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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing, by
+George Barton Cutten
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing
+
+
+Author: George Barton Cutten
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 22, 2007  [eBook #23101]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL
+HEALING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by David Clarke, Turgut Dincer, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 23101-h.htm or 23101-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/1/0/23101/23101-h/23101-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/1/0/23101/23101-h.zip)
+
+
+      +------------------------------------------+
+      | Transcriber's Note:                      |
+      |                                          |
+      | East Syriac Cross signs are shown by [+] |
+      +------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL HEALING
+
+by
+
+GEORGE BARTON CUTTEN, Ph.D.
+(Yale)
+President Of Acadia University
+
+Illustrated
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+1911
+
+
+[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING THE GALLIC ÆSCULAPIUS
+DISPATCHING A DEMON]
+
+
+Copyright, 1911, by
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+Published February, 1911
+
+
+
+THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY
+
+OF
+
+Artemus Wyman Sawyer, D.D., LL.D.
+
+PRESIDENT OF ACADIA UNIVERSITY
+
+1869-1896
+
+
+HE HID FROM US HIS HEART WHILE WE THOUGHT THAT HE LOVED
+  ONLY  HIS  STUDIES;  WE  LATER LEARNED THAT HE LAID
+    EMPHASIS ON THAT WHICH HE LOVED ONLY LESS--TRUE
+      KNOWLEDGE, IN ORDER THAT HE MIGHT INTRODUCE
+          IT TO THOSE THAT HE LOVED MOST--HIS
+            PUPILS. HE TAUGHT AS NONE OTHER
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                               PAGE
+
+      I. Introduction--Mental Healing                    3
+
+     II. Early Civilizations                            19
+
+    III. The Influence of Christianity                  35
+
+     IV. Relics and Shrines                             61
+
+      V. Healers                                       110
+
+     VI. Talismans                                     138
+
+    VII. Amulets                                       158
+
+   VIII. Charms                                        189
+
+     IX. Royal Touch                                   224
+
+      X. Mesmer and After                              249
+
+     XI. The Healers of the Nineteenth Century         273
+
+         Index                                         309
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present decade has experienced an intense interest in mental
+healing. This has come as a culmination of the development along these
+lines during the past half century. It has shown itself in the
+beginning of new religious sects with this as a, or the, fundamental
+tenet, in more wide-spread general movements, and in the scientific
+study and application of the principles underlying this form of
+therapeutics.
+
+Many have been led astray because, being ignorant of the mental
+healing movements and vagaries of the past, the late applications,
+veiled in metaphysical or religious verbiage, have seemed to them to
+be new in origin and principle. No one could consider an historical
+survey of the subject and reasonably hold this opinion. It is on
+account of the ignorance of similar movements, millenniums old, that
+so much, if any, originality can be credited to the founders.
+
+The object of this volume is to present a general view of mental
+healing, dealing more especially with the historical side of the
+subject. While this is divided topically, the topics are presented in
+a comparatively chronological order, and thereby trace the development
+of the subject to the present century.
+
+The term "mental healing" is given the broadest possible use, and
+comprehends any cures which may be brought about by the effect of the
+mind over the body, regardless of whether the power back of the cure
+is supposed to be deity, demons, other human beings, or the individual
+mind of the patient.
+
+It is hoped that this may contribute to the knowledge of a subject
+which is of such wide-spread popular interest.
+
+George Barton Cutten.
+
+Wolfville, Nova Scotia,
+_December 1, 1910._
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Bas-relief representing the Gallic Æsculapius
+dispatching a demon                          _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                    FACING
+                                                      PAGE
+
+Cure through the Intercession of a Healing Saint        72
+
+Valentine Greatrakes                                   134
+
+Sir Kenelm Digby                                       152
+
+King's Touch-pieces                                    226
+
+F. A. Mesmer                                           252
+
+John Alexander Dowie                                   276
+
+George O. Barnes                                       290
+
+Mary Baker Eddy                                        302
+
+
+
+
+THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF
+MENTAL HEALING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION--MENTAL HEALING
+
+
+  "'Tis painful thinking that corrodes our
+  clay."--ARMSTRONG.
+
+  "Oh, if I could once make a resolution, and determine to
+  be well!"--WALDERSTEIN.
+
+  "The body and the mind are like a jerkin and a jerkin's
+  lining, rumple the one and you rumple the
+  other."--STERNE.
+
+  "I find, by experience, that the mind and the body are
+  more than married, for they are most intimately united;
+  and when the one suffers, the other
+  sympathizes."--CHESTERFIELD.
+
+  "Sublime is the dominion of the mind over the body, that
+  for a time can make flesh and nerve impregnable, and
+  string the sinews like steel, so that the weak become so
+  mighty."--STOWE.
+
+  "The surest road to health, say what they will, Is never
+  to suppose we shall be ill; Most of those evils we poor
+  mortals know From doctors and imagination
+  flow."--CHURCHILL.
+
+The fact that there is a reciprocal relation between mental states and
+bodily conditions, acting both for good and ill, is nothing new in
+human experience. Even among the most crude and unobserving,
+traditions and incidents have given witness to this knowledge. For
+centuries stories of the hair turning white during the night on
+account of fright or sorrow, the cause and cure of diseases through
+emotional disturbances, and death, usually directly by apoplexy,
+caused by anger, grief, or joy, have been current and generally
+accepted. On the other hand, irritability and moroseness caused by
+disordered organs of digestion, change of acumen or morals due to
+injury of the brain or nervous system, and insanity produced by bodily
+diseases, are also accepted proofs of the effect of the body on the
+mind.
+
+Recent scientific investigation has been directed along the line of
+the influence of the mind over the body, and to that phase of this
+influence which deals with the cure rather than the cause of disease.
+In addition to what the scientists have done along this line, various
+religious cults have added the application of these principles to
+their other tenets and activities, or else have made this the chief
+corner-stone of a new structure. There are some reasons why this
+connection with religion should continue to exist, and why it has been
+a great help both to the building up of these particular sects and the
+healing of the bodies of those who combine religion with mental
+healing.
+
+We must not forget that in early days the priest, the magician, and
+the physician were combined in one person, and that primitive
+religious notions are difficult to slough off. Shortly before the
+beginning of the Christian era there were some indications that
+healing was to be freed from the bondage of religion, but the
+influence of Jesus' healing upon Christians, and the overwhelming
+influence of Christianity upon the whole world, delayed this movement,
+so that it did not again become prominent until the sixteenth
+century. About this time, when therapeutics as a science began to
+shake off the shackles of religion and superstition, another startling
+innovation was noticeable, viz., the division of mental healing into
+religious and non-religious healing. This change came gradually, and
+as is usual in all reform, certain prophets saw and proclaimed the
+real truth which the people were not able to follow or receive for
+centuries.
+
+Paracelsus, who lived during the first half of the sixteenth century,
+wrote these shrewd words: "Whether the object of your faith is real or
+false, you will nevertheless obtain the same effects. Thus, if I
+believe in St. Peter's statue as I would have believed in St. Peter
+himself, I will obtain the same effects that I would have obtained
+from St. Peter; but that is superstition. Faith, however, produces
+miracles, and whether it be true or false faith, it will always
+produce the same wonders." We have also this penetrating observation
+from Pierre Ponponazzi, of Milan, an author of the same century: "We
+can easily conceive the marvellous effects which confidence and
+imagination can produce, particularly when both qualities are
+reciprocal between the subject and the person who influences them. The
+cures attributed to the influence of certain relics are the effect of
+this imagination and confidence. Quacks and philosophers know that if
+the bones of any skeleton were put in the place of the saint's bones,
+the sick would none the less experience beneficial effects, if they
+believed they were near veritable relics."
+
+What seemed to be a movement whereby mental healing should be divided
+so that only a portion of it should be connected with religion proved
+to be too far in advance of its time, and not until the advent of
+Mesmer was this accomplished. Healing other than mental, however, did
+obtain its freedom at this time. While Mesmer and his followers
+emphasized non-religious mental healing, it should not be thought that
+mental therapeutics was ever entirely separated from the church. There
+have always been found some sects which laid particular emphasis on
+it, and both Roman Catholic and Protestant orthodox Christianity have
+always admitted it. It has been considered, even if not admitted, that
+the power of the Infinite was more clearly shown by the healing of the
+body than by the restoration of the moral life. It is natural, then,
+that the sects which showed this special proof of God's presence and
+power would grow faster than their spiritual competitors, but that
+they would decline more rapidly and surely than those which espoused
+more spiritual doctrines.
+
+On the other hand, it is not difficult to see why mental healing would
+be helped by its connection with religion. Religion grips the whole
+mind more firmly than any other subject has ever done, and when one
+accepts the orthodox conception of God, he naturally expects to come
+in contact with One whose sympathies are in favor of the cure of his
+diseases, and whose power is sufficient to bring about this cure. With
+this basis there is set up in the mind of the patient an expectancy
+which has always proven to be a most valuable precursor of a cure. The
+devout religious attitude of mind is one most favorable for the
+working of suggestion, and persons of the temperament adapted to the
+religious expression most valued in the past are those who could be
+most readily affected by mental means. For these reasons, it can be
+easily understood why mental healing has continued to be associated
+with religion, and why when thus associated it has been so successful.
+
+To those not very familiar with mental healing, it has seemed strange
+that any law could be formulated which would comprehend every variety.
+In the following pages many different forms will be described, and in
+examining the subject it will be found that many and varied are the
+explanations given for the results produced. We find also a general
+distrust of all the others, or else a claim that this particular sect
+is the only real and true exponent of mental healing, and that it
+produces the only genuine cures. Those which claim to be Christian
+sects, however divergent the direct explanation of their results, give
+the final credit to God, and base their _modus operandi_ upon the
+Bible--in fact, they claim to be the direct successors of Jesus and
+his disciples in this respect.
+
+We find, however, that the healer connected with the Christian sect
+has no advantage over his Mohammedan or Buddhist brother, and that
+neither is able to succeed better than the non-religious healer in all
+cases. We recognize that when one class of healers fails in a case
+another may succeed, but the successful one is just as liable to fail
+in a second case when the first one cures. What particular form of
+suggestion is most effective in any given case depends upon the
+temperament of the individual and his education, religious training,
+and environment. When we consider the whole matter we are forced to
+the conclusion that mental cures are independent of any particular
+sect, religion, or philosophy; some are cured by one form and some by
+another. Not the creed, but some force which resides in the mind of
+every one accomplishes the cure, and the most that any religion or
+philosophy can do is to bring this force into action.
+
+As a general rule, one sharp distinction is noticed between the
+religious and the non-religious healers, viz., the religious healer
+sees no limit to his healing power, and affirms that cancer and
+Bright's disease are as easily cured, in theory at least, as neuralgia
+or insomnia; the non-religious healer, sometimes designated as the
+"scientific healer," on the contrary, recognizes that there are some
+diseases which are more easily cured than others, and that of those
+others some are practically incurable by psycho-therapeutic methods.
+
+The line has been drawn in the past between functional and organic
+diseases, the former including diseases where there is simply a
+derangement of function, like indigestion, and the latter
+comprehending the diseases where the organ is affected, like ulcer of
+the stomach. The more we know about diseases the less sure we seem to
+be about their classification; some of which we were formerly sure
+have recently caused us considerable doubt. For example, we have
+formerly classed cancer as an organic disease and consequently
+incurable by mental means. The question is now asked, "Is cancer an
+organic disease, or is it some functional derangement of the
+epithelium tissue which causes it to grow indefinitely until it
+invades some vital organ?"
+
+A further question arises due to further study. Some of the latest
+investigators claim that most if not all persons have cancer at some
+time in life, but that anti-toxin or some other remedy is supplied by
+the body itself, and the growth is stopped and the tissue absorbed.
+The question then seems to be pertinent, "If the body can produce the
+cure within itself, and this would be functional, why cannot mental
+means stimulate the body to produce it?" or "Does not mental influence
+stimulate the body to produce it?" What the cancer experts tell us of
+the wide-spread extension of the disease and its spontaneous cure, the
+tuberculosis experts affirm of tuberculosis, and certainly of the
+latter disease spontaneous cures are not uncommon. We also know that
+mental influence may, in fact does, have an indirect but no less
+beneficial influence in the cure of tuberculosis. From these examples
+one seems to be forced to either one of two conclusions, either of
+which is contrary to generally accepted ideas, viz., first, that these
+are not organic diseases; or, second, organic diseases are aided or
+cured by means of mental healing. In general, however, the distinction
+holds good; the so-called functional cases are amenable to cure by
+mental means, and the organic are much less so.
+
+Coming back, then, to the common law which underlies all cases or
+forms of mental healing, we find two general principles upon which it
+is built--the power of the mind over the body, and the importance of
+suggestion as a factor in the cure of the disease. The law may be
+tersely stated in the first person as follows: My body tends to adjust
+itself so as to be in harmony with my ideas concerning it. This law is
+equally applicable to the cause or cure of disease by mental means. To
+apply this law in a universal way as far as mental healing is
+concerned, we should notice that however the thought of cure may come
+into the mind, whether by external or auto-suggestion, if it is firmly
+rooted so as to impress the subconsciousness, that part of the mind
+which rules the bodily organs, a tendency toward cure is at once set
+up and continues as long as that thought has the ascendancy.
+
+Hack Tuke quotes Johannes Müller, a physiologist who lived during the
+first half of the last century, as follows: "It may be stated as a
+general fact that any state of body which is conceived to be
+approaching, and which is expected with certain confidence and
+certainty of occurrence, will be very prone to ensue, as the mere
+result of the idea, if it do not lie beyond the bounds of
+possibility." This is a fair statement of the law from the stand-point
+of consciousness, but does not include all of the vast influence of
+subconscious ideas which are so potent in the cure of diseases by
+mental means. Müller's observation was in advance of his times, but
+could not be expected to include the results of the latest researches
+of modern science.
+
+For a great many years physicians have recognized that not only are
+all diseases made worse by an incorrect mental attitude, but that some
+diseases are the direct result of worry and other mental disturbances.
+The mental force which causes colored water to act as an emetic, or
+postage-stamps to produce a blister, can also produce organic diseases
+of a serious nature. The large mental factor in the cause of diseases
+is generally admitted, and it seems reasonable to infer that what is
+caused by mental influence may be cured by the same means. There is
+no restriction in the power of the mind in causing disease, and should
+we restrict the mind as a factor in the cure? The trouble seems to be
+in the explanation. People ask, "How can the mind have such an effect
+upon the body?" and to the answer of this question we must now turn
+our attention.
+
+We all recognize that involuntarily certain bodily effects take place.
+We blush when we do not wish to; we betray our fears by our blanched
+faces. Some other factors of mind than the conscious mental processes
+have charge, and rule certain functions. The heart, the respiratory
+apparatus, the glands, and digestive organs all carry on their regular
+functions during sleep and also better without our direction when we
+are awake. What is the explanation of this? We have recently been
+saying that the subconsciousness rules these physical organs, and
+through this that the effects already referred to take place. So much
+has been written recently regarding the subconsciousness that anything
+more at this time would be superfluous; suffice it to say that the
+general conclusions on that subject are accepted as the basis of faith
+cure. We may, however, go further in our endeavor to explain.
+
+In such mental troubles as psychasthesia much has lately been heard
+about psycho-analysis and re-education. What does that mean in the
+language of the psychology of a few years ago? In cases of
+unreasonable fears or phobias, for example, there is a firmly rooted
+system of ideas which refuses to depart at the command of
+consciousness. We analyze the mental store to find out the cause of
+the unreasonable persistence, and sometimes, quite frequently in fact,
+have to resort to hypnosis or hypnodization to find the initial
+trouble. It is then corrected, and re-education consists in living
+over again from the first experience, the events connected with that
+fear and correcting them up to date. In this process minutes only are
+used where the original experiences took weeks. Putting it in other
+words, we have certain systems of ideas; as a psychological fact of
+long standing we know that other elements may be injected into that
+system so as to change it, or that one system may be destroyed and
+another system built up to take its place. This is the secret of cures
+of this nature--of mental troubles--the irritating factor, the thorn
+in the mind, is extracted.
+
+We have heard in modern psychology of the hot and cold places in
+consciousness, or, to use other terms for the same idea, the central
+and peripheral ideas, meaning the ideas which dominate consciousness,
+and those which are in the background. The mind can readily attend to
+only one thing at a time; if that be pain, for example, that takes up
+all of our attention. On the other hand, if for some reason some other
+ideas suddenly become central, then the pain is driven away to the
+periphery and we say we have no pain, or we have less pain. The
+sufferer from neuralgia experiences no pain as he responds to the fire
+alarm, and the toothache stops entirely as we undergo the excitement
+and fear of entering the dentist's office. Serious lesions yield to
+profound emotion born of persuasion, confidence, or excitement; either
+the gouty or rheumatic man, after hobbling about for years, finds his
+legs if pursued by a wild bull, or the weak and enfeebled invalid will
+jump from the bed and carry out heavy articles from a burning house.
+The central idea is sufficient to command all the reserve energy, and
+that idea which has suddenly and unexpectedly become central may
+remain so. What Chalmers called "the expulsive power of a new
+affection" in the cure of souls, is the precise method of operation in
+the cure of some bodily ills.
+
+I have here made two suggestions which may help to show how mental
+healing may be brought about. Not simply the alleviation of bodily
+ills, but the complete cure may result from the influence on the
+subconsciousness. A large number of cures are brought about by faith
+in certain religious practices, this faith amounting to a certainty in
+the minds of the patients before the cure is started or while it is in
+progress. Trustful expectation in any one direction acts powerfully
+through the subconsciousness because it absorbs the whole mind, and
+thus competition with other ideas, either consciously or
+subconsciously, is largely excluded. It is this which acts in mental
+healing under the caption of faith, although some abnormal conditions
+may also arise to assist the suggestion.
+
+That this confident expectation of a cure is the most potent means of
+bringing it about, doing that which no medical treatment can
+accomplish, may be affirmed as the generalized result of experiences
+of the most varied kind, extending through a long series of ages. It
+is this factor which is common to methods of the most diverse
+character. It is noticeable that any system of treatment, however
+absurd, that can be puffed into public notoriety for efficacy, any
+individual who by accident or design obtains a reputation for a
+special gift of healing, is certain to attract a multitude of
+sufferers, among whom will be many who are capable of being really
+benefited by a strong assurance of relief. Thus, the practitioner with
+a great reputation has an advantage over his neighboring physicians,
+not only on account of the superior skill which he may have acquired,
+but because his reputation causes this confident expectation, so
+beneficial in itself.
+
+There have been fashions in cures as in other things. At one time a
+certain relic, or healer, would attract and cure, and shortly
+afterward it would be deserted and inefficacious, not because it had
+lost its power, but because it had lost its reputation, and the
+people had consequently lost their faith in it. Some other relics
+would then acquire a reputation, spring into popular favor, and the
+crowds would flock to them. We have many modern instances of this
+kind. If sufficient confidence in the power of a concoction, a shrine,
+a relic, or a person can be aroused, genuine cures can be wrought
+regardless of the healing properties of the dose.
+
+The whole system of mental therapeutics may be divided into two parts;
+what we may designate as metaphysical cure denies that either matter
+or evil exists, and heals by inspiring the belief that the disease
+cannot assail the patient because he is pure spirit; the other class,
+faith cure, recognizes the disease, but cures by faith in the power of
+divinity, persons, objects, or suggestion.
+
+Without doubt the best example of the former theory and the most
+successful application of it are found in Christian Science. Perhaps
+it is not so difficult to understand the frame of mind which brought
+about this theory on the part of Mrs. Eddy. Here was an hysterical,
+neurotic woman who knew nothing all her life but illness and
+misfortune. She had suffered much from many physicians and was none
+the better but rather worse. One physician had called her disease one
+thing, another had designated it another, until confusion and
+uncertainty were increased with every physician consulted. She began
+to despair of ever either knowing about her disease or of having it
+cured. As a last resort she went to Quimby, and he told her there was
+no disease and no need of suffering. He denied the suffering, and she
+accepted his teaching; she followed him in denying disease and then
+matter, and kept on with her theory of negation and denial until she
+evolved her present theory. It was a natural reaction from all
+conceivable pains characteristic of hysteria, to no pain; from all
+conceivable diseases which different physicians had opined, to no
+disease; from the infirmity of body with its inhibitory discomfitures,
+to no body. The history of the founder of Christian Science is its
+best _raison d'être_, especially from a psychological stand-point, and
+the rather strange thing is that a reaction from an abnormality, going
+as it naturally does to another abnormality, should find a response in
+the religious cravings of so many; the philosophy undoubtedly would
+not attract as it does were there not connected with it, in the
+practical working of the system, the lure of mental healing.
+
+Faith cure, the other form of mental healing, has such a variety of
+forms that it is practically impossible to describe a typical one.
+Faith in some power, or, what amounts to the same thing, the
+uncritical reception of suggestions concerning the cure, is the common
+factor in all forms.
+
+The question naturally arises, Which is the best form of mental
+healing? There is no best form for all diseases and all persons. For
+example, it matters not how new associational systems are formed so
+long as they are substituted for the pernicious ones. It may be in the
+common experiences of every-day life, through the pleading of a
+friend, during sleep or trance, in some abnormal state of a hypnotic
+character, or during religious ecstasy, and we cannot well say in any
+given case that one form will be more efficacious than another. Mental
+healing creates nothing new, but simply makes use of the normal
+mechanism of the mind and body. The question then is, What method of
+mental healing is most likely to stimulate the mental mechanism so
+that physiological processes will be set up leading to a cure? The
+great power of faith and expectancy may decide the question, and the
+answer may be in favor of the form in which the patient has the most
+faith, either on account of its reputation, or on account of some
+prejudice on the part of the patient.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+  "The office of the physician extends equally to the
+  purification of mind and body; to neglect the one is to
+  expose the other to evident peril. It is not only the
+  body that by its sound constitution strengthens the
+  soul, but the well-regulated soul by its authoritative
+  power maintains the body in perfect health."--PLATO.
+
+  "Aristotle mapped out philosophy and morals in lines the
+  world yet accepts in the main, but he did not know the
+  difference between the nerves and the tendons. Rome had
+  a sound system of jurisprudence before it had a
+  physician, using only priest-craft for healing. Cicero
+  was the greatest lawyer the world has seen, but there
+  was not a man in Rome who could have cured him of a
+  colic. The Greek was an expert dialectician when he was
+  using incantations for his diseases. As late as when the
+  Puritans were enunciating their lofty principles, it was
+  generally held that the king's touch would cure
+  scrofula. Governor Winthrop, of colonial days, treated
+  'small-pox and all fevers' by a powder made from 'live
+  toads baked in an earthen pot in the open
+  air.'"--MUNGER.
+
+  "There is nothing so absurd or ridiculous that has not
+  at some time been said by some philosopher. Fontenelle
+  says he would undertake to persuade the whole republic
+  of readers to believe that the sun was neither the cause
+  of light or heat, if he could only get six philosophers
+  on his side."--GOLDSMITH.
+
+A glance at the history of medicine will show three fairly well
+defined periods. The beginning of the first is hidden in the uncertain
+days of prehistoric ages and the period continues down to early
+Christian times--perhaps the end of the second century when Galen
+died. The second period extends from this time to the fifteenth or
+sixteenth centuries, and the third period embraces the last three or
+four centuries. The second period was almost wholly stationary, and
+this, we are ashamed to say, was largely due to the prohibitive
+attitude of the church. The science of medicine, then, is almost
+wholly the result of the investigations and study of the last period.
+This means that medicine is one of the youngest of the sciences, while
+from the very nature of the case it is one of the oldest of arts.
+
+From the beginning of the art of therapeutics, mental healing has been
+a large factor in the cure. This was not recognized, of course, for
+only in the last century has the psychic element been admitted to any
+extent as a therapeutic agent. We can read back now, however, and see
+what a large element this really was. The cruder the art, the more
+powerful was the mental influence. The ways of primitive therapeutics
+are completely hidden from us except what we can gather from the races
+which retained their primitive practices in historic times. We can
+well understand, though, that the concoctions of medicine-men and
+witch-doctors could have little effect except in a suggestive way.
+Snakes' heads, toads' toes, lizards' tails, and beetles' wings have a
+small place in the pharmacopoeia of to-day, except as placebos, and
+it is extremely doubtful if they were ever valuable for any other
+purpose.
+
+The object of the primitive practitioner seems to have been to make an
+impression upon the patient either by the explanation of his disease
+or by the effort made to effect a cure. The explanation most
+frequently given was that demons were responsible for the trouble, and
+the cure of the disease was an attempted exorcism of the demon. The
+more fantastic the ceremony, the more likely the cure, on account of
+the mental influence upon the patient. The primitive man's religion
+and therapeutics were inextricably interwoven and, unless we make an
+exception of the past few years, this has always been an unprofitable
+union for one or both. All the early civilizations with the exception
+of the Greeks, as well as the Christian nations up to the sixteenth
+century, were handicapped by this partnership, and it was only by
+divorcing the two that therapeutics was able to make the great advance
+during the last period. The nature of the primitive religions was
+responsible to a great extent for the nature of the method of healing,
+therefore, appeasing the offended deity and exorcising the demon were
+therapeutic as well as religious ceremonies.
+
+The Chinese of to-day, except in some of the seaboard cities, must be
+classed among the earliest civilizations, for their mode of living has
+not changed much in the last two or three milleniums. Their system of
+medical practice partakes of the character of that found among the early
+people, with some slight modifications which show some relationship to
+the European practice during the Dark Ages.
+
+All sorts of disgusting doses are administered, and incantations and
+exorcisms are among the most effective methods of healing. For
+example, Hardy reports that a missionary told him of his being called
+in to see a man suffering from convulsions; he found him smelling
+white mice in a cage, with a dead fowl fastened on his chest, and a
+bundle of grass attached to his feet. This had been the prescription
+of a native physician.
+
+Medicines are made from asses' sinews, fowls' blood, bears' gall,
+shaving of a rhinoceros' horn, moss grown on a coffin, and the dung of
+dogs, pigs, fowl, rabbits, pigeons, and bats. Cockroach tea, bear-paw
+soup, essence of monkey paw, toads' eyebrows, and earth-worms rolled
+in honey are common doses. The excrement of a mosquito is considered
+as efficacious as it is scarce, and here, as in Europe in the Middle
+Ages, the hair of the dog that bit you is used to heal the bite and to
+prevent hydrophobia. An infusion from the bones of a tiger is believed
+to confer courage, strength, and agility, and the flesh of a snake is
+boiled and eaten to make one cunning and wise. Chips from coffins
+which have been let down into the grave are boiled and are said to
+possess great virtue for catarrh. Flies, fleas, and bedbugs prepared
+in different ways are given for various diseases. Medicines are given
+in all forms, and not infrequently pills are as large as a pigeon's
+egg. If any of these medicines ever had any beneficent effect it must
+have been through mental rather than through physical means.
+
+Nevius has left us in no doubt concerning the belief in demons among
+the Chinese, and of the effect this belief has on their theory of
+disease. Certain forms are daily observed to drive away the evil
+spirits. For this purpose Taoist priests are hired to recite formulæ,
+ring bells, and manipulate bowls of water, candles, joss-sticks, and
+curious charms. Sometimes the family insists that one of the priests
+shall ascend a ladder, the rounds of which are formed of swords or
+knives with the sharp edge uppermost, and go through his exorcisms at
+the top. Instead of the priest, the mother may make a fire of paper
+and wave a small garment of her sick child over it.
+
+A relative or friend of a sick person will visit a temple and beat the
+drum, which notifies the god that there is urgent need of his help. To
+be sure that the god hears, his ears are tickled, and the part of the
+image which corresponds to the afflicted part of the sick person's
+body is rubbed. Some ashes from the censor standing before the image
+may be taken to the sick-room and there reverenced. Holy water is
+brought from the temple, boiled with tea, and drunk as a certain cure
+for disease. Spells are written on paper and burned; the ashes are
+then put into water and drunk as medicine. Charms and magical tricks
+of all kinds are tried in order to drive away the demon.
+
+There were schools of medicine in Egypt in the fifteenth century
+before the Christian era, and the Egyptians made great progress in the
+study and practice of medicine. Notwithstanding this, we find many
+examples of mental healing, or at least attempts at healing by mental
+means, among the recipes and prescriptions which have come down to us.
+Poor and superstitious persons, especially, had recourse to dreams, to
+wizards, to donations, to sacred animals, and to exvotos to the gods.
+Charms were also written for the credulous, some of which have been
+found on small pieces of papyrus, which were rolled up and worn, as by
+the modern Egyptians.
+
+The Ebers papyrus, an important and very ancient manual of Egyptian
+medicine, has thrown much light on early Egyptian practices. It shows
+that an important part of the treatment prior to 1552 B. C., consisted
+in the laying on of hands, combined with an extensive formulary and
+ceremonial rites. The physicians were the priests, and among the
+interesting contents of this manuscript are several formulæ to be used
+as prayers while compounding medicaments. Some of the prescriptions
+given here are accompanied by exorcisms which were to be used at the
+same time. Many of the prescriptions could have had little but mental
+influence because the remedies recommended consisted of horrible
+mixtures of unsavory ingredients, the theory, if we can judge by the
+medicines, being that the more disgusting the dose the more
+efficacious the remedy; this is true from a mental stand-point.
+
+Demonism was not unknown; in fact, it underlay much of the treatment.
+People did not die, but they were assassinated. The murderer might
+belong to this or to the spirit world. He might be a god, a spirit, or
+the soul of a dead man that had cunningly entered a living person. The
+physician must first discover the nature of the possessing spirit, and
+then attack it. Powerful magic was the weapon used, and the healer
+must be an expert in reciting incantations and skilful in making
+amulets. On account of this, the Egyptians became the most skilled in
+magic of any people, and have their equals only in the Hindus of
+to-day. The experiences of Joseph and Moses, as recorded in the Bible,
+give us some idea of their skill at that time. After the exorcism the
+physician used medicine to relieve the disorders which the presence of
+the strange being had produced in the body.
+
+Maspéro gives us the following information: "The cure-workers are
+divided into several categories. Some incline towards sorcery, and
+have faith in formulas and talismans only; they think they have done
+enough if they have driven out the spirit. Others extol the use of
+drugs; they study the qualities of plants and minerals, describe the
+diseases to which each of the substances provided by nature is
+suitable, and settle the exact time when they must be procured and
+applied; certain herbs have no power unless they are gathered during
+the night at the full moon, others are efficacious in summer only,
+another acts equally well in winter or summer. The best doctors
+carefully avoid binding themselves exclusively to either method."[1]
+
+Among the early Egyptians the human body was divided into thirty-six
+parts, each of which was thought to be under the particular government
+of one of the aerial demons, who presided over the triple divisions of
+the twelve signs. The priests practised a separate invocation for each
+genius, which they used in order to obtain for them the cure of the
+particular member confided to their care. We have the authority of
+Origen for saying that in his time when any part of the body was
+diseased, a cure was effected by invoking the demon to whose province
+it belonged. Perhaps this is why the different parts of the body were
+assigned to the different planets, and later to different saints. It
+undoubtedly accounts for the fact that an Egyptian physician treated
+only one part of the body and refused to infringe on the domain of his
+brother physician.
+
+Incubation was commonly practised at the temples of Isis and Serapis
+as it was afterward among the Greeks. This "temple sleep" was closely
+akin in its effects to hypnotism and was undoubtedly efficacious in
+the case of some diseases.
+
+The Babylonian system of therapeutics was not unlike the Egyptian as
+far as incantations were concerned. Many of these have been
+discovered. The formulas usually consist of a description of the
+disease and its symptoms, a desire for deliverance from it, and an
+order for it to depart. Some draughts were given which may have had
+some medicinal effect, but they were supposed to be enchanted drinks.
+Knots were supposed to have some magical effect on diseases, and
+conjurations were also wrought by the power of numbers. The Book of
+Daniel shows the official recognition given to magicians, astrologers,
+and sorcerers.
+
+The Jews seem to have got their early medical knowledge from the
+Egyptians, and changed it only in so far as their religion made it
+necessary, for with them as with others the healing art was a part of
+the religion, and the Levites were the sole practitioners. Much
+valuable medical knowledge was mixed with much that could only have
+had a mental influence. Disease was considered a punishment for sin,
+and hence the cure was religious rather than medical. The disease
+might be inflicted by God direct, and the cure would be a proof of his
+forgiveness; it might also be inflicted by Satan or the spirits of the
+air with the permission of Jehovah, and the cure would then be brought
+about by exorcism.
+
+There seems to have been a rather elaborate system of demonology among
+the Jews, who were at one time the chief exponents of the doctrine,
+and consequently the principal exorcists. Among the Jews a prominent
+"demoness of sickness is Bath-Chorin. She touches the hands and lower
+limbs by night. Many diseases are caused by demons." According to
+Josephus, "to demons may be ascribed leprosy, rabies, asthma, cardiac
+diseases, nervous diseases, which last are the specialty of evil
+demons, such as epilepsy." Incantations were in use among the later
+Jews, and amulets of neck-chains like serpents and ear-rings were
+employed to protect the wearers against the evil eye and similar
+troubles.
+
+In India, medicine became a separate science very early, according to
+the sacred books, the Vedas. Notwithstanding this, demonology played a
+large part in the production of disease according to their theories,
+and religious observances were helpful in the cures.
+
+Among the oldest documents which we possess relative to the practice
+of medicine, are the various treatises contained in the collection
+which bears the name of Hippocrates (460-375 B. C.). He was the first
+physician to relieve medicine from the trammels of superstition and
+the delusions of philosophy.
+
+The Greeks undoubtedly believed in demons, but, different from the
+nations around them, considered the demons to be well-intentioned.
+Homer (c. 1000 B. C.) speaks frequently of demons, and in one instance
+in the Odyssey tells of a sick man pining away, "one upon whom a
+hateful demon had gazed." Empedocles (c. 490-430 B. C.) taught that
+demons "were of a mixed and inconstant nature, and are subjected to a
+purgatorial process which may finally end in their ascension to higher
+abodes." Yet he attributed to them nearly all the calamities,
+vexations, and plagues incident to mankind. Plato (427-347 B. C.)
+writes of demons good and bad, and Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), the son
+of a physician, speaks directly of "demons influencing and inspiring
+the possessed." Socrates (470-399 B. C.) claimed to have continually
+with him a demon--a guardian spirit.
+
+In Greece, in early days, physicians were looked upon as gods. Even
+after the siege of Troy, the sons of the gods and the heroes were
+alone supposed to understand the secrets of medicine and surgery. At a
+late period Æsculapius, the son of Apollo, was worshipped as a deity.
+When we speak of the art of healing in Greece, one naturally thinks of
+the apparent monopoly of the Æsclepiades, who ministered unto the
+Grecian sick for centuries.
+
+The original seat of the worship of Æsculapius was at Epidaurus, where
+there was a splendid temple, adorned with a gold and ivory statue of
+the god, who was represented sitting, one hand holding a staff, the
+other resting on the head of a serpent, the emblem of sagacity and
+longevity; a dog crouched at his feet. The temple was frequented by
+harmless serpents, in the form of which the god was supposed to
+manifest himself. According to Homer, his sons, Machaon and
+Podalirius, who were great warriors, treated wounds and external
+diseases only; and it is probable that their father practised in the
+same manner, as he is said to have invented the probe and the
+bandaging of wounds. His priests, the Æsclepiades, however, practised
+incantations, and cured diseases by leading their patients to believe
+that the god himself delivered his prescriptions in dreams and
+visions; for this imposture they were roughly satirized by
+Aristophanes in his play of "Plutus." It is probable that the
+preparations, consisting of abstinence, tranquillity, and bathing,
+requisite for obtaining the divine intercourse, and, above all, the
+confidence reposed in the Æsclepiades, were often productive of
+benefit.
+
+The excavations of Cavvadias at Epidaurus have furnished us with much
+interesting material concerning the cures performed at this ancient
+shrine, five hundred years before the beginning of the Christian era.
+If the modern physician still recognizes Æsculapius as his patron
+saint, he must have great respect for mental healing. It appears
+certain from inscriptions found upon "stelæ" that were dug up at
+Epidaurus and published in 1891, that the system of Æsculapius was
+based upon the miracle-working of a demi-god, and not upon medical art
+as we now know it. The _modus operandi_ was unique in some details.
+The patients, mostly incurables, came laden with sacrifices. After
+prayer, they cleansed themselves with water from the holy well, and
+offered up sacrifices. Certain ceremonial acts were then performed by
+the priests, and the patients were put to sleep on the skins of the
+animals offered at the altar, or at the foot of the statue of the
+divinity, while the priests performed further sacred rites. The son of
+Apollo then appeared to them in dreams, attended to the particular
+ailments of the sufferers, and specified further sacrifices or acts
+which would restore health. In many cases the sick awoke suddenly
+cured. Large sums of money were asked for these cures; from one
+inscription we learn that a sum corresponding to $12,000 was paid as a
+fee. The record of the cure was carved on the temple as at Lourdes
+to-day, _e.g._:
+
+"Some days back, a certain Caius, who was blind, learned from an
+oracle that he should repair to the temple, put up his fervent
+prayers, cross the sanctuary from right to left, place his five
+fingers on the altar, then raise his hand and cover his eyes. He
+obeyed, and instantly his sight was restored, amid the loud
+acclamations of the multitude. These signs of the omnipotence of the
+gods were shown in the reign of Antoninus."
+
+"A blind soldier, named Valerius Apes, having consulted the oracle,
+was informed that he should mix the blood of a white cock with honey,
+to make up an ointment to be applied to his eyes for three consecutive
+days. He received his sight, and returned public thanks to the gods."
+
+"Julian appeared lost beyond all hope, from a spitting of blood. The
+gods ordered him to take from the altar some seeds of the pine, and to
+mix them with honey, of which mixture he was to eat for three days. He
+was saved, and came to thank the gods in the presence of the
+people."[2]
+
+It was not until five centuries later, when credulity concerning
+miracles was on the wane, that the priests began to study and to apply
+medical means in order to sustain the reputation of the place, and to
+keep up its enormous revenues.
+
+Temples similar to this one at Epidaurus existed at numerous places,
+among which were Rhodes, Cnidus, Cos, and one was to be found on the
+banks of the Tiber. The temple at Cos was rich in votive offerings,
+which generally represented the parts of the body healed, and an
+account of the method of cure adopted. From these singular clinical
+records, Hippocrates, a reputed descendant of Æsculapius, is reported
+to have constructed his treatise on Dietetics.
+
+For a long time after the age of Hercules and the heroic times,
+invalids in Greece sought relief from their sufferings from these
+descendants of Æsculapius in the temples of that god, which an
+enlightened policy had raised on elevated spots, near medicinal
+springs, and in salubrious vicinities. Those men who pretended in
+right of birth to hold the gift of curing, finally learned the art of
+it. The preservation in the temple of the history of those diseases,
+the cure of which had been sought by them, aided greatly in this happy
+culmination.
+
+Of Æsculapius himself, it is said that he employed the trumpet to cure
+sciatica; he claimed that its continued sound made the fibres of the
+nerves to palpitate, and the pain vanished. In line with this
+treatment, Democritus affirmed that diseases are capable of being
+cured by the sound of a flute, when properly played.
+
+Herbs were also used among the Greeks, but almost wholly in the form
+of charms rather than on account of what we claim now as real
+medicinal value. For example, great virtues were ascribed to the herb
+alysson which was pounded and eaten with meat to cure hydrophobia. If
+suspended in the house, it promoted the health of the inmates and
+protected both men and cattle from enchantments; when bound in a piece
+of scarlet flannel round the necks of the latter, it preserved them
+from all diseases.
+
+There seems to have been no independent school of Roman medicine. From
+early times there was a very complicated system of superstitious
+medicine, as a part of the religion, which is supposed to have been
+borrowed from the Etruscans. This comprehended both the theory and
+cure of disease. The Romans got along for centuries without doctors;
+in fact, doctors were a Grecian importation, not made until about two
+centuries before Christ.
+
+  [1] G. Maspéro, _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_,
+  chap. VII.
+
+  [2] E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at
+  Lourdes," _Nineteenth Century_, October, 1895.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+  "The Alchemist may doubt the shining gold
+    His crucible pours out,
+  But faith, fanatic faith, once wedded fast
+    To some dear falsehood,
+  Hugs it to the last."
+
+  "Death is the cure of all diseases. There is no _catholicon_
+  or universal remedy I know, but this, which though nauseous
+  to queasy stomachs, yet to prepared appetites is nectar, and
+  a pleasant potion of immortality."--BROWNE.
+
+        "I'll tell you what now of the Devil:
+  He's no such horrid creature; cloven-footed,
+  Black, saucer-ey'd, his nostrils breathing fire,
+  As these lying Christians make him."--MASSINGER.
+
+  "If the cure be wrought, what matters it to the happy
+  invalid ... whether the cure is wrought by the touch of
+  the Divine hand or the overpowering influence of a great
+  idea upon the nervous system? If our hunger be appeased,
+  it matters little whether it is by manna rained down
+  from heaven, or a wheaten loaf raised from the harvest
+  field. Miraculous water from the rock does not quench
+  the thirst better than that which bubbles from the
+  village spring."--BERDOE.
+
+The advent of the Christian religion into the world, while purporting
+to minister especially to the spiritual life, had a wide-reaching and
+potent influence on the art of healing the body. We cannot sum up the
+effect by saying that this influence was either wholly good or
+bad--its relation to therapeutics was a mixed one. It can be
+truthfully said that nothing has retarded the science of medicine
+during the past two thousand years so much as the iron grip of
+decadent orthodoxy, and, on the other hand, no power has caused men
+and women so to sacrifice time, money, and even life itself for the
+care and nurture of the sick, as the example and precepts of Jesus
+Christ.
+
+For eighteen centuries this paradoxical position was held by the
+church, and the antithetical attitudes of hindrance and help continued
+to exist. As valuable as was the spirit instilled into the hearts of
+His followers by the tenderness of the Master, it was never sufficient
+to counterbalance the deterrent effects of the religion which they
+espoused. The retardation was caused by two related beliefs which
+permeated the church: The first was the doctrine of the power of
+demons in the lives of men, especially in the production of disease;
+and the second was the prevalence of the idea of the possibility and
+probability of the performance of miracles, particularly in the
+healing of diseases.
+
+A rather complicated science of demonology had come down from
+primitive sources through Egyptian, Babylonian, and Greek
+civilization, although the demons of the Greeks were principally good
+spirits. At the time of Christ, however, the Jews were the most ardent
+advocates of demonology, and hence the chief exorcists. They expelled
+demons partly by adjuration and partly by means of a certain
+miraculous root named Baaras. They considered it nothing at all out
+of the ordinary to meet men who were possessed by demons, and just as
+common an experience to see them healed by having the demon exorcised.
+Josephus assures us that in the reign of Vespasian he had himself seen
+a Jew named Eleazar perform an exorcism; by means of adjuration and
+the Baaras root he drew a demon through the nostrils of a possessed
+person, who fell to the ground on the accomplishment of the miracle,
+while on the command of the magician the demon, to prove that it had
+really left its victim, threw down a cup of water which had been
+placed at a distance.
+
+Knowing as we do the close relationship between Judaism and
+Christianity, it does not surprise us to discover that the Christians
+inherited the doctrine and practice of the Jews in this matter. This
+is more readily understood when we remember the connection of Jesus
+with cases of demoniacal possession, and Paul's frequent references to
+the spirits of the air. Following the example of their Master,
+Christians everywhere became exorcists. Through the influence of
+Philo's writings, Jewish demonology was propagated among Christian
+converts, and the Gnostics quickly absorbed and spread the notion of
+preternatural interposition. Next to the belief in the second coming
+of Christ, the doctrine which most influenced the action of the early
+church was that of a spiritual world and its hierarchy. Terrestrial
+things were ruled by all sorts of spiritual beings.
+
+Some philosophers, as well as the founders of different religions,
+expelled demons, and the Christians fully recognized the power
+possessed by the Jewish and gentile exorcists; the followers of
+Christ, however, claimed to be in many respects the superior of all
+others. The fathers maintained the reality of all pagan miracles as
+fully as their own, except that doubt was sometimes cast on some forms
+of healing and prophecy. Demons which had resisted all the
+enchantments of the pagans might be cast out, oracles could be
+silenced, and unclean spirits compelled to acknowledge the truth of
+the Christian faith by the Christians, who simply made the sign of the
+cross, or repeated the name of the Master.
+
+The power of the Christian exorcists was shown by still more wonderful
+feats. Demons, which were sometimes supposed to enter animals, were
+expelled. St. Hilarion (288-371), we are told, courageously confronted
+and relieved a possessed camel. "The great St. Ambrose [340-397] tells
+us that a priest, while saying mass, was troubled by the croaking of
+frogs in a neighboring marsh; that he exorcised them, and so stopped
+their noise. St. Bernard [1091-1153], as the monkish chroniclers tell
+us, mounting the pulpit to preach in his abbey, was interrupted by a
+crowd of flies; straightway the saint uttered the sacred formula of
+excommunication, when the flies fell dead upon the pavement in heaps,
+and were cast out with shovels! A formula of exorcism attributed to a
+saint of the ninth century, which remained in use down to a recent
+period, especially declares insects injurious to crops to be possessed
+of evil spirits, and names, among the animals to be excommunicated or
+exorcised, moles, mice, and serpents. The use of exorcism against
+caterpillars and grasshoppers was also common. In the thirteenth
+century a bishop of Lausanne, finding that the eels in Lake Leman
+troubled the fishermen, attempted to remove the difficulty by
+exorcism, and two centuries later one of his successors excommunicated
+all the May-bugs in the diocese. As late as 1731 there appears an
+entry on the municipal register of Thonon as follows: '_Resolved_,
+that this town join with other parishes of this province in obtaining
+from Rome an excommunication against the insects, and that it will
+contribute _pro rata_ to the expense of the same.'"
+
+Scripture was cited to prove the diabolical character of some animals
+during the Middle Ages. Says White: "Did anyone venture to deny that
+animals could be possessed by Satan, he was at once silenced by
+reference to the entrance of Satan into the serpent in the Garden of
+Eden, and to the casting of devils into swine by the Founder of
+Christianity himself."[3]
+
+Notwithstanding the pleasing theory adopted by the earlier Christian
+writers that the powers of darkness were unable to harm the faithful
+without the permission of divinity, to whom demoniacal spirits were
+ultimately subjected, unlimited power was conceded to those beings who
+existed under divine sanction. Demoniacal æons or emanations were
+acknowledged to be the primitive source of earthly sufferings,
+pestilence among men, sickness and other bodily afflictions, but
+inflicted with the consent of God, whose messengers they were.
+
+Early Christian writers boldly asserted that all the disorders of the
+world originated with the devil and his sinister companions, because
+they were stirred with the unholy desire to obtain associates in their
+miseries. It was impossible to fix a limit to the number of these
+malevolent spirits constantly provoking diseases and infirmities upon
+men. They were alleged to surround mankind so densely that each person
+had a thousand to his right and ten thousand to the left of him.
+Endowed with the subtlest activity, they were able to reach the
+remotest points of earth in the twinkling of an eye.
+
+According to Salverte, Tatian, a sincere defender of Christianity, who
+lived in the second century, "does not deny the wonderful cures
+effected by the priests of the temples of the Polytheists; he only
+attempts to explain them by supposing that the pagan gods were actual
+demons, and that they introduced disease into the body of a healthy
+man, announcing to him, in a dream, that he should be cured if he
+implored their assistance; and then, by terminating the evil which
+they themselves had produced, they obtained the glory of having worked
+the miracle."[4]
+
+So firm was the belief that Christians could exorcise these demons
+that from the time of Justin Martyr (100-163), for about two
+centuries, there is not a single Christian writer who does not
+solemnly and explicitly assert the reality and frequent employment of
+this power. In his Second Apology, Justin says: "And now you can learn
+this from what is under your own observation. For numberless demoniacs
+throughout the whole world, and in your city, many of our Christian
+men exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified
+under Pontius Pilate, have healed and do heal, rendering helpless and
+driving the possessing demons out of the men, though they could not be
+cured by all the other exorcists, and those who used incantations and
+drugs."
+
+Irenæus (130-202) held that mankind, through transgressions of divine
+command, fell absolutely from the time of Adam into the power of
+Satan. On the other hand, he assures us that all Christians possessed
+the power of working miracles; that they prophesied, cast out devils,
+healed the sick, and sometimes even raised the dead; that some who had
+been thus resuscitated lived for many years among them, and that it
+would be impossible to reckon the wonderful acts that were daily
+performed.[5]
+
+Tertullian (160-220) insisted that a malevolent angel was in constant
+attendance upon every person, but in writing to the pagans in a time
+of persecution he challenged his opponents to bring forth any person
+who was possessed by a demon or any of those prophets or virgins who
+were supposed to be inspired by a divinity. He asserted that all
+demons would be compelled to confess their diabolical character when
+questioned by any Christians, and invited the pagans, if it were
+otherwise, to put the Christian immediately to death, for this, he
+thought, was the simplest and most decisive demonstration of the
+faith.
+
+Lecky tells us of the attitude of the fathers toward demonism in the
+following words: "Justin Martyr, Origen, Lactantius, Athanasius, and
+Minucius Felix, all in language equally solemn and explicit, call upon
+the pagans to form their own opinions from the confessions wrung from
+their own gods. We hear from them, that when a Christian began to
+pray, to make the sign of the cross, or to utter the name of his
+Master in the presence of a possessed or inspired person, the latter,
+by screams and frightful contortions, exhibited the torture that was
+inflicted, and by this torture the evil spirit was compelled to avow
+its nature. Several of the Christian writers declare that this was
+generally known to pagans."[6]
+
+Origen (185-254) said: "It is demons which produce famine,
+unfruitfulness, corruptions of the air, pestilence; they hover
+concealed in clouds in the lower atmosphere, and are attracted by the
+blood and incense which the heathen offer to them as gods." He
+thought, though, that Raphael had special care of the sick and the
+infirm. Cyprian (186-258) charged that demons caused luxations and
+fractures of the limbs, undermined the health, and harassed with
+diseases. Up to this time it was the privilege of any Christian to
+exorcise demons, but Pope Fabian (236-250) assigned a definite name
+and functions to exorcists as a separate order. To-day the priest has
+included in his ordination vows those of exorcist. Gregory of
+Nazianzus (329-390) declared that bodily pains are provoked by demons,
+and that medicines are useless, but that demoniacs are often cured by
+laying on of consecrated hands. St. Augustine (354-430) said: "All
+diseases of Christians are to be ascribed to these demons; chiefly do
+they torment fresh-baptized Christians, yea, even the guiltless
+new-born infants."
+
+Baltus[7] says: "De tous les anciens auteurs ecclésiastiques, n'y en
+ayant pas un qui n'ait parlé de ce pouvoir admirable que les Chrétiens
+avoient de chasser les démons," and Gregory of Tours (538-594) says
+that exorcism was common in his time, having himself seen a monk named
+Julian cure by his words a possessed person. This testimony of
+Gregory's concerning the prevalence of exorcisms at the end of the
+sixth century is interesting in view of the facts that the Council of
+Laodicea, in the fourth century, forbade any one to exorcise, except
+those duly authorized by the bishop, and that in the very beginning of
+the fifth century a physician named Posidonius denied the existence of
+possession. The fathers of the church, however, ridiculed the solemn
+assertion of physicians that many of these alleged demoniacal
+infirmities were attributable to material agencies, and were fully
+persuaded in their own minds that demons took possession of the
+organism of the human body.
+
+At about this time, such a broad-minded man as Gregory the Great
+(540-604) solemnly related that a nun, having eaten some lettuce without
+making the sign of the cross, swallowed a devil, and that, when
+commanded by a holy man to come forth, the devil replied: "How am I to
+blame? I was sitting on the lettuce, and this woman, not having made the
+sign of the cross, ate me along with it." This is but an example of the
+ideas concerning the entrance of demons into the possessed.[8] Besides
+the possibility of being taken into the mouth with one's food, they
+might enter while the mouth was opened to breathe. Exorcists were
+therefore careful to keep their mouths closed when casting out evil
+spirits, lest the imps should jump into their mouths from the mouths of
+the patients. Another theory was that the devil entered human beings
+during sleep, and at a comparatively recent period a king of Spain,
+Charles II (1661-1700), kept off the devil while asleep by the presence
+of his confessor and two friars.[9]
+
+Shortly before the reign of Gregory, there came into vogue the fashion
+of exorcising demons by means of a written formula rather than by the
+earlier means of making the sign of the cross and invoking the name of
+Jesus. The theory of demonology was never very clear nor consistent.
+By some it was claimed that in the practice of the magical arts evil
+spirits provided cure for sickness, others maintained that they could
+not heal any diseases, and hence the true test of Christianity was the
+ability to cure bodily ills. A compromise position was that demons
+were only successful in eliminating diseases which they had themselves
+caused. There was not a little doubt in some cases about the character
+of the possessing spirits, and it behooved people to be careful;
+demons might use men as habitations, and while posing as good angels
+vitiate health and provoke disease.
+
+At the beginning of the seventh century, we have an account of an
+exorcism by St. Gall (556-640), and during the Carlovingian age the
+healing at Monte Cassino was based on the Satanic origin of disease.
+When the conversion of northern races to Christianity began,
+demonology received a stimulus. An unlimited number of demons, similar
+in individuality and prowess, were substituted for the pagan demons,
+and the pagan gods were added as additional demons. When proselytes
+were taken into the church, care was taken to exorcise all evil
+spirits. During the baptismal service the Satanic hosts, as
+originators of sin, vice, and maladies, were expelled by insufflation
+of the officiating clergyman, the sign of the cross, and the
+invocation of the Triune Deity. The earliest formulas for such
+expulsion directed a double exhalation of the priest.[10]
+
+In all epidemics of the Middle Ages, such persons as were afflicted by
+pestilent diseases were declared contaminated by the devil, and
+carried to churches and chapels, a dozen at a time, securely bound
+together. They were thrown upon the floor, where they lay, according
+to the attestation of a pitying chronicler, until dead or restored to
+health.
+
+Unsound mind was universally accepted as a specific distinction of
+diabolical power, and caused by the corporeal presence of an impure
+spirit. Imbeciles and the insane were, throughout the Middle Ages,
+especially conceded to be the abode of avenging and frenzied demons.
+In aggravated cases, the actual presence of the medicinal saint was
+necessary; in less vexatious maladies, the bare imposition of hands,
+accompanied by plaintive prayer, quickly healed the diseased.[11]
+
+As early as the fifth century before Christ, Hippocrates of Cos
+asserted that madness was simply a disease of the brain, but
+notwithstanding the reiteration of this scientific truth the church
+repudiated it, and as late as the Reformation, Martin Luther
+maintained that not only was insanity caused by diabolical influences,
+but that "Satan produces all the maladies which afflict mankind." Even
+much later, however, when other diseases were assigned a physical
+origin, insanity was still thought to be demoniacal possession. As
+late as Bossuet's time, lunacy was thought to be the work of demons.
+The cultured and progressive Bishop of Meaux, while trying to throw
+off the shackles of superstition, delivered and published two great
+sermons in which demoniacal possession is defended. To show how the
+idea has clung, notwithstanding the advancement and enlightenment of
+late years, we may notice a trial which took place at Wemding, in
+southern Germany, in 1892, of which White tells us.
+
+   "A boy had become hysterical, and the Capuchin Father
+   Aurelian tried to exorcise him, and charged a peasant's
+   wife, Frau Herz, with bewitching him, on evidence that
+   would have cost the woman her life at any time during
+   the seventeenth century. Thereupon the woman's husband
+   brought suit against Father Aurelian for slander. The
+   latter urged in his defence that the boy was possessed
+   of an evil spirit, if anybody ever was; that what had
+   been said and done was in accordance with the rules and
+   regulations of the Church, as laid down in decrees,
+   formulas, and rituals sanctioned by popes, councils,
+   and innumerable bishops during ages. All in vain. The
+   court condemned the good father to fine and
+   imprisonment."[12]
+
+I cannot refrain from quoting in this connection the now famous
+epitaph of Lord Westbury's, suggested by the decision given by him as
+Lord Chancellor in the case against Mr. Wilson in which it was charged
+that the latter denied the doctrine of eternal punishment. The court
+decided that it did "not find in the formularies of the English Church
+any such distinct declaration upon the subject as to require it to
+punish the expression of a hope by a clergyman that even the ultimate
+pardon of the wicked who are condemned in the day of judgment may be
+consistent with the will of Almighty God." The following is the
+epitaph:
+
+          "RICHARD BARON WESTBURY,
+      Lord High Chancellor of England.
+        He was an eminent Christian,
+     An energetic and merciful Statesman,
+  And a still more eminent and merciful Judge.
+    During his three years' tenure of office
+He abolished the ancient method of conveying land,
+The time-honored institution of the Insolvents' Court,
+                   And
+         The Eternity of Punishment.
+   Toward the close of his earthly career,
+In the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council,
+       He dismissed Hell with costs,
+  And took away from Orthodox members of the
+            Church of England
+ Their last hope of everlasting damnation."[13]
+
+In the Middle Ages there was a strange and incongruous mixture of
+medicine and exorcism. Notice the following prescriptions:
+
+  "If an elf or a goblin come, smear his forehead with
+  this salve, put it on his eyes, cense him with incense,
+  and sign him frequently with the sign of the cross."
+
+  "For a fiend-sick man: When a devil possesses a man, or
+  controls him from within with disease, a spew-drink of
+  lupin, bishopwort, henbane, garlic. Pound these
+  together, add ale and holy water."
+
+  "A drink for a fiend-sick man, to be drunk out of a
+  church bell: Githrife, cynoglossum, yarrow, lupin,
+  flower-de-luce, fennel, lichen, lovage. Work up to a
+  drink with clear ale, sing seven masses over it, add
+  garlic and holy water, and let the possessed sing the
+  _Beati Immaculati_; then let him drink the dose out of a
+  church bell, and let the priest sing over him the
+  _Domine Sancte Pater Omnipotens_."[14]
+
+Three methods of driving out demons from the insane were used: the
+main weapon against the devil and his angels has always been exorcism
+by means of ecclesiastical formula and signs. These formulas
+degenerated at one time to the vilest cursings, threatenings, and
+vulgarities. A second means was by an effort to disgust the demon and
+wound his pride. This might simply precede the exorcism proper. To
+accomplish this purpose of offending the demons, the most blasphemous
+and obscene epithets were used by the exorcist, which were allowable
+and perfectly proper when addressing demons. Most of these are so
+indecent that they cannot be printed, but the following are some
+examples:
+
+  "Thou lustful and stupid one,... thou lean sow,
+  famine-stricken and most impure,... thou wrinkled beast,
+  thou mangy beast, thou beast of all beasts the most
+  beastly,... thou mad spirit,... thou bestial and foolish
+  drunkard,... most greedy wolf,... most abominable
+  whisperer,... thou sooty spirit from Tartarus!... I cast
+  thee down, O Tartarean boor,... into the infernal
+  kitchen!... Loathsome cobbler,... dingy collier,...
+  filthy sow (_scrofa stercorata_),... perfidious boar,...
+  envious crocodile,... malodorous drudge,... wounded
+  basilisk,... rust-colored asp,... swollen toad,...
+  entangled spider,... lousy swineherd (_porcarie
+  pedicose_),... lowest of the low,... cudgelled ass,"
+  etc.[15]
+
+The pride of the demon was also to be wounded by the use of the
+vilest-smelling drugs, by trampling underfoot and spitting upon the
+picture of the devil, or even by sprinkling upon it foul compounds.
+Some even tried to scare the demon by using large-sounding words and
+names.
+
+The third method of exorcism was punishment. The attempt was
+frequently made to scourge the demon out of the body. The exorcism was
+more effective if the name of the demon could be ascertained. If
+successful in procuring the name, it was written on a piece of paper
+and burned in a fire previously blessed, which caused the demons to
+suffer all the torments in the accompanying exorcisms. All forms of
+torture were employed, and in the great cities of Europe, "witch
+towers," where witches and demoniacs were tortured, and "fool towers,"
+where the more gentle lunatics were imprisoned, may still be seen.
+The treatment of the insane in the Middle Ages is one of the darkest
+blots on the growing civilization.
+
+The exorcism being completed, when some of the weaker demons were put
+to flight an after service was held in which everything belonging to
+the patient was exorcised, so that the demon might not hide there and
+return to the patient. The exorcised demons were forbidden to return,
+and the demons remaining in the body were commanded to leave all the
+remainder of the body, and to descend into the little toe of the right
+foot, and there to rest quietly.
