heaps of the boyled ashes upon a +board in a ranke, and upon every heap lay nine +spears of crocus: it hath greater effects than is credible +to any one that shall barely read this receipt +without experiencing."<a name="FNanchor_153_150" id="FNanchor_153_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_150" class="fnanchor">153</a></p> + +<p><i>Madness.</i>—The early inhabitants of Cornwall used +"to place the disordered in mind on the brink of a +square pool, filled with water from St. Nun's well. +The patient, having no intimation of what was intended, +was, by a sudden blow on the breast, tumbled +into the pool, where he was tossed up and down +by some persons of superior strength till, being quite +debilitated, his fury forsook him; he was then carried +to church, and certain masses were sung over +him. A similar practice of the people of Perthshire +is noticed by Sir Walter Scott in <i>Marmion</i>.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Thence to St. Fillan's blessed well,</span> +<span class="i05">Whose spring can frenzied dreams dispel,</span> +<span class="i05">And the crazed brain restore."</span> +</div> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span><i>Marasmus.</i>—Mr. Boyle relates the case of a physician +whose wan face betokened a marasmus, and +who was induced to try a method not unlike the +sympathetic cures. "He took an egg and boiled +it hard in his own warm urine; he then with a +bodkin perforated the shell in many places, and +buried it in an ant-hill, where it was kept to be +devoured by the emmets; and as they wasted the +egg, he found his distemper to abate and his +strength to increase, insomuch that his disease left +him."<a name="FNanchor_154_151" id="FNanchor_154_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_151" class="fnanchor">154</a></p> + +<p><i>Rickets.</i>—The most common method of dealing +with this disease was by drawing the children through +a split tree. The tree was afterward bound up and, +as it healed and grew together, the children acquired +strength; at least, so 'twas said. Sir John +Cullum saw the operation performed and says that +the ash tree was selected as most preferable for the +purpose. "It was split longitudinally about five +feet: the fissure was kept open by the gardener, +whilst the friend of the child, having first stripped +him naked, passed him thrice through it, almost +head foremost. This accomplished, the tree was +bound up with packthread, and as the bark healed, +so it was said the child would recover. One of the +cases was of rickets, the other a rupture." Drawing +the children through a perforated stone was +also a cure for rickets, providing that two brass +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>pins were carefully laid across each other on the +top edge of this stone.<a name="FNanchor_155_152" id="FNanchor_155_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_152" class="fnanchor">155</a></p> + +<p><i>Sciatica.</i>—Sleeping on stones on a particular night +was formerly practised in Cornwall to cure all forms +of lameness. Boneshave was the term used for +sciatica in Exmoor, where the following charm was +used for its cure: The patient must lie on his back +on the bank of a river or brook, having a straight +staff lying by his side between him and the water, +and must have the following words repeated over him:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Boneshave right,</span> +<span class="i05">Boneshave straight.</span> +<span class="i05">As the water runs by the stave</span> +<span class="i05">Good for Boneshave."<a name="FNanchor_156_153" id="FNanchor_156_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_153" class="fnanchor">156</a></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><i>Scrofula.</i>—Scrofula, or "king's-evil," was best +cured by the touch of the sovereign, but, if this could +not be accomplished, a naked virgin could cure it, +especially if she spit three times upon it. Stroking +the affected parts nine times with the hand of a dead +man, particularly of one who had suffered a violent +death as a penalty of his crime, especially if it be +murder, was long practised, and was said to be +efficacious in curing scrofula.</p> + +<p><i>Sweating Sickness.</i>—Aubrey<a name="FNanchor_157_154" id="FNanchor_157_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_154" class="fnanchor">157</a> gives a selection of +the favorite prescriptions in use against the sweating +sickness. Among them was the following: +"Another very true medicine.—For to say every +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>day at seven parts of your body, seven paternosters, +and seven Ave Marias, with one Credo at the last. +Ye shall begyn at the ryght syde, under the right +ere, saying the '<i>paternoster qui es in coelis, sanctificetur +nomen tuum</i>,' with a cross made there with +your thumb, and so say the paternoster full complete, +and one Ave Maria, and then under the left +ere, and then under the left armhole, and then under +the left hole, and then the last at the heart, +with one paternoster, Ave Maria with one Credo; +and these thus said daily, with the grace of God is +there no manner drede hym."</p> + +<p><i>Thorns.</i>—Three metrical charms have been used +for troubles of this kind. <i>Pepys' Diary</i> records "A +charme for a thorne":</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Jesus, that was of a Virgin Born,</span> +<span class="i05">Was pricked both with nail and thorn;</span> +<span class="i05">It neither wealed, nor belled, rankled nor boned;</span> +<span class="i05">In the name of Jesus no more shall this."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Another form of the same is this:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Christ was of a Virgin born,</span> +<span class="i05">And he was pricked with a thorn;</span> +<span class="i05">It did neither bell, nor swell;</span> +<span class="i05">And I trust in Jesus this never will."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Brand gives another thus:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Unto the Virgin Mary our Saviour was born,</span> +<span class="i05">And on his head he wore the crown of thorn;</span> +<span class="i05">If you believe this true and mind it well,</span> +<span class="i05">This hurt will never fester, nor yet swell."<a name="FNanchor_158_155" id="FNanchor_158_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_155" class="fnanchor">158</a></span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span><i>Toothache.</i>—King in his interesting article recites +this cure: "Seeth as many little green frogges sitting +upon trees as thou canst get, in water: take +the fat flowynge from them, and when nede is, +anoynt the teth therwyth. The graye worms breathing +under wood or stone, having many fete, these +perced through with a bodken and then put into +the toth, alayeth the payne."<a name="FNanchor_159_156" id="FNanchor_159_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_156" class="fnanchor">159</a> A nail driven into +an oak tree is reported to be a cure for this pain, +and bones from a church-yard have from ancient +times been used as charms against this disease.</p> + +<p>An early idea was that toothache was caused by +a worm and that henbane seed roasted would cure +it. The following from "The School of Salerne" +formulates this superstition:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"If in your teeth you hap to be tormented,</span> +<span class="i05">By meane some little wormes therein do breed,</span> +<span class="i05">Which pain (if heed be tane) may be prevented,</span> +<span class="i05">Be keeping cleane your teeth, when as you feede;</span> +<span class="i05">Burne Francomsence (a gum not evil sented),</span> +<span class="i05">Put Henbane unto this, and Onyon seed,</span> +<span class="i05">And with a tunnel to the tooth that's hollow,</span> +<span class="i05">Convey the smoke thereof, and ease shall follow."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Even to-day, I suppose, druggists sell henbane +seed for this purpose. The seed is used by sprinkling +it on hot cinders and holding the open mouth +over the rising smoke. The heat causes the seed to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span> +sprout, and thus there appears something similar +to a maggot, which is ignorantly supposed by the +sufferer to have dropped from the tooth.<a name="FNanchor_160_157" id="FNanchor_160_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_157" class="fnanchor">160</a></p> + +<p><i>Warts.</i>—The cures for warts are many and varied. +There have been many charms devised for their +removal. Grose gives directions to "Steal a piece +of beef from a butcher's shop, and rub your wart +with it, then throw it down the necessary house, or +bury it, and as the beef rots, your warts will decay."<a name="FNanchor_161_158" id="FNanchor_161_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_158" class="fnanchor">161</a> +Some have great faith in having a vagrant count +them, mark the number on the inside of his hat, +and then when he leaves the neighborhood he +takes the warts with him. Coffin water was also +considered good for them.</p> + +<p>"For warts," says Sir Thomas Browne, "we rub +our hands before the moon, and commit any magulated +part to the touch of the dead. Old Women +were always famous for curing warts; they were so +in Lucian's time."<a name="FNanchor_162_159" id="FNanchor_162_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_159" class="fnanchor">162</a></p> + +<p>Sir Kenelm Digby, in a work already referred to, +says: "One would think that it were folly that one +should offer to wash his hands in a well-polished +silver basin, wherein there is not a drop of water, +yet this may be done by the reflection of the moonbeams +only, which will afford it a competent humidity +to do it; but they who have tried it, have found +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> +their hands, after they are wiped, to be much moister +than usually; but this is an infallible way to take +away warts from the hands, if it be often used."</p> + +<p>Black gives us several ways of charming away +warts. He says: "Lancashire wise men tell us for +warts to rub them with a cinder, and this tied up in +paper, and dropped where four roads meet, will +transfer the warts to whoever opens the parcel. +Another mode of transferring warts is to touch each +wart with a pebble, and place the pebbles in a bag, +which should be lost on the way to church; whoever +finds the bag gets the warts." A common +Warwickshire custom was to rub the warts with a +black snail, stick the snail on a thorn bush, and then, +say the folks, as the snail dies so will the wart disappear.<a name="FNanchor_163_160" id="FNanchor_163_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_160" class="fnanchor">163</a></p> + +<p>Warts, on the other hand, seem in certain cases +to be considered lucky. In "Syr Gyles Goosecappe, +Knight," a play of 1606, Lord Momford is made to +say: "The Creses here are excellent good: the proportion +of the chin good; the little aptnes of it to +sticke out; good. And the wart aboue it most exceeding +good."</p> + +<p><i>Wen.</i>—A newspaper of 1777 reports: "After he +(Doctor Dodd) had hung about ten minutes, a very +decently dressed young woman went up to the gallows +in order to have a wen in her face stroked +by the Doctor's hand; it being a received opinion +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> +among the vulgar that it is a certain cure for such +a disorder. The executioner, having untied the +Doctor's hand, stroked the part affected several +times therewith."</p> + +<p>At the execution of Crowley, a murderer of Warwick, +in 1845, a similar scene is described in the +newspapers: "At least five thousand persons of the +lowest of the low were mustered on this occasion to +witness the dying moments of the unhappy culprit.... As +is usual in such cases (to their shame be it +spoken) a number of females were present, and +scarcely had the soul of the deceased taken its farewell +flight from its earthly tabernacle, than the +scaffold was crowded with members of the 'gentler +sex' afflicted with wens in the neck, with white +swellings in the knees, &c., upon whose afflictions +the cold clammy hand of the sufferer was passed to +and fro for the benefit of his executioner."<a name="FNanchor_164_161" id="FNanchor_164_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_161" class="fnanchor">164</a></p> + +<p><i>Whooping-Cough.</i>—It was a common belief in +Devonshire, Cornwall, and some other parts of +England, that if one inquired of any one riding on +a piebald horse of a remedy for this complaint, whatever +he named was regarded as an infallible cure. +In Suffolk and Norfolk, a favorite remedy was to +put the head of a suffering child for a few minutes +into a hole made in a meadow. It must be done +in the evening with only the father and mother +to witness it.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>A child in Cornwall received the following treatment: +"If afflicted with the hooping cough, it is +fed with the bread and butter of a family, the heads +of which bear respectively the names of John and +Joan. In the time of an epidemic, so numerous +are the applications, that the poor couple have little +reason to be grateful to their godfathers and +godmothers for their gift of these particular names. +Or, if a piebald horse is to be found in the neighbourhood, +the child is taken to it, and passed thrice +under the belly of the animal; the mere possession +of such a beast confers the power of curing the +disease."</p> + +<p>We have an account of a cure for whooping-cough +in a Monmouthshire paper about the middle +of the nineteenth century. "A few days since an +unusual circumstance was observed at Pillgwenlly, +which caused no small degree of astonishment to +one or two enlightened beholders. A patient ass +stood near a house, and a family of not much more +rational animals was grouped around it. A father +was passing his little son under the donkey, and +lifting him over its back a certain number of times, +with as much solemnity and precision as if engaged +in the performance of a sacred duty. This done, +the father took a piece of bread, cut from an untasted +loaf, which he offered the animal to bite at. +Nothing loath, the Jerusalem poney laid hold of the +piece of bread with his teeth, and instantly the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span> +father severed the outer portion of the slice from +that in the donkey's mouth. He next clipped off +some hairs from the neck of the animal, which he +cut up into minute particles, and then mixed them +with the bread which he had crumbled. This very +tasty food was then offered to the boy who had +been passed round the donkey so mysteriously, and +the little fellow having eaten thereof, the donkey +was removed by his owners. The father, his son, +and other members of his family were moving off, +when a bystander inquired what all these 'goings +on' had been adopted for? The father stared at +the ignorance of the inquirer, and then in a half +contemptuous, half condescending tone, informed +him that 'it was to cure his poor son's whooping-cough, +to be sure!' Extraordinary as this may appear, +in days when the schoolmaster is so much in +request, it is nevertheless true."</p> + +<p>There is a belief in Cheshire that, if a toad is held +for a moment within the mouth of the patient, it +is apt to catch the disease, and so cure the person +suffering from it. A correspondent of <i>Notes and +Queries</i> speaks of a case in which such a phenomenon +actually occurred; but the experiment +is one which would not be very willingly tried. +Brand informs us that "Roasted mice were formerly +held in Norfolk a sure remedy for this +complaint; nor is it certain that the belief is extinct +even now. A poor woman's son once found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> +himself greatly relieved after eating three roast +mice!"<a name="FNanchor_165_162" id="FNanchor_165_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_162" class="fnanchor">165</a></p> + +<p><i>Worms.</i>—A Scotch writer in the last half of the +seventeenth century observed: "In the Miscellaneous +MSS. ... written by Baillie Dundee, among +several medicinal receipts I find an exorcism against +all kinds of worms in the body, in the name of the +Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, to be repeated three +mornings, as a certain remedy."<a name="FNanchor_166_163" id="FNanchor_166_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_163" class="fnanchor">166</a></p> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_119" id="Footnote_122_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_119"><span class="label">122</span></a> S. B. Gould, <i>Curious Myths of the Middle Ages</i>, p. 273.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_120" id="Footnote_123_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_120"><span class="label">123</span></a> H. Morley, <i>Life of Cornelius Agrippa</i>, I, p. 165.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_121" id="Footnote_124_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_121"><span class="label">124</span></a> M. Thiers, <i>Traité des Superstitions</i>, p. 436.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_122" id="Footnote_125_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_122"><span class="label">125</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_123" id="Footnote_126_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_123"><span class="label">126</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 72.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_124" id="Footnote_127_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_124"><span class="label">127</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 229 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_125" id="Footnote_128_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_125"><span class="label">128</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, III, pp. 228 and 237.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_126" id="Footnote_129_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_126"><span class="label">129</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 94 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_127" id="Footnote_130_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_127"><span class="label">130</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 252 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_128" id="Footnote_131_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_128"><span class="label">131</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 416.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_129" id="Footnote_132_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_129"><span class="label">132</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Surgery and +Medicine</i>, pp. 104-106.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_130" id="Footnote_133_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_130"><span class="label">133</span></a> <i>Pepys' Diary</i>, I, p. 323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_131" id="Footnote_134_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_131"><span class="label">134</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 113-115.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_132" id="Footnote_135_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_132"><span class="label">135</span></a> <i>History of Moray</i>, p. 248.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_133" id="Footnote_136_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_133"><span class="label">136</span></a> <i>History of Medicine</i>, p. 159.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_134" id="Footnote_137_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_134"><span class="label">137</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 240 and 248.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_135" id="Footnote_138_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_135"><span class="label">138</span></a> I, p. 324.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_136" id="Footnote_139_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_136"><span class="label">139</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 149.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_137" id="Footnote_140_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_137"><span class="label">140</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, p. 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_138" id="Footnote_141_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_138"><span class="label">141</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Medical Art</i>, pp. 397 and 414.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_139" id="Footnote_142_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_139"><span class="label">142</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_140" id="Footnote_143_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_140"><span class="label">143</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_141" id="Footnote_144_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_141"><span class="label">144</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, pp. 84 f</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_142" id="Footnote_145_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_142"><span class="label">145</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>, +p. 196.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_143" id="Footnote_146_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_143"><span class="label">146</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 237.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_144" id="Footnote_147_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_144"><span class="label">147</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, p. 92.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_145" id="Footnote_148_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_145"><span class="label">148</span></a> II, p. 139.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_146" id="Footnote_149_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_146"><span class="label">149</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 112 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_147" id="Footnote_150_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_147"><span class="label">150</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 237, 241, and 268.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_148" id="Footnote_151_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_148"><span class="label">151</span></a> <i>Diseases of the Skin</i>, p. 82.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_149" id="Footnote_152_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_149"><span class="label">152</span></a> II, p. 139.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_150" id="Footnote_153_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_150"><span class="label">153</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, p. 103.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_151" id="Footnote_154_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_151"><span class="label">154</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_152" id="Footnote_155_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_152"><span class="label">155</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 249 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_153" id="Footnote_156_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_153"><span class="label">156</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 245.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_154" id="Footnote_157_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_154"><span class="label">157</span></a> <i>History of England</i>, II, p. 296.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_155" id="Footnote_158_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_155"><span class="label">158</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 264.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_156" id="Footnote_159_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_156"><span class="label">159</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV, +p. 148.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_157" id="Footnote_160_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_157"><span class="label">160</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 414 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_158" id="Footnote_161_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_158"><span class="label">161</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, p. 108.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_159" id="Footnote_162_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_159"><span class="label">162</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_160" id="Footnote_163_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_160"><span class="label">163</span></a> Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 415 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_161" id="Footnote_164_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_161"><span class="label">164</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_162" id="Footnote_165_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_162"><span class="label">165</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 239.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_163" id="Footnote_166_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_163"><span class="label">166</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 240.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h3> + +<h4>ROYAL TOUCH</h4> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Men may die of imagination,</span> +<span class="i05">So depe may impression be take."—<span class="smcap">Chaucer</span>.</span> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"When time shall once have laid his lenient hand on the passions +and pursuits of the present moment, they too shall lose that imaginary +value which heated fancy now bestows upon them."—<span class="smcap">Blair</span>.<br /> + +"The king is but a man, as I am; the violet smells to him as it +does to me; the element shows to him as it doth to me; all his +senses have but human conditions; his ceremonies laid by, in his +nakedness he appears but a man; and though his affections are +higher mounted than ours, yet, when they stoop, they stoop with +the like wing."—<span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot2"><p> +<i>Malcolm.</i> Comes the king forth, I pray you?<br /> +<i>Doctor.</i> Ay, sir: there are a crew of wretched souls,<br /> +That stay his cure: their malady convinces<br /> +The great assay of art; but at his touch,<br /> +Such sanctity hath heaven given his hand,<br /> +They presently amend.<br /> +<i>Malcolm.</i> I thank you, doctor. [Exit <i>Doctor.</i><br /> +<i>Macduff.</i> What's the disease he means?<br /> +<i>Malcolm.</i> 'Tis call'd the evil:<br /> +A most miraculous work in this good king,<br /> +Which often, since my here remain in England,<br /> +I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven,<br /> +Himself best knows; but strangely-visited people,<br /> +All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye,<br /> +The mere despair of surgery, he cures;<br /> +Hanging a golden stamp about their necks,<br /> +Put on with holy prayers: and 'tis spoken,<br /> +To the succeeding royalty he leaves<br /> +The healing benediction.