+
+After the Reformation, two contests shaped themselves in the matter of
+exorcisms. The Protestants and the Roman Catholics vied with each
+other in the power, rapidity, and duration of the exorcisms. Both put
+forth miraculous claims, and with as much energy denied the power of
+the other. They agreed in one thing, and that was the erroneous
+position and teaching of the physicians. This, however, was but a
+continuation of that rivalry between the advancement of science and
+the conservation of theology, which is as old as history. In our
+examination of the influence of Christianity upon mental healing, it
+may be well for us to glance at the discouraging attitude of
+Christianity toward medicine.[16]
+
+The usurpation of healing by the church, which was a most serious
+drawback to the therapeutic art, will be traced in the following
+chapters; there are, however, some other ways in which the church
+retarded the work of physicians. Chief among these was the theory
+propagated by Christians that it was unlawful to meddle with the
+bodies of the dead. This theory came down from ancient times, but was
+eagerly accepted by the church, principally on account of the doctrine
+of the bodily resurrection. In addition to this, surgery was forbidden
+because the Church of Rome adopted the maxim that "the church abhors
+the shedding of blood." A recent English historian has remarked that
+of all organizations in human history, the Church of Rome has caused
+the spilling of most innocent blood, but it refused to allow the
+surgeons to spill a drop.
+
+Monks were prohibited the practice of surgery in 1248, and by
+subsequent councils, and all dissections were considered sacrilege.
+Surgery was considered dishonorable until the fifteenth or sixteenth
+centuries. The use of medicine was also discouraged. Down through the
+centuries a few churchmen and many others, especially Jews and Arabs,
+took up the study. The church authorities did everything possible to
+thwart it. Supernatural means were so abundant that the use of drugs
+was not only irreligious but superfluous. Monks who took medicine were
+punished, and physicians in the thirteenth century could not treat
+patients without calling in ecclesiastical advice.
+
+We are told that in the reign of Philip II of Spain a famous Spanish
+doctor was actually condemned by the Inquisition to be burnt for
+having performed a surgical operation, and it was only by royal favor
+that he was permitted instead to expiate his crime by a pilgrimage to
+the Holy Land, where he died in poverty and exile.
+
+This restriction was continued for three centuries, and consequently
+threw medical work into the hands of charlatans among Christians, and
+of Jews. The clergy of the city of Hall protested that "it were better
+to die with Christ than to be cured by a Jew doctor aided by the
+devil." The Jesuit professor, Stengal, said that God permits illness
+because of His wish to glorify Himself through the miracles wrought by
+the church, and His desire to test the faith of men by letting them
+choose between the holy aid of the church and the illicit resort to
+medicine.
+
+There was another reason for the antagonism of the church to
+physicians; the physicians in this case were inside the church. The
+monks converted medicine to the basest uses. In connection with the
+authority of the church, it was employed for extorting money from the
+sick. They knew little or nothing about medicine, so used charms,
+amulets, and relics in healing. The ignorance and cupidity of the
+monks led the Lateran Council, under the pontificate of Calixtus II,
+in 1123, to forbid priests and monks to attend the sick otherwise than
+as ministers of religion. It had little or no effect, so that Innocent
+II, in a council at Rheims in 1131, enforced the decree prohibiting
+the monks frequenting schools of medicine, and directing them to
+confine their practice to their own monasteries. They still disobeyed,
+and a Lateran Council in 1139 threatened all who neglected its orders
+with the severest penalties and suspension from the exercise of all
+ecclesiastical functions; such practices were denounced as a neglect
+of the sacred objects of their profession in exchange for ungodly
+lucre. When the priests found that they could no longer confine the
+practice of medicine to themselves, it was stigmatized and denounced.
+At the Council of Tours in 1163, Alexander III maintained that through
+medicine the devil tried to seduce the priesthood, and threatened with
+excommunication any ecclesiastic who studied medicine. In 1215,
+Innocent III fulminated an anathema against surgery and any priest
+practising it. Even this was not effectual.[17]
+
+What we see in connection with dissection and surgery and medicine was
+repeated at a later date with inoculation, vaccination, and
+anæsthetics. There were the same objections by the church on
+theological grounds, the same stubborn battle, and the same
+inevitable defeat of the theological position.
+
+So long as disease was attributed to a demoniacal cause, so long did
+exorcisms and other miraculous cures continue, and so far as these
+cures were efficacious, they must be classed as mental healing.
+Probably they continued longer in insanity and mental derangement on
+account of the beneficent and soothing effect of religion upon a
+diseased mind. Priestly cures of all kinds were largely, if not
+wholly, suggestive, and no history of mental healing would be complete
+without a résumé of ecclesiastical therapeutics. Many vagaries of
+healing which the church introduced might be mentioned to show to what
+extent the people may be misled in the name of religion. For example,
+the doctrine of signatures, to be later discussed, was disseminated by
+priests and monks, and if these medicines were ever effective it must
+have been by mental means.
+
+The demon theory of disease, which began before the age of history,
+and continued down through the savage ages and religions, through the
+early civilizations, through the gospel history, and dominated early
+Christianity, was finally, in the sixteenth century, to be vigorously
+assailed and largely overcome. The cost of this was considerable;
+attached as it was to the Christian church, it seemed necessary to
+destroy the whole Christian fabric in order to unravel this one
+thread. Atheism, therefore, was rampant, and science and atheism
+became almost synonymous, and continued so until the church freed
+science from its centuries of bondage and allowed it to develop so as
+to be again in these days a co-laborer.
+
+In pleasing contrast to the destructive and deterrent efforts of the
+church against the development of medicine is the helpful care of the
+sick exercised by Christians. The example of Jesus as shown by his
+tender sympathy, his helpful acts, and his instruction to his
+followers, bore fruit in the relief and care of sufferers by
+individuals and religious asylums. About the year 1000 and later, the
+infirmaries which were attached to numerous monasteries, and the
+_hospitia_ along the routes of travel which opened their doors to sick
+pilgrims, were but the development of a less portentous attempt on the
+part of individuals and societies to care for the sick. The Knights of
+St. John, or the Hospitalers as they were called, assumed as their
+special duty the nursing and doctoring of those in need of such
+attention, especially of sick and infirm pilgrims and crusaders.
+
+Hospitals for the sick, orphanages for foundlings, and great
+institutions for the proper care of paupers developed with immense
+strides, and during the twelfth century expanded into gigantic
+proportions. In the ensuing age, the mediæval mind was fired with a
+faith in the efficacy of unstinted charity; members of society, from
+holy pontiff to the humblest recluse by the wayside, rivalled each
+other in gratuities of clothing and food, founding of hospitals, and
+endowment of beneficent public institutions. St. Louis's highest claim
+to pious glory arose from his restless and unstinted charities to the
+indigent and sick. Even the lepers, which were shunned or segregated,
+were treated by Christian institutions; and saints and saintesses
+found pious expression for their humility in personal attendance and
+even loving embraces of these unsightly beings covered with repulsive
+sores. For the last millennium there has not been a time when
+Christian love and benevolence have not sought the opportunity of
+ministering to the sick.
+
+One can easily recognize the effect which this fact would have on
+mental healing. The church fostered the ideas of exorcism and the
+cures by relics and shrines, and deprecated the use of medicine. If
+the hospitals and infirmaries were almost wholly in the hands of the
+monks and churchmen, there was little hope for the development of
+other than ecclesiastical mental healing. The untold good which
+Christian ministrations to the sick accomplished must be acknowledged,
+but it was not an unmixed benefit to the race as a whole.
+
+We may more easily see, perhaps, the connection between the church and
+the development of medicine, and the despotic power of the church in
+this regard, when we remember that physicians were formerly a part of
+the clergy, and it was not until 1542 that the papal legate in France
+gave them permission to marry. In 1552 the doctors in law obtained
+like permission. An early priestly physician has survived to fame by
+the name of Elpideus, sometimes confused with Elpidius Rusticus. He
+was both a deacon of the church and a skilled surgeon, and was very
+favorably mentioned by St. Ennodius as a person of fine culture. He
+was sufficiently dexterous and skilful to heal the Gothic ruler,
+Theodoric, of a grievous illness.[18] Salverte gives us additional
+examples: "Richard Fitz-Nigel, who died Bishop of London, in 1198, had
+been apothecary to Henry II. The celebrated Roger Bacon, who
+flourished in the thirteenth century, although a monk, yet practised
+medicine. Nicolas de Farnham, a physician to Henry III, was created
+Bishop of Durham; and many doctors of medicine were at various times
+elevated to ecclesiastical dignities."[19]
+
+The grip of the church accomplished its purpose, and science,
+especially the science of medicine, was strangled, almost to the
+death. Even the people of the time recognized the shortcomings of the
+physicians. Henricus Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), writing in 1530,
+said with pleasant irony that physic was "a certaine Arte of
+manslaughter," and that "well neare alwaies there is more daunger in
+the Physition and the Medicine than in the sicknesse itselfe." He also
+gives the following picture of a fashionable doctor of his time: "Clad
+in brave apparaile, having ringes on his fingers glimmeringe with
+pretious stoanes, and which hath gotten fame and credence for having
+been in farre countries, or having an obstinate manner of vaunting
+with stiffe lies that he hath great remedies, and for having
+continually in his mouth many wordes halfe Greeke and barbarous....
+But this will prove to be true, that Physitians moste commonlye be
+naught. They have one common honour with the hangman, that is to saye,
+to kill menne and to be recompensed therefore."[20]
+
+  [3] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, p. 113.
+
+  [4] E. Salverte, _Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 94.
+
+  [5] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I, p.
+  378.
+
+  [6] _Ibid._, I, p. 383.
+
+  [7] _Réponse a l'histoire des oracles_, p. 296.
+
+  [8] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, p. 101.
+
+  [9] H. T. Buckle, _History of Civilization in England_,
+  II, p. 270.
+
+  [10] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 201.
+
+  [11] For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D.
+  White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, pp. 97-134.
+
+  [12] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, p. 128.
+
+  [13] Nash, _Life of Lord Westbury_, II, p. 78.
+
+  [14] Cockayne, _Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Star-craft
+  of Early England_, II, p. 177.
+
+  [15] M. H. Dziewicki, "Exorcizo Te," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXIV, p. 580.
+
+  [16] For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D.
+  White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, pp. 1-167.
+
+  [17] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Surgery and Medicine_, pp. 51 f.
+
+  [18] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 142 f.
+
+  [19] E. Salverte, _Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 96.
+
+  [20] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 151.
+
+  For further references to the effect of demonism, see J.
+  F. Nevius, _Demon Possession and Allied Themes_; J. M.
+  Peebles, _The Demonism of the Ages and Spirit
+  Obsessions_; articles on "Demon," "Demonism,"
+  "Demoniacal Possession," and "Devil," in the _Catholic
+  Encyclopedia_, the _New International Encyclopedia_, and
+  the _Encyclopedia Britannica_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+RELICS AND SHRINES
+
+
+  "A fouth o' auld knick-knackets,
+  Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets,
+  Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets,
+                  A towmond guid;
+  An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets,
+                  Afore the flood."--BURNS.
+
+  "For to that holy wood is consecrate
+  A virtuous well, about whose flowery banks
+  The nimble-footed fairies dance their rounds
+  By the pale moonshine, dipping oftentimes
+  Their stolen children, so to make them free
+  From dying flesh and dull mortality."--FLETCHER.
+
+  "Ne was ther such another pardoner,
+  For in his male he hadde a pilwebeer,
+  Which that he saide was oure lady veyl;
+  He seide, he hadde a gobet of the seyl
+  That seynt Peter hadde, whan that he wente
+  Uppon the see, til Jhesu Crist him pente.
+  He hadde a cros of latoun ful of stones,
+  And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.
+  But with these reliques, whanne that he fond
+  A poure persoun dwelling uppon lond,
+  Upon a day he gat him more moneye
+  Than that the persoun gat in monthes tweye.
+  And thus with feyned flaterie and japes,
+  He made the persoun and the people his apes."--CHAUCER.
+
+A wide-spread movement developed in the early church as a result of
+which innumerable miracles of healing were credited to the power of
+saints, indirectly through the medium of streams and pools of water
+which were reputed to have some connection with a particular saint,
+or through the efficacy still clinging to the relics of holy persons.
+
+On account of the growth of the belief in demonism in the Christian
+church, and the need of supernatural means to counteract diabolic
+diseases, saintly relics came into common use for this purpose, and
+afterward when demonism was not so thoroughly credited as the cause of
+diseases, relics were still considered to hold their power over
+physical infirmities. In addition to this, the missionary efforts and
+successes of the church had some influence in establishing and
+continuing cures by relics and similar means. The missionaries found
+that their converts had formerly employed various amulets and charms
+for the healing of diseases, and that they continued to have great
+faith in them for that purpose. To wean them from their heathen
+customs, Christian amulets and charms had to be substituted, or, as
+was sometimes the case, the heathen fetich was continued, but with a
+Christian significance.
+
+The early Scandinavians carried effigies carved out of gold or silver
+as safeguards against disease, or applied those made out of certain
+other materials, as the mandragora root or linen or wood, to the
+diseased part as a cure of physical infirmities. Some of these images
+were carried over into Christianity, for in Charlemagne's time,
+headache was frequently cured by following the saintly recommendation
+to shape the figure of a head and place it on a cross. Fort tells us
+that "The introduction of Christianity among the Teutonic races
+offered no hindrance to a perpetuation, under new forms, of those
+social observances with which Norse temple idolatry was so intimately
+associated. Offering to proselytes an unlimited number of demoniacal
+æons, similar in individuality and prowess to those peopling the
+invisible universe, Northern mythology readily united with Christian
+demonology."[21]
+
+The relics of the saints came to be the favorite substitute for the
+heathen charms. With the acceptance of the demoniacal cause of
+disease, exorcism by relics gradually grew in importance until it was
+firmly established and a preferred form in the sixth and subsequent
+centuries. Down to this time there still existed a feeble recognition
+of a possible system adapted to the cure of maladies, so far, perhaps,
+as the practice was restricted to municipalities. The rapid
+advancement of saintly remedies, consecrated oils, and other puissant
+articles of ecclesiastical appliance, enabled and encouraged numerous
+churchmen to exercise the Æsculapian art; this, together with the ban
+put upon physicians and scientific means, soon gave the church the
+monopoly of healing. Perhaps the most thorough attestation of the
+contempt into which physicians had fallen, compared with saintly
+medicists, is the fact that cures were invariably attempted after
+earthly medicine had been exhausted.[22]
+
+Islam, Buddhism, and other religions have their shrines where some
+pilgrims are undoubtedly cured, but Christianity seems to have had the
+most varied and numerous collection. As early as the latter part of
+the fourth century miraculous powers were ascribed to the images of
+Jesus and the saints which adorned the walls of most of the churches
+of the time, and tales of wonderful cures were related of them. The
+intercessions of saints were invoked, and their relics began to work
+miracles.[23]
+
+St. Cyril, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and others of the early church
+fathers of note maintained that the relics of the saints had great
+efficacy in the cure of diseases. St. Augustine tells us: "Besides
+many other miracles, that Gamaliel in a dream revealed to a priest
+named Lacianus the place where the bones of St. Stephen were buried;
+that those bones being thus discovered, were brought to Hippo, the
+diocese of which St. Augustine was bishop; that they raised five
+persons to life; and that, although only a portion of the miraculous
+cures they effected had been registered, the certificates drawn up in
+two years in the diocese, and by the orders of the saint, were nearly
+seventy. In the adjoining diocese of Calama they were incomparably
+more numerous."[24] This great and intellectual man also mentions and
+evidently credits the story that some innkeeper of his time put a drug
+into cheese which changed travellers who partook of it into domestic
+animals, and he further asserts after a personal test that peacock's
+flesh will not decay.
+
+St. Ambrose declared that "the precepts of medicine are contrary to
+celestial science, watching, and prayer." When the conflict between
+St. Ambrose and the Arian Empress Justina was at its height, the
+former declared that it had been revealed to him that relics were
+buried in a certain spot which he indicated. When the earth was
+removed, there was exposed a tomb filled with blood, and containing
+two gigantic skeletons with their heads severed from their bodies.
+These were pronounced to be the remains of St. Gervasius and St.
+Protasius, two martyrs of gigantic physical proportions, who were said
+to have been beheaded about three centuries before. To prove beyond
+doubt the genuineness of these relics, a blind man was restored to
+sight by coming in contact with them, and demoniacs were also cured
+thereby. Before being exorcised, however, the demons, who were
+supposed to have supernatural and indubitable knowledge, declared that
+the relics were genuine; that St. Ambrose was the deadly enemy of
+hell; that the doctrine of the Trinity was true; and that those who
+rejected it would certainly be damned. To be sure that the testimony
+of the demons should have its proper weight in the controversy, on the
+following day St. Ambrose delivered an invective against all who
+questioned the miracle.[25]
+
+Late researches concerning the Catacombs of Rome have thrown much
+light upon the early use of relics. The former opinion of the
+Catacombs was that they were used for secret worship by the persecuted
+Christians, but now we know that they were burial-places under the
+protection of Roman law, with entrances opening on the public roads.
+Their chapels and altars were for memorial and communion services.
+Great reverence was felt for the bodies of all Christians, so that for
+the first seven centuries the bodies were not disturbed, and relics,
+in the modern sense of the word, were unknown. People prayed at the
+tombs, or if they wished to take something away, they touched the tomb
+with a handkerchief, or else they took some oil from the lamps which
+marked the tombs. These mementos were regarded as true relics, so that
+when the Lombard Queen, Theodelinda, sent the abbot John for relics to
+put in her cathedral at Monza, he came back with over seventy little
+vials of oil, each with the name of the saint from whose tomb the oil
+was procured, and many of them are still preserved.
+
+The oil from altar lamps was of therapeutic value, as St. Chrysostom
+tells us in speaking of the superiority of the church over ordinary
+houses. "For what is here," he asks, "that is not great and awful?
+Thus both this Table [the altar] is far more precious and delightful
+than that [any table at home], and this lamp than that; and this they
+know, as many as have put away diseases by anointing themselves with
+oil in faith and due season." If the body of a saint lay beneath the
+altar, the oil was then known as the "Oil of the Saints," and was even
+more efficacious for healing. Notice the following quotations on the
+subject taken from Dearmer's work.
+
+   "Far more common are stories of healing by oil from a
+   lamp burnt in honor of Christ or the saints. The
+   following examples are from the East. The wounded hand
+   of a Saracen was healed by oil from a lamp before the
+   icon of St. George."
+
+   "St. Cyrus and St. John appeared to a person suffering
+   from gout, and bade him take a little oil in a small
+   ampulla from the lamp that burnt before the image of
+   the Saviour, in the great tetrapyle at Alexandria, and
+   anoint his feet with it."
+
+   "Similar stories are found in Western writers. Thus
+   Nicetius of Lyons, by means of the oil of the lamp
+   which burnt daily at his sepulchre, restored sight to
+   the blind, drove demons from bodies possessed, restored
+   soundness to shrunken limbs," etc.
+
+   "An epileptic was cured by oil from the lamp that burnt
+   night and day at the tomb of St. Severin."
+
+  "It was revealed to a blind woman, that oil from the
+  lamp of St. Geneviève would restore her sight, if the
+  warden of the church were to anoint her with it. A week
+  after she brought a blind man, who was healed in the
+  same manner."[26]
+
+At the time of Gregory of Tours, application was made of sainted
+reliquaries as a remedy against the devil and his demons. Gregory
+narrates the miraculous efficacy of a small pellet of wax, taken from
+the tomb of St. Martin, in extinguishing an incendiary fire started by
+his Satanic majesty, which was instigated by malicious envy, because
+this omnipotent talisman was in the custody of an ecclesiastic! This
+Turonese bishop records many instances of cures being effected at
+Martin's tomb. He himself was relieved of severe pains in the head by
+touching the disordered spot with the sombre pall of St. Martin's
+sepulchre. This remedy was applied on three different occasions with
+equal success. Once he was cured of an attack of mortal dysentery by
+simply dissolving into a glass of water a pinch of dust scraped from
+the tomb of St. Martin and drinking the strange concoction. At another
+time, his tongue having become swollen and tumefied, it was restored
+to its natural size and condition by licking the railing of the tomb
+of this saint. He knew of others who had been equally successful. An
+archdeacon, named Leonastes had sight restored to his blind eyes at
+the tomb of St. Martin, but unfortunately the fact that he later
+applied to an Israelitish physician caused his infirmity to return.
+Even a toothache was cured by St. Martin's relics.
+
+The following is an apostrophe to the relics of St. Martin by Bishop
+Gregory: "Oh ineffable theriac! ineffable pigment! admirable antidote!
+celestial purge! superior to all drugs of the faculty! sweeter than
+aromatics! stronger than unguents together; thou cleanest the stomach
+like scammony, the lungs like hyssop, thou purgest the head like
+pyre-thrig!"[27]
+
+From the end of the fifth century the exercise of the medical art was
+almost exclusively appropriated by cloisters and monasteries, whose
+occupants boldly vended the miraculous remedial properties of relics,
+chrism, baptismal fluids, holy oil, rosy crosses, etc., as of
+unquestioned virtue. In these early days living saints seem to have
+rivalled dead ones in their power over diseases, but of these we shall
+speak in a later chapter.
+
+A renewed interest sprang up when pilgrims began to return from their
+journeys to Palestine, bringing with them, as was natural, some
+souvenirs of their sojourn. A most interesting quotation from Mackay
+reveals the condition of these times. "The first pilgrims to the Holy
+Land brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the
+purchase of which they had expended all their store. The greatest
+favorite was the wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the
+widow, never diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions
+of the Romish Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of
+Constantine the Great, first discovered the veritable '_true cross_'
+in her pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius made a present
+of the greater part of it to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it
+was studded with precious stones and deposited in the principal church
+of that city. It was carried away by the Huns, by whom it was burnt,
+after they had extracted the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments,
+purporting to have been cut from it, were, in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, to be found in almost every church in Europe, and would, if
+collected together in one place, have been almost sufficient to have
+built a cathedral. Happy was the sinner who could get a sight of one
+of them; happier he who possessed one! To obtain them the greatest
+dangers were cheerfully braved. They were thought to preserve from all
+evils and to cure the most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages
+were made to the shrines that contained them and considerable revenues
+collected from the devotees.
+
+"Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the Saviour.
+By whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrim did not
+enquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of the Holy
+Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, and tears of
+St. Peter, were also to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets,
+which the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the tears, the next
+most precious relics were drops of the blood of Jesus and the martyrs,
+and the milk of the Virgin Mary. Hair and toe-nails were also in great
+repute, and were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands of pilgrims
+annually visited Palestine in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to
+purchase pretended relics for the home market. The majority of them
+had no other means of subsistence than the profits thus obtained. Many
+a nail, cut from the filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic,
+was sold at a diamond's price, within six months after its severance
+from its parent toe, upon the supposition that it had once belonged to
+a saint or an apostle. Peter's toes were uncommonly prolific, for
+there were nails enough in Europe, at the time of the Council of
+Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of which were devoutly believed
+to have grown on the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of them
+are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. The pious come
+from a distance of a hundred German miles to feast their eyes upon
+them."[28]
+
+While some of these relics enumerated by Mackay seem to be such
+apparent frauds that none could credit them, they were surpassed in
+audacity by one offered for sale at a monastery in Jerusalem. Here
+was presented to the prospective buyers one of the fingers of the Holy
+Ghost.[29]
+
+In addition to the popular relics already noted, an extensive and
+lucrative trade was carried on in iron filings from the chains with
+which, it was claimed, Peter and Paul were bound. These filings were
+deemed by Pope Gregory I as efficacious in healing as were the bones
+of saints or martyrs.[30]
+
+[Illustration: CURE THROUGH THE INTERCESSION OF A HEALING SAINT]
+
+As an example of healing at shrines in early days, I will reproduce
+Bede's description of a cure effected at the tomb of St. Cuthbert in
+698. "There was in that same monastery a brother whose name was
+Bethwegan, who had for a considerable time waited upon the guests of
+the house, and is still living, having the testimony of all the
+brothers and strangers resorting thither, of being a man of much piety
+and religion, and serving the office put upon him only for the sake of
+the heavenly reward. This man, having on a certain day washed the
+mantels or garments which he used in the hospital, in the sea, was
+returning home, when on a sudden about halfway, he was seized with a
+sudden distemper in his body, insomuch that he fell down, and having
+lain some time, he could scarcely rise again. When at last he got up,
+he felt one-half of his body from the head to the foot, struck with
+palsy, and with much difficulty he got home with the help of a staff.
+The distemper increased by degrees, and as night approached became
+still worse, so that when day returned, he could not rise or walk
+alone. In this weak condition, a good thought came into his mind,
+which was to go to church, the best way he could, to the tomb of the
+reverend Father Cuthbert, and there on his knees, to beg of the Divine
+Goodness either to be delivered from that disease, if it were for his
+good, or if the Divine Providence had ordained him longer to lie under
+the same for his punishment, that he might bear the pain with patience
+and a composed mind. He did accordingly, and supporting his weak limbs
+with a staff, entered the church, and prostrating himself before the
+body of the man of God, he with pious earnestness, prayed, that
+through his intercession, our Lord might be propitious to him. In the
+midst of his prayers he fell as it were, into a stupor, and as he was
+afterwards wont to relate, felt a large and broad hand touch his head
+where the pain lay, and by that touch all the part of his body which
+had been affected with the distemper, was delivered from the weakness,
+and restored to health down to his feet. He then awoke, and rose up in
+perfect health, and returning thanks to God for his recovery, told the
+brothers what had happened to him; and to the joy of them all,
+returned the more zealously, as if chastened by his affliction, to
+the service which he was wont before so carefully to perform. The very
+garments which had been on Cuthbert's body, dedicated to God, either
+while living, or after he was dead, were not exempt from the virtue of
+performing cures, as may be seen in the book of his life and miracles,
+by such as shall read it."[31] It should be noticed that in this
+account God alone seemed to have been the healer.
+
+Nearly every country had its long list of saints, each with his
+special power over some organ or disease. This saintly power, however,
+was not applied directly, but through their relics or through shrines
+consecrated to them. Melton, in his _Astrologaster_, says: "The saints
+of the Romanists have usurped the place of the zodiacal constellations
+in their governance of the parts of man's body, and that 'for every
+limbe they have a saint.' Thus St. Otilia keepes the head instead of
+Aries; St. Blasius is appointed to governe the necke instead of
+Taurus; St. Lawrence keepes the backe and shoulders instead of Gemini,
+Cancer, and Leo; St. Erasmus rules the belly with the entrayles, in
+the place of Libra and Scorpius; in the stead of Sagittarius,
+Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, the holy church of Rome hath
+elected St. Burgarde, St. Rochus, St. Quirinus, St. John, and many
+others, which governe the thighes, feet, shinnes, and knees."
+
+But the influence of the saints is distributed more minutely, as
+_e. g._, "_Right Hand_: the top joint of the thumb is dedicated to God,
+the second joint to the Virgin; the top joint of the fore-finger to
+St. Barnabas, the second joint to St. John, and the third to St. Paul;
+the top joint of the second finger to Simon Cleophas, the second joint
+to Tathideo, the third to Joseph; the top joint of the third finger to
+Zaccheus, the second to Stephen, the third to the evangelist Luke; the
+top joint of the little finger to Leatus, the second to Mark, the
+third to Nicodemus." Thus the body was cared for.
+
+Pettigrew makes the following enumeration which shows the division of
+labor among the saints in the Middle Ages. In this, not the different
+portions of the body but the various diseases and infirmities are
+distributed.
+
+"The following list, though doubtless very imperfect, will yet serve to
+show how general was the appropriation of particular diseases to the
+Roman Catholic saints:
+
+  St. Agatha, against sore breasts.
+  St. Agnan and St. Tignan, against scald head.
+  St. Anthony, against inflammations.
+  St. Apollonia, against toothache.
+  St. Avertin, against lunacy.
+  St. Benedict, against the stone, and also for poisons.
+  St. Blaise, against the quinsey, bones sticking in the throat, etc.
+  St. Christopher and St. Mark, against sudden death.
+  St. Clara, against sore eyes.
+  St. Erasmus, against the colic.
+  St. Eutrope, against dropsy.
+  St. Genow and St. Maur, against the gout.
+  St. Germanus, against diseases of children.
+  St. Giles and St. Hyacinth, against sterility.
+  St. Herbert, against hydrophobia.
+  St. Job and St. Fiage, against syphilis.
+  St. John, against epilepsy and poison.
+  St. Lawrence, against diseases of the back and shoulders.
+  St. Liberius, against the stone and fistula.
+  St. Maine, against the scab.
+  St. Margaret and St. Edine, against danger in parturition.
+  St. Martin, against the itch.
+  St. Marus, against palsy and convulsions.
+  St. Otilia and St. Juliana, against sore eyes and
+  the headache.
+  St. Pernel, against the ague.
+  St. Petronilla, St. Apollonia, and St. Lucy, against the toothache.
+  ----, and St. Genevieve, against fevers.
+  St. Phaire, against hemorrhoids.
+  St. Quintan, against coughs.
+  St. Rochus, and St. Sebastian, against the plague.
+  St. Romanus, against demoniacal possession.
+  St. Ruffin, against madness.
+  St. Sigismund, against fevers and agues.
+  St. Valentine, against epilepsy.
+  St. Venise, against chlorosis.
+  St. Vitus, against madness and poisons.
+  St. Wallia and St. Wallery, against the stone.
+  St. Wolfgang, against lameness."[32]
+
+Wax from the tapers illuminating the altar which enclosed St. Gall's
+mortal remains was an instantaneous cure for toothache, diseased eyes,
+and total deafness; a vase used by the martyred Willabrod for bathing
+thrice a year, still holding its partially solidified water by divine
+invocation after her death, had great remedial energy in diverse
+ailments; the water in which the ring of St. Remigius was immersed
+cured certain obstinate fevers; and the wine in which the bones of the
+saints were washed restored imbeciles to instant health. In the
+thirteenth century, hairs of saints, especially of St. Boniface, were
+used as a purge, and a single hair from the beard of St. Vincent,
+placed about the neck of an idiot, restored normal mental operations.
+With the water in which St. Sulpicius washed her hands aggravated
+infirmities were instantly cured; and in the twelfth century, an
+invalid being advised in a dream to drink the water in which St.
+Bernard washed his hands, the Abbot of Clairvaux went to him, gave him
+the wash water, and healed an incurable disease. Flowers reposing on
+the tomb of a saint, when steeped in water, were supposed to be
+especially efficacious in various diseases, and those blooming in
+aromatic beauty at the tomb of St. Bernard instantly cured grievous
+sicknesses.[33] The belt of St. Guthlac, and the belt of St. Thomas
+of Lancaster, were sovereign remedies for the headache, whilst the
+penknife and boots of Archbishop Becket, and a piece of his shirt,
+were found most admirably to aid parturition. Fragments of the veil of
+the saintess Coleta, and the use of her well-worn cloak, immediately
+cured a terrible luxation, and a cataleptic patient was restored to
+sanity by drinking from her cup.
+
+To show how thoroughly the idea of the efficacy of these relics must
+have been indued in the thought of the times, White quotes the
+following: "Two lazy beggars, one blind, the other lame, try to avoid
+the relics of St. Martin, borne about in procession, so that they may
+not be healed and lose their claim to alms. The blind man takes the
+lame man on his shoulders to guide him, but they are caught in the
+crowd and healed against their will." He also says: "Even as late as
+1784 we find certain authorities in Bavaria ordering that anyone
+bitten by a mad dog shall at once put up prayers at the shrine of St.
+Hubert, and not waste his time in any attempts at medical or surgical
+cure."[34]
+
+In addition to what Dr. White says here about the treatment for
+threatened hydrophobia in the eighteenth century, we find a curious
+mixture of science and superstition in the nineteenth century in
+connection with the same trouble. Early in this century physicians
+discovered that the most effectual remedy against the bite of a rabid
+animal was the cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron. In
+Tuscany, however, the iron which they heated was one of the nails of
+the true cross, and in the French provinces it was the key of St.
+Hubert. This, though, was only to be used in the hands of those who
+could trace their genealogy to this noble saint. At the abbey of St.
+Hubert, in the diocese of Liege, the intercession of the saint still
+continued to be sufficient to effect a cure, provided it was seconded
+by some religious ceremonies, and a diet which would reassure the
+patient.
+
+After the discovery of the "true cross," portions of this relic were
+much used for aid in any emergency. In addition to sanitary and
+healing powers, fragments suspended to a tree manifested the proper
+location of sacred edifices. St. Magnus, who seems to have carried
+pieces around with him, completely vanquished demons who frequented a
+locality selected for a chapel. Eyesight was restored to a humble
+merchant seeking the blood-stained marks upon the chapel of this same
+St. Magnus. The blind man was feeling his uncertain way to the place,
+where these discolorations reappeared more distinctly after each
+washing with heavy layers of lime.
+
+St. Louis, almost in the agonies of earthly dissolution, with rigid
+body, rigorous limbs, and fluctuating spirit, was brought to full
+health by the application to his moribund body of a piece of the true
+cross, about the year 1244; and later in the century miracles took
+place at his tomb. M. Littré, in his _Fragment de Medecine
+Rétrospective_, describes seven miracles which occurred at his tomb,
+some of which cures, however, were very gradual. We are also told that
+when a humble hunchback bowed the knee in adoration at the tomb of St.
+Andreas, his irresistible faith instantly released him from his
+unnatural rotundity. In 1243 a Ferrara writer was at Padua, and while
+attending vespers at the tomb where the sainted body of the Minorite
+Anthony reposed, he affirms that he saw a person who had been mute
+from his birth recover his voice and speak audibly.
+
+Saintly remedies were used to cure hemorrhages, readjust luxations,
+unite fractures, remove calculi, moderate the agonizing pangs of
+parturition, restore vision to the blind, and hearing to the deaf--in
+fact, in an endeavor to perform cures which modern medicine and
+surgery are counting among their greatest and most recent triumphs.
+Some things even more strange were attempted: paradoxical as it may
+seem, they were used to cover up crime. Fort tells us that among nuns
+and consecrated women in convents, some erring sisters applied the
+preventive talismanic influence of a sacred shirt or girdle to
+suppress the manifestation of conventual irregularities of a sexual
+character. Animals as well as human beings were treated for sickness,
+and relics were used to free captive birds and animals. At a banquet,
+a costly urn was shattered by ecclesiastics, and through the power of
+Odilo it was restored to its original integrity. At the tombs of both
+St. Severin and St. Gall, when the light had been quenched, miraculous
+fire burst forth to renew the splendor.[35]
+
+The allotment of certain diseases to certain saints did not end with
+the Middle Ages. I have in my hand a little manual entitled: _De
+l'Invocation miraculeuse des Saints dans les maladies et les besoins
+particuliers, par Mme. la Baronne d'Avout_, published in 1884. An
+invocation is given for every day in the year to some particular
+saint, who is thought to be especially efficacious in the cure of some
+specific disease. I shall quote but one for illustration.
+
+  "30 MAI
+  S. HUBERT DE BRÉTIGNY
+  Près Noyons (Oise).
+  Honoré au diocèse de Beauvais.
+
+  "L'illustre saint Hubert, apôtre des Ardennes, fut son
+  protecteur et lui donna son nom. Il lui obtint les plus
+  heureuses dispositions pour la vertu. Lui aussi hérita
+  du pouvoir de guérir de la rage.
+
+  "Les habitants de Noyon et des environs n'ont pas cessé
+  de recourir à son intercession. Les personnes qui
+  touchent ses reliques ou portent sur elles son nom béni
+  espérent échapper pendant leur vie aux atteintes des
+  démons, de la rage et du tonnerre.
+
+  "À Aire, diocèse de Fréjus, on invoque aussi sainte
+  Quitère contre la rage.
+
+  INVOCATION
+
+  "Dieu tout-puissant, qui avez formé le coeur de vos
+  saints avec une admirable bonté, afin qu'ils deviennent
+  pour nous une source de bienfaits et de consolation;
+  assistez-nous dans le pressant besoin où nous nous
+  trouvons et sauvez-nous de la mort, par les prières at
+  les mérites de saint Hubert de Brétigny, afin que nous
+  puissions vous louer et vous bénir. Par N.-S. J.-C.
+  Ainsi soit-il.
+
+  "_Saint Hubert, qui préservez de la morsure des bêtes
+  enragées, ou qui guérissez leur morsures mortelles,
+  priez pour tous les affligés qui vous invoquent._"
+
+While there was probably some advance when the saints of the church
+took the place of the zodiacal constellations in the government of the
+human body, the church prevented the development along scientific
+lines, although there were many ramifications of saintly influence.
+Not the least among these was the healing efficacy of holy wells,
+pools, and streams, which had been empowered in some way by the
+saints. In some cases the bones of holy men have been buried in
+different parts of the continent, and after a certain lapse of time,
+water was said to have oozed from them, which soon formed a spring and
+cured all the diseases of the faithful.
+
+Perhaps the cure of leprous Naaman by bathing in the Jordan, and the
+restoration of the sight of the blind man by washing in the Pool of
+Siloam may have served as examples which the credulous were only too
+ready to follow. We must also note, however, as a reason for their
+use, that in classical times the greater number of thermal waters,
+more frequently used then than in the present day, remained
+consecrated to the gods, to Apollo, to Æsculapius, and, above all, to
+Hercules, who was named Iatricos, or the able physician. At any rate,
+many wells and fountains were dedicated to different saints, and
+various rites were performed there at Easter and other particular
+days, where offerings were also made to the saints.
+
+In Ireland, many such sacred places have been visited by the sick for
+centuries, and England and Scotland have them also. Not only in the
+British Isles, but in all parts of Europe they were much frequented in
+the Middle Ages, and they are not without their visitors to-day. As
+late as 1805 the eminent Roman Catholic prelate, Dr. John Milner, gave
+a detailed account of a miraculous cure performed at a sacred well in
+Flintshire. Gregory of Tours was one of the first to notice the
+healing power of springs in connection with the saints. He asserted
+that the diseases of the sick and infirm were banished upon the
+contact of a few drops of water drawn from a spring dug by St.
+Martin's own hands.
+
+From Fosbrooke's _British Monachism_ we learn that "on a spot called
+Nell's Point, is a fine well, to which great numbers of women resort
+on Holy Thursday, and, having washed their eyes in the spring, they
+drop a pin into it. Once a year, at St. Mardrin's well, also, lame
+persons went on Corpus Christi evening, to lay some small offering on
+the altar, there to lie on the ground all night, drink of the water
+there, and on the next morning to take a good draught more of it, and
+carry away some of the water each in a bottle at their departure. At
+Muswell Hill was formerly a chapel, called our Lady of Muswell, from a
+well there, near which was her image; this well was continually
+resorted to by way of pilgrimage. At Walsingham, a fine green road was
+made for the pilgrims, and there was a holy well and cross adjacent,
+at which pilgrims used to kneel while drinking the water. It is
+remarkable that the Anglo-Saxon laws had proscribed this as
+idolatrous. Such springs were consecrated upon the discovery of cures
+effected by them. In fact," Fosbrooke adds, "these consecrated wells
+merely imply a knowledge of the properties of mineral waters, but,
+through ignorance, a religious appropriation of their properties was
+made to supernatural causes."
+
+"Holywell, in the county of Flint," we are informed by Salverte,
+"derives its name from the Holy Well of St. Winifred, over which a
+chapel was erected by the Stanley family, in the reign of Henry VII.
+The well was formerly in high repute as a medicinal spring. Pennant
+says that, in his time, Lancashire pilgrims were to be seen in deep
+devotion, standing in the waters up to the chin for hours, sending up
+prayers, and making a prescribed number of turnings; and this excess
+of piety was carried so far, as in several instances to cost the
+devotees their lives."[36]
+
+Pennant also tells us of a small spring outside the bathing well at
+Whiteford, which was once famed for the cure of weak eyes. The patient
+made an offering of a crooked pin, and at the same time repeated some
+words. The well still remains, but the efficacy of its waters is lost.
+In recounting his tour of Wales, the same author describes the church
+of St. Tecla, virgin and martyr, at Llandegla. He says: "About two
+hundred yards from the church, in a Quillet called Gwern Degla, rises
+a small spring. The water is under the tutelage of the Saint, and to
+this day held to be extremely beneficial in the falling sickness. The
+patient washes his limbs in the well; makes an offering into it of
+four-pence; walks round it three times; and thrice repeats the Lord's
+Prayer. These ceremonies are never begun till after sun-set, in order
+to inspire the votaries with greater awe. If the afflicted be of the
+male sex, like Socrates, he makes an offering of a cock to his
+Æsculapius, or rather to Tecla Hygeia; if of the fair sex, a hen. The
+fowl is carried in a basket, first round the well; after that into the
+church-yard; when the same orisons and the same circum-ambulations are
+performed round the church. The votary then enters the church; gets
+under the communion table; lies down with the Bible under his or her
+head; is covered with the carpet or cloth, and rests there till break
+of day; departing after offering sixpence, and leaving the fowl in the
+church. If the bird dies, the cure is supposed to have been effected,
+and the disease transferred to the devoted victim."[37]
+
+"At Withersden," says Hasted, "is a well, which was once famous, being
+called St. Eustache's well, taking its name from Eustachius, Abbot of
+Flai, who is mentioned by Matt. Paris, An. 1200, to have been a man of
+learning and sanctity, and to have come and preached at Wye, and to
+have blessed a fountain there, so that afterwards its waters were
+endowed by such miraculous power, that by it all diseases were
+cured."[38] Unfortunately, wells do not always benefit the bathers.
+Lilly[39] relates that in 1635 Sir George Peckham died in St.
+Winifred's Well, "having continued so long mumbling his pater nosters
+and Sancta Winifreda ora pro me, that the cold struck into his body,
+and after his coming forth of that well he never spoke more."
+
+The people of the Highlands of Scotland regarded fountains with
+particular veneration. According to the Statistical Account of
+Scotland, the minister of Kirkmichael, Banffshire, said: "The sick who
+resort to them for health, address their vows to the presiding powers,
+and offer presents to conciliate their favor. These presents generally
+consist of a small piece of money, or a few fragrant flowers. The same
+reverence in ancient times seems to have been entertained by every
+people in Europe." Near Kirkmichael there was a fountain dedicated to
+St. Michael, and once celebrated for its cures. "Many a patient have
+its waters restored to health, and many more have attested the
+efficacy of their virtues. But, as the presiding power is sometimes
+capricious, and apt to desert his charge, it now lies neglected,
+choked with weeds, unhonored and unfrequented."[40]
+
+The most noted well in Perthshire is in Trinity Gask. Again from the
+Statistical Account we quote: "Superstition, aided by the interested
+artifices of Popish Priests, raised, in times of ignorance and
+bigotry, this well to no small degree of celebrity. It was affirmed
+that every person who was baptized with the water of this well would
+never be seized with the plague. The extraordinary virtue of Trinity
+Gask well has perished with the downfall of superstition."[41]
+
+Pinkerton, in speaking of the river Fillan in Scotland, says: "In this
+river is a pool consecrated by the ancient superstition of the
+inhabitants of this country. The pool is formed by the eddying of the
+stream round a rock. Its waves were many years since consecrated by
+Fillan, one of the saints who converted the ancient inhabitants of
+Caledonia from paganism to the belief of Christianity. It has ever
+since been distinguished by his name, and esteemed of sovereign virtue
+in curing madness. About two hundred persons afflicted in this way are
+annually brought to try the benefits of its salutary influence. These
+patients are conducted by their friends, who first perform the
+ceremony of passing with them thrice through a neighbouring cairn: on
+this cairn they then deposit a simple offering of clothes, or perhaps
+a small bunch of heath. More precious offerings used once to be
+brought. The patient is then thrice immerged in the sacred pool. After
+the immersion, he is bound hand and foot, and left for the night in a
+chapel which stands near. If the maniac is found loose in the morning,
+good hopes are conceived of his full recovery. If he is still bound,
+his cure remains doubtful. It sometimes happens that death relieves
+him, during his confinement, from the troubles of life."
+
+Mrs. Macaulay,[42] speaking of a consecrated well in St. Kilda, called
+Tobirnimbuadh, or the spring of diverse virtues, says that "near the
+fountain stood an altar, on which the distressed votaries laid down
+their oblations. Before they could touch sacred water with any
+prospect of success, it was their constant practice to address the
+genius of the place with supplication and prayer. No one approached
+him with empty hands.... Shells and pebbles, rags of linen or stuffs
+worn out, pins, needles, or rusty nails were generally all the tribute
+that was paid."
+
+Collinson[43] mentions a well in the parish Wembton, called St. John's
+Well, to which in 1464 "an immense concourse of people resorted: and
+... many who had for years labored under various bodily diseases, and
+had found no benefit from physick and physicians, were, by the use of
+these waters (after paying their due offerings), restored to their
+primitive health."
+
+Brome, in his _Travels_, 1700, observes: "In Lothien, two miles from
+Edinburg southward, is a spring called St. Katherine's Well, flowing
+continually with a kind of black fatness, or oil, above the water,
+proceeding (as it is thought) from the parret coal, which is frequent
+in these parts; 'tis of a marvellous nature, for as the coal, whereof
+it proceeds, is very apt quickly to kindle into a flame, so is the
+oil of a sudden operation to heal all scabs and tumors that trouble
+the outward skin, and the head and hands are speedily healed by virtue
+of this oil, which retains a very sweet smell; and at Aberdeen is
+another well very efficacious to dissolve the stone, to expel sand
+from the reins and bladder, being good for the collick and drunk in
+July and August, not inferiour, they report, to the Spaw in
+Germany."[44]
+
+Grose tells us of a well dedicated to St. Oswald, between the towns of
+Alton and Newton. The neighbors have the opinion that a sick person's
+shirt thrown into the well will prognosticate the outcome of the
+disease; if it floats the sick one will recover, if it sinks he will
+die. To reward the saint for the information, they tear a rag off the
+shirt and hang it on the briers near by; "where," says the writer, "I
+have seen such numbers as might have made a fayre rheme in a
+paper-myll." Similar practices are related by other authors. Ireland
+formerly had a sanctified well in nearly every parish. They were
+marked by rude crosses and surrounded by fragments of cloth left as
+memorials. St. Ronague's Well, near Cork, was very popular at one
+time. Near Carrick-on-Suir is the holy well of Tubber Quan, the waters
+of which are reputed to have performed many miraculous cures. The
+well was dedicated to two patron saints, St. Quan and St. Brogawn.
+These saints are supposed to exert a special influence the last three
+Sundays in June. "It is firmly believed," says Brand, "that at this
+period the two saints appear in the well in the shape of two small
+fishes, of the trout kind; and if they do not so appear, that no cure
+will take place. The penitents attending on these occasions ascend the
+hill barefoot, kneel by the stream and repeat a number of paters and
+aves, then enter it, go through the stream three times, at a slow
+pace, reciting their prayers. They then go on the gravel walk, and
+traverse it round three times on their bare knees, often till the
+blood starts in the operation, repeat their prayers, then traverse
+three times round a tree on their bare knees, but upon the grass.
+Having performed these exercises they cut off locks of their hair and
+tie them on the branches of the tree as specifics against headache."
+
+After being three times admonished in a dream, a man washed in St.
+Madern's Well in Cornwall and was miraculously cured, so say Bishop
+Hall and Father Francis. Ranulf Higden, in his _Polychronicon_,
+relates the wonderful cures performed at the holy well at Basingwerk.
+The red streaks in the stones surrounding it were symbols of the blood
+of St. Wenefride, martyred by Carodoc.
+
+The Scotch considered certain wells to have healing properties in the
+month of May. In the Sessions Records (June 12, 1628) it is reported
+that a number of persons were brought before the Kirk Sessions of
+Falkirk, accused of going to Christ's Well on the Sundays of May to
+seek their health, and the whole being found guilty were sentenced to
+repent "in linens" three several sabbaths. "In 1657 a number of
+persons were publicly rebuked for visiting the well at Airth. The
+custom was to leave a piece of money and a napkin at the well, from
+which they took a can of water, and were not to speak a word either in
+going or returning, nor on any account to spill a drop of the water.
+Notwithstanding these proceedings, many are known to have lately
+travelled many miles into the Highlands, there to obtain water for the
+cure of their sick cattle."[45]
+
+To-day, probably the most efficacious waters are to be found at the
+sacred fountain at La Salette and at the holy spring at Lourdes.
+
+We have another specific form of healing which should be noticed. It
+was especially common in Eastern churches, and was found to some
+extent in the West. I refer to Incubation, or "Temple-sleep." This
+practice came down through early civilizations and was an adopted
+practice among Christians. The patient went to some church well known
+for its cures, which was provided with mattresses or low couches, and
+attended by priests and assistants. Devotions being finished he lay
+down to sleep. Sometimes he slept immediately, at other times sleep
+must be wooed by fast and vigil. At any rate, during the sleep he
+dreamed that the saint touched him, or prescribed some remedy, and in
+the first case he awoke cured, and in the second the prescribed
+medicine brought about the relief.
+
+Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, wrote about 640 as follows:
+"Cyrus appeared to the sick man in the form of a monk, not in a dream,
+as he appears to many; but in a waking vision, just as he was and is
+represented. He told the patient to rise and to plunge into the warm
+water. Zosimos said it was impossible for him to move, but when the
+order was repeated, he slid like a snake into the bath. When he got
+into the water, he saw the saint at his side, but when he came out,
+the vision had vanished." Beside the cure of this paralytic at the
+church of Cyrus and John, he mentions the cure of many other diseases
+by this method of incubation. Among them are dumbness, blindness,
+barrenness, possession, scrofula, dyspepsia, a broken leg, deformities
+of limbs, lameness, gout, diseases of the eyes, cataract, ulcer, and
+dropsy.
+
+Among the churches of Greece and southern Italy incubation is still
+common. The climate may have some effect in limiting the area of this
+practice. Miss M. Hamilton furnishes us with some modern examples. In
+speaking of a new picture of St. George in the church at Arachova, she
+says: "It is a votive offering of a Russian, who came a paralytic to
+Arachova in July, 1905. He spent several weeks praying and sleeping in
+the church, and departed completely cured. The festival of St. George
+is held on April 23rd. They have three days of dancing and feasting,
+and at night all suppliants bring their rugs and sleep round the
+shrines in the church. Every year many of the sick are found to be
+cured when morning comes."
+
+The Church of the Evangelestria, our Lady of the Annunciation, is
+visited by about forty-five thousand pilgrims every year. It is
+situated at Tenos, and Miss Hamilton tells us what she saw during her
+visit there in 1906:
+
+  "On the morning before Annunciation Day this year, the
+  pilgrims could be seen making their way to the church.
+  Among them were cripples, armless, and legless,
+  half-rolling up the street; blind people groping their
+  way along; men and women with deformities of every kind;
+  one or two showing the pallor of death on their faces
+  were being carried up on litters. These evidently were
+  coming to Tenos as a last resource, when doctors were of
+  no avail. Other pilgrims were ascending after their own
+  fashion, according to vows they had made. One woman
+  toiled laboriously along on her knees, kissing the
+  stones of the way, and clasping a silver Madonna and
+  Child. Last year her daughter had been seized with
+  epilepsy, and she vowed to carry in this way this
+  offering to the Madonna of Tenos if she would cure her
+  daughter. The girl recovered and the other now with
+  thankful heart was fulfilling her part of the bargain.
+
+  "The eve of Annunciation Day is the time when the
+  Panagia is believed to descend among the sick and work
+  miraculous cures among them. Then all the patients are
+  gathered together in the crypt or in the upper church.
+  The Chapel of the Well is the popular place for
+  incubation. There is more chance for miraculous cure
+  there than in the church. The little crypt can
+  accommodate only a comparatively small number, but they
+  are packed together as tightly as possible. From the
+  entrance up to the altar, they lie in two lines of three
+  or four deep, with a passage down the middle large
+  enough for only one person. Down the narrow way two
+  streams of people press the whole evening. They worship
+  at the shrines along the wall, purchase holy earth from
+  the spot where the picture was discovered, drink at the
+  sacred well, and are blessed by the priest at the altar.
+  The cripples and the sick desiring healing have been
+  engaged all day in such acts of worship; they have
+  received bread and water from the priests in the upper
+  church, paid homage to the all-powerful picture, offered
+  their candles to the Madonna, and all the time sought to
+  endue themselves with her presence. Now at night, still
+  fixing their thoughts upon her, and permeated by this
+  spirit of worship, they settle down to sleep in order
+  that she may appear to them in a dream.
+
+  "Disappointment, of course, awaits the vast majority,
+  but on the evening of the vigil all are filled with
+  hope. They know the precedents of former years, how such
+  things have happened to some unfortunate people among
+  the pilgrims every year. Usually eight or nine miracles
+  take place, and lists of them are published for
+  distribution....
+
+  "The church records contain accounts of the miracles
+  which now amount to many hundreds. They are practically
+  all of the type I have described--cure during a vision
+  while incubation was being practised. For example, the
+  case of a man from Moldavia is on record. He had become
+  paralyzed during a night-watch, and the doctor could
+  effect no relief. He was taken to the Chapel of the
+  Well, and when asleep he thought he heard a voice
+  telling him to arise. He awoke, thought it was a dream,
+  and fell asleep again. A second time he heard a voice,
+  and saw a white-robed woman of great beauty entering the
+  church. In his fear he rose and walked about. His
+  recovery was so complete that he could walk in the
+  procession round the town the following day."[46]
+
+The medicinal power imputed to the sainted relics and shrines would
+naturally be considered very valuable. So it proved. Wealth flowed to
+a conventual treasury or a cathedral chapter where were deposited
+fragments of the martyred dead endowed with miraculous puissance. When
+the Frankish forces sacked Constantinople at the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, the principal object of their ferocious cruelties
+and vigilant searches was the acquisition of precious relics.
+Concerning these relics Fort gives the following account:
+
+  "These relics, captured in Constantinople, were divided
+  by the troops under Marquis de Montfort, with the same
+  justice as prevailed in the division of other booty. In
+  this way the Venetians were enabled to enrich their
+  metropolis with a piece of the sainted cross, an arm of
+  St. George, part of the head of St. John the Baptist,
+  the entire skeleton of St. Luke, that of the prophet St.
+  Simeon, and a small bottle of Jesus Christ's blood. The
+  Greek capital from the remotest times appears to have
+  monopolized this traffic in sacred wares, claiming to
+  possess a fragment of the stone on which Jacob slept,
+  and the staff transformed into a serpent by Moses.
+
+  "Here also were guarded the Holy Virgin's vestments, her
+  spindle, drops of her milk, the cradle in which the
+  Saviour had lain, a tooth from his adolescent jaw, a
+  hair of his beard, a particle of the bread used in the
+  Last Supper, and a portion of the royal purple worn by
+  him before Pilate. Naturally clerical adventurers among
+  the occidental Crusaders, pending the sacking of the
+  Byzantine city, sought out most zealously these valuable
+  remnants of pristine glory, and in obtaining them were
+  by no means scrupulous with menaces and violence. When
+  scattered through Western Europe, in the monasteries and
+  other religious places, their curative properties
+  increased the pilgrimages thither of the sick and
+  diseased."[47]
+
+He further gives us more in detail[48] an idea of the continual
+accumulation of riches which were derived from the exposure of these
+relics to the sick and infirm and the consequent growth in wealth of
+the monasteries and cathedrals. The monastic system was probably most
+responsible for the change from the simple adoration of the early
+Christians to the use of relics as a miraculous means of healing.
+Those which were transported with elaborate ceremonies, enclosed in a
+magnificent stone sarcophagus, and covered by an edifice of imposing
+proportions were almost sure to bring to their custodians great
+wealth. It is said that when the body of St. Sebastian, which was
+legitimately obtained from Rome, together with the purloined remains
+of St. Gregory, reached the cloister of Soissons, so great was the
+crowd of invalids who were cured, and so generous were they in their
+donations, that the monks actually counted eighty measures of money
+and one hundred pounds in coin. The great value of such objects may be
+calculated when it is remembered that in the year 1056 securities
+amounting to ten thousand solidi were pledged for the production of
+the relics of St. Just and St. Pastor, consequent upon the legal
+decision of ownership between Berenger, a French ruler, and a
+Narbonnese archbishop. The Reichberg annals provide a further example.
+They state that the emperor demanded certain hostages, or the holy arm
+of St. George, as a suitable guarantee for the institution of a public
+mart in Germany.
+
+Venetian merchants were among the first to realize the commercial
+value of relics, and enjoyed a lucrative traffic in this holy
+merchandise. It was not until the eleventh century, however, that the
+government of Venice founded public marts or fairs for the commercial
+exchange of saintly relics, although Rome and Pavia had long conducted
+such enterprises. These fairs were placed under the tutelary
+protection of some patron saint, the Venetians, of course, thus
+honoring St. Mark. They were not always particular how these relics
+were procured, for it is stated that when negotiations for the
+exchange of a well-preserved body of St. Tairise proved unsuccessful,
+because the Greek monks who possessed it refused absolutely to sell or
+barter, these enterprising traders quietly stole the desired skeleton.
+
+Relics provided a suitable method of acquiring ecclesiastical fortunes
+for denuded cloisters or impoverished nunneries; and if the old relics
+lost their power it was not difficult to procure episcopal assurance
+of the miraculous powers of new ones. For the procuring of special
+funds the venerated objects were taken from place to place, under
+priestly surveillance, presented to the sick and infirm with assurance
+of relief, and with the demand for large sums of money.
+
+We can easily understand, then, why such donations were regarded as
+most precious presents, and chronicled in the conventual records as
+events of high importance. As early as the ninth century, documentary
+evidence of authenticity frequently accompanied a gift of relics, and
+furnished legal proof of ownership.
+
+The gift of St. Peter's knife to a German monastery by a benevolent
+abbot was deemed a most illustrious act. About the same time a noble
+pilgrim succeeded, after great importunity and a lavish outlay of
+money, in obtaining trifling particles of the relics of Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob, which he enclosed in a priceless box and donated to
+the monastery of St. Gall. This gift was considered the greatest event
+of the year, but when it is considered that this and similar presents
+insure in the community, where they are deposited uninterrupted peace,
+unstinted plenty, absence of catastrophies, and the cure of diseases,
+their value is explained.
+
+The commercial aspect of ecclesiastical cures, however, was discovered
+by other than priestly or monkish eyes, and different forms began to
+be presented. Of these White says: "Very important among these was the
+Agnus Dei, or piece of wax from the Paschal candles, stamped with the
+figure of a lamb and consecrated by the Pope. In 1471 Pope Paul II
+expatiated to the Church on the efficacy of this fetich in preserving
+men from fire, shipwreck, tempest, lightning, and hail, as well as in
+assisting women in childbirth; and he reserved to himself and his
+successors the manufacture of it. Even as late as 1517 Pope Leo X
+issued, for a consideration, tickets bearing a cross and the
+following inscription: 'This cross measured forty times makes the
+height of Christ in his humanity. He who kisses it is preserved for
+seven days from falling-sickness, apoplexy, and sudden death.'"[49]
+
+The enormous revenues procured through the means of relics, and the
+lack of certain means of identifying them, would naturally encourage
+the imposition of fraud. The crime would not appear so great after one
+experience, for the perpetrators could readily see that it really made
+no difference so far as efficacy in the cure of diseases was
+concerned, whether or not the relics were genuine. The history of some
+of the relics unfortunately proves them not to be relics at all, or at
+least not to be the relics which the faithful supposed them to be.
+Notice a few instances. In a magnificent shrine in the cathedral at
+Cologne are the skulls of the three kings, or wise men from the East,
+who brought gifts to the infant Lord. They have rested here since the
+twelfth century and have been the source of enormous wealth and power
+to the cathedral chapter. Not to be outdone by the cathedral, for the
+church of St. Gereon a cemetery has been depopulated, and the bones
+thus procured have been placed upon the walls and are known as the
+relics of St. Gereon and his Theband band of martyrs! Further
+competition arose in the neighboring church of St. Ursula. Another
+cemetery was despoiled and the bones covering the interior of the
+walls are known as the relics of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand
+virgin martyrs. Anatomists now declare that many of the bones are
+those of men, but this made no more difference in their healing
+efficacy in the Middle Ages than the fact that the relics of St.
+Rosalia at Palermo, famed for their healing power, have lately been
+declared by Professor Buckland, the eminent osteologist, to be the
+bones of a goat.