—<i>Macbeth</i>, Act iv, Sc. 3. +</p></div> + + + +<p>Perhaps we have no better example of the effect +of the belief in healers than that presented by what +was known as "king's touch." It is typical of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> +cures performed by healers, and on that account I +shall give a rather full account of the phenomenon.</p> + +<p>Touching by the sovereign for the amelioration +of sundry diseases was a currently accepted therapeutic +measure. The royal touch was especially +efficacious in epilepsy and scrofula, the latter being +consequently known as "king's-evil." So far as +we are able to trace this practice in history, it began +with Edward the Confessor in England and +St. Louis in France. There has been not a little +dispute concerning its real origin. "Laurentius, +first physician to Henry IV, of France, who is indignant +at the attempt made to derive its origin from +Edward the Confessor, asserts the power to have +commenced with Clovis I, A. D. 481, and says that +Louis I, A. D. 814, added to the ceremonial of +touching, the sign of the cross. Mezeray also says, +that St. Louis, through humility, first added the +sign of the cross in touching for the king's evil."<a name="FNanchor_167_164" id="FNanchor_167_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_164" class="fnanchor">167</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus5" id="illus5"></a><a href="images/illus5.jpg"><img src="images/illus5-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="635" alt="KING'S TOUCH-PIECES" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">KING'S TOUCH-PIECES</span></div> + +<p>William of Malmesbury gives the origin of the +royal touch in his account of the miracles of Edward +the Confessor. "A young woman had married a +husband of her own age, but having no issue by +the union, the humours collecting abundantly about +her neck, she had contracted a sore disorder, the +glands swelling in a dreadful manner. Admonished +in a dream to have the part affected washed by the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span>king, she entered the palace, and the king himself +fulfilled this labour of love, by rubbing the woman's +neck with his fingers dipped in water. Joyous +health followed his healing hand; the lurid skin +opened, so that worms flowed out with the purulent +matter, and the tumour subsided. But as the +orifice of the ulcers was large and unsightly, he +commanded her to be supported at the royal expense +until she should be perfectly cured. However, +before a week had expired, a fair new skin +returned, and hid the scars so completely, that +nothing of the original wound could be discovered; +and within a year becoming the mother of twins, +she increased the admiration of Edward's holiness. +Those who knew him more intimately, affirm that +he often cured this complaint in Normandy; whence +appears how false is the notion, who in our times +assert, that the cure of this disease does not proceed +from personal sanctity, but from hereditary virtue +in the royal line."<a name="FNanchor_168_165" id="FNanchor_168_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_165" class="fnanchor">168</a> The fact that Edward was a +saint as well as a king throws some light on the +subject, for many miracles were attributed to him. +Jeremy Collier maintained that the scrofula miracle +is hereditary upon all his successors, but we find +that not blood but royal prestige was the secret. +He said "that this prince cured the king's evil is +beyond dispute: and since the credit of this miracle +is unquestionable, I see no reason why we should +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>scruple believing the rest.... King Edward the +Confessor was the first that cured this distemper, +and from him it has descended as an hereditary +miracle upon all his successors. To dispute the +matter of fact, is to go to the excesses of skepticism, +to deny our senses, and be incredulous even to +ridiculousness."<a name="FNanchor_169_166" id="FNanchor_169_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_166" class="fnanchor">169</a></p> + +<p>The quotation given above from William of +Malmesbury is the earliest mention of the gift of healing +by the royal touch. No historian at or near the +time of Edward has alluded to the supposed power +vested in him. Not even the bull of Pope Alexander +III, by which Edward was canonized about +two centuries after his decease, makes any allusion +whatever to the cures effected by him through the +imposition of hands.</p> + +<p>English and French writers have disagreed not +only regarding the origin, but also regarding the +real possession of the power, the English denying +it to the French kings and the French with equal +vigor restricting it to their own sovereigns. There +seems to be little doubt that the sovereigns of both +nations made cures, but the healing was confined +to these two royal families; the intermarriages in +the two families probably account for the belief +in the transmission of the gift, regardless of the +origin.</p> + +<p>The ability to heal certain diseases passed down +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>from reign to reign notwithstanding the religious +belief, the character, or the legitimate succession of +the sovereign, to the time of Queen Anne. It must +not be supposed that the practice was continuous +for the seven centuries from Edward the Confessor +to Anne: we have no record whatever of the first +four Norman kings attempting to cure any one by +the imposition of hands, and we know that William +III refused to attempt healing. Andrew Boorde +defines king's-evil as an "euyl sickenes or impediment," +and advises as follows: "For this matter +let euery man make frendes to the Kynges maiestie, +for it doth pertayne to a Kynge to helpe this infirmitie +by the grace the whiche is geuen to a Kynge +anoynted." In his <i>Introduction to Knowledge</i> (1547-1548) +he continues: "The Kynges of England by +the power that God hath gyuen to them, dothe make +sicke men whole of a sickeness called the kynges +euyll."<a name="FNanchor_170_167" id="FNanchor_170_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_167" class="fnanchor">170</a></p> + +<p>There is a curious passage in Aubrey in which he +says: "The curing of the King's Evil by the touch +of the king, does much puzzle our philosophers, for +whether our kings were of the house of York or +Lancaster, it did the cure for the most part." Sir +John Fortescue, in defending the House of Lancaster +against the House of York, claimed that the +crown could not descend to a female because the +Queen was not qualified by the form of anointing +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> +her to cure the disease called the king's-evil. It +must have been very comforting to all concerned +to find that the power to cure disease by the royal +touch had not been affected by the change of sex +of the reigning sovereign.</p> + +<p>The gift was not impaired by the Reformation, +and an obdurate Roman Catholic was converted on +finding that Elizabeth, after the Pope's excommunication, +could cure his scrofula. Elizabeth, however, +could not bring herself fully to accept the +reality of these cures. She continued the practice +on account of the pressure of public opinion, but +upon one occasion she told a multitude of afflicted +ones who had applied to her for relief, "God alone +can cure your diseases." Dr. Tooker, the Queen's +chaplain, though, certified freely to his own knowledge +of the cures wrought by her, as did also +William Cowles, the Queen's surgeon. Robert +Laneham's letter, concerning the Queen's visit to +Kenilworth Castle, relates how, on July 18, 1575, +her Majesty touched for the evil, and that it +was a "day of grace." "By her highnes accustumed +mercy and charitee, nyne cured of the peynfull +and daungerous diseaz, called the king's euill; +for that Kings and Queenz of this Realm withoout +oother medsin (saue only by handling and prayerz) +only doo cure it."</p> + +<p>James I wished to drop it as a worn-out superstition, +but was warned by his advisers that to do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span> +so would be to abate a prerogative of the crown; +the practice therefore continued, and good testimony +exists as to the cures wrought by him. The +following is an extract from a letter from John +Chamberlain to Sir Dudley Carleton, ambassador at +The Hague, dated London, 14th November, 1618: +"The Turkish Chiaus is shortly coming for the Hagh. +On Tuesday last he took leave of the king, and +thanked his majesty for healing his sonne of the +kinges evill; which his majesty performed with all +solemnity at Whitehall on Thursday was seve-night." +Charles I also enjoyed the same power, +notwithstanding the public declaration by Parliament +"to inform the people of the superstition of +being touched by the king for the evil." When a +prisoner he cured a man by simply saying, "God +bless thee and grant thee thy desire," the Puritans +not permitting him to touch the patient. Whereupon +it is asserted by Dr. John Nicholas on his own +knowledge, the blotches and humors disappeared +from the patient's body and appeared in the bottle +of medicine which he held in his hand. Charles's +blood had the same efficacy. This sovereign substituted +in some cases the giving of a piece of silver +instead of the gold, which was usually presented to +the patient. Badger says that this king "excelled +all his predecessors in the divine gift; for it is manifest +beyond all contradiction, that he not only cured +by his sacred touch, both with and without gold,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> +but likewise perfectly effected the same cure by his +prayer and benediction only." In his reign the gift +was exercised at certain seasons of the year, Easter +and Michaelmas being at first set apart for this +purpose. A further regulation, which is quite suggestive, +was that the patient must present a certificate +to the effect that he had never before been +touched for the disease.</p> + +<p>The following incident is related concerning +Charles I: "A young gentlewoman of about sixteen +years of age, Elizabeth Stevens, of Winchester, +came (7 October, 1648) into the presence-chamber +to be touched for the evill, which she was supposed +to have; and therewith one of her eyes (that namely +on the left side) was so much indisposed, that by +her owne and her mother's testimony (who was then +also present), she had not seene with that eye of +above a month before. After prayers, read by Dr. +Sanderson, the maide kneeled downe among others, +likewise to be touched. And his majestie touched +her, and put a ribbon, with a piece of money at it, +in usuall manner, about her neck. Which done, +his majesty turned to the lords (viz., the duke of +Richmond, the earl of Southampton, and the earl +of Lindsey) to discourse with them. And the said +young gentlewoman of her own accord said openly: +'Now, God be praised! I can see of this fore eye.' +And afterwards declared she did see more and more +by it, & could, by degrees, endure the light of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> +candle. All which his majestie, in the presence of +the said lords & many others, examined himself, & +found to be true. And it hath since been discovered +that, some months agone, the said young gentlewoman +professed that, as soon as she was come of +age sufficient, she would convey over to the king's +use all her land; which to the valew of about £130 +<i>per annum</i>, her father deceased had left her sole +heyre unto."<a name="FNanchor_171_168" id="FNanchor_171_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_168" class="fnanchor">171</a></p> + +<p>Charles II, perhaps the most unworthy of English +monarchs, was by far the busiest healer, and +even while in exile in the Netherlands he retained +the power to cure. In one month he touched two +hundred and sixty at Breda, and Lower said: "It +was not without success, since it was the experience +that drew thither every day a great number of +those diseased even from the most remote provinces +of Germany." An official register of the persons +touched was kept for every month in his reign, but +about two and a half years appear to be wanting. +The smallest number he touched in one year was +2,983; that was in 1669. In 1682 he touched 8,500 +persons. In 1684 the throng was such that six or +seven of the sick were trampled to death. The +total number touched in his reign was 92,107.<a name="FNanchor_172_169" id="FNanchor_172_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_169" class="fnanchor">172</a> It +is instructive to note, however, that while in no +other reign were so many people touched for scrofula +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span> +and so many cures vouched for, in no other reign +did so many people die of that disease.<a name="FNanchor_173_170" id="FNanchor_173_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_170" class="fnanchor">173</a></p> + +<p>John Browne, surgeon in ordinary to his majesty +and to St. Thomas's Hospital, and author of many +learned works on surgery and anatomy, published +accounts of sixty cures due to this monarch. He +says a surgeon attested the reality of the disease +before the miracle was performed, to exclude impostors +who were seeking the gold, for, in addition +to the regular formula, the king hung about the neck +of the person touched a ribbon to which was attached +a gold coin. Notwithstanding these stringent +measures, some were able to impose on the king, +for the coins were often found in the shops, having +been sold by the recipients. Says Brand: "Barrington +tells us of an old man who was a witness in +a cause, and averred that when Queen Anne was +at Oxford, she touched him whilst a child for the +evil. Barrington, when he had finished his evidence, +'asked him whether he was really cured? upon +which he answered with a significant smile, that he +believed himself never to have had a complaint +that deserved to be considered as the Evil, but that +his parents were poor, and had no objection to the +bit of gold.'"<a name="FNanchor_174_171" id="FNanchor_174_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_171" class="fnanchor">174</a></p> + +<p>While it was not unknown before, the presentation +of a piece of gold was first generally introduced +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>in the reign of Henry VII. It probably descended +from a practice common in the time of Edward III, +whose coin, the rose-noble, is said to have been worn +as an amulet to preserve from danger in battle. The +angel-noble of Henry VII, valued at ten shillings, +appears to have been the coin given; it was in common +use and not made especially for this purpose. +It had the figure of the Archangel Michael on one +side and a ship in full sail on the other. Before +hanging it on the patient's neck the monarch always +crossed the sore with it. The outlay for gold coins +presented to the afflicted on these occasions rose +in some years as high as £10,000. So great was +the expense that after the reign of Elizabeth the +size of the coin was reduced. Touching pieces of +the time of Charles II are not rare even now.</p> + +<p>In 1684 Surgeon John Browne published a curious +work entitled <i>Adenochoiradelogia: or an Anatomick-Chirurgical +Treatise on Glandules and Strumæs, +or King's Evil Swellings</i>. In this the author traces +the gift of healing from our Saviour to the apostles, +and thence by a continuous line of Christian kings +and governors, and holy men, commencing with +Edward the Confessor, whom he regards as the first +curer of scrofula by contact or imposition of hands. +After referring to his majesty in most flattering +terms, he continues concerning "the admirable +effects and wonderful events of his royal cure +throughout all nations, where not only English,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> +Dutch, Scotch, and Irish have reaped ease and cure, +but French, Germans, and all countreyes whatsoever, +far and near, have abundantly seen and received +the same: and none ever, hitherto, I am +certain, mist thereof, unless their little faith and +incredulity starved their merits, or they received +his gracious hand for curing another disease, which +was not really evermore allowed to be cured by +him; and as bright evidences hereof, I have presumed +to offer that some have immediately upon +the very touch been cured; others not so easily +quitted from their swellings till the favor of a +second repetition thereof. Some also, losing their +gold, their diseases have seized them afresh, and no +sooner have these obtained a second touch, and +new gold, but their diseases have been seen to vanish, +as being afraid of his majesties presence; wherein +also have been cured many without gold; and this +may contradict such who must needs have the king +give them gold as well as his touch, supposing one +invalid without the gift of both. Others seem also +as ready for a second change of gold as a second +touch, whereas their first being newly strung upon +white riband, may work as well (by their favour). +The tying the Almighty to set times and particular +days is also another great fault of those who can +by no means be brought to believe but at Good +Friday and the like seasons this healing faculty is of +more vigour and efficacy than at any other time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span> +although performed by the same hand. As to the +giving of gold, this only shows his majesties royal +well-wishes towards the recovery of those who come +thus to be healed."<a name="FNanchor_175_172" id="FNanchor_175_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_172" class="fnanchor">175</a> He refers to some "Atheists, +Sadducees, and ill-conditioned Pharisees" who disbelieved, +and he gives the letter of one who went, +a complete sceptic, to satisfy his friends, and came +away cured and converted.</p> + +<p>Browne includes the following case which seems +to him conclusive: "A Nonconformist child, in +Norfolk, being troubled with scrofulous swellings, +the late deceased Sir Thomas Browne, of Norwich, +being consulted about the same, his majesty being +then at Breda or Bruges, he advised the parents of +the child to have it carried over to the king (his +own method being used ineffectively); the father +seemed very strange at this advice, and utterly +denied it, saying the touch of the king was of no +greater efficacy than any other man's. The mother +of the child, adhering to the doctor's advice, studied +all imaginable means to have it over, and at last +prevailed with her husband to let it change the air +for three weeks or a month; this being granted, the +friends of the child that went with it, unknown +to the father, carried it to Breda, where the king +touched it, and she returned home perfectly healed. +The child being come to its father's house, and he +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>finding so great an alteration, inquires how his +daughter arrived at this health. The friends thereof +assured him, that if he would not be angry with +them, they would relate the whole truth; they, +having his promise for the same, assured him they +had the child to be touched at Breda, whereby they +apparently let him see the great benefit his child +received thereby. Hereupon the father became so +amazed that he threw off his Nonconformity, and +expressed his thanks in this manner: 'Farewell to +all dissenters, and to all nonconformists; if God can +put so much virtue into the king's hand as to heal +my child, I'll serve that God and that king so long +as I live, with all thankfulness.'"<a name="FNanchor_176_173" id="FNanchor_176_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_173" class="fnanchor">176</a> It is unfortunate +that we have a change of air and food to consider +in this case, else we might have a good example +of a real miracle.</p> + +<p>Friday was usually set apart in this reign as the +regular day for healing, but, in addition to this, +special portions of the church year were reserved +for the exercise of this gift. Very careful examinations +were made by the surgeons, and those who +were found to be suffering from the evil were presented +with a ticket by the surgeon which entitled +them to receive the healing touch of the king. If +the king's touch were really efficacious, one might +think that the disease should have been wholly +exterminated during this reign, so great were the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> +number touched. On the contrary, the deaths were +more numerous, and on account of the neglect of +medical and surgical means it spread very widely.</p> + +<p>James II, it is said by Dr. Heylin, also wrought +cures upon babes in their mothers' arms, and the +fame of these cures was so great that the year before +James was dethroned, a pauper of Portsmouth, +New Hampshire, petitioned the general assembly to +enable him to make the voyage to England to be +healed by the royal touch. In one of his progresses +James touched eight hundred persons in Chester +Cathedral.</p> + +<p>William III evidently thought of the matter as +a superstition, and on one occasion he touched a +patient, saying to him, "God give you better health +and more sense"; notwithstanding the incredulity +of the sovereign, Whiston assures us that the person +was healed. With honest good sense, however, +William refused to exercise the power which most +of his subjects undoubtedly thought he possessed, +and many protests were made, and much proof +was adduced concerning "the balsamic virtues of +the royal hand." This refusal to continue the +practice of touching brought upon him the charge +of cruelty from the parents of scrofulous children, +while bigots lifted up their hands and eyes in holy +horror at his impiety.</p> + +<p>Dr. Samuel Johnson was one of the last persons +to receive the imposition of royal hands; when a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> +boy of four and a half years, he was touched by +Queen Anne, together with about two hundred +others, on March 30, 1712. In his case at least the +touch was inefficacious, for he was subject to scrofula +all his life. Boswell says:<a name="FNanchor_177_174" id="FNanchor_177_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_174" class="fnanchor">177</a> "His mother, yielding +to the superstitious notion, which, it is wonderful +to think, prevailed so long in this country, as to the +virtue of the royal touch; a notion which our kings +encouraged, and to which a man of such inquiry +and such judgment as Carte could give credit, carried +him to London, where he was actually touched +by Queen Anne. Mrs. Johnson, indeed, as Mr. +Hector informed me, acted by the advice of the +celebrated Sir John Floyer, then a physician in +Litchfield." At this time few persons but Jacobites +believed in king's touch as a miracle. Dr. Daniel +Turner, though, relates that several cases of scrofula +which had been unsuccessfully treated by himself +and Dr. Charles Bernard, sergeant-surgeon to +her majesty, yielded afterwards to the efficacy of +the queen's touch.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Anne the sceptics outnumbered +the believers and at her death the practice +was discontinued. Among the unbelievers was the +above-mentioned Dr. Charles Bernard, an account +of whose conversion is given by Oldmixon as follows: +"Yesterday the queen was graciously pleased +to touch for the King's evil some particular persons +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>in private; and three weeks after, December 19, +yesterday, about twelve at noon her majesty was +pleased to touch, at St. James', about twenty persons +afflicted with the King's evil. The more ludicrous +sort of skeptics, in this case, asked why it +was not called the queen's evil, as the chief court of +justice was called the Queen's Bench. But Charles +Bernard, the surgeon who had made this touching +the subject of his raillery all his lifetime till he became +body surgeon at court, and found it a good +perquisite, solved all difficulties by telling his companions +with a fleer '<i>Really one could not have +thought it, if one had not seen it</i>.' A friend of mine +heard him say it, and knew well his opinion of it."<a name="FNanchor_178_175" id="FNanchor_178_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_175" class="fnanchor">178</a></p> + +<p>In 1745 there was an attempted revival of the +practice when Prince Charles Edward exercised this +prerogative of royalty.</p> + +<p>Henry VII was the first monarch to establish a +particular ceremony to be observed at the healings. +He probably derived this from an old form of exorcism +used for the dispossessing of evil spirits. This +was altered at various times but may still be found +in the prayer-book of the reign of Queen Anne. +Indeed, it was not until some time after the accession +of George I that the University of Oxford +ceased to reprint the office of healing, together with +the Liturgy.</p> + +<p>The routes to be travelled by royal personages +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>and the days on which the miracle was to be wrought +were fixed at sittings of the Privy Council, and the +clergy of all the parish churches of the realm were +solemnly notified. They, in turn, informed the +people, and the sufferers along the way had many +days in which to cherish the expectation of healing, +in itself so beneficial. The ceremony was conducted +with great solemnity and pomp. It has been vividly +described by Macaulay as follows: "When the appointed +time came, several divines in full canonicals +stood round the canopy of state. The surgeon of the +royal household introduced the sick. A passage of +Mark 16. was read. When the words 'They shall lay +their hands on the sick and they shall recover,' had +been pronounced, there was a pause and one of the +sick was brought to the king. His Majesty stroked +the ulcers and swellings, and hung round the patient's +neck a white ribbon to which was fastened +a gold coin. The other sufferers were led up in +succession; and as each was touched the chaplain +repeated the incantation, 'They shall lay their +hands on the sick and they shall recover.' Then +came the epistle, prayers, antiphonies, and a benediction."</p> + +<p>Evelyn, in his <i>Diary</i>, gives us the form employed +by Charles II in July, 1660, as follows: "His +Majestie first began to touch for evil according to +costume, thus—His majestie sitting under his state +in the Banquetting House, the Chirurgeons cause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> +the sick to be brought or led up to the throne, where +they kneeling, the King strokes their faces or cheekes +with both his hands at once, at which instant a +Chaplaine in his formalities says: 'He put his hands +on them and he healed them.' This is sayed to +every one in particular. When they have all been +touched they come up againe in the same order; +and the other Chaplaine kneeling, and having angel-gold +strung on white ribbon on his arme, delivers +them one by one to his Majestie, who puts them +about the necks of the touched as they passe, whilst +the first Chaplaine repeats: 'That is the true light +who came into the world.' Then follows an Epistle +(as at first, a Gospel) with the Liturgy, prayers for +the sick with some alteration, lastly the blessing: +and the Lo. Chamberlaine and Comptroller of the +Household, bring a basin, ewer, and towel for his +Majestie to wash."