+
+Two different investigations have been conducted by the French courts
+concerning the fountain of La Salette, and in both cases the miracles
+which make the shrine famous were pronounced to be fraudulent. The
+recent restoration of the cathedral at Trondhjem has revealed a tube
+in the walls, not unlike the apparatus discovered in the Temple of
+Isis at Pompeii; the healing power of this sacred spring was augmented
+by angelic voices which issued from the supposedly solid walls.[50]
+
+While the golden age of the therapeutic use of relics was from the
+sixth to the sixteenth centuries, modern times, with its physicians,
+hospitals, and drugs, has not been deprived of this method of cure.
+Mackay, writing in the latter half of the past century, touches this
+subject.
+
+At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which the
+priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns
+that bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by
+whom it was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous
+thorn which the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the Molenists
+have made celebrated, and which worked the miraculous cure upon
+Mademoiselle Perier, an account of which is so interesting that I give
+it. The cure occurred on March 14, 1646.
+
+  "A young pensioner in the monastery, by name Margaret
+  Perier, who for three years and a half had suffered from
+  a lachrymal fistula, came up in her turn to kiss it; and
+  the nun, her mistress, more horrified than ever at the
+  swelling and deformity of her eye, had a sudden impulse
+  to touch the sore with the relic, believing that God was
+  sufficiently able and willing to heal her. She thought
+  no more of the matter, but the little girl having
+  retired to her room, perceived a quarter of an hour
+  after that her disease was cured; and when she told her
+  companions, it was indeed found that nothing more was to
+  be seen of it. There was no more tumor; and her eye,
+  which the swelling (continuous for three years) had
+  weakened and caused to water, had become as dry, as
+  healthy, as lively as the other. The spring of the
+  filthy matter, which every quarter of an hour ran down
+  from nose, eye, and mouth, and at the very moment before
+  the miracle had fallen upon her cheek (as she declared
+  in her deposition), was found to be quite dried up; the
+  bone, which had been rotted and putrified, was restored
+  to its former condition; all the stench, proceeding from
+  it, which had been so insupportable that by order of the
+  physicians and surgeons she was separated from her
+  companions, was changed into a breath as sweet as an
+  infant's; and she recovered at the same moment her sense
+  of smell....
+
+  "Mons. Felix, Chief Surgeon to the King, who had seen
+  her during the month of April, was curious enough to
+  return on the 8th of August, and having found the cure
+  as thorough and marvellous as it had seemed to him at
+  the time, declared under his hand that 'he was obliged
+  to confess that God alone had the power to produce an
+  effect so sudden and extraordinary.'"[51]
+
+Mackay gives the following account of the distribution of relics about
+the middle of the nineteenth century: "Europe still swarms with these
+religious relics. There is hardly a Roman Catholic Church in Spain,
+Portugal, France, or Belgium, without one or more of them. Even the
+poorly endowed churches of the villages boast the possession of
+miraculous thighbones of the innumerable saints of the Romish
+calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable _châsse_, or
+thighbone of Charlemagne, which cures lameness. Halle has a thighbone
+of the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be undoubted
+relics. Brussels at one time preserved, and perhaps does now, the
+teeth of St. Gudule. The faithful who suffered from the toothache, had
+only to pray, look at them, and be cured."[52]
+
+The miracles performed at the tomb of the Deacon Paris in the cemetery
+of St. Médard are of comparatively recent occurrence, and well
+attested. For example, we have the case of "la demoiselle Coirin,"
+which, to say the least, is out of the ordinary. "In 1716," says
+Dearmer, "this lady, then aged thirty-one, fell from her horse;
+paralysis and an ulcer followed; by 1719 the ulcer was in a horrible
+condition; in 1720 her mother refused an operation preferring to let
+her die in peace. In 1731--after fifteen years of an open breast--she
+asked a woman to say a novena at the tomb of François de Paris, to
+touch the tomb with her shift, and to bring back some earth. This was
+done on August 10th; on the 11th she put on the shift and at once felt
+improved; on the 12th she touched the wound with the earth and it at
+once began to heal. By the end of August the skin was completely
+healed up, and on September 24th she went out of doors."[53]
+
+Among the most noted relics at the present time are the Holy Coat of
+Treves,[54] the Winding-sheet of Christ at Besançon, and the Santa
+Scala at Rome. The last are said to be the steps which Jesus ascended
+and descended when he was brought before Pontius Pilate, and are held
+in great veneration. It is sacrilegious to walk upon them; the knees
+of the faithful alone must touch them, and that only after they have
+reverently kissed them. Cures are still performed by all these relics.
+
+The two shrines at present best known and which have proved most
+efficacious are those of Lourdes in France[55] and St. Anne de Beaupré
+in the province of Quebec. Lourdes owes its reputed healing power to a
+belief in a vision of the Virgin received there during the last
+century. Over 300,000 persons visit there every year, and no small
+proportion of them return with health restored as a reward for their
+faith. At Lourdes and many other shrines bathing forms a part of the
+ceremony, and on account of the unsanitary conditions in the former
+place, there is some danger that the French Government will cause its
+abandonment. Charcot, who established the Salpétrière hospital where
+hypnotism was so successfully used, sent fifty or sixty patients to
+Lourdes every year. He was firmly convinced of the healing power of
+faith. One commendable feature of the management at Lourdes is the
+opportunity given for investigation; in fact, this is courted. Most of
+the sick bring medical details of their diseases; an examining
+committee of medical men examine them after they arrive there and
+after the cure. About two hundred and fifty doctors visit there every
+year, and the widest opportunity is given to them for examination of
+the cases, regardless of their nationality or religious belief or
+scepticism. This attitude might well be assumed by these in control of
+other shrines or of healing cults.
+
+In America thousands flock to the shrine of St. Anne de Beaupré
+annually. Here are to be found bones, supposed to be the wrist bones
+of the holy mother of the Virgin, and many sufferers are able to
+testify to their value in the healing of various diseases.
+
+On all parts of the Continent there are shrines of more or less renown
+as healing centres. In Normandy the springs of Fécamp or Grand-Andely
+are much frequented; in Austria, at Mariazell, Styria, the church is
+visited by two hundred thousand pilgrims a year, and has been a centre
+of healing since 1157; in Italy, the church of S. Maria dell' Arco,
+near Naples, has been a local Lourdes for four hundred years, and
+here, as at Amalfi, Palermo, and other places, the ancient practice of
+incubation is still prevalent. The adherents of the Eastern Church
+also have their shrines, and among the visitors to the shrines of
+Greece, many pilgrims are rewarded for their faith by being healed.
+
+It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in all
+countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any person who had
+been much spoken of, if for nothing more than for his crimes.[56]
+Snuff-boxes made from Shakespeare's mulberry-tree, twigs from
+Napoleon's willow, or bullets from the field of Waterloo have all been
+much sought after. Souvenirs of everything and anything are still much
+in demand. It is within the last decade that a foreign war-ship
+anchored in New York harbor, and after the officers courteously opened
+the ship for the inspection of visitors they found that even their
+silver toilet articles and plate had been carried away by the relic
+maniacs. A United States admiral, rather more facetiously than
+patriotically, remarked that "the American people of to-day would
+steal anything but a cellarful of water." I suppose the remark, so far
+as it applies to the relic-crazed crowd, would be as applicable to any
+other people of any other time.
+
+We have a right to ask, in closing this chapter, how it was possible
+for men to believe in the power of relics to cure diseases. The
+practice seems to have developed from the reasoning that the saints
+who helped men while in the imperfections of the flesh, could be of
+even more benefit when they were with God in the perfections of the
+spiritual life. St. Augustine (426), for example, speaks of comparing
+the wonders performed by pagan "deities with our dead men," and that
+the miracles wrought by idols "are in no way comparable to the
+wonders wrought by our martyrs." Some might agree with this, and yet
+find no warrant for using relics. There was, however, the remembrance
+of the dead man who was restored to life by contact with the bones of
+Elisha, and of the handkerchiefs and aprons which touched Paul's body
+and were thereby filled with healing efficacy. Even to-day we do not
+fail to recognize the value of the association of places and objects,
+and one finds it difficult to enter Westminster Abbey, for instance,
+without feeling a thrill on account of the sacred clay reposing there.
+When we remember the beginning of the use of relics in the catacombs
+we can better understand the development of the practice.
+
+[21] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 201.
+
+[22] _Ibid._, pp. 142 and 156.
+
+[23] G. P. Fisher, _History of the Christian Church_, p. 117.
+
+[24] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I, pp. 378 f.
+
+[25] _Ibid._, I, p. 379.
+
+[26] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 268 f.
+
+[27] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, p. 133.
+
+[28] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, pp. 303 f.
+
+[29] J. W. Draper, _History of the Conflict Between Religion and
+Science_, p. 270.
+
+[30] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, pp. 132 f.
+
+[31] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, ed. J. A. Giles, bk. IV, chap.
+XXXI.
+
+[32] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 55-57.
+
+[33] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+pp. 224 f., 273-277, 457.
+
+[34] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_,
+II, pp. 40 f.
+
+[35] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 273.
+
+[36] E. Salverte, _The Philosophy of Magic_ (trans. Thompson), II, p.
+93.
+
+[37] _Tour of Wales_, I, p. 405.
+
+[38] Hasted, _Kent_, III, p. 176.
+
+[39] _History of His Life and Times_, p. 32.
+
+[40] _Statistical Account of Scotland_, VII, p. 213, and XII, p. 464.
+
+[41] _Ibid._, XVIII, p. 487.
+
+[42] C. S. Macaulay, _History of St. Kilda_, p. 95.
+
+[43] _Somersetshire_, III, p. 104.
+
+[44] I am much indebted to J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, pp. 1-17,
+for some of the quotations used in the discussion of this subject.
+
+[45] _Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and Surgery_, pp.
+57-61.
+
+[46] I am indebted to P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 278-281,
+314-318, for the material on incubation. For fuller study, see L.
+Deubner, _De Incubatione_, and M. Hamilton, _Incubation_.
+
+[47] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 227.
+
+[48] _Ibid._, pp. 210-214, 226 f., 278.
+
+[49] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_,
+II, p. 30.
+
+[50] _Ibid._, II, pp. 21, 29, 43.
+
+[51] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 374 f.
+
+[52] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, p. 304.
+
+[53] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 105 f.
+
+[54] R. F. Clarke, _The Holy Coat of Treves_.
+
+[55] A. T. Myers and F. W. H. Myers, "Mind Cure, Faith Cure, and the
+Miracles at Lourdes," _Proceedings Society Psychical Research_, IX,
+pp. 160-409; E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at Lourdes,"
+_Nineteenth Century_, October, 1895; J. B. Estrade, _Les apparitions
+de Lourdes, Souvenirs intimes d'un témoin_; H. Bernheim, _Suggestive
+Therapeutics_, pp. 200-202; A. Imbert-Gourbyzee, _La Stigmatisation,
+l'extase divine, et les miracles de Lourdes_, II, chaps. XXI and
+XXVII; E. Zola, _Lourdes_.
+
+[56] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, p. 306.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HEALERS
+
+
+         "This is an art
+  Which doth mend nature--but
+  The art itself is nature."--_Winter's Tale._
+
+  "Some are molested by Phantasie; so some, again, by
+  Fancy alone and a good conceit, are as easily
+  recovered.... All the world knows there is no virtue in
+  charms, &c., but a strong conceit and opinion alone, as
+  Pomponatius holds, which forceth a motion of the
+  humours, spirits, and blood, which takes away the cause
+  of the malady from the parts affected. The like we may
+  say of the magical effects, superstitious cures, and
+  such as are done by montebanks and wizards. As by wicked
+  incredulity many are hurt (so saith Wierus), we find, in
+  our experience, by the same means, many are relieved."
+
+In discussing the subject of healers one must keep in mind the fact
+that the healers of the first millennium of our era were almost wholly
+exorcists, on account of the prevailing theory, and even after that
+time exorcism, on the one hand, and the faith in relics and shrines on
+the other, formed the principal means of cure. It is therefore
+difficult to differentiate the other healers from the exorcists, and
+to decide whether certain cures were performed by healers or by
+relics.
+
+Another difficulty confronts us. Many authentic cures have probably
+been wrought by saints, but unfortunately most of those performed by
+them have little contemporary evidence to support them, but rest on
+the very shaky testimony of tradition. White,[57] in a keen analysis,
+shows how the legends of miraculous cures have grown around great
+benefactors of humanity, taking Francis Xavier as a pertinent example.
+
+We must also remember, however, that what are called miracles formed
+part of the evidence which led to the canonization of a saint, and a
+large number of healing miracles was usually included in the list. The
+procedure of the court connected with the canonization was conducted
+with the greatest rigor. Sitting as examiners were learned and upright
+men from all nations, and the witness must be irreproachable as far as
+character was concerned. The two witnesses required for each miracle
+must testify concerning the nature of the disease and the cure, and
+sign the deposition after it had been read to them. Following that,
+the examiners sifted the evidence in a hypercritical way and
+emphasized the weak places. Benedict XIV justly said: "The degree of
+proof required is the same as that required for a criminal case, since
+the cause of religion and piety is that of the commonweal." Some
+consideration must be thus given to this testimony, but the value of
+it depends on the number of years elapsing after the cures were
+performed and the direct connection of the witnesses with the cure in
+question.
+
+The craving for the miraculous in bodily cures prejudiced many
+historians, especially when the desire to emphasize the importance of
+the church was uppermost in the minds of the writers. We can consider,
+though, the material at hand, always recognizing that marvellous cures
+can be performed when the authority of the physician has all the
+weight of an infallible church behind it and the patient is credulous.
+We must notice in this connection that the healers up to the time of
+the magnetizers depended on religious ceremonies for their efficiency,
+with the exception of those who endorsed and propagated "sympathetic
+cures."
+
+As we well know, the first healing among Christians was done by Jesus
+himself and the apostles; after this for two centuries the exorcists
+performed most of the cures. We have accounts of one non-Christian
+healer whose cures have probably been handed down to us on account of
+his exalted position. Tacitus and Suetonius describe how Vespasian
+(9-79) healed in at least two cases. The first was a blind man well
+known in Alexandria. In the second case the historians disagree; one
+says it was a leg and the other a hand which was diseased and cured.
+According to the story, the god Serapis revealed to the patients that
+they would be cured by the emperor. Tacitus says that Vespasian did
+not believe in his own power and it was only after much persuasion
+that he was induced to try the experiment.[58]
+
+The Christians, however, were not to be outdone as healers. Irenæus
+(130-202) gives a long list of infirmities which were cured by the
+representatives of the church, and in writing, about the year 180,
+draws a comparison between them and the heretics. "For they [the
+heretics] can neither confer sight on the blind nor hearing on the
+deaf, nor chase away all sorts of demons (except those which are sent
+into others by themselves--if they can ever do as much as this): nor
+can they cure the weak, or the lame, or the paralytic; or those who
+are distressed in any other part of the body, as has often been done
+in regard to bodily infirmity. Nor can they furnish effective remedies
+for those external accidents which may occur. And so far are they from
+being able to raise the dead, as the Lord raised them (and the
+Apostles did by means of prayer, as has been frequently done in the
+brotherhood on account of some necessity--the entire church in that
+particular locality entreating with much fasting and prayer, the
+spirit of the dead man has returned, and he has been bestowed in
+answer to the prayers of the saints--) that they do not even believe
+that this could possibly be done." He further says: "Others again heal
+the sick by laying their hands upon them, and they are made whole.
+Yea, moreover, as I have said, the dead even have been raised up, and
+remained among us for many years."
+
+The great Origen (185-254), writing when he would be certain to have
+his words most severely criticised, says, after referring to the
+miracles of the apostles: "And there are still preserved among
+Christians traces of that Holy Spirit which appeared in the form of a
+dove. They expel evil spirits, and perform many cures, and foresee
+certain events, according to the will of the Logos." In another of his
+works we find the following: "For they [the Jews] have no longer
+prophets or miracles, traces of which to a considerable extent are
+still found among Christians, and some of them more remarkable than
+ever have existed among the Jews; and these we ourselves have
+witnessed."
+
+As has already been seen, different methods were used by various
+healers, and we must not omit a brief account of healing by unction.
+The very definite instructions laid down in the Epistle of James were
+evidently strictly carried out in the early church, but the first
+definite mention of anointing after that made by Mark and James is
+found in the writings of Tertullian (160-220). He speaks of the pagan
+emperor Severus being graciously mindful of Christians: "For he sought
+out the Christian Proculus, surnamed Torpacion, the steward of
+Euhodias, and in gratitude for his having once cured him by
+anointing, he kept him in his palace till the day of his death."[59]
+
+If the Christians anointed pagans it is legitimate to suppose that
+they also anointed fellow-Christians, and that if this was performed
+without special mention about the end of the second century, it must
+have been common from the time of James to that period. It is probable
+that during the first seven centuries of our era the practice of
+praying with the sick and anointing them with oil never ceased. There
+may be some objection to our considering the subject of anointing with
+oil as purely mental healing, but according to the instructions given
+for its use there was scarcely enough oil employed to be of benefit
+otherwise, and especially as food. Mental healing, then, is the
+rationale of the cures.
+
+Puller[60] gives us three of the earliest incidents of healing by
+unction, the original accounts all being written by contemporaries and
+friends. Some time between the years 335 and 355, St. Parthenius,
+Bishop of Lampsacus, anointed a man who was described as "altogether
+withered." The account says: "Then getting up, he gently and gradually
+softened the man's body with the holy oil, and straightway made him to
+rise up healed." Refinus, a well-known writer and an eye-witness to
+this healing, tells of St. Macarius of Alexandria and four monks
+restoring, about the year 375, "a man, withered in all his limbs and
+especially in his feet." He says: "But when he had been anointed all
+over by them with oil in the Name of the Lord, immediately the soles
+of his feet were strengthened. And when they said to him, 'In the name
+of Jesus Christ ... arise, and stand on thy feet, and return to thy
+house,' immediately arising and leaping, he blessed God." Some years
+later, Palladius, the friend of St. Chrysostom, writes of another of
+St. Macarius's cures which he witnessed: "But at the time that we were
+there, there was brought to him from Thessalonica a noble and wealthy
+virgin, who during many years had been suffering from paralysis. And
+when she had been presented to him, and had been thrown down before
+the cell of the blessed man, he, being moved with compassion for her,
+with his own hands anointed her during twenty days with holy oil,
+pouring out prayers for her to the Lord, and so sent her back cured to
+her own city."
+
+The Sacramentary of Serapion, Bishop of Thmuis, Egypt, written about
+350, provides for the consecration of bread and water, as well as oil,
+for healing; and in a prayer concerning oil and water there contained,
+the following words are used: "Grant healing power upon these
+creatures, that every fever and every demon and every sickness may
+depart through the drinking and the anointing, and that the partaking
+of these creatures may be a healing medicine and a medicine of
+complete soundness in the Name of the Only begotten, Jesus Christ,"
+etc. The Apostolic Constitutions of about 375 contain a prayer of
+consecration used over oil and water brought by members of the
+congregation, as follows: "Do thou now sanctify this water and this
+oil, through Christ, in the name of him that offered or of her that
+offered, and give to these things a power of producing health and of
+driving away diseases, of putting to flight demons, of dispersing
+every snare through Christ our Hope," etc.
+
+About 390, St. Jerome wrote a life of St. Hilarion (291-371) in which
+the latter is thus set forth as a healer: "But lo! that parched and
+sandy district, after the rain had fallen, unexpectedly produced such
+vast numbers of serpents and poisonous animals that many, who were
+bitten, would have died at once if they had not run to Hilarion. He
+therefore blessed some oil, with which all the husbandmen and
+shepherds touched their wounds and found an infallible cure."
+
+Oil was not always employed for anointing, but might be drunk by the
+sick, and this use of it was made in healing a girl, by St. Martin of
+Tours, about 395. St. Germain, Bishop of Auxerre (418-448), when the
+physicians were powerless during a plague, blessed some oil and
+anointed the swollen jaws of those who were sick, whereupon they
+recovered; and St. Genevieve of Paris, who died about 502, used to
+heal the sick with oil.
+
+In Bede's biography of St. Cuthbert we find an instance of this saint
+healing a girl about the year 687. A young woman was troubled for a
+whole year with an intolerable pain in her head and side which the
+physicians were unable to relieve. Cuthbert "in pity anointed the
+wretched woman with oil. From that time she began to get better, and
+was well in a few days."
+
+At the beginning of the eighth century the anointing of the sick began
+to decline, largely on account of the changed attitude of the church.
+At this time this ceremony began to be used for spiritual ills rather
+than for bodily diseases. Before long, anointing was monopolized by
+the church for spiritual advantage, and is still so used by the Roman
+Catholic Church in the ceremony of Extreme Unction.
+
+In returning to the more direct methods of healing, we find that St.
+Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) confirmed the reports of the marvellous
+cures wrought by the martyrs, Cosmo and Damian, who were beheaded in
+303. During the life of Gregory of Tours (538-594), the healing
+efficacy of the saints' relics was rivalled by the miraculous aid
+rendered to the sick by St. Julian. The solitude of the holy anchorite
+was interrupted by the persistent and despairing clamor of the sick to
+whom he gave health. The great Turonese pontiff also tells us that
+one day Aredius, traversing Paris, found Chilperic prostrate with a
+grievous fever. The royal sufferer sought the saint's prayers as an
+irresistible curative.
+
+The daughter of a Teutonic nobleman was brought to St. Gall (556-640)
+seriously ill with an incurable disorder, presenting the livid
+appearance of an animated cadaver. The saint approached the
+unconscious invalid as she reclined on her mother's knee, and assuming
+the bended attitude of invocation by her side, made a fervent prayer
+and evoked the demon producing the sickness to instantly depart. The
+effort was all that was desired. Shortly after this, about the year
+648, St. Vardrille, the founder of Fontanelle, exercised his remedial
+potency in healing the palsied arm of a forester whose indiscreet zeal
+had induced him to transfix the sainted abbot with a lance.
+
+We have rather a strange case from the beginning of the seventh
+century, where the moral and mental element seems to have been strong.
+Abbe Eustasius returning from Rome, whither a mission of Clothair II
+had called him, was urgently summoned by the sorrowful parent of a
+Burgundian maiden, in the last agonies of a frightful malady, to
+appear and cure the moribund daughter. On answering the call he found
+that the child had in her youth been consecrated by the vows of
+chastity, and on account of this shrunk from a marriage sanctioned by
+her parents. Eustasius reproached the father for his efforts to
+violate the solemn obligations of the virgin, and upon obtaining a
+formal renunciation of further attempts to coerce her into matrimony,
+the saint, by personal intercession, obtained a complete cure.
+
+It was found that certain remedies in the hands of certain saints were
+efficacious, but they did not have the same power if administered by
+others. For instance, Franciscus de Paula succored an anchylosed joint
+by the energetic surgery of three dried figs which he gave the
+suffering patient to eat. Similarly, a maiden grieving under a
+cancerous disease which surgical skill had frankly admitted was
+incurable, was restored to robust vigor by the administering of some
+mild herbs. This savored rather too much of medicine, and other holy
+healers used more orthodox means. Hugo the Holy abstracted a serpent
+from the infirm body of a woman by the use of holy water, and Coleta,
+the saintess, awakened from the dreamless slumber of death more than
+one hundred slain infants by the efficacy of a cross.
+
+Even such a serious disorder as leprosy was said to have been healed
+by saintly care. St. Martin, who gave special attention to sufferers
+with this disease, cured a leper by kissing him, we are told. Toward
+the middle of the sixth century, St. Radegonde displayed her faith by
+first washing the repulsive sores and afterward applying her pure lips
+to them. On one occasion an insolent leper asserted that unless his
+putrefying limbs were kissed by this candidate for canonical honors he
+could not be cured.[61]
+
+Bede (673-735), the great English historian, in his careful way tells
+us of cures performed by St. John of Beverly during the first part of
+the eighth century. According to this record, St. John cured a dumb
+youth, who had never spoken a word, by the sign of the cross on his
+tongue, and he afterward had "ready utterance." He used holy water on
+a woman so that, like Peter's wife's mother, she arose and ministered
+to them, healed a friend who was injured by being thrown from a horse,
+cured a nun of a grievous complaint, and restored a servant, an
+account of which I shall give in Bede's words:
+
+  "The bishop went in and saw him in a dying condition,
+  and the coffin by his side, whilst all present were in
+  tears. He said a prayer, blessed him, and on going out,
+  as is the usual expression of comforters, said, 'May you
+  soon recover.' Afterwards when they were sitting at
+  table, the lad sent to his lord, to desire he would let
+  him have a cup of wine, because he was thirsty. The
+  earl, rejoicing that he could drink, sent him a cup of
+  wine, blessed by the bishop; which, as soon as he had
+  drunk, he immediately got up, and shaking off his late
+  infirmity, dressed himself, and going in to the bishop,
+  saluted him and the other guests, saying, 'He would also
+  eat and be merry with them.' They ordered him to sit
+  down with them at the entertainment, rejoicing at his
+  recovery. He sat down, ate and drank merrily, and
+  behaved himself like the rest of the company; and living
+  many years after, continued in the same state of
+  health."[62]
+
+Skipping a few centuries, we find that Bernard of Clairvaux
+(1091-1153), the most prominent figure of the twelfth century,
+performed an abundance of cures, as his biographers testify. "The
+cures were so many that the witnesses themselves were unable to detail
+them all. At Doningen, near Rheinfeld, where the first Sunday of
+Advent was spent, Bernard cured, in one day, nine blind persons, ten
+who were deaf or dumb, and eighteen lame or paralytic. On the
+following Wednesday, at Schaffhausen, the number of miracles
+increased."[63] Concerning these cures Morison says: "Thirty-six
+miraculous cures in one day would seem to have been the largest
+stretch of supernatural power which Bernard permitted to himself. The
+halt, the blind, the deaf, and the dumb were brought from all parts to
+be touched by Bernard. The patient was presented to him, whereupon he
+made the sign of the cross over the part affected, and the cure was
+perfect."[64]
+
+The following case in which details are more fully given is of much
+interest: "At Toulouse, in the church of St. Saturninus, in which we
+were lodged, was a certain regular canon, named John. John had kept
+his bed for seven months, and was so reduced that his death was
+expected daily. His legs were so shrunken that they were scarcely
+larger than a child's arms. He was quite unable to rise to satisfy the
+wants of nature. At last his brother canons refused to tolerate his
+presence any longer among them, and thrust him out into the
+neighbouring village. When the poor creature heard of Bernard's
+proximity, he implored to be taken to him. Six men, therefore,
+carrying him as he lay in bed, brought him into a room close to that
+in which he was lodged. The abbot heard him confess his sins, and
+listened to his entreaties to be restored to health. Bernard mentally
+prayed to God: 'Behold, O Lord, they seek for a sign, and our words
+avail nothing, unless they be confirmed with signs following.' He then
+blessed him and left the chamber, and so did we all. In that very hour
+the sick man arose from his couch, and running after Bernard, kissed
+his feet with a devotion which cannot be imagined by any one who did
+not see it. One of the canons, meeting him, nearly fainted with
+fright, thinking he saw his ghost."
+
+St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), the great founder of the Franciscan
+Order, was not less famed for his miracles of healing than for his
+Christ-like life and his stigmata. Among those cured were epileptics,
+paralytics, and the blind. A typical case of cure by this humble saint
+is given to show his method and its results: "Once when Francis the
+Saint of God was making a long circuit through various regions to
+preach the gospel of God's kingdom he came to a city called
+Toscanella. Here ... he was entertained by a knight of that same city
+whose only son was a cripple and weak in all his body. Though the
+child was of tender years he had passed the age of weaning; but he
+still remained in a cradle. The boy's father, seeing the man of God to
+be endued with such holiness, humbly fell at his feet and besought him
+to heal his son. Francis, deeming himself to be unprofitable and
+unworthy of such power and grace, for a long time refused to do it. At
+last, conquered by the urgency of the knight's entreaties, after
+offering up prayer, he laid his hand on the boy, blessed him, and
+lifted him up. And in the sight of all, the boy straightway arose
+whole in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, and began to walk hither
+and thither about the house."[65]
+
+St. Thomas of Hereford (1222-1282) was the last Englishman to be
+officially canonized. The extant documents of his canonization record
+no less than four hundred and twenty-nine miracles alleged to have
+been performed by him. The following case of resurrection from the
+dead occurred, however, twenty-one years after his death. I quote the
+account in full:
+
+  "On the 6th of September, 1303, Roger, aged two years
+  and three months, the son of Gervase, one of the warders
+  of Conway Castle, managed to crawl out of bed in the
+  night and tumble off a bridge, a distance of
+  twenty-eight feet; he was not discovered till the next
+  morning, when his mother found him half naked and quite
+  dead upon a hard stone at the bottom of the ditch, where
+  there was no water or earth, but simply the rock, which
+  had been quarried to build the castle. Simon Waterford,
+  the vicar, who had christened the child, John de Bois,
+  John Guffe, all sworn witnesses, took their oaths on the
+  Gospel that they saw and handled the child dead. The
+  King's Crowners (Stephen Ganny and William Nottingham)
+  were presently called and went down into the moat. They
+  found the child's body cold and stiff, and white with
+  hoar-frost, stark dead, indeed. While the Crowners, as
+  their office requires, began to write what they had
+  seen, one John Syward, a near neighbour, came down and
+  gently handled the child's body all over, and finding it
+  as dead as ever any, made the sign of the cross upon its
+  forehead, and earnestly prayed after this manner:
+  'Blessed St. Thomas Cantelope, you by whom God has
+  wrought innumerable miracles, show mercy unto this
+  little infant, and obtain he may return to life again.
+  If this grace be granted he shall visit your holy
+  sepulchre and render humble thanks to God and you for
+  the favor.' No sooner had Syward spoken these words,
+  than the child began to move his head and right arm a
+  little, and forthwith life and vigor came back again
+  into every part of his body. The Crowners, and many
+  others who were standing by, saw the miracle, and in
+  that very place, with great admiration, returned humble
+  thanks to God and St. Thomas for what they had seen. The
+  mother, now overjoyed, took the child in her arms, and
+  went that day to hear mass in a church not far off,
+  where, upon her knees, she recognized with a grateful
+  heart that she owed the life of her infant to God and
+  St. Thomas. Her devotion ended, she returned home, and
+  the child, feeling no pain at all, walked as he was wont
+  to do up and down the house, though a little scar still
+  continued in one cheek, which after a few days, quite
+  vanished away."[66]
+
+St. Catharine of Siena (1347-1380) obtained considerable reputation as
+a healer, principally, however, in the line of exorcism; this, though,
+meant the cure of any disease. Like St. Paul, she was one of a large
+number of saints who healed others but did not cure herself; she died
+at the age of thirty-three. A woman was presented to the immaculate
+saintess for prompt remedy; by the virtue of divine magic a demon was
+forced from each part of her body where he had taken refuge, but
+resisting absolute ejectment from this carnal abode, made a desperate
+conflict in the throat, where by uninterrupted scratches he reproduced
+himself in the form of an abscess.
+
+On another occasion the saint was more successful. Laurentia, a maiden
+of youthful years, placed by her father within the sheltering walls of
+a cloister, to assume ultimately monastic vows, was quickly captured
+by an errant demon. As an irrefutable demonstration of the impure
+origin of her infirmity, an annalist asserts, this spirit promptly
+answered in elegant Latinity all questions propounded; but the
+strongest confirmation of this belief was the miraculous ability which
+enabled her to disclose the most secret thoughts of others, and
+divulge the mysterious affairs of her associates. St. Catharine at
+length liberated the suffering female from her diabolical tenant. More
+extraordinary claims are made for her. It is said that she stayed a
+plague at Varazze, and healed a throng at Pisa.[67]
+
+Raimondo da Capua, her faithful friend and constant companion, wrote
+her biography and gives us different instances of remarkable cures
+performed by her. For example, he tells us that Father Matthew of
+Cenni, the director of the Hospital of la Misericordia, was stricken
+when the plague was raging in Siena in 1373, and of his marvellous
+cure.
+
+Perhaps we had better allow him to tell of Catharine's power in his
+own words:
+
+  "One day on entering, I saw some of the brothers carrying Father
+  Matthew like a corpse from the chapel to his room; his face was
+  livid, and his strength was so far gone that he could not answer me
+  when I spoke to him. 'Last night,' the brothers said, 'about seven
+  o'clock, while ministering to a dying person, he perceived himself
+  stricken, and fell at once into extreme weakness.' I helped to put
+  him on his bed; ... he spoke afterwards, and said that he felt as if
+  his head was separated into four parts. I sent for Dr. Senso, his
+  physician; Dr. Senso declared to me that my friend had the plague,
+  and  that every symptom announced the approach of death. 'I fear,'
+  he said, 'that the House of Mercy (Misericordia) is about to be
+  deprived of its good director.' I asked if medical art could not
+  save him. 'We shall see,' replied Senso, 'but I have only a very
+  faint hope; his blood is too much poisoned.' I withdrew, praying God
+  to save the life of this good man. Catharine, however, had heard of
+  the illness of Father Matthew, whom she loved sincerely, and she
+  lost no time in repairing to him. The moment she entered the room,
+  she cried, with a cheerful voice, 'Get up, Father Matthew, get up!
+  This is not a time to be lying idly in bed.' Father Matthew roused
+  himself, sat up on his bed, and finally stood on his feet. Catharine
+  retired; and the moment she was leaving the house, I entered it, and
+  ignorant of what had happened, and believing my friend to be still
+  at the point of death, my grief urged me to say, 'Will you allow a
+  person so dear to us, and so useful to others, to die?' She appeared
+  annoyed at my words, and replied, 'In what terms do you address me?
+  Am I like God, to deliver a man from death?' But I, beside myself
+  with sorrow, pleaded, 'Speak in that way to others if you will, but
+  not to me; for I know your secrets; and I know you obtain from God
+  whatever you ask in faith.' Then Catharine bowed her head, and
+  smiled just a little; after a few minutes she lifted up her head and
+  looked at me full in the face, her countenance radiant with joy, and
+  said, 'Well, let us take courage; he will not die this time,' and
+  she passed on. At these words I banished all fear, for I understood
+  that she had obtained some favor from heaven. I went straight to my
+  sick friend, whom I found sitting on the side of his bed. 'Do you
+  know,' he cried, 'what she has done for me?' He then stood up and
+  narrated joyfully what I have here written. To make the matter more
+  sure, the table was laid, and Father Matthew seated himself at it
+  with us; they served him with vegetables and other light food, and
+  he, who an hour before could not open his mouth, ate with us,
+  chatting and laughing gaily."
+
+None of Catharine's biographers fail to relate wonderful instances of
+her healing power.[68]
+
+Martin Luther (1483-1546), the great leader of the Reformation, and
+St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552), the leader of the Counter-Reformation,
+were both healers, so it is said. Luther's cure of his friend and
+helper, Melanchthon, by prayer for and encouragement of the patient,
+is well known. Xavier's miracles were legion, but have been somewhat
+discredited by a recent author.[69] I add but one example. "A certain
+Tomé Paninguem, a fencing-master, says, I knew Antonio de Miranda, who
+was a servant of the Father Francis, and assisted him when saying
+Mass. He told me that when going one night on business to Combature,
+he was bitten by a venomous serpent. He immediately fell down as
+though paralyzed and became speechless. He was found thus lying
+unconscious. Informed of the fact, Father Francis ordered Antonio to
+be carried to him: and when he was laid down speechless and senseless,
+the Father prayed with all those present. The prayer finished, he put
+a little saliva with his finger on the bitten place on Antonio's foot,
+and at the same moment, Antonio recovered his senses, his memory and
+his speech, and felt himself healed. I have since heard details of
+this occurrence from the mouths of several eye-witnesses."[70]
+
+If we accept Görres's account,[71] the most remarkable instance of
+curative power possessed by a saint is that afforded by St. Sauveur of
+Horta (1520-1567). Outside of this one work I have been unable to find
+any reference to this saint, so I will give a sketch of his apparently
+remarkable life. He was born in Catalonia, and received the first part
+of his name from a presentiment of his sponsors that he was to be a
+savior of men, and the second part because he entered the monastery at
+Horta. A short time after he finished his novitiate, people in some
+way got the idea that he had a wonderful gift of healing, and soon
+patients came to him in crowds from all parts of the country. He
+continued healing for several years. At one time during the feast of
+the Annunciation he cured six thousand persons, and at another time he
+found ten thousand patients, from viceroy to laborer, waiting for him
+at Valencia before the convent of St. Marie de Jesus. Notwithstanding
+his apparently great success, his brother monks complained to the
+bishop concerning the dirt and disorder caused by the crowds, and
+after a reprimand he was sent at midnight to the monastery at Reus,
+where he was known as Alphonse and assigned to the kitchen. In spite
+of this, crowds continued to come and he was transferred from
+monastery to monastery, but always with the same result--the crowd
+sought him to be healed. He was known as simple, open, and obedient in
+his relations with men, and austere toward himself. He was patient and
+resigned, compassionate toward the poor and sick, and full of zeal for
+their conversion. The number of patients he is said to have cured is
+incredible, and it is even said that he resuscitated three dead
+persons. After his death miracles were performed at his tomb. Why he
+was not in favor with his superiors and his brother monks is unknown;
+his friends say they were jealous; his enemies, that his cures were
+not genuine.
+
+St. Philip Neri (1551-1595), the founder of the Oratorians, was
+renowned as a healer. He cured Clement VIII of gout by touching and
+prayer, a woman of cancer of the breast by the mere touch and
+assurance, a man of grievous symptoms such as loss of speech and
+internal pain by simply laying on of hands, and many similar and
+equally serious cases. The following case was counted nearly equal to
+a resurrection: "In 1560 Pietro Vittrici of Parma, being in the
+service of Cardinal Boncompagni, afterward Pope Gregory XIII, fell
+dangerously ill. He was given up by the physicians, and was supposed
+to be as good as dead. In this extremity he was visited by Philip who,
+as soon as he entered the sick man's room, began, as was his wont, to
+pray for him. He then put his hand on Pietro's forehead, and at the
+touch he instantly revived. In two days' time he was out of the house
+perfectly well and strong and went about telling people how he had
+been cured by Father Philip."[72]
+
+George Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the Quakers, performed some
+simple cures of which he himself tells us. The most famous case was
+that of the cure of a lame arm by command, the account of which we
+take from his pen. He thus records it: "After some time I went to the
+meeting at Arnside where Richard Meyer was. Now he had been long lame
+of one of his arms; and I was moved by the Lord to say unto him, among
+all the people, 'Prophet Meyer stand up upon thy legs' (for he was
+sitting down) and he stood up and stretched out his arm that had been
+lame a long time, and said: 'Be it known unto all you people that this
+day I am healed.' But his parents could hardly believe it, but after
+the meeting was done, had him aside and took off his doublet; and then
+they saw it was true. He soon after came to Swarthmore meeting, and
+there declared how the Lord had healed him. But after this the Lord
+commanded him to go to York with a message from him; and he disobeyed
+the Lord; and the Lord struck him again, so that he died about
+three-quarters of a year after."[73] The cure evidently was not
+permanent.
+
+Valentine Greatrakes (1628-1683) was born in Affane, Ireland. He was
+the son of an Irish gentleman, had a good education, and was a
+Protestant. In 1641, at the outbreak of the Irish rebellion, he fled
+to England, and from 1649-1656 he served under Cromwell. In 1661,
+after a period of melancholy derangement, he believed that God had
+given him power of curing "king's evil" by touching or stroking and
+prayer. After some success with this disease, he added to his list
+ague, epilepsy, convulsions, paralysis, deafness, ulcers, aches, and
+lameness, and for a number of years he devoted three days in every
+week, from 6 A. M. to 6 P. M., to the exercise of his healing gifts.
+The crowds which thronged around him were so great that the
+neighboring towns were not able to accommodate them. He thereupon left
+his house in the country and went to Youghal, where sick people, not
+only from all parts of Ireland but from England, continued to
+congregate in such great numbers that the magistrates were afraid they
+would infect the place with their diseases.
+
+In some instances he exorcised demons; in fact, he claimed that all
+diseases were caused by evil spirits, and every infirmity was, with
+him, a case of diabolic possession. The church endeavored to prohibit
+his operations but without avail. He was invited to London, and,
+notwithstanding that an exhibition before the nobility failed,
+thousands flocked to his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields. In the
+"Miscellanies" of St. Evremond a graphic sketch is given of his work.
+The results of his healing are there summed up as follows:
+
+  "So great was the confidence in him, that the blind
+  fancied they saw the light which they did not see--the
+  deaf imagined that they heard--the lame that they
+  walked straight, and the paralytic that they had
+  recovered the use of their limbs. An idea of health
+  made the sick forget for a while their maladies; and
+  imagination, which was not less active in those merely
+  drawn by curiosity than in the sick, gave a false view
+  to the one class, from the desire of seeing, as it
+  operated a false cure on the other from the strong
+  desire of being healed. Such was the power of the
+  Irishman over the mind, and such was the influence of
+  the mind over the body. Nothing was spoken of in London
+  but his prodigies; and these prodigies were supported
+  by such great authorities that the bewildered multitude
+  believed them almost without examination, while more
+  enlightened people did not dare to reject them from
+  their own knowledge."
+
+That there were real cures, however, seems most probable. The Bishop
+of Dromore testifies thus from his own observation: "I have seen pains
+strangely fly before his hands till he had chased them out of the
+body; dimness cleared, and deafness cured by his touch. Twenty persons
+at several times, in fits of the falling sickness, were in two or
+three minutes brought to themselves.... Running sores of the 'King's
+evil' were dried up; grievous sores of many months' date in a few days
+healed, cancerous knots dissolved, etc." [74]
+
+The celebrated Flamstead, the astronomer, when a lad of nineteen,
+went into Ireland to be touched by Greatrakes, and he testifies that
+he was an eyewitness of several cures, although he himself was not
+benefited. In a letter to Lord Conway, Greatrakes says: "The King's
+doctors, this day (for the confirmation of their majesties' belief),
+sent three out of the hospital to me, who came on crutches; but,
+blessed be God! they all went home well, to the admiration of all
+people, as well as the doctors."[75]
+
+Several pamphlets were issued by medical men and others criticising
+his work, and in 1666 he published a vindication of himself entitled
+"A Brief Account." This contained numerous testimonials by Bishop
+Wilkins, Bishop Patrick, Dr. Cudworth, Dr. Whichcote, and others of
+distinction and intelligence. After the retirement of Greatrakes, John
+Leverett, a gardener, succeeded to the "manual exercise," and declared
+that after touching thirty or forty a day, he felt so much goodness go
+out of him that he was fatigued as if he had been digging eight roods
+of ground.
+
+About the same time that Greatrakes was working among the people of
+London, an Italian enthusiast, named Francisco Bagnone, was operating
+in Italy with equal success. He had only to touch the sick with his
+hands, or sometimes with a relic, to accomplish cures which astonished
+the people.
+
+Hardly less famous than Greatrakes was Johann Jacob Gassner
+(1727-1779). He was born at Bratz, near Bludenz, and became Roman
+Catholic priest at Klösterle. He believed that most diseases were
+caused by evil spirits which could be exorcised by conjuration and
+prayer. He began practising and soon attracted attention. In 1774 he
+received a call from the bishop at Ratisbon to Ellwangen, where by the
+mere word of command, "Cesset" (Give over), he cured the lame and
+blind, but especially those who were afflicted with epilepsy and
+convulsions, and who were thereby supposed to be obsessed. His cures
+were not permanent in some cases, and before he died he lost power and
+respect.
+
+
+  [57] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, pp. 5-22.
+
+  [58] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I,
+  pp. 347 f.
+
+  [59] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 252 f. I am
+  indebted to this excellent book for my material on the
+  subject of Unction, as well as for many other quotations
+  in this chapter.
+
+  [60] F. W. Puller, _Anointing of the Sick_, pp. 155-158.
+
+  [61] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, gives this and the other incidents just
+  quoted. See pp. 155, 160, 272, 275, 327.
+
+  [62] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, bk. V, chap. V.
+
+  [63] Quoted by P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, p. 359.
+
+  [64] J. Cotter Morison, _Life and Times of St. Bernard_,
+  pp. 422 and 460, for this and the following incident.
+
+  [65] Thomas of Celano, _Lives of St. Francis of Assisi_
+  (trans. A. G. F. Howell).
+
+  [66] _Dublin Review_, January, 1876, pp. 8-10.
+
+  [67] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 278 f.
+
+  [68] See J. Butler, _Life of St. Catharine of Siena_,
+  for many examples.
+
+  [69] See A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, already referred to.
+
+  [70] Jos. Marie Cros, _St. François de Xavier, Sa vie et
+  ses lettres_, II, p. 392.
+
+  [71] Görres, _La mystique divine naturelle et
+  diabolique_ (trans. Sainte-foi), I, pp. 470-473.
+
+  [72] P. J. Bacci, _Life of St. Philip Neri_ (trans.
+  Antrobus), II, p. 168.
+
+  [73] G. Fox, _Journal_, I, p. 103.
+
+  [74] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, p.
+  188.
+
+  [75] E. Salverte, _The Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 81.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TALISMANS
+
+
+  "He had the ring of Gyges, the talisman of invisibility."
+                                                     --HAMERTON.
+
+  "The quack astrologer offers, for five pieces, to give
+  you home with you a Talisman against Flies; a Sigil to
+  make you fortunate at gaining; and a Spell that shall as
+  certainly preserve you from being rob'd for the future;
+  a sympathetic Powder for violent pains of the
+  Tooth-ache."--_Character of a Quack Astrologer._
+
+  "So far are they distant from the true knowledge of
+  physic which are ignorant of astrology, that they ought
+  not rightly to be called physicians, but deceivers; for
+  it hath been many times experimented and proved that
+  that which many physicians could not cure or remedy with
+  their greatest and strongest medicines, the astronomer
+  hath brought to pass with one simple herb, by observing
+  the moving of the signs."--FABIAN WITHERS.
+
+In the minds of most persons the terms talisman, amulet, and charm are
+synonymous. This may be more or less true as far as they are used
+to-day, but in the days when these terms meant something in real life
+there was a distinction. The talisman was probably at first an
+astronomical figure, but later the term became more comprehensive.
+Pope portrays this astrological import in his couplet,
+
+  "Of talismans and sigils knew the power,
+   And carefully watch'd the planetary hour."
+
+The amulet was always carried about the person, while the other two
+might be in the possession of the person in the case of the talisman,
+or, in the case of the charm, if a material object it could be placed
+entirely outside of one's care. The talisman and amulet must be a
+compound of some substance, the charm might be a gesture, a look, or a
+spoken word. Notice the example of charms according to Tennyson's
+words,
+
+  "Then, in one moment, she put forth the charm
+   Of woven paces and of waving hands."
+
+They were all used for defensive purposes, _i. e._, to keep away evil,
+in the form of demons, disease, or misfortune, but they might,
+especially the talisman, also attract good. Their power was of a
+magical character, and was exercised in a supernatural manner.
+
+The idea of the talisman probably originated from the belief that
+certain properties or virtues were impressed upon substances by
+planetary influences. "A talisman," says Pettigrew, "may in general
+terms be defined to be a substance composed of certain cabalistic
+characters engraved on stone, metal, or other material, or else
+written on slips of paper." Hyde quotes a Persian writer who defines
+the Telesm or Talismay as "a piece of art compounded of the celestial
+powers and elementary bodies, appropriated to certain figures or
+positions, and purposes and times, contrary to the usual manner."
+
+We are told by Maimonides that images or idols were called Tzelamim on
+account of the power or influence which was supposed to reside in
+them, rather than on account of their particular figure or form.
+Townley has opined that the reason for the production of astrological
+or talismanic images was probably the desire of early peoples to have
+some representation of the planets during their absence from sight, so
+that they might at all times be able to worship the planetary body
+itself or its representative. To accomplish this purpose, the
+astrologers chose certain colors, metals, stones, trees, etc., to
+represent certain planets, and constructed the talismans when the
+planets were in their exaltation and in a happy conjunction with other
+heavenly bodies. In addition to this, incantations were used in an
+endeavor to inspire the talisman with the power and influence of the
+planet for which it stood.
+
+Pettigrew says: "The Hebrew word for talisman (magan) signifies a
+paper or other material, drawn or engraved with the letters composing
+the sacred name Jehovah, or with other characters, and improperly
+applied to astrological representations, because, like the letters
+composing 'The Incomparable Name,' they were supposed to serve as a
+defence against sickness, lightning, and tempest. It was a common
+practice with magicians, whenever a plague or other great calamity
+infested a country, to make a supposed image of the destroyer, either
+in gold, silver, clay, wax, etc., under a certain configuration of the
+heavens, and to set it up in some particular place that the evil might
+be stayed."[76]
+
+The Jewish phylacteries must therefore be considered talismans and not
+amulets. The writings contained in them are portions of the law and
+are prepared in a prescribed manner. Three different kinds are used:
+one for the head, another for the arm, and the third is attached to
+the door-posts. The following is a Hebrew talisman supposed to have
+considerable power: "It overflowed--he did cast darts--Shadai is all
+sufficient--his hand is strong, and is the preserver of my life in all
+its variations."[77]
+
+Arnot gives an account of some Scottish talismans not unlike the
+phylacteries of the Jews, which were for use on the door-posts. "On
+the old houses still existing in Edinburgh," he says, "there are
+remains of talismanic or cabalistical characters, which the
+superstitious of earlier days had caused to be engraven on their
+fronts. These were generally composed of some text of Scripture, of
+the name of God, or, perhaps, of an emblematic representation of the
+resurrection."[78]
+
+The connection of astrology, or, as he calls it, "astronomy," and the
+talisman with medicine is well portrayed by Chaucer in his picture of
+a good physician of his day. He says:
+
+ "With us there was a doctor of phisike;
+  In al the world, was thar non hym lyk
+  To speke of physik and of surgerye,
+  For he wos groundit in astronomie.
+  He kept his pacient a ful gret del
+  In hourys by his magyk naturel;
+  Wel couth he fortunen the ascendent
+  Of his ymagys for his pacient."
+
+Fosbrooke has divided talismans into five classes, examples of some of
+which I have already given. They are: "1. The _astronomical_, with
+celestial signs and intelligible characters. 2. The _magical_, with
+extraordinary figures, superstitious words, and names of unknown
+angels. 3. The _mixed_, of celestial signs and barbarous words, but
+not superstitious, or with names of angels. 4. The _sigilla
+planetarum_, composed of Hebrew numeral letters, used by astrologers
+and fortune-tellers. 5. _Hebrew names and characters_. These were
+formed according to the cabalistic art."
+
+The doctrine of signatures bears a close resemblance to talismans,
+and some believe that talismans have largely grown out of this
+doctrine. Dr. Paris[79] defines the doctrine as the belief that "every
+natural substance which possesses any medical virtues indicates, by an
+obvious and well-marked external character, the disease for which it
+is a remedy or the object for which it should be employed." Southey
+says,[80] "The signatures [were] the books out of which the ancients
+first learned the virtues of herbs--Nature having stamped on divers of
+them legible characters to discover their uses." Some opined that the
+external marks were impressed by planetary influences, hence their
+connection with talismans; others simply reasoned it out that the
+Almighty must have placed a sign on the various means which he had
+provided for curing diseases.
+
+Color and shape were the two principal factors in interpreting the
+signatures. White was regarded as cold and red as hot, hence cold and
+hot qualities were attributed to different medicines of these colors
+respectively. Serious errors in practice resulted from this opinion.
+Red flowers were given for disorders of the sanguiferous system; the
+petals of the red rose, especially, bear the "signature" of the blood,
+and blood-root, on account of its red juice, was much prescribed for
+the blood. Celandine, having yellow juice, the yellow drug, turmeric,
+the roots of rhubarb, the flowers of saffron, and other yellow
+substances were given in jaundice; red flannel, looking like blood,
+cures blood taints, and therefore rheumatism, even to this day,
+although many do not know why _red_ flannel is so efficacious.
+
+Lungwort, whose leaves bear a fancied resemblance to the surface of
+the lungs, was considered good for pulmonary complaints, and
+liverwort, having a leaf like the liver, cured liver diseases.
+Eye-bright was a famous application for eye diseases, because its
+flowers somewhat resemble the pupil of the eye; bugloss, resembling a
+snake's head, was valuable for snake bite; and the peony, when in bud,
+being something like a man's head, was "very available against the
+falling sickness." Walnuts were considered to be the perfect signature
+of the head, the shell represented the bony skull, the irregularities
+of the kernel the convolutions of the two hemispheres of the brain,
+and the husk the scalp. The husk was therefore used for scalp
+wounds, the inner peel for disorders of the meninges, and the
+kernel was beneficial for the brain and tended to resist poisons.
+Lilies-of-the-valley were used for the cure of apoplexy, the signature
+reasoning being, as Coles says, "for as that disease is caused by the
+drooping of humors into the principal ventrices of the brain, so the
+flowers of this lily, hanging on the plants as if they were drops, are
+of wonderful use herein."
+
+Capillary herbs naturally announced themselves as good for diseases
+of the hair, and bear's grease, being taken from an animal thickly
+covered with hair, was recommended for the prevention of baldness.
+Nettle-tea is still a country remedy for nettle rash; prickly plants
+like thistles and holly were prescribed for pleurisy and stitch in
+the side, and the scales of the pine were used in toothache, because
+they resemble front teeth. "Kidney-beans," says Berdoe, "ought to have
+been useful for kidney diseases, but seem to have been overlooked
+except as articles of diet." Poppy-heads were used "with success" to
+relieve diseases of the head, and the root of the "mandrake," from its
+supposed resemblance to the human form, was a very ancient remedy for
+barrenness and was evidently so esteemed by Rachel, in the account
+given in Genesis 30:14 ff.
+
+In the treatment of small-pox red bed coverings were employed in
+order to bring the pustules to the surface of the body. The patient
+must be indued with red; the bed furniture and hangings should be red
+and red substances were to be looked upon by the patient; burnt
+purple, pomegranate seeds, mulberries or other red ingredients were
+dissolved in their drink. John of Gladdesden, physician to Edward II,
+prescribed the following treatment as soon as the eruption appeared:
+"Cause the whole body of your patient to be wrapped in scarlet cloth,
+or any other red cloth, and command everything about the bed to be
+made red." He further says that "when the son of the renowned King of
+England (Edward II) lay sick of the small-pox I took care that
+everything around the bed should be of a red color; which succeeded so
+completely that the Prince was restored to perfect health, without a
+vestige of a pustule remaining."
+
+The Emperor Francis I, when infected with smallpox, was rolled up in a
+scarlet cloth, by order of his physicians, as late as 1765;
+notwithstanding this treatment he died. Kampfer says that "when any of
+the Japanese emperor's children are attacked with the small-pox, not
+only the chamber and bed are covered with red hangings, but all
+persons who approach the sick prince must be clad in scarlet gowns."
+By a course of reasoning similar to that used in the treatment of
+small-pox, it was supposed that flannel dyed nine times in blue was
+efficacious in removing glandular swellings.[81]
+
+The astrological factor in talismans was most important because it
+was considered that certain stars and planets in certain relations
+produced certain diseases and contagious disorders. Astrologers, for
+example, attributed the plague to a conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter
+in Sagittarius, on the tenth of October, or to a conjunction of Saturn
+and Mars in the same constellation, on the twelfth of November. Burton
+makes the most generous melancholy, as that of Augustus, to come from
+the conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in Libra; the bad, as that of
+Catiline, from the meeting of Saturn and the moon in Scorpio. If these
+disorders were produced by planets it was reasonable to suppose that
+they could be cured by planets.
+
+The virtue of herbs depended upon the planet under which they were
+sown or gathered. For example, verbena or vervain should be gathered
+at the rising of the dog-star, when neither the sun nor the moon
+shone, but an expiatory sacrifice of fruit and honey should previously
+have been offered to the earth. If this was carried out it had power
+to render the possessor invulnerable, to cure fevers, to eradicate
+poison, and to conciliate friendship. Notice also, that black
+hellebore, to be effective, was to be plucked not cut, and this with
+the right hand, which was then to be covered with a portion of the
+robe and secretly to be conveyed to the left hand. The person
+gathering it was to be clad in white, to be barefooted, and to offer a
+sacrifice of bread and wine.
+
+Not only the planets and the stars, but the moon has had a potent
+influence on medicine. For instance, mistletoe was to be cut with a
+golden knife, and when the moon was only six days old. Brand[82]
+quotes from _The Husbandman's Practice, or Prognostication Forever_,
+published in 1664, the following curious passage, "Good to purge with
+electuaries, the moon in Cancer; with pills, the moon in Pisces; with
+potions, the moon in Virgo; good to take vomits, the moon being in
+Taurus, Virgo, or the latter part of Sagittarius; to purge the head by
+sneezing, the moon being in Cancer, Leo, or Virgo; to stop fluxes and
+rheumes, the moon being in Taurus, Virgo, or Capricorne; to bathe when
+the moon is in Cancer, Libra, Aquarius, or Pisces; to cut the hair off
+the head or beard when the moon is in Libra, Sagittarius, Aquarius, or
+Pisces."
+
+The Loseley manuscripts provide us with further examples. "Here
+begyneth ye waxingge of ye mone, and declareth in dyvers tymes to let
+blode, whiche be gode. In the furste begynynge of the mone it is
+profetable to yche man to be letten blode; ye ix of the mone, neyther
+be nyght ne by day, it is not good." They also tell of a physician
+named Simon Trippe, who wrote to a patient in excuse for not visiting
+him, as follows: "As for my comming to you upon Wensday next, verely
+my promise be past to and old pacient of mine, a very good
+gentlewoman, one Mrs. Clerk, wch now lieth in great extremity. I
+cannot possibly be with you till Thursday. On Fryday and Saterday the
+signe wilbe in the heart; on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, in the
+stomake; during wch time it wilbe no good dealing with your ordinary
+physicke untill Wensday come sevenight at the nearest, and from that
+time forwards for 15 or 16 days passing good."[83]
+
+Not unlike this is an incident of the year 686, given by Bede, where
+"a holy Bishop having been asked to bless a sick maiden, asked 'when
+she had been bled?' and being told that it was on the fourth day of
+the moon, said: 'You did very indiscreetly and unskilfully to bleed
+her on the fourth day of the moon; for I remember that Archbishop
+Theodore, of blessed memory, said that bleeding at that time was very
+dangerous, when the light of the moon and the tide of the ocean is
+increasing; and what can I do to the girl if she is like to die?'"[84]
+
+"So great, indeed," says Fort, "became the abuse of medical astrology,
+whether by the direct juxtaposition of stellar influence, or through
+apposite images, that a celebrated Church Council at Paris declared
+that images of metal, wax, or other materials fabricated under certain
+constellations or according to fixed characters--figures of peculiar
+form, either baptized, consecrated, or exorcised, or rather desecrated
+by the performance of formal rites at stated periods which it was
+asserted, thus composed, possessed miraculous virtues set forth in
+superstitious writings--were placed under the ban and interdicted as
+errors of faith."[85]
+
+We shall see that magnetism developed from astrology, and some other
+forms of mental healing from magnetism. One of these, sympathetic
+cures, was talismanic in its character, and therefore I give a brief
+account of its method of working, in this place.
+
+Sympathetic cures probably started with Paracelsus, although Von
+Helmont tells us that the secret was first put forth by Ericcius
+Wohyus, of Eburo. As a development from magnetism the former
+originated the "weapon salve" which excited so much attention about
+the middle of the seventeenth century. The following was a receipt
+given by him for the cure of any wound inflicted by a sharp weapon,
+except such as had penetrated the heart, the brain, or the arteries.
+"Take the moss growing on the head of a thief who has been hanged and
+left in the air; of real mummy; of human blood, still warm--of each,
+one ounce; of human suet, two ounces; of linseed oil, turpentine, and
+Armenian bole--of each, two drachms. Mix all well in a mortar, and
+keep the salve in an oblong, narrow urn." With the salve the weapon
+(not the wound), after being dipped in blood from the wound, was to be
+carefully anointed, and then laid by in a cool place. In the meantime,
+the wound was washed with fair, clean water, covered with a clean soft
+linen rag, and opened once a day to cleanse off purulent matter. A
+writer in the _Foreign Quarterly Review_ says there can be no doubt
+about the success of the treatment, "for surgeons at this moment
+follow exactly the same method, _except_ anointing the weapon!"