<a name="FNanchor_179_176" id="FNanchor_179_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_176" class="fnanchor">179</a></p> + +<p>The belief in the efficacy of the king's touch was +general, and Lecky tells us its genuineness "was +asserted by the privy council, by the bishops of +two religions, by the general voice of the clergy in +the palmiest days of the English Church, by the +University of Oxford, and by the enthusiastic assent +of the people. It survived the ages of the +Reformation, of Bacon, of Milton, and of Hobbes. +It was by no means extinct at the age of Locke, +and would probably have lasted still longer, had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span> +not the change of dynasty at the Revolution assisted +the tardy scepticism."<a name="FNanchor_180_177" id="FNanchor_180_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_177" class="fnanchor">180</a></p> + +<p>In France there was the same belief in the efficacy +of the royal touch. Philip I exercised the gift, but +the French historians say that he was deprived of +the power on account of the irregularity of his life. +Laurentius reports that Francis I, when a prisoner +in Spain, cured a great number of people of struma +(scrofula). A paraphrase of the Latin verse which +Lascaris wrote concerning this event is as follows:</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The king applies his hand, diseases fly,</span> +<span class="i05">And though a captive, still the powers on high</span> +<span class="i05">Regard his touch. This striking proof is giv'n,</span> +<span class="i05">That they who bound him are the foes of Heav'n."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Concerning the touching by the kings of France, +Pettigrew says: "In the church of St. Maclou, in +St. Denys, Heylin (<i>Cosmograph.</i>, p. 184) says the +kings of France, with a fast of nine days and other +penances, used to receive the gift of healing the +king's evil with nothing but a touch." Philip de +Comines states, that the king always confessed before +the cure of the king's evil. Butler (<i>Lives of the +Saints</i>, vol. VIII, p. 394) says, 'The French kings +usually only perform this ceremony on the day they +have received the holy communion.' The historians +who write under the first two families of the +French kings are altogether silent as to the kings' +curing the evil by the touching. (<i>Veyrard Trav.</i>, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> +p. 109.) Philip of Valois is reported to have cured +1400 people afflicted with the king's evil. Of Louis +XIII, it was said that he had assigned all his power +to Cardinal Richelieu, except that of curing the +king's evil. Carte says, some of the French writers +ascribe the gift of healing to their king's devotion +toward the relics of St. Marculf, in the church +of Corbigny, in Champagne: to which the kings +of France, immediately after their coronation at +Rheims, used to go in solemn procession. A veneration +was also paid to this saint in England, and +a room in memory of him, in the palace of Westminster, +has frequently been mentioned in the Rolls +of Parliament, and which was called the Chamber +of St. Marculf, being, as Carte conjectures, probably +the place where the kings used to touch for the +evil. This room was afterward called the Painted +Chamber. The French kings practised the touch +extensively. Gemelli, the traveller, states, that +Louis XIV touched 1600 persons on Easter Sunday, +1686.<a name="FNanchor_181_178" id="FNanchor_181_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_178" class="fnanchor">181</a> The words he used were, 'Le Roy te touche, +Dieu te guérisse.' Every Frenchman received fifteen +sous, and every foreigner thirty. The French +kings kept up the practice to 1776."<a name="FNanchor_182_179" id="FNanchor_182_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_179" class="fnanchor">182</a></p> + +<p>"Servetus," says Hammond, "who was not of a +credulous mind, says in the first edition of his <i>Ptolemy</i>, +published in 1535, that he had seen the king +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span> +touch many persons for the disease, but he had +never seen any that were cured thereby. But the +last clause of this sentence excited the ire of the +censor, and in the next edition, published in 1541, +the words '<i>an sanati fuerint non vidi</i>' were changed +to '<i>pluresque sanatos passim audivi</i>': 'I have heard +of many that were cured.' Testimony in support +of miracles has often been manufactured, but the +natural obstinacy and truthfulness of Servetus +would not admit of his giving his personal endorsement +at the expense of his convictions."<a name="FNanchor_183_180" id="FNanchor_183_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_180" class="fnanchor">183</a></p> + +<p>Within the last half-century we have had an +example of the value of the royal touch. When +cholera was raging in Naples in 1865, and the people +were rushing from the city by thousands, King +Victor Emmanuel went the rounds of the hospitals +in an endeavor to stimulate courage in the hearts of +his people. He lingered at the bedside of the patients +and spoke encouraging words to them. On +a cot lay one man already marked for death. The +king stepped to his side, and pressing his damp, icy +hand, said, "Take courage, poor man, and try to +recover soon." That evening the physicians reported +a diminution of the disease in the course +of the day, and the man marked for death out of +danger. The king had unconsciously worked a marvellous +cure.<a name="FNanchor_184_181" id="FNanchor_184_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_181" class="fnanchor">184</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> +It seems certain that there was not the efficacy +in king's touch which was claimed for it, or it would +not have been discontinued after having held sway +for over seven hundred years. No doubt the quasi-religious +character of the office of the sovereign +helped much in the belief, and when such men as +Charles II were able to heal, little connection between +religion and healing could longer be thought +possible, as far as the healing by king's touch was +concerned.</p> + +<p>The Hallowing of Cramp Rings was not unlike +the king's touch. It is described by Bishop Percy +in his <i>Northumberland Household Book</i>, where we +have the following account: "And then the Usher +to lay a Carpett for the Kinge to Creepe to the +Crosse upon. An that done, there shal be a Forme +sett upon the Carpett, before the Crucifix, and a +Cushion laid upon it for the King to kneale upon. +And the Master of the Jewell Howse ther to be +ready with the Booke concerninge the Hallowing of +the Crampe Rings, and Amner (Almoner) muste +kneele on the right hand of the King, holdinge the +sayde booke. When that is done the King shall rise +and goe to the Alter, wheare a Gent. Usher shall be +redie with a Cushion for the Kinge to kneele upon; +and then the greatest Lords that shall be ther to +take the Bason with the Rings and beare them +after the Kinge to offer."</p> + +<p>In the Harleian Manuscripts there is a letter from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span> +Lord Chancellor Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith, dated +September 11, 158-, about a prevailing epidemic, and +enclosing a ring for Queen Elizabeth to wear between +her breasts, the said ring having "the virtue +to expell infectious airs."</p> + +<p>Andrew Boorde, already quoted, says: "The +Kynges of England doth halowe euery yere crampe +rynges, the whyche rynges, worne on ones fynger, +dothe helpe them the whyche hath the crampe."<a name="FNanchor_185_182" id="FNanchor_185_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_182" class="fnanchor">185</a> +Also, "The kynges majesty hath a great help in this +matter, in hallowynge crampe rynges, and so given +without money or petition."</p> + +<p>In the account of the ceremony given by Hospinian, +he states that "it was performed upon Good +Friday, and that it originated from a ring which +had been brought to King Edward by some persons +from Jerusalem, and one which he himself hath long +before given privately to a poor petitioner who +asked alms of him for the love he bore to St. John +the Evangelist. This ring was preserved with great +veneration in Westminster Abbey, and whoever +was touched by this relic was said to be cured of the +cramp or of the falling sickness." Burnet informs +us that Bishop Gardiner was at Rome in 1529, and +that he wrote a letter to Ann Boleyn, by which it +appears that Henry VIII blessed the cramp rings +before as well as after the separation from Rome, +and that she sent them as great presents thither. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> +"Mr. Stephens, I send you here cramp rings for you +and Mr. Gregory and Mr. Peter, praying you to distribute +them as you think best.—<span class="smcap">Ann Boleyn.</span>"<a name="FNanchor_186_183" id="FNanchor_186_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_183" class="fnanchor">186</a></p> + +<p>This ceremonial was practised by previous sovereigns +and discontinued by Edward VI. Queen +Mary intended to revive it, and, indeed, the office +for it was written out, but she does not appear to +have carried her intentions into effect.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_164" id="Footnote_167_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_164"><span class="label">167</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and +Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 154 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_165" id="Footnote_168_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_165"><span class="label">168</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 372.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_166" id="Footnote_169_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_166"><span class="label">169</span></a> <i>Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain</i>, I, p. 225.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_167" id="Footnote_170_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_167"><span class="label">170</span></a> Quoted by Berdoe, <i>ibid.</i>, p. 371.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_168" id="Footnote_171_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_168"><span class="label">171</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, pp. 257 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_169" id="Footnote_172_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_169"><span class="label">172</span></a> T. B. Macaulay, <i>History of England</i>, III, pp. 378 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_170" id="Footnote_173_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_170"><span class="label">173</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, +II, p. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_171" id="Footnote_174_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_171"><span class="label">174</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 256.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_172" id="Footnote_175_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_172"><span class="label">175</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and +Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 182-184.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_173" id="Footnote_176_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_173"><span class="label">176</span></a> Quoted by H. Tuke, <i>Influence of the Mind upon the Body</i>, pp. 359 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_174" id="Footnote_177_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_174"><span class="label">177</span></a> <i>Life of Johnson</i>, I, p. 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_175" id="Footnote_178_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_175"><span class="label">178</span></a> <i>History of England</i>, II, p. 302.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_176" id="Footnote_179_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_176"><span class="label">179</span></a> Vol. I, p. 323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_177" id="Footnote_180_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_177"><span class="label">180</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, p. 364.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_178" id="Footnote_181_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_178"><span class="label">181</span></a> This was at Versailles.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_179" id="Footnote_182_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_179"><span class="label">182</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and +Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 156 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_180" id="Footnote_183_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_180"><span class="label">183</span></a> W. A. Hammond, <i>Spiritism and Nervous Derangement</i>, p. 150.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_181" id="Footnote_184_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_181"><span class="label">184</span></a> C. L. Tuckey, <i>Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion</i>, p. 30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_182" id="Footnote_185_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_182"><span class="label">185</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 371.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_183" id="Footnote_186_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_183"><span class="label">186</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, p. 117.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h3> + +<h4>MESMER AND AFTER</h4> + +<div class="poem2"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Some deemed them wondrous wise,</span> +<span class="i05">And some believed them mad."—<span class="smcap">Beattie</span>.</span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"A perfect medicine for bodies that be sick</span> +<span class="i05">Of all infirmities to be relieved;</span> +<span class="i05">This heleth nature and prolongeth lyfe eke."</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Probably</span> no one would claim that the phenomena +now grouped under the head of hypnotism were +unknown before the end of the sixteenth century. +They are as old as man, yes, probably older, since +we know that some of the same phenomena apply +to animals. But the claim might well be made that +while isolated facts of this kind were well known, +especially in the East, no scientific collaboration +and explanation were attempted until this time.</p> + +<p>As with all other departments of science, we may +trace a gradual development. Astrology of old +taught the influence of the stars upon men, which +doctrine was accepted by the great physician Theophrastus +Paracelsus (1490-1541). This, however, +was only part of his belief: the human body was +endowed with a double magnetism; one portion +attracted to itself the planets and was nourished +by them, the result of which was the mental powers;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span> +the other portion attracted and disintegrated the +elements, from which process resulted the body. +He also claimed that the magnetic virtue of healthy +persons attracted the enfeebled magnetism of the +sick. With this theory of animal magnetism, it +was only natural that he should value the use of the +magnet very highly in the cure of diseases. This +dual theory of magnetic cures, that of the magnetic +influence of men on men and of the magnet on man, +was prevalent for over a century, and found its +latest exponent in Mesmer.</p> + +<p>Following Paracelsus, Glocenius, Burgrave, Helinotius, +Robert Fludd, and Kircher believed that the +magnet represented the universal principle by which +all natural phenomena might be explained. This +principle, existing as it did in the human body, was +an important factor in health and disease. The +great chemist Von Helmont (1577-1644) taught +more precisely that a power resided in man by +which he could magnetically affect others, and +thereby cure the sick who were most influenced by +it. He published a work on the effects of magnetism +on the human frame.</p> + +<p>About the same time Balthazar Gracian, a Spaniard, +boldly proclaimed his views. "The magnet," +he said, "attracts iron; iron is found everywhere; +everything, therefore, is under the influence of magnetism.... It +is the same agent which gives rise to +sympathy, antipathy, and the passions." Baptista +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>Porta (1543-1615), one of the originators of the +weapon-salve, had also great faith in the magnet. +So effective was his work on the imaginations of +his patients that he was considered a magician and +prohibited from practising by the court of Rome. +Sebastian Wirdig, professor of medicine at the University +of Rostock, in Mecklenburg, wrote a treatise +on "The New Medicine of the Spirits" which he +presented to the Royal Society of London in 1673. +He maintained that a magnetic influence took place, +not only between the celestial and terrestrial bodies, +but between all living things. The whole world +was under the influence of magnetism: life was preserved +by magnetism, death was the consequence +of magnetism.</p> + +<p>Maxwell (1581-1640) propagated somewhat the +same doctrine. He was a firm believer in sympathetic +cures, and assumed a vital spirit of the universe +which related all bodies. It was probably +from this that Mesmer got his idea of what he called +the universal fluid. It would seem, however, that +Maxwell was aware of the great influence of imagination +and suggestion. He said: "If you wish to +work prodigies, abstract from the materiality of +beings—increase the sum of spirituality in bodies—rouse +the spirit from its slumbers. Unless you +do one or other of these things—unless you can +bind the idea, you can never perform anything good +or great." About the same time, in Italy, Santanelli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> +propagated the theory of a universal fluid. Everything +material possessed a radiating atmosphere +which operated magnetically. He also recognized, +however, the great influence of the imagination.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus6" id="illus6"></a><a href="images/illus6.jpg"><img src="images/illus6-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="481" alt="F. A. MESMER" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">F. A. MESMER</span></div> + +<p>About the year 1771, Father Hell, a Jesuit, and +professor of astronomy at the University of Vienna, +became famous through his magnetic cures, and +invented steel plates of a peculiar form which he +applied to the naked body as a cure for several diseases. +In 1774 he communicated his system to +Mesmer, the man who, more than any one else, +drew the world's attention to the investigation of +mental healing. Various estimates have been made +of Mesmer's character and he frequently has been +condemned. He was fond of display, but it is doubtful +if he was more avaricious than most persons who +lived before and have lived since. He was evidently +honest in his scientific investigations and +opinions, and this is our main concern.</p> + +<p>Friederich Antony Mesmer (1733-1815) was born +at Mersbury, in Swabia, and studied medicine at the +University of Vienna. He read freely the books +written by the authors already mentioned, and +accepted much of their teaching. His originality +consisted principally in applying to the sick this +universal principle, by means of contact and passes, +while his predecessors infused the vital spirit through +the use of talismans and of magic boxes. He took +his medical degree in 1766 and chose as the subject<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> +of his inaugural dissertation "The Influence of the +Planets in the Cure of Diseases." In this dissertation +he maintained "that the sun, moon, and fixed +stars mutually affect each other in their orbits; +that they cause and direct in our earth a flux and +reflux not only in the sea, but in the atmosphere, +and affect in a similar manner all organized bodies +through the medium of a subtle and mobile fluid, +which pervades the universe, and associates all +things together in mutual intercourse and harmony." +This influence, he said, was particularly exercised +on the nervous system, and produced two +states, which he called <i>intension</i> and <i>remission</i>, +which seemed to him to account for the different +periodical revolutions observable in several maladies.</p> + +<p>Eight years later he met Father Hell, and after +trying some experiments with his metallic plates +was astonished at his success. He continued working +with Hell for some time, but they finally quarrelled, +and shortly afterward he stumbled upon his +theory of animal magnetism. After this he no +longer used the magnet in healing. The Academy +of Science at Berlin examined his claims, but their +report was far from favorable or flattering. Nevertheless, +writing to a friend from Vienna, he said: +"I have observed that the magnetic is almost the +same as the electric fluid, and that it may be propagated +in the same manner, by means of intermediate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> +bodies. Steel is not the only substance adapted +to this purpose. I have rendered paper, bread, +wool, silk, stones, leather, glass, wood, men, and +dogs—in short, every thing I touched—magnetic +to such a degree, that these substances produced +the same effects as the loadstone on diseased persons. +I have charged jars with magnetic matter in +the same way as is done with electricity." About +this time he was nominated a member of the Academy +of Bavaria.</p> + +<p>Leaving Vienna and travelling through Swabia +and Switzerland, he met Gassner and witnessed +some of his cures. Mesmer claimed that they were +performed by his newly discovered magnetism. He +arrived in Paris in 1778 and found this city more +receptive to his arts. He at first established himself +in an humble quarter of the city and began to +expound his theory. The following year he published +a paper in which he summed up his claims in +twenty-seven assertions to which he rigidly held +through his life. His doctrines were well received, +and acquired an impetus at the beginning by the +conversion of one of the leading physicians of the +faculty of medicine, Deslon, the Comte d'Artois' +first physician.</p> + +<p>Pupils and patients now flocked to him. The +crowd was so great that Mesmer employed a <i>valet +toucheur</i> to magnetize in his place. This was not +sufficient; he then invented the famous <i>baquet</i>, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span> +trough, around which thirty persons might simultaneously +be magnetized. This <i>baquet</i> is described +as follows: "A circular, oaken case, about a foot +high, was placed in the middle of a large hall, hung +with thick curtains, through which only a soft and +subdued light was allowed to penetrate; this was +the <i>baquet</i>. At the bottom of the case, on a layer +of powdered glass and iron filings, there lay full +bottles, symmetrically arranged, so that the necks +of all converged toward the centre; other bottles +were arranged in the opposite direction, with their +necks toward the circumference. All these objects +were immersed in water, but this condition was +not absolutely necessary, and the <i>baquet</i> might be +dry. The lid was pierced with a certain number +of holes, whence there issued jointed and moving +iron branches, which were to be held by the +patients. Absolute silence was maintained. The +patients were ranged in several rows round the +<i>baquet</i>, connected with each other by cords passed +round their bodies, and by a second chain, formed +by joining hands."<a name="FNanchor_187_184" id="FNanchor_187_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_184" class="fnanchor">187</a></p> + +<p>Additional features were provided to heighten +the effect of the magnetic charm. "Richly stained +glass shed a dim religious light on his spacious +saloons, which were almost covered with mirrors. +Orange blossoms scented all the air of his corridors; +incense of the most expensive kinds burned in an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span>tique +vases on his chimney-pieces; æolian harps +sighed melodious music from distant chambers; +while sometimes a sweet female voice, from above +or below, stole softly upon the mysterious silence +that was kept in the house and insisted upon from +all visitors."<a name="FNanchor_188_185" id="FNanchor_188_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_185" class="fnanchor">188</a></p> + +<p>Bailly, the historian and celebrated astronomer, +an eye-witness, describes the results. "Some patients +remain calm and experience nothing; others +cough, spit, feel slight pain, a local or general heat, +and fall into sweats; others are agitated and tormented +by convulsions. These convulsions are +remarkable for their number, duration, and force, +and have been known to persist for more than three +hours. They are characterized by involuntary, +jerking movements in all the limbs, and in the whole +body, by contraction of the throat, by twitchings +in the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, by +dimness and rolling of the eyes, by piercing cries, +tears, hiccough, and immoderate laughter. They +are preceded or followed by a state of languor or +dreaminess, by a species of depression, and even by +stupor.</p> + +<p>"The slightest sudden noise causes the patient to +start, and it has been observed that he is affected +by a change of time or tune in the airs performed +on the pianoforte; that his agitation is increased by +a more lively movement, and that his convulsions +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> +then become more violent. Patients are seen to be +absorbed in the search for one another, rushing together, +smiling, talking affectionately, and endeavoring +to modify their crises. They are all so submissive +to the magnetizer that even when they appear +to be in a stupor, his voice, a glance, or a sign will +rouse them from it. It is impossible not to admit, +from all these results, that some great force acts +upon and masters the patients, and that this force +appears to reside in the magnetizer. This convulsive +state is termed the <i>crisis</i>. It has been observed +that many women and few men are subject +to such crises; that they are only established after +the lapse of two or three hours, and that when one +is established, others soon and successively begin.</p> + +<p>"When the agitation exceeds certain limits, the +patients are transported into a padded room; the +women's corsets are unlaced, and they may then +strike their heads against the padded walls without +doing themselves any injury." Notwithstanding +these means, thousands were healed of their diseases.</p> + +<p>"It is impossible," says Baron Dupotet, "to conceive +the sensation which Mesmer's experiments +created in Paris. No theological controversy, in +the earlier ages of the Catholic Church, was ever +conducted with greater bitterness." He was called +a quack, a fool, and a demon, while his friends were +as extravagant in his praise as his foes in their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> +censure. After this great excitement, his life may +largely be summed up in his challenges to different +societies, the appointment of commissions, their examinations, +and their reports.</p> + +<p>On the advice of Deslon he challenged the Faculty +of Medicine, proposing to select twenty-four patients, +of whom twelve should be treated according +to the old and approved methods and twelve magnetically, +the cures to prove the efficacy of the treatment. +The faculty declined to accept the conditions. +Deslon asked his colleagues on the faculty +to summon a general meeting to examine the matter. +Through the influence of M. de Vauzesmes, +the meeting was very hostile to him, and he was +condemned and threatened with having his name +removed from the list of licensed physicians if he +did not reform.</p> + +<p>Mesmer now wrote to Marie Antoinette suggesting +that the government furnish him with houses, land, +and a princely fortune to enable him to carry on his +experiments untroubled. The government finally +offered him a pension of 20,000 francs, and the +cross of the order of St. Michael, if he had made any +discovery in medicine, and would communicate it +to the physicians whom the king should name. +Mesmer refused the conditions and left Paris.</p> + +<p>Deslon was then called upon to renounce animal +magnetism, but instead, invited investigation. In +1784 the government appointed a commission to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span> +inquire into magnetism, consisting of members from +the Faculty of Medicine and the Academy of +Sciences. Franklin, Lavoisier, and Bailly were +members, the last named being chosen reporter. +Another commission, composed of members of the +Royal Society of Medicine, was charged to make a +distinct report on the same subject. After experimenting +for five months the first commission presented +two reports, one public and the other secret, +neither of which was favorable. The Royal Society +of Medicine presented its report a few days later, +and agreed with the first commission with the +exception of one member, Laurent de Jussieu, who +dissented and published a separate report of a more +favorable nature. The gist of the commissions' +reports was that imagination, not magnetism, accounted +for the results.</p> + +<p>Soon after the commissions started their investigations, +Mesmer returned to Paris at the invitation +of his friends, who proposed to open a subscription +for him for 10,000 louis. Immediately it was over-subscribed +by over 140,000 francs. He came with +the understanding that he was to give lectures and +to reveal the secret of animal magnetism. The +lectures and secrets were not satisfactory. After +the commission reported he left Paris and returned +to his own country where he was little heard of +during the remainder of his life which ended in 1815.</p> + +<p>Whatever may be said of Mesmer, there seems to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> +be no doubt about the honesty of his most famous +pupil, the Marquis de Puységur, and to him we are +indebted for a forward step. When Mesmer left +Paris, the marquis retired to his estate near Soissons, +and employed his leisure in magnetizing peasants. +He magnetized his gardener, a young man +named Victor, and after experimenting upon him +claimed that during the state Victor exhibited marvellous +telepathic and clairvoyant phenomena. Unable +to attend all the patients who applied to him, +he followed Mesmer's plan of magnetizing a tree. +An elm on the village green was chosen, and round +this patients gathered on stone benches as around +Mesmer's <i>baquet</i>.</p> + +<p>Following Mesmer's theories very closely, the +contribution he made was in the recognition of the +likeness between the magnetized state and that of +somnambulism, so that he designated this state +"artificial somnambulism." He also modified the +conditions of inducing this state, and simple contact +or spoken orders were substituted for the use +of the <i>baquet</i>. The effect was therefore milder, and +instead of hysteria and violent crises accompanied +by sobs, cries, and contractions, there was peaceful +slumber. He recognized the rapport between operator +and subject, and amnesia on awaking, and other +phenomena now well known, but he still held to the +Mesmeric theory of the existence of a universal fluid +which saturated all bodies, especially the human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span> +body. It was electric in nature, and man could display +and diffuse this electric fluid at will.</p> + +<p>While the Marquis de Puységur was using the elm +tree near Soissons, the Chevalier de Barbarin was +successfully magnetizing people without paraphernalia. +He sat by the bedside of the sick and prayed +that they might be magnetized; his efforts were +successful. He maintained that the effect of animal +magnetism was produced by the mere effort of one +human soul acting upon another; and when the +connection had once been established the magnetizer +could communicate his influence to the subject +regardless of the distance which separated them. +Numerous persons adopted this view, calling themselves +Barbarinists after their leader. In Sweden +and Germany they were called <i>spiritualists</i>, to distinguish +them from the followers of de Puységur, +who were called <i>experimentalists</i>.</p> + +<p>About the same time a doctor of Lyons, Pététin, +experimented with magnetism. After his death a +paper written by him was published describing catalepsy +and sense transference. Numerous magnetic +societies were founded in the principal cities of +France. In Strasburg, the Society of Harmony, consisting +of more than one hundred and fifty members, +published for years the result of their work. The +disturbance incident to the Revolution and the wars +of the Empire which followed repressed the investigations +of magnetism in France for several years.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span>In England the advent of magnetism seems to +have taken place about 1788. In that year one Dr. +Mainandus, who had been a pupil first of Mesmer +and later of Deslon, arrived in Bristol and gave +public lectures on the subject. People of rank and +fortune soon came from different cities to be magnetized +or to place themselves under his tuition. +He afterward established himself in London where +he was equally successful in attracting and curing +people. So much curiosity was excited by the subject +that, about the same time, a man named Holloway +gave a course of lectures on animal magnetism +in London. Large crowds gathered to hear him at +the rate of five guineas for each pupil.</p> + +<p>Loutherbourg, the painter, and his wife entered +upon a similar work. "Such was the infatuation +of the people to be witnesses of their strange manipulations," +says Mackay, "that at times upwards of +three thousand persons crowded round their house +at Hammersmith, unable to gain admission. The +tickets sold at prices ranging from one to three +guineas." Loutherbourg later became a divine +healer. From 1789 to 1798 magnetism attracted +little or no attention in England. At the latter +date a Connecticut Yankee, Benjamin Douglas Perkins, +invented "metallic tractors." The Society of +Friends built a hospital called the "Perkinean Institute" +where all comers might be magnetized free +of cost.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span>About 1786 animal magnetism appeared in two +different places in Germany—on the upper Rhine +and in Bremen. At this time Lavater paid a visit +to Bremen and exhibited the magnetizing process +to several doctors. Bremen was for a long time a +focus of the new doctrine, and thereby was brought +into bad repute. About the same time the doctrine +spread from Strasburg over the Rhine provinces. +Among those active in experiments were Böckmann +of Carlsruhe, Gmelin of Heilbronn, and Pezold of +Dresden. Soon it spread all over Germany. In +1789 Selle of Berlin brought forward a series of +experiments made at the Charité (Hospital), in +which he confirmed some of the alleged phenomena +but excluded the supernormal.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the early dislike, animal magnetism +flourished in Germany during the first twenty +years of the nineteenth century. In 1812 the Prussian +government sent Wolfart to Mesmer at Frauenfeld, +to acquaint himself with the subject. He returned +to Berlin an ardent adherent of Mesmer and +introduced magnetism into the hospital treatment. +From this magnetism flourished so much in Berlin +that, as Wurm relates, the Berlin physicians placed +a monument on the grave of Mesmer at Mörsburg, +and theological candidates received instruction in +physiology, pathology, and the treatment of sickness +by vital magnetism. The well-known physician +Koreff was interested in magnetism and often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> +made use of it for healing purposes. Magnetism +was introduced everywhere, especially in Russia and +Denmark. In Switzerland and Italy it was at first +received with less sympathy, and in 1815 the exercise +of magnetism was forbidden in the whole of +Austria.</p> + +<p>In 1813 the naturalist Deleuze published a book +entitled <i>Histoire critique du magnétisme animal</i>. +Like his predecessors, he was chiefly interested in +the therapeutic value of magnetism, and insisted +that faith was necessary for effective treatment. +On account of this condition any demonstration +was impossible. He still held to the idea of a pervading +fluid and maintained that the depth of the +magnetic sleep depended upon the amount of the +magnetic charge. Shortly after the appearance of +Deleuze's book, interest in animal magnetism increased, +and several journals dealing exclusively +with the subject were started.</p> + +<p>With the death of Mesmer in 1815 ended the first +period in the history of the phenomena known as +animal magnetism. Up to this time the generally +accepted theory was that of a vital fluid which permeated +every thing and person and through which +one person influenced another. The second period +extended from 1815-1841 when Braid discovered +and formulated the method of operation. The +third period reached from 1841-1887 during which +there was careful and scientific study of the whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span> +subject, and hypnotism came into repute as a healing +measure. I am inclined to posit a fourth period, +1887 to the present time, for Myers' hypothesis of +a subliminal self, or the theory of the subconsciousness, +has made a great difference in the theory of +hypnotism.</p> + +<p>The second period began when Abbe Faria in +1814-15 came from India to Paris and gave public +exhibitions, publishing the results of some of his +experiments. He seated his subjects in an arm-chair, +with eyes closed, and then cried out in a +loud commanding voice, "Sleep." He used no manipulations +and had no <i>baquet</i>, but he boasted of +having produced five thousand somnambulists by +this method. He opined that the state was caused +by no unknown force, but rested in the subject +himself. He agreed with the present generally +accepted theory that all is subjective.</p> + +<p>Following Faria, Bertrand and Noizet paved the +way for the doctrine of suggestion notwithstanding +their inclination toward animal magnetism. Experiments +were performed at the Hôtel-Dieu in +1820 but later were prohibited. Through the influence +of Foissac in 1826 the Academy of Medicine +appointed a committee to examine the subject, and +in 1831 a report acknowledging the genuineness of +the phenomena was made, and therapeutic effects +were frankly admitted. In 1837 the Academy +appointed another commission to examine still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span> +further, for the members as a whole were not convinced. +The report of this commission was largely +negative.</p> + +<p>After this the younger Burdin, a member of the +Academy, proposed to award from his own purse a +prize of 3,000 francs to any person who could read +a given writing without the aid of his eyes, and in +the dark. The existence of animal magnetism must +stand or fall on this test. That was the difficulty +during this period: the whole dispute was waged +about, and experiments consisted in tests of, clairvoyance, +transposition of the sense of sight, and +other mystical phenomena, instead of dealing with +the state as such. This, of course, made the struggle +much easier for the opponents of mesmerism, +but was largely the fault of the magnetizers. The +Burdin prize was not awarded, and in 1840 Double +proposed that the Academy should henceforth pay +no further attention to animal magnetism, but +treat the subject as definitely closed. This was +certainly unfair and unscientific, but was the attitude +assumed.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of this period another series of +tests was being performed in Germany, but after +1820 the belief in magnetism declined more and +more. It flourished longest in Bremen and in +Hamburg where Siemers was its advocate. From +1830-1840 Hensler and Ennemoser were the chief +exponents in Bavaria. As the scientific investiga<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span>tors +withdrew from the study, the charlatans and +frauds entered the field, and the marvellous and +occult were emphasized, so that in 1840 little general +attention was paid to the subject.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the efforts of the London physicians +Elliotson and Ashburner, magnetism could +obtain little footing in England during this period. +Numerous investigations were made, however, and +several publications were sent forth. Townshend, +Scoresby, and Lee are names prominent in the +study of the subject in England at this time. In +the next period, though, an Englishman gives the +impetus necessary for the successful pursuit of the +study.</p> + +<p>In 1841 the French magnetizer, La Fontaine, gave +some public exhibitions in Manchester which attracted +the attention of a physician by the name of +James Braid. Through the aid rendered by Braid, +animal magnetism blossomed into a science. He +directed the subject into its proper field: he eschewed +the occult and mysterious, and emphasized observation +and experiment. It was Braid who gave us +the word "hypnotism." At first a sceptic, he began +experimenting and proved that fixity of gaze +had in some way such an influence on the nervous +system of the subject that he went off into a sleep. +He therefore opined that the transmission of a fluid +by the operator had no part in the matter.</p> + +<p>He further showed that an assumed attitude<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> +changed the subject's sentiments in harmony with +the attitude, and that the degree of sleep varied +with different persons, and with the same person at +different times. He also noted the acuteness of the +senses during hypnosis, and that verbal suggestion +would produce hallucinations, emotions, paralysis, +etc. Therapeutics was a subject in which he was +naturally interested, and his experiments on different +diseases were frequent and valuable. Braid +made some mistakes, as was natural, but his discoveries +covered the field so well and his ideas were +so sound that too much credit cannot be ascribed +to him. At first he thought hypnotism (Braidism) +was identical with animal magnetism, but later made +the mistake of considering it analogous, and the two +flourished side by side and independently.</p> + +<p>Animal magnetism was first introduced into +America in 1836 by Mr. Charles Poyan, a French +gentleman. A few years later a certain Dr. Collyer +lectured upon it in New England. New Orleans +was, however, for a long time its chief centre. In +1848 Grimes, working independently, appears to +have arrived at about the same conclusions as +Braid. He showed that most of the hypnotic phenomena +could be produced in the waking state in +some subjects, by means of verbal suggestion. The +phenomena were known under the name of electro-biology. +In 1850 Darling went to England and +introduced electro-biology, but it was soon identified<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> +with Braidism, and in 1853 Durand de Gros, who +wrote under the pseudonym of Philips, exhibited +the phenomena of electro-biology in several countries, +but aroused little attention.</p> + +<p>Azam of Bordeaux and Broca of Paris made some +experiments following Braid's method, and several +times performed some painless operations by this +means. They were followed by numerous others +in all European countries and in America. In fact, +the interest in the subject became general, and as +more was known about it, fewer objections were +heard. Societies were formed for the study of hypnotism, +publications were started devoting all their +space to the exposition and discussion of it, and as +this third period advanced, its scientific value was +more and more recognized from the stand-points of +psychology, pathology, and therapeutics.</p> + +<p>In a brief résumé like this it would be impossible +to name even the chief experimenters in the different +countries who contributed to this period, but +some names stand out so prominently that they +should be emphasized, for they must be reckoned +in importance with Braid's. Liebeault, whose book, +<i>Du Sommeil</i>, <i>etc.</i>, was published in 1866, has been +called the founder of the therapeutics of suggestion. +While suggestion in both waking and hypnotic states +had been applied long before Liebeault's day, it was +he who first fully and methodically recognized its +value. We are also indebted to him for stimulating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> +in the study of hypnosis Bernheim and other prominent +investigators. Liebeault at the head of the +School of Nancy was not less known than Charcot +at the Salpêtrière.</p> + +<p>Charcot was indefatigable in his researches, but +was led away in his conclusions by artifacts. For +example: three states were produced in the hypnotic +subject which Charcot considered to be symptomatic +and characteristic. They were catalepsy, +lethargy, and somnambulism. Certain physical +excitations, such as rubbing the scalp or exposing +the eyes to a bright light, were thought to be all +that was necessary to change the subject from one +stage to another. It has since been shown that not +only were the states of catalepsy, lethargy, and +somnambulism produced by suggestion, but the +physical stimuli were simply suggestions and signs +by which the subject knew that a particular change +was expected, and, in harmony with hypnotic action, +the expected change came about. Not only +did Charcot make this mistake, but some of his +followers of the Salpêtrière School continued to +be deceived for years afterward.</p> + +<p>Hardly a conclusion of Charcot's remains to-day, +and yet so earnest was he in his investigations and +so untiring in his experiments, that many of his +facts contributed much to our knowledge of the +subject even if his theories have been rejected. +Binet, Féré, and other followers of his have contrib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>uted +much to the science and literature of the subject. +The latter half of this period is not unknown +to us to-day, and as the names connected with it +are familiar, it remains for me to mention but one +more name, that of the one who ushered in the +fourth period, F. W. H. Myers.</p> + +<p>From its beginning Myers was prominently connected +with the Society for Psychical Research and +occupied the offices of president and secretary. +He held the latter position at the time of his death +in 1901. In 1887 he formulated his theory of the +subliminal self or subliminal consciousness, a theory +which has come to be more and more accepted, and +the value of which has received increasing appreciation. +It has been known as the "subconscious +self" or the "subconsciousness" probably more +than by Myers's original title; and his theory has +been modified by some subtractions and additions, +but it is generally accepted to-day and its exposition +has helped solve many problems in abnormal +psychology. In no department has it contributed +more than in that of hypnotism, for by it this state +has been partially explained.</p> + +<p>For a number of years Charcot and his followers +put forward a physiological theory of hypnotism +which waged war with that of the Nancy School, +under Liebeault, but even before Charcot's death +he recognized the validity of the Nancy claims while +still clinging to his own. Few if any espouse Charcot's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span> +claims to-day. The general psychological +theory of Nancy, which bases the results on suggestion, +is that currently accepted, while a theory not +very different from that of animal magnetism has +been held by some of those who accepted the +spiritualistic hypothesis, notably among whom was +Myers.</p> + +<p>Hypnotism to-day is recognized as the product +of a long line of erroneous theory and zigzag development, +but the wheat has largely been sifted and +the chaff thrown to the winds of antiquity. Its +therapeutic and psychological value is duly recognized +by science to-day.<a name="FNanchor_189_186" id="FNanchor_189_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_186" class="fnanchor">189</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_184" id="Footnote_187_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_184"><span class="label">187</span></a> Binet and Féré, <i>Animal Magnetism</i>, p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_185" id="Footnote_188_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_185"><span class="label">188</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, I, p. 278.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_186" id="Footnote_189_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_186"><span class="label">189</span></a> Many works and encyclopedic articles on hypnotism have been +consulted in the preparation of this chapter, all of which were valuable, +and few of which stand out prominently.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3> + +<h4>THE HEALERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Medical cannot be separated from moral science, without reciprocal +and essential mutilation."—<span class="smcap">Reid</span>.</p> + +<p>"Man is a dupeable animal. Quacks in medicine, quacks in religion, +and quacks in politics know this, and act upon that knowledge. +There is scarcely anyone who may not, like a trout, be taken +by tickling."—<span class="smcap">Southey</span>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="poem2"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Canst thou minister to a mind diseas'd,</span> +<span class="i05">Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow,</span> +<span class="i05">Raze out the written troubles of the brain,</span> +<span class="i05">And with some sweet oblivious antidote</span> +<span class="i05">Cleanse the stuff'd bosom of that perilous stuff</span> +<span class="i05">Which weighs upon the heart?"—<span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>.</span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Joy, temperance, and repose,</span> +<span class="i05">Slam the door on the doctor's nose."—<span class="smcap">Longfellow</span>.</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p>There seems to have been a great development +of mental healing during the nineteenth century. +The healing by shrines, relics, and charms diminished +in the latter part of the century on account of +the lessening of superstition and the better understanding +of mental laws, but additional work has +thereby been laid upon the healers. The development +of hypnotism and the exposition of the laws +underlying it, the collection and publication of cases +of cures by mental means, the lessening of faith in +noxious doses of drugs, the increase of nervous diseases +which are most easily helped by suggestive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span> +therapeutics, the attempted duplication of apostolic +gifts on the part of some sects and the general +reaction against the materialism of the early part +of the century as shown in the great revival of psychical +study and research have all been factors in +the demand for mental medicine.</p> + +<p>The healers have been of various kinds. Having +already dealt with the mesmerizers and hypnotizers, +we shall now look only at the classes of independent +and generally less scientific investigators and experimenters. +Some have not been regular healers but +healed only incidentally, as, <i>e. g.</i>, the revivalists; +some have followed James 5:14 f. in anointing with +oil and praying—of these and others, some have +had institutions for housing the patients; some +have been peripatetic healers; some have simply +used prayer; some have established their systems on +metaphysical bases and been the founders of sects; +some have combined the results of scientific investigations +in an endeavor to help mankind. Many +of these have simply followed the ways of their +predecessors of former centuries, but a few started +on new lines of procedure. Whatever the method, +they have all, consciously or unconsciously, depended +upon the influence of the patient's mind over his +own body, and the now better understood laws of +suggestion.</p> + +<p>The revivals were eighteenth and nineteenth century +phenomena, and in discussing the part which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> +their leaders have taken in healing we may well +include the experience of Wesley. As a mere incident +in his revival work, John Wesley (1703-1791), +the great founder of Methodism, appeared in the +rather unenviable role of exorcist. It is to his +credit that he was not led away from his primary +purpose by this experience, but returned to his +preaching without any effort to add healing to his +gifts. The account of his encounter with the demons +can best be given by quoting his own words, +as found in his Journal.</p> + +<p>"October 25 [1739]. I was sent for to one in +Bristol who was taken ill the evening before. She +lay on the ground furiously gnashing her teeth and +after a while roared aloud. It was not easy for +three or four persons to hold her, especially when +the name of Jesus was named. We prayed. The +violence of her symptoms ceased, though without a +complete deliverance." Wesley was sent for later in +the day. "She began screaming before I came into +the room, then broke out into a horrid laughter, +mixed with blasphemy, grievous to hear. One who +from many circumstances apprehended a preternatural +agent to be concerned in this, asking, 'How +didst thou dare to enter into a Christian?' was +answered, 'She is not a Christian, she is mine.' +Then another question, 'Dost thou not tremble at +the name of Jesus?' No words followed, but she +shrunk back and trembled exceedingly. 'Art thou<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span> +not increasing thy own damnation?' It was faintly +answered, 'Ay! Ay!' which was followed by fresh +cursing and blasphemy ... with spitting, and all +the expressions of strong aversion." Two days +later Wesley called and prayed with her again, +when "All her pangs ceased in a moment, she was +filled with peace, and knew that the son of wickedness +was departed from her." On October 28 he +exorcised two more demons whom he had evidently +(unconsciously) been the means of producing in two +neurotic girls. He had a few other experiences in +healing, but always in an incidental way.