+
+[Illustration: SIR KENELM DIGBY]
+
+The weapon-salve continued to be much spoken of on the Continent, and
+Dr. Fludd, or A Fluctibus, the Rosicrucian, introduced it into
+England. He tried it with great success in several cases, but in the
+midst of his success an attack was made upon him and his favorite
+remedy, which, however, did little or nothing to diminish the belief
+in its efficacy. One "Parson Foster" wrote a pamphlet entitled
+"Hyplocrisma Spongus; or a Spunge to wipe away the Weapon-salve," in
+which he declared that it was as bad as witchcraft to use or recommend
+such an unguent; that it was invented by the devil, who, at the last
+day, would seize upon every person who had given it the least
+encouragement. "In fact," said Parson Foster, "the Devil himself gave
+it to Paracelsus; Paracelsus to the emperor; the emperor to the
+courtier; the courtier to Baptista Porta; and Baptista Porta to Dr.
+Fludd, a doctor of physic, yet living and practising in the famous
+city of London, who now stands tooth and nail for it." Dr. Fludd, thus
+assailed, took up his pen and defended the unguent in a caustic
+pamphlet.
+
+The salve changed into a powder in the hands of Sir Kenelm Digby, the
+son of Sir Edward Digby who was executed for his participation in the
+Gunpowder Plot. Sir Kenelm was an accomplished scholar and an able
+man, but at the same time a most extravagant defender of the powder of
+sympathy for the healing of wounds. This powder came into sudden and
+public notoriety through an accident to a distinguished person. Mr.
+James Howell, the well-known author of the Dendrologia, in endeavoring
+to part two friends in a duel, received a severe cut on the hand.
+Alarmed by the accident, one of the combatants bound up the cut with
+his garter and conveyed him home. The king sent his own surgeon to
+attend Mr. Howell, but in four or five days the wound was not
+recovering very rapidly and he made application to Sir Kenelm. The
+latter first inquired whether he possessed anything that had the blood
+upon it, upon which Mr. Howell produced the garter with which his hand
+had been bound. A basin of water in which some powder of vitriol had
+been dissolved was procured, and the garter immediately immersed in
+it, whereupon, to quote Sir Kenelm, Mr. Howell said, "I know not what
+ails me, but I find that I feel no more pain. Methinks that a pleasing
+kind of freshness, as it were a wet cold napkin, did spread over my
+hand, which hath taken away the inflammation that tormented me
+before." He was then advised to lay away all plasters and keep the
+wound clean and in a moderate temperature.
+
+To prove conclusively the efficacy of the powder of sympathy, after
+dinner the garter was taken out of the basin and placed to dry before
+the fire. No sooner was this done than Mr. Howell's servant came
+running to Sir Kenelm saying that his master's hand was again
+inflamed, and that it was as bad as before. The garter was again
+placed in the liquid and before the return of the servant all was well
+and easy again. In the course of five or six days the wound was
+cicatrized and a cure performed.
+
+This case excited considerable attention at court, and on inquiry Sir
+Kenelm told the king that he learned the secret from a much-travelled
+Carmelite friar who became possessed of it while journeying in the
+East. Sir Kenelm communicated it to Dr. Mayerne, the king's physician,
+and from him it was known to even the country barbers. Even King
+James, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Buckingham, and many other
+noble personages believed in its efficacy.
+
+It would be a waste of time, had we space, to present fully Sir
+Kenelm's profound and lengthy explanation of the cure. He tried to
+make the cure more reasonable and acceptable by bringing forth certain
+alleged phenomena which he thought proved sympathy, and were therefore
+analogous in character. Surgeon-General Hammond calls attention to the
+fact that these inferences were invariably false. "It is a very
+curious circumstance," says he, "that of these, there is not one which
+is true. Thus he is wrong when he says that if the hand be severely
+burnt, the pain and inflammation are relieved by holding it near a hot
+fire; that a person who has a bad breath is cured by putting his head
+over a privy and inhaling the air which comes from it; that those who
+are bitten by vipers or scorpions are cured by holding the bruised
+head of either of those animals, as the case may be, near the bitten
+part; that in times of great contagion, carrying a toad, or a spider,
+or arsenic or some other venomous substance, about the person is a
+protection; that hanging a toad about the neck of a horse affected
+with farcy dissipates the disease; that water evaporated in a close
+room will not be deposited on the walls, if a vessel of water be
+placed in the room; that venison pies smell strongly at those periods
+in which the 'beasts which are of the same nature and kind are in
+rut'; that wine in the cellar undergoes a fermentation when the vines
+in the field are in flower; that a table-cloth spotted with mulberries
+or red wine is more easily whitened at the season in which the plants
+are flowering than at any other; that washing the hands in the rays of
+moonlight which fall into a polished silver basin (without water) is a
+cure for warts; that a vessel of water put on the hearth of a smoky
+chimney is a remedy for the evil, and so on--not a single fact in all
+that he adduces. Yet these circumstances were regarded as real, and
+were spoken of at the times as irrefragable proofs of the truth of Sir
+Kenelm's views."[86]
+
+We need have no doubt concerning the operation of sympathetic cures,
+for Sir Kenelm has told us of their virtue in his own words.[87] His
+method was what was called the cure by the wet way, but the cure could
+also be effected in a dry way. Straus, in a letter to Sir Kenelm,
+gives an account of a cure performed by Lord Gilbourne, an English
+nobleman, upon a carpenter who had cut himself severely with his axe.
+"The axe, bespattered with blood, was sent for, besmeared with an
+anointment, wrapped up warmly, and carefully hung up in a closet. The
+carpenter was immediately relieved, and all went well for some time,
+when, however, the wound became exceedingly painful, and, upon
+resorting to his lordship it was ascertained that the axe had fallen
+from the nail by which it was suspended, and thereby become
+uncovered."
+
+Dryden in "The Tempest" (Act V, Sc. I) makes Ariel say, in reference
+to the wound received by Hippolito from Ferdinand:
+
+ "He must be dress'd again, as I have done it.
+  Anoint the sword which pierced him with this weapon-salve,
+     and wrap it close from air, till I have
+     time to visit him again."
+
+And in the next scene we have the following dialogue between
+Hippolito and Miranda:
+
+"_Hip._ O my wound pains me.
+
+_Mir._ I am come to ease you.
+
+                [_She unwraps the sword._
+
+_Hip._ Alas! I feel the cold air come to me;
+My wound shoots worse than ever.
+
+                [_She wipes and anoints the sword._
+
+_Mir._ Does it still grieve you?
+
+_Hip._ Now methinks, there's something
+Laid just upon it.
+
+_Mir._ Do you find ease?
+
+_Hip._ Yes, yes, upon the sudden, all the pain
+Is leaving me. Sweet heaven, how I am eased!"
+
+Werenfels says: "If the superstitious person be wounded by any chance,
+he applies the salve, not to the wound, but, what is more effectual,
+to the weapon by which he received it. By a new kind of art, he will
+transplant his disease, like a scion, and graft it into what tree he
+pleases."
+
+The practice at the time was varied and general. All sorts of
+disgusting ingredients were gathered together to form the salve. Some
+idea of the condition of the science of medicine at that time may be
+gathered when we remember that a serious discussion was long
+maintained between two factions in the sympathetic school concerning
+the question "whether it was necessary that the moss should grow
+absolutely in the skull of a thief who had hung on the gallows, and
+whether the ointment, while compounding, was to be stirred with a
+murderer's knife."
+
+There is no doubt that the sympathetic cures were really the most
+rapid and effective. The modern surgeon wonders how a wound ever
+healed prior to this treatment. There seemed to be little that could
+be imagined to prevent a wound from healing that the pre-sympathetic
+surgeon did not try. When the manipulations, doses, and treatments
+were transferred from the wound to the weapon, they did not injure the
+weapon, and did give the wound a chance to heal. In fact, leaving out
+the weapon part of the treatment, which could have none but a mental
+influence, the treatment would be recommended to-day. The wound was
+kept clean, the edges were brought in apposition, temperature was
+modified, and rest given. Under these circumstances, wounds which the
+surgeon had irritated so as to take weeks to heal, united in as many
+days. Mark this, however: the wounds treated were simple incisions,
+the ones which most readily united if cleansed, brought together, and
+left alone. Gunshot and similar wounds were not treated by this
+process.[88]
+
+  [76] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected
+  with ... Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 63 f.
+
+  [77] _Gentleman's Magazine_, LVIII, pp. 586 and 695.
+
+  [78] H. Arnot, _History of Edinburgh_.
+
+  [79] _Pharmacologia_, p. 51.
+
+  [80] _The Doctor_, p. 59.
+
+  [81] For a discussion on the doctrine of signatures see
+  T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions_, etc., pp. 33 f.; E.
+  Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_, pp. 327
+  and 416 f.; A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of
+  Science with Theology_, II, pp. 38 f.; Eccles,
+  _Evolution of Medical Science_, pp. 140 f.
+
+  [82] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 153. In
+  references to this work, the edition used was that
+  edited by W. Carew Hazlitt.
+
+  [83] _The Loseley Manuscripts_, pp. 263 f., quoted by
+  Berdoe.
+
+  [84] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, bk. V, chap. III.
+
+  [85] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 299.
+
+  [86] W. A. Hammond, _Spiritualism and Nervous
+  Derangement_, p. 175.
+
+  [87] Sir Kenelm Digby, _A late discovery made in solemne
+  assembly of nobles and learned men, at Montpellier, in
+  France, touching the cure of wounds, by the Powder of
+  Sympathy_, etc.
+
+  [88] I am indebted to T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions
+  Connected with the History and Practice of Surgery and
+  Medicine_, pp. 201-213; C. Mackay, _Extraordinary
+  Popular Delusions_, pp. 266-268; W. A. Hammond,
+  _Spiritualism and Nervous Derangement_, pp. 170-176; for
+  the material on the subject of sympathetic cures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+AMULETS
+
+
+  "He loved and was beloved; what more could he desire as
+  an amulet against fear?"--BULWER-LYTTON.
+
+  "Such medicines are to be exploded that consist of
+  words, characters, spells, and charms, which can do no
+  good at all, but out of a strong conceit, as Pomponatius
+  proves; or the Devil's policy, who is the first founder
+  and teacher of them."--BURTON.
+
+  "Old wives and starres are his councellors; his
+  nightspell is his guard, and charms his physician. He
+  wears Paracelsian characters for the toothache; and a
+  little hallowed wax is his antidote for all
+  evils."--BISHOP HALL.
+
+  "Neither doth Fansie only cause, but also as easily cure
+  Diseases; as I may justly refer all magical and jugling
+  Cures thereunto, performed, as is thought, by Saints,
+  Images, Relicts, Holy-Waters, Shrines, Avemarys,
+  Crucifixes, Benedictions, Charms, Characters, Sigils of
+  the Planets and of Signs, inverted Words, &c., and
+  therefore all such Cures are rather to be ascribed to
+  the Force of the Imagination, than any virtue in them,
+  or their Rings, Amulets, Lamens, &c."--RAMESEY.
+
+Attention has already been called to the fact that the characteristic
+of the amulet is that it must be worn about the person, while the
+talisman may simply be in possession of a person wherever it may be,
+or deposited at a certain place by or for the person. The Arabic
+equivalent of the word Amulet means "that which is suspended."
+
+The derivation of the word is uncertain, but there are at least two
+Latin antecedents claimed for it. Some claim that it is derived from the
+barbarous Latin word "amuletum," from amolior, to remove; others
+consider that it comes from "amula," the name of a small vessel with
+lustral water in it, which the Romans sometimes carried in their pockets
+for purification and expiation. Pliny says that many of these amulæ were
+carved out of pieces of amber and hung about children's necks. Whatever
+the derivation of the word, it is doubtless of Eastern origin.
+
+There is also little doubt concerning the early belief in the efficacy
+of an amulet to ward off diseases, and to protect against supernatural
+agencies. So powerful were they supposed to be that an oath was
+formerly administered to persons about to fight a legal duel "that
+they had ne charme ne herb of virtue." St. Chrysostom and others of
+the church fathers condemned the practice very severely, and the
+Council of Laodicea (366) wisely forbade the priesthood from studying
+and practising enchantments, mathematics, astrology, and the binding
+of the soul by amulets.[89]
+
+Burton has the following passage on the subject: "Amulets, and Things
+to be borne about, I find prescribed, taxed by some, approved by
+Renodeus, Platerus, and others; looke for them in Mizaldus, Porta,
+Albertus, &c.... A Ring made of the Hoofe of an Asse's right
+fore-foot carried about, &c. I say with Renodeus they are not
+altogether to be rejected. Piony doth help epilepsies. Pretious
+Stones, most diseases. A Wolf's dung carried about helps the Cholick.
+A spider, an Ague, &c.... Some Medicines are to be exploded, that
+consist of Words, Characters, Spells, and Charms, which can do no good
+at all, but out of a strong conceit, as Pomponatius proves; or the
+Devil's policy, who is the first founder and teacher of them."[90]
+
+"To this kind," says Bingham, "belong all Ligatures and Remedies,
+which the Schools of Physitians reject and condemn; whether in
+Inchantments or in certain marks, which they call Characters, or in
+some other things which are to be hanged and bound about the Body, and
+kept in a dancing posture. Such are Ear-rings hanged upon the tip of
+each ear, and Rings made of an Ostriche's bones for the Finger; or,
+when you are told, in a fit of Convulsions or shortness of Breath, to
+hold your left Thumb with your right hand."[91]
+
+Unfortunately the wearing of amulets did not stop with the early
+civilizations or even with the Middle Ages. People in our own
+supposedly enlightened age indulge in them. The negro carries the hind
+foot of a rabbit, and the children see great virtue in a four-leafed
+clover; men carry luck pennies, and certain stones are worn in rings
+and scarf pins; camphor is worn about the person to avert febrile
+contagion, and anodyne necklaces of "Job's tears" and other equally
+harmless and inefficacious substances are placed on babies to assist
+them in teething. The camphor and necklaces are probably not supposed
+to be endowed with magical power, but a mistaken medical virtue is
+assigned to them.
+
+There was neither rule nor reason for the composition of most amulets,
+and one would have to be well acquainted with the superstitions of the
+various ages to account for them. Sometimes the shape, rather than the
+material of which they were composed or the inscription on them, was
+the efficacious factor. Perhaps material, shape, and inscription would
+be combined in one object; or many objects, each purporting to contain
+magical properties, might be grouped for special efficacy, as when
+inscribed pieces of different stones of peculiar shape were formed
+into necklaces or bracelets.
+
+Precious stones were often employed as amulets, and some even ground
+them up and took them internally in order to be more sure of their
+magical effects. "Butler quotes from Encelius, who says that the
+Garnet, if hung about the neck or taken in drink, much assisteth
+sorrow and recreates the heart; and the chrysolite is described as the
+friend of wisdom and the enemy of folly. Renodeus admires precious
+stones because they adorn king's crowns, grace the fingers, enrich our
+household stuff, defend us from enchantments, preserve health, cure
+diseases, drive away grief, cares, and exhilarate the mind."[92]
+
+Some further quotations portray to us the efficacy of other stones:
+
+  "Heliotropius stauncheth blood, driveth away poisons,
+  preserveth health; yea, and some write that it provoketh
+  raine, and darkeneth the sunne, suffering not him that
+  beareth it to be abused."
+
+  "A topaze healeth the lunaticke person of his passion of
+  lunacie."
+
+  "Corneolus (cornelian) mitigateth the heate of the
+  minde, and qualifieth malice, it stancheth bloodie
+  fluxes."
+
+  "A sapphire preserveth the members and maketh them
+  livelie, and helpeth agues and gowts, and suffereth not
+  the bearer to be afraid; it hath virtue against venoms,
+  and staieth bleeding at the nose, being often put
+  thereto."
+
+  Aetius "attributed great obstetrical properties to the
+  lapis aetites, and gagates stone. The sapphire when
+  taken as a potion pulverized in milk, cured internal
+  ulcers and checked excessive perspiration. The amargdine
+  was highly recommended for strabismus...."
+
+  "Jasper, hematite and hieratite stones were strongly
+  recommended for unusual sanative virtues, but the
+  sapphire excelled as a remedy for scorpion bites."
+
+  "The Bezoar stone had a great reputation in melancholic
+  affections. Manardus says it removes sadness and makes
+  him merry that useth it."
+
+  "Noblemen wore the smargdum attached to a chain, in the
+  belief of its potential virtues against epilepsy. The
+  sard prevented terrible dreams, and the cornelian worn
+  on the finger or suspended from the neck pacified anger
+  and provoked contentment. Onyx superinduced troubled
+  sleep, but fastened to the throat, stimulated the
+  salivary glands. Saphirs cured internal ulcers and
+  excessive perspiration, when taken as a potion dissolved
+  in lacteal fluids."
+
+  "Of the stone which hight agate. It is said that it hath
+  eight virtues. One is when there is thunder, it doth not
+  scathe the man who hath this stone with him. Another
+  virtue is, on whatsoever house it is, therein a fiend
+  may not be. The third virtue is, that no venom may
+  scathe the man who hath the stone with him. The fourth
+  virtue is, that the man, who hath on him secretly the
+  loathly fiend, if he taketh in liquid any portion of the
+  shavings of the stone, then soon is exhibited manifestly
+  in him, that which before lay secretly hid. The fifth
+  virtue is, he who is afflicted with any disease, if he
+  taketh the stone in liquid, it is soon well with him.
+  The sixth virtue is, that sorcery hurteth not the man
+  who has the stone with him. The seventh virtue is, that
+  he who taketh the stone in drink, will have so much the
+  smoother body. The eighth virtue of the stone is, that
+  no bite of any kind of snake may scathe him who tasteth
+  the stone in liquid."
+
+Even as late as 1624, Sir John Harrington, writing in his "School of
+Salerne," says: "Alwaies in your hands use eyther Corall or yellow
+Amber, or a chalcedonium, or a sweet Pommander, or some like precious
+stone to be worne in a ring upon the little finger of the left hand;
+have in your rings eyther a Smaragd, a Saphire, or a Draconites, which
+you shall bear for an ornament; for in stones, as also in hearbes,
+there is great efficacie and vertue, but they are not altogether
+perceived by us; hold sometime in your mouth eyther a Hyacinth, or a
+Crystall, or a Garnat, or pure Gold, or Silver, or else sometimes pure
+Sugar-candy. For Aristotle doth affirme, and so doth Albertus Magnus,
+that a Smaragd worne about the necke, is good against the
+Falling-sickness; for surely the virtue of an hearbe is great, but
+much more the vertue of a precious stone, which is very likely that
+they are endued with occult and hidden vertues."
+
+Precious metals as well as precious stones were used in the
+manufacture of amulets. The Scandinavians carried metal effigies
+carved out of gold or silver, or incised upon tiles, perpetually as
+amulets. They were safeguards against diseases and physical
+infirmities. They were also administered internally in cases where
+powerful cures were needed. Chaucer says:
+
+ "For gold in physic is a cordial,
+  Therefore he loved gold in special."
+
+The Basilideans, and other sects developed from the Gnostic systems,
+assigned great power to stone amulets, and prepared them for their
+initiates, who used them for identification and for curative purposes.
+They quickly acquired a celebrity undiminished for ages, and were
+known under the general name of Abraxas. They were composed of various
+materials, glass, paste, sometimes metals, but principally of various
+kinds of stones. Through the irresistible might of Abrax, their
+supreme divinity, the Basilideans were protected and cured. Clement of
+Alexandria strictly interdicted the use of gems for personal
+ornamentation, with evident allusion to the Abraxas stones. These
+stones had various inscriptions carved upon them, most of which had
+some hidden meaning of great puissance. One of them, for example, is
+engraven with Armenian letters, and contains a standing invocation for
+fruitful delivery; in its medicinal property it was evidently a cure
+for sterility.[93]
+
+From the stone itself the word "Abraxas" came to be used as an amulet
+when written on paper. The numerical equivalent of the Greek letters
+when added together thus, A = 1, B = 2, R = 100, A = 1, X = 60, A = 1,
+S = 200, is 365. The significance of this was that the deity was the
+ruler of 365 heavens, or of the angels inhabiting these heavens; he
+was also ruler over the 365 days of the year. Notwithstanding the fact
+that it was referred to by the Greek fathers, the name was evidently
+Egyptian in origin, some of the figures on the stones being strictly
+Egyptian.
+
+Amulets in the form of inscriptions were called "Characts," the word
+Abraxas being an example. The very powerful word "Abracadabra" was
+derived from Abraxas, and when written in the proper way and worn
+about the person was supposed to have a magical efficacy as an
+antidote against ague, fever, flux, and toothache. Serenus Samonicus,
+a physician in the reign of Caracalla, recommends it very highly for
+ague, instructing how it should be written, and commanding it to be
+worn around the neck. It might be written in either of two ways:
+reading down the left side and up the right must spell the same word
+as at the top; or, having the left side always start the same, reading
+up the right side should be the same as the top line. Below are the
+two forms:
+
+          ABRACADABRA            ABRACADABRA
+           BRACADABR              ABRACADABR
+            RACADAB                ABRACADAB
+             ACADA                  ABRACADA
+              CAD                    ABRACAD
+               A                      ABRACA
+                                       ABRAC
+                                        ABRA
+                                         ABR
+                                          AB
+                                           A
+
+Julius Africanus says that pronouncing the word in the same manner is
+as efficacious as writing it. The Jews attributed an equal virtue to
+the word "Aracalan" employed in the same way.[94]
+
+Bishop Pilkington, writing in 1561, protests against a then current
+practice in this way: "What wicket blindenes is this than, to thinke
+that wearing Prayers written in rolles about with theym, as S. Johns
+Gospell, the length of our Lord, the measure of our Lady, or other
+like, thei shall die no sodain death, nor be hanged, or yf he be
+hanged, he shall not die. There is so manye suche, though ye laugh,
+and beleve it not, and not hard to shewe them with a wet finger." The
+same author observes that our devotion ought to "stande in depe sighes
+and groninges, wyth a full consideration of our miserable state and
+Goddes majestye, in the heart, and not in ynke or paper: not in
+hangyng writtin Scrolles about the Necke, but lamentinge unfeignedlye
+our Synnes from the hart."
+
+The following charact was found in a linen purse belonging to a
+murderer named Jackson, who died in Chichester jail in February, 1749.
+He was "struck with such horror on being measured for his chains that
+he soon after expired."
+
+ "Ye three holy Kings,
+  Gaspar, Melchior, Balthasar,
+  Pray for us now, and in the hour of our death."
+
+  "These papers have touched the three heads of the holy
+  Kings at Cologne. They are to preserve travellers from
+  accidents on the road, headaches, falling sickness,
+  fevers, witchcraft, all kinds of mischief, and sudden
+  death."
+
+Belgrave prescribes a cure of agues, by a certain writing which the
+patient wears, as follows: "When Jesus went up to the Cross to be
+crucified, the Jews asked him, saying Art thou afraid? or hast thou
+the ague? Jesus answered and said, I am not afraid, neither have I the
+ague. All those which bear the name of Jesus about them shall not be
+afraid, nor yet have the ague. Amen, sweet Jesus, Amen, sweet Jehovah,
+Amen." He adds: "I have known many who have been cured of the ague by
+this writing only worn about them; and I had the receipt from one
+whose daughter was cured thereby, who had the ague upon her two
+years."[95]
+
+Among other written amulets, the first Psalm, when written on doeskin,
+was supposed to be efficacious in childbirth. It was necessary,
+however, for the writer of such amulets to plunge into a bath as soon
+as he had written one line, and after every new line it was thought
+necessary that he should repeat the plunge.
+
+The following process for avoiding inflamed eyes is taken from
+Marcellus, 380 A. D.: "Write on a clean sheet of paper [Greek:
+oubaik], and hang this round the patient's neck, with a thread from
+the loom. In a state of purity and chastity write on a clean sheet of
+paper [Greek: phyrpharan] and hang it round the man's neck; it will
+stop the approach of inflammation. The following will stop
+inflammation coming on, written on a clean sheet of paper: [Greek:
+roubos rnoneiras rêelios ôs· kantephora kai pantes êakotei]; it must
+be hung to the neck by a thread; and if both the patient and operator
+are in a state of chastity, it will stop inveterate inflammation.
+Again, write on a thin plate of gold with a needle of copper, [Greek:
+ornô ourôdê]; do this on a Monday; observe chastity; it will long and
+much avail."[96]
+
+In Africa, prayers taken from the Koran are written and worn as
+amulets at the present time.
+
+After the death of the philosopher Pascal some manuscript was found
+sewed in his doublet. This was a "profession of faith" which he always
+wore stitched in his clothing as a sort of amulet.
+
+In the East, generally, the amulet consists of certain names of the
+Deity, verses of the Koran, or particular passages compressed into a
+very small space, and is to be found concealed in the turban. The
+Christians wore amulets with verses selected from the Old and New
+Testaments, and particularly from the Gospel of John. The amulets or
+charms, called "grigris" by the African priests, are of similar
+description. These were used for preservatives against thunderbolts
+and diseases, to procure many wives and to give them easy deliveries,
+to avert shipwreck or slavery, and to secure victory in battle. One,
+to be used for the last purpose, which had belonged to a king of Brak,
+in Senegal, was found on his body after he had the misfortune to be
+killed in battle with the amulet upon him. It had the following
+sentences from the Koran: "In the name of the merciful God! Pray to
+God through our Lord Mohammed. All that exists is so only by his
+command. He gives life, and also calls sinners to an account. He
+deprives us of life by the sole power of his name: these are
+undeniable truths. He that lives owes his life to the peculiar
+clemency of his Lord, who by his providence takes care of his
+subsistence. He is a wise prince or governor."[97]
+
+The Jews used as amulets some sacred name, such as the true
+pronunciation of the name of Jehovah, written down. The Mischna
+permitted the Jews to wear amulets provided they had been found
+efficacious in at least three cases by an approved person. One of the
+most famous amulets is that known as "Solomon's Seal."
+
+Ligatures, similar to the earlier amulets, a heritage from the
+northern pagan races, were freely applied for the prevention and cure
+of maladies.
+
+After imposing invocations and the addition of mystical characters,
+these medical charms were presumed to be of the greatest efficacy, and
+ready for suspension from the neck. Their efficacy was admitted by
+Christians, but they were condemned on account of their pagan and
+consequently satanic origin.
+
+Alexander of Tralles recommended a number of amulets, some of which I
+will mention later, but admits that he had no faith in them, but
+merely ordered them as placebos for rich and fastidious patients who
+could not be persuaded to adopt a more rational treatment. Baas tells
+us that "A regular Pagan amulet was found in 1749 on the breast of the
+prince bishop Anselm Franz of Wurzburg, count of Ingolstadt, after his
+death."
+
+Amulets were also worn to protect the wearer from charms exercised by
+others. The "Leech Book" gives us one to be worn and another to be
+taken internally for this purpose. To be used "against every evil rune
+lay, and one full of elvish tricks, writ for the bewitched man, this
+writing in Greek letters: Alfa, Omega, Iesvm, BERONIKH. Again, another
+dust and drink against a rune lay; take a bramble apple, and lupins,
+and pulegium, pound them, then sift them, put them in a pouch, lay
+them under the altar, sing nine masses over them, administer this to
+drink at three hours."
+
+The powers of the mandragora, as an amulet, place it almost in a class
+by itself. Fort tells us that in addition to its power to protect
+herds of cattle and horses, to prevent misfortunes of various kinds,
+to preserve the exhilarating wine and beer against loss of their
+intoxicating property, to render successful commercial negotiations,
+and promote infallibly, rapid and enormous influence, "other virtues
+of a surprising character were awarded the omnipotent mandragora. It
+conciliated affection and maintained friendship, preserved conjugal
+fealty and developed benevolence. The immensity of worth inherent in
+this mystical medicament, its vital essence, was by no means confined
+to sustaining health and providing certain remedies for infirmities;
+its power manipulated tribunals and secured judicial favor at court;
+and when this resistless amulet was held under the arm by a suitor at
+law, however unjust his cause, the vegetable Rune controlled the forum
+and obtained the verdict."[98]
+
+It may be well at this point to enumerate at least a number of the
+most noted amulets, according to the disease for which they were
+supposed to be efficacious.
+
+_Ague._--On account of the periodic character of this disease it was
+considered to be a supernatural complaint and hence many unnatural
+cures were suggested, among which were a number of amulets. The
+Abracadabra amulet was supposed to be especially efficacious in ague.
+The chips of a gallows put into a bag and worn around the neck, or
+next the skin, have been said to have served as a cure, at least, so
+reports Brand.[99] Millefolium or yarrow, worn in a little bag on the
+pit of the stomach is reported to have cured this disease, and
+Alexander of Tralles advises, for a quartan ague, that the patient
+must carry about some hairs from a goat's chin.[100]
+
+Elias Ashmole, in his Diary, April 11, 1681, has entered the
+following: "I tooke early in the morning a good dose of Elixir, and
+hung three spiders about my neck, and they drove my Ague away. Deo
+Gratias!"[101]
+
+Wristbands, called pericarpia, were employed in the cure. Robert Boyle
+says he was cured of a violent quotidian ague, after having in vain
+resorted to medical aid, by applying to his wrists "a mixture of two
+handfuls of bay salt, the same quantity of fresh English hops, and a
+quarter of a pound of blue currants, very diligently beaten into a
+brittle mass, without the addition of anything moist, and so spread
+upon linen and applied to his wrists."[102]
+
+Burton gives us a leaf from his own experience.[103] "Being in the
+country in the vacation time, not many years since, at Lindly, in
+Leicestershire, my father's house, I first observed this amulet of a
+spider in a nut-shell, wrapped in silk, &c., so applyed for an ague by
+my mother; whom, although I knew to have excellent skill in
+chirurgery, sore eyes, aches, &c., and such experimental medicines, as
+all the country where she dwelt can witness, to have done many famous
+and good cures upon divers poor folks that were otherwise destitute of
+help, yet among all other experiments, this methought was most absurd
+and ridiculous. I could see no warrant for it. _Quid aranea cum
+Febre?_ For what antipathy? till at length rambling amongst authors
+(as I often do), I found this very medicine in Dioscorides, approved
+by Matthiolus, repeated by Aldrovandus, _cap. de Aranea, lib. de
+Insectis_, I began to have a better opinion of it, and to give more
+credit to amulets, when I saw it in some parties answer to
+experience."
+
+A narrative of not a little interest, concerning Sir John Holt, Lord
+Chief Justice of the Court of King's Bench, 1709, should be given in
+this connection. He was extremely wild in his youth, and being once
+engaged with some of his rakish friends in a trip into the country, in
+which they had spent all their money, it was agreed they should try
+their fortune separately. Holt arrived at an inn at the end of a
+straggling village, ordered his horse to be taken care of, bespoke a
+supper and a bed. He then strolled into the kitchen, where he observed
+a little girl of thirteen shaking with ague. Upon making inquiry
+respecting her, the landlady told him that she was her only child, and
+had been ill nearly a year, notwithstanding all the assistance she
+could procure for her from physic. He gravely shook his head at the
+doctors, bade her be under no further concern, for that her daughter
+should never have another fit. He then wrote a few unintelligible
+words in a court hand on a scrap of parchment, which had been the
+direction fixed to a hamper, and rolling it up, directed that it
+should be bound upon the girl's wrist and there allowed to remain
+until she was well. The ague returned no more; and Holt, having
+remained in the house a week, called for his bill. "God bless you,
+sir," said the old woman, "you're nothing in my debt, I'm sure. I
+wish, on the contrary, that I was able to pay you for the cure which
+you have made of my daughter. Oh! if I had had the happiness to see
+you ten months ago, it would have saved me forty pounds." With
+pretended reluctance he accepted his accommodation as a recompense,
+and rode away. Many years elapsed, Holt advanced in his profession of
+the law, and went a circuit, as one of the judges of the Court of
+King's Bench, into the same county, where, among other criminals
+brought before him, was an old woman under a charge of witchcraft. To
+support this accusation, several witnesses swore that the prisoner had
+a spell with which she could either cure such cattle as were sick or
+destroy those that were well, and that in the use of this spell she
+had been lately detected, and that it was now ready to be produced in
+court. Upon this statement the judge desired that it might be handed
+up to him. It was a dirty ball, wrapped round with several rags, and
+bound with packthread. These coverings he carefully removed, and
+beneath them found a piece of parchment which he immediately
+recognized as his own youthful fabrication. For a few moments he
+remained silent. At length, recollecting himself, he addressed the
+jury to the following effect: "Gentlemen, I must now relate a
+particular of my life, which very ill suits my present character and
+the station in which I sit; but to conceal it would be to aggravate
+the folly for which I ought to atone, to endanger innocence, and to
+countenance superstition. This bauble, which you suppose to have the
+power of life and death, is a senseless scroll which I wrote with my
+own hand and gave to this woman, whom for no other reason you accuse
+as a witch." He then related the particulars of the transaction, with
+such an effect upon the minds of the people that his old landlady was
+the last person tried for witchcraft in that county.[104]
+
+_Calculus._--Boyle tells us[105] that the _Lapis Nephriticus_, a
+species of jasper, when bound to the left wrist, was a cure for this
+trouble. Others have borne evidence to its efficacy.
+
+_Childbirth._--Among the ancient Britons, when a birth was difficult
+or dangerous, a girdle, made for this purpose, was put around the
+woman and afforded immediate relief. Until quite recently they were
+kept by many families in the Highlands of Scotland. They were marked
+with certain figures and were applied with certain ceremonies derived
+from the Druids. Women in labor were also supposed to be quickly
+delivered if they were girded with the skin which a snake has sloughed
+off.[106]
+
+_Cholera._--Bontius declared the _Lapis Porcinus_ to be good for
+cholera, but dangerous to pregnant women. If the females of Malaica
+held the stone in their hands an abortion was produced. When cholera
+was prevalent during the early part of the last century, it was common
+in many parts of Austria, Germany, and Italy to wear an amulet at the
+pit of the stomach, in contact with the skin. Pettigrew describes one
+of these which was sent to him from Hungary. "It consists merely of a
+circular piece of copper two inches and a half in diameter, and is
+without characters."
+
+_Colic._--Says Pliny, the extremity of the intestine of the ossifrage,
+if worn as an amulet, is well known to be an excellent remedy for
+colic. A tick from a dog's left ear, worn as an amulet, was
+recommended to allay this and all other kinds of pain, but one must be
+careful to take it from a dog that is black. Alexander of Tralles
+recommended the heart of a lark to be fastened to the left thigh as a
+remedy for colic. Mr. Cockayne, the editor of _Saxon Leechdoms_, gives
+us further remedies for colic which Alexander prescribed. "Thus for
+colic, he guarantees by his own experience, and the approval of almost
+all the best doctors, dung of a wolf, with bits of bone in it if
+possible, shut up in a pipe, and worn during the paroxysm, on the
+right arm, or thigh, or hip, taking care it touches neither the earth
+or a bath."[107]
+
+_Cramp._--The following amulets are mentioned as specifics against
+cramp:
+
+"--Wear bone Ring on thumb, or tye Strong Pack-thread below your
+thigh."
+
+The subject of cramp rings will be considered in another connection.
+
+_Demoniacal Possession._--In the sixth century exorcists frequently
+wrote the formula on parchment and suspended it from the neck of the
+patient. This was as efficacious as the uttered words.
+
+_Epilepsy._--The elder tree has been the foundation of many
+superstitions, chief among which have been some connected with
+epilepsy. Blochwick[108] tells us how to prepare an amulet from an
+elder growing on a sallow. "In the month of October, a little before
+the full moon, you pluck a twig of the elder, and cut the cane that is
+betwixt two of its knees, or knots, in nine pieces, and these pieces
+being bound in a piece of linen, be in a thread, so hung about the
+neck, that they touch the spoon of the heart, or the sword-formed
+cartilage; and that they may stay more firmly in that place, they are
+to be bound thereon with a linen or silken roller wrapt about the
+body, till the thread break of itself. The thread being broken and the
+roller removed, the amulet is not at all to be touched with bare
+hands, but it ought to be taken hold on by some instrument and buried
+in a place that nobody may touch it." Some hung a cross, made of the
+elder and the sallow entwined, about the children's neck.
+
+Rings of various kinds have always been supposed to have some
+superstitious power. Brand[109] tells us of some of their uses. A ring
+made from a piece of silver collected at the communion is a cure for
+convulsions and fits of every kind. If the silver is collected on
+Easter Sunday its efficacy is greatly increased. This was the receipt
+in Berkshire, but in Devonshire silver was not necessary. Here they
+prefer a ring made from three nails or screws dug out of a
+church-yard, which had been used to fasten a coffin. We are also
+informed that another kind of ring will cure fits. It must be made
+from five sixpences collected from five different bachelors, conveyed
+by the hand of a bachelor to a silversmith who is a bachelor. None of
+the persons who gave the sixpences, however, are to know for what
+purpose, or to whom, they gave them.[110]
+
+A silver ring contributed by twelve young women, and constantly worn
+on one of the pattens fingers, has been successfully employed in the
+cure of epilepsy after various medical means failed.[111] Lupton
+says: "A piece of a child's navel-string borne in a ring is good
+against the falling-sickness, the pains of the head, and the
+collick."[112]
+
+Alexander of Tralles recommended for epilepsy a metal cross tied to
+the arm, or, in lieu of that, bits of sail-cloth from a shipwrecked
+vessel might be tied to the right arm and worn for seven weeks; the
+latter was a preventive as well as a cure. Among the ancients,
+Serapion prescribed crocodile's dung and turtle's blood as a cure for
+this disease.[113] Lemius remarks that "Coral, Piony, Misseltoe, drive
+away the falling Sicknesse, either hung about the neck or drunk with
+wine."
+
+_Erysipelas._--The elder seems to have been efficacious in erysipelas
+as well as in epilepsy, at least so we are told in the "Anatomie of
+the Elder." The following is the method of preparing the amulet. It is
+to be made of "Elder on which the sun never shined. If the piece
+betwixt the two knots be hung about the patient's neck, it is much
+commended. Some cut it in little pieces, and sew it in a knot in a
+piece of a man's shirt, which seems superstitious."
+
+_Evil-eye._--Coral was supposed to avert the baneful consequences of
+the evil-eye, and Paracelsus recommends it to be worn about the necks
+of children. Douce has given engravings of several Roman amulets
+which were intended to be used against fascinations in general, but
+more particularly against that of the evil-eye.[114]
+
+_Eye Diseases._--Cotta relates, so says Pettigrew, "a merrie historie
+of an approved famous spell for sore eyes. By many honest testimonies
+it was a long time worne as a Jewell about many necks, written in
+paper and enclosed in silke, never failing to do sovereigne good when
+all other helpes were helplesse. No sight might dare to reade or open.
+At length a curious mind, while the patient slept, by stealth ripped
+open the mystical cover, and found the powerful characters Latin:
+'Diabolus effodiat tibi oculos impleat foramina stercoribus.'"
+
+Vivisection was practised to procure an amulet for sore eyes,
+according to the following prescription: "If a man have a white spot,
+as cataract, in his eye, catch a fox alive, cut his tongue out, let
+him go, dry his tongue and tie it up in a red rag and hang it round
+the man's neck." Pliny's way was to "take the tongue of a foxe, and
+hange the same about his necke, so long it hangeth there his sight
+shall not wax feeble."
+
+Like was also used to cure like, at least in the following directions:
+"Take the right eye of a Frogg, lap it in a piece of russet cloth and
+hang it about the neck; it cureth the right eye if it bee enflamed or
+bleared. And if the left eye be greved, do the like by the left eye of
+the said Frogg."[115]
+
+_Fevers._--Charms rather than amulets were employed in fevers, yet we
+find that among the ancients Chrysippus believed in amulets for
+quartan fevers and Pliny taught that the longest tooth of a black dog
+cured quartan fevers.
+
+_Gout._--Alexander of Tralles has preserved for us a remedy for gout
+as follows: "A remedy for the gout. Write, on a golden plate at the
+wane of the moon, what follows, rolling round it the sinews of a
+crane. Put it in a little bag, and wear it near the ankles. The words
+are meu, treu, mor, phor, teux, za, zor, phe, lou, chri, ge, ze, ou,
+as the sun is consolidated in these names, and is renewed every day;
+so consolidate this plaster as it was before, now, now, quick, quick,
+for, behold, I pronounce the great name, in which are consolidated
+things in repose, iaz, azuf, zuon, threux, bain, choog; consolidate
+this plaster as it was at first, now, now, quick, quick."
+
+_Headache._--Pliny's amulet for this disease was an herb picked from
+the head of a statue, tied with a red thread, and worn upon the body.
+
+_Hysteria._--Monardes is quoted as saying: "When hysterical persons
+feel an attack coming on, they may be relieved by a stone, which will
+prevent, if constantly worn about the person, any subsequent attack.
+From my knowledge of cases of this kind, I attach credit to this
+amulet."
+
+_Melancholy._--Burton has treated much under the name of melancholy,
+and in respect of cure mentions several "amulets and things to be
+borne about." He recommends for head melancholy such things as
+hypericon, or St. John's-wort, gathered on a Friday in the hour of
+Jupiter, "... borne or hung about the neck, it mightily helps this
+affection, and drives away all fantastical spirits."[116]
+
+_Plague._--During the visitations of the plague, the inhabitants of
+London wore, in the region of the heart, amulets composed of arsenic,
+probably on account of the theory that one poison would neutralize the
+power of the other. Concerning this, however, Herring, in writing
+concerning preservatives against the pestilence, says: "Perceiving
+many in this Citie to weare about their Necks, upon the region of the
+Heart, certaine Placents or Amulets, (as preservatives against the
+pestilence,) confected of Arsenicke, my opinion is that they are so
+farre from effecting any good in that kinde, as a preservative, that
+they are very dangerous and hurtfull, if not pernitious, to those that
+weare them." Quills of quicksilver were commonly worn about the neck
+for the same purpose, and the powder of toad was employed in a similar
+way.
+
+Pope Adrian is reported to have continually carried an amulet composed
+of dried toad, arsenic, tormental, pearl, coral, hyacinth, smarag, and
+tragacanth. Among the Harleian Manuscripts is a letter from Lord
+Chancellor Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith written at a time of an alarming
+epidemic. Among other things he writes: "I am likewise bold to
+recommend my most humble duty to our dear mistress (Queen Elizabeth)
+by this LETTER AND RING, which hath the virtue to expell infectious
+airs, and is _to be worn betwixt the sweet duggs_, the chaste nest of
+pure constancy. I trust, sir, when the virtue is known, it shall not
+be refused for the value."[117]
+
+_Safety from Wounds._--Pettigrew gives us the two following examples:
+"De Barros, the historian, says that the Portuguese in vain attempted
+to destroy a Malay so long as he wore a bracelet containing a bone set
+in gold, which rendered him proof against their swords. This amulet
+was afterward transmitted to the Viceroy Alfonso d'Alboquerque, as a
+valuable present.
+
+"In the travels of Marco Polo, we read that in an attempt by Kublai
+Khan to make a conquest of the island of Zipangu, a jealousy arose
+between the two commanders of the expedition, which led to an order
+for putting the whole of the inhabitants of the garrison to the sword;
+and that in obedience thereto, the heads of all were cut off,
+excepting of eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a diabolical
+charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced into the right arm,
+between the skin and the flesh, were rendered secure from the effects
+of iron, either to kill or wound. Upon this discovery being made, they
+were beaten with a heavy wooden club, and presently died."[118]
+
+_Scrofula._--Lupton says: "The Root of Vervin hanged at the neck of
+such as have the King's Evil, it brings a marvellous and unhoped
+help." To this Brand adds: "Squire Morley of Essex used to say a
+Prayer which he hoped would do no harm when he hung a bit of vervain
+root from a scrophulous person's neck. My aunt Freeman had a very high
+opinion of a baked Toad in a silk Bag, hung round the neck."[119]
+
+_Toothache._--People in North Hampshire, England, sometimes wore a
+tooth taken from a corpse, kept in a bag and hung around the neck, as
+a remedy for toothache.
+
+_Whooping-Cough._--About the middle of the last century there appeared
+the following in the _London Athenæum_: "The popular belief as to the
+origin of the mark across the back of the ass is mentioned by Sir
+Thomas Browne, in his 'Vulgar Errors,' and from whatever cause it may
+have arisen it is certain that the hairs taken from the part of the
+animal so marked are held in high estimation as a cure for the
+hooping-cough. In this metropolis, at least so lately as 1842, an
+elderly lady advised a friend who had a child dangerously ill with
+that complaint, to procure three such hairs, and hang them round the
+neck of the sufferer in a muslin bag. It was added that the animal
+from whom the hairs are taken for this purpose is never worth anything
+afterwards, and, consequently, great difficulty would be experienced
+in procuring them; and further, that it was essential to the success
+of the charm that the sex of the animal, from whom the hairs were to
+be procured, should be the contrary to that of the party to be cured
+by them."
+
+The _Worcester Journal_ (England), in one of its issues for 1845, had
+this astounding item: "A party from the city, being on a visit to a
+friend who lived at a village about four miles distant, had occasion
+to go into the cottage of a poor woman, who had a child afflicted with
+the hooping-cough. In reply to some inquiries as to her treatment of
+the child, the mother pointed to its neck, on which was a string
+fastened, having nine knots tied in it. The poor woman stated that it
+was the stay-lace of the child's godmother which, if applied exactly
+in that manner about the neck, would be sure to charm away the most
+troublesome cough! Thus it may be seen that, with all the educational
+efforts of the present day, the monster Superstition still lurks here
+and there in his caves and secret places."[120]
+
+We find that not only human beings but animals profited by amulets. An
+amulet is used in the cure of a blind horse which could hardly have
+helped on the cure by his faith in it. "The root of cut Malowe hanged
+about the neck driveth away blemishes of the eyen, whether it be in a
+man or a horse, as I, Jerome of Brunsweig, have seene myselfe. I have
+myselfe done it to a blind horse that I bought for X crounes, and was
+sold agayn for XL crounes."[121] That was a trick worth knowing.
+
+Brockett tells us that "Holy-stones, or _holed-stones_, are hung on
+the heads of horses as a charm against Diseases--such as sweat in
+their stalls are supposed to be cured by this application." The
+efficacy of the elder also extended to animals, for a lame pig was
+formerly cured by boring a hole in his ear and putting a small peg
+into it. We are also told that "wood night-shade, or bitter-sweet,
+being hung about the neck of Cattell that have the Staggers, helpeth
+them."
+
+  [89] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 51 and 66 f.
+
+  [90] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec. V.
+
+  [91] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 281 f.
+
+  [92] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 70.
+
+  [93] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 94-100.
+
+  [94] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 74 f.
+
+  [95] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 278 f.
+
+  [96] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 262 f.
+
+  [97] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 68 f.
+
+  [98] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 182.
+
+  [99] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 242.
+
+  [100] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 252.
+
+  [101] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [102] R. Boyle, _Usefulness of Natural Philosophy_, II,
+  p. 157.
+
+  [103] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec.
+  V.
+
+  [104] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 96-98.
+
+  [105] R. Boyle, _Usefulness of Natural Philosophy_,
+  Works II, p. 156.
+
+  [106] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, pp. 257 and 259.
+
+  [107] _Ibid._, pp. 251 f and 254.
+
+  [108] _Anatomie of the Elder_, p. 52.
+
+  [109] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 231.
+
+  [110] _Gentleman's Magazine_, 1794, p. 889.
+
+  [111] _London Medical and Physical Journal_, 1815.
+
+  [112] _Book of Notable Things_, p. 92.
+
+  [113] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 253 f and 256.
+
+  [114] _Illustrations of Shakespeare_, I, p. 493.
+
+  [115] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [116] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec.
+  V.
+
+  [117] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Surgery and Medicine_, p. 91.
+
+  [118] _Ibid._, p. 79.
+
+  [119] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 256.
+
+  [120] _Ibid._, III, p. 238.
+
+  [121] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 148.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CHARMS
+
+
+  "With the charmes that she saide, A fire down fro' the
+  sky alight."--GOWER.
+
+  "She drew a splinter from the wound, And with a charm
+  she staunch'd the blood."--SCOTT.
+
+  "Thrice on my breast I spit to guard me safe From
+  fascinating Charms."--THEOCRITUS.
+
+  "Mennes fortunes she can tell; She can by sayenge her
+  Ave Marye, And by other Charmes of Sorcerye, Ease men of
+  the Toth ake by and bye Yea, and fatche the Devyll from
+  Hell."--BALE.
+
+  "I clawed her by the backe in way of a charme, To do me
+  not the more good, but the less harme."--HEYWOOD.
+
+Charms, as already noticed, are not unlike amulets in significance and
+similarity of power. The amulet must consist of some material
+substance so as to be suspended when employed, but the charm may be a
+word, gesture, look, or condition, as well as a material substance,
+and does not need to be attached to the body. The word "charm" is
+derived from the Latin word "carmen," signifying a verse in which the
+charms were sometimes written, examples of which will be given later.
+The medical term "carminative," a comforting medicine, really means a
+charm medicine, and has the same derivation.
+
+A charm has been defined as "a form of words or letters, repeated or
+written, whereby strange things are pretended to be done, beyond the
+ordinary power of nature." It can be seen, though, that this
+definition is not sufficiently comprehensive.
+
+For ages, people have had great faith in odd numbers. They have often
+been used as charms and for medicine. Some one says: "Some
+philosophers are of opinion that all things are composed of number,
+prefer the odd before the other, and attribute to it a great efficacy
+and perfection, especially in matters of physic: wherefore it is that
+many doctors prescribed always an odd pill, an odd draught, or drop to
+be taken by their patients. For the perfection thereof they allege
+these following numbers: as 7 Planets, 7 wonders of the World, 9
+Muses, 3 Graces, God is 3 in 1, &c." Ravenscroft, in his comedy of
+"Mammamouchi or the Citizen Turned Gentleman," makes Trickmore as a
+physician say: "Let the number of his bleedings and purgations be odd,
+_numero Deus impare gaudet_" [God delights in an odd number].
+
+Nine is the number consecrated by Buddhism; three is sacred among
+Brahminical and Christian people. Pythagoras held that the unit or
+monad is the principle and end of all. One is a good principle. Two,
+or the dyad, is the origin of contrasts and separation, and is an evil
+principle. Three, or the triad, is the image of the attributes of God.
+Four, or the tetrad, is the most perfect of numbers and the root of
+all things. It is holy by nature. Five, or the pentad, is everything;
+it stops the power of poisons, and is dreaded by evil spirits. Six is
+a fortunate number. Seven is powerful for good or evil, and is a
+sacred number. Eight is the first cube, so is man four-square or
+perfect. Nine, as the multiple of three, is sacred. Ten, or the
+decade, is the measure of all it contains, all the numerical relations
+and harmonies.[122]
+
+Cornelius Agrippa wrote on the power of numbers, which he declares is
+asserted by nature herself; thus the herb called cinquefoil, or
+five-leafed grass, resists poison, and bans devils by virtue of the
+number five; one leaf of it taken in wine twice a day cures the
+quotidian, three the tertian, four the quartan fever.[123]
+
+The seventh son of a seventh son was supposed to be an infallible
+physician as the following quotations would indicate: "The seventh son
+of a seventh son is born a physician; having an intuitive knowledge of
+the art of curing all disorders, and sometimes the faculty of
+performing wonderful cures by touching only." "Plusieurs croyent qu'en
+France, les septièmes garçons, nez de légitimes mariages, sans que la
+suitte des sept ait esté interrompue par la naissance d'aucune fille,
+peuvent aussi guérir des fièvres tierces, des fièvres quartes, at
+mesme des écrouelles, après avoir jeûné trois ou neuf jours avant que
+de toucher les malades. Mais ils font trop de fond sur le nombre
+septenaire, en attribuant au septième garçon, préférablement à tous
+autres, une puissance qu'il y a autant de raison d'attribuer au
+sixième ou au huitième, sur le nombre de trois, et sur celuy de neuf,
+pour ne pas s'engager dans la superstition. Joint que de trois que je
+connois de ces septième garçons il y en a deux qui ne guérissent de
+rien, et que le troisieme m'a avoué de bonne foy, qu'il avoit eu
+autrefois la reputation de guérir de quantité des maux, quoique en
+effet il n'ait jamais guery d'aucun. C'est pourquoy Monsieur du
+Laurent a grande raison de rejetter ce prétendu pouvoir, et de la
+mettre au rang des fables, en ce qui concerne la guérison des
+écrouelles."[124]
+
+Charms were used to avert evil and counteract supposed malignant
+influences of all kinds, but it is in their connection with diseases
+of the body that we are chiefly interested. There is scarcely a
+disease for which a charm has not been given, but it will be seen that
+those which are most affected by charms are principally derangements
+of the nervous system, or those periodical in character--diseases, in
+fact, which have proved to be most easily influenced by suggestion.
+
+Charms might be of the most varied composition. The material was
+selected from the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, and might
+consist of anything to which any magical property was considered to
+belong. Rags, old clothes, pins, and needles were frequently employed
+in this way. Sir Walter Scott had in his possession a pretended charm
+taken from an old woman who was said to charm and injure her
+neighbor's cattle. It consisted of feathers, parings of nails, hair,
+and similar material, wrapped in a lump of clay.
+
+The theory of _similia similibus curantur_ seems to have entered into
+mediæval medicine, and especially into the manufacture of charms. The
+following prescriptions are examples: "The skin of a Raven's heel is
+good against gout, but the right heel skin must be laid upon the right
+foot if that be gouty, and the left upon the left.... If you would
+have man become bold or impudent let him carry about with him the skin
+or eyes of a Lion or Cock, and he will be fearless of his enemies,
+nay, he will be very terrible unto them. If you would have him
+talkative, give him tongues, and seek out those of water frogs and
+ducks and such creatures notorious for their continuall noise
+making."[125]
+
+King also tells us that "Hartes fete, Does Fete, Bulles fete, or any
+ruder beastes fete should ofte be eaten; the same confort the sinewes.
+The elder these beastes be, the more they strengthen." It is
+noticeable that not age but youth is now honored, and to-day only
+calves' feet are accorded medicinal value.
+
+Fort[126] gives the following account of the origin of cabbalism:
+"Towards the close of the fourth century an unknown scholiast
+collected the exegetical elucidations, explanations and
+interpretations produced by the Gemara, and united them to the Mishna,
+as a commentary out of which arose the Talmud. The word 'cabbala,'
+whose original significance was used in the sense of reception, or
+transmission, obtained at a later period the meaning of secret lore,
+because the metaphysical and theosophic idealities which had been
+developed in the Rabbinical schools, were communicated only to a few,
+and consequently remained the undisputed property of a limited and
+close organization." From this there developed a varied and
+complicated system of words and numbers which showed their power in
+all forms of magical marvels. Not the least common or puissant of
+these was the healing of the sick.
+
+Knots were sometimes used as charms, and Cockayne gives us an example
+in the preface of _Saxon Leechdoms_: "As soon as a man gets pain in
+his eyes, tie in unwrought flax as many knots as there are letters in
+his name, pronouncing them as you go, and tie it round his neck."
+
+Long before and long after New Testament days when Jesus used spittle
+on the blind, and the time when Vespasian healed the blind by the same
+means, spittle was considered a most efficacious remedy for various
+diseases. Levinus Lemnius tells us: "Divers experiments shew what
+power and quality there is in Man's fasting Spittle, when he hath
+neither eat nor drunk before the use of it: for it cures all tetters,
+itch, scabs, pushes, and creeping sores: and if venomous little beasts
+have fastened on any part of the body, as hornets, beetles, toads,
+spiders, and such like, that by their venome cause tumours and great
+pains and inflammations, do but rub the place with fasting Spittle,
+and all those effects will be gone and dispersed. Since the qualities
+and effects of Spittle come from the humours, (for out of them is it
+drawn by the faculty of Nature, as Fire draws distilled Water from
+hearbs) the reason may be easily understood why Spittle should do such
+strange things, and destroy some creatures."[127]
+
+In _Saxon Leechdoms_ a cure for gout runs thus: "Before getting out of
+bed in the morning, spit on your hand, rub all your sinuews, and say,
+'Flee, gout, flee,' etc." Sir Thomas Browne, however, is not quite
+sure that fasting spittle really is poisonous to snakes and vipers.
+
+Alexander of Tralles tells us that even Galen did homage to
+incantations, and quotes him as saying: "Some think that incantations
+are like old wives' tales; as I did for a long while. But at last I
+was convinced that there is virtue in them by plain proofs before my
+eyes. For I had trial of their beneficial operations in the case of
+those scorpion-stung, nor less in the case of bones stuck fast in the
+throat, immediately, by an incantation thrown up. And many of them are
+excellent, severally, and they reach their mark."
+
+Even before our day, however, there were some sceptics. Andrews,
+quoting Reginald Scot, says: "The Stories which our facetious author
+relates of ridiculous Charms which, by the help of credulity, operated
+Wonders, are extremely laughable. In one of them a poor Woman is
+commemorated who cured all diseases by muttering a certain form of
+Words over the party afflicted; for which service she always received
+one penny and a loaf of bread. At length, terrified by menaces of
+flames both in this world and the next, she owned that her whole
+conjuration consisted in these potent lines, which she always repeated
+in a low voice near the head of her patient:
+
+ 'Thy loaf in my hand,
+  And thy penny in my purse,
+  Thou art never the better--
+  And I am never the worse.'"
+
+Lord Northampton quite fittingly inquires: "What godly reason can any
+Man alyve alledge why Mother Joane of Stowe, speaking these wordes,
+and neyther more nor lesse,
+
+ 'Our Lord was the fyrst Man,
+  That ever Thorne prick'd upon:
+  It never blysted nor it never belted,
+  And I pray God, nor this not may,'
+
+should cure either Beasts, or Men and Women from Diseases?"[128]
+
+Perhaps it would be well for us to treat the subject of charms as we
+have that of amulets, and present the different charms under the
+heading of the diseases which they were supposed to cure.
+
+_Ague._--Many charms were given for this disease, some of which seem
+to us to-day most ridiculous. Brand gives a quotation from the _Life
+of Nicholas Mooney_ who was a notorious highwayman, executed with
+others at Bristol, in 1752. It is as follows: "After the cart drew
+away, the hangman very deservedly had his head broke for attempting to
+pull off Mooney's shoes; and a fellow had like to have been killed in
+mounting the gallows to take away the ropes that were left after the
+malefactors were cut down. A young woman came fifteen miles for the
+sake of the rope from Mooney's neck, which was given to her, it being
+by many apprehended that the halter of an executed person will charm
+away the ague and perform many other cures."
+
+Pettigrew relates that "In Skippon's account of a 'Journey through the
+Low Countries,' he makes mention of the lectures of Ferrarius and his
+narrative of the cure of the ague of a Spanish lieutenant, by writing
+the words FEBRA FUGE, and cutting off a letter from the paper every
+day, and he observed the distemper to abate accordingly; when he cut
+the letter F last of all the ague left him. In the same year, he says,
+fifty more were reported to be cured in the same manner."
+
+Another charm for ague was only effective when said up the chimney on
+St. Agnes Eve, by the eldest female of the family. It was as follows:
+
+ "Tremble and go!
+    First day shiver and burn.
+  Tremble and quake!
+    Second day shiver and learn:
+  Tremble and die!
+    Third day never return."[129]
+
+Pliny said: "Any plant gathered from the bank of a brook or river
+before sunrise, provided that no one sees the person who gathers it,
+is considered as a remedy for tertian ague." Lodge, in glancing at the
+superstitious creed with respect to charms, says: "Bring him but a
+Table of Lead, with Crosses (and 'Adonai,' or 'Elohim,' written in
+it), and he thinks it will heal his ague."
+
+Mr. Marsden, while among the Sumatrans, accidentally met with the
+following charm for the ague: "(Sign of the cross.) When Christ saw
+the cross he trembled and shaked and they said unto him, hast thou
+ague? and he said unto them, I have neither ague nor fever; and
+whosoever bears these words, either in writing or in mind, shall never
+be troubled with ague or fever. So help thy servants, O Lord, who put
+their trust in thee!"
+
+From Douce's notes, Mr. Brand informs us that it was usual with many
+persons about Exeter who had ague "to visit at dead of night the
+nearest cross road five different times, and there bury a new-laid
+egg. The visit is paid about an hour before the cold fit is expected;
+and they are persuaded that with the Egg they shall bury the Ague. If
+the experiment fail, (and the agitation it occasions may often render
+it successful) they attribute it to some unlucky accident that may
+have befallen them on the way. In the execution of this matter they
+observe the strictest silence, taking care not to speak to anyone,
+whom they may happen to meet. I shall here note another Remedy against
+the Ague mentioned as above, viz., by breaking a salted Cake of Bran
+and giving it to a Dog, when the fit comes on, by which means they
+suppose the malady to be transferred from them to the Animal."[130]
+This and similar methods were designated transplantation.