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus7" id="illus7"></a><a href="images/illus7.jpg"><img src="images/illus7-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="567" alt="JOHN ALEXANDER DOWIE" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">JOHN ALEXANDER DOWIE</span></div> + +<p>Charles G. Finney (1792-1875) had at least one +experience as a healer. During revival services at +Antwerp, N. Y., in 1824, two insane women were +cured, but Finney was directly concerned in the +restoration of only one of them. Of this he gives +an account in his memoirs. "There were two very +striking cases of instantaneous recovery from insanity +during this revival. As I went into meeting +in the afternoon of one Sabbath, I saw several ladies +sitting in a pew, with a woman dressed in black who +seemed to be in great distress of mind; and they +were partly holding her, and preventing her from +going out. As I came in, one of the ladies came to +me and told me she was an insane woman.... I +said a few words to her; but she replied that she +must go; that she could not hear any praying, or +preaching, or singing; that hell was her portion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span> +and she could not endure anything that made her +think of heaven. I cautioned the ladies, privately, +to keep her in her seat, if they could, without her +disturbing the meeting. I then went into the pulpit +and read a hymn. As soon as the singing began, +she struggled hard to get out. But the ladies obstructed +her passage; and kindly but persistently +prevented her escape.... As I proceeded ... all +at once she startled the congregation by uttering a +loud shriek. She then cast herself almost from her +seat, held her head very low, and I could see that +she 'trembled very exceedingly.'... As I proceeded +she began to look up again, and soon sat +upright, with face wonderfully changed, indicating +triumphant joy and peace.... She glorified God +and rejoiced with amazing triumph. About two +years after, I met with her, and found her still full +of joy and peace."<a name="FNanchor_190_187" id="FNanchor_190_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_187" class="fnanchor">190</a></p> + +<p>The so-called "Mountain Evangelist," George O. +Barnes, who was born in 1827, added healing to his +other revival efforts. After leaving the Presbyterian +Church he did his work mostly in Kentucky as +an independent minister, and there anointed with +oil according to James 5:14 f. In his records little +is said about the cures, but the daily number of +anointings is given, amounting to at least five +thousand in all. He believed that the devil, not +God, sends sickness: God is the great healer. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>anointing was simply a matter of faith. His formula +varied and was very simple, as <i>e. g.</i>, "Dear +daughter, in Jesus's precious name I anoint thee +with this oil of healing for thy maladies. Oh, go +on thy way rejoicing. Be of good cheer. He is +the great healer. He will make thee whole. He +hath commanded it. Lean thy whole weight on +Him."<a name="FNanchor_191_188" id="FNanchor_191_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_188" class="fnanchor">191</a> His views may be judged by the following +extract from a sermon of his on "Our Healer": +"Oh, the hospitals and drug-stores, the bitter doses, +the pains and racks, the tortures—great God, may +this people believe to-day that thou hast nothing to +do with this, that all came in with sin, and the +devil manages it all; and wherever we are afflicted +God stands by wringing His hands, and saying, +'...Return to me, O backsliding children. Come +back to me, and I will keep the devil off of you.'"<a name="FNanchor_192_189" id="FNanchor_192_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_189" class="fnanchor">192</a> +I take also some extracts from his daily record.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"July 19 [1881]. John and I took a long walk.... +I shall not repeat the experiment, for I got +many chiggers on me, which are tormenting me +from head to foot while I write, I think because I +trusted the pennyroyal to keep them off me instead +of the Lord. It was not wilful, but a slip of +forgetfulness, yet a door wide enough for Satan to +enter a little bit. Now, instead of trying pennyroyal +to get me rid of them, I will trust the Lord +only.</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>"July 20. The chiggers gave exquisite torment. +I shall never trust in pennyroyal again.</p> + +<p>"July 21. Satan tried to get me wavering on the +eye question, but the dear Lord set me up more +firmly than ever.</p> + +<p>"July 24. We have gotten into a little trouble +by carelessly trying to help the dear Lord take care +of his little organ. A key was silent, and yesterday +Marie tried to remedy it. There was a good deal of +taking out of keys, and dusting—result, two keys +silent now, and one that won't be silent, but goes +on in a bass wail through every song. So much for +meddling with the dear Lord's work. We trust Him, +when the lesson is learned, to set the little machine +all right again.... The dear Lord cured the little +organ this afternoon while we were at dinner; at +least it was all right, as Marie with a happy smile +informed me before she began to sing the first song. +I gave thanks for it in the opening prayer, and then +told the people all about it.</p> + +<p>"July 27. Satan is not a little busy with me, +injecting doubts as to the right to trust for eyes. +Faith still quenches all his fiery darts, although it +sorely tries me to be thus inactive in these long +summer days, without reading my beautiful edition +of Young's Concordance, useless at the bottom of +my trunk. My Revised New Testament I can only +get at through others."<a name="FNanchor_193_190" id="FNanchor_193_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_190" class="fnanchor">193</a></p></div> + +<p>Leaving now the revivalists, let us take up the +cases of others not revivalists who used anointing +for healing. In her native hamlet of Maennedorf, +Switzerland, Dorothea Trudel (1813-1862), the de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span>scendant +of some generations of faith healers, cured +many. Soon people began to come to her from +near and far and, finally, at the solicitation of a +"patient" of rank, she purchased a home where +the afflicted could be near her. In 1856 the health +authorities interfered. She was fined; an appeal +was taken and, finally, she was permitted to carry +on her work in connection with the home under +some formal restrictions. During the course of the +trial some authenticated cases of cure were produced: +"one stiff knee, pronounced incurable by +the best surgeons of France, Germany, and Switzerland; +a leading physician testified to the recovery +of a hopeless patient of his own; a burned foot, +which was about to be amputated to prevent impending +death, was healed without means. The +evidence was incontrovertible, and the cases numerous. +The cure was often contemporaneous with +the confession of Christ by the unbelieving patient; +but duration of the sickness varied with each case. +Lunatics were commonly sent forth cured in a brief +while." Nothing miraculous was claimed and no +war was waged against physicians. It was not +asserted that a cure was infallibly made, but it was +pointed out as a simpler and more direct method. +The means employed were gentleness, discipline, +Bible reading, prayer, and anointing. After the +death of Dorothea the home continued under the +supervision of Mr. Samuel Zeller.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span>Charles Cullis (1833-1892), a young physician of +Boston, suffered a crushing bereavement in the +death of his wife shortly after their marriage, and +then vowed to devote his life to charity. Inspired +by Müller's <i>Life of Trust</i> he established a number of +charitable institutions, relying on prayer and faith +for their support. Some of these institutions were +for the cure of the sick, and in connection with +these, and otherwise, Dr. Cullis anointed and prayed +with all who came to him. Every summer a camp-meeting +was held at Old Orchard Beach, Maine, +where the large collections gathered were the subject +of annual comment. He was followed in his +work by Rev. A. B. Simpson, of New York, who +now conducts it. The latter was formerly a Presbyterian +minister but is now an independent. He +still heals and takes up collections. From the +efforts of Cullis and Simpson have come the Christian +and Missionary Alliance and other similar organizations +with Pentecost as the text and apostolic +gifts as the much-sought-after prize. The +proof of success is found in healing, speaking with +tongues, trances, visions, and other abnormal phenomena.</p> + +<p>The "Holy Ghost and Us" movement, with headquarters +at Shiloh, Maine, was an outgrowth of the +Christian and Missionary Alliance propaganda. Rev. +F. W. Sanford (1863- ) was born on Bowdoinham +Ridge, Maine. He graduated at Bates Col<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span>lege +in 1886 and attended Cobb Divinity School for +a short time. His ordination took place in 1887, +after which he held two pastorates of three years +each, presumedly in Free Baptist churches. In +1891, while attending meetings at Old Orchard, he +was inspired to start "a movement on strictly apostolic +lines, which was to sweep the entire globe." +He started on this new work early in 1893 with +Shiloh, Maine, as the centre. Relying on faith +alone, several buildings were erected and paid for, +among which is Bethesda—a Home of Healing: +"For those who believe God told the truth when He +said, 'The prayer of Faith shall save the sick.'" In +an account of the healing we read: "We have seen ... in +at least one case, the restoration of the dead +to life." Quite a following embraced the doctrine +at one time, but lately there has been a considerable +decline.</p> + +<p>An institution for faith healing was established +in the north of London by Rev. W. E. Boardman +(1810-1886). He called it "Bethshan" or the +"Nursery of Faith" and refused to permit it to be +called a hospital. The usual method of treatment +was by anointing with oil and prayer, but it was +claimed that many also were healed by correspondence. +The results professed were very extravagant, +among the cases being cancer, paralysis, advanced +consumption, chronic rheumatism, and lameness of +different kinds. As a proof of the cure of the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span> +named affliction, numerous canes and crutches left +behind by the healed were on exhibition.<a name="FNanchor_194_191" id="FNanchor_194_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_191" class="fnanchor">194</a></p> + +<p>It is said that Lord Radstock practised healing +through anointing in Australia about the same +time.</p> + +<p>There have been a number of prominent healers +who have used prayer, and perhaps the laying on of +hands, as the means for healing, and have usually +eschewed anointing. Among these was Prince +Hohenlohe (1794-1849). His was probably the +greatest name in mental healing in the nineteenth +century. He was born in Waldenburg and educated +at several institutions. He was ordained +priest in 1815 and officiated at Olmütz, Munich, +and other places. In 1820 he met a peasant, Martin +Michel, who had performed some wonderful +cures, and in connection with him effected a so-called +miraculous cure on a princess of Schwarzenberg who +had been for some years a paralytic.<a name="FNanchor_195_192" id="FNanchor_195_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_192" class="fnanchor">195</a> From this +experience he became enthusiastic in healing, and +he acquired such a fame as a performer of miraculous +cures that multitudes flocked from different +countries to receive the benefit of his supposed +supernatural gifts. In one year (1848-49) there +were eighteen thousand people who obtained access +to him. His name and his titles probably had not +a little to do with his wide influence. They were +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> +Alexander Leopold Franz Emmerich, Prince of +Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst, Archbishop +and Grand Provost of Grosswardein, Hungary, and +Abbot of St. Michael's at Gaborjan.</p> + +<p>The testimony concerning his cures is from reliable +witnesses. Notice the letter written by the +ex-King of Bavaria to Count von Sinsheim, describing +his own case:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">My dear Count</span>:</p> + +<p>There are still miracles. The ten last days of the +last month, the people of Würzburg might believe +themselves in the times of the Apostles. The deaf +heard, the blind saw, the lame freely walked, not by +the aid of art, but by a few short prayers, and by +the invocation of the name of Jesus.... On the +evening of the 28th, the number of persons cured, of +both sexes, and of every age, amounted to more than +twenty. These were of all classes of the people, from +the humblest to a prince of the blood, who, without +any exterior means, recovered, on the 27th at noon, +the hearing which he had lost from his infancy. This +cure was effected by a prayer made for him during +some minutes, by a priest who is scarcely more than +twenty-seven years of age—the Prince Hohenlohe. +Although I do not hear so well as the majority of +the persons who are about me, there is no comparison +between my actual state and that which it was +before. Besides, I perceive daily that I hear more +clearly.... My hearing, at present, is very sensitive. +Last Friday, the music of the troop which +defiled in the square in front of the palace, struck +my tympanum so strongly, that for the first time, I +was obliged to close the window of my cabinet.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>The inhabitants of Würzburg have testified, by the +most lively and sincere acclamations, the pleasure +which my cure has given them. You are at liberty +to communicate my letter, and to allow any one +who wishes, to take a copy of it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bruckenau</span>, <i>July 3d, 1822</i>. <span class="smcap">Louis</span>, <i>Prince Royal</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Professor Onymus, of the University of Würzburg, +reported a number of cases cured by Prince +Hohenlohe, which he himself witnessed. He gives +the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Captain Ruthlein, an old gentleman of Thundorf, +70 years of age, who had long been pronounced +incurable of paralysis, which kept his hand clenched, +and who had not left his room for many years, has +been perfectly cured. Eight days after his cure he +paid me a visit, rejoicing in the happiness of being +able to walk freely.</p> + +<p>"A man, of about 50, named Bramdel, caused +himself to be carried by six men from Carlstadt to +the Court at Stauffenburg. His arms and legs were +utterly paralyzed, hanging like those of a dead man, +and his face was of a corpse-like pallor. On the +prayer of the Prince he was instantly cured, rose +to his feet, and walked perfectly, to the profound +astonishment of all present.</p> + +<p>"A student of Burglauer, near Murmerstadt, had +lost for two years the use of his legs; he was brought +in a carriage, and though he was only partially relieved +by the first and second prayer of the Prince, +at the third he found himself perfectly well.</p> + +<p>"These cures are real and they are permanent. +If any one would excite doubts of the genuineness +of the cases operated by Prince Hohenlohe, it is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span> +only necessary to come hither and consult a thousand +other eye and ear witnesses like myself. Every +one is ready to give all possible information about +them."<a name="FNanchor_196_193" id="FNanchor_196_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_193" class="fnanchor">196</a></p></div> + +<p>The Mormons, under the leadership of Joseph +Smith, Jr. (1805-1844), were healing the sick about +the time that Prince Hohenlohe was performing his +miracles on the other side of the water. Smith was +born in Sharon, Vermont. The Mormon Church +(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) +was founded in 1830 in Palmyra, New York, and +moved from there to Kirkland, Ohio; Independence, +Missouri; Nauvoo, Illinois; and thence to +Utah. Smith was successively first elder, prophet, +seer, and revelator. The year the church was +founded Smith began his healing career as an exorcist, +casting the devil out of Newel Knight in +Colesville, New York. Following this, there was a +firm belief in demoniacal possession, and exorcism +was practised by both Smith and his followers, +principally by means of command. This exorcism +led up to faith healing.</p> + +<p>Smith's maternal uncle, Jason Mack, was a firm +believer in healing by prayer and practised it; later, +the Oneida Community of Perfectionists in western +New York cured by faith; both of these facts would +be known to the founder of Mormonism. After +adopting faith healing he soon became proficient in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span>the art. Numerous well-attested cures were performed +by Smith and his followers in other places. +Elder Richards advertised in England "Bones set +through Faith in Christ," and Elder Phillips made +the additional statement that "while commanding +the bones, they came together, making a noise like +the crushing of an old basket." All forms of disease +were treated, but not always successfully, as +may be inferred from Smith's own words: "The +cholera burst forth among us, even those on guard +fell to the earth with their guns in their hands.... At +the commencement I attempted to lay on hands +for their recovery, but I quickly learned by painful +experience, that when the great Jehovah decrees +destruction upon any people, makes known His determination, +man must not attempt to stay his +hand." The means employed varied, but included +at different times prayer, command, laying on of +hands, consecrated handkerchiefs and other cloths, +baptism, and infrequently anointing.<a name="FNanchor_197_194" id="FNanchor_197_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_194" class="fnanchor">197</a></p> + +<p>Crossing the ocean again, we find Johann Christolph +Blumhardt (1805-1880) performing wonderful +acts of healing. He assumed his first independent +charge in 1838 when he became pastor of the village +church at Moettlinger, Wurtemberg. He was known +afterward as Pastor Blumhardt. Among his parishioners +was Gottliebin Ditters, generally thought +to be possessed by an evil spirit. After two years +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span>prayer and care for this woman, he saw her restored +to peace of mind. This was the beginning of a life +of faith in the efficacy of prayer for healing. After +the restoration of Gottliebin a spontaneous and entirely +unexpected revival took place in Moettlinger. +Multitudes came from afar to hear this sincere man +preach his simple sermons, and in many cases bodily +disease left those who confessed and upon whom +Blumhardt laid his hands. It became noised about +that those who repented, with whom the pastor +prayed and upon whom he laid his hands, would be +healed. "One morning a mother rushed to his +house, saying that she had by an accident scalded +her child with boiling soup. The infant was found +screaming with agony. He took the child in his +arms, prayed over it, and it grew quiet. It had no +further pain, and the effects of the scalding were +quickly gone. Another child was nearly blind with +disease. A neighboring pastor, when consulted, said +to the parents: 'If you believe Jesus can and will +heal your child, by all means go to Blumhardt, but +if you have not got the faith, don't do it on any +account; let an operation be performed.' 'Well, +we have faith,' they said, and went to Blumhardt. +Three days after it was perfectly well." These +events could not fail to attract attention, and miracles +or healings from his prayers were of constant +occurrence. In 1852 Blumhardt moved to Boll, +Wurtemberg, and until his death he continued his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span> +healing. He did not despise human means of +healing, but he stoutly held that Jesus would +answer the prayer of faith uttered for and by +the sick.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the century Father Mathew +(1790-1856) attracted a large number of persons +who were in need of healing. He was best known +as the famous apostle of temperance, and was to +Ireland in the nineteenth century what Wesley was +to England in the eighteenth. He also travelled +over England and Scotland and spent two years +in America. In one period of nine months he induced +two hundred thousand persons to take the +temperance pledge. Among other things he cured +blindness, lameness, paralysis, hysteria, headache, +and lunacy. After his death the same diseases +which he had cured during his lifetime were just +as effectively relieved by visiting the good father's +tomb, in the firm belief that a miracle would be performed. +From the following cure, his first one, it +will be seen that the discovery of his healing power +was rather accidental.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A young lady, of position and intelligence, was +for years the victim of the most violent headaches, +which assumed a chronic character. Eminent advice +was had but in vain; the malady became more +intense, the agony more excruciating. Starting up +one day from the sofa on which she lay in a delirium +of pain, she exclaimed—'I cannot endure this torture +any longer; I will go and see what Father Mathew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span> +can do for me.' She immediately proceeded to +Lehanagh, where Father Mathew was then sick and +feeble. Flinging herself on her knees before him she +besought his prayers and blessing. In fact, stung +by intolerable suffering she asked him to cure her. +'My dear child, you ask me what no mortal has +power to do. The power to cure rests alone with +God. I have no such power.' 'Then bless me, and +pray for me—place your hand on my head,' implored +the afflicted lady. 'I cannot refuse to pray +for you, or to bless you,' said Father Mathew, who +did pray for and bless her, and place his hand upon +her poor throbbing brow. Was it faith?—was it +magnetism?—was it the force of imagination exerted +wonderfully? I shall not venture to pronounce +what it was; but that lady returned to her home +perfectly cured of her distressing malady. More +than that—cured completely, from that moment, +forward."<a name="FNanchor_198_195" id="FNanchor_198_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_195" class="fnanchor">198</a></p> +</div> + +<p>About the same time, Mrs. Elizabeth Mix, a +negro woman living in Connecticut, achieved great +fame through her healing by prayer. Many testified +to the efficacy of her prayers and bewailed her +death.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus8" id="illus8"></a><a href="images/illus8.jpg"><img src="images/illus8-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="524" alt="GEORGE O. BARNES" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">GEORGE O. BARNES</span></div> + +<p>Francis Schlatter (1856-1909) was a native of +Alsace, France. He was born a Roman Catholic and, +so far as he was affiliated with any denomination, +always remained one. When a year old, he was blind +and deaf and was cured by his mother's prayers. +He came to America in 1891, and first settled at +Jamestown, Long Island. Early in 1893 he moved to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span>Denver, Colorado, and in the following July he felt +impelled by inner promptings to start out, he knew +not whither. Probably mentally unbalanced, he +wandered through the wilderness of the great Southwest +without shoes or hat. Fasts, temptations, +visions, arrests and imprisonments, and healings +combined to furnish his experience during these +wanderings, always, as he said, being led by the +Father. In July, 1895, he arrived at Las Lunas, +New Mexico, where he first attracted public attention +as a healer. From here he went to Albuquerque, +where he treated as many as six hundred +persons in a day, many very effectively. After forty +days' fast, which was broken by a hearty meal of +solid food, he went to Denver and here reached the +pinnacle of his fame and success. At the home of +a sympathizer, daily from 9 <span class="smcap">A. M.</span> to 4 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, he +treated those who came to him, always without +any remuneration. From two thousand to five +thousand people would congregate in line, reaching +nearly around a city block, five or six abreast, but +he was never able to treat more than two thousand +in a day. Crowds came from other cities, and some +few from great distances, even the New England +States. He stood inside a fence, and as each one +came along he held the patient's hand for a short +time; lifting up his eyes, he prayed and then assured +the sufferer of relief within a certain time. +Through the mail and in other ways he received<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> +handkerchiefs which he blessed and returned with +assurance of relief through them. Not all cases +handled were restored to health or even noticeably +eased, but large numbers testified to cures, some of +which came immediately and others by degrees. +He did not preach. Although he never claimed it, +when asked, "Are you the Christ?" he always replied, +"I am." He wore a beard and long hair, and +dressed in the plainest clothes. In appearance he +looked not unlike the pictures of the traditional +Christ. Afterward he appeared in different parts +of the United States, but never with the same +success in healing as in Denver.<a name="FNanchor_199_196" id="FNanchor_199_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_196" class="fnanchor">199</a></p> + +<p>The once famous Dr. Newton arrived in Boston in +1859 on one of his visits, and caused an extraordinary +sensation. Astonishing results were reported +in the way of cures. The lame, having no further +need of crutches, left them behind; the blind were +cured, and several chronic cases were relieved. He +had many followers and disciples among whom was +"Dr." Bryant, who settled in Detroit and healed +there. Rev. J. M. Buckley, D.D., met Dr. Newton +on a Mississippi steam-boat, when the latter was +returning from Havana with his daughter who was +very low with consumption, and the father doubted +if she would reach home alive. When asked +"Doctor, why could you not heal her?" he replied +"It seems as if we cannot always affect our own +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>kindred." At this time he denounced his pupil, Dr. +Bryant, as an "unmitigated fraud who had no +genuine healing power."</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"If Bryant be an unmitigated fraud, how do you +account for the cures which he makes?" asked Dr. +Buckley.</p> + +<p>"Oh!" said the doctor, "they are caused by the +faith of the people and the concentration of their +minds upon his operations with the expectation of +being cured. Now," said he, "nobody would go to +see Bryant unless they had some faith that he might +cure them, and when he begins his operations with +great positiveness of manner, and when they see +the crutches he has there, and hear the people testify +that they have been cured, it produces a tremendous +influence on them; and then he gets them started +in the way of exercising, and they do a good many +things that they thought they could not do; their +appetites and spirits revive, and if toning them up +can possibly reduce the diseased tendency, many +of them will get well."</p> + +<p>Said Dr. Buckley: "Doctor, pardon me, is not +that a correct account of the manner in which you +perform your wonderful works?"</p> + +<p>"Oh, no," said he; "the difference between a +genuine healer and a quack like Bryant is as wide +as the poles."<a name="FNanchor_200_197" id="FNanchor_200_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_197" class="fnanchor">200</a></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>Father John of Cronstadt (1829-1908) was a +saintly man, and furnishes us with an example of +the healers among the Orthodox Church of the East. +He was famed in all Russia for his sanctity, and was +so thronged by crowds for his healing power that he +often had to escape by side doors after celebrating +the communion. His cures were many, but I choose +his own account of one as an example.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A certain person who was sick unto death from +inflammation of the bowels for nine days, without +having obtained the slightest relief from medical +aid, as soon as he had communicated of the Holy +Sacrament, upon the morning of the ninth day, regained +his health and rose from his bed of sickness +in the evening of the same day. He received the +Holy Communion with firm faith. I prayed to the +Lord to cure him. 'Lord,' said I, 'heal thy servant +of his sickness. He is worthy, therefore grant him +this. He loves thy priests and sends them his +gifts.' I also prayed for him in church before the +altar of the Lord, at the Liturgy, during the prayer: +'Thou who hast given us grace at this time, with +one accord to make our common supplication unto +thee,' and before the Holy Mysteries themselves. +I prayed in the following words: 'Lord, our life! +It is as easy for thee to cure every malady as it is +for me to think of healing. It is as easy for thee +to raise every man from the dead as it is for me to +think of the possibility of the resurrection of the +dead. Cure, then, thy servant Basil of his cruel +malady, and do not let him die; do not let his wife +and children be given up to weeping.' And the +Lord graciously heard, and had mercy upon him, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> +although he was within a hair's breadth of death. +Glory to thine omnipotence and mercy, that thou, +Lord, hast vouchsafed to hear me!"<a name="FNanchor_201_198" id="FNanchor_201_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_198" class="fnanchor">201</a></p></div> + +<p>For the past century and a half healing has been +carried on among the Pennsylvania Germans by +means of a superstitious practice known as "Pow-wow." +A book called <i>The Sixth Book of Moses, or +Black Art</i> is said to be the basis of the practice. The +practitioners are usually women of the most ignorant, +degraded, and, not infrequently, immoral class, +and in harmony with this, a firm belief in witchcraft +is entertained by them. Notwithstanding this, +they are employed at times by intelligent and respectable +people, even by those whose standing in +the community might well guarantee a disbelief in +such incantations. The healers treat for burns, +erysipelas and all skin diseases, goitre, tumors, +rheumatism, and some other similar troubles. They +have different formulas for the various diseases, and +the belief is current that if a healer should reveal +the formula to her own sex, she would lose her +power, and if she told more than one of the opposite +sex, the power would be taken from her. The +following is the method of operating for burns:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Take a piece of red woolen yarn and wrap it into +the shape of a ball. Pass it slowly around the burn +and while doing so, repeat three times, 'The fire +burneth, water quencheth, the pain ceaseth.' After +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>which reverse the movement and repeat the words +again three times. Then take the yarn upstairs, +pull out the chimney-stop, put the yarn in the +chimney, and as soon as it disappears the burn is +healed."</p></div> + +<p>There have been a number of cases of local healers +and I give two examples: "At the time of the +prevalence of cholera in Canada, a man named +Ayers, who came out of the States, and was said to +be a graduate of the University of New Jersey, was +given out to be St. Roche, the principal patron +saint of the Canadians, and renowned for his power +in averting pestilential diseases. He was reported +to have descended from heaven to cure his suffering +people of the cholera, and many were the cases in +which he appeared to afford relief. Many were thus +dispossessed of their fright in anticipation of the +disease, who might, probably, but for his inspiriting +influence, have fallen victims to their apprehensions. +The remedy he employed was an admixture of maple +sugar, charcoal, and lard."<a name="FNanchor_202_199" id="FNanchor_202_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_199" class="fnanchor">202</a></p> + +<p>"The <i>Month</i> for June, 1892, published an account, +by the late Earl of Denbigh, of a cure worked by a +member of a family named Cancelli of Lady Denbigh +in 1850. She was suffering severely from +rheumatism, and the Pope (Pius IX) mentioned +to the Earl that near Foligno there was a family of</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span></p> +<p>peasants who were credited with a miraculous power +of curing rheumatic disorders. Lord Denbigh succeeded +in getting one of the family, an old man, to +come, and learned from him the legend of the cure. +The belief was that in the reign of Nero, the Apostles +Peter and Paul took refuge in the hut of an old couple +named Cancelli, near Foligno, and, as a proof of +gratitude, gave to the male descendants of the family +living near the spot the power of curing rheumatic +disorders to the end of time. Lord Denbigh described +how the old man made a solemn invocation, +using the sign of the cross, and, in fact, Lady Denbigh +did recover at once. In a few days the pains +returned, but she made an act of resignation, and +they then left her, and never returned with any +acuteness."<a name="FNanchor_203_200" id="FNanchor_203_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_200" class="fnanchor">203</a></p> + +<p>What we may designate "Metaphysical Healing" +originated with Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802-1866). +The movement was important, not so much +on account of what Quimby himself was able to +accomplish by it, as because of the work that has +been carried on since by at least three of his pupils. +He was born in Lebanon, New Hampshire, and in +early life was a watch and clock maker. In 1840 +he began experimenting with mesmerism, and accounts +of these experiments were published in the +Maine papers of that time. After this he developed +a system of mental healing of his own, practising it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> +in different towns in Maine for some years. About +1858 he settled as a practitioner in Portland and +remained there until his death. I shall quote brief +extracts in his own words, which portray his system.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"My practice is unlike all medical practice. I +give no medicine, and make no outward applications. +I tell the patient his troubles, and what he +thinks is his disease; and my explanation is the cure. +If I succeed in correcting his errors, I change the +fluids of the system and establish the truth, or +health. The truth is the cure. This mode of practice +applies to all cases."</p> + +<p>"The greatest evil that follows taking an opinion +for a truth is disease."</p> + +<p>"Man is made up of truth and belief; and, if he +is deceived into a belief that he has, or is liable to +have, a disease, the belief is catching, and the effect +follows it."</p> + +<p>"Disease being made by our belief, or by our +parents' belief, or by public opinion, there is no +formula to be adopted, but every one must be +reached in his particular case. Therefore it requires +great shrewdness or wisdom to get the better +of the error. Disease is our error and the work of +the devil."<a name="FNanchor_204_201" id="FNanchor_204_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_201" class="fnanchor">204</a></p></div> + +<p>Quimby made many wonderful and mostly speedy +cures, and although he wrote out his system, it has +never been published. Among his patients was Mrs. +Patterson from Hill, New Hampshire, who went to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span> +Portland in 1862. She had been a confirmed invalid +for six years. To quote her own words, published in +the <i>Portland Evening Courier</i> in 1862, she made a +rapid recovery. "Three weeks since I quitted my +nurse and sick room en route for Portland. The +belief of my recovery had died out of the hearts of +those who were most anxious for it. With this +mental and physical depression I first visited P. P. +Quimby, and in less than one week from that time I +ascended by a stairway of one hundred and eighty-two +steps to the dome of the City Hall, and am improving +<i>ad infinitum</i>. To the most subtle reasoning, +such a proof, coupled, too, as it is with numberless +similar ones, demonstrates his power to heal." Mrs. +Patterson, afterward Mrs. Eddy, proclaimed after +his death a doctrine very similar to Quimby's. +She called it "Christian Science," a name Quimby +applied to his teaching, although usually he called +it "Science of Health."</p> + +<p>Another patient of Quimby's was Julius A. Dresser, +who visited him first in 1860. Of him Mr. +Dresser says: "The first person in this age who penetrated +the depths of truth so far as to discover and +bring forth a true science of life, and publicly apply +it to the healing of the sick, was Phineas Parkhurst +Quimby of Belfast, Me."</p> + +<p>Rev. W. F. Evans was still another patient and +disciple of Quimby's. His testimony is as follows: +"Disease being in its root a wrong belief, change that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span> +belief and we cure the disease.... The late Dr. +Quimby, of Portland, one of the most successful +healers of this or any age, embraced this view of +the nature of disease, and by a long succession of +most remarkable cures ... proved the truth of +the theory.... Had he lived in a remote age or +country, the wonderful facts which occurred in his +practice would have now been deemed either mythical +or miraculous."</p> + +<p>These three, Messrs. Evans and Dresser and Mrs. +Eddy, proved to be Quimby's most famous patients +and disciples. Evans became a noted and voluminous +writer on mental healing, Mr. Dresser has been +identified with the New Thought movement of which +his son H. W. Dresser is probably the best exponent, +and Mrs. Eddy ruled the Christian Scientists with a +rod of iron.</p> + +<p>Warren F. Evans visited Quimby twice in the +year 1863, and at these times obtained his knowledge +of Quimby's methods. Up to this time he had been +a Swedenborgian clergyman, and his beliefs enabled +him the better to grasp the new doctrines. On the +occasion of the second visit he told his healer that +he thought he could cure the sick in this way, and +Quimby agreed with him. On returning home he +tried it, and his first attempts were so successful that +he became a practitioner, using only mental means, +and continued in this work. He wrote several books +on the subject of mental healing, the first one,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span> +<i>The Mental Cure</i>, appearing in 1869, six years before +Mrs. Eddy's <i>Science and Health</i>.</p> + +<p>Perhaps, strictly speaking, the New Thought +movement does not come within the scope of our +subject, except as we see in it an outgrowth and application +of the Quimby doctrine, for two reasons. +In the first place, its purpose is mental hygiene +rather than cure, and it is all the more valuable for +that. Of course, in establishing hygienic practices +many disorders are cured, but prevention is the +main feature. The second reason why we might +perhaps not include it in a résumé of the healers is +that it is intended to be for the use of the individual +to prevent his employing a healer of any kind. The +same objection, however, would do away to some +extent with a discussion of Christian Science. The +principles of New Thought are that the mind has +an influence on the body, and that good, sweet, pure +thoughts have a salutary effect, but the opposite +ones injure the body. Don't worry, don't think of +disease, don't look for trouble, but fill the mind with +the opposite positive thoughts and life will be happy +and the body will be well. The doctrines are expounded +differently by the various leaders, and +emphasis is laid on different points, some emphasizing +more fully the religious aspects of the movement, +for example. The principal writers on the +subject are H. W. Dresser, R. W. Trine, H. Wood, +and H. Fletcher.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span>Mrs. Mary A. Morse Baker Glover Patterson Eddy +(1821-1910) was born at Bow, New Hampshire. +After a precocious and neurotic childhood, she +united with the Congregational Church when seventeen +years of age. At the age of twenty-two she +married George Washington Glover, probably the +best of her husbands. His death, six months later, +was followed by the birth of her only child and a +ten years' widowhood. During this time she stayed +with her relatives and had long periods of illness, +principally of an hysterical character. She then +experimented to some extent with mesmerism and +clairvoyance. In 1853 she married Dr. Daniel Patterson, +an itinerant dentist, from whom she got a +divorce, and as Mrs. Patterson she went first to +"Dr." Quimby in 1862. She visited Quimby again +in 1864, at which time, with some others, she studied +with him. After Quimby's death she began teaching +what she then called his science. For the next +few years she wandered from town to town about +Boston in straitened circumstances, healing, teaching, +and endeavoring to found an organized society. +It was not, however, until 1875 that the organization +was formed in Lynn, and later in the same year +appeared her <i>Science and Health</i>. The years since +then have been filled with controversies in the law +courts and newspapers, caresses and blows from +the ruling hand of Mother Eddy, and numerous +developments from small beginnings, until now +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span>over one hundred thousand are identified with the +organization. These are almost without exception +proselytes from other churches.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus9" id="illus9"></a><a href="images/illus9.jpg"><img src="images/illus9-tb.jpg" +width="400" height="551" alt="MARY BAKER EDDY" /></a><br /> +<span class="caption">MARY BAKER EDDY</span></div> + +<p>Mrs. Eddy's doctrines are founded on a metaphysical +theory known as subjective idealism, and +advanced centuries before her birth. It posits the +all-comprehensiveness of mind and the non-existence +of matter. If bodies do not exist, diseases cannot +exist, and must be only mental delusions. If the +mind is freed of these delusions the disease is gone. +This was Quimby's method of procedure already +quoted. In <i>Science and Health</i> she says that the +object of treatment is "to destroy the patient's +belief in his physical condition." She also advises: +"Mentally contradict every complaint of the body." +She continues: "All disease is the result of education, +and can carry its ill effects no further than +mortal mind maps out the way. Destroy fear," +she says, "and you end the fever." However, as +with other healers, practice and theory are two +different things. Listen further: "It would be +foolish to venture beyond our present understanding, +foolish to stop eating, until we gain more goodness +and a clearer comprehension of the living God." +Again: "Until the advancing age admits the efficacy +and the supremacy of Mind, it is better to leave +the adjustment of broken bones and dislocations to +the fingers of the surgeon, while you confine yourself +chiefly to mental reconstruction, and the pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span>vention +of inflammation and protracted confinement."<a name="FNanchor_205_202" id="FNanchor_205_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_202" class="fnanchor">205</a></p> + +<p>With the exception of Christian Science, no modern +religious movement has come so prominently +before the public and gained so many adherents in +a short time as the Christian Catholic Apostle Church +of Zion, and both movements owe their popularity +solely to their healing. John Alexander Dowie +(1847-1907), the founder of this sect, was born in +Edinburgh, Scotland, but in 1860, with his parents, +he went to Australia, returning for two years to his +native city for college study. In 1870 he was ordained +to the Congregational ministry. He served +three churches, and after some political activity +was offered a portfolio in the Australian cabinet of +Sir Henry Parks. In 1882 he went to Melbourne and +established a large independent church, building a +tabernacle for worship. About this time he became +a firm believer in Divine Healing in direct answer to +prayer. He arrived in San Francisco in 1888 and +spent two years in organizing branches of the Divine +Healing Association of which he was president. +He went to Chicago in 1890 and continued there +holding meetings for some years. In 1895 he broke +away from the International Divine Healing Association, +which he had been chiefly instrumental in +organizing, and insisted that his followers should +not remain in the churches. The following year<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span> +the Christian Catholic Church was organized. Of +this organization Mr. Dowie was known as General +Overseer, then as Prophet, and in 1904 as First +Apostle. He also proclaimed himself in general as +the messenger of the Covenant and Elijah the Restorer. +In 1900 Mr. Dowie said: "About twenty-two +thousand have been baptized by triune immersion +up to the present, and this includes practically +all the members." This, however, was a great exaggeration. +In 1901 the head-quarters of the church +was moved to Zion City, forty-two miles north of +Chicago. He preached the threefold gospel of +Salvation, Healing, and Holy Living. Dowie differed +from Christian Science in proclaiming the +reality of disease, the distinctive feature of his +doctrine being that all bodily ailment is the work +of the Devil, and that Christ came to destroy the +works of the Devil. His contempt for external +means may be judged from the title of a pamphlet, +<i>Doctors, Drugs, and Devils</i>; nevertheless, he used +physicians at least to diagnose cases at different +times, a licensed medical doctor, Speicher, being +associated with him from the beginning of his work +in Chicago. Dentists are a factor of Zion City, +and it is said he also used an oculist. According to +his doctrine there are four methods of cure: "The +first is the direct prayer of faith; the second, intercessory +prayer of two or more; the third, the +anointing of the elders, with the prayer of faith;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span> +and the fourth, the laying on of hands of those who +believe, and whom God has prepared and called to +that ministry." In addition to this, teaching is the +basis of all other methods. The first ten years of +his healing he is said to have laid hands on eighteen +thousand sick, and he declared that the greater part +of them were fully healed. In some of his later +years he said in an issue of his paper: "I pray and +lay hands on seventy thousand people in a year." +That would make one hundred and seventy-five +thousand in two and a half years; but in the time +preceding the statement he reported only seven +hundred cures. Evidently very few were helped. +However, in Shiloh Tabernacle at Zion City are +exhibited on the walls crutches, canes, surgical instruments, +trusses, and almost every form of apparatus +used by the medical profession, presented by +people who have now no further use for them on +account of their being healed.<a name="FNanchor_206_203" id="FNanchor_206_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_203" class="fnanchor">206</a></p> + +<p>Our study began with the mental therapeutics of +over a millennium before the birth of Christ; let us +now close with that of the twentieth century after, +in giving some account of the so-called Emmanuel +Movement. In 1905 there was formed in connection +with Emmanuel Church, Boston, a tuberculosis +class for the alleviation of unfortunates of this +kind. In this experience it was found that certain +psychic and social factors greatly aided in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> +cure, and in the following year, 1906, the work expanded +into what has been called the "Emmanuel +Movement." It is an attempt to combine the wisdom +and efforts of the physician, the clergyman, +the psychologist, and the sociologist, to combat +conditions most frequently met in a large city. In +the medical phase of the work mental healing has +had a large place, and has been emphasized most in +the popular presentation of the movement, and so +far as the idea has spread, it has been almost wholly +in connection with this aspect. What the future +of this will be is uncertain, but it seems probable +that its most valuable service will be in stimulating +the physicians to take up the work which properly +belongs to them—the work of therapeutics in all its +branches, mental and physical.</p> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_187" id="Footnote_190_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_187"><span class="label">190</span></a> C. G. Finney, <i>Memoirs</i>, pp. 108 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_188" id="Footnote_191_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_188"><span class="label">191</span></a> W.T. Price, <i>Without Scrip or Purse, or the "Mountain Evangelist," +George O. Barnes</i>, p. 451.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_189" id="Footnote_192_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_189"><span class="label">192</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 610.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_190" id="Footnote_193_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_190"><span class="label">193</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 301 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_191" id="Footnote_194_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_191"><span class="label">194</span></a> J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred Phenomena," +<i>Century</i>, XXXII, pp. 221 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_192" id="Footnote_195_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_192"><span class="label">195</span></a> <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, article "Hohenlohe."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_193" id="Footnote_196_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_193"><span class="label">196</span></a> D. H. Tuke, <i>Influence of the Mind upon the Body</i>, pp. 355 ff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_194" id="Footnote_197_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_194"><span class="label">197</span></a> I. W. Riley, <i>The Founder of Mormonism</i>, chaps. VIII and IX.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_195" id="Footnote_198_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_195"><span class="label">198</span></a> J. F. Maguire, <i>Father Mathew</i>, pp. 529 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_196" id="Footnote_199_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_196"><span class="label">199</span></a> <i>Biography of Francis Schlatter, The Healer</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_197" id="Footnote_200_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_197"><span class="label">200</span></a> J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred Phenomena," +<i>Century</i>, XXXII, pp. 221 f.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_198" id="Footnote_201_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_198"><span class="label">201</span></a> Father John, <i>My Life in Christ</i> (trans. Goulaeff), p. 201.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_199" id="Footnote_202_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_199"><span class="label">202</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and +Surgery</i>, p. 53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_200" id="Footnote_203_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_200"><span class="label">203</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 482.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_201" id="Footnote_204_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_201"><span class="label">204</span></a> J. A. Dresser, <i>The True History of Mental Science</i>; A. G. Dresser, +<i>The Philosophy of P. P. Quimby</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_202" id="Footnote_205_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_202"><span class="label">205</span></a> G. Milmine, <i>Mary Baker G. Eddy</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_203" id="Footnote_206_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_203"><span class="label">206</span></a> R. Harlan, <i>John Alexander Dowie</i>.</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308-309</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS" id="INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS"></a>INDEX OF SUBJECTS</h3> + + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><span class="smcap">Abraxas,</span> <a href="#Page_165">165</a> ff. +</li><li> +Ague, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> f., <a href="#Page_197">197</a> ff.<br /> +</li><li> +Amulets, Chapter VII— +<ul> +<li>definition of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> f., <a href="#Page_158">158</a> f.</li> +</ul></li> +<li>Astrology, <a href="#Page_141">140</a> f., <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff. +</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baquet,</span> Mesmer's, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> f. +</li><li> +Bites of venomous animals, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> f. +</li><li> +Burns, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>. +</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Cabbalism,</span> <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. +</li><li> +Calculus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> f. +</li><li> +Cancer, <a href="#Page_009">9</a> f. +</li><li> +Canonization, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li><li> +Catacombs, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>.</li><li> +Characts, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> ff.</li> +<li> +Charms, Chapter VIII— +<ul> +<li>composition of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> +<li>definition of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> f.</li> +</ul> +</li><li> +Childbirth, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li> +Cholera, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li><li> +Chorea, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li> +Christianity, influence of, Chapter III.</li><li> +Christian Science, <a href="#Page_016">16</a> f., <a href="#Page_298">298</a> f., <a href="#Page_302">302</a> f.</li><li> +Colic, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> f., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li> +Consumption, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> f.</li><li> +Cramp, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> ff.</li><li> +Cross, true, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_079">79</a> f.</li> +<li> </li> +<li><span class="smcap">Demonology—</span> +<ul> +<li>and animals, <a href="#Page_038">38</a> f.</li> +<li>and Apostolic Fathers, <a href="#Page_040">40</a> ff.</li> +<li>and Dark Ages, <a href="#Page_044">44</a> ff.</li> +<li>Christian, <a href="#Page_037">37</a> ff.</li> +<li>Jewish, <a href="#Page_036">36</a> f.