+
+_Bites of Venomous Animals._--It is an old medical superstition that
+every animal whose bite is poisonous carries the cure within itself,
+but external charms were also used. It was thought that the poison of
+the Spanish fly existed in the body, while the head and wings
+contained the antidote. "A hair of the dog that bites you" is the cure
+for hydrophobia, the fat of the viper was the remedy for its bite, and
+"three scruples of the ashes of the witch, when she had been well and
+carefully burnt at a stake, is a sure catholicon against all the evil
+effects of witchcraft."[131]
+
+Serpents' bites, which were always considered very dangerous, were
+said to be healed by people called sauveurs, who had a mark of St.
+Catharine's wheel upon their palates. Snake stones, originally brought
+from Java, were supposed to absorb the poison by being simply placed
+over the bite. Russel mentions a charm against mosquitoes, used in
+Aleppo. It consisted of certain unintelligible characters inscribed on
+a little slip of paper, which was pasted over the windows or upon the
+lintel of the door. One family has obtained, through heredity, the
+power of making these charms, and they distribute them on a certain
+day of the year without remuneration.
+
+Navarette was told that the best remedy against scorpions was to make
+a commemoration of St. George when going to bed. This, he says, never
+failed, but he also rubbed the bed with garlic. The following is given
+as a cure for the sting of the scorpion: "The patient is to sit on an
+ass, with his face to the tail of the animal, by which the pain will
+be transmitted from the man to the beast." Or again, a person who was
+bitten by either a tarantulla or a mad dog must go nine times round
+the town on the Sabbath, calling upon and imploring the assistance of
+the saint. On the third night--the prayers being heard and granted,
+and the health restored--the madness was removed. The prayer was as
+follows:
+
+
+ "Thou who presidest over the Apulian shores,
+  Thou who curest the bites of mad dogs,
+  Thou, O Sacred One, ward off this cruel plague,
+  This dismal gnawing of dogs.
+  Get thee far hence, O madness, O fury."[132]
+
+_Burns._--The following is "A Charme for a burning":
+
+ "There came three angels out of the east;
+  The one brought fire, the two brought frost--
+  Out fire; in frost;
+  In the name of the Father, and Son, and Holy Ghost.
+  --Amen."[133]
+
+_Childbirth._--Many superstitious practices have grown up around this
+condition. In 1554, Bonner, Bishop of London, forbade "a mydwife of
+his diocese to exercise any witchecrafte, charmes, sorcerye,
+invocations, or praiers, other than such as be allowable and may stand
+with the lawes and ordinances of the Catholike Church." In 1559, the
+first year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, an inquiry was instituted
+"whether you knowe any that doe use charmes, sorcery, enchauntementes,
+invocations, circles, witchecraftes, southsayinge, or any lyke craftes
+or imaginacions invented by the devyl, and specially in the tyme of
+woman's travaylle." Two years before this, the midwives took an oath
+among themselves, so Strype tells us, not to "suffer any other bodies'
+child to be set, brought, or laid before any woman delivered of child
+in the place of her natural child, so far forth as I can know and
+understand. Also I will not use any kind of sorcerye or incantation in
+the time of the travail of any woman."
+
+The eagle stone and iris were supposed to promote an easy delivery,
+and the sardonyx was laid _inter mammas_ to procure an easy birth; a
+sardonyx formerly belonged to the monastery of St. Albans to be used
+for this purpose. In some countries, during childbirth, the men lie
+in, keep their beds, and are attended as if really sick, sometimes as
+long as six weeks.[134]
+
+_Chorea._--Of all the charms against this disease, St. Vitus' dance,
+none seemed so effectual as an application to the saint. In the
+translation of Naogeorgus, Barnabe Googe says:
+
+ "The nexte is VITUS sodde in oyle, before whose ymage faire
+  Both men and women bringing hennes for offring doe repaire:
+  The cause whereof I doe not know, I think, for some disease
+  Which he is thought to drive away from such as him doe please."
+
+_Colic._--This disorder was cured by a person drinking the water in
+which he had washed his feet; we might well consider the cure worse
+than the disease.
+
+_Consumption._--Shaw[135] speaks of a cure for consumptive diseases
+used in his time in Moray. "They pared the Nails of the Fingers and
+Toes of the Patient, put these Parings into a Rag cut from his
+clothes, then waved their Hand with the Rag thrice round his head
+crying _Deas soil_, after which they buried the Rag in some unknown
+place." Dr. Baas[136] declares that natural pills of rabbit's dung
+were in use on the Rhine as a cure for consumption.
+
+"There is a disease," says the minister of Logierait, writing in 1795,
+"called Glacach by the Highlanders, which, as it affects the chest and
+lungs, is evidently of a consumptive nature. It is called Macdonald's
+disease, 'because there are particular tribes of Macdonalds, who were
+believed to cure it with the Charms of their touch, and the use of a
+certain set of words. There must be no fee given of any kind. Their
+faith in the touch of a Macdonald is very great.'"[137]
+
+_Cramp._--Among the many charms for cramp, the following is taken from
+_Pepys' Diary_:[138]
+
+ "Cramp be thou faintless,
+  As our Lady was sinless
+  When she bare Jesus."
+
+_Demoniacal Possession._--To know when a person is possessed, try the
+following, says King: "Take the harte and liver of a fysshe called a
+Pyck, and put them into a pot wyth glowynge hot coles, and hold the
+same to the patient so that the smoke may entre into hym. If he is
+possessed he cannot abyde that smoke, but rageth and is angry." "It is
+good also to make a fyre in hys chamber of Juniper wood, and caste
+into the fire Franckincense and S. John's wort, for the evill spirits
+cannot abyde thys sent, and Waxe angry, whereby may be perceived
+whether a man be possessed or not."[139] I am afraid that possession
+would be sadly common if either of these tests were applied.
+
+_Dislocation._--Among the oldest charms we have is one given by Cato
+the Censor for the reduction of a dislocated limb, and passed on to us
+by Pettigrew.
+
+"A dislocation may be cured by this charm. Take a reed four or five
+feet long; cut it in the middle, and let two men hold the points
+towards each other for insertion. While this is doing repeat these
+words: _In Alio S. F. Motas væta, Daries Dardaries Astataries
+Dissunapitur_. Now jerk a piece of iron upon the reeds at their
+juncture, and cut right and left. Bind them to the dislocation or
+fracture, and it will effect a cure."[140]
+
+_Dropsy._--Toads were formed into a powder called Pulvis Æthiopicus,
+the mode of preparation being given in Bates's Pharmacopoeia. This
+powder was used externally, and also given internally in cases of
+dropsy and other diseases.
+
+_Epilepsy._--The liver of a dead athlete was a sovereign remedy
+against epilepsy in early days. In Lincolnshire a portion of a human
+skull taken from a grave was grated and given to epileptics as a cure
+for fits, and the water in which a corpse had been washed was given to
+a man in Glasgow for the same purpose.[141] Another remedy was also
+proposed: "If a man be greved wyth the fallinge sicknesse, let him
+take a he-Wolves harte and make it to pouder and use it: but if it be
+a woman, let her take a she-Wolves harte."[142]
+
+John of Gladdesden, who was court physician from 1305-1317, spoke thus
+concerning epilepsy: "Because there are many children and others
+afflicted with the epilepsy, who cannot take medicines, let the
+following experiment be tried, which I have found to be effectual,
+whether the patient was a demoniac, a lunatic, or an epileptic. When
+the patient and his parents have fasted three days, let them conduct
+him to church. If he be of a proper age, and of his right senses, let
+him confess. Then let him hear Mass on Friday, and also on Saturday.
+On Sunday let a good and religious priest read over the head of the
+patient, in the church, the gospel which is read in September, in the
+time of vintage, after the feast of the Holy Cross. After this, let
+the priest write the same gospel devoutly, and let the patient wear it
+about his neck, and he shall be cured. The gospel is, 'This kind goeth
+not out but by prayer and fasting.'"[143]
+
+Among some African tribes the foot of an elk is considered a splendid
+remedy against epilepsy. One foot only of each animal possesses
+virtue, and the way to ascertain the valuable foot is to "knock the
+beast down, when he will immediately lift up that leg which is most
+efficacious to scratch his ear. Then you must be ready with a sharp
+scymitar to lop off the medicinal limb, and you shall find an
+infallible remedy against the falling sickness treasured up in his
+claws." The American Indians and mediæval Norwegians also considered
+this a sure remedy. The person afflicted, however, must apply it to
+his heart, hold it in his left hand, and rub his ear with it.[144]
+
+_Evil-eye._--Children were supposed to be most susceptible to the
+evil-eye. Charms and amulets were furnished against fascination in
+general. Certain figures in bronze, coral, ivory, etc., representing a
+closed hand with the thumb thrust out between the first and second
+fingers called the _fig_, were common. In Henry IV, Part II, Pistol
+says:
+
+ "When Pistol lies, do this; and fig me, like
+  The bragging Spaniard."
+
+_Eye Diseases._--Among the early Germans, ambulatory female medicists
+were not uncommon, and they cured largely through charms. The
+following is a charm used for eye diseases:
+
+ "Three maidens once going
+  On a verdant highway;
+  One could cure blindness,
+  Another cured cataract,
+  Third cured inflammation;
+  But all cured by one means."[145]
+
+_Fevers._--This charm was used for fever: "Wryt thys Wordys on a
+lorell lef[+]Ysmael[+]Ysmael[+] adjuro vos per Angelum ut soporetur
+iste Homo N. and ley thys lef under hys head that he wete not therof,
+and let hym ete Letuse oft and drynk Ip'e seed smal grounden in a
+morter, and temper yt with Ale."[146]
+
+"The fever," says Werenfels, "he will not drive away by medicines,
+but, what is a more certain remedy, having pared his nails and tied
+them to a crayfish, he will turn his back, and as Deucalion did the
+stones from which a new progeny of men arose, throw them behind him
+into the next river."[147]
+
+The "Leech book"[148] says that for typhus fever the patient is to
+drink of a decoction of herbs over which many masses have been sung,
+then say the names of the four "gospellers" and a charm and a prayer.
+Again, a man is to write a charm in silence, and just as silently put
+the words in his left breast and take care not to go in-doors with the
+writing upon him, the words being EMMANUEL VERONICA. The Loseley MSS.
+prescribe the following for all manner of fevers: "Take iii drops of a
+woman's mylke yt norseth a knave childe, and do it in a hennes egge
+that ys sedentere (or sitting), and let hym suppe it up when the evyl
+takes hym."
+
+_Goitre._--The dew collected from the grave of the last man buried in
+a church-yard has been used as a lotion for goitre, and a
+correspondent of _Notes and Queries_ for May 24, 1851, furnishes two
+remedies then in use at Withyam, Sussex. "A common snake, held by its
+head and tail, is slowly drawn by someone standing by nine times
+across the front part of the neck of the person affected, the reptile
+being allowed, after every third time, to crawl about for awhile.
+Afterwards the snake is put alive in a bottle, which is corked
+tightly, and then buried in the ground. The tradition is, that as the
+snake decays, the swelling vanishes. The second mode of treatment is
+just the same as the above, with the exception of the snake's doom. In
+this case it is kidded, and its skin, sewn in a piece of silk, is worn
+round the diseased neck. By degrees the swelling in this case also
+disappears."
+
+_Headache._--In Brand's day, the rope which remained after a man had
+been hanged and cut down was an object of eager competition, being
+regarded as of great virtue in attacks of headache, and Gross says:
+"Moss growing on a human skull, if dried, powdered, and taken as
+snuff, will cure the Headach." Loadstone was also recommended as a
+sovereign remedy for this malady. Pliny said that any person might be
+immediately cured of the headache by the application of any plant
+which has grown on the head of a statue, provided it be folded in the
+shred of a garment, and tied to the part affected with a red string.
+
+_Hemorrhage._--The following charm has been used to stop bleeding at
+the nose and other hemorrhages:
+
+ "In the blood of Adam Sin was taken,
+  In the blood of Christ it was all shaken,
+  And by the same blood I do the charge,
+  That the blood of (insert name) run no longer at large."
+
+Pepys in his _Diary_ gives us a Latin charm of which the following is
+a translation:
+
+ "Blood remain in Thee,
+  As Christ was in himself;
+  Blood remain in thy veins,
+  As Christ in his pains;
+  Blood remain fixed,
+  As Christ was on the crucifix."
+
+Brand, the historian of Orkney, says: "They have a charm whereby they
+stop excessive bleeding in any, whatever way they come by it, whether
+by or without external violence. The name of the Patient being sent to
+the Charmer, he saith over some words, (which I heard,) upon which the
+blood instantly stoppeth, though the bleeding Patient were at the
+greatest distance from the Charmer. Yea, upon the saying of these
+words, the blood will stop in the bleeding throats of oxen or sheep,
+to the astonishment of Spectators. Which account we had from the
+Ministers of the Country."
+
+Boyle says: "Having been one summer frequently subject to bleeding at
+the nose, and reduced to employ several remedies to check that
+distemper; that which I found the most effectual to stanch the blood
+was some moss of a dead man's skull, (sent for a present out of
+Ireland, where it is far less rare than in most other countries,)
+though it did but touch my skin, till the herb was a little warmed by
+it."[149]
+
+Brand gives "A charme to staunch blood: Jesus that was in Bethleem born,
+and baptyzed was in the flumen Jordane, as stente the water at hys
+comyng, so stente the blood of thys man N. thy servvaunt, thorw the
+virtu of thy holy Name [+] Jesu [+] & of thy Cosyn swete Sent Jon. And
+sey thys charme fyve tymes with fyve Pater Nosters, in the worschep of
+the fyve woundys."[150]
+
+"In the year 1853," says Berdoe, "I saw among the more precious drugs
+in the shop of a pharmaceutical chemist at Leamington a bottle
+labelled in the ordinary way with the words, Moss from a Dead-Man's
+Skull. This has long been used, superstitiously, dried, powdered, and
+taken as snuff, for headache and bleeding at the nose."
+
+_Herpes._--Turner[151] notices a prevalent charm among old women for
+the shingles, and which is not uncommonly heard of to-day. It was to
+smear on the affected part the blood from a black cat's tail.
+He says that in the only case when he saw it used it caused
+considerable mischief.
+
+_Incubus._--Stones with holes through them were commonly called
+hag-stones, and were often attached to the key of the stable door to
+prevent witches riding the horses. One of these suspended at the head
+of the bed was celebrated for the prevention of nightmare. In the
+"Leech book"[152] we find the following: "If a mare or hag ride a man,
+take lupins, garlic, and betony, and frankincense, bind them on a fawn
+skin, let a man have the worts on him, and let him go into his house."
+Notice the following from Lluellin's poems:
+
+ "Some the night-mare hath prest
+  With that weight on their brest,
+    No returnes of their breath can passe,
+  But to us the tale is addle,
+  We can take off her saddle,
+    And turn out the night-mare to grasse."
+
+_Insomnia._--In the Loseley MSS. we find a receipt "For hym that may
+not slepe. Take and wryte yese wordes into leves of lether: Ismael!
+Ismael! adjuro te per Angelum Michaelum ut soporetur homo iste; and
+lay this under his bed, so yt he wot not yerof and use it allway
+lytell, and lytell, as he have nede yerto."
+
+_Jaundice._--This disease was sometimes cured by transplantation, and
+Paracelsus gives us a method for carrying this out. Make seven or
+nine--it must be an odd number--cakes of the newly emitted and warm
+urine of the patient with the ashes of ash wood, and bury them for
+some days in a dunghill.
+
+In the journal of Dr. Edward Browne, transmitted to his father, Sir
+Thomas Browne, we read of a magical cure for jaundice: "Burne wood
+under a leaden vessel filled with water; take the ashes of that wood,
+and boyle it with the patient's urine; then lay nine long heaps of the
+boyled ashes upon a board in a ranke, and upon every heap lay nine
+spears of crocus: it hath greater effects than is credible to any one
+that shall barely read this receipt without experiencing."[153]
+
+_Madness._--The early inhabitants of Cornwall used "to place the
+disordered in mind on the brink of a square pool, filled with water
+from St. Nun's well. The patient, having no intimation of what was
+intended, was, by a sudden blow on the breast, tumbled into the pool,
+where he was tossed up and down by some persons of superior strength
+till, being quite debilitated, his fury forsook him; he was then
+carried to church, and certain masses were sung over him. A similar
+practice of the people of Perthshire is noticed by Sir Walter Scott in
+_Marmion_.
+
+ "Thence to St. Fillan's blessed well,
+  Whose spring can frenzied dreams dispel,
+  And the crazed brain restore."
+
+_Marasmus._--Mr. Boyle relates the case of a physician whose wan face
+betokened a marasmus, and who was induced to try a method not unlike
+the sympathetic cures. "He took an egg and boiled it hard in his own
+warm urine; he then with a bodkin perforated the shell in many
+places, and buried it in an ant-hill, where it was kept to be devoured
+by the emmets; and as they wasted the egg, he found his distemper to
+abate and his strength to increase, insomuch that his disease left
+him."[154]
+
+_Rickets._--The most common method of dealing with this disease was by
+drawing the children through a split tree. The tree was afterward
+bound up and, as it healed and grew together, the children acquired
+strength; at least, so 'twas said. Sir John Cullum saw the operation
+performed and says that the ash tree was selected as most preferable
+for the purpose. "It was split longitudinally about five feet: the
+fissure was kept open by the gardener, whilst the friend of the child,
+having first stripped him naked, passed him thrice through it, almost
+head foremost. This accomplished, the tree was bound up with
+packthread, and as the bark healed, so it was said the child would
+recover. One of the cases was of rickets, the other a rupture."
+Drawing the children through a perforated stone was also a cure for
+rickets, providing that two brass pins were carefully laid across each
+other on the top edge of this stone.[155]
+
+_Sciatica._--Sleeping on stones on a particular night was formerly
+practised in Cornwall to cure all forms of lameness. Boneshave was the
+term used for sciatica in Exmoor, where the following charm was used
+for its cure: The patient must lie on his back on the bank of a river
+or brook, having a straight staff lying by his side between him and
+the water, and must have the following words repeated over him:
+
+ "Boneshave right,
+  Boneshave straight.
+  As the water runs by the stave
+  Good for Boneshave."[156]
+
+_Scrofula._--Scrofula, or "king's-evil," was best cured by the touch
+of the sovereign, but, if this could not be accomplished, a naked
+virgin could cure it, especially if she spit three times upon it.
+Stroking the affected parts nine times with the hand of a dead man,
+particularly of one who had suffered a violent death as a penalty of
+his crime, especially if it be murder, was long practised, and was
+said to be efficacious in curing scrofula.
+
+_Sweating Sickness._--Aubrey[157] gives a selection of the favorite
+prescriptions in use against the sweating sickness. Among them was the
+following: "Another very true medicine.--For to say every day at seven
+parts of your body, seven paternosters, and seven Ave Marias, with one
+Credo at the last. Ye shall begyn at the ryght syde, under the right
+ere, saying the '_paternoster qui es in coelis, sanctificetur nomen
+tuum_,' with a cross made there with your thumb, and so say the
+paternoster full complete, and one Ave Maria, and then under the left
+ere, and then under the left armhole, and then under the left hole,
+and then the last at the heart, with one paternoster, Ave Maria with
+one Credo; and these thus said daily, with the grace of God is there
+no manner drede hym."
+
+_Thorns._--Three metrical charms have been used for troubles of this
+kind. _Pepys' Diary_ records "A charme for a thorne":
+
+ "Jesus, that was of a Virgin Born,
+  Was pricked both with nail and thorn;
+  It neither wealed, nor belled, rankled nor boned;
+  In the name of Jesus no more shall this."
+
+Another form of the same is this:
+
+ "Christ was of a Virgin born,
+  And he was pricked with a thorn;
+  It did neither bell, nor swell;
+  And I trust in Jesus this never will."
+
+Brand gives another thus:
+
+ "Unto the Virgin Mary our Saviour was born,
+  And on his head he wore the crown of thorn;
+  If you believe this true and mind it well,
+  This hurt will never fester, nor yet swell."[158]
+
+_Toothache._--King in his interesting article recites this cure:
+"Seeth as many little green frogges sitting upon trees as thou canst
+get, in water: take the fat flowynge from them, and when nede is,
+anoynt the teth therwyth. The graye worms breathing under wood or
+stone, having many fete, these perced through with a bodken and then
+put into the toth, alayeth the payne."[159] A nail driven into an oak
+tree is reported to be a cure for this pain, and bones from a
+church-yard have from ancient times been used as charms against this
+disease.
+
+An early idea was that toothache was caused by a worm and that henbane
+seed roasted would cure it. The following from "The School of Salerne"
+formulates this superstition:
+
+ "If in your teeth you hap to be tormented,
+  By meane some little wormes therein do breed,
+  Which pain (if heed be tane) may be prevented,
+  Be keeping cleane your teeth, when as you feede;
+  Burne Francomsence (a gum not evil sented),
+  Put Henbane unto this, and Onyon seed,
+  And with a tunnel to the tooth that's hollow,
+  Convey the smoke thereof, and ease shall follow."
+
+Even to-day, I suppose, druggists sell henbane seed for this purpose.
+The seed is used by sprinkling it on hot cinders and holding the open
+mouth over the rising smoke. The heat causes the seed to sprout, and
+thus there appears something similar to a maggot, which is ignorantly
+supposed by the sufferer to have dropped from the tooth.[160]
+
+_Warts._--The cures for warts are many and varied. There have been
+many charms devised for their removal. Grose gives directions to
+"Steal a piece of beef from a butcher's shop, and rub your wart with
+it, then throw it down the necessary house, or bury it, and as the
+beef rots, your warts will decay."[161] Some have great faith in
+having a vagrant count them, mark the number on the inside of his hat,
+and then when he leaves the neighborhood he takes the warts with him.
+Coffin water was also considered good for them.
+
+"For warts," says Sir Thomas Browne, "we rub our hands before the
+moon, and commit any magulated part to the touch of the dead. Old
+Women were always famous for curing warts; they were so in Lucian's
+time."[162]
+
+Sir Kenelm Digby, in a work already referred to, says: "One would
+think that it were folly that one should offer to wash his hands in a
+well-polished silver basin, wherein there is not a drop of water, yet
+this may be done by the reflection of the moonbeams only, which will
+afford it a competent humidity to do it; but they who have tried it,
+have found their hands, after they are wiped, to be much moister than
+usually; but this is an infallible way to take away warts from the
+hands, if it be often used."
+
+Black gives us several ways of charming away warts. He says:
+"Lancashire wise men tell us for warts to rub them with a cinder, and
+this tied up in paper, and dropped where four roads meet, will
+transfer the warts to whoever opens the parcel. Another mode of
+transferring warts is to touch each wart with a pebble, and place the
+pebbles in a bag, which should be lost on the way to church; whoever
+finds the bag gets the warts." A common Warwickshire custom was to rub
+the warts with a black snail, stick the snail on a thorn bush, and
+then, say the folks, as the snail dies so will the wart
+disappear.[163]
+
+Warts, on the other hand, seem in certain cases to be considered
+lucky. In "Syr Gyles Goosecappe, Knight," a play of 1606, Lord Momford
+is made to say: "The Creses here are excellent good: the proportion
+of the chin good; the little aptnes of it to sticke out; good. And the
+wart aboue it most exceeding good."
+
+_Wen._--A newspaper of 1777 reports: "After he (Doctor Dodd) had hung
+about ten minutes, a very decently dressed young woman went up to the
+gallows in order to have a wen in her face stroked by the Doctor's
+hand; it being a received opinion among the vulgar that it is a
+certain cure for such a disorder. The executioner, having untied the
+Doctor's hand, stroked the part affected several times therewith."
+
+At the execution of Crowley, a murderer of Warwick, in 1845, a similar
+scene is described in the newspapers: "At least five thousand persons
+of the lowest of the low were mustered on this occasion to witness the
+dying moments of the unhappy culprit.... As is usual in such cases (to
+their shame be it spoken) a number of females were present, and
+scarcely had the soul of the deceased taken its farewell flight from
+its earthly tabernacle, than the scaffold was crowded with members of
+the 'gentler sex' afflicted with wens in the neck, with white
+swellings in the knees, &c., upon whose afflictions the cold clammy
+hand of the sufferer was passed to and fro for the benefit of his
+executioner."[164]
+
+_Whooping-Cough._--It was a common belief in Devonshire, Cornwall, and
+some other parts of England, that if one inquired of any one riding on
+a piebald horse of a remedy for this complaint, whatever he named was
+regarded as an infallible cure. In Suffolk and Norfolk, a favorite
+remedy was to put the head of a suffering child for a few minutes into
+a hole made in a meadow. It must be done in the evening with only the
+father and mother to witness it.
+
+A child in Cornwall received the following treatment: "If afflicted
+with the hooping cough, it is fed with the bread and butter of a
+family, the heads of which bear respectively the names of John and
+Joan. In the time of an epidemic, so numerous are the applications,
+that the poor couple have little reason to be grateful to their
+godfathers and godmothers for their gift of these particular names.
+Or, if a piebald horse is to be found in the neighbourhood, the child
+is taken to it, and passed thrice under the belly of the animal; the
+mere possession of such a beast confers the power of curing the
+disease."
+
+We have an account of a cure for whooping-cough in a Monmouthshire
+paper about the middle of the nineteenth century. "A few days since an
+unusual circumstance was observed at Pillgwenlly, which caused no
+small degree of astonishment to one or two enlightened beholders. A
+patient ass stood near a house, and a family of not much more rational
+animals was grouped around it. A father was passing his little son
+under the donkey, and lifting him over its back a certain number of
+times, with as much solemnity and precision as if engaged in the
+performance of a sacred duty. This done, the father took a piece of
+bread, cut from an untasted loaf, which he offered the animal to bite
+at. Nothing loath, the Jerusalem poney laid hold of the piece of bread
+with his teeth, and instantly the father severed the outer portion of
+the slice from that in the donkey's mouth. He next clipped off some
+hairs from the neck of the animal, which he cut up into minute
+particles, and then mixed them with the bread which he had crumbled.
+This very tasty food was then offered to the boy who had been passed
+round the donkey so mysteriously, and the little fellow having eaten
+thereof, the donkey was removed by his owners. The father, his son,
+and other members of his family were moving off, when a bystander
+inquired what all these 'goings on' had been adopted for? The father
+stared at the ignorance of the inquirer, and then in a half
+contemptuous, half condescending tone, informed him that 'it was to
+cure his poor son's whooping-cough, to be sure!' Extraordinary as this
+may appear, in days when the schoolmaster is so much in request, it is
+nevertheless true."
+
+There is a belief in Cheshire that, if a toad is held for a moment
+within the mouth of the patient, it is apt to catch the disease, and
+so cure the person suffering from it. A correspondent of _Notes and
+Queries_ speaks of a case in which such a phenomenon actually
+occurred; but the experiment is one which would not be very willingly
+tried. Brand informs us that "Roasted mice were formerly held in
+Norfolk a sure remedy for this complaint; nor is it certain that the
+belief is extinct even now. A poor woman's son once found himself
+greatly relieved after eating three roast mice!"[165]
+
+_Worms._--A Scotch writer in the last half of the seventeenth century
+observed: "In the Miscellaneous MSS. ... written by Baillie Dundee,
+among several medicinal receipts I find an exorcism against all kinds
+of worms in the body, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,
+to be repeated three mornings, as a certain remedy."[166]
+
+
+  [122] S. B. Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_,
+  p. 273.
+
+  [123] H. Morley, _Life of Cornelius Agrippa_, I, p. 165.
+
+  [124] M. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_, p. 436.
+
+  [125] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [126] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 72.
+
+  [127] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 229 f.
+
+  [128] _Ibid._, III, pp. 228 and 237.
+
+  [129] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 94 f.
+
+  [130] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 252 f.
+
+  [131] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 416.
+
+  [132] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Surgery and Medicine_, pp. 104-106.
+
+  [133] _Pepys' Diary_, I, p. 323.
+
+  [134] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 113-115.
+
+  [135] _History of Moray_, p. 248.
+
+  [136] _History of Medicine_, p. 159.
+
+  [137] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 240 and
+  248.
+
+  [138] I, p. 324.
+
+  [139] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 149.
+
+  [140] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 77.
+
+  [141] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Medical Art_,
+  pp. 397 and 414.
+
+  [142] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [143] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 327.
+
+  [144] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 84 f.
+
+  [145] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 196.
+
+  [146] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 237.
+
+  [147] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 92.
+
+  [148] II, p. 139.
+
+  [149] _Ibid._, pp. 112 f.
+
+  [150] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 237,
+  241, and 268.
+
+  [151] _Diseases of the Skin_, p. 82.
+
+  [152] II, p. 139.
+
+  [153] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 103.
+
+  [154] _Ibid._, p. 102.
+
+  [155] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 249 f.
+
+  [156] _Ibid._, p. 245.
+
+  [157] _History of England_, II, p. 296.
+
+  [158] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 264.
+
+  [159] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 148.
+
+  [160] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 414 f.
+
+  [161] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 108.
+
+  [162] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 241.
+
+  [163] Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 415 f.
+
+  [164] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 241.
+
+  [165] _Ibid._, p. 239.
+
+  [166] _Ibid._, p. 240.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ROYAL TOUCH
+
+
+ "Men may die of imagination,
+  So depe may impression be take."--CHAUCER.
+
+  "When time shall once have laid his lenient hand on the
+  passions and pursuits of the present moment, they too
+  shall lose that imaginary value which heated fancy now
+  bestows upon them."--BLAIR.
+
+  "The king is but a man, as I am; the violet smells to
+  him as it does to me; the element shows to him as it
+  doth to me; all his senses have but human conditions;
+  his ceremonies laid by, in his nakedness he appears but
+  a man; and though his affections are higher mounted than
+  ours, yet, when they stoop, they stoop with the like
+  wing."--SHAKESPEARE.
+
+  _Malcolm._        Comes the king forth, I pray you?
+
+  _Doctor._ Ay, sir: there are a crew of wretched souls,
+  That stay his cure: their malady convinces
+  The great assay of art; but at his touch,
+  Such sanctity hath heaven given his hand,
+  They presently amend.
+
+  _Malcolm._    I thank you, doctor.  [Exit _Doctor._
+
+  _Macduff._ What's the disease he means?
+
+  _Malcolm._           'Tis call'd the evil:
+  A most miraculous work in this good king,
+  Which often, since my here remain in England,
+  I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven,
+  Himself best knows; but strangely-visited people,
+  All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye,
+  The mere despair of surgery, he cures;
+  Hanging a golden stamp about their necks,
+  Put on with holy prayers: and 'tis spoken,
+  To the succeeding royalty he leaves
+  The healing benediction.--_Macbeth_, Act iv, Sc. 3.
+
+Perhaps we have no better example of the effect of the belief in
+healers than that presented by what was known as "king's touch." It is
+typical of the cures performed by healers, and on that account I shall
+give a rather full account of the phenomenon.
+
+Touching by the sovereign for the amelioration of sundry diseases was
+a currently accepted therapeutic measure. The royal touch was
+especially efficacious in epilepsy and scrofula, the latter being
+consequently known as "king's-evil." So far as we are able to trace
+this practice in history, it began with Edward the Confessor in
+England and St. Louis in France. There has been not a little dispute
+concerning its real origin. "Laurentius, first physician to Henry IV,
+of France, who is indignant at the attempt made to derive its origin
+from Edward the Confessor, asserts the power to have commenced with
+Clovis I, A. D. 481, and says that Louis I, A. D. 814, added to the
+ceremonial of touching, the sign of the cross. Mezeray also says, that
+St. Louis, through humility, first added the sign of the cross in
+touching for the king's evil."[167]
+
+[Illustration: KING'S TOUCH-PIECES]
+
+William of Malmesbury gives the origin of the royal touch in his
+account of the miracles of Edward the Confessor. "A young woman had
+married a husband of her own age, but having no issue by the union,
+the humours collecting abundantly about her neck, she had contracted a
+sore disorder, the glands swelling in a dreadful manner. Admonished in
+a dream to have the part affected washed by the king, she entered the
+palace, and the king himself fulfilled this labour of love, by rubbing
+the woman's neck with his fingers dipped in water. Joyous health
+followed his healing hand; the lurid skin opened, so that worms flowed
+out with the purulent matter, and the tumour subsided. But as the
+orifice of the ulcers was large and unsightly, he commanded her to be
+supported at the royal expense until she should be perfectly cured.
+However, before a week had expired, a fair new skin returned, and hid
+the scars so completely, that nothing of the original wound could be
+discovered; and within a year becoming the mother of twins, she
+increased the admiration of Edward's holiness. Those who knew him more
+intimately, affirm that he often cured this complaint in Normandy;
+whence appears how false is the notion, who in our times assert, that
+the cure of this disease does not proceed from personal sanctity, but
+from hereditary virtue in the royal line."[168] The fact that Edward
+was a saint as well as a king throws some light on the subject, for
+many miracles were attributed to him. Jeremy Collier maintained that
+the scrofula miracle is hereditary upon all his successors, but we
+find that not blood but royal prestige was the secret. He said "that
+this prince cured the king's evil is beyond dispute: and since the
+credit of this miracle is unquestionable, I see no reason why we
+should scruple believing the rest.... King Edward the Confessor was
+the first that cured this distemper, and from him it has descended as
+an hereditary miracle upon all his successors. To dispute the matter
+of fact, is to go to the excesses of skepticism, to deny our senses,
+and be incredulous even to ridiculousness."[169]
+
+The quotation given above from William of Malmesbury is the earliest
+mention of the gift of healing by the royal touch. No historian at or
+near the time of Edward has alluded to the supposed power vested in
+him. Not even the bull of Pope Alexander III, by which Edward was
+canonized about two centuries after his decease, makes any allusion
+whatever to the cures effected by him through the imposition of hands.
+
+English and French writers have disagreed not only regarding the
+origin, but also regarding the real possession of the power, the
+English denying it to the French kings and the French with equal vigor
+restricting it to their own sovereigns. There seems to be little doubt
+that the sovereigns of both nations made cures, but the healing was
+confined to these two royal families; the intermarriages in the two
+families probably account for the belief in the transmission of the
+gift, regardless of the origin.
+
+The ability to heal certain diseases passed down from reign to reign
+notwithstanding the religious belief, the character, or the legitimate
+succession of the sovereign, to the time of Queen Anne. It must not be
+supposed that the practice was continuous for the seven centuries from
+Edward the Confessor to Anne: we have no record whatever of the first
+four Norman kings attempting to cure any one by the imposition of
+hands, and we know that William III refused to attempt healing. Andrew
+Boorde defines king's-evil as an "euyl sickenes or impediment," and
+advises as follows: "For this matter let euery man make frendes to the
+Kynges maiestie, for it doth pertayne to a Kynge to helpe this
+infirmitie by the grace the whiche is geuen to a Kynge anoynted." In
+his _Introduction to Knowledge_ (1547-1548) he continues: "The Kynges
+of England by the power that God hath gyuen to them, dothe make sicke
+men whole of a sickeness called the kynges euyll."[170]
+
+There is a curious passage in Aubrey in which he says: "The curing of
+the King's Evil by the touch of the king, does much puzzle our
+philosophers, for whether our kings were of the house of York or
+Lancaster, it did the cure for the most part." Sir John Fortescue, in
+defending the House of Lancaster against the House of York, claimed
+that the crown could not descend to a female because the Queen was not
+qualified by the form of anointing her to cure the disease called the
+king's-evil. It must have been very comforting to all concerned to find
+that the power to cure disease by the royal touch had not been affected
+by the change of sex of the reigning sovereign.
+
+The gift was not impaired by the Reformation, and an obdurate Roman
+Catholic was converted on finding that Elizabeth, after the Pope's
+excommunication, could cure his scrofula. Elizabeth, however, could
+not bring herself fully to accept the reality of these cures. She
+continued the practice on account of the pressure of public opinion,
+but upon one occasion she told a multitude of afflicted ones who had
+applied to her for relief, "God alone can cure your diseases." Dr.
+Tooker, the Queen's chaplain, though, certified freely to his own
+knowledge of the cures wrought by her, as did also William Cowles, the
+Queen's surgeon. Robert Laneham's letter, concerning the Queen's visit
+to Kenilworth Castle, relates how, on July 18, 1575, her Majesty
+touched for the evil, and that it was a "day of grace." "By her
+highnes accustumed mercy and charitee, nyne cured of the peynfull and
+daungerous diseaz, called the king's euill; for that Kings and Queenz
+of this Realm withoout oother medsin (saue only by handling and
+prayerz) only doo cure it."
+
+James I wished to drop it as a worn-out superstition, but was warned
+by his advisers that to do so would be to abate a prerogative of the
+crown; the practice therefore continued, and good testimony exists as
+to the cures wrought by him. The following is an extract from a letter
+from John Chamberlain to Sir Dudley Carleton, ambassador at The Hague,
+dated London, 14th November, 1618: "The Turkish Chiaus is shortly
+coming for the Hagh. On Tuesday last he took leave of the king, and
+thanked his majesty for healing his sonne of the kinges evill; which
+his majesty performed with all solemnity at Whitehall on Thursday was
+sevenight." Charles I also enjoyed the same power, notwithstanding
+the public declaration by Parliament "to inform the people of the
+superstition of being touched by the king for the evil." When a
+prisoner he cured a man by simply saying, "God bless thee and grant
+thee thy desire," the Puritans not permitting him to touch the
+patient. Whereupon it is asserted by Dr. John Nicholas on his own
+knowledge, the blotches and humors disappeared from the patient's body
+and appeared in the bottle of medicine which he held in his hand.
+Charles's blood had the same efficacy. This sovereign substituted in
+some cases the giving of a piece of silver instead of the gold, which
+was usually presented to the patient. Badger says that this king
+"excelled all his predecessors in the divine gift; for it is manifest
+beyond all contradiction, that he not only cured by his sacred touch,
+both with and without gold, but likewise perfectly effected the same
+cure by his prayer and benediction only." In his reign the gift was
+exercised at certain seasons of the year, Easter and Michaelmas being
+at first set apart for this purpose. A further regulation, which is
+quite suggestive, was that the patient must present a certificate to
+the effect that he had never before been touched for the disease.
+
+The following incident is related concerning Charles I: "A young
+gentlewoman of about sixteen years of age, Elizabeth Stevens, of
+Winchester, came (7 October, 1648) into the presence-chamber to be
+touched for the evill, which she was supposed to have; and therewith
+one of her eyes (that namely on the left side) was so much indisposed,
+that by her owne and her mother's testimony (who was then also
+present), she had not seene with that eye of above a month before.
+After prayers, read by Dr. Sanderson, the maide kneeled downe among
+others, likewise to be touched. And his majestie touched her, and put
+a ribbon, with a piece of money at it, in usuall manner, about her
+neck. Which done, his majesty turned to the lords (viz., the duke of
+Richmond, the earl of Southampton, and the earl of Lindsey) to
+discourse with them. And the said young gentlewoman of her own accord
+said openly: 'Now, God be praised! I can see of this fore eye.' And
+afterwards declared she did see more and more by it, & could, by
+degrees, endure the light of the candle. All which his majestie, in
+the presence of the said lords & many others, examined himself, &
+found to be true. And it hath since been discovered that, some months
+agone, the said young gentlewoman professed that, as soon as she was
+come of age sufficient, she would convey over to the king's use all
+her land; which to the valew of about £130 _per annum_, her father
+deceased had left her sole heyre unto."[171]
+
+Charles II, perhaps the most unworthy of English monarchs, was by far
+the busiest healer, and even while in exile in the Netherlands he
+retained the power to cure. In one month he touched two hundred and
+sixty at Breda, and Lower said: "It was not without success, since it
+was the experience that drew thither every day a great number of those
+diseased even from the most remote provinces of Germany." An official
+register of the persons touched was kept for every month in his reign,
+but about two and a half years appear to be wanting. The smallest
+number he touched in one year was 2,983; that was in 1669. In 1682 he
+touched 8,500 persons. In 1684 the throng was such that six or seven
+of the sick were trampled to death. The total number touched in his
+reign was 92,107.[172] It is instructive to note, however, that while
+in no other reign were so many people touched for scrofula and so many
+cures vouched for, in no other reign did so many people die of that
+disease.[173]
+
+John Browne, surgeon in ordinary to his majesty and to St. Thomas's
+Hospital, and author of many learned works on surgery and anatomy,
+published accounts of sixty cures due to this monarch. He says a
+surgeon attested the reality of the disease before the miracle was
+performed, to exclude impostors who were seeking the gold, for, in
+addition to the regular formula, the king hung about the neck of the
+person touched a ribbon to which was attached a gold coin.
+Notwithstanding these stringent measures, some were able to impose on
+the king, for the coins were often found in the shops, having been
+sold by the recipients. Says Brand: "Barrington tells us of an old man
+who was a witness in a cause, and averred that when Queen Anne was at
+Oxford, she touched him whilst a child for the evil. Barrington, when
+he had finished his evidence, 'asked him whether he was really cured?
+upon which he answered with a significant smile, that he believed
+himself never to have had a complaint that deserved to be considered
+as the Evil, but that his parents were poor, and had no objection to
+the bit of gold.'"[174]
+
+While it was not unknown before, the presentation of a piece of gold
+was first generally introduced in the reign of Henry VII. It probably
+descended from a practice common in the time of Edward III, whose
+coin, the rose-noble, is said to have been worn as an amulet to
+preserve from danger in battle. The angel-noble of Henry VII, valued
+at ten shillings, appears to have been the coin given; it was in
+common use and not made especially for this purpose. It had the figure
+of the Archangel Michael on one side and a ship in full sail on the
+other. Before hanging it on the patient's neck the monarch always
+crossed the sore with it. The outlay for gold coins presented to the
+afflicted on these occasions rose in some years as high as £10,000. So
+great was the expense that after the reign of Elizabeth the size of
+the coin was reduced. Touching pieces of the time of Charles II are
+not rare even now.
+
+In 1684 Surgeon John Browne published a curious work entitled
+_Adenochoiradelogia: or an Anatomick-Chirurgical Treatise on Glandules
+and Strumæs, or King's Evil Swellings_. In this the author traces the
+gift of healing from our Saviour to the apostles, and thence by a
+continuous line of Christian kings and governors, and holy men,
+commencing with Edward the Confessor, whom he regards as the first
+curer of scrofula by contact or imposition of hands. After referring
+to his majesty in most flattering terms, he continues concerning "the
+admirable effects and wonderful events of his royal cure throughout
+all nations, where not only English, Dutch, Scotch, and Irish have
+reaped ease and cure, but French, Germans, and all countreyes
+whatsoever, far and near, have abundantly seen and received the same:
+and none ever, hitherto, I am certain, mist thereof, unless their
+little faith and incredulity starved their merits, or they received
+his gracious hand for curing another disease, which was not really
+evermore allowed to be cured by him; and as bright evidences hereof, I
+have presumed to offer that some have immediately upon the very touch
+been cured; others not so easily quitted from their swellings till the
+favor of a second repetition thereof. Some also, losing their gold,
+their diseases have seized them afresh, and no sooner have these
+obtained a second touch, and new gold, but their diseases have been
+seen to vanish, as being afraid of his majesties presence; wherein
+also have been cured many without gold; and this may contradict such
+who must needs have the king give them gold as well as his touch,
+supposing one invalid without the gift of both. Others seem also as
+ready for a second change of gold as a second touch, whereas their
+first being newly strung upon white riband, may work as well (by their
+favour). The tying the Almighty to set times and particular days is
+also another great fault of those who can by no means be brought to
+believe but at Good Friday and the like seasons this healing faculty
+is of more vigour and efficacy than at any other time, although
+performed by the same hand. As to the giving of gold, this only shows
+his majesties royal well-wishes towards the recovery of those who come
+thus to be healed."[175] He refers to some "Atheists, Sadducees, and
+ill-conditioned Pharisees" who disbelieved, and he gives the letter of
+one who went, a complete sceptic, to satisfy his friends, and came
+away cured and converted.
+
+Browne includes the following case which seems to him conclusive: "A
+Nonconformist child, in Norfolk, being troubled with scrofulous
+swellings, the late deceased Sir Thomas Browne, of Norwich, being
+consulted about the same, his majesty being then at Breda or Bruges,
+he advised the parents of the child to have it carried over to the
+king (his own method being used ineffectively); the father seemed very
+strange at this advice, and utterly denied it, saying the touch of the
+king was of no greater efficacy than any other man's. The mother of
+the child, adhering to the doctor's advice, studied all imaginable
+means to have it over, and at last prevailed with her husband to let
+it change the air for three weeks or a month; this being granted, the
+friends of the child that went with it, unknown to the father, carried
+it to Breda, where the king touched it, and she returned home
+perfectly healed. The child being come to its father's house, and he
+finding so great an alteration, inquires how his daughter arrived at
+this health. The friends thereof assured him, that if he would not be
+angry with them, they would relate the whole truth; they, having his
+promise for the same, assured him they had the child to be touched at
+Breda, whereby they apparently let him see the great benefit his child
+received thereby. Hereupon the father became so amazed that he threw
+off his Nonconformity, and expressed his thanks in this manner:
+'Farewell to all dissenters, and to all nonconformists; if God
+can put so much virtue into the king's hand as to heal my child,
+I'll serve that God and that king so long as I live, with all
+thankfulness.'"[176] It is unfortunate that we have a change of air
+and food to consider in this case, else we might have a good example
+of a real miracle.
+
+Friday was usually set apart in this reign as the regular day for
+healing, but, in addition to this, special portions of the church year
+were reserved for the exercise of this gift. Very careful examinations
+were made by the surgeons, and those who were found to be suffering
+from the evil were presented with a ticket by the surgeon which
+entitled them to receive the healing touch of the king. If the king's
+touch were really efficacious, one might think that the disease should
+have been wholly exterminated during this reign, so great were the
+number touched. On the contrary, the deaths were more numerous, and on
+account of the neglect of medical and surgical means it spread very
+widely.
+
+James II, it is said by Dr. Heylin, also wrought cures upon babes in
+their mothers' arms, and the fame of these cures was so great that the
+year before James was dethroned, a pauper of Portsmouth, New
+Hampshire, petitioned the general assembly to enable him to make the
+voyage to England to be healed by the royal touch. In one of his
+progresses James touched eight hundred persons in Chester Cathedral.
+
+William III evidently thought of the matter as a superstition, and on
+one occasion he touched a patient, saying to him, "God give you better
+health and more sense"; notwithstanding the incredulity of the
+sovereign, Whiston assures us that the person was healed. With honest
+good sense, however, William refused to exercise the power which most
+of his subjects undoubtedly thought he possessed, and many protests
+were made, and much proof was adduced concerning "the balsamic virtues
+of the royal hand." This refusal to continue the practice of touching
+brought upon him the charge of cruelty from the parents of scrofulous
+children, while bigots lifted up their hands and eyes in holy horror
+at his impiety.
+
+Dr. Samuel Johnson was one of the last persons to receive the
+imposition of royal hands; when a boy of four and a half years, he was
+touched by Queen Anne, together with about two hundred others, on
+March 30, 1712. In his case at least the touch was inefficacious, for
+he was subject to scrofula all his life. Boswell says:[177] "His
+mother, yielding to the superstitious notion, which, it is wonderful
+to think, prevailed so long in this country, as to the virtue of the
+royal touch; a notion which our kings encouraged, and to which a man
+of such inquiry and such judgment as Carte could give credit, carried
+him to London, where he was actually touched by Queen Anne. Mrs.
+Johnson, indeed, as Mr. Hector informed me, acted by the advice of the
+celebrated Sir John Floyer, then a physician in Litchfield." At this
+time few persons but Jacobites believed in king's touch as a miracle.
+Dr. Daniel Turner, though, relates that several cases of scrofula
+which had been unsuccessfully treated by himself and Dr. Charles
+Bernard, sergeant-surgeon to her majesty, yielded afterwards to the
+efficacy of the queen's touch.
+
+During the reign of Anne the sceptics outnumbered the believers and at
+her death the practice was discontinued. Among the unbelievers was the
+above-mentioned Dr. Charles Bernard, an account of whose conversion is
+given by Oldmixon as follows: "Yesterday the queen was graciously
+pleased to touch for the King's evil some particular persons in
+private; and three weeks after, December 19, yesterday, about twelve
+at noon her majesty was pleased to touch, at St. James', about twenty
+persons afflicted with the King's evil. The more ludicrous sort of
+skeptics, in this case, asked why it was not called the queen's evil,
+as the chief court of justice was called the Queen's Bench. But
+Charles Bernard, the surgeon who had made this touching the subject of
+his raillery all his lifetime till he became body surgeon at court,
+and found it a good perquisite, solved all difficulties by telling his
+companions with a fleer '_Really one could not have thought it, if one
+had not seen it_.' A friend of mine heard him say it, and knew well
+his opinion of it."[178]
+
+In 1745 there was an attempted revival of the practice when Prince
+Charles Edward exercised this prerogative of royalty.
+
+Henry VII was the first monarch to establish a particular ceremony to
+be observed at the healings. He probably derived this from an old form
+of exorcism used for the dispossessing of evil spirits. This was
+altered at various times but may still be found in the prayer-book of
+the reign of Queen Anne. Indeed, it was not until some time after the
+accession of George I that the University of Oxford ceased to reprint
+the office of healing, together with the Liturgy.
+
+The routes to be travelled by royal personages and the days on which
+the miracle was to be wrought were fixed at sittings of the Privy
+Council, and the clergy of all the parish churches of the realm were
+solemnly notified. They, in turn, informed the people, and the
+sufferers along the way had many days in which to cherish the
+expectation of healing, in itself so beneficial. The ceremony was
+conducted with great solemnity and pomp. It has been vividly described
+by Macaulay as follows: "When the appointed time came, several divines
+in full canonicals stood round the canopy of state. The surgeon of the
+royal household introduced the sick. A passage of Mark 16. was read.
+When the words 'They shall lay their hands on the sick and they shall
+recover,' had been pronounced, there was a pause and one of the sick
+was brought to the king. His Majesty stroked the ulcers and swellings,
+and hung round the patient's neck a white ribbon to which was fastened
+a gold coin. The other sufferers were led up in succession; and as
+each was touched the chaplain repeated the incantation, 'They shall
+lay their hands on the sick and they shall recover.' Then came the
+epistle, prayers, antiphonies, and a benediction."
+
+Evelyn, in his _Diary_, gives us the form employed by Charles II in
+July, 1660, as follows: "His Majestie first began to touch for evil
+according to costume, thus--His majestie sitting under his state in
+the Banquetting House, the Chirurgeons cause the sick to be brought or
+led up to the throne, where they kneeling, the King strokes their
+faces or cheekes with both his hands at once, at which instant a
+Chaplaine in his formalities says: 'He put his hands on them and he
+healed them.' This is sayed to every one in particular. When they have
+all been touched they come up againe in the same order; and the other
+Chaplaine kneeling, and having angel-gold strung on white ribbon on
+his arme, delivers them one by one to his Majestie, who puts them
+about the necks of the touched as they passe, whilst the first
+Chaplaine repeats: 'That is the true light who came into the world.'
+Then follows an Epistle (as at first, a Gospel) with the Liturgy,
+prayers for the sick with some alteration, lastly the blessing: and
+the Lo. Chamberlaine and Comptroller of the Household, bring a basin,
+ewer, and towel for his Majestie to wash."[179]
+
+The belief in the efficacy of the king's touch was general, and Lecky
+tells us its genuineness "was asserted by the privy council, by the
+bishops of two religions, by the general voice of the clergy in the
+palmiest days of the English Church, by the University of Oxford, and
+by the enthusiastic assent of the people. It survived the ages of the
+Reformation, of Bacon, of Milton, and of Hobbes. It was by no means
+extinct at the age of Locke, and would probably have lasted still
+longer, had not the change of dynasty at the Revolution assisted the
+tardy scepticism."[180]
+
+In France there was the same belief in the efficacy of the royal
+touch. Philip I exercised the gift, but the French historians say that
+he was deprived of the power on account of the irregularity of his
+life. Laurentius reports that Francis I, when a prisoner in Spain,
+cured a great number of people of struma (scrofula). A paraphrase of
+the Latin verse which Lascaris wrote concerning this event is as
+follows:
+
+ "The king applies his hand, diseases fly,
+  And though a captive, still the powers on high
+  Regard his touch. This striking proof is giv'n,
+  That they who bound him are the foes of Heav'n."
+
+Concerning the touching by the kings of France, Pettigrew says: "In
+the church of St. Maclou, in St. Denys, Heylin (_Cosmograph._, p. 184)
+says the kings of France, with a fast of nine days and other penances,
+used to receive the gift of healing the king's evil with nothing but a
+touch. Philip de Comines states, that the king always confessed before
+the cure of the king's evil. Butler (_Lives of the Saints_, vol. VIII,
+p. 394) says, 'The French kings usually only perform this ceremony on
+the day they have received the holy communion.' The historians who
+write under the first two families of the French kings are altogether
+silent as to the kings' curing the evil by the touching. (_Veyrard
+Trav._, p. 109.) Philip of Valois is reported to have cured 1400 people
+afflicted with the king's evil. Of Louis XIII, it was said that he had
+assigned all his power to Cardinal Richelieu, except that of curing
+the king's evil. Carte says, some of the French writers ascribe the
+gift of healing to their king's devotion toward the relics of St.
+Marculf, in the church of Corbigny, in Champagne: to which the kings
+of France, immediately after their coronation at Rheims, used to go in
+solemn procession. A veneration was also paid to this saint in
+England, and a room in memory of him, in the palace of Westminster,
+has frequently been mentioned in the Rolls of Parliament, and which
+was called the Chamber of St. Marculf, being, as Carte conjectures,
+probably the place where the kings used to touch for the evil. This
+room was afterward called the Painted Chamber. The French kings
+practised the touch extensively. Gemelli, the traveller, states, that
+Louis XIV touched 1600 persons on Easter Sunday, 1686.[181] The words
+he used were, 'Le Roy te touche, Dieu te guérisse.' Every Frenchman
+received fifteen sous, and every foreigner thirty. The French kings
+kept up the practice to 1776."[182]
+
+"Servetus," says Hammond, "who was not of a credulous mind, says in
+the first edition of his _Ptolemy_, published in 1535, that he had
+seen the king touch many persons for the disease, but he had never
+seen any that were cured thereby. But the last clause of this sentence
+excited the ire of the censor, and in the next edition, published in
+1541, the words '_an sanati fuerint non vidi_' were changed to
+'_pluresque sanatos passim audivi_': 'I have heard of many that were
+cured.' Testimony in support of miracles has often been manufactured,
+but the natural obstinacy and truthfulness of Servetus would not admit
+of his giving his personal endorsement at the expense of his
+convictions."[183]
+
+Within the last half-century we have had an example of the value of
+the royal touch. When cholera was raging in Naples in 1865, and the
+people were rushing from the city by thousands, King Victor Emmanuel
+went the rounds of the hospitals in an endeavor to stimulate courage
+in the hearts of his people. He lingered at the bedside of the
+patients and spoke encouraging words to them. On a cot lay one man
+already marked for death. The king stepped to his side, and pressing
+his damp, icy hand, said, "Take courage, poor man, and try to recover
+soon." That evening the physicians reported a diminution of the
+disease in the course of the day, and the man marked for death out of
+danger. The king had unconsciously worked a marvellous cure.[184]
+
+It seems certain that there was not the efficacy in king's touch which
+was claimed for it, or it would not have been discontinued after
+having held sway for over seven hundred years. No doubt the
+quasi-religious character of the office of the sovereign helped much
+in the belief, and when such men as Charles II were able to heal,
+little connection between religion and healing could longer be thought
+possible, as far as the healing by king's touch was concerned.
+
+The Hallowing of Cramp Rings was not unlike the king's touch. It is
+described by Bishop Percy in his _Northumberland Household Book_,
+where we have the following account: "And then the Usher to lay a
+Carpett for the Kinge to Creepe to the Crosse upon. An that done,
+there shal be a Forme sett upon the Carpett, before the Crucifix, and
+a Cushion laid upon it for the King to kneale upon. And the Master of
+the Jewell Howse ther to be ready with the Booke concerninge the
+Hallowing of the Crampe Rings, and Amner (Almoner) muste kneele on
+the right hand of the King, holdinge the sayde booke. When that is
+done the King shall rise and goe to the Alter, wheare a Gent. Usher
+shall be redie with a Cushion for the Kinge to kneele upon; and then
+the greatest Lords that shall be ther to take the Bason with the Rings
+and beare them after the Kinge to offer."
+
+In the Harleian Manuscripts there is a letter from Lord Chancellor
+Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith, dated September 11, 158-, about a
+prevailing epidemic, and enclosing a ring for Queen Elizabeth to wear
+between her breasts, the said ring having "the virtue to expell
+infectious airs."
+
+Andrew Boorde, already quoted, says: "The Kynges of England doth
+halowe euery yere crampe rynges, the whyche rynges, worne on ones
+fynger, dothe helpe them the whyche hath the crampe."[185] Also, "The
+kynges majesty hath a great help in this matter, in hallowynge crampe
+rynges, and so given without money or petition."
+
+In the account of the ceremony given by Hospinian, he states that "it
+was performed upon Good Friday, and that it originated from a ring
+which had been brought to King Edward by some persons from Jerusalem,
+and one which he himself hath long before given privately to a poor
+petitioner who asked alms of him for the love he bore to St. John the
+Evangelist. This ring was preserved with great veneration in
+Westminster Abbey, and whoever was touched by this relic was said to
+be cured of the cramp or of the falling sickness." Burnet informs us
+that Bishop Gardiner was at Rome in 1529, and that he wrote a letter
+to Ann Boleyn, by which it appears that Henry VIII blessed the cramp
+rings before as well as after the separation from Rome, and that she
+sent them as great presents thither.
+
+"Mr. Stephens, I send you here cramp rings for you and Mr. Gregory and
+Mr. Peter, praying you to distribute them as you think best.--Ann
+Boleyn."[186]
+
+This ceremonial was practised by previous sovereigns and discontinued
+by Edward VI. Queen Mary intended to revive it, and, indeed, the
+office for it was written out, but she does not appear to have carried
+her intentions into effect.
+
+  [167] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 154
+  f.
+
+  [168] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 372.
+
+  [169] _Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain_, I, p.
+  225.
+
+  [170] Quoted by Berdoe, _ibid._, p. 371.
+
+  [171] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, pp. 257 f.
+
+  [172] T. B. Macaulay, _History of England_, III, pp. 378
+  f.
+
+  [173] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, p. 47.
+
+  [174] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 256.
+
+  [175] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp.
+  182-184.
+
+  [176] Quoted by H. Tuke, _Influence of the Mind upon the
+  Body_, pp. 359 f.
+
+  [177] _Life of Johnson_, I, p. 42.
+
+  [178] _History of England_, II, p. 302.
+
+  [179] Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+  [180] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I,
+  p. 364.
+
+  [181] This was at Versailles.
+
+  [182] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 156
+  f.
+
+  [183] W. A. Hammond, _Spiritism and Nervous
+  Derangement_, p. 150.
+
+  [184] C. L. Tuckey, _Treatment by Hypnotism and
+  Suggestion_, p. 30.
+
+  [185] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 371.
+
+  [186] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 117.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MESMER AND AFTER
+
+
+ "Some deemed them wondrous wise,
+  And some believed them mad."--BEATTIE.
+
+ "A perfect medicine for bodies that be sick
+  Of all infirmities to be relieved;
+  This heleth nature and prolongeth lyfe eke."
+
+Probably no one would claim that the phenomena now grouped under the
+head of hypnotism were unknown before the end of the sixteenth
+century. They are as old as man, yes, probably older, since we know
+that some of the same phenomena apply to animals. But the claim might
+well be made that while isolated facts of this kind were well known,
+especially in the East, no scientific collaboration and explanation
+were attempted until this time.
+
+As with all other departments of science, we may trace a gradual
+development. Astrology of old taught the influence of the stars upon
+men, which doctrine was accepted by the great physician Theophrastus
+Paracelsus (1490-1541). This, however, was only part of his belief:
+the human body was endowed with a double magnetism; one portion
+attracted to itself the planets and was nourished by them, the result
+of which was the mental powers; the other portion attracted and
+disintegrated the elements, from which process resulted the body. He
+also claimed that the magnetic virtue of healthy persons attracted the
+enfeebled magnetism of the sick. With this theory of animal magnetism,
+it was only natural that he should value the use of the magnet very
+highly in the cure of diseases. This dual theory of magnetic cures,
+that of the magnetic influence of men on men and of the magnet on man,
+was prevalent for over a century, and found its latest exponent in
+Mesmer.