</li> +</ul></li><li> +Diseases, functional and organic, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>.</li><li> +Dislocations, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> f.</li><li> +Dropsy, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Emmanuel Movement,</span> <a href="#Page_306">306</a> f.</li><li> +Epilepsy, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> f., <a href="#Page_205">205</a> ff.</li><li> +Erysipelas, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> f.</li><li> +Evil eye, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li> +Exorcism, <a href="#Page_049">49</a> ff., <a href="#Page_126">126</a> f., <a href="#Page_134">134</a> f., <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. +<ul> +<li>by amulets, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li><li> +by charms, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li><li> +by relics, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> +Eye disease, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> f., <a href="#Page_181">181</a> f., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Faith,</span> <a href="#Page_014">14</a> f.</li><li> +Faith cure, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_017">17</a>.</li><li> +Fevers, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Gems,</span> <a href="#Page_161">161</a> ff., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li><li> +Goitre, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li><li> +Gout, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> f.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Headache,</span> <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> f.</li><li> +Healers, Chapter V— +<ul> +<li>and exorcism, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li><li> +by unction, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> ff.</li><li> +Christian, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> ff.</li><li> +Mesmeric, Chapter X.</li><li> +of nineteenth century, Chapter XI.</li> +</ul></li><li> +Herpes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> f.</li><li> +Hypnotism, Chapter X.— +<ul> +<li>controversy over, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.</li> +<li>historic periods of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> f.</li> +<li>Mesmer and, <a href="#Page_252">252</a> ff.</li> +<li>scientific period of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> f.</li> +</ul></li><li> +Hysteria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span><span class="smcap">Incubation</span>, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_092">92</a> ff. +<ul> +<li>Greek, <a href="#Page_093">93</a> ff.</li> +</ul></li><li> +Incubus, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li> +Insanity, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li> +Insomnia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li> </li> +<li><span class="smcap">Jaundice</span>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> f.</li> +<li> </li> +<li> +<span class="smcap">Magnetism</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> ff.</li> +<li> +Mandragora, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> f.</li> +<li> +Marasmus, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> +<li> +Medicine and church, <a href="#Page_053">53</a> ff. +<ul> +<li>Babylonian, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>.</li> +<li>Chinese, <a href="#Page_021">21</a> ff.</li> +<li>Egyptian, <a href="#Page_024">24</a> ff.</li> +<li>Greek, <a href="#Page_028">28</a> ff.</li> +<li>History of, <a href="#Page_019">19</a> f.</li> +<li>Indian, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>.</li> +<li>Jewish, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>.</li> +<li>Primitive, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>.</li> +<li>Roman, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>.</li> +</ul></li><li> +Melancholy, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li> +Mental healing, explanation of, <a href="#Page_007">7</a> ff.</li><li> +Mesmerism. See Hypnotism.</li><li> +Metaphysical cures, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> ff.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Numbers</span>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> ff.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Oil of Saints</span>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a> f.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Pericarpia</span>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li><li> +Phylacteries, <a href="#Page_141">140</a>.</li><li> +Plague, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li> +Pools, <a href="#Page_083">83</a> ff., <a href="#Page_092">92</a>.</li><li> +Prayer, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> f., <a href="#Page_280">280</a> ff., <a href="#Page_283">283</a> f., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li><li> +Psycho-analysis, <a href="#Page_012">12</a> f.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Re-education</span>, <a href="#Page_012">12</a> f.</li><li> +Relics, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>, Chapter V— +<ul> +<li>and Church Fathers, <a href="#Page_064">64</a> f.</li> +<li>cost of, <a href="#Page_096">96</a> ff.</li> +<li>fraud among, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> f.</li> +<li>from Holy Land, <a href="#Page_069">69</a> ff.</li> +</ul></li><li> +Religion and Healing, <a href="#Page_004">4</a> ff., <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, Chapter III.</li><li> +Revivalists, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> ff.</li><li> +Rickets, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> f.</li><li> +Rings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> f., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> ff.</li><li> +Royal Touch, Chapter IX— +<ul> +<li>origin of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> ff.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Saints and Diseases</span>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a> ff., <a href="#Page_081">81</a> f.</li><li> +Sciatica, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li><li> +Scrofula, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, Chapter IX.</li><li> +Shrines, Chapter IV— +<ul> +<li>modern, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> f.</li> +</ul></li> +<li> +Sick, care of, <a href="#Page_057">57</a> f.</li><li> +Signatures, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> ff.</li><li> +Spittle, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li><li> +Subconsciousness, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>.</li><li> +Suggestions, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> f.</li><li> +Sweating sickness, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li><li> +Sympathetic cures, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> ff.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Talismans</span>, Chapter VI— +<ul> +<li>definition of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> ff., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> +</ul></li><li> +Therapeutics. See Medicine.</li><li> +Thorns, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li><li> +Toothache, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> f.</li><li> +Touch pieces, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> f.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Unction</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> ff., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Warts</span>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> f.</li><li> +Weapon-salve, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.</li><li> +Wells, holy, <a href="#Page_083">83</a> ff.</li><li> +Wen, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> f.</li><li> +Whooping-cough, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> ff.</li><li> +Worms, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li><li> +Wounds, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> f.</li> +</ul> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span></p> + +<h3>INDEX OF NAMES</h3> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li> +<span class="smcap">Abraham</span>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li><li> +Adam, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>.</li><li> +Adrian, Pope, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li><li> +Æsculapius, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li> +Agatha, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Agnan, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Agrippa, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li><li> +Albans, St., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li> +Albertus Magnus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li><li> +Alboquerque, A. d'. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li> +Alexander III, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li><li> +Alexander of Tralles, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li> +Ambrose, St., <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>.</li><li> +Andreas, St., <a href="#Page_080">80</a>.</li><li> +Andrews, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li> +Anne, Queen, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li> +Anne, St., de Beaupré, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li> +Anthony, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>.</li><li> +Antoinette, Marie, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li><li> +Antoninus, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>.</li><li> +Apes, Valerius, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>.</li><li> +Apollo, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li> +Apollonia, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Aquarius, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Aredius, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li> +Aries, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>.</li><li> +Aristotle, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li><li> +Armstrong, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li> +Arnot, H., <a href="#Page_141">140</a>.</li><li> +Ashburner, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li> +Ashmole, E. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li><li> +Athanasius, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>.</li><li> +Aubrey, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li><li> +Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li><li> +Aurelian, Father, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>.</li><li> +Avertin, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Ayers, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li> +Azam, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Baas,</span> <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li> +Bacci, P. J., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li> +Bacon, F., <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li> +Bacon, R., <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Badger, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li><li> +Bagnone, F., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li> +Bailly, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li> +Balsius, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Baltus, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li> +Barbarin, de, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li><li> +Bargrave, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Barnabas, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Barnes, G. O., <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li><li> +Barrington, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li><li> +Barros, de, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li><li> +Bates, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li><li> +Bath-Chorin, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>.</li><li> +Becket, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>.</li><li> +Bede, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li><li> +Belgrade, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li><li> +Benedict, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> + +Benedict XIV, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li><li> + +Berdoe, E., <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li><li> + +Berenger, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li> + +Bernard, Dr. C., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li> + +Bernard of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li> + +Bernard, St., <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> + +Bernheim, H., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li> + +Bertrand, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li> + +Binet, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li> + +Bingham, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li><li> + +Black, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li><li> + +Blair, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span> +</li><li> +Blaise, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> + +Blochwick, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li><li> + +Blumhardt, J. C., <a href="#Page_287">287</a> f.</li><li> + +Boardman, W. E., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li><li> + +Böckmann, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li> + +Bois, John de, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li> + +Boleyn, A., <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li> + +Boncompagni, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li> + +Boniface, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> + +Bonner, Bishop, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li> + +Bontius, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li><li> + +Boorde, A., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> + +Bossuet, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>.</li><li> + +Boswell, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li> + +Boyle, R., <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li><li> + +Braid, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li> + +Bramdel, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li> + +Brand, J., <a href="#Page_090">90</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li><li> + +Brand the Historian, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li><li> + +Broca, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li> + +Brockett, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li><li> + +Brogawn, St., <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li> + +Browne, Dr. E., <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li> + +Browne, J., <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li><li> + +Browne, Sir T., <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li><li> + +Bryant, Dr., <a href="#Page_292">292</a> f.</li><li> +Buckingham, Duke of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li><li> +Buckland, Prof., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li><li> +Buckle, H. T., <a href="#Page_045">45</a>.</li><li> +Buckley, J. M., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li><li> +Bulwer-Lytton, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li><li> +Burdin, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li> +Burgarde, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Burgrave, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Burnet, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> +Burton, R., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li> +Butler, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li> +Butler, A., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li><li> +Butler, J., <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Caius</span>, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>.</li><li> +Calama, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li> +Calixtus II, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>.</li><li> +Cancelli, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li> +Capricornus, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Capua, Raimondo da, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li> +Carodoc, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>.</li><li> +Catharine, St., <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li><li> +Cato the Censor, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li><li> +Chalmers, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>.</li><li> +Chamberlain, J., <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li><li> +Charcot, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li> +Charles I, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li> +Charles II, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li><li> +Charles II of Spain, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>.</li><li> +Charles Edward, Prince, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li> +Chaucer, <a href="#Page_061">61</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li><li> +Chesterfield, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li> +Chilperic, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li> +Christopher, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Chrysippus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li><li> +Chrysostom, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li><li> +Churchill, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li> +Cicero, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li> +Clairvaux, Abbot of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> +Clara, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Clarke, R. F., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li> +Clement of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li><li> +Clement VIII, Pope, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li> +Cleophas, Simon, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Clerk, Mrs., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li><li> +Clothair II, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li> +Clovis I, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li> +Cockayne, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li><li> +Coirin, la demoiselle, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li> +Coles, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li><li> +Coleta, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li> +Collier, J., <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li><li> +Collinson, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>.</li><li> +Collyer, Dr., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li> +Comines, P. de, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li> +Conway, Lord, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li><li> +Cosmo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li> +Cotta, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li><li> +Cowles, W., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li><li> +Cromwell, O., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li><li> +Cros, J. M., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li> +Crowley, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li><li> +Cudworth, Dr., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li> +Cullis, C., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> +Cullum, Sir J., <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li><li> +Cuthbert, St., <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li> +Cyprian, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li> +Cyril, St., <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li> +Cyrus, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Damian</span>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li> +Darling, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li> +Dearmer, P., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li> +Delenze, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li><li> +Democritus, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>.</li><li> +Denbigh, Earl of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li> +Deslon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li> +Deubner, L., <a href="#Page_096">96</a>.</li><li> +Deucalion, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li><li> +Digby, Sir E., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li><li> +Digby, Sir K., <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff., <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li><li> +Ditters, G., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li> +Dodd, Dr., <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li><li> +Donce, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li><li> +Dowie, J. A., <a href="#Page_304">304</a> f.</li><li> +Draper, J. W., <a href="#Page_072">72</a>.</li><li> +Dresser, A. G., <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li><li> +Dresser, H. W., <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li> +Dresser, J. A., <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li><li> +Dromore, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li><li> +Dryden, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li> +Dundee, B., <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li><li> +Dupotel, Baron, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li><li> +Durham, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Dziewicki, M. H., <a href="#Page_051">51</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Eccles</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li><li> +Eddy, Mrs., <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li><li> +Edine, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Edward the Confessor, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li><li> +Edward II, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li><li> +Edward III, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li><li> +Edward VI, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li> +Eleazar, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>.</li><li> +Elisha, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li><li> +Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> +Elliotson, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li> +Elpideus, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Empedocles, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>.</li><li> +Encelius, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li><li> +Ennemoser, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li> +Ennodius, St., <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Erasmus, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Estrade, J. B., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li> +Euhodias, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li> +Eustachius, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li> +Eustasius, Abbe, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li> +Eutrope, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Evans, W. F., <a href="#Page_299">299</a> f.</li><li> +Evelyn, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li><li> +Evremond, St., <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Fabian, Pope</span>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li> +Faria, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li> +Farnham, N. de, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Fecamp, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li> +Felix, Minucius, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>.</li><li> +Felix, Mons, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li><li> +Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li> +Féré, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li> +Ferrarius, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li><li> +Fiage, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Fillan, St., <a href="#Page_088">88</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li> +Finney, C. G., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li><li> +Fisher, G. P., <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li> +Fitz-Nigel, R., <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Fletcher, <a href="#Page_061">61</a>.</li><li> +Fletcher, H., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li> +Floyer, Sir J., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li> +Fluctibus, A., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li><li> +Fludd, Dr., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Foissac, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li> +Fontenelle, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li> +Fort, G. F., <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li> +Fortescue, Sir J., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li><li> +Fosbrooke, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li><li> +Foster, Parson, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li><li> +Fox, G., <a href="#Page_132">132</a> f.</li><li> +Francis, Father, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li> +Francis I, Emperor, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li><li> +Francis I, King, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li> +Francis, St., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li><li> +Franklin, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li> +Franz, A., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Galen</span>, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li> +Gall, St., <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li> +Gamaliel, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li> +Ganny, S., <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li> +Gardiner, Bishop, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> +Gassner, J. J., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li><li> +Gemelli, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li> +Gemini, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Genevieve, St., <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li> +Genow, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +George I, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li> +George, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_094">94</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li> +Gereon, St., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li><li> +Germain, St., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li><li> +Germanus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Gervasius, St., <a href="#Page_065">65</a>.</li><li> +Gilbourne, Lord, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li> +Giles, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Glocenius, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Gmelin, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li> +Goldsmith, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li> +Googe, B., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li> + +Görres, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li> +Gower, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li><li> +Gracian, B., <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Greatrakes, V., <a href="#Page_133">133</a> ff.</li><li> +Gregory, Mr., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li> +Gregory, of Nazianzus, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li> +Gregory, of Tours, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li> +Gregory, St., <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li> +Gregory the Great, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>.</li><li> +Gregory XIII, Pope, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li> +Grimes, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li> +Gros, D. de, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li> +Grose, <a href="#Page_090">90</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li><li> +Gudule, St., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li><li> +Guffe, John, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li> +Guthlac, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Hall, Bishop</span>, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li><li> +Hamerton, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li><li> +Hamilton, Miss M., <a href="#Page_093">93</a>, <a href="#Page_094">94</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>.</li><li> +Hammond, W. A., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li><li> +Hardy, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>.</li><li> +Harlan, R., <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li><li> +Harrington, Sir J., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li><li> +Hasted, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li> +Hatton, Lord Charles, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> +Helen, Empress, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>.</li><li> +Helinotius, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Hell, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li><li> +Helmont, von, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li><li> +Henry II and III, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Henry IV, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li> +Henry VII, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li> +Henry VIII, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> +Hensler, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li> +Hercules, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li> +Herring, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li> +Herz, Frau, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>.</li><li> +Heylin, Dr., <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li> +Heywood, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li><li> +Higden, Ranulf, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li> +Hilarion, St., <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li><li> +Hippo, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li> +Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>.</li><li> +Hippolito, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li> +Hobbes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li> +Hohenlohe, Prince, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> f.</li><li> +Holloway, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li> +Holt, Sir J., <a href="#Page_174">174</a> f.</li><li> +Homer, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>.</li><li> +Hospinian, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> +Howell, A. G., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li><li> +Howell, J., <a href="#Page_152">152</a> f.</li><li> +Hubert, St., <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>.</li><li> +Hugo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li> +Hyacinth, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Hyde, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li><li> +Hygeia, Tecla, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Iatricos</span>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li> +Imbert-Gourbyzee, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li> +Innocent II, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>.</li><li> +Innocent III, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>.</li><li> +Irenæus, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Jackson</span>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li><li> +Jacob, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li><li> +James, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li> +James I, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li><li> +James II, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li><li> +Jerome, of Brunsweig, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> +Jerome, St., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li><li> +Joane, Mother, of Stowe, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li><li> +Job, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +John, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li> +John, Father, of Cronstadt, <a href="#Page_294">294</a> f.</li><li> +John, of Gladdesden, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li><li> +John, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li> +John, St., of Beverly, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li> +Johnson, Dr. S., <a href="#Page_238">238</a> f.</li><li> +Johnson, Mrs., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li> +Joseph, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Josephus, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>.</li><li> +Julian, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>.</li><li> +Juliana, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li> +Julius Africanus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li><li> +Jussieu, L. de, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li> +Just, St., <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li> +Justina, Empress, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Kampfer</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li><li> +King, E. A., <a href="#Page_060">60</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li><li> +Kircher, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Koreff, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li> +Kublai Khan, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Lacianus</span>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>. </li><li> +Lactantius, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>. </li><li> +La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. </li><li> +Laneham, R., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>. </li><li> +Lascaris, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>. </li><li> +Laurent, du, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>. </li><li> +Laurentia, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>. </li><li> +Laurentius, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>. </li><li> +Lavater, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>. </li><li> +Lavoisier, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li> +Lawrence, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>. </li><li> +Leatus, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>. </li><li> +Lecky, W. E. H., <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>. </li><li> +Lee, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>. </li><li> +Lemnius, L., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. </li><li> +Leo, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>. </li><li> +Leo, Pope, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. </li><li> +Leonastes, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>. </li><li> +Leverett, John, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. </li><li> +Liberius, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>. </li><li> +Libra, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>. </li><li> +Liebeault, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>. </li><li> +Lilly, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>. </li><li> +Lindsey, Earl of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. </li><li> +Littré M., <a href="#Page_080">80</a>. </li><li> +Lluellin, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>. </li><li> +Locke, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li> +Lodge, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li><li> +London, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Longfellow, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li> +Louis I, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li> +Louis XIII, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li> +Louis, Prince, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li> +Louis, St., <a href="#Page_079">79</a>.</li><li> +Loutherbourg, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li> +Lucian, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li><li> +Lucy, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Luke, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li> +Lupton, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li> +Luther, Martin, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Macarius, St</span>., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li> +Macaulay, C. S., <a href="#Page_089">89</a>.</li><li> +Macaulay, Mrs., <a href="#Page_089">89</a>.</li><li> +Macaulay, T. B., <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li><li> +Macdonald, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li><li> +Machaon, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>.</li><li> +Mack, J., <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li><li> +Mackay, C., <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li> +Madern, St., <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li> +Magnus, St., <a href="#Page_079">79</a>.</li><li> +Maimonides, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li><li> +Mainadus, Dr., <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li> +Maine, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Marcellus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li><li> +Margaret, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Maria, S. dell 'Arco, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li> +Mark, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li> +Marsden, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li><li> +Martin, St., <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li> +Martyr, Justin, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>.</li><li> +Marus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Mary, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>.</li><li> +Mary, Queen, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li> +Maspéro, G., <a href="#Page_025">25</a>, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>.</li><li> +Massinger, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>.</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span> +Matthew, Father, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a> f.</li><li> +Maur, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Maxwell, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li><li> +Mayerne, Dr., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li><li> +Meaux, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>.</li><li> +Melanchthon, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li> +Melton, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Mesmer, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Meyer, R., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li><li> +Mezeray, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li> +Michel, M., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li><li> +Milmine, G., <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li><li> +Milner, John, Dr., <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li> +Milton, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li> +Miranda, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li> +Miranda, A., de, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li> +Mix, E., <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li><li> +Mizaldus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li><li> +Momford, Lord, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li><li> +Monardes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li> +Montfort, Marquis, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li> +Mooney, N., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li><li> +Morison, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li> +Morley, H., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li><li> +Morley, Squire, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li> +Moses, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li> +Moses, J., <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li><li> +Müller, Johannes, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>.</li><li> +Munger, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li> +Murmerstadt, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li> +Myers, A. T., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li> +Myers, F. W. H., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Naaman</span>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li> +Nabonnese, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li> +Napoleon, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li><li> +Navarette, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li><li> +Neri, St. Philip, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li> +Nevius, J.F., <a href="#Page_060">60</a>.</li><li> +Newton, Dr., <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li><li> +Nicetius, <a href="#Page_067">67</a>.</li><li> +Nicholas, Dr. J., <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li><li> +Nicodemus, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Noizet, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li> +Northampton, Lord, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li><li> +Nottingham, William, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li> +Nun, St., <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Odilo</span>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>.</li><li> +Oldmixon, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li> +Onymus, Prof., <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li> +Origen, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li> +Oswald, St., <a href="#Page_090">90</a>.</li><li> +Otilia, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Palladius</span>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li> +Paninguem, Tomé, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li> +Paracelsus, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li> +Paris, Deacon, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li> +Paris, Dr., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li><li> +Parthenius, St., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li> +Pascal, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li><li> +Pastor, St., <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li> +Patrick, Bishop, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li> +Patterson, Mrs., <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li><li> +Paul III, Pope, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li><li> +Paul, St., <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li><li> +Paula, Franciscus de, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li> +Peckham, Sir G., <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li> +Peebles, J. M., <a href="#Page_060">60</a>.</li><li> +Pennant, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>.</li><li> +Pepys, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li><li> +Percy, Bishop, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li><li> +Perier, Mademoiselle, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li><li> +Perkins, B. D., <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li> +Pernel, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Peter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li> +Peter, St., <a href="#Page_005">5</a>, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li> +Petétin, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li><li> +Petronilla, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Pettigrew, T. J., <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li> +Pezold, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li> +Phaire, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Philip I, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li> +Philip II of Spain, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>.</li><li> +Philip of Valois, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li> +Phillips, Elder, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li> +Philo, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>.</li><li> +Pilate, Pontius, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span> +Pilkington, Bishop, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li><li> +Pinkerton, <a href="#Page_088">88</a>.</li><li> +Pisces, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Pistol, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li> +Pius IX, Pope, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li> +Platerus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li><li> +Plato, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>.</li><li> +Pliny, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li><li> +Podalirius, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>.</li><li> +Polo, Marco, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li> +Pomponatius, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li><li> +Ponponazzi, Pierre, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>.</li><li> +Pope, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li><li> +Porta, B., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li><li> +Posidonius, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>.</li><li> +Poyan, C, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li> +Price, W. T., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li><li> +Protasius, St., <a href="#Page_065">65</a>.</li><li> +Puller, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li> +Puységur, Marquis de, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li><li> +Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Quan, St.</span>, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li> +Quimby, P. P., <a href="#Page_017">17</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> ff., <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li><li> +Quintan, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Quirinus, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Rachel,</span> <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li><li> +Radegonde, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li> +Radstock, Lord, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li><li> +Ramesay, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li><li> +Raphael, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li> +Ravenscroft, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li><li> +Refinus, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li> +Reid, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li> +Remigius, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> +Renodeus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li><li> +Richards, Elder, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li> +Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li> +Richmond, Duke of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li> +Riley, I. W., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li> +Roche, St., <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li> +Rochus, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Romanus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Rosalia, St., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li><li> +Ruffian, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Russel, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li><li> +Rusticus, Elpidius, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Ruthlein, Captain, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Sagittarius</span>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Salverte, E., <a href="#Page_040">40</a>, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li> +Samonicus, S., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li><li> +Sanderson, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li> +Sanford, F. W., <a href="#Page_281">281</a> f.</li><li> +Saturninus, St., <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li> +Sauveur, St., of Horta, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> f.</li><li> +Schlatter, F., <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li><li> +Scoresby, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li> +Scorpius, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Scott, R., <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li> +Scott, W., <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li> +Sebastian, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li> +Selle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li> +Senso, Dr., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li><li> +Serapion, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li><li> +Severin, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>.</li><li> +Severus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li> +Servetus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li> +Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li> +Shaw, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li> +Siemers, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li> +Sigismund, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Simeon, St., <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li> +Simpson, A. B., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li><li> +Sinsheim, Count von, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li><li> +Skippon, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li><li> +Smith, Joseph, Jr., <a href="#Page_286">286</a> f.</li><li> +Smith, Sir T., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li> +Socrates, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li> +Sophronius, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>.</li><li> +Southampton, Earl of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li> +Southey, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li> +Stengal, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>.</li><li> +Stephen, St., <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Stephens, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li> +Sterne, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li> +Stevens, E., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li> +Stowe, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li> +Straus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li> +Strype, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li> +Styria, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> +Sulpicius, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> +Syward, John, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li><li> +Tairise, St., <a href="#Page_099">99</a>.</li><li> +Tathiedo, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Tatian, <a href="#Page_040">40</a>.</li><li> +Taurus, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li> +Tecla, St., <a href="#Page_085">85</a>.</li><li> +Tennyson A., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li><li> +Tenos, Madonna of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a>.</li><li> +Tertullian, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li> +Theocritus, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li><li> +Theodelinda, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>.</li><li> +Theodoric, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li> +Theodosius, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>.</li><li> +Thiers, M., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li><li> +Thmuis, Bishop, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li> +Thomas, of Celano, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li><li> +Thomas, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> +Thomas St. of Hereford, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li> +Tignan, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Tooker, Dr., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li><li> +Torpacion, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li> +Townley, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li><li> +Townshend, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li> +Trickmore, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li><li> +Trine, R. W., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li> +Trippe, S., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li><li> +Trundel, D., <a href="#Page_279">279</a> f.</li><li> +Tuckey, C. L., <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li><li> +Tuke, H., <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li><li> +Turner, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li><li> +Turner, Dr. D., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Ursula, St</span>., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Valentine</span>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Vanzesmes, de, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li><li> +Vardrille, St., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li> +Venise, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Vespasian, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li><li> +Victor, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li><li> +Victor Emmanuel, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li><li> +Vincent, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> +Vittrici, Pietro, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li> +Vitus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Walderstein</span>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li> +Wallery, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Wallia, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Waterford, Simon, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li> +Wenefride, St., <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li> +Werenfels, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li><li> +Wesley, J., <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li><li> +Westbury, Lord, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>.</li><li> +Whichcote, Dr., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li> +White, A. D., <a href="#Page_039">39</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li><li> +Wierus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li><li> +Wilkins, Bishop, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li> +Willabrod, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li> +William III, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li><li> +William of Malmesbury, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li><li> +Wilson, Mr., <a href="#Page_048">48</a>.</li><li> +Winthrop, Governor, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li> +Wirdig, S., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li><li> +Withers, F., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li><li> +Wohyus, E., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li><li> +Wolfart, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li> +Wolfgang, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li> +Wood, H., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Xavier, St. Francis</span>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li> + </li><li> +<span class="smcap">Zaccheus</span>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li> +Zeller, S., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li><li> +Zola, E., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li> +Zosimos, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL HEALING***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 23101-h.txt or 23101-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/1/0/23101">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/3/1/0/23101</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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