+
+Following Paracelsus, Glocenius, Burgrave, Helinotius, Robert Fludd,
+and Kircher believed that the magnet represented the universal
+principle by which all natural phenomena might be explained. This
+principle, existing as it did in the human body, was an important
+factor in health and disease. The great chemist Von Helmont
+(1577-1644) taught more precisely that a power resided in man by which
+he could magnetically affect others, and thereby cure the sick who
+were most influenced by it. He published a work on the effects of
+magnetism on the human frame.
+
+About the same time Balthazar Gracian, a Spaniard, boldly proclaimed
+his views. "The magnet," he said, "attracts iron; iron is found
+everywhere; everything, therefore, is under the influence of
+magnetism.... It is the same agent which gives rise to sympathy,
+antipathy, and the passions." Baptista Porta (1543-1615), one of the
+originators of the weapon-salve, had also great faith in the magnet.
+So effective was his work on the imaginations of his patients that he
+was considered a magician and prohibited from practising by the court
+of Rome. Sebastian Wirdig, professor of medicine at the University of
+Rostock, in Mecklenburg, wrote a treatise on "The New Medicine of the
+Spirits" which he presented to the Royal Society of London in 1673. He
+maintained that a magnetic influence took place, not only between the
+celestial and terrestrial bodies, but between all living things. The
+whole world was under the influence of magnetism: life was preserved
+by magnetism, death was the consequence of magnetism.
+
+Maxwell (1581-1640) propagated somewhat the same doctrine. He was a
+firm believer in sympathetic cures, and assumed a vital spirit of the
+universe which related all bodies. It was probably from this that
+Mesmer got his idea of what he called the universal fluid. It would
+seem, however, that Maxwell was aware of the great influence of
+imagination and suggestion. He said: "If you wish to work prodigies,
+abstract from the materiality of beings--increase the sum of
+spirituality in bodies--rouse the spirit from its slumbers. Unless you
+do one or other of these things--unless you can bind the idea, you can
+never perform anything good or great." About the same time, in Italy,
+Santanelli propagated the theory of a universal fluid. Everything
+material possessed a radiating atmosphere which operated
+magnetically. He also recognized, however, the great influence of the
+imagination.
+
+[Illustration: F. A. MESMER]
+
+About the year 1771, Father Hell, a Jesuit, and professor of astronomy
+at the University of Vienna, became famous through his magnetic cures,
+and invented steel plates of a peculiar form which he applied to the
+naked body as a cure for several diseases. In 1774 he communicated his
+system to Mesmer, the man who, more than any one else, drew the
+world's attention to the investigation of mental healing. Various
+estimates have been made of Mesmer's character and he frequently has
+been condemned. He was fond of display, but it is doubtful if he was
+more avaricious than most persons who lived before and have lived
+since. He was evidently honest in his scientific investigations and
+opinions, and this is our main concern.
+
+Friederich Antony Mesmer (1733-1815) was born at Mersbury, in Swabia,
+and studied medicine at the University of Vienna. He read freely the
+books written by the authors already mentioned, and accepted much of
+their teaching. His originality consisted principally in applying to
+the sick this universal principle, by means of contact and passes,
+while his predecessors infused the vital spirit through the use of
+talismans and of magic boxes. He took his medical degree in 1766 and
+chose as the subject of his inaugural dissertation "The Influence of
+the Planets in the Cure of Diseases." In this dissertation he
+maintained "that the sun, moon, and fixed stars mutually affect each
+other in their orbits; that they cause and direct in our earth a flux
+and reflux not only in the sea, but in the atmosphere, and affect in a
+similar manner all organized bodies through the medium of a subtle and
+mobile fluid, which pervades the universe, and associates all things
+together in mutual intercourse and harmony." This influence, he said,
+was particularly exercised on the nervous system, and produced two
+states, which he called _intension_ and _remission_, which seemed to
+him to account for the different periodical revolutions observable in
+several maladies.
+
+Eight years later he met Father Hell, and after trying some
+experiments with his metallic plates was astonished at his success. He
+continued working with Hell for some time, but they finally
+quarrelled, and shortly afterward he stumbled upon his theory of
+animal magnetism. After this he no longer used the magnet in healing.
+The Academy of Science at Berlin examined his claims, but their report
+was far from favorable or flattering. Nevertheless, writing to a
+friend from Vienna, he said: "I have observed that the magnetic is
+almost the same as the electric fluid, and that it may be propagated
+in the same manner, by means of intermediate bodies. Steel is not the
+only substance adapted to this purpose. I have rendered paper, bread,
+wool, silk, stones, leather, glass, wood, men, and dogs--in short,
+every thing I touched--magnetic to such a degree, that these
+substances produced the same effects as the loadstone on diseased
+persons. I have charged jars with magnetic matter in the same way as
+is done with electricity." About this time he was nominated a member
+of the Academy of Bavaria.
+
+Leaving Vienna and travelling through Swabia and Switzerland, he met
+Gassner and witnessed some of his cures. Mesmer claimed that they were
+performed by his newly discovered magnetism. He arrived in Paris in
+1778 and found this city more receptive to his arts. He at first
+established himself in an humble quarter of the city and began to
+expound his theory. The following year he published a paper in which
+he summed up his claims in twenty-seven assertions to which he rigidly
+held through his life. His doctrines were well received, and acquired
+an impetus at the beginning by the conversion of one of the leading
+physicians of the faculty of medicine, Deslon, the Comte d'Artois'
+first physician.
+
+Pupils and patients now flocked to him. The crowd was so great that
+Mesmer employed a _valet toucheur_ to magnetize in his place. This was
+not sufficient; he then invented the famous _baquet_, or trough,
+around which thirty persons might simultaneously be magnetized. This
+_baquet_ is described as follows: "A circular, oaken case, about a
+foot high, was placed in the middle of a large hall, hung with thick
+curtains, through which only a soft and subdued light was allowed to
+penetrate; this was the _baquet_. At the bottom of the case, on a
+layer of powdered glass and iron filings, there lay full bottles,
+symmetrically arranged, so that the necks of all converged toward the
+centre; other bottles were arranged in the opposite direction, with
+their necks toward the circumference. All these objects were immersed
+in water, but this condition was not absolutely necessary, and the
+_baquet_ might be dry. The lid was pierced with a certain number of
+holes, whence there issued jointed and moving iron branches, which
+were to be held by the patients. Absolute silence was maintained. The
+patients were ranged in several rows round the _baquet_, connected
+with each other by cords passed round their bodies, and by a second
+chain, formed by joining hands."[187]
+
+Additional features were provided to heighten the effect of the
+magnetic charm. "Richly stained glass shed a dim religious light on
+his spacious saloons, which were almost covered with mirrors. Orange
+blossoms scented all the air of his corridors; incense of the most
+expensive kinds burned in antique vases on his chimney-pieces; æolian
+harps sighed melodious music from distant chambers; while sometimes a
+sweet female voice, from above or below, stole softly upon the
+mysterious silence that was kept in the house and insisted upon from
+all visitors."[188]
+
+Bailly, the historian and celebrated astronomer, an eye-witness,
+describes the results. "Some patients remain calm and experience
+nothing; others cough, spit, feel slight pain, a local or general
+heat, and fall into sweats; others are agitated and tormented by
+convulsions. These convulsions are remarkable for their number,
+duration, and force, and have been known to persist for more than
+three hours. They are characterized by involuntary, jerking movements
+in all the limbs, and in the whole body, by contraction of the throat,
+by twitchings in the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, by dimness
+and rolling of the eyes, by piercing cries, tears, hiccough, and
+immoderate laughter. They are preceded or followed by a state of
+languor or dreaminess, by a species of depression, and even by stupor.
+
+"The slightest sudden noise causes the patient to start, and it has
+been observed that he is affected by a change of time or tune in the
+airs performed on the pianoforte; that his agitation is increased by a
+more lively movement, and that his convulsions then become more
+violent. Patients are seen to be absorbed in the search for one
+another, rushing together, smiling, talking affectionately, and
+endeavoring to modify their crises. They are all so submissive to the
+magnetizer that even when they appear to be in a stupor, his voice, a
+glance, or a sign will rouse them from it. It is impossible not to
+admit, from all these results, that some great force acts upon and
+masters the patients, and that this force appears to reside in the
+magnetizer. This convulsive state is termed the _crisis_. It has been
+observed that many women and few men are subject to such crises; that
+they are only established after the lapse of two or three hours, and
+that when one is established, others soon and successively begin.
+
+"When the agitation exceeds certain limits, the patients are
+transported into a padded room; the women's corsets are unlaced, and
+they may then strike their heads against the padded walls without
+doing themselves any injury." Notwithstanding these means, thousands
+were healed of their diseases.
+
+"It is impossible," says Baron Dupotet, "to conceive the sensation
+which Mesmer's experiments created in Paris. No theological
+controversy, in the earlier ages of the Catholic Church, was ever
+conducted with greater bitterness." He was called a quack, a fool, and
+a demon, while his friends were as extravagant in his praise as his
+foes in their censure. After this great excitement, his life may
+largely be summed up in his challenges to different societies, the
+appointment of commissions, their examinations, and their reports.
+
+On the advice of Deslon he challenged the Faculty of Medicine,
+proposing to select twenty-four patients, of whom twelve should be
+treated according to the old and approved methods and twelve
+magnetically, the cures to prove the efficacy of the treatment. The
+faculty declined to accept the conditions. Deslon asked his colleagues
+on the faculty to summon a general meeting to examine the matter.
+Through the influence of M. de Vauzesmes, the meeting was very hostile
+to him, and he was condemned and threatened with having his name
+removed from the list of licensed physicians if he did not reform.
+
+Mesmer now wrote to Marie Antoinette suggesting that the government
+furnish him with houses, land, and a princely fortune to enable him to
+carry on his experiments untroubled. The government finally offered
+him a pension of 20,000 francs, and the cross of the order of St.
+Michael, if he had made any discovery in medicine, and would
+communicate it to the physicians whom the king should name. Mesmer
+refused the conditions and left Paris.
+
+Deslon was then called upon to renounce animal magnetism, but instead,
+invited investigation. In 1784 the government appointed a commission
+to inquire into magnetism, consisting of members from the Faculty of
+Medicine and the Academy of Sciences. Franklin, Lavoisier, and Bailly
+were members, the last named being chosen reporter. Another
+commission, composed of members of the Royal Society of Medicine, was
+charged to make a distinct report on the same subject. After
+experimenting for five months the first commission presented two
+reports, one public and the other secret, neither of which was
+favorable. The Royal Society of Medicine presented its report a few
+days later, and agreed with the first commission with the exception of
+one member, Laurent de Jussieu, who dissented and published a separate
+report of a more favorable nature. The gist of the commissions'
+reports was that imagination, not magnetism, accounted for the
+results.
+
+Soon after the commissions started their investigations, Mesmer
+returned to Paris at the invitation of his friends, who proposed to
+open a subscription for him for 10,000 louis. Immediately it was
+over-subscribed by over 140,000 francs. He came with the
+understanding that he was to give lectures and to reveal the secret of
+animal magnetism. The lectures and secrets were not satisfactory.
+After the commission reported he left Paris and returned to his own
+country where he was little heard of during the remainder of his life
+which ended in 1815.
+
+Whatever may be said of Mesmer, there seems to be no doubt about the
+honesty of his most famous pupil, the Marquis de Puységur, and to him
+we are indebted for a forward step. When Mesmer left Paris, the
+marquis retired to his estate near Soissons, and employed his leisure
+in magnetizing peasants. He magnetized his gardener, a young man named
+Victor, and after experimenting upon him claimed that during the state
+Victor exhibited marvellous telepathic and clairvoyant phenomena.
+Unable to attend all the patients who applied to him, he followed
+Mesmer's plan of magnetizing a tree. An elm on the village green was
+chosen, and round this patients gathered on stone benches as around
+Mesmer's _baquet_.
+
+Following Mesmer's theories very closely, the contribution he made was
+in the recognition of the likeness between the magnetized state and
+that of somnambulism, so that he designated this state "artificial
+somnambulism." He also modified the conditions of inducing this
+state, and simple contact or spoken orders were substituted for the
+use of the _baquet_. The effect was therefore milder, and instead of
+hysteria and violent crises accompanied by sobs, cries, and
+contractions, there was peaceful slumber. He recognized the rapport
+between operator and subject, and amnesia on awaking, and other
+phenomena now well known, but he still held to the Mesmeric theory of
+the existence of a universal fluid which saturated all bodies,
+especially the human body. It was electric in nature, and man could
+display and diffuse this electric fluid at will.
+
+While the Marquis de Puységur was using the elm tree near Soissons,
+the Chevalier de Barbarin was successfully magnetizing people without
+paraphernalia. He sat by the bedside of the sick and prayed that they
+might be magnetized; his efforts were successful. He maintained that
+the effect of animal magnetism was produced by the mere effort of one
+human soul acting upon another; and when the connection had once been
+established the magnetizer could communicate his influence to the
+subject regardless of the distance which separated them. Numerous
+persons adopted this view, calling themselves Barbarinists after their
+leader. In Sweden and Germany they were called _spiritualists_, to
+distinguish them from the followers of de Puységur, who were called
+_experimentalists_.
+
+About the same time a doctor of Lyons, Pététin, experimented with
+magnetism. After his death a paper written by him was published
+describing catalepsy and sense transference. Numerous magnetic
+societies were founded in the principal cities of France. In
+Strasburg, the Society of Harmony, consisting of more than one hundred
+and fifty members, published for years the result of their work. The
+disturbance incident to the Revolution and the wars of the Empire
+which followed repressed the investigations of magnetism in France for
+several years.
+
+In England the advent of magnetism seems to have taken place about
+1788. In that year one Dr. Mainandus, who had been a pupil first of
+Mesmer and later of Deslon, arrived in Bristol and gave public
+lectures on the subject. People of rank and fortune soon came from
+different cities to be magnetized or to place themselves under his
+tuition. He afterward established himself in London where he was
+equally successful in attracting and curing people. So much curiosity
+was excited by the subject that, about the same time, a man named
+Holloway gave a course of lectures on animal magnetism in London.
+Large crowds gathered to hear him at the rate of five guineas for each
+pupil.
+
+Loutherbourg, the painter, and his wife entered upon a similar work.
+"Such was the infatuation of the people to be witnesses of their
+strange manipulations," says Mackay, "that at times upwards of three
+thousand persons crowded round their house at Hammersmith, unable to
+gain admission. The tickets sold at prices ranging from one to three
+guineas." Loutherbourg later became a divine healer. From 1789 to 1798
+magnetism attracted little or no attention in England. At the latter
+date a Connecticut Yankee, Benjamin Douglas Perkins, invented
+"metallic tractors." The Society of Friends built a hospital called
+the "Perkinean Institute" where all comers might be magnetized free of
+cost.
+
+About 1786 animal magnetism appeared in two different places in
+Germany--on the upper Rhine and in Bremen. At this time Lavater paid a
+visit to Bremen and exhibited the magnetizing process to several
+doctors. Bremen was for a long time a focus of the new doctrine, and
+thereby was brought into bad repute. About the same time the doctrine
+spread from Strasburg over the Rhine provinces. Among those active in
+experiments were Böckmann of Carlsruhe, Gmelin of Heilbronn, and
+Pezold of Dresden. Soon it spread all over Germany. In 1789 Selle of
+Berlin brought forward a series of experiments made at the Charité
+(Hospital), in which he confirmed some of the alleged phenomena but
+excluded the supernormal.
+
+Notwithstanding the early dislike, animal magnetism flourished in
+Germany during the first twenty years of the nineteenth century. In
+1812 the Prussian government sent Wolfart to Mesmer at Frauenfeld, to
+acquaint himself with the subject. He returned to Berlin an ardent
+adherent of Mesmer and introduced magnetism into the hospital
+treatment. From this magnetism flourished so much in Berlin that, as
+Wurm relates, the Berlin physicians placed a monument on the grave of
+Mesmer at Mörsburg, and theological candidates received instruction in
+physiology, pathology, and the treatment of sickness by vital
+magnetism. The well-known physician Koreff was interested in magnetism
+and often made use of it for healing purposes. Magnetism was
+introduced everywhere, especially in Russia and Denmark. In
+Switzerland and Italy it was at first received with less sympathy, and
+in 1815 the exercise of magnetism was forbidden in the whole of
+Austria.
+
+In 1813 the naturalist Deleuze published a book entitled _Histoire
+critique du magnétisme animal_. Like his predecessors, he was chiefly
+interested in the therapeutic value of magnetism, and insisted that
+faith was necessary for effective treatment. On account of this
+condition any demonstration was impossible. He still held to the idea
+of a pervading fluid and maintained that the depth of the magnetic
+sleep depended upon the amount of the magnetic charge. Shortly after
+the appearance of Deleuze's book, interest in animal magnetism
+increased, and several journals dealing exclusively with the subject
+were started.
+
+With the death of Mesmer in 1815 ended the first period in the history
+of the phenomena known as animal magnetism. Up to this time the
+generally accepted theory was that of a vital fluid which permeated
+every thing and person and through which one person influenced
+another. The second period extended from 1815-1841 when Braid
+discovered and formulated the method of operation. The third period
+reached from 1841-1887 during which there was careful and scientific
+study of the whole subject, and hypnotism came into repute as a
+healing measure. I am inclined to posit a fourth period, 1887 to the
+present time, for Myers' hypothesis of a subliminal self, or the
+theory of the subconsciousness, has made a great difference in the
+theory of hypnotism.
+
+The second period began when Abbe Faria in 1814-15 came from India to
+Paris and gave public exhibitions, publishing the results of some of
+his experiments. He seated his subjects in an armchair, with eyes
+closed, and then cried out in a loud commanding voice, "Sleep." He
+used no manipulations and had no _baquet_, but he boasted of having
+produced five thousand somnambulists by this method. He opined that
+the state was caused by no unknown force, but rested in the subject
+himself. He agreed with the present generally accepted theory that all
+is subjective.
+
+Following Faria, Bertrand and Noizet paved the way for the doctrine of
+suggestion notwithstanding their inclination toward animal magnetism.
+Experiments were performed at the Hôtel-Dieu in 1820 but later were
+prohibited. Through the influence of Foissac in 1826 the Academy of
+Medicine appointed a committee to examine the subject, and in 1831 a
+report acknowledging the genuineness of the phenomena was made, and
+therapeutic effects were frankly admitted. In 1837 the Academy
+appointed another commission to examine still further, for the members
+as a whole were not convinced. The report of this commission was
+largely negative.
+
+After this the younger Burdin, a member of the Academy, proposed to
+award from his own purse a prize of 3,000 francs to any person who
+could read a given writing without the aid of his eyes, and in the
+dark. The existence of animal magnetism must stand or fall on this
+test. That was the difficulty during this period: the whole dispute
+was waged about, and experiments consisted in tests of, clairvoyance,
+transposition of the sense of sight, and other mystical phenomena,
+instead of dealing with the state as such. This, of course, made the
+struggle much easier for the opponents of mesmerism, but was largely
+the fault of the magnetizers. The Burdin prize was not awarded, and in
+1840 Double proposed that the Academy should henceforth pay no further
+attention to animal magnetism, but treat the subject as definitely
+closed. This was certainly unfair and unscientific, but was the
+attitude assumed.
+
+At the beginning of this period another series of tests was being
+performed in Germany, but after 1820 the belief in magnetism declined
+more and more. It flourished longest in Bremen and in Hamburg where
+Siemers was its advocate. From 1830-1840 Hensler and Ennemoser were
+the chief exponents in Bavaria. As the scientific investigators
+withdrew from the study, the charlatans and frauds entered the field,
+and the marvellous and occult were emphasized, so that in 1840 little
+general attention was paid to the subject.
+
+Notwithstanding the efforts of the London physicians Elliotson and
+Ashburner, magnetism could obtain little footing in England during
+this period. Numerous investigations were made, however, and several
+publications were sent forth. Townshend, Scoresby, and Lee are names
+prominent in the study of the subject in England at this time. In the
+next period, though, an Englishman gives the impetus necessary for the
+successful pursuit of the study.
+
+In 1841 the French magnetizer, La Fontaine, gave some public
+exhibitions in Manchester which attracted the attention of a physician
+by the name of James Braid. Through the aid rendered by Braid, animal
+magnetism blossomed into a science. He directed the subject into its
+proper field: he eschewed the occult and mysterious, and emphasized
+observation and experiment. It was Braid who gave us the word
+"hypnotism." At first a sceptic, he began experimenting and proved
+that fixity of gaze had in some way such an influence on the nervous
+system of the subject that he went off into a sleep. He therefore
+opined that the transmission of a fluid by the operator had no part in
+the matter.
+
+He further showed that an assumed attitude changed the subject's
+sentiments in harmony with the attitude, and that the degree of sleep
+varied with different persons, and with the same person at different
+times. He also noted the acuteness of the senses during hypnosis, and
+that verbal suggestion would produce hallucinations, emotions,
+paralysis, etc. Therapeutics was a subject in which he was naturally
+interested, and his experiments on different diseases were frequent
+and valuable. Braid made some mistakes, as was natural, but his
+discoveries covered the field so well and his ideas were so sound
+that too much credit cannot be ascribed to him. At first he thought
+hypnotism (Braidism) was identical with animal magnetism, but later
+made the mistake of considering it analogous, and the two flourished
+side by side and independently.
+
+Animal magnetism was first introduced into America in 1836 by Mr.
+Charles Poyan, a French gentleman. A few years later a certain Dr.
+Collyer lectured upon it in New England. New Orleans was, however, for
+a long time its chief centre. In 1848 Grimes, working independently,
+appears to have arrived at about the same conclusions as Braid. He
+showed that most of the hypnotic phenomena could be produced in the
+waking state in some subjects, by means of verbal suggestion. The
+phenomena were known under the name of electro-biology. In 1850
+Darling went to England and introduced electro-biology, but it was
+soon identified with Braidism, and in 1853 Durand de Gros, who wrote
+under the pseudonym of Philips, exhibited the phenomena of
+electro-biology in several countries, but aroused little attention.
+
+Azam of Bordeaux and Broca of Paris made some experiments following
+Braid's method, and several times performed some painless operations
+by this means. They were followed by numerous others in all European
+countries and in America. In fact, the interest in the subject became
+general, and as more was known about it, fewer objections were heard.
+Societies were formed for the study of hypnotism, publications were
+started devoting all their space to the exposition and discussion of
+it, and as this third period advanced, its scientific value was more
+and more recognized from the stand-points of psychology, pathology,
+and therapeutics.
+
+In a brief résumé like this it would be impossible to name even the
+chief experimenters in the different countries who contributed to this
+period, but some names stand out so prominently that they should be
+emphasized, for they must be reckoned in importance with Braid's.
+Liebeault, whose book, _Du Sommeil_, _etc._, was published in 1866,
+has been called the founder of the therapeutics of suggestion. While
+suggestion in both waking and hypnotic states had been applied long
+before Liebeault's day, it was he who first fully and methodically
+recognized its value. We are also indebted to him for stimulating in
+the study of hypnosis Bernheim and other prominent investigators.
+Liebeault at the head of the School of Nancy was not less known than
+Charcot at the Salpêtrière.
+
+Charcot was indefatigable in his researches, but was led away in his
+conclusions by artifacts. For example: three states were produced in
+the hypnotic subject which Charcot considered to be symptomatic and
+characteristic. They were catalepsy, lethargy, and somnambulism.
+Certain physical excitations, such as rubbing the scalp or exposing
+the eyes to a bright light, were thought to be all that was necessary
+to change the subject from one stage to another. It has since been
+shown that not only were the states of catalepsy, lethargy, and
+somnambulism produced by suggestion, but the physical stimuli were
+simply suggestions and signs by which the subject knew that a
+particular change was expected, and, in harmony with hypnotic action,
+the expected change came about. Not only did Charcot make this
+mistake, but some of his followers of the Salpêtrière School continued
+to be deceived for years afterward.
+
+Hardly a conclusion of Charcot's remains to-day, and yet so earnest
+was he in his investigations and so untiring in his experiments, that
+many of his facts contributed much to our knowledge of the subject
+even if his theories have been rejected. Binet, Féré, and other
+followers of his have contributed much to the science and literature
+of the subject. The latter half of this period is not unknown to us
+to-day, and as the names connected with it are familiar, it remains
+for me to mention but one more name, that of the one who ushered in
+the fourth period, F. W. H. Myers.
+
+From its beginning Myers was prominently connected with the Society
+for Psychical Research and occupied the offices of president and
+secretary. He held the latter position at the time of his death in
+1901. In 1887 he formulated his theory of the subliminal self or
+subliminal consciousness, a theory which has come to be more and more
+accepted, and the value of which has received increasing appreciation.
+It has been known as the "subconscious self" or the "subconsciousness"
+probably more than by Myers's original title; and his theory has been
+modified by some subtractions and additions, but it is generally
+accepted to-day and its exposition has helped solve many problems in
+abnormal psychology. In no department has it contributed more than in
+that of hypnotism, for by it this state has been partially explained.
+
+For a number of years Charcot and his followers put forward a
+physiological theory of hypnotism which waged war with that of the
+Nancy School, under Liebeault, but even before Charcot's death he
+recognized the validity of the Nancy claims while still clinging to
+his own. Few if any espouse Charcot's claims to-day. The general
+psychological theory of Nancy, which bases the results on suggestion,
+is that currently accepted, while a theory not very different from
+that of animal magnetism has been held by some of those who accepted
+the spiritualistic hypothesis, notably among whom was Myers.
+
+Hypnotism to-day is recognized as the product of a long line of
+erroneous theory and zigzag development, but the wheat has largely
+been sifted and the chaff thrown to the winds of antiquity. Its
+therapeutic and psychological value is duly recognized by science
+to-day.[189]
+
+
+  [187] Binet and Féré, _Animal Magnetism_, p. 8.
+
+  [188] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, I,
+  p. 278.
+
+  [189] Many works and encyclopedic articles on hypnotism
+  have been consulted in the preparation of this chapter,
+  all of which were valuable, and few of which stand out
+  prominently.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE HEALERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+  "Medical cannot be separated from moral science, without
+  reciprocal and essential mutilation."--REID.
+
+  "Man is a dupeable animal. Quacks in medicine, quacks in
+  religion, and quacks in politics know this, and act upon
+  that knowledge. There is scarcely anyone who may not,
+  like a trout, be taken by tickling."--SOUTHEY.
+
+ "Canst thou minister to a mind diseas'd,
+  Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow,
+  Raze out the written troubles of the brain,
+  And with some sweet oblivious antidote
+  Cleanse the stuff'd bosom of that perilous stuff
+  Which weighs upon the heart?"--SHAKESPEARE.
+
+ "Joy, temperance, and repose,
+  Slam the door on the doctor's nose."--LONGFELLOW.
+
+There seems to have been a great development of mental healing during
+the nineteenth century. The healing by shrines, relics, and charms
+diminished in the latter part of the century on account of the
+lessening of superstition and the better understanding of mental laws,
+but additional work has thereby been laid upon the healers. The
+development of hypnotism and the exposition of the laws underlying it,
+the collection and publication of cases of cures by mental means, the
+lessening of faith in noxious doses of drugs, the increase of nervous
+diseases which are most easily helped by suggestive therapeutics, the
+attempted duplication of apostolic gifts on the part of some sects and
+the general reaction against the materialism of the early part of the
+century as shown in the great revival of psychical study and research
+have all been factors in the demand for mental medicine.
+
+The healers have been of various kinds. Having already dealt with the
+mesmerizers and hypnotizers, we shall now look only at the classes of
+independent and generally less scientific investigators and
+experimenters. Some have not been regular healers but healed only
+incidentally, as, _e. g._, the revivalists; some have followed James
+5:14 f. in anointing with oil and praying--of these and others, some
+have had institutions for housing the patients; some have been
+peripatetic healers; some have simply used prayer; some have
+established their systems on metaphysical bases and been the founders
+of sects; some have combined the results of scientific investigations
+in an endeavor to help mankind. Many of these have simply followed the
+ways of their predecessors of former centuries, but a few started on
+new lines of procedure. Whatever the method, they have all,
+consciously or unconsciously, depended upon the influence of the
+patient's mind over his own body, and the now better understood laws
+of suggestion.
+
+The revivals were eighteenth and nineteenth century phenomena, and in
+discussing the part which their leaders have taken in healing we may
+well include the experience of Wesley. As a mere incident in his
+revival work, John Wesley (1703-1791), the great founder of Methodism,
+appeared in the rather unenviable role of exorcist. It is to his
+credit that he was not led away from his primary purpose by this
+experience, but returned to his preaching without any effort to add
+healing to his gifts. The account of his encounter with the demons can
+best be given by quoting his own words, as found in his Journal.
+
+"October 25 [1739]. I was sent for to one in Bristol who was taken ill
+the evening before. She lay on the ground furiously gnashing her teeth
+and after a while roared aloud. It was not easy for three or four
+persons to hold her, especially when the name of Jesus was named. We
+prayed. The violence of her symptoms ceased, though without a complete
+deliverance." Wesley was sent for later in the day. "She began
+screaming before I came into the room, then broke out into a horrid
+laughter, mixed with blasphemy, grievous to hear. One who from many
+circumstances apprehended a preternatural agent to be concerned in
+this, asking, 'How didst thou dare to enter into a Christian?' was
+answered, 'She is not a Christian, she is mine.' Then another
+question, 'Dost thou not tremble at the name of Jesus?' No words
+followed, but she shrunk back and trembled exceedingly. 'Art thou not
+increasing thy own damnation?' It was faintly answered, 'Ay! Ay!'
+which was followed by fresh cursing and blasphemy ... with spitting,
+and all the expressions of strong aversion." Two days later Wesley
+called and prayed with her again, when "All her pangs ceased in a
+moment, she was filled with peace, and knew that the son of wickedness
+was departed from her." On October 28 he exorcised two more demons
+whom he had evidently (unconsciously) been the means of producing in
+two neurotic girls. He had a few other experiences in healing, but
+always in an incidental way.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN ALEXANDER DOWIE]
+
+Charles G. Finney (1792-1875) had at least one experience as a healer.
+During revival services at Antwerp, N. Y., in 1824, two insane women
+were cured, but Finney was directly concerned in the restoration of
+only one of them. Of this he gives an account in his memoirs. "There
+were two very striking cases of instantaneous recovery from insanity
+during this revival. As I went into meeting in the afternoon of one
+Sabbath, I saw several ladies sitting in a pew, with a woman dressed
+in black who seemed to be in great distress of mind; and they were
+partly holding her, and preventing her from going out. As I came in,
+one of the ladies came to me and told me she was an insane woman.... I
+said a few words to her; but she replied that she must go; that she
+could not hear any praying, or preaching, or singing; that hell was
+her portion, and she could not endure anything that made her think of
+heaven. I cautioned the ladies, privately, to keep her in her seat, if
+they could, without her disturbing the meeting. I then went into the
+pulpit and read a hymn. As soon as the singing began, she struggled
+hard to get out. But the ladies obstructed her passage; and kindly but
+persistently prevented her escape.... As I proceeded ... all at once
+she startled the congregation by uttering a loud shriek. She then cast
+herself almost from her seat, held her head very low, and I could see
+that she 'trembled very exceedingly.' ... As I proceeded she began to
+look up again, and soon sat upright, with face wonderfully changed,
+indicating triumphant joy and peace.... She glorified God and rejoiced
+with amazing triumph. About two years after, I met with her, and found
+her still full of joy and peace."[190]
+
+The so-called "Mountain Evangelist," George O. Barnes, who was born in
+1827, added healing to his other revival efforts. After leaving the
+Presbyterian Church he did his work mostly in Kentucky as an
+independent minister, and there anointed with oil according to James
+5:14 f. In his records little is said about the cures, but the daily
+number of anointings is given, amounting to at least five thousand in
+all. He believed that the devil, not God, sends sickness: God is the
+great healer. The anointing was simply a matter of faith. His formula
+varied and was very simple, as _e. g._, "Dear daughter, in Jesus's
+precious name I anoint thee with this oil of healing for thy maladies.
+Oh, go on thy way rejoicing. Be of good cheer. He is the great healer.
+He will make thee whole. He hath commanded it. Lean thy whole weight
+on Him."[191] His views may be judged by the following extract from a
+sermon of his on "Our Healer": "Oh, the hospitals and drug-stores, the
+bitter doses, the pains and racks, the tortures--great God, may this
+people believe to-day that thou hast nothing to do with this, that all
+came in with sin, and the devil manages it all; and wherever we are
+afflicted God stands by wringing His hands, and saying, '... Return to
+me, O backsliding children. Come back to me, and I will keep the devil
+off of you.'"[192] I take also some extracts from his daily record.
+
+  "July 19 [1881]. John and I took a long walk.... I shall
+  not repeat the experiment, for I got many chiggers on
+  me, which are tormenting me from head to foot while I
+  write, I think because I trusted the pennyroyal to keep
+  them off me instead of the Lord. It was not wilful, but
+  a slip of forgetfulness, yet a door wide enough for
+  Satan to enter a little bit. Now, instead of trying
+  pennyroyal to get me rid of them, I will trust the Lord
+  only.
+
+  "July 20. The chiggers gave exquisite torment. I shall
+  never trust in pennyroyal again.
+
+  "July 21. Satan tried to get me wavering on the eye
+  question, but the dear Lord set me up more firmly than
+  ever.
+
+  "July 24. We have gotten into a little trouble by
+  carelessly trying to help the dear Lord take care of his
+  little organ. A key was silent, and yesterday Marie
+  tried to remedy it. There was a good deal of taking out
+  of keys, and dusting--result, two keys silent now, and
+  one that won't be silent, but goes on in a bass wail
+  through every song. So much for meddling with the dear
+  Lord's work. We trust Him, when the lesson is learned,
+  to set the little machine all right again.... The dear
+  Lord cured the little organ this afternoon while we were
+  at dinner; at least it was all right, as Marie with a
+  happy smile informed me before she began to sing the
+  first song. I gave thanks for it in the opening prayer,
+  and then told the people all about it.
+
+  "July 27. Satan is not a little busy with me, injecting
+  doubts as to the right to trust for eyes. Faith still
+  quenches all his fiery darts, although it sorely tries
+  me to be thus inactive in these long summer days,
+  without reading my beautiful edition of Young's
+  Concordance, useless at the bottom of my trunk. My
+  Revised New Testament I can only get at through
+  others."[193]
+
+Leaving now the revivalists, let us take up the cases of others not
+revivalists who used anointing for healing. In her native hamlet of
+Maennedorf, Switzerland, Dorothea Trudel (1813-1862), the descendant
+of some generations of faith healers, cured many. Soon people began to
+come to her from near and far and, finally, at the solicitation of a
+"patient" of rank, she purchased a home where the afflicted could be
+near her. In 1856 the health authorities interfered. She was fined; an
+appeal was taken and, finally, she was permitted to carry on her work
+in connection with the home under some formal restrictions. During the
+course of the trial some authenticated cases of cure were produced:
+"one stiff knee, pronounced incurable by the best surgeons of France,
+Germany, and Switzerland; a leading physician testified to the
+recovery of a hopeless patient of his own; a burned foot, which was
+about to be amputated to prevent impending death, was healed without
+means. The evidence was incontrovertible, and the cases numerous. The
+cure was often contemporaneous with the confession of Christ by the
+unbelieving patient; but duration of the sickness varied with each
+case. Lunatics were commonly sent forth cured in a brief while."
+Nothing miraculous was claimed and no war was waged against
+physicians. It was not asserted that a cure was infallibly made, but
+it was pointed out as a simpler and more direct method. The means
+employed were gentleness, discipline, Bible reading, prayer, and
+anointing. After the death of Dorothea the home continued under the
+supervision of Mr. Samuel Zeller.
+
+Charles Cullis (1833-1892), a young physician of Boston, suffered a
+crushing bereavement in the death of his wife shortly after their
+marriage, and then vowed to devote his life to charity. Inspired by
+Müller's _Life of Trust_ he established a number of charitable
+institutions, relying on prayer and faith for their support. Some of
+these institutions were for the cure of the sick, and in connection
+with these, and otherwise, Dr. Cullis anointed and prayed with all who
+came to him. Every summer a camp-meeting was held at Old Orchard
+Beach, Maine, where the large collections gathered were the subject of
+annual comment. He was followed in his work by Rev. A. B. Simpson, of
+New York, who now conducts it. The latter was formerly a Presbyterian
+minister but is now an independent. He still heals and takes
+up collections. From the efforts of Cullis and Simpson have
+come the Christian and Missionary Alliance and other similar
+organizations with Pentecost as the text and apostolic gifts as the
+much-sought-after prize. The proof of success is found in healing,
+speaking with tongues, trances, visions, and other abnormal phenomena.
+
+The "Holy Ghost and Us" movement, with headquarters at Shiloh, Maine,
+was an outgrowth of the Christian and Missionary Alliance propaganda.
+Rev. F. W. Sanford (1863- ) was born on Bowdoinham Ridge, Maine. He
+graduated at Bates College in 1886 and attended Cobb Divinity School
+for a short time. His ordination took place in 1887, after which he
+held two pastorates of three years each, presumedly in Free Baptist
+churches. In 1891, while attending meetings at Old Orchard, he was
+inspired to start "a movement on strictly apostolic lines, which was
+to sweep the entire globe." He started on this new work early in 1893
+with Shiloh, Maine, as the centre. Relying on faith alone, several
+buildings were erected and paid for, among which is Bethesda--a Home
+of Healing: "For those who believe God told the truth when He said,
+'The prayer of Faith shall save the sick.'" In an account of the
+healing we read: "We have seen ... in at least one case, the
+restoration of the dead to life." Quite a following embraced the
+doctrine at one time, but lately there has been a considerable
+decline.
+
+An institution for faith healing was established in the north of
+London by Rev. W. E. Boardman (1810-1886). He called it "Bethshan" or
+the "Nursery of Faith" and refused to permit it to be called a
+hospital. The usual method of treatment was by anointing with oil and
+prayer, but it was claimed that many also were healed by
+correspondence. The results professed were very extravagant, among the
+cases being cancer, paralysis, advanced consumption, chronic
+rheumatism, and lameness of different kinds. As a proof of the cure of
+the last named affliction, numerous canes and crutches left behind by
+the healed were on exhibition.[194]
+
+It is said that Lord Radstock practised healing through anointing in
+Australia about the same time.
+
+There have been a number of prominent healers who have used prayer,
+and perhaps the laying on of hands, as the means for healing, and have
+usually eschewed anointing. Among these was Prince Hohenlohe
+(1794-1849). His was probably the greatest name in mental healing in
+the nineteenth century. He was born in Waldenburg and educated at
+several institutions. He was ordained priest in 1815 and officiated
+at Olmütz, Munich, and other places. In 1820 he met a peasant, Martin
+Michel, who had performed some wonderful cures, and in connection with
+him effected a so-called miraculous cure on a princess of
+Schwarzenberg who had been for some years a paralytic.[195] From this
+experience he became enthusiastic in healing, and he acquired such a
+fame as a performer of miraculous cures that multitudes flocked from
+different countries to receive the benefit of his supposed
+supernatural gifts. In one year (1848-49) there were eighteen thousand
+people who obtained access to him. His name and his titles probably
+had not a little to do with his wide influence. They were Alexander
+Leopold Franz Emmerich, Prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst,
+Archbishop and Grand Provost of Grosswardein, Hungary, and Abbot of St.
+Michael's at Gaborjan.
+
+The testimony concerning his cures is from reliable witnesses. Notice
+the letter written by the ex-King of Bavaria to Count von Sinsheim,
+describing his own case:
+
+  My dear Count:
+
+  There are still miracles. The ten last days of the last
+  month, the people of Würzburg might believe themselves
+  in the times of the Apostles. The deaf heard, the blind
+  saw, the lame freely walked, not by the aid of art, but
+  by a few short prayers, and by the invocation of the
+  name of Jesus.... On the evening of the 28th, the number
+  of persons cured, of both sexes, and of every age,
+  amounted to more than twenty. These were of all classes
+  of the people, from the humblest to a prince of the
+  blood, who, without any exterior means, recovered, on
+  the 27th at noon, the hearing which he had lost from
+  his infancy. This cure was effected by a prayer made for
+  him during some minutes, by a priest who is scarcely
+  more than twenty-seven years of age--the Prince
+  Hohenlohe. Although I do not hear so well as the
+  majority of the persons who are about me, there is no
+  comparison between my actual state and that which it was
+  before. Besides, I perceive daily that I hear more
+  clearly.... My hearing, at present, is very sensitive.
+  Last Friday, the music of the troop which defiled in the
+  square in front of the palace, struck my tympanum so
+  strongly, that for the first time, I was obliged to
+  close the window of my cabinet.
+
+  The inhabitants of Würzburg have testified, by the most
+  lively and sincere acclamations, the pleasure which my
+  cure has given them. You are at liberty to communicate
+  my letter, and to allow any one who wishes, to take a
+  copy of it.
+
+  Bruckenau, _July 3d, 1822_. Louis, _Prince Royal_.
+
+Professor Onymus, of the University of Würzburg, reported a number of
+cases cured by Prince Hohenlohe, which he himself witnessed. He gives
+the following:
+
+  "Captain Ruthlein, an old gentleman of Thundorf, 70
+  years of age, who had long been pronounced incurable of
+  paralysis, which kept his hand clenched, and who had not
+  left his room for many years, has been perfectly cured.
+  Eight days after his cure he paid me a visit, rejoicing
+  in the happiness of being able to walk freely.
+
+  "A man, of about 50, named Bramdel, caused himself to be
+  carried by six men from Carlstadt to the Court at
+  Stauffenburg. His arms and legs were utterly paralyzed,
+  hanging like those of a dead man, and his face was of a
+  corpse-like pallor. On the prayer of the Prince he was
+  instantly cured, rose to his feet, and walked perfectly,
+  to the profound astonishment of all present.
+
+  "A student of Burglauer, near Murmerstadt, had lost for
+  two years the use of his legs; he was brought in a
+  carriage, and though he was only partially relieved by
+  the first and second prayer of the Prince, at the third
+  he found himself perfectly well.
+
+  "These cures are real and they are permanent. If any one
+  would excite doubts of the genuineness of the cases
+  operated by Prince Hohenlohe, it is only necessary to
+  come hither and consult a thousand other eye and ear
+  witnesses like myself. Every one is ready to give all
+  possible information about them."[196]
+
+The Mormons, under the leadership of Joseph Smith, Jr. (1805-1844),
+were healing the sick about the time that Prince Hohenlohe was
+performing his miracles on the other side of the water. Smith was born
+in Sharon, Vermont. The Mormon Church (The Church of Jesus Christ of
+Latter Day Saints) was founded in 1830 in Palmyra, New York, and moved
+from there to Kirkland, Ohio; Independence, Missouri; Nauvoo,
+Illinois; and thence to Utah. Smith was successively first elder,
+prophet, seer, and revelator. The year the church was founded Smith
+began his healing career as an exorcist, casting the devil out of
+Newel Knight in Colesville, New York. Following this, there was a firm
+belief in demoniacal possession, and exorcism was practised by both
+Smith and his followers, principally by means of command. This
+exorcism led up to faith healing.
+
+Smith's maternal uncle, Jason Mack, was a firm believer in healing by
+prayer and practised it; later, the Oneida Community of Perfectionists
+in western New York cured by faith; both of these facts would be known
+to the founder of Mormonism. After adopting faith healing he soon
+became proficient in the art. Numerous well-attested cures were
+performed by Smith and his followers in other places. Elder Richards
+advertised in England "Bones set through Faith in Christ," and Elder
+Phillips made the additional statement that "while commanding the
+bones, they came together, making a noise like the crushing of an old
+basket." All forms of disease were treated, but not always
+successfully, as may be inferred from Smith's own words: "The cholera
+burst forth among us, even those on guard fell to the earth with their
+guns in their hands.... At the commencement I attempted to lay on
+hands for their recovery, but I quickly learned by painful experience,
+that when the great Jehovah decrees destruction upon any people, makes
+known His determination, man must not attempt to stay his hand." The
+means employed varied, but included at different times prayer,
+command, laying on of hands, consecrated handkerchiefs and other
+cloths, baptism, and infrequently anointing.[197]
+
+Crossing the ocean again, we find Johann Christolph Blumhardt
+(1805-1880) performing wonderful acts of healing. He assumed his first
+independent charge in 1838 when he became pastor of the village church
+at Moettlinger, Wurtemberg. He was known afterward as Pastor
+Blumhardt. Among his parishioners was Gottliebin Ditters, generally
+thought to be possessed by an evil spirit. After two years prayer and
+care for this woman, he saw her restored to peace of mind. This was
+the beginning of a life of faith in the efficacy of prayer for
+healing. After the restoration of Gottliebin a spontaneous and
+entirely unexpected revival took place in Moettlinger. Multitudes came
+from afar to hear this sincere man preach his simple sermons, and in
+many cases bodily disease left those who confessed and upon whom
+Blumhardt laid his hands. It became noised about that those who
+repented, with whom the pastor prayed and upon whom he laid his hands,
+would be healed. "One morning a mother rushed to his house, saying
+that she had by an accident scalded her child with boiling soup. The
+infant was found screaming with agony. He took the child in his arms,
+prayed over it, and it grew quiet. It had no further pain, and the
+effects of the scalding were quickly gone. Another child was nearly
+blind with disease. A neighboring pastor, when consulted, said to the
+parents: 'If you believe Jesus can and will heal your child, by all
+means go to Blumhardt, but if you have not got the faith, don't do it
+on any account; let an operation be performed.' 'Well, we have faith,'
+they said, and went to Blumhardt. Three days after it was perfectly
+well." These events could not fail to attract attention, and miracles
+or healings from his prayers were of constant occurrence. In 1852
+Blumhardt moved to Boll, Wurtemberg, and until his death he continued
+his healing. He did not despise human means of healing, but he stoutly
+held that Jesus would answer the prayer of faith uttered for and by
+the sick.
+
+About the middle of the century Father Mathew (1790-1856) attracted a
+large number of persons who were in need of healing. He was best
+known as the famous apostle of temperance, and was to Ireland in the
+nineteenth century what Wesley was to England in the eighteenth. He
+also travelled over England and Scotland and spent two years in
+America. In one period of nine months he induced two hundred thousand
+persons to take the temperance pledge. Among other things he cured
+blindness, lameness, paralysis, hysteria, headache, and lunacy. After
+his death the same diseases which he had cured during his lifetime
+were just as effectively relieved by visiting the good father's tomb,
+in the firm belief that a miracle would be performed. From the
+following cure, his first one, it will be seen that the discovery of
+his healing power was rather accidental.
+
+  "A young lady, of position and intelligence, was for
+  years the victim of the most violent headaches, which
+  assumed a chronic character. Eminent advice was had but
+  in vain; the malady became more intense, the agony more
+  excruciating. Starting up one day from the sofa on which
+  she lay in a delirium of pain, she exclaimed--'I cannot
+  endure this torture any longer; I will go and see what
+  Father Mathew can do for me.' She immediately proceeded
+  to Lehanagh, where Father Mathew was then sick and
+  feeble. Flinging herself on her knees before him she
+  besought his prayers and blessing. In fact, stung by
+  intolerable suffering she asked him to cure her. 'My
+  dear child, you ask me what no mortal has power to do.
+  The power to cure rests alone with God. I have no such
+  power.' 'Then bless me, and pray for me--place your hand
+  on my head,' implored the afflicted lady. 'I cannot
+  refuse to pray for you, or to bless you,' said Father
+  Mathew, who did pray for and bless her, and place his
+  hand upon her poor throbbing brow. Was it faith?--was it
+  magnetism?--was it the force of imagination exerted
+  wonderfully? I shall not venture to pronounce what it
+  was; but that lady returned to her home perfectly cured
+  of her distressing malady. More than that--cured
+  completely, from that moment, forward."[198]
+
+About the same time, Mrs. Elizabeth Mix, a negro woman living in
+Connecticut, achieved great fame through her healing by prayer. Many
+testified to the efficacy of her prayers and bewailed her death.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE O. BARNES]
+
+Francis Schlatter (1856-1909) was a native of Alsace, France. He was
+born a Roman Catholic and, so far as he was affiliated with any
+denomination, always remained one. When a year old, he was blind and
+deaf and was cured by his mother's prayers. He came to America in
+1891, and first settled at Jamestown, Long Island. Early in 1893 he
+moved to Denver, Colorado, and in the following July he felt impelled
+by inner promptings to start out, he knew not whither. Probably
+mentally unbalanced, he wandered through the wilderness of the great
+Southwest without shoes or hat. Fasts, temptations, visions, arrests
+and imprisonments, and healings combined to furnish his experience
+during these wanderings, always, as he said, being led by the Father.
+In July, 1895, he arrived at Las Lunas, New Mexico, where he first
+attracted public attention as a healer. From here he went to
+Albuquerque, where he treated as many as six hundred persons in a day,
+many very effectively. After forty days' fast, which was broken by a
+hearty meal of solid food, he went to Denver and here reached the
+pinnacle of his fame and success. At the home of a sympathizer, daily
+from 9 A. M. to 4 P. M., he treated those who came to him, always
+without any remuneration. From two thousand to five thousand people
+would congregate in line, reaching nearly around a city block, five or
+six abreast, but he was never able to treat more than two thousand in
+a day. Crowds came from other cities, and some few from great
+distances, even the New England States. He stood inside a fence, and
+as each one came along he held the patient's hand for a short time;
+lifting up his eyes, he prayed and then assured the sufferer of
+relief within a certain time. Through the mail and in other ways he
+received handkerchiefs which he blessed and returned with assurance of
+relief through them. Not all cases handled were restored to health or
+even noticeably eased, but large numbers testified to cures, some of
+which came immediately and others by degrees. He did not preach.
+Although he never claimed it, when asked, "Are you the Christ?" he
+always replied, "I am." He wore a beard and long hair, and dressed in
+the plainest clothes. In appearance he looked not unlike the pictures
+of the traditional Christ. Afterward he appeared in different parts of
+the United States, but never with the same success in healing as in
+Denver.[199]
+
+The once famous Dr. Newton arrived in Boston in 1859 on one of his
+visits, and caused an extraordinary sensation. Astonishing results
+were reported in the way of cures. The lame, having no further need of
+crutches, left them behind; the blind were cured, and several chronic
+cases were relieved. He had many followers and disciples among whom
+was "Dr." Bryant, who settled in Detroit and healed there. Rev. J. M.
+Buckley, D.D., met Dr. Newton on a Mississippi steam-boat, when the
+latter was returning from Havana with his daughter who was very low
+with consumption, and the father doubted if she would reach home
+alive. When asked "Doctor, why could you not heal her?" he replied "It
+seems as if we cannot always affect our own kindred." At this time he
+denounced his pupil, Dr. Bryant, as an "unmitigated fraud who had no
+genuine healing power."
+
+  "If Bryant be an unmitigated fraud, how do you account
+  for the cures which he makes?" asked Dr. Buckley.
+
+  "Oh!" said the doctor, "they are caused by the faith of
+  the people and the concentration of their minds upon his
+  operations with the expectation of being cured. Now,"
+  said he, "nobody would go to see Bryant unless they had
+  some faith that he might cure them, and when he begins
+  his operations with great positiveness of manner, and
+  when they see the crutches he has there, and hear the
+  people testify that they have been cured, it produces a
+  tremendous influence on them; and then he gets them
+  started in the way of exercising, and they do a good
+  many things that they thought they could not do; their
+  appetites and spirits revive, and if toning them up can
+  possibly reduce the diseased tendency, many of them will
+  get well."
+
+  Said Dr. Buckley: "Doctor, pardon me, is not that a
+  correct account of the manner in which you perform your
+  wonderful works?"
+
+  "Oh, no," said he; "the difference between a genuine
+  healer and a quack like Bryant is as wide as the
+  poles."[200]
+
+Father John of Cronstadt (1829-1908) was a saintly man, and furnishes
+us with an example of the healers among the Orthodox Church of the
+East. He was famed in all Russia for his sanctity, and was so thronged
+by crowds for his healing power that he often had to escape by side
+doors after celebrating the communion. His cures were many, but I
+choose his own account of one as an example.
+
+  "A certain person who was sick unto death from
+  inflammation of the bowels for nine days, without having
+  obtained the slightest relief from medical aid, as soon
+  as he had communicated of the Holy Sacrament, upon the
+  morning of the ninth day, regained his health and rose
+  from his bed of sickness in the evening of the same day.
+  He received the Holy Communion with firm faith. I prayed
+  to the Lord to cure him. 'Lord,' said I, 'heal thy
+  servant of his sickness. He is worthy, therefore grant
+  him this. He loves thy priests and sends them his
+  gifts.' I also prayed for him in church before the altar
+  of the Lord, at the Liturgy, during the prayer: 'Thou
+  who hast given us grace at this time, with one accord to
+  make our common supplication unto thee,' and before the
+  Holy Mysteries themselves. I prayed in the following
+  words: 'Lord, our life! It is as easy for thee to cure
+  every malady as it is for me to think of healing. It is
+  as easy for thee to raise every man from the dead as it
+  is for me to think of the possibility of the
+  resurrection of the dead. Cure, then, thy servant Basil
+  of his cruel malady, and do not let him die; do not let
+  his wife and children be given up to weeping.' And the
+  Lord graciously heard, and had mercy upon him, although
+  he was within a hair's breadth of death. Glory to thine
+  omnipotence and mercy, that thou, Lord, hast vouchsafed
+  to hear me!"[201]
+
+For the past century and a half healing has been carried on among the
+Pennsylvania Germans by means of a superstitious practice known as
+"Pow-wow." A book called _The Sixth Book of Moses, or Black Art_ is
+said to be the basis of the practice. The practitioners are usually
+women of the most ignorant, degraded, and, not infrequently, immoral
+class, and in harmony with this, a firm belief in witchcraft is
+entertained by them. Notwithstanding this, they are employed at times
+by intelligent and respectable people, even by those whose standing in
+the community might well guarantee a disbelief in such incantations.
+The healers treat for burns, erysipelas and all skin diseases, goitre,
+tumors, rheumatism, and some other similar troubles. They have
+different formulas for the various diseases, and the belief is current
+that if a healer should reveal the formula to her own sex, she would
+lose her power, and if she told more than one of the opposite sex,
+the power would be taken from her. The following is the method of
+operating for burns:
+
+  "Take a piece of red woolen yarn and wrap it into the
+  shape of a ball. Pass it slowly around the burn and
+  while doing so, repeat three times, 'The fire burneth,
+  water quencheth, the pain ceaseth.' After which reverse
+  the movement and repeat the words again three times.
+  Then take the yarn upstairs, pull out the chimney-stop,
+  put the yarn in the chimney, and as soon as it
+  disappears the burn is healed."
+
+There have been a number of cases of local healers and I give two
+examples: "At the time of the prevalence of cholera in Canada, a man
+named Ayers, who came out of the States, and was said to be a graduate
+of the University of New Jersey, was given out to be St. Roche, the
+principal patron saint of the Canadians, and renowned for his power in
+averting pestilential diseases. He was reported to have descended from
+heaven to cure his suffering people of the cholera, and many were the
+cases in which he appeared to afford relief. Many were thus
+dispossessed of their fright in anticipation of the disease, who
+might, probably, but for his inspiriting influence, have fallen
+victims to their apprehensions. The remedy he employed was an
+admixture of maple sugar, charcoal, and lard."[202]
+
+"The _Month_ for June, 1892, published an account, by the late Earl of
+Denbigh, of a cure worked by a member of a family named Cancelli of
+Lady Denbigh in 1850. She was suffering severely from rheumatism, and
+the Pope (Pius IX) mentioned to the Earl that near Foligno there was a
+family of peasants who were credited with a miraculous power of curing
+rheumatic disorders. Lord Denbigh succeeded in getting one of the
+family, an old man, to come, and learned from him the legend of the
+cure. The belief was that in the reign of Nero, the Apostles Peter and
+Paul took refuge in the hut of an old couple named Cancelli, near
+Foligno, and, as a proof of gratitude, gave to the male descendants of
+the family living near the spot the power of curing rheumatic
+disorders to the end of time. Lord Denbigh described how the old man
+made a solemn invocation, using the sign of the cross, and, in fact,
+Lady Denbigh did recover at once. In a few days the pains returned,
+but she made an act of resignation, and they then left her, and never
+returned with any acuteness."[203]
+
+What we may designate "Metaphysical Healing" originated with Phineas
+Parkhurst Quimby (1802-1866). The movement was important, not so much
+on account of what Quimby himself was able to accomplish by it, as
+because of the work that has been carried on since by at least three
+of his pupils. He was born in Lebanon, New Hampshire, and in early
+life was a watch and clock maker. In 1840 he began experimenting with
+mesmerism, and accounts of these experiments were published in the
+Maine papers of that time. After this he developed a system of mental
+healing of his own, practising it in different towns in Maine for some
+years. About 1858 he settled as a practitioner in Portland and
+remained there until his death. I shall quote brief extracts in his
+own words, which portray his system.
+
+  "My practice is unlike all medical practice. I give no
+  medicine, and make no outward applications. I tell the
+  patient his troubles, and what he thinks is his disease;
+  and my explanation is the cure. If I succeed in
+  correcting his errors, I change the fluids of the system
+  and establish the truth, or health. The truth is the
+  cure. This mode of practice applies to all cases."
+
+  "The greatest evil that follows taking an opinion for a
+  truth is disease."
+
+  "Man is made up of truth and belief; and, if he is
+  deceived into a belief that he has, or is liable to
+  have, a disease, the belief is catching, and the effect
+  follows it."
+
+  "Disease being made by our belief, or by our parents'
+  belief, or by public opinion, there is no formula to be
+  adopted, but every one must be reached in his
+  particular case. Therefore it requires great shrewdness
+  or wisdom to get the better of the error. Disease is our
+  error and the work of the devil."[204]
+
+Quimby made many wonderful and mostly speedy cures, and although he
+wrote out his system, it has never been published. Among his patients
+was Mrs. Patterson from Hill, New Hampshire, who went to Portland in
+1862. She had been a confirmed invalid for six years. To quote her own
+words, published in the _Portland Evening Courier_ in 1862, she made a
+rapid recovery. "Three weeks since I quitted my nurse and sick room en
+route for Portland. The belief of my recovery had died out of the
+hearts of those who were most anxious for it. With this mental and
+physical depression I first visited P. P. Quimby, and in less than one
+week from that time I ascended by a stairway of one hundred and
+eighty-two steps to the dome of the City Hall, and am improving _ad
+infinitum_. To the most subtle reasoning, such a proof, coupled, too,
+as it is with numberless similar ones, demonstrates his power to
+heal." Mrs. Patterson, afterward Mrs. Eddy, proclaimed after his death
+a doctrine very similar to Quimby's. She called it "Christian
+Science," a name Quimby applied to his teaching, although usually he
+called it "Science of Health."
+
+Another patient of Quimby's was Julius A. Dresser, who visited him
+first in 1860. Of him Mr. Dresser says: "The first person in this age
+who penetrated the depths of truth so far as to discover and bring
+forth a true science of life, and publicly apply it to the healing of
+the sick, was Phineas Parkhurst Quimby of Belfast, Me."
+
+Rev. W. F. Evans was still another patient and disciple of Quimby's.
+His testimony is as follows: "Disease being in its root a wrong
+belief, change that belief and we cure the disease.... The late Dr.
+Quimby, of Portland, one of the most successful healers of this or any
+age, embraced this view of the nature of disease, and by a long
+succession of most remarkable cures ... proved the truth of the
+theory.... Had he lived in a remote age or country, the wonderful
+facts which occurred in his practice would have now been deemed either
+mythical or miraculous."
+
+These three, Messrs. Evans and Dresser and Mrs. Eddy, proved to be
+Quimby's most famous patients and disciples. Evans became a noted and
+voluminous writer on mental healing, Mr. Dresser has been identified
+with the New Thought movement of which his son H. W. Dresser is
+probably the best exponent, and Mrs. Eddy ruled the Christian
+Scientists with a rod of iron.
+
+Warren F. Evans visited Quimby twice in the year 1863, and at these
+times obtained his knowledge of Quimby's methods. Up to this time he
+had been a Swedenborgian clergyman, and his beliefs enabled him the
+better to grasp the new doctrines. On the occasion of the second visit
+he told his healer that he thought he could cure the sick in this way,
+and Quimby agreed with him. On returning home he tried it, and his
+first attempts were so successful that he became a practitioner, using
+only mental means, and continued in this work. He wrote several books
+on the subject of mental healing, the first one, _The Mental Cure_,
+appearing in 1869, six years before Mrs. Eddy's _Science and Health_.
+
+Perhaps, strictly speaking, the New Thought movement does not come
+within the scope of our subject, except as we see in it an outgrowth
+and application of the Quimby doctrine, for two reasons. In the first
+place, its purpose is mental hygiene rather than cure, and it is all
+the more valuable for that. Of course, in establishing hygienic
+practices many disorders are cured, but prevention is the main
+feature. The second reason why we might perhaps not include it in a
+résumé of the healers is that it is intended to be for the use of the
+individual to prevent his employing a healer of any kind. The same
+objection, however, would do away to some extent with a discussion of
+Christian Science. The principles of New Thought are that the mind has
+an influence on the body, and that good, sweet, pure thoughts have a
+salutary effect, but the opposite ones injure the body. Don't worry,
+don't think of disease, don't look for trouble, but fill the mind
+with the opposite positive thoughts and life will be happy and the
+body will be well. The doctrines are expounded differently by the
+various leaders, and emphasis is laid on different points, some
+emphasizing more fully the religious aspects of the movement, for
+example. The principal writers on the subject are H. W. Dresser, R. W.
+Trine, H. Wood, and H. Fletcher.
+
+Mrs. Mary A. Morse Baker Glover Patterson Eddy (1821-1910) was born at
+Bow, New Hampshire. After a precocious and neurotic childhood, she
+united with the Congregational Church when seventeen years of age. At
+the age of twenty-two she married George Washington Glover, probably
+the best of her husbands. His death, six months later, was followed by
+the birth of her only child and a ten years' widowhood. During this
+time she stayed with her relatives and had long periods of illness,
+principally of an hysterical character. She then experimented to some
+extent with mesmerism and clairvoyance. In 1853 she married Dr. Daniel
+Patterson, an itinerant dentist, from whom she got a divorce, and as
+Mrs. Patterson she went first to "Dr." Quimby in 1862. She visited
+Quimby again in 1864, at which time, with some others, she studied
+with him. After Quimby's death she began teaching what she then called
+his science. For the next few years she wandered from town to town
+about Boston in straitened circumstances, healing, teaching, and
+endeavoring to found an organized society. It was not, however, until
+1875 that the organization was formed in Lynn, and later in the same
+year appeared her _Science and Health_. The years since then have been
+filled with controversies in the law courts and newspapers, caresses
+and blows from the ruling hand of Mother Eddy, and numerous
+developments from small beginnings, until now over one hundred
+thousand are identified with the organization. These are almost
+without exception proselytes from other churches.
+
+[Illustration: MARY BAKER EDDY]
+
+Mrs. Eddy's doctrines are founded on a metaphysical theory known as
+subjective idealism, and advanced centuries before her birth. It
+posits the all-comprehensiveness of mind and the non-existence of
+matter. If bodies do not exist, diseases cannot exist, and must be
+only mental delusions. If the mind is freed of these delusions the
+disease is gone. This was Quimby's method of procedure already quoted.
+In _Science and Health_ she says that the object of treatment is "to
+destroy the patient's belief in his physical condition." She also
+advises: "Mentally contradict every complaint of the body." She
+continues: "All disease is the result of education, and can carry its
+ill effects no further than mortal mind maps out the way. Destroy
+fear," she says, "and you end the fever." However, as with other
+healers, practice and theory are two different things. Listen further:
+"It would be foolish to venture beyond our present understanding,
+foolish to stop eating, until we gain more goodness and a clearer
+comprehension of the living God." Again: "Until the advancing age
+admits the efficacy and the supremacy of Mind, it is better to leave
+the adjustment of broken bones and dislocations to the fingers of the
+surgeon, while you confine yourself chiefly to mental reconstruction,
+and the prevention of inflammation and protracted confinement."[205]
+
+With the exception of Christian Science, no modern religious movement
+has come so prominently before the public and gained so many adherents
+in a short time as the Christian Catholic Apostle Church of Zion, and
+both movements owe their popularity solely to their healing. John
+Alexander Dowie (1847-1907), the founder of this sect, was born in
+Edinburgh, Scotland, but in 1860, with his parents, he went to
+Australia, returning for two years to his native city for college
+study. In 1870 he was ordained to the Congregational ministry. He
+served three churches, and after some political activity was offered a
+portfolio in the Australian cabinet of Sir Henry Parks. In 1882 he
+went to Melbourne and established a large independent church, building
+a tabernacle for worship. About this time he became a firm believer in
+Divine Healing in direct answer to prayer. He arrived in San Francisco
+in 1888 and spent two years in organizing branches of the Divine
+Healing Association of which he was president. He went to Chicago in
+1890 and continued there holding meetings for some years. In 1895 he
+broke away from the International Divine Healing Association, which he
+had been chiefly instrumental in organizing, and insisted that his
+followers should not remain in the churches. The following year the
+Christian Catholic Church was organized. Of this organization Mr.
+Dowie was known as General Overseer, then as Prophet, and in 1904 as
+First Apostle. He also proclaimed himself in general as the messenger
+of the Covenant and Elijah the Restorer. In 1900 Mr. Dowie said:
+"About twenty-two thousand have been baptized by triune immersion up
+to the present, and this includes practically all the members." This,
+however, was a great exaggeration. In 1901 the head-quarters of the
+church was moved to Zion City, forty-two miles north of Chicago. He
+preached the threefold gospel of Salvation, Healing, and Holy Living.
+Dowie differed from Christian Science in proclaiming the reality of
+disease, the distinctive feature of his doctrine being that all bodily
+ailment is the work of the Devil, and that Christ came to destroy the
+works of the Devil. His contempt for external means may be judged from
+the title of a pamphlet, _Doctors, Drugs, and Devils_; nevertheless,
+he used physicians at least to diagnose cases at different times, a
+licensed medical doctor, Speicher, being associated with him from the
+beginning of his work in Chicago. Dentists are a factor of Zion City,
+and it is said he also used an oculist. According to his doctrine
+there are four methods of cure: "The first is the direct prayer of
+faith; the second, intercessory prayer of two or more; the third, the
+anointing of the elders, with the prayer of faith; and the fourth, the
+laying on of hands of those who believe, and whom God has prepared and
+called to that ministry." In addition to this, teaching is the basis
+of all other methods. The first ten years of his healing he is said to
+have laid hands on eighteen thousand sick, and he declared that the
+greater part of them were fully healed. In some of his later years he
+said in an issue of his paper: "I pray and lay hands on seventy
+thousand people in a year." That would make one hundred and
+seventy-five thousand in two and a half years; but in the time
+preceding the statement he reported only seven hundred cures.
+Evidently very few were helped. However, in Shiloh Tabernacle at Zion
+City are exhibited on the walls crutches, canes, surgical instruments,
+trusses, and almost every form of apparatus used by the medical
+profession, presented by people who have now no further use for them
+on account of their being healed.[206]
+
+Our study began with the mental therapeutics of over a millennium
+before the birth of Christ; let us now close with that of the
+twentieth century after, in giving some account of the so-called
+Emmanuel Movement. In 1905 there was formed in connection with
+Emmanuel Church, Boston, a tuberculosis class for the alleviation of
+unfortunates of this kind. In this experience it was found that
+certain psychic and social factors greatly aided in a cure, and in the
+following year, 1906, the work expanded into what has been called the
+"Emmanuel Movement." It is an attempt to combine the wisdom and
+efforts of the physician, the clergyman, the psychologist, and the
+sociologist, to combat conditions most frequently met in a large city.
+In the medical phase of the work mental healing has had a large place,
+and has been emphasized most in the popular presentation of the
+movement, and so far as the idea has spread, it has been almost wholly
+in connection with this aspect. What the future of this will be is
+uncertain, but it seems probable that its most valuable service will
+be in stimulating the physicians to take up the work which properly
+belongs to them--the work of therapeutics in all its branches, mental
+and physical.
+
+
+  [190] C. G. Finney, _Memoirs_, pp. 108 f.
+
+  [191] W.T. Price, _Without Scrip or Purse, or the
+  "Mountain Evangelist," George O. Barnes_, p. 451.
+
+  [192] _Ibid._, p. 610.
+
+  [193] _Ibid._, pp. 301 ff.
+
+  [194] J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred
+  Phenomena," _Century_, XXXII, pp. 221 f.
+
+  [195] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, article "Hohenlohe."
+
+  [196] D. H. Tuke, _Influence of the Mind upon the
+  Body_, pp. 355 ff.
+
+  [197] I. W. Riley, _The Founder of Mormonism_, chaps.
+  VIII and IX.
+
+  [198] J. F. Maguire, _Father Mathew_, pp. 529 f.
+
+  [199] _Biography of Francis Schlatter, The Healer_.
+
+  [200] J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred
+  Phenomena," _Century_, XXXII, pp. 221 f.
+
+  [201] Father John, _My Life in Christ_ (trans.
+  Goulaeff), p. 201.
+
+  [202] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 53.
+
+  [203] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 482.
+
+  [204] J. A. Dresser, _The True History of Mental
+  Science_; A. G. Dresser, _The Philosophy of P. P.
+  Quimby_.
+
+  [205] G. Milmine, _Mary Baker G. Eddy_.
+
+  [206] R. Harlan, _John Alexander Dowie_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+ABRAXAS, 165 ff.
+
+Ague, 168, 172 f., 197 ff.
+
+Amulets, Chapter VII--
+  definition of, 138 f., 158 f.
+
+Astrology, 141 f., 146 ff.
+
+
+BAQUET, Mesmer's, 255 f.
+
+Bites of venomous animals, 200 f.
+
+Burns, 201.
+
+
+CABBALISM, 194.
+
+Calculus, 176 f.
+
+Cancer, 9 f.
+
+Canonization, 111.
+
+Catacombs, 66.
+
+Characts, 166 ff.
+
+Charms, Chapter VIII--
+  composition of, 193.
+  definition of, 189 f.
+
+Childbirth, 162, 168, 177, 202.
+
+Cholera, 177.
+
+Chorea, 203.
+
+Christianity, influence of, Chapter III.
+
+Christian Science, 16 f., 298 f., 302 f.
+
+Colic, 177 f., 203.
+
+Consumption, 203 f.
+
+Cramp, 178, 204, 246 ff.
+
+Cross, true, 69, 79 f.
+
+
+DEMONOLOGY--
+  and animals, 38 f.
+  and Apostolic Fathers, 40 ff.
+  and Dark Ages, 44 ff.
+  Christian, 37 ff.
+  Jewish, 36 f.
+
+Diseases, functional and organic, 9.
+
+Dislocations, 204 f.
+
+Dropsy, 205.
+
+
+EMMANUEL MOVEMENT, 306 f.
+
+Epilepsy, 178 f., 205 ff.
+
+Erysipelas, 180 f.
+
+Evil eye, 181, 207.
+
+Exorcism, 49 ff., 126 f., 134 f., 275, 286.
+  by amulets, 178.
+  by charms, 204.
+  by relics, 63.
+
+Eye disease, 168 f., 181 f., 207.
+
+
+FAITH, 14 f.
+
+Faith cure, 16, 17.
+
+Fevers, 166, 182, 208.
+
+
+GEMS, 161 ff., 176.
+
+Goitre, 209.
+
+Gout, 182 f.
+
+
+HEADACHE, 183, 209 f.
+
+Healers, Chapter V--
+  and exorcism, 110.
+  by unction, 114 ff.
+  Christian, 113 ff.
+  Mesmeric, Chapter X.
+  of nineteenth century, Chapter XI.
+
+Hemorrhage, 210 f.
+
+Herpes, 211 f.
+
+Hypnotism, Chapter X.--
+  controversy over, 257 ff.
+  historic periods of, 264 f.
+  Mesmer and, 252 ff.
+  scientific period of, 267 f.
+
+Hysteria, 183.
+
+
+INCUBATION, 26, 92 ff.
+  Greek, 93 ff.
+
+Incubus, 212.
+
+Insanity, 162, 183, 213.
+
+Insomnia, 212.
+
+
+JAUNDICE, 212 f.
+
+
+MAGNETISM, 249 ff.
+
+Mandragora, 171 f.
+
+Marasmus, 214.
+
+Medicine and church, 53 ff.
+  Babylonian, 27.
+  Chinese, 21 ff.
+  Egyptian, 24 ff.
+  Greek, 28 ff.
+  History of, 19 f.
+  Indian, 28.
+  Jewish, 27.
+  Primitive, 4, 20.
+  Roman, 34.
+
+Melancholy, 183.
+
+Mental healing, explanation of, 7 ff.
+
+Mesmerism. See Hypnotism.
+
+Metaphysical cures, 16, 297 ff.
+
+
+NUMBERS, 190 ff.
+
+
+OIL OF SAINTS, 66 f.
+
+
+PERICARPIA, 173.
+
+Phylacteries, 141.
+
+Plague, 183.
+
+Pools, 83 ff., 92.
+
+Prayer, 274 f., 280 ff., 283 f., 288, 291, 294.
+
+Psycho-analysis, 12 f.
+
+
+RE-EDUCATION, 12 f.
+
+Relics, 5, Chapter V--
+  and Church Fathers, 64 f.
+  cost of, 96 ff.
+  fraud among, 101 f.
+  from Holy Land, 69 ff.
+
+Religion and Healing, 4 ff., 21, Chapter III.
+
+Revivalists, 274 ff.
+
+Rickets, 214 f.
+
+Rings, 179 f., 184, 246 ff.
+
+Royal Touch, Chapter IX--
+  ceremony of, 240 ff.
+  origin of, 225 ff.
+
+
+SAINTS AND DISEASES, 74 ff., 81 f.
+
+Sciatica, 215.
+
+Scrofula, 185, 215, Chapter IX.
+
+Shrines, Chapter IV--
+  modern, 106 f.
+
+Sick, care of, 57 f.
+
+Signatures, 56, 142 ff.
+
+Spittle, 195.
+
+Subconsciousness, 11, 12, 14.
+
+Suggestions, 8, 251 f.
+
+Sweating sickness, 215.
+
+Sympathetic cures, 150 ff.
+
+
+TALISMANS, Chapter VI--
+  definition of, 138 ff., 142.
+
+Therapeutics. See Medicine.
+
+Thorns, 216.
+
+Toothache, 166, 186, 217 f.
+
+Touch pieces, 233 f.
+
+
+UNCTION, 144 ff., 274, 280.
+
+
+WARTS, 218 f.
+
+Weapon-salve, 151 ff.
+
+Wells, holy, 83 ff.
+
+Wen, 219 f.
+
+Whooping-cough, 186, 220 ff.
+
+Worms, 223.
+
+Wounds, 184 f.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF NAMES
+
+
+ABRAHAM, 100.
+
+Adam, 41.
+
+Adrian, Pope, 184.
+
+Æsculapius, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 63, 83, 86.
+
+Agatha, St., 75.
+
+Agnan, St., 75.
+
+Agrippa, 59, 191.
+
+Albans, St., 202.
+
+Albertus Magnus, 159, 164.
+
+Alboquerque, A. d'. 185.
+
+Alexander III, 55, 227.
+
+Alexander of Tralles, 171, 173, 178, 180, 182, 196.
+
+Ambrose, St., 38, 64, 65, 66, 70.
+
+Andreas, St., 80.
+
+Andrews, 196.
+
+Anne, Queen, 228, 233, 239, 240.
+
+Anne, St., de Beaupré, 106, 107.
+
+Anthony, St., 75, 80.
+
+Antoinette, Marie, 258.
+
+Antoninus, 31.
+
+Apes, Valerius, 32.
+
+Apollo, 29, 31, 83.
+
+Apollonia, St., 75, 76.
+
+Aquarius, 74.
+
+Aredius, 119.
+
+Aries, 74.
+
+Aristophanes, 31.
+
+Aristotle, 19, 29, 164.
+
+Armstrong, 3.
+
+Arnot, H., 141.
+
+Ashburner, 267.
+
+Ashmole, E. 173.
+
+Athanasius, 42.
+
+Aubrey, 215, 228.
+
+Augustine, St., 43, 64, 108.
+
+Aurelian, Father, 48.
+
+Avertin, St., 75.
+
+Ayers, 296.
+
+Azam, 269.
+
+
+BAAS, 171, 203.
+
+Bacci, P. J., 132.
+
+Bacon, F., 242.
+
+Bacon, R., 59.
+
+Badger, 230.
+
+Bagnone, F., 136.
+
+Bailly, 256, 259.
+
+Balsius, St., 74.
+
+Baltus, 43.
+
+Barbarin, de, 261.
+
+Bargrave, 250.
+
+Barnabas, St., 75.
+
+Barnes, G. O., 277.
+
+Barrington, 233.
+
+Barros, de, 184.
+
+Bates, 205.
+
+Bath-Chorin, 28.
+
+Becket, 78.
+
+Bede, 72, 74, 118, 121, 122, 149.
+
+Belgrade, 168.
+
+Benedict, St., 75.
+
+Benedict XIV, 111.
+
+Berdoe, E., 32, 35, 106, 129, 145, 146, 148, 169, 174, 177, 180, 200, 205,
+  211, 218, 226, 228, 297.
+
+Berenger, 98.
+
+Bernard, Dr. C., 239, 240.
+
+Bernard of Clairvaux, 122, 123.
+
+Bernard, St., 38, 77.
+
+Bernheim, H., 106, 270.
+
+Bertrand, 265.
+
+Binet, 255, 270.
+
+Bingham, 160.
+
+Black, 219.
+
+Blair, 224.
+
+Blaise, St., 75.
+
+Blochwick, 178.
+
+Blumhardt, J. C., 287 f.
+
+Boardman, W. E., 282.
+
+Böckmann, 263.
+
+Bois, John de, 125.
+
+Boleyn, A., 247, 248.
+
+Boncompagni, Cardinal, 132.
+
+Boniface, St., 77.
+
+Bonner, Bishop, 202.
+
+Bontius, 177.
+
+Boorde, A., 228, 247.
+
+Bossuet, 47.
+
+Boswell, 239.
+
+Boyle, R., 173, 176, 211, 214.
+
+Braid, 264, 267, 268, 269.
+
+Bramdel, 285.
+
+Brand, J., 90, 147, 160, 168, 173, 179, 185, 195, 197, 199, 200, 204, 208,
+   209, 211, 215, 216, 218, 220, 232, 233.
+
+Brand the Historian, 210.
+
+Broca, 269.
+
+Brockett, 187.
+
+Brogawn, St., 91.
+
+Browne, Dr. E., 213.
+
+Browne, J., 233, 234, 236.
+
+Browne, Sir T., 35, 186, 195, 213, 218, 236.
+
+Bryant, Dr., 292 f.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of, 153.
+
+Buckland, Prof., 102.
+
+Buckle, H. T., 45.
+
+Buckley, J. M., 283, 292, 293.
+
+Bulwer-Lytton, 158.
+
+Burdin, 266.
+
+Burgarde, St., 74.
+
+Burgrave, 250.
+
+Burnet, 247.
+
+Burton, R., 158, 159, 160, 173, 183.
+
+Butler, 243.
+
+Butler, A., 161.
+
+Butler, J., 129.
+
+
+CAIUS, 31.
+
+Calama, 64.
+
+Calixtus II, 55.
+
+Cancelli, 296.
+
+Capricornus, 74.
+
+Capua, Raimondo da, 127, 128, 129.
+
+Carodoc, 9.
+
+Catharine, St., 126, 127.
+
+Cato the Censor, 204.
+
+Chalmers, 14.
+
+Chamberlain, J., 230.
+
+Charcot, 106, 270.
+
+Charles I, 230, 231.
+
+Charles II, 232, 234, 241, 246.
+
+Charles II of Spain, 45.
+
+Charles Edward, Prince, 240.
+
+Chaucer, 61, 142, 164, 224.
+
+Chesterfield, 3.
+
+Chilperic, 119.
+
+Christopher, St., 75.
+
+Chrysippus, 182.
+
+Chrysostom, St., 67, 116, 159.
+
+Churchill, 3.
+
+Cicero, 19.
+
+Clairvaux, Abbot of, 77.
+
+Clara, St., 76.
+
+Clarke, R. F., 105.
+
+Clement of Alexandria, 165.
+
+Clement VIII, Pope, 132.
+
+Cleophas, Simon, 75.
+
+Clerk, Mrs., 148.
+
+Clothair II, 119.
+
+Clovis I, 225.
+
+Cockayne, 178, 194.
+
+Coirin, la demoiselle, 105.
+
+Coles, 144.
+
+Coleta, 78, 120.
+
+Collier, J., 226.
+
+Collinson, 89.
+
+Collyer, Dr., 268.
+
+Comines, P. de, 243.
+
+Conway, Lord, 135.
+
+Cosmo, 118.
+
+Cotta, 181.
+
+Cowles, W., 229.
+
+Cromwell, O., 113.
+
+Cros, J. M., 130.
+
+Crowley, 220.
+
+Cudworth, Dr., 136.
+
+Cullis, C., 281.
+
+Cullum, Sir J., 214.
+
+Cuthbert, St., 72, 73, 74, 118.
+
+Cyprian, 43.
+
+Cyril, St., 64.
+
+Cyrus, St., 67, 159, 116.
+
+
+DAMIAN, 118.
+
+Darling, 268.
+
+Dearmer, P., 67, 68, 96, 105, 115, 121.
+
+Delenze, 264.
+
+Democritus, 33.
+
+Denbigh, Earl of, 296.
+
+Deslon, 254, 258, 262.
+
+Deubner, L., 96.
+
+Deucalion, 208.
+
+Digby, Sir E., 151.
+
+Digby, Sir K., 151 ff., 155, 218.
+
+Ditters, G., 287.
+
+Dodd, Dr., 219.
+
+Donce, 181, 199.
+
+Dowie, J. A., 304 f.
+
+Draper, J. W., 72.
+
+Dresser, A. G., 298.
+
+Dresser, H. W., 300, 301.
+
+Dresser, J. A., 298, 299.
+
+Dromore, Bishop of, 135.
+
+Dryden, 155.
+
+Dundee, B., 223.
+
+Dupotel, Baron, 257.
+
+Durham, Bishop of, 59.
+
+Dziewicki, M. H., 51.
+
+
+ECCLES, 146.
+
+Eddy, Mrs., 16, 299, 300, 301, 302.
+
+Edine, St., 76.
+
+Edward the Confessor, 225, 226, 227, 228, 234.
+
+Edward II, 145.
+
+Edward III, 234.
+
+Edward VI, 248.
+
+Eleazar, 37.
+
+Elisha, 109.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 184, 202, 229, 234, 247.
+
+Elliotson, 267.
+
+Elpideus, 59.
+
+Empedocles, 29.
+
+Encelius, 161.
+
+Ennemoser, 266.
+
+Ennodius, St., 59.
+
+Erasmus, St., 74, 76.
+
+Estrade, J. B., 106.
+
+Euhodias, 114.
+
+Eustachius, 86.
+
+Eustasius, Abbe, 119, 120.
+
+Eutrope, St., 76.
+
+Evans, W. F., 299 f.
+
+Evelyn, 241.
+
+Evremond, St., 134.
+
+
+FABIAN, POPE, 43.
+
+Faria, 265.
+
+Farnham, N. de, 59.
+
+Fecamp, 107.
+
+Felix, Minucius, 42.
+
+Felix, Mons, 104.
+
+Ferdinand, 155.
+
+Féré, 255, 270.
+
+Ferrarius, 198.
+
+Fiage, St., 76.
+
+Fillan, St., 88, 213.
+
+Finney, C. G., 276, 277.
+
+Fisher, G. P., 64.
+
+Fitz-Nigel, R., 59.
+
+Fletcher, 61.
+
+Fletcher, H., 301.
+
+Floyer, Sir J., 239.
+
+Fluctibus, A., 151.
+
+Fludd, Dr., 151, 250.
+
+Foissac, 265.
+
+Fontenelle, 19.
+
+Fort, G. F., 46, 59, 63, 77, 80, 81, 96, 97, 121, 127, 149, 165, 171, 172,
+   194, 207.
+
+Fortescue, Sir J., 228.
+
+Fosbrooke, 84, 142.
+
+Foster, Parson, 151.
+
+Fox, G., 132 f.
+
+Francis, Father, 91.
+
+Francis I, Emperor, 146.
+
+Francis I, King, 243.
+
+Francis, St., 124.
+
+Franklin, 259.
+
+Franz, A., 171.
+
+
+GALEN, 19, 196.
+
+Gall, St., 46, 77, 81, 100, 119.
+
+Gamaliel, 64.
+
+Ganny, S., 125.
+
+Gardiner, Bishop, 247.
+
+Gassner, J. J., 136, 254.
+
+Gemelli, 244.
+
+Gemini, 74.
+
+Genevieve, St., 68, 76, 118.
+
+Genow, St., 76.
+
+George I, 240.
+
+George, St., 67, 94, 97, 98.
+
+Gereon, St., 101.
+
+Germain, St., 117.
+
+Germanus, St., 76.
+
+Gervasius, St., 65.
+
+Gilbourne, Lord, 155.
+
+Giles, St., 76.
+
+Glocenius, 250.
+
+Gmelin, 263.
+
+Goldsmith, 19.
+
+Googe, B., 203.
+
+Görres, 130.
+
+Gower, 189.
+
+Gracian, B., 250.
+
+Greatrakes, V., 133 ff.
+
+Gregory, Mr., 248.
+
+Gregory, of Nazianzus, 43, 118.
+
+Gregory, of Tours, 44, 68, 69, 83, 118.
+
+Gregory, St., 98.
+
+Gregory the Great, 44, 45, 72.
+
+Gregory XIII, Pope, 132.
+
+Grimes, 268.
+
+Gros, D. de, 269.
+
+Grose, 90, 218.
+
+Gudule, St., 104.
+
+Guffe, John, 125.
+
+Guthlac, St., 77.
+
+
+HALL, BISHOP, 91, 158.
+
+Hamerton, 138.
+
+Hamilton, Miss M., 93, 94, 96.
+
+Hammond, W. A., 153, 154, 157, 244, 245.
+
+Hardy, 22.
+
+Harlan, R., 306.
+
+Harrington, Sir J., 163.
+
+Hasted, 86.
+
+Hatton, Lord Charles, 184, 247.
+
+Helen, Empress, 70.
+
+Helinotius, 250.
+
+Hell, 252, 253.
+
+Helmont, von, 150.
+
+Henry II and III, 59.
+
+Henry IV, 225.
+
+Henry VII, 85, 234, 240.
+
+Henry VIII, 247.
+
+Hensler, 266.
+
+Hercules, 33, 83.
+
+Herring, 183.
+
+Herz, Frau, 48.
+
+Heylin, Dr., 238, 243.
+
+Heywood, 189.
+
+Higden, Ranulf, 91.
+
+Hilarion, St., 38, 117.
+
+Hippo, 64.
+
+Hippocrates, 28, 32, 47.
+
+Hippolito, 155.
+
+Hobbes, 242.
+
+Hohenlohe, Prince, 283 f.
+
+Holloway, 262.
+
+Holt, Sir J., 174 f.
+
+Homer, 29, 30.
+
+Hospinian, 247.
+
+Howell, A. G., 124.
+
+Howell, J., 152 f.
+
+Hubert, St., 78, 79, 81, 82.
+
+Hugo, 120.
+
+Hyacinth, St., 76.
+
+Hyde, 139.
+
+Hygeia, Tecla, 86.
+
+
+IATRICOS, 83.
+
+Imbert-Gourbyzee, 106.
+
+Innocent II, 55.
+
+Innocent III, 55.
+
+Irenæus, 41, 113.
+
+Isaac, 100.
+
+
+JACKSON, 167.
+
+Jacob, 97, 100.
+
+James, 114, 115.
+
+James I, 229.
+
+James II, 153, 238.
+
+Jerome, of Brunsweig, 187.
+
+Jerome, St., 117.
+
+Joane, Mother, of Stowe, 197.
+
+Job, St., 76.
+
+John, 66, 123.
+
+John, Father, of Cronstadt, 294 f.
+
+John, of Gladdesden, 145, 206.
+
+John, St., 67, 74, 75, 76, 93, 97.
+
+John, St., of Beverly, 121.
+
+Johnson, Dr. S., 238 f.
+
+Johnson, Mrs., 239.
+
+Joseph, 25, 75.
+
+Josephus, 28, 37.
+
+Julian, 32, 44.
+
+Juliana, St., 76, 118.
+
+Julius Africanus, 166.
+
+Jussieu, L. de, 259.
+
+Just, St., 98.
+
+Justina, Empress, 65.
+
+
+KAMPFER, 146.
+
+King, E. A., 60, 173, 182, 187, 193, 204, 205, 217.
+
+Kircher, 250.
+
+Koreff, 263.
+
+Kublai Khan, 185.
+
+
+LACIANUS, 64.
+
+Lactantius, 42.
+
+La Fontaine, 267.
+
+Laneham, R., 229.
+
+Lascaris, 243.
+
+Laurent, du, 192.
+
+Laurentia, 127.
+
+Laurentius, 225, 243.
+
+Lavater, 263.
+
+Lavoisier, 259.
+
+Lawrence, St., 74, 76.
+
+Leatus, 75.
+
+Lecky, W. E. H., 42, 65, 113, 242, 243.
+
+Lee, 267.
+
+Lemnius, L., 195.
+
+Leo, 74.
+
+Leo, Pope, 100.
+
+Leonastes, 68.
+
+Leverett, John, 136.
+
+Liberius, St., 76.
+
+Libra, 74.
+
+Liebeault, 269, 270, 271.
+
+Lilly, 86.
+
+Lindsey, Earl of, 231.
+
+Littre M., 80.
+
+Lluellin, 212.
+
+Locke, 242.
+
+Lodge, 198.
+
+London, Bishop of, 59.
+
+Longfellow, 273.
+
+Louis I, 225.
+
+Louis XIII, 244.
+
+Louis, Prince, 285.
+
+Louis, St., 79.
+
+Loutherbourg, 262.
+
+Lucian, 218.
+
+Lucy, St., 76.
+
+Luke, 75, 97.
+
+Lupton, 180, 185.
+
+Luther, Martin, 47, 129.
+
+
+MACARIUS, St., 116.
+
+Macaulay, C. S., 89.
+
+Macaulay, Mrs., 89.
+
+Macaulay, T. B., 232, 241.
+
+Macdonald, 204.
+
+Machaon, 30.
+
+Mack, J., 286.
+
+Mackay, C., 69, 71, 100, 104, 108, 157, 256, 262.
+
+Madern, St., 91.
+
+Magnus, St., 79.
+
+Maimonides, 140.
+
+Mainadus, Dr., 262.
+
+Maine, St., 76.
+
+Marcellus, 168.
+
+Margaret, St., 76.
+
+Maria, S. dell 'Arco, 107.
+
+Mark, 75, 99, 114.
+
+Marsden, 199.
+
+Martin, St., 68, 69, 76, 78, 83, 117, 120.
+
+Martyr, Justin, 41, 42.
+
+Marus, St., 76.
+
+Mary, 71.
+
+Mary, Queen, 248.
+
+Maspéro, G., 25, 26.
+
+Massinger, 35.
+
+Matthew, Father, 127, 128, 289 f.
+
+Maur, St., 76.
+
+Maxwell, 251.
+
+Mayerne, Dr., 153.
+
+Meaux, Bishop of, 47.
+
+Melanchthon, 129.
+
+Melton, 74.
+
+Mesmer, 6, 250.
+
+Meyer, R., 133.
+
+Mezeray, 225.
+
+Michel, M., 283.
+
+Milmine, G., 304.
+
+Milner, John, Dr., 83.
+
+Milton, 242.
+
+Miranda, 155.
+
+Miranda, A., de, 130.
+
+Mix, E., 290.
+
+Mizaldus, 159.
+
+Momford, Lord, 219.
+
+Monardes, 183.
+
+Montfort, Marquis, 97.
+
+Mooney, N., 197.
+
+Morison, 122, 123.
+
+Morley, H., 191.
+
+Morley, Squire, 185.
+
+Moses, 25, 69, 72, 97.
+
+Moses, J., 135.
+
+Müller, Johannes, 11.
+
+Munger, 19.
+
+Murmerstadt, 285.
+
+Myers, A. T., 106.
+
+Myers, F. W. H., 106, 265, 271.
+
+
+NAAMAN, 83.
+
+Nabonnese, 98.
+
+Napoleon, 108.
+
+Navarette, 201.
+
+Neri, St. Philip, 132.
+
+Nevius, J.F., 60.
+
+Newton, Dr., 292.
+
+Nicetius, 67.
+
+Nicholas, Dr. J., 230.
+
+Nicodemus, 75.
+
+Noizet, 265.
+
+Northampton, Lord, 197.
+
+Nottingham, William, 125.
+
+Nun, St., 213.
+
+
+Odilo, 81.
+
+Oldmixon, 239.
+
+Onymus, Prof., 285.
+
+Origen, 26, 42, 43, 114.
+
+Oswald, St., 90.
+
+Otilia, St., 74, 76.
+
+
+PALLADIUS, 116.
+
+Paninguem, Tomé, 130.
+
+Paracelsus, 5, 150, 151, 181, 212, 249, 250.
+
+Paris, Deacon, 105.
+
+Paris, Dr., 142.
+
+Parthenius, St., 115.
+
+Pascal, 169.
+
+Pastor, St., 98.
+
+Patrick, Bishop, 136.
+
+Patterson, Mrs., 298.
+
+Paul III, Pope, 100.
+
+Paul, St., 37, 72, 75, 126.
+
+Paula, Franciscus de, 120.
+
+Peckham, Sir G., 86.
+
+Peebles, J. M., 60.
+
+Pennant, 85.
+
+Pepys, 201, 204, 210, 216.
+
+Percy, Bishop, 246.
+
+Perier, Mademoiselle, 103.
+
+Perkins, B. D., 262.
+
+Pernel, St., 76.
+
+Peter, 248.
+
+Peter, St., 5, 71, 72, 100, 121.
+
+Petétin, 261.
+
+Petronilla, St., 76.
+
+Pettigrew, T. J., 55, 75, 76, 139, 140, 141, 146, 157, 159, 162, 167, 170,
+   176, 177, 181, 184, 198, 201, 202, 204, 205, 207, 208, 213, 218, 225,
+   236, 244, 248, 296.
+
+Pezold, 263.
+
+Phaire, St., 76.
+
+Philip I, 243.
+
+Philip II of Spain, 54.
+
+Philip of Valois, 244.
+
+Phillips, Elder, 287.
+
+Philo, 37.
+
+Pilate, Pontius, 41, 97, 105.
+
+Pilkington, Bishop, 167.
+
+Pinkerton, 88.
+
+Pisces, 74.
+
+Pistol, 207.
+
+Pius IX, Pope, 296.
+
+Platerus, 159.
+
+Plato, 19, 29.
+
+Pliny, 159, 177, 182, 183, 198, 209.
+
+Podalirius, 30.
+
+Polo, Marco, 185.
+
+Pomponatius, 160.
+
+Ponponazzi, Pierre, 25.
+
+Pope, 138.
+
+Porta, B., 151, 159, 251.
+
+Posidonius, 44.
+
+Poyan, C, 268.
+
+Price, W. T., 278.
+
+Protasius, St., 65.
+
+Puller, 115.
+
+Puységur, Marquis de, 260, 261.
+
+Pythagoras, 190.
+
+
+QUAN, ST., 91.
+
+Quimby, P. P., 17, 297 ff., 302, 303.
+
+Quintan, St., 76.
+
+Quirinus, St., 74.
+
+
+RACHEL, 145.
+
+Radegonde, 121.
+
+Radstock, Lord, 283.
+
+Ramesay, 158.
+
+Raphael, 43.
+
+Ravenscroft, 190.
+
+Refinus, 115.
+
+Reid, 273.
+
+Remigius, St., 77.
+
+Renodeus, 159, 160, 161.
+
+Richards, Elder, 287.
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal, 244.
+
+Richmond, Duke of, 231.
+
+Riley, I. W., 287.
+
+Roche, St., 296.
+
+Rochus, St., 74, 76.
+
+Romanus, St., 76.
+
+Rosalia, St., 102.
+
+Ruffian, St., 76.
+
+Russel, 200.
+
+Rusticus, Elpidius, 59.
+
+Ruthlein, Captain, 285.
+
+
+SAGITTARIUS, 74.
+
+Salverte, E., 40, 41, 59, 83, 85, 136.
+
+Samonicus, S., 166.
+
+Sanderson, Dr., 231.
+
+Sanford, F. W., 281 f.
+
+Saturninus, St., 123.
+
+Sauveur, St., of Horta, 130 f.
+
+Schlatter, F., 290.
+
+Scoresby, 267.
+
+Scorpius, 74.
+
+Scott, R., 196.
+
+Scott, W., 189, 193, 213.
+
+Sebastian, St., 76, 98.
+
+Selle, 263.
+
+Senso, Dr., 128.
+
+Serapion, 180.
+
+Severin, St., 67, 81.
+
+Severus, 114.
+
+Servetus, 244.
+
+Shakespeare, 108, 224, 273.
+
+Shaw, 203.
+
+Siemers, 266.
+
+Sigismund, St., 76.
+
+Simeon, St., 97.
+
+Simpson, A. B., 281.
+
+Sinsheim, Count von, 284.
+
+Skippon, 198.
+
+Smith, Joseph, Jr., 286 f.
+
+Smith, Sir T., 184, 247.
+
+Socrates, 29, 86.
+
+Sophronius, 93.
+
+Southampton, Earl of, 231.
+
+Southey, 143, 273.
+
+Stengal, 54.
+
+Stephen, St., 64, 75.
+
+Stephens, 248.
+
+Sterne, 3.
+
+Stevens, E., 231.
+
+Stowe, 3.
+
+Straus, 155.
+
+Strype, 202.
+
+Styria, 107.
+
+Sulpicius, St., 77.
+
+Syward, John, 125, 126.
+
+
+TACITUS, 112.
+
+Tairise, St., 99.
+
+Tathiedo, 75.
+
+Tatian, 40.
+
+Taurus, 74.
+
+Tecla, St., 85.
+
+Tennyson A., 139
+
+Tenos, Madonna of, 95.
+
+Tertullian, 42, 114.
+
+Theocritus, 189.
+
+Theodelinda, 66.
+
+Theodoric, 59.
+
+Theodosius, 70.
+
+Thiers, M., 192.
+
+Thmuis, Bishop, 116.
+
+Thomas, of Celano, 124.
+
+Thomas, St., 77.
+
+Thomas St. of Hereford, 125.
+
+Tignan, St., 75.
+
+Tooker, Dr., 229.
+
+Torpacion, 114.
+
+Townley, 140.
+
+Townshend, 267.
+
+Trickmore, 190.
+
+Trine, R. W., 301.
+
+Trippe, S., 148.
+
+Trundel, D., 279 f.
+
+Tuckey, C. L., 245.
+
+Tuke, H., 11, 237, 286.
+
+Turner, 211.
+
+Turner, Dr. D., 239.
+
+
+URSULA, ST., 102.
+
+
+VALENTINE, 76.
+
+Vanzesmes, de, 258.
+
+Vardrille, St., 119.
+
+Venise, St., 76.
+
+Vespasian, 37, 112, 195.
+
+Victor, 260.
+
+Victor Emmanuel, 245.
+
+Vincent, St., 77.
+
+Vittrici, Pietro, 132.
+
+Vitus, St., 76, 203.
+
+
+WALDERSTEIN, 3.
+
+Wallery, St., 76.
+
+Wallia, St., 76.
+
+Waterford, Simon, 125.
+
+Wenefride, St., 91.
+
+Werenfels, 156, 208.
+
+Wesley, J., 275, 276.
+
+Westbury, Lord, 48, 49.
+
+Whichcote, Dr., 136.
+
+White, A. D., 39, 44, 47, 48, 52, 78, 100, 101, 110, 146, 233.
+
+Wierus, 110.
+
+Wilkins, Bishop, 136.
+
+Willabrod, 77.
+
+William III, 228, 238.
+
+William of Malmesbury, 225, 227.
+
+Wilson, Mr., 48.
+
+Winthrop, Governor, 19.
+
+Wirdig, S., 251.
+
+Withers, F., 138.
+
+Wohyus, E., 150.
+
+Wolfart, 263.
+
+Wolfgang, St., 76.
+
+Wood, H., 301.
+
+
+XAVIER, ST. FRANCIS, 111, 129, 130.
+
+
+ZACCHEUS, 75.
+
+Zeller, S., 280.
+
+Zola, E., 106.
+
+Zosimos, 93.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing, by
+George Barton Cutten</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing</p>
+<p>Author: George Barton Cutten</p>
+<p>Release Date: October 22, 2007  [eBook #23101]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL HEALING***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by David Clarke, Turgut Dincer,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF</h1>
+<h1>MENTAL HEALING</h1>
+
+<h1>&nbsp;</h1>
+
+<p class="two">BY</p>
+
+<p class="three"><b>GEORGE BARTON CUTTEN, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span></b></p>
+
+<p class="two"><b>(YALE)</b></p>
+
+<p class="two"><b>PRESIDENT OF ACADIA UNIVERSITY</b></p>
+
+<h5>ILLUSTRATED</h5>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="two"><small>NEW YORK</small></p>
+
+<p class="two"><b>CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</b></p>
+
+<p class="two"><small>1911</small></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"><img src="images/printers.jpg"
+width="100" alt="printer's mark." /></div>
+
+<h1>&nbsp;</h1>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a><a href="images/illus1.jpg"><img src="images/illus1-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="330" alt="BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING THE GALLIC &AElig;SCULAPIUS
+DISPATCHING A DEMON." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">&nbsp;</span></div>
+
+<table width="90%" border="1" summary="Bas-relief">
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_illus">BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING THE GALLIC &AElig;SCULAPIUS<br />
+DISPATCHING A DEMON</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<h1>&nbsp;</h1>
+<p class="two">THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY</p>
+
+<p class="two">OF</p>
+
+<p class="three"><b>Artemus Wyman Sawyer, D.D., LL.D.</b></p>
+
+<p class="two">PRESIDENT OF ACADIA UNIVERSITY</p>
+
+<p class="two">1869-1896</p>
+
+<h5>
+HE HID FROM US HIS HEART WHILE WE THOUGHT THAT HE LOVED<br />
+ONLY HIS STUDIES; WE LATER LEARNED THAT HE LAID<br />
+EMPHASIS ON THAT WHICH HE LOVED ONLY LESS&mdash;TRUE<br />
+KNOWLEDGE, IN ORDER THAT HE MIGHT INTRODUCE<br />
+IT TO THOSE THAT HE LOVED MOST&mdash;HIS<br />
+PUPILS. HE TAUGHT AS NONE OTHER<br />
+</h5>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+
+<table width="100%" summary="TOC">
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">CHAPTER</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="cell_toc1">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">I.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Introduction&mdash;Mental Healing</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">II.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Early Civilizations</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">III.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">The Influence of Christianity</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">IV.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Relics and Shrines</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">61</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">V.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Healers</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">VI.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Talismans</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">VII.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Amulets</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">VIII.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Charms</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">IX.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Royal Touch</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">X.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Mesmer and After</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">XI.</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">The Healers of the Nineteenth Century</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc1">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="cell_toc2"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The present decade has experienced an intense
+interest in mental healing. This has come as a
+culmination of the development along these lines
+during the past half century. It has shown itself
+in the beginning of new religious sects with this as
+a, or the, fundamental tenet, in more wide-spread
+general movements, and in the scientific study and
+application of the principles underlying this form
+of therapeutics.</p>
+
+<p>Many have been led astray because, being ignorant
+of the mental healing movements and vagaries
+of the past, the late applications, veiled in metaphysical
+or religious verbiage, have seemed to them
+to be new in origin and principle. No one could
+consider an historical survey of the subject and
+reasonably hold this opinion. It is on account of
+the ignorance of similar movements, millenniums old,
+that so much, if any, originality can be credited to
+the founders.</p>
+
+<p>The object of this volume is to present a general
+view of mental healing, dealing more especially
+with the historical side of the subject. While this is
+divided topically, the topics are presented in a comparatively
+chronological order, and thereby trace the
+development of the subject to the present century.</p>
+
+<p>The term "mental healing" is given the broadest
+possible use, and comprehends any cures which may
+be brought about by the effect of the mind over the
+body, regardless of whether the power back of the
+cure is supposed to be deity, demons, other human
+beings, or the individual mind of the patient.</p>
+
+<p>It is hoped that this may contribute to the knowledge
+of a subject which is of such wide-spread popular
+interest.</p>
+
+<p class="quotsig2"><span class="smcap">George Barton Cutten</span>.</p>
+<p><small><span class="smcap">Wolfville, Nova Scotia</span>,<br />
+<i>December 1, 1910.</i></small><br />
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="TOC">
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Bas-relief representing the Gallic &AElig;sculapius<br />
+dispatching a demon</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><span class="smcap"><small>Facing<br />Page</small></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Cure through the Intercession of a Healing Saint</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus2">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Valentine Greatrakes</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus3">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Sir Kenelm Digby</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus4">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">King's Touch-pieces</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus5">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">F. A. Mesmer</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus6">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">John Alexander Dowie</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus7">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">George O. Barnes</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus8">290</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cell_toc3"><span class="smcap">Mary Baker Eddy</span></td>
+<td class="cell_toc1"><a href="#illus9">302</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1-2" id="Page_1-2">1-2</a></span></p>
+<h3>THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF</h3>
+<h3>MENTAL HEALING</h3>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_003" id="Page_003"> 3</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h4>INTRODUCTION&mdash;MENTAL HEALING</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"'Tis painful thinking that corrodes our clay."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Armstrong</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"Oh, if I could once make a resolution, and determine to be well!"&mdash;<span class="smcap">Walderstein</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"The body and the mind are like a jerkin and a jerkin's lining,
+rumple the one and you rumple the other."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sterne</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"I find, by experience, that the mind and the body are more than
+married, for they are most intimately united; and when the one
+suffers, the other sympathizes."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Chesterfield</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"Sublime is the dominion of the mind over the body, that for a
+time can make flesh and nerve impregnable, and string the sinews
+like steel, so that the weak become so mighty."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Stowe</span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The surest road to health, say what they will,</span>
+<span class="i05">Is never to suppose we shall be ill;</span>
+<span class="i05">Most of those evils we poor mortals know</span>
+<span class="i05">From doctors and imagination flow."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Churchill</span>.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fact that there is a reciprocal relation between
+mental states and bodily conditions, acting
+both for good and ill, is nothing new in human
+experience. Even among the most crude and unobserving,
+traditions and incidents have given
+witness to this knowledge. For centuries stories of
+the hair turning white during the night on account
+of fright or sorrow, the cause and cure of diseases
+through emotional disturbances, and death, usually
+directly by apoplexy, caused by anger, grief, or joy,
+have been current and generally accepted. On the
+other hand, irritability and moroseness caused by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_004" id="Page_004">  4</a></span>
+disordered organs of digestion, change of acumen or
+morals due to injury of the brain or nervous system,
+and insanity produced by bodily diseases, are also
+accepted proofs of the effect of the body on the
+mind.</p>
+
+<p>Recent scientific investigation has been directed
+along the line of the influence of the mind over the
+body, and to that phase of this influence which
+deals with the cure rather than the cause of disease.
+In addition to what the scientists have done along
+this line, various religious cults have added the
+application of these principles to their other tenets
+and activities, or else have made this the chief
+corner-stone of a new structure. There are some
+reasons why this connection with religion should
+continue to exist, and why it has been a great help
+both to the building up of these particular sects and
+the healing of the bodies of those who combine religion
+with mental healing.</p>
+
+<p>We must not forget that in early days the priest,
+the magician, and the physician were combined in
+one person, and that primitive religious notions are
+difficult to slough off. Shortly before the beginning
+of the Christian era there were some indications that
+healing was to be freed from the bondage of religion,
+but the influence of Jesus' healing upon Christians,
+and the overwhelming influence of Christianity upon
+the whole world, delayed this movement, so that it
+did not again become prominent until the sixteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_005" id="Page_005">  5</a></span>
+century. About this time, when therapeutics as a
+science began to shake off the shackles of religion
+and superstition, another startling innovation was
+noticeable, viz., the division of mental healing into
+religious and non-religious healing. This change
+came gradually, and as is usual in all reform, certain
+prophets saw and proclaimed the real truth
+which the people were not able to follow or receive
+for centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Paracelsus, who lived during the first half of the
+sixteenth century, wrote these shrewd words:
+"Whether the object of your faith is real or false,
+you will nevertheless obtain the same effects. Thus,
+if I believe in St. Peter's statue as I would have believed
+in St. Peter himself, I will obtain the same
+effects that I would have obtained from St. Peter;
+but that is superstition. Faith, however, produces
+miracles, and whether it be true or false faith, it will
+always produce the same wonders." We have also
+this penetrating observation from Pierre Ponponazzi,
+of Milan, an author of the same century:
+"We can easily conceive the marvellous effects
+which confidence and imagination can produce, particularly
+when both qualities are reciprocal between
+the subject and the person who influences them.
+The cures attributed to the influence of certain
+relics are the effect of this imagination and confidence.
+Quacks and philosophers know that if the
+bones of any skeleton were put in the place of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_006" id="Page_006">  6</a></span>
+saint's bones, the sick would none the less experience
+beneficial effects, if they believed they were
+near veritable relics."</p>
+
+<p>What seemed to be a movement whereby mental
+healing should be divided so that only a portion of
+it should be connected with religion proved to be
+too far in advance of its time, and not until the
+advent of Mesmer was this accomplished. Healing
+other than mental, however, did obtain its freedom
+at this time. While Mesmer and his followers emphasized
+non-religious mental healing, it should not be
+thought that mental therapeutics was ever entirely
+separated from the church. There have always been
+found some sects which laid particular emphasis on it,
+and both Roman Catholic and Protestant orthodox
+Christianity have always admitted it. It has been
+considered, even if not admitted, that the power of
+the Infinite was more clearly shown by the healing of
+the body than by the restoration of the moral life.
+It is natural, then, that the sects which showed this
+special proof of God's presence and power would
+grow faster than their spiritual competitors, but
+that they would decline more rapidly and surely
+than those which espoused more spiritual doctrines.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it is not difficult to see why
+mental healing would be helped by its connection
+with religion. Religion grips the whole mind more
+firmly than any other subject has ever done, and
+when one accepts the orthodox conception of God,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_007" id="Page_007">  7</a></span>
+he naturally expects to come in contact with One
+whose sympathies are in favor of the cure of his
+diseases, and whose power is sufficient to bring about
+this cure. With this basis there is set up in the mind
+of the patient an expectancy which has always
+proven to be a most valuable precursor of a cure.
+The devout religious attitude of mind is one most
+favorable for the working of suggestion, and persons
+of the temperament adapted to the religious expression
+most valued in the past are those who
+could be most readily affected by mental means.
+For these reasons, it can be easily understood why
+mental healing has continued to be associated with
+religion, and why when thus associated it has been
+so successful.</p>
+
+<p>To those not very familiar with mental healing,
+it has seemed strange that any law could be formulated
+which would comprehend every variety. In
+the following pages many different forms will be
+described, and in examining the subject it will be
+found that many and varied are the explanations
+given for the results produced. We find also a general
+distrust of all the others, or else a claim that
+this particular sect is the only real and true exponent
+of mental healing, and that it produces the
+only genuine cures. Those which claim to be
+Christian sects, however divergent the direct explanation
+of their results, give the final credit to
+God, and base their <i>modus operandi</i> upon the Bible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_008" id="Page_008">  8</a></span>
+&mdash;in fact, they claim to be the direct successors of
+Jesus and his disciples in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>We find, however, that the healer connected with
+the Christian sect has no advantage over his Mohammedan
+or Buddhist brother, and that neither is
+able to succeed better than the non-religious healer
+in all cases. We recognize that when one class of
+healers fails in a case another may succeed, but the
+successful one is just as liable to fail in a second
+case when the first one cures. What particular form
+of suggestion is most effective in any given case depends
+upon the temperament of the individual and
+his education, religious training, and environment.
+When we consider the whole matter we are forced to
+the conclusion that mental cures are independent
+of any particular sect, religion, or philosophy; some
+are cured by one form and some by another. Not
+the creed, but some force which resides in the mind
+of every one accomplishes the cure, and the most
+that any religion or philosophy can do is to bring
+this force into action.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, one sharp distinction is noticed
+between the religious and the non-religious healers,
+viz., the religious healer sees no limit to his healing
+power, and affirms that cancer and Bright's disease
+are as easily cured, in theory at least, as neuralgia
+or insomnia; the non-religious healer, sometimes
+designated as the "scientific healer," on the contrary,
+recognizes that there are some diseases which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_009" id="Page_009">  9</a></span>
+are more easily cured than others, and that of those
+others some are practically incurable by psycho-therapeutic
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>The line has been drawn in the past between functional
+and organic diseases, the former including
+diseases where there is simply a derangement of
+function, like indigestion, and the latter comprehending
+the diseases where the organ is affected,
+like ulcer of the stomach. The more we know about
+diseases the less sure we seem to be about their
+classification; some of which we were formerly sure
+have recently caused us considerable doubt. For
+example, we have formerly classed cancer as an organic
+disease and consequently incurable by mental
+means. The question is now asked, "Is cancer an
+organic disease, or is it some functional derangement
+of the epithelium tissue which causes it to grow indefinitely
+until it invades some vital organ?"</p>
+
+<p>A further question arises due to further study.
+Some of the latest investigators claim that most if
+not all persons have cancer at some time in life,
+but that anti-toxin or some other remedy is supplied
+by the body itself, and the growth is stopped and the
+tissue absorbed. The question then seems to be
+pertinent, "If the body can produce the cure within
+itself, and this would be functional, why cannot
+mental means stimulate the body to produce it?"
+or "Does not mental influence stimulate the body
+to produce it?" What the cancer experts tell us of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_010" id="Page_010"> 10</a></span>
+the wide-spread extension of the disease and its
+spontaneous cure, the tuberculosis experts affirm of
+tuberculosis, and certainly of the latter disease spontaneous
+cures are not uncommon. We also know
+that mental influence may, in fact does, have an
+indirect but no less beneficial influence in the cure
+of tuberculosis. From these examples one seems to
+be forced to either one of two conclusions, either of
+which is contrary to generally accepted ideas, viz.,
+first, that these are not organic diseases; or, second,
+organic diseases are aided or cured by means of
+mental healing. In general, however, the distinction
+holds good; the so-called functional cases are
+amenable to cure by mental means, and the organic
+are much less so.</p>
+
+<p>Coming back, then, to the common law which
+underlies all cases or forms of mental healing, we
+find two general principles upon which it is built&mdash;the
+power of the mind over the body, and the importance
+of suggestion as a factor in the cure of the
+disease. The law may be tersely stated in the first
+person as follows: My body tends to adjust itself so
+as to be in harmony with my ideas concerning it.
+This law is equally applicable to the cause or cure of
+disease by mental means. To apply this law in a
+universal way as far as mental healing is concerned,
+we should notice that however the thought of cure
+may come into the mind, whether by external or
+auto-suggestion, if it is firmly rooted so as to im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_011" id="Page_011"> 11</a></span>press
+the subconsciousness, that part of the mind
+which rules the bodily organs, a tendency toward
+cure is at once set up and continues as long as that
+thought has the ascendancy.</p>
+
+<p>Hack Tuke quotes Johannes M&uuml;ller, a physiologist
+who lived during the first half of the last century,
+as follows: "It may be stated as a general fact
+that any state of body which is conceived to be approaching,
+and which is expected with certain confidence
+and certainty of occurrence, will be very
+prone to ensue, as the mere result of the idea, if it
+do not lie beyond the bounds of possibility." This
+is a fair statement of the law from the stand-point of
+consciousness, but does not include all of the vast
+influence of subconscious ideas which are so potent
+in the cure of diseases by mental means. M&uuml;ller's
+observation was in advance of his times, but could
+not be expected to include the results of the latest
+researches of modern science.</p>
+
+<p>For a great many years physicians have recognized
+that not only are all diseases made worse by
+an incorrect mental attitude, but that some diseases
+are the direct result of worry and other mental disturbances.
+The mental force which causes colored
+water to act as an emetic, or postage-stamps to produce
+a blister, can also produce organic diseases of
+a serious nature. The large mental factor in the
+cause of diseases is generally admitted, and it seems
+reasonable to infer that what is caused by mental<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_012" id="Page_012"> 12</a></span>
+influence may be cured by the same means. There
+is no restriction in the power of the mind in causing
+disease, and should we restrict the mind as a factor
+in the cure? The trouble seems to be in the explanation.
+People ask, "How can the mind have
+such an effect upon the body?" and to the answer
+of this question we must now turn our attention.</p>
+
+<p>We all recognize that involuntarily certain bodily
+effects take place. We blush when we do not wish
+to; we betray our fears by our blanched faces.
+Some other factors of mind than the conscious mental
+processes have charge, and rule certain functions.
+The heart, the respiratory apparatus, the glands,
+and digestive organs all carry on their regular functions
+during sleep and also better without our
+direction when we are awake. What is the explanation
+of this? We have recently been saying that the
+subconsciousness rules these physical organs, and
+through this that the effects already referred to
+take place. So much has been written recently
+regarding the subconsciousness that anything more
+at this time would be superfluous; suffice it to say
+that the general conclusions on that subject are
+accepted as the basis of faith cure. We may, however,
+go further in our endeavor to explain.</p>
+
+<p>In such mental troubles as psychasthesia much
+has lately been heard about psycho-analysis and re-education.
+What does that mean in the language
+of the psychology of a few years ago? In cases of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_013" id="Page_013"> 13</a></span>
+unreasonable fears or phobias, for example, there
+is a firmly rooted system of ideas which refuses to
+depart at the command of consciousness. We analyze
+the mental store to find out the cause of the
+unreasonable persistence, and sometimes, quite frequently
+in fact, have to resort to hypnosis or
+hypnodization to find the initial trouble. It is then
+corrected, and re-education consists in living over
+again from the first experience, the events connected
+with that fear and correcting them up to
+date. In this process minutes only are used where
+the original experiences took weeks. Putting it in
+other words, we have certain systems of ideas; as a
+psychological fact of long standing we know that
+other elements may be injected into that system so
+as to change it, or that one system may be destroyed
+and another system built up to take its place. This
+is the secret of cures of this nature&mdash;of mental
+troubles&mdash;the irritating factor, the thorn in the
+mind, is extracted.</p>
+
+<p>We have heard in modern psychology of the hot
+and cold places in consciousness, or, to use other
+terms for the same idea, the central and peripheral
+ideas, meaning the ideas which dominate consciousness,
+and those which are in the background. The
+mind can readily attend to only one thing at a time;
+if that be pain, for example, that takes up all of our
+attention. On the other hand, if for some reason
+some other ideas suddenly become central, then the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_014" id="Page_014"> 14</a></span>
+pain is driven away to the periphery and we say we
+have no pain, or we have less pain. The sufferer
+from neuralgia experiences no pain as he responds
+to the fire alarm, and the toothache stops entirely
+as we undergo the excitement and fear of entering
+the dentist's office. Serious lesions yield to profound
+emotion born of persuasion, confidence, or
+excitement; either the gouty or rheumatic man,
+after hobbling about for years, finds his legs if pursued
+by a wild bull, or the weak and enfeebled invalid
+will jump from the bed and carry out heavy
+articles from a burning house. The central idea is
+sufficient to command all the reserve energy, and
+that idea which has suddenly and unexpectedly
+become central may remain so. What Chalmers
+called "the expulsive power of a new affection" in
+the cure of souls, is the precise method of operation
+in the cure of some bodily ills.</p>
+
+<p>I have here made two suggestions which may
+help to show how mental healing may be brought
+about. Not simply the alleviation of bodily ills,
+but the complete cure may result from the influence
+on the subconsciousness. A large number of cures
+are brought about by faith in certain religious practices,
+this faith amounting to a certainty in the
+minds of the patients before the cure is started or
+while it is in progress. Trustful expectation in any
+one direction acts powerfully through the subconsciousness
+because it absorbs the whole mind, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_015" id="Page_015"> 15</a></span>
+thus competition with other ideas, either consciously
+or subconsciously, is largely excluded. It is this
+which acts in mental healing under the caption of
+faith, although some abnormal conditions may also
+arise to assist the suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>That this confident expectation of a cure is the
+most potent means of bringing it about, doing that
+which no medical treatment can accomplish, may
+be affirmed as the generalized result of experiences
+of the most varied kind, extending through a long
+series of ages. It is this factor which is common to
+methods of the most diverse character. It is noticeable
+that any system of treatment, however
+absurd, that can be puffed into public notoriety for
+efficacy, any individual who by accident or design
+obtains a reputation for a special gift of healing, is
+certain to attract a multitude of sufferers, among
+whom will be many who are capable of being really
+benefited by a strong assurance of relief. Thus,
+the practitioner with a great reputation has an advantage
+over his neighboring physicians, not only
+on account of the superior skill which he may have
+acquired, but because his reputation causes this
+confident expectation, so beneficial in itself.</p>
+
+<p>There have been fashions in cures as in other
+things. At one time a certain relic, or healer, would
+attract and cure, and shortly afterward it would
+be deserted and inefficacious, not because it had lost
+its power, but because it had lost its reputation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_016" id="Page_016"> 16</a></span>
+and the people had consequently lost their faith in
+it. Some other relics would then acquire a reputation,
+spring into popular favor, and the crowds
+would flock to them. We have many modern instances
+of this kind. If sufficient confidence in the
+power of a concoction, a shrine, a relic, or a person
+can be aroused, genuine cures can be wrought regardless
+of the healing properties of the dose.</p>
+
+<p>The whole system of mental therapeutics may be
+divided into two parts; what we may designate as
+metaphysical cure denies that either matter or evil
+exists, and heals by inspiring the belief that the
+disease cannot assail the patient because he is pure
+spirit; the other class, faith cure, recognizes the
+disease, but cures by faith in the power of divinity,
+persons, objects, or suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>Without doubt the best example of the former
+theory and the most successful application of it are
+found in Christian Science. Perhaps it is not so
+difficult to understand the frame of mind which
+brought about this theory on the part of Mrs. Eddy.
+Here was an hysterical, neurotic woman who knew
+nothing all her life but illness and misfortune. She
+had suffered much from many physicians and was
+none the better but rather worse. One physician
+had called her disease one thing, another had designated
+it another, until confusion and uncertainty
+were increased with every physician consulted. She
+began to despair of ever either knowing about her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_017" id="Page_017"> 17</a></span>
+disease or of having it cured. As a last resort she
+went to Quimby, and he told her there was no disease
+and no need of suffering. He denied the suffering,
+and she accepted his teaching; she followed him in
+denying disease and then matter, and kept on with
+her theory of negation and denial until she evolved
+her present theory. It was a natural reaction from
+all conceivable pains characteristic of hysteria, to
+no pain; from all conceivable diseases which different
+physicians had opined, to no disease; from the
+infirmity of body with its inhibitory discomfitures,
+to no body. The history of the founder of Christian
+Science is its best <i>raison d'&ecirc;tre</i>, especially from a
+psychological stand-point, and the rather strange
+thing is that a reaction from an abnormality, going
+as it naturally does to another abnormality, should
+find a response in the religious cravings of so many;
+the philosophy undoubtedly would not attract as it
+does were there not connected with it, in the practical
+working of the system, the lure of mental
+healing.</p>
+
+<p>Faith cure, the other form of mental healing, has
+such a variety of forms that it is practically impossible
+to describe a typical one. Faith in some
+power, or, what amounts to the same thing, the uncritical
+reception of suggestions concerning the cure,
+is the common factor in all forms.</p>
+
+<p>The question naturally arises, Which is the best
+form of mental healing? There is no best form for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_018" id="Page_018"> 18</a></span>
+all diseases and all persons. For example, it matters
+not how new associational systems are formed so
+long as they are substituted for the pernicious ones.
+It may be in the common experiences of every-day
+life, through the pleading of a friend, during sleep
+or trance, in some abnormal state of a hypnotic
+character, or during religious ecstasy, and we cannot
+well say in any given case that one form will be more
+efficacious than another. Mental healing creates
+nothing new, but simply makes use of the normal
+mechanism of the mind and body. The question
+then is, What method of mental healing is most
+likely to stimulate the mental mechanism so that
+physiological processes will be set up leading to a
+cure? The great power of faith and expectancy
+may decide the question, and the answer may be in
+favor of the form in which the patient has the most
+faith, either on account of its reputation, or on account
+of some prejudice on the part of the patient.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_019" id="Page_019"> 19</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h4>EARLY CIVILIZATIONS</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The office of the physician extends equally to the purification
+of mind and body; to neglect the one is to expose the other to
+evident peril. It is not only the body that by its sound constitution
+strengthens the soul, but the well-regulated soul by its authoritative
+power maintains the body in perfect health."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Plato</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"Aristotle mapped out philosophy and morals in lines the world
+yet accepts in the main, but he did not know the difference between
+the nerves and the tendons. Rome had a sound system of jurisprudence
+before it had a physician, using only priest-craft for healing.
+Cicero was the greatest lawyer the world has seen, but there
+was not a man in Rome who could have cured him of a colic. The
+Greek was an expert dialectician when he was using incantations
+for his diseases. As late as when the Puritans were enunciating
+their lofty principles, it was generally held that the king's touch
+would cure scrofula. Governor Winthrop, of colonial days, treated
+'small-pox and all fevers' by a powder made from 'live toads baked
+in an earthen pot in the open air.'"&mdash;<span class="smcap">Munger</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"There is nothing so absurd or ridiculous that has not at some
+time been said by some philosopher. Fontenelle says he would
+undertake to persuade the whole republic of readers to believe that
+the sun was neither the cause of light or heat, if he could only get
+six philosophers on his side."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Goldsmith</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>A glance at the history of medicine will show
+three fairly well defined periods. The beginning of
+the first is hidden in the uncertain days of prehistoric
+ages and the period continues down to early
+Christian times&mdash;perhaps the end of the second
+century when Galen died. The second period extends
+from this time to the fifteenth or sixteenth
+centuries, and the third period embraces the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_020" id="Page_020"> 20</a></span>
+three or four centuries. The second period was almost
+wholly stationary, and this, we are ashamed
+to say, was largely due to the prohibitive attitude
+of the church. The science of medicine, then, is
+almost wholly the result of the investigations and
+study of the last period. This means that medicine
+is one of the youngest of the sciences, while from the
+very nature of the case it is one of the oldest of
+arts.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the art of therapeutics,
+mental healing has been a large factor in the cure.
+This was not recognized, of course, for only in the
+last century has the psychic element been admitted
+to any extent as a therapeutic agent. We can read
+back now, however, and see what a large element
+this really was. The cruder the art, the more
+powerful was the mental influence. The ways of
+primitive therapeutics are completely hidden from
+us except what we can gather from the races which
+retained their primitive practices in historic times.
+We can well understand, though, that the concoctions
+of medicine-men and witch-doctors could have
+little effect except in a suggestive way. Snakes'
+heads, toads' toes, lizards' tails, and beetles' wings
+have a small place in the pharmacop&oelig;ia of to-day,
+except as placebos, and it is extremely doubtful if
+they were ever valuable for any other purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the primitive practitioner seems to
+have been to make an impression upon the patient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_021" id="Page_021"> 21</a></span>
+either by the explanation of his disease or by the
+effort made to effect a cure. The explanation most
+frequently given was that demons were responsible
+for the trouble, and the cure of the disease was an
+attempted exorcism of the demon. The more fantastic
+the ceremony, the more likely the cure, on
+account of the mental influence upon the patient.
+The primitive man's religion and therapeutics were
+inextricably interwoven and, unless we make an exception
+of the past few years, this has always been
+an unprofitable union for one or both. All the
+early civilizations with the exception of the Greeks,
+as well as the Christian nations up to the sixteenth
+century, were handicapped by this partnership, and
+it was only by divorcing the two that therapeutics
+was able to make the great advance during the last
+period. The nature of the primitive religions was
+responsible to a great extent for the nature of the
+method of healing, therefore, appeasing the offended
+deity and exorcising the demon were therapeutic as
+well as religious ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese of to-day, except in some of the seaboard
+cities, must be classed among the earliest
+civilizations, for their mode of living has not changed
+much in the last two or three milleniums. Their
+system of medical practice partakes of the character
+of that found among the early people, with some
+slight modifications which show some relationship
+to the European practice during the Dark Ages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_022" id="Page_022"> 22</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All sorts of disgusting doses are administered, and
+incantations and exorcisms are among the most
+effective methods of healing. For example, Hardy
+reports that a missionary told him of his being called
+in to see a man suffering from convulsions; he found
+him smelling white mice in a cage, with a dead fowl
+fastened on his chest, and a bundle of grass attached
+to his feet. This had been the prescription of a
+native physician.</p>
+
+<p>Medicines are made from asses' sinews, fowls'
+blood, bears' gall, shaving of a rhinoceros' horn,
+moss grown on a coffin, and the dung of dogs, pigs,
+fowl, rabbits, pigeons, and bats. Cockroach tea,
+bear-paw soup, essence of monkey paw, toads' eye-brows,
+and earth-worms rolled in honey are common
+doses. The excrement of a mosquito is considered
+as efficacious as it is scarce, and here, as in Europe
+in the Middle Ages, the hair of the dog that bit you
+is used to heal the bite and to prevent hydrophobia.
+An infusion from the bones of a tiger is believed to
+confer courage, strength, and agility, and the flesh
+of a snake is boiled and eaten to make one cunning
+and wise. Chips from coffins which have been let
+down into the grave are boiled and are said to possess
+great virtue for catarrh. Flies, fleas, and bed-bugs
+prepared in different ways are given for various
+diseases. Medicines are given in all forms, and not
+infrequently pills are as large as a pigeon's egg. If
+any of these medicines ever had any beneficent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_023" id="Page_023"> 23</a></span>
+effect it must have been through mental rather than
+through physical means.</p>
+
+<p>Nevius has left us in no doubt concerning the belief
+in demons among the Chinese, and of the effect
+this belief has on their theory of disease. Certain
+forms are daily observed to drive away the evil
+spirits. For this purpose Taoist priests are hired
+to recite formul&aelig;, ring bells, and manipulate bowls
+of water, candles, joss-sticks, and curious charms.
+Sometimes the family insists that one of the priests
+shall ascend a ladder, the rounds of which are
+formed of swords or knives with the sharp edge
+uppermost, and go through his exorcisms at the
+top. Instead of the priest, the mother may make a
+fire of paper and wave a small garment of her sick
+child over it.</p>
+
+<p>A relative or friend of a sick person will visit a
+temple and beat the drum, which notifies the god
+that there is urgent need of his help. To be sure
+that the god hears, his ears are tickled, and the part
+of the image which corresponds to the afflicted part
+of the sick person's body is rubbed. Some ashes
+from the censor standing before the image may be
+taken to the sick-room and there reverenced. Holy
+water is brought from the temple, boiled with tea,
+and drunk as a certain cure for disease. Spells are
+written on paper and burned; the ashes are then
+put into water and drunk as medicine. Charms and
+magical tricks of all kinds are tried in order to drive
+away the demon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_024" id="Page_024"> 24</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There were schools of medicine in Egypt in the
+fifteenth century before the Christian era, and the
+Egyptians made great progress in the study and
+practice of medicine. Notwithstanding this, we
+find many examples of mental healing, or at least
+attempts at healing by mental means, among the
+recipes and prescriptions which have come down to
+us. Poor and superstitious persons, especially, had
+recourse to dreams, to wizards, to donations, to
+sacred animals, and to exvotos to the gods. Charms
+were also written for the credulous, some of which
+have been found on small pieces of papyrus, which
+were rolled up and worn, as by the modern Egyptians.</p>
+
+<p>The Ebers papyrus, an important and very ancient
+manual of Egyptian medicine, has thrown much
+light on early Egyptian practices. It shows that
+an important part of the treatment prior to 1552
+B. C., consisted in the laying on of hands, combined
+with an extensive formulary and ceremonial rites.
+The physicians were the priests, and among the interesting
+contents of this manuscript are several
+formul&aelig; to be used as prayers while compounding
+medicaments. Some of the prescriptions given here
+are accompanied by exorcisms which were to be
+used at the same time. Many of the prescriptions
+could have had little but mental influence because
+the remedies recommended consisted of horrible
+mixtures of unsavory ingredients, the theory, if we
+can judge by the medicines, being that the more dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_025" id="Page_025"> 25</a></span>gusting
+the dose the more efficacious the remedy;
+this is true from a mental stand-point.</p>
+
+<p>Demonism was not unknown; in fact, it underlay
+much of the treatment. People did not die, but they
+were assassinated. The murderer might belong to
+this or to the spirit world. He might be a god, a
+spirit, or the soul of a dead man that had cunningly
+entered a living person. The physician must first
+discover the nature of the possessing spirit, and then
+attack it. Powerful magic was the weapon used,
+and the healer must be an expert in reciting incantations
+and skilful in making amulets. On account
+of this, the Egyptians became the most skilled
+in magic of any people, and have their equals only
+in the Hindus of to-day. The experiences of Joseph
+and Moses, as recorded in the Bible, give us some
+idea of their skill at that time. After the exorcism
+the physician used medicine to relieve the disorders
+which the presence of the strange being had produced
+in the body.</p>
+
+<p>Masp&eacute;ro gives us the following information:
+"The cure-workers are divided into several categories.
+Some incline towards sorcery, and have
+faith in formulas and talismans only; they think
+they have done enough if they have driven out the
+spirit. Others extol the use of drugs; they study
+the qualities of plants and minerals, describe the
+diseases to which each of the substances provided
+by nature is suitable, and settle the exact time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_026" id="Page_026"> 26</a></span>
+when they must be procured and applied; certain
+herbs have no power unless they are gathered
+during the night at the full moon, others are efficacious
+in summer only, another acts equally well
+in winter or summer. The best doctors carefully
+avoid binding themselves exclusively to either
+method."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the early Egyptians the human body
+was divided into thirty-six parts, each of which was
+thought to be under the particular government of
+one of the aerial demons, who presided over the
+triple divisions of the twelve signs. The priests
+practised a separate invocation for each genius,
+which they used in order to obtain for them the
+cure of the particular member confided to their
+care. We have the authority of Origen for saying
+that in his time when any part of the body was
+diseased, a cure was effected by invoking the demon
+to whose province it belonged. Perhaps this is
+why the different parts of the body were assigned
+to the different planets, and later to different saints.
+It undoubtedly accounts for the fact that an Egyptian
+physician treated only one part of the body
+and refused to infringe on the domain of his brother
+physician.</p>
+
+<p>Incubation was commonly practised at the temples
+of Isis and Serapis as it was afterward among
+the Greeks. This "temple sleep" was closely akin
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_027" id="Page_027"> 27</a></span>in its effects to hypnotism and was undoubtedly
+efficacious in the case of some diseases.</p>
+
+<p>The Babylonian system of therapeutics was not
+unlike the Egyptian as far as incantations were concerned.
+Many of these have been discovered. The
+formulas usually consist of a description of the disease
+and its symptoms, a desire for deliverance from
+it, and an order for it to depart. Some draughts
+were given which may have had some medicinal
+effect, but they were supposed to be enchanted
+drinks. Knots were supposed to have some magical
+effect on diseases, and conjurations were also wrought
+by the power of numbers. The Book of Daniel
+shows the official recognition given to magicians,
+astrologers, and sorcerers.</p>
+
+<p>The Jews seem to have got their early medical
+knowledge from the Egyptians, and changed it only
+in so far as their religion made it necessary, for with
+them as with others the healing art was a part of the
+religion, and the Levites were the sole practitioners.
+Much valuable medical knowledge was mixed with
+much that could only have had a mental influence.
+Disease was considered a punishment for sin, and
+hence the cure was religious rather than medical.
+The disease might be inflicted by God direct, and
+the cure would be a proof of his forgiveness; it
+might also be inflicted by Satan or the spirits of the
+air with the permission of Jehovah, and the cure
+would then be brought about by exorcism.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_028" id="Page_028"> 28</a></span>There seems to have been a rather elaborate
+system of demonology among the Jews, who were at
+one time the chief exponents of the doctrine, and
+consequently the principal exorcists. Among the
+Jews a prominent "demoness of sickness is Bath-Chorin.
+She touches the hands and lower limbs by
+night. Many diseases are caused by demons."
+According to Josephus, "to demons may be ascribed
+leprosy, rabies, asthma, cardiac diseases, nervous
+diseases, which last are the specialty of evil demons,
+such as epilepsy." Incantations were in use among
+the later Jews, and amulets of neck-chains like
+serpents and ear-rings were employed to protect
+the wearers against the evil eye and similar
+troubles.</p>
+
+<p>In India, medicine became a separate science very
+early, according to the sacred books, the Vedas.
+Notwithstanding this, demonology played a large
+part in the production of disease according to their
+theories, and religious observances were helpful in
+the cures.</p>
+
+<p>Among the oldest documents which we possess
+relative to the practice of medicine, are the various
+treatises contained in the collection which bears the
+name of Hippocrates (460-375 B. C.). He was the
+first physician to relieve medicine from the trammels
+of superstition and the delusions of philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks undoubtedly believed in demons, but,
+different from the nations around them, considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_029" id="Page_029"> 29</a></span>
+the demons to be well-intentioned. Homer (c. 1000
+B. C.) speaks frequently of demons, and in one instance
+in the Odyssey tells of a sick man pining
+away, "one upon whom a hateful demon had gazed."
+Empedocles (c. 490-430 B. C.) taught that demons
+"were of a mixed and inconstant nature, and are
+subjected to a purgatorial process which may finally
+end in their ascension to higher abodes." Yet he
+attributed to them nearly all the calamities, vexations,
+and plagues incident to mankind. Plato
+(427-347 B. C.) writes of demons good and bad,
+and Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), the son of a physician,
+speaks directly of "demons influencing and inspiring
+the possessed." Socrates (470-399 B. C.)
+claimed to have continually with him a demon&mdash;a
+guardian spirit.</p>
+
+<p>In Greece, in early days, physicians were looked
+upon as gods. Even after the siege of Troy, the
+sons of the gods and the heroes were alone supposed
+to understand the secrets of medicine and surgery.
+At a late period &AElig;sculapius, the son of Apollo, was
+worshipped as a deity. When we speak of the art of
+healing in Greece, one naturally thinks of the apparent
+monopoly of the &AElig;sclepiades, who ministered
+unto the Grecian sick for centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The original seat of the worship of &AElig;sculapius was
+at Epidaurus, where there was a splendid temple,
+adorned with a gold and ivory statue of the god,
+who was represented sitting, one hand holding a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_030" id="Page_030"> 30</a></span>
+staff, the other resting on the head of a serpent, the
+emblem of sagacity and longevity; a dog crouched
+at his feet. The temple was frequented by harmless
+serpents, in the form of which the god was supposed
+to manifest himself. According to Homer,
+his sons, Machaon and Podalirius, who were great
+warriors, treated wounds and external diseases only;
+and it is probable that their father practised in the
+same manner, as he is said to have invented the
+probe and the bandaging of wounds. His priests,
+the &AElig;sclepiades, however, practised incantations,
+and cured diseases by leading their patients to believe
+that the god himself delivered his prescriptions
+in dreams and visions; for this imposture they were
+roughly satirized by Aristophanes in his play of
+"Plutus." It is probable that the preparations,
+consisting of abstinence, tranquillity, and bathing,
+requisite for obtaining the divine intercourse, and,
+above all, the confidence reposed in the &AElig;sclepiades,
+were often productive of benefit.</p>
+
+<p>The excavations of Cavvadias at Epidaurus have
+furnished us with much interesting material concerning
+the cures performed at this ancient shrine,
+five hundred years before the beginning of the Christian
+era. If the modern physician still recognizes
+&AElig;sculapius as his patron saint, he must have great
+respect for mental healing. It appears certain from
+inscriptions found upon "stel&aelig;" that were dug up
+at Epidaurus and published in 1891, that the system<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_031" id="Page_031"> 31</a></span>
+of &AElig;sculapius was based upon the miracle-working
+of a demi-god, and not upon medical art as we now
+know it. The <i>modus operandi</i> was unique in some
+details. The patients, mostly incurables, came
+laden with sacrifices. After prayer, they cleansed
+themselves with water from the holy well, and
+offered up sacrifices. Certain ceremonial acts were
+then performed by the priests, and the patients were
+put to sleep on the skins of the animals offered at the
+altar, or at the foot of the statue of the divinity,
+while the priests performed further sacred rites.
+The son of Apollo then appeared to them in dreams,
+attended to the particular ailments of the sufferers,
+and specified further sacrifices or acts which would
+restore health. In many cases the sick awoke suddenly
+cured. Large sums of money were asked for
+these cures; from one inscription we learn that a
+sum corresponding to $12,000 was paid as a fee.
+The record of the cure was carved on the temple as
+at Lourdes to-day, <i>e.g.</i>:</p>
+
+<p>"Some days back, a certain Caius, who was blind,
+learned from an oracle that he should repair to the
+temple, put up his fervent prayers, cross the sanctuary
+from right to left, place his five fingers on the
+altar, then raise his hand and cover his eyes. He
+obeyed, and instantly his sight was restored, amid
+the loud acclamations of the multitude. These
+signs of the omnipotence of the gods were shown in
+the reign of Antoninus."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_032" id="Page_032"> 32</a></span>"A blind soldier, named Valerius Apes, having
+consulted the oracle, was informed that he should
+mix the blood of a white cock with honey, to make
+up an ointment to be applied to his eyes for three
+consecutive days. He received his sight, and returned
+public thanks to the gods."</p>
+
+<p>"Julian appeared lost beyond all hope, from a
+spitting of blood. The gods ordered him to take
+from the altar some seeds of the pine, and to mix
+them with honey, of which mixture he was to eat
+for three days. He was saved, and came to thank
+the gods in the presence of the people."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p>
+
+<p>It was not until five centuries later, when credulity
+concerning miracles was on the wane, that the
+priests began to study and to apply medical means
+in order to sustain the reputation of the place, and
+to keep up its enormous revenues.</p>
+
+<p>Temples similar to this one at Epidaurus existed
+at numerous places, among which were Rhodes,
+Cnidus, Cos, and one was to be found on the banks
+of the Tiber. The temple at Cos was rich in votive
+offerings, which generally represented the parts of
+the body healed, and an account of the method of
+cure adopted. From these singular clinical records,
+Hippocrates, a reputed descendant of &AElig;sculapius,
+is reported to have constructed his treatise on
+Dietetics.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_033" id="Page_033"> 33</a></span></p>
+<p>For a long time after the age of Hercules and the
+heroic times, invalids in Greece sought relief from
+their sufferings from these descendants of &AElig;sculapius
+in the temples of that god, which an enlightened
+policy had raised on elevated spots, near medicinal
+springs, and in salubrious vicinities. Those men
+who pretended in right of birth to hold the gift of
+curing, finally learned the art of it. The preservation
+in the temple of the history of those diseases,
+the cure of which had been sought by them, aided
+greatly in this happy culmination.</p>
+
+<p>Of &AElig;sculapius himself, it is said that he employed
+the trumpet to cure sciatica; he claimed that its
+continued sound made the fibres of the nerves to
+palpitate, and the pain vanished. In line with this
+treatment, Democritus affirmed that diseases are
+capable of being cured by the sound of a flute, when
+properly played.</p>
+
+<p>Herbs were also used among the Greeks, but almost
+wholly in the form of charms rather than on
+account of what we claim now as real medicinal
+value. For example, great virtues were ascribed to
+the herb alysson which was pounded and eaten with
+meat to cure hydrophobia. If suspended in the
+house, it promoted the health of the inmates and
+protected both men and cattle from enchantments;
+when bound in a piece of scarlet flannel round the
+necks of the latter, it preserved them from all
+diseases.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_034" id="Page_034"> 34</a></span>There seems to have been no independent school
+of Roman medicine. From early times there was a
+very complicated system of superstitious medicine,
+as a part of the religion, which is supposed to have
+been borrowed from the Etruscans. This comprehended
+both the theory and cure of disease. The
+Romans got along for centuries without doctors;
+in fact, doctors were a Grecian importation, not
+made until about two centuries before Christ.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> G. Masp&eacute;ro, <i>Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria</i>, chap. VII.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at Lourdes," <i>Nineteenth
+Century</i>, October, 1895.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_035" id="Page_035"> 35</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<h4>THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+"The Alchemist may doubt the shining gold
+His crucible pours out,
+But faith, fanatic faith, once wedded fast
+To some dear falsehood,
+Hugs it to the last."
+</p>
+
+<p>"Death is the cure of all diseases. There is no <i>catholicon</i> or universal
+remedy I know, but this, which though nauseous to queasy
+stomachs, yet to prepared appetites is nectar, and a pleasant potion
+of immortality."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Browne</span>.</p>
+
+<p>
+"I'll tell you what now of the Devil:<br />
+He's no such horrid creature; cloven-footed,<br />
+Black, saucer-ey'd, his nostrils breathing fire,<br />
+As these lying Christians make him."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Massinger</span>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>"If the cure be wrought, what matters it to the happy invalid
+... whether the cure is wrought by the touch of the Divine hand
+or the overpowering influence of a great idea upon the nervous
+system? If our hunger be appeased, it matters little whether it is
+by manna rained down from heaven, or a wheaten loaf raised from
+the harvest field. Miraculous water from the rock does not quench
+the thirst better than that which bubbles from the village spring."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Berdoe</span>.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The advent of the Christian religion into the
+world, while purporting to minister especially to the
+spiritual life, had a wide-reaching and potent influence
+on the art of healing the body. We cannot
+sum up the effect by saying that this influence was
+either wholly good or bad&mdash;its relation to therapeutics
+was a mixed one. It can be truthfully said that
+nothing has retarded the science of medicine during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_036" id="Page_036"> 36</a></span>
+the past two thousand years so much as the iron
+grip of decadent orthodoxy, and, on the other hand,
+no power has caused men and women so to sacrifice
+time, money, and even life itself for the care and
+nurture of the sick, as the example and precepts of
+Jesus Christ.</p>
+
+<p>For eighteen centuries this paradoxical position
+was held by the church, and the antithetical attitudes
+of hindrance and help continued to exist. As
+valuable as was the spirit instilled into the hearts
+of His followers by the tenderness of the Master, it
+was never sufficient to counterbalance the deterrent
+effects of the religion which they espoused. The retardation
+was caused by two related beliefs which
+permeated the church: The first was the doctrine
+of the power of demons in the lives of men, especially
+in the production of disease; and the second was the
+prevalence of the idea of the possibility and probability
+of the performance of miracles, particularly
+in the healing of diseases.</p>
+
+<p>A rather complicated science of demonology had
+come down from primitive sources through Egyptian,
+Babylonian, and Greek civilization, although the
+demons of the Greeks were principally good spirits.
+At the time of Christ, however, the Jews were the
+most ardent advocates of demonology, and hence
+the chief exorcists. They expelled demons partly
+by adjuration and partly by means of a certain
+miraculous root named Baaras. They considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_037" id="Page_037"> 37</a></span>
+it nothing at all out of the ordinary to meet men
+who were possessed by demons, and just as common
+an experience to see them healed by having the
+demon exorcised. Josephus assures us that in the
+reign of Vespasian he had himself seen a Jew named
+Eleazar perform an exorcism; by means of adjuration
+and the Baaras root he drew a demon through
+the nostrils of a possessed person, who fell to the
+ground on the accomplishment of the miracle, while
+on the command of the magician the demon, to prove
+that it had really left its victim, threw down a cup
+of water which had been placed at a distance.</p>
+
+<p>Knowing as we do the close relationship between
+Judaism and Christianity, it does not surprise us to
+discover that the Christians inherited the doctrine
+and practice of the Jews in this matter. This is
+more readily understood when we remember the
+connection of Jesus with cases of demoniacal possession,
+and Paul's frequent references to the spirits
+of the air. Following the example of their Master,
+Christians everywhere became exorcists. Through
+the influence of Philo's writings, Jewish demonology
+was propagated among Christian converts, and the
+Gnostics quickly absorbed and spread the notion of
+preternatural interposition. Next to the belief in
+the second coming of Christ, the doctrine which
+most influenced the action of the early church was
+that of a spiritual world and its hierarchy. Terrestrial
+things were ruled by all sorts of spiritual beings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_038" id="Page_038"> 38</a></span>Some philosophers, as well as the founders of different
+religions, expelled demons, and the Christians
+fully recognized the power possessed by the Jewish
+and gentile exorcists; the followers of Christ, however,
+claimed to be in many respects the superior of
+all others. The fathers maintained the reality of
+all pagan miracles as fully as their own, except that
+doubt was sometimes cast on some forms of healing
+and prophecy. Demons which had resisted all the
+enchantments of the pagans might be cast out,
+oracles could be silenced, and unclean spirits compelled
+to acknowledge the truth of the Christian
+faith by the Christians, who simply made the sign
+of the cross, or repeated the name of the Master.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the Christian exorcists was shown
+by still more wonderful feats. Demons, which were
+sometimes supposed to enter animals, were expelled.
+St. Hilarion (288-371), we are told, courageously
+confronted and relieved a possessed camel. "The
+great St. Ambrose [340-397] tells us that a priest,
+while saying mass, was troubled by the croaking of
+frogs in a neighboring marsh; that he exorcised
+them, and so stopped their noise. St. Bernard
+[1091-1153], as the monkish chroniclers tell us,
+mounting the pulpit to preach in his abbey, was interrupted
+by a crowd of flies; straightway the saint
+uttered the sacred formula of excommunication,
+when the flies fell dead upon the pavement in heaps,
+and were cast out with shovels! A formula of ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_039" id="Page_039"> 39</a></span>orcism
+attributed to a saint of the ninth century,
+which remained in use down to a recent period,
+especially declares insects injurious to crops to be
+possessed of evil spirits, and names, among the
+animals to be excommunicated or exorcised, moles,
+mice, and serpents. The use of exorcism against
+caterpillars and grasshoppers was also common. In
+the thirteenth century a bishop of Lausanne, finding
+that the eels in Lake Leman troubled the fishermen,
+attempted to remove the difficulty by exorcism,
+and two centuries later one of his successors
+excommunicated all the May-bugs in the diocese.
+As late as 1731 there appears an entry on the municipal
+register of Thonon as follows: '<i>Resolved</i>, that
+this town join with other parishes of this province
+in obtaining from Rome an excommunication
+against the insects, and that it will contribute <i>pro
+rata</i> to the expense of the same.'"</p>
+
+<p>Scripture was cited to prove the diabolical character
+of some animals during the Middle Ages.
+Says White: "Did anyone venture to deny that
+animals could be possessed by Satan, he was at once
+silenced by reference to the entrance of Satan into
+the serpent in the Garden of Eden, and to the casting
+of devils into swine by the Founder of Christianity
+himself."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the pleasing theory adopted by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_040" id="Page_040"> 40</a></span>the earlier Christian writers that the powers of darkness
+were unable to harm the faithful without the
+permission of divinity, to whom demoniacal spirits
+were ultimately subjected, unlimited power was
+conceded to those beings who existed under divine
+sanction. Demoniacal &aelig;ons or emanations were
+acknowledged to be the primitive source of earthly
+sufferings, pestilence among men, sickness and other
+bodily afflictions, but inflicted with the consent of
+God, whose messengers they were.</p>
+
+<p>Early Christian writers boldly asserted that all
+the disorders of the world originated with the devil
+and his sinister companions, because they were
+stirred with the unholy desire to obtain associates
+in their miseries. It was impossible to fix a limit
+to the number of these malevolent spirits constantly
+provoking diseases and infirmities upon men. They
+were alleged to surround mankind so densely that
+each person had a thousand to his right and ten
+thousand to the left of him. Endowed with the
+subtlest activity, they were able to reach the remotest
+points of earth in the twinkling of an eye.</p>
+
+<p>According to Salverte, Tatian, a sincere defender
+of Christianity, who lived in the second century,
+"does not deny the wonderful cures effected by the
+priests of the temples of the Polytheists; he only
+attempts to explain them by supposing that the
+pagan gods were actual demons, and that they introduced
+disease into the body of a healthy man, an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_041" id="Page_041"> 41</a></span>nouncing
+to him, in a dream, that he should be
+cured if he implored their assistance; and then, by
+terminating the evil which they themselves had produced,
+they obtained the glory of having worked the
+miracle."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p>
+
+<p>So firm was the belief that Christians could exorcise
+these demons that from the time of Justin
+Martyr (100-163), for about two centuries, there is
+not a single Christian writer who does not solemnly
+and explicitly assert the reality and frequent employment
+of this power. In his Second Apology,
+Justin says: "And now you can learn this from
+what is under your own observation. For numberless
+demoniacs throughout the whole world, and in
+your city, many of our Christian men exorcising
+them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified
+under Pontius Pilate, have healed and do heal,
+rendering helpless and driving the possessing demons
+out of the men, though they could not be cured by
+all the other exorcists, and those who used incantations
+and drugs."</p>
+
+<p>Iren&aelig;us (130-202) held that mankind, through
+transgressions of divine command, fell absolutely
+from the time of Adam into the power of Satan.
+On the other hand, he assures us that all Christians
+possessed the power of working miracles; that they
+prophesied, cast out devils, healed the sick, and
+sometimes even raised the dead; that some who had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_042" id="Page_042"> 42</a></span>been thus resuscitated lived for many years among
+them, and that it would be impossible to reckon the
+wonderful acts that were daily performed.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Tertullian (160-220) insisted that a malevolent
+angel was in constant attendance upon every person,
+but in writing to the pagans in a time of persecution
+he challenged his opponents to bring forth
+any person who was possessed by a demon or any
+of those prophets or virgins who were supposed to
+be inspired by a divinity. He asserted that all
+demons would be compelled to confess their diabolical
+character when questioned by any Christians,
+and invited the pagans, if it were otherwise,
+to put the Christian immediately to death, for this,
+he thought, was the simplest and most decisive
+demonstration of the faith.</p>
+
+<p>Lecky tells us of the attitude of the fathers
+toward demonism in the following words: "Justin
+Martyr, Origen, Lactantius, Athanasius, and Minucius
+Felix, all in language equally solemn and explicit,
+call upon the pagans to form their own
+opinions from the confessions wrung from their own
+gods. We hear from them, that when a Christian
+began to pray, to make the sign of the cross, or to
+utter the name of his Master in the presence of a
+possessed or inspired person, the latter, by screams
+and frightful contortions, exhibited the torture that
+was inflicted, and by this torture the evil spirit was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_043" id="Page_043"> 43</a></span>compelled to avow its nature. Several of the
+Christian writers declare that this was generally
+known to pagans."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Origen (185-254) said: "It is demons which
+produce famine, unfruitfulness, corruptions of the
+air, pestilence; they hover concealed in clouds in
+the lower atmosphere, and are attracted by the
+blood and incense which the heathen offer to them
+as gods." He thought, though, that Raphael had
+special care of the sick and the infirm. Cyprian
+(186-258) charged that demons caused luxations
+and fractures of the limbs, undermined the health,
+and harassed with diseases. Up to this time it was
+the privilege of any Christian to exorcise demons,
+but Pope Fabian (236-250) assigned a definite
+name and functions to exorcists as a separate order.
+To-day the priest has included in his ordination
+vows those of exorcist. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390)
+declared that bodily pains are provoked by
+demons, and that medicines are useless, but that
+demoniacs are often cured by laying on of consecrated
+hands. St. Augustine (354-430) said: "All
+diseases of Christians are to be ascribed to these
+demons; chiefly do they torment fresh-baptized
+Christians, yea, even the guiltless new-born infants."</p>
+
+<p>Baltus<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> says: "De tous les anciens auteurs eccl&eacute;siastiques,
+n'y en ayant pas un qui n'ait parl&eacute; de
+ce pouvoir admirable que les Chr&eacute;tiens avoient de
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_044" id="Page_044"> 44</a></span>chasser les d&eacute;mons," and Gregory of Tours (538-594)
+says that exorcism was common in his time,
+having himself seen a monk named Julian cure by
+his words a possessed person. This testimony of
+Gregory's concerning the prevalence of exorcisms
+at the end of the sixth century is interesting in view
+of the facts that the Council of Laodicea, in the
+fourth century, forbade any one to exorcise, except
+those duly authorized by the bishop, and that in
+the very beginning of the fifth century a physician
+named Posidonius denied the existence of possession.
+The fathers of the church, however, ridiculed the
+solemn assertion of physicians that many of these
+alleged demoniacal infirmities were attributable to
+material agencies, and were fully persuaded in their
+own minds that demons took possession of the
+organism of the human body.</p>
+
+<p>At about this time, such a broad-minded man as
+Gregory the Great (540-604) solemnly related that
+a nun, having eaten some lettuce without making
+the sign of the cross, swallowed a devil, and that,
+when commanded by a holy man to come forth, the
+devil replied: "How am I to blame? I was sitting
+on the lettuce, and this woman, not having made
+the sign of the cross, ate me along with it." This
+is but an example of the ideas concerning the entrance
+of demons into the possessed.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> Besides the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_045" id="Page_045"> 45</a></span>
+possibility of being taken into the mouth with one's
+food, they might enter while the mouth was opened
+to breathe. Exorcists were therefore careful to
+keep their mouths closed when casting out evil
+spirits, lest the imps should jump into their mouths
+from the mouths of the patients. Another theory
+was that the devil entered human beings during
+sleep, and at a comparatively recent period a king of
+Spain, Charles II (1661-1700), kept off the devil while
+asleep by the presence of his confessor and two friars.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p>
+
+<p>Shortly before the reign of Gregory, there came
+into vogue the fashion of exorcising demons by
+means of a written formula rather than by the
+earlier means of making the sign of the cross and
+invoking the name of Jesus. The theory of demonology
+was never very clear nor consistent. By
+some it was claimed that in the practice of the
+magical arts evil spirits provided cure for sickness,
+others maintained that they could not heal any
+diseases, and hence the true test of Christianity was
+the ability to cure bodily ills. A compromise position
+was that demons were only successful in eliminating
+diseases which they had themselves caused.
+There was not a little doubt in some cases about the
+character of the possessing spirits, and it behooved
+people to be careful; demons might use men as
+habitations, and while posing as good angels vitiate
+health and provoke disease.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_046" id="Page_046"> 46</a></span></p>
+<p>At the beginning of the seventh century, we have
+an account of an exorcism by St. Gall (556-640),
+and during the Carlovingian age the healing at
+Monte Cassino was based on the Satanic origin of
+disease. When the conversion of northern races to
+Christianity began, demonology received a stimulus.
+An unlimited number of demons, similar in individuality
+and prowess, were substituted for the pagan
+demons, and the pagan gods were added as additional
+demons. When proselytes were taken into
+the church, care was taken to exorcise all evil
+spirits. During the baptismal service the Satanic
+hosts, as originators of sin, vice, and maladies, were
+expelled by insufflation of the officiating clergyman,
+the sign of the cross, and the invocation of
+the Triune Deity. The earliest formulas for such
+expulsion directed a double exhalation of the
+priest.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
+
+<p>In all epidemics of the Middle Ages, such persons
+as were afflicted by pestilent diseases were
+declared contaminated by the devil, and carried to
+churches and chapels, a dozen at a time, securely
+bound together. They were thrown upon the
+floor, where they lay, according to the attestation
+of a pitying chronicler, until dead or restored to
+health.</p>
+
+<p>Unsound mind was universally accepted as a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_047" id="Page_047"> 47</a></span>specific distinction of diabolical power, and caused
+by the corporeal presence of an impure spirit.
+Imbeciles and the insane were, throughout the
+Middle Ages, especially conceded to be the abode
+of avenging and frenzied demons. In aggravated
+cases, the actual presence of the medicinal saint was
+necessary; in less vexatious maladies, the bare imposition
+of hands, accompanied by plaintive prayer,
+quickly healed the diseased.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a></p>
+
+<p>As early as the fifth century before Christ, Hippocrates
+of Cos asserted that madness was simply a
+disease of the brain, but notwithstanding the reiteration
+of this scientific truth the church repudiated
+it, and as late as the Reformation, Martin
+Luther maintained that not only was insanity
+caused by diabolical influences, but that "Satan
+produces all the maladies which afflict mankind."
+Even much later, however, when other diseases
+were assigned a physical origin, insanity was still
+thought to be demoniacal possession. As late as
+Bossuet's time, lunacy was thought to be the work
+of demons. The cultured and progressive Bishop
+of Meaux, while trying to throw off the shackles of
+superstition, delivered and published two great
+sermons in which demoniacal possession is defended.
+To show how the idea has clung, notwithstanding
+the advancement and enlightenment of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_048" id="Page_048"> 48</a></span>late years, we may notice a trial which took place
+at Wemding, in southern Germany, in 1892, of
+which White tells us.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A boy had become hysterical, and the Capuchin
+Father Aurelian tried to exorcise him, and charged
+a peasant's wife, Frau Herz, with bewitching him,
+on evidence that would have cost the woman her
+life at any time during the seventeenth century.
+Thereupon the woman's husband brought suit
+against Father Aurelian for slander. The latter
+urged in his defence that the boy was possessed of
+an evil spirit, if anybody ever was; that what had
+been said and done was in accordance with the
+rules and regulations of the Church, as laid down in
+decrees, formulas, and rituals sanctioned by popes,
+councils, and innumerable bishops during ages. All
+in vain. The court condemned the good father to
+fine and imprisonment."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p></div>
+
+<p>I cannot refrain from quoting in this connection
+the now famous epitaph of Lord Westbury's, suggested
+by the decision given by him as Lord Chancellor
+in the case against Mr. Wilson in which it was
+charged that the latter denied the doctrine of eternal
+punishment. The court decided that it did "not
+find in the formularies of the English Church any
+such distinct declaration upon the subject as to require
+it to punish the expression of a hope by a
+clergyman that even the ultimate pardon of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_049" id="Page_049"> 49</a></span>wicked who are condemned in the day of judgment
+may be consistent with the will of Almighty
+God." The following is the epitaph:</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="two">"RICHARD BARON WESTBURY,<br /><br />
+Lord High Chancellor of England.<br />
+He was an eminent Christian,<br />
+An energetic and merciful Statesman,<br />
+And a still more eminent and merciful Judge.<br />
+During his three years' tenure of office<br />
+He abolished the ancient method of conveying land,<br />
+The time-honored institution of the Insolvents' Court,<br />
+And<br />
+The Eternity of Punishment.<br />
+Toward the close of his earthly career,<br />
+In the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council,<br />
+He dismissed Hell with costs,<br />
+And took away from Orthodox members of the<br />
+Church of England<br />
+Their last hope of everlasting damnation."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In the Middle Ages there was a strange and incongruous
+mixture of medicine and exorcism. Notice
+the following prescriptions:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"If an elf or a goblin come, smear his forehead
+with this salve, put it on his eyes, cense him with
+incense, and sign him frequently with the sign of
+the cross."</p>
+
+<p>"For a fiend-sick man: When a devil possesses a
+man, or controls him from within with disease, a
+spew-drink of lupin, bishopwort, henbane, garlic.
+Pound these together, add ale and holy water."
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_050" id="Page_050"> 50</a></span>
+"A drink for a fiend-sick man, to be drunk out of
+a church bell: Githrife, cynoglossum, yarrow, lupin,
+flower-de-luce, fennel, lichen, lovage. Work up to
+a drink with clear ale, sing seven masses over it,
+add garlic and holy water, and let the possessed sing
+the <i>Beati Immaculati</i>; then let him drink the dose
+out of a church bell, and let the priest sing over
+him the <i>Domine Sancte Pater Omnipotens</i>."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Three methods of driving out demons from the
+insane were used: the main weapon against the
+devil and his angels has always been exorcism by
+means of ecclesiastical formula and signs. These
+formulas degenerated at one time to the vilest
+cursings, threatenings, and vulgarities. A second
+means was by an effort to disgust the demon and
+wound his pride. This might simply precede the
+exorcism proper. To accomplish this purpose of
+offending the demons, the most blasphemous and
+obscene epithets were used by the exorcist, which
+were allowable and perfectly proper when addressing
+demons. Most of these are so indecent that
+they cannot be printed, but the following are
+some examples:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Thou lustful and stupid one,... thou lean
+sow, famine-stricken and most impure,... thou
+wrinkled beast, thou mangy beast, thou beast of all
+beasts the most beastly,... thou mad spirit,...
+thou bestial and foolish drunkard,... most greedy
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_051" id="Page_051"> 51</a></span>wolf,... most abominable whisperer,... thou
+sooty spirit from Tartarus!... I cast thee down,
+O Tartarean boor,... into the infernal kitchen!...
+Loathsome cobbler,... dingy collier,...
+filthy sow (<i>scrofa stercorata</i>),... perfidious boar,...
+envious crocodile,... malodorous drudge,...
+wounded basilisk,... rust-colored asp,...
+swollen toad,... entangled spider,... lousy
+swineherd (<i>porcarie pedicose</i>),... lowest of the
+low,... cudgelled ass," etc.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The pride of the demon was also to be wounded
+by the use of the vilest-smelling drugs, by trampling
+underfoot and spitting upon the picture of the devil,
+or even by sprinkling upon it foul compounds.
+Some even tried to scare the demon by using large-sounding
+words and names.</p>
+
+<p>The third method of exorcism was punishment.
+The attempt was frequently made to scourge the
+demon out of the body. The exorcism was more
+effective if the name of the demon could be ascertained.
+If successful in procuring the name, it was
+written on a piece of paper and burned in a fire previously
+blessed, which caused the demons to suffer
+all the torments in the accompanying exorcisms.
+All forms of torture were employed, and in the
+great cities of Europe, "witch towers," where
+witches and demoniacs were tortured, and "fool
+towers," where the more gentle lunatics were im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_052" id="Page_052"> 52</a></span>prisoned,
+may still be seen. The treatment of the
+insane in the Middle Ages is one of the darkest blots
+on the growing civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The exorcism being completed, when some of the
+weaker demons were put to flight an after service
+was held in which everything belonging to the patient
+was exorcised, so that the demon might not
+hide there and return to the patient. The exorcised
+demons were forbidden to return, and the
+demons remaining in the body were commanded to
+leave all the remainder of the body, and to descend
+into the little toe of the right foot, and there to rest
+quietly.</p>
+
+<p>After the Reformation, two contests shaped themselves
+in the matter of exorcisms. The Protestants
+and the Roman Catholics vied with each other in
+the power, rapidity, and duration of the exorcisms.
+Both put forth miraculous claims, and with as much
+energy denied the power of the other. They agreed
+in one thing, and that was the erroneous position
+and teaching of the physicians. This, however,
+was but a continuation of that rivalry between the
+advancement of science and the conservation of
+theology, which is as old as history. In our examination
+of the influence of Christianity upon mental
+healing, it may be well for us to glance at the discouraging
+attitude of Christianity toward medicine.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_053" id="Page_053"> 53</a></span></p>
+<p>The usurpation of healing by the church, which
+was a most serious drawback to the therapeutic art,
+will be traced in the following chapters; there are,
+however, some other ways in which the church retarded
+the work of physicians. Chief among these
+was the theory propagated by Christians that it was
+unlawful to meddle with the bodies of the dead.
+This theory came down from ancient times, but was
+eagerly accepted by the church, principally on account
+of the doctrine of the bodily resurrection.
+In addition to this, surgery was forbidden because
+the Church of Rome adopted the maxim that "the
+church abhors the shedding of blood." A recent
+English historian has remarked that of all organizations
+in human history, the Church of Rome has
+caused the spilling of most innocent blood, but it
+refused to allow the surgeons to spill a drop.</p>
+
+<p>Monks were prohibited the practice of surgery in
+1248, and by subsequent councils, and all dissections
+were considered sacrilege. Surgery was considered
+dishonorable until the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries.
+The use of medicine was also discouraged. Down
+through the centuries a few churchmen and many
+others, especially Jews and Arabs, took up the study.
+The church authorities did everything possible to
+thwart it. Supernatural means were so abundant
+that the use of drugs was not only irreligious but
+superfluous. Monks who took medicine were punished,
+and physicians in the thirteenth century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_054" id="Page_054"> 54</a></span>
+could not treat patients without calling in ecclesiastical
+advice.</p>
+
+<p>We are told that in the reign of Philip II of Spain
+a famous Spanish doctor was actually condemned
+by the Inquisition to be burnt for having performed
+a surgical operation, and it was only by royal favor
+that he was permitted instead to expiate his crime
+by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where he died in
+poverty and exile.</p>
+
+<p>This restriction was continued for three centuries,
+and consequently threw medical work into the
+hands of charlatans among Christians, and of Jews.
+The clergy of the city of Hall protested that "it were
+better to die with Christ than to be cured by a Jew
+doctor aided by the devil." The Jesuit professor,
+Stengal, said that God permits illness because of His
+wish to glorify Himself through the miracles wrought
+by the church, and His desire to test the faith of men
+by letting them choose between the holy aid of the
+church and the illicit resort to medicine.</p>
+
+<p>There was another reason for the antagonism
+of the church to physicians; the physicians in
+this case were inside the church. The monks converted
+medicine to the basest uses. In connection
+with the authority of the church, it was employed
+for extorting money from the sick. They knew
+little or nothing about medicine, so used charms,
+amulets, and relics in healing. The ignorance and
+cupidity of the monks led the Lateran Council, un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_055" id="Page_055"> 55</a></span>der
+the pontificate of Calixtus II, in 1123, to forbid
+priests and monks to attend the sick otherwise than
+as ministers of religion. It had little or no effect,
+so that Innocent II, in a council at Rheims in 1131,
+enforced the decree prohibiting the monks frequenting
+schools of medicine, and directing them to confine
+their practice to their own monasteries. They
+still disobeyed, and a Lateran Council in 1139
+threatened all who neglected its orders with the
+severest penalties and suspension from the exercise
+of all ecclesiastical functions; such practices were
+denounced as a neglect of the sacred objects of their
+profession in exchange for ungodly lucre. When
+the priests found that they could no longer confine
+the practice of medicine to themselves, it was stigmatized
+and denounced. At the Council of Tours
+in 1163, Alexander III maintained that through
+medicine the devil tried to seduce the priesthood,
+and threatened with excommunication any ecclesiastic
+who studied medicine. In 1215, Innocent
+III fulminated an anathema against surgery and
+any priest practising it. Even this was not effectual.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p>
+
+<p>What we see in connection with dissection and
+surgery and medicine was repeated at a later date
+with inoculation, vaccination, and an&aelig;sthetics.
+There were the same objections by the church on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_056" id="Page_056"> 56</a></span>theological grounds, the same stubborn battle, and
+the same inevitable defeat of the theological position.</p>
+
+<p>So long as disease was attributed to a demoniacal
+cause, so long did exorcisms and other miraculous
+cures continue, and so far as these cures were efficacious,
+they must be classed as mental healing.
+Probably they continued longer in insanity and
+mental derangement on account of the beneficent
+and soothing effect of religion upon a diseased mind.
+Priestly cures of all kinds were largely, if not wholly,
+suggestive, and no history of mental healing would
+be complete without a r&eacute;sum&eacute; of ecclesiastical therapeutics.
+Many vagaries of healing which the church
+introduced might be mentioned to show to what extent
+the people may be misled in the name of religion.
+For example, the doctrine of signatures, to
+be later discussed, was disseminated by priests and
+monks, and if these medicines were ever effective it
+must have been by mental means.</p>
+
+<p>The demon theory of disease, which began before
+the age of history, and continued down through the
+savage ages and religions, through the early civilizations,
+through the gospel history, and dominated
+early Christianity, was finally, in the sixteenth century,
+to be vigorously assailed and largely overcome.
+The cost of this was considerable; attached as it was
+to the Christian church, it seemed necessary to destroy
+the whole Christian fabric in order to unravel
+this one thread. Atheism, therefore, was rampant,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_057" id="Page_057"> 57</a></span>
+and science and atheism became almost synonymous,
+and continued so until the church freed science from
+its centuries of bondage and allowed it to develop
+so as to be again in these days a co-laborer.</p>
+
+<p>In pleasing contrast to the destructive and deterrent
+efforts of the church against the development
+of medicine is the helpful care of the sick exercised
+by Christians. The example of Jesus as
+shown by his tender sympathy, his helpful acts,
+and his instruction to his followers, bore fruit in
+the relief and care of sufferers by individuals and
+religious asylums. About the year 1000 and later,
+the infirmaries which were attached to numerous
+monasteries, and the <i>hospitia</i> along the routes of
+travel which opened their doors to sick pilgrims,
+were but the development of a less portentous attempt
+on the part of individuals and societies to
+care for the sick. The Knights of St. John, or the
+Hospitalers as they were called, assumed as their
+special duty the nursing and doctoring of those in
+need of such attention, especially of sick and infirm
+pilgrims and crusaders.</p>
+
+<p>Hospitals for the sick, orphanages for foundlings,
+and great institutions for the proper care of paupers
+developed with immense strides, and during the
+twelfth century expanded into gigantic proportions.
+In the ensuing age, the medi&aelig;val mind was fired
+with a faith in the efficacy of unstinted charity;
+members of society, from holy pontiff to the hum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_058" id="Page_058"> 58</a></span>blest
+recluse by the wayside, rivalled each other in
+gratuities of clothing and food, founding of hospitals,
+and endowment of beneficent public institutions.
+St. Louis's highest claim to pious glory arose from
+his restless and unstinted charities to the indigent
+and sick. Even the lepers, which were shunned or
+segregated, were treated by Christian institutions;
+and saints and saintesses found pious expression
+for their humility in personal attendance and even
+loving embraces of these unsightly beings covered
+with repulsive sores. For the last millennium there
+has not been a time when Christian love and benevolence
+have not sought the opportunity of ministering
+to the sick.</p>
+
+<p>One can easily recognize the effect which this fact
+would have on mental healing. The church fostered
+the ideas of exorcism and the cures by relics and
+shrines, and deprecated the use of medicine. If the
+hospitals and infirmaries were almost wholly in the
+hands of the monks and churchmen, there was little
+hope for the development of other than ecclesiastical
+mental healing. The untold good which Christian
+ministrations to the sick accomplished must
+be acknowledged, but it was not an unmixed benefit
+to the race as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>We may more easily see, perhaps, the connection
+between the church and the development of medicine,
+and the despotic power of the church in this
+regard, when we remember that physicians were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_059" id="Page_059"> 59</a></span>
+formerly a part of the clergy, and it was not until
+1542 that the papal legate in France gave them permission
+to marry. In 1552 the doctors in law obtained
+like permission. An early priestly physician has survived
+to fame by the name of Elpideus, sometimes
+confused with Elpidius Rusticus. He was both a
+deacon of the church and a skilled surgeon, and was
+very favorably mentioned by St. Ennodius as a
+person of fine culture. He was sufficiently dexterous
+and skilful to heal the Gothic ruler, Theodoric,
+of a grievous illness.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Salverte gives us additional
+examples: "Richard Fitz-Nigel, who died
+Bishop of London, in 1198, had been apothecary to
+Henry II. The celebrated Roger Bacon, who flourished
+in the thirteenth century, although a monk,
+yet practised medicine. Nicolas de Farnham, a
+physician to Henry III, was created Bishop of
+Durham; and many doctors of medicine were at
+various times elevated to ecclesiastical dignities."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p>
+
+<p>The grip of the church accomplished its purpose,
+and science, especially the science of medicine, was
+strangled, almost to the death. Even the people
+of the time recognized the shortcomings of the physicians.
+Henricus Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535),
+writing in 1530, said with pleasant irony that physic
+was "a certaine Arte of manslaughter," and that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_060" id="Page_060"> 60</a></span>"well neare alwaies there is more daunger in the
+Physition and the Medicine than in the sicknesse
+itselfe." He also gives the following picture of a
+fashionable doctor of his time: "Clad in brave apparaile,
+having ringes on his fingers glimmeringe
+with pretious stoanes, and which hath gotten fame
+and credence for having been in farre countries, or
+having an obstinate manner of vaunting with stiffe
+lies that he hath great remedies, and for having continually
+in his mouth many wordes halfe Greeke
+and barbarous.... But this will prove to be true,
+that Physitians moste commonlye be naught. They
+have one common honour with the hangman, that
+is to saye, to kill menne and to be recompensed
+therefore."<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II,
+p. 113.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II, p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, p. 378.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, p. 383.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> <i>R&eacute;ponse a l'histoire des oracles</i>, p. 296.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II,
+p. 101.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> H. T. Buckle, <i>History of Civilization in England</i>, II, p. 270.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D. White, <i>History of
+the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, pp. 97-134.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II,
+p. 128.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Nash, <i>Life of Lord Westbury</i>, II, p. 78.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Cockayne, <i>Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Star-craft of Early
+England</i>, II, p. 177.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> M. H. Dziewicki, "Exorcizo Te," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXIV, p.
+580.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D. White, <i>History of
+the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, pp. 1-167.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Surgery and Medicine</i>, pp. 51 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+pp. 142 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II, p. 96.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 151.
+</p><p>
+For further references to the effect of demonism, see J. F. Nevius,
+<i>Demon Possession and Allied Themes</i>; J. M. Peebles, <i>The Demonism
+of the Ages and Spirit Obsessions</i>; articles on "Demon," "Demonism,"
+"Demoniacal Possession," and "Devil," in the <i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i>,
+the <i>New International Encyclopedia</i>, and the <i>Encyclopedia
+Britannica</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_061" id="Page_061"> 61</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<h4>RELICS AND SHRINES</h4>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"A fouth o' auld knick-knackets,</span>
+<span class="i0">Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets,</span>
+<span class="i0">Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets,</span>
+<span class="i8">A towmond guid;</span>
+<span class="i0">An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets,</span>
+<span class="i8">Afore the flood."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Burns</span>.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"For to that holy wood is consecrate</span>
+<span class="i0">A virtuous well, about whose flowery banks</span>
+<span class="i0">The nimble-footed fairies dance their rounds</span>
+<span class="i0">By the pale moonshine, dipping oftentimes</span>
+<span class="i0">Their stolen children, so to make them free</span>
+<span class="i0">From dying flesh and dull mortality."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fletcher</span>.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Ne was ther such another pardoner,</span>
+<span class="i0">For in his male he hadde a pilwebeer,</span>
+<span class="i0">Which that he saide was oure lady veyl;</span>
+<span class="i0">He seide, he hadde a gobet of the seyl</span>
+<span class="i0">That seynt Peter hadde, whan that he wente</span>
+<span class="i0">Uppon the see, til Jhesu Crist him pente.</span>
+<span class="i0">He hadde a cros of latoun ful of stones,</span>
+<span class="i0">And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.</span>
+<span class="i0">But with these reliques, whanne that he fond</span>
+<span class="i0">A poure persoun dwelling uppon lond,</span>
+<span class="i0">Upon a day he gat him more moneye</span>
+<span class="i0">Than that the persoun gat in monthes tweye.</span>
+<span class="i0">And thus with feyned flaterie and japes,</span>
+<span class="i0">He made the persoun and the people his apes."</span>
+<span class="i0">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Chaucer</span>.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A wide-spread movement developed in the early
+church as a result of which innumerable miracles of
+healing were credited to the power of saints, indirectly
+through the medium of streams and pools
+of water which were reputed to have some connec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_062" id="Page_062"> 62</a></span>tion
+with a particular saint, or through the efficacy
+still clinging to the relics of holy persons.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the growth of the belief in demonism
+in the Christian church, and the need of supernatural
+means to counteract diabolic diseases,
+saintly relics came into common use for this purpose,
+and afterward when demonism was not so
+thoroughly credited as the cause of diseases, relics
+were still considered to hold their power over physical
+infirmities. In addition to this, the missionary
+efforts and successes of the church had some influence
+in establishing and continuing cures by relics
+and similar means. The missionaries found that
+their converts had formerly employed various amulets
+and charms for the healing of diseases, and
+that they continued to have great faith in them for
+that purpose. To wean them from their heathen
+customs, Christian amulets and charms had to be
+substituted, or, as was sometimes the case, the
+heathen fetich was continued, but with a Christian
+significance.</p>
+
+<p>The early Scandinavians carried effigies carved
+out of gold or silver as safeguards against disease,
+or applied those made out of certain other materials,
+as the mandragora root or linen or wood, to the diseased
+part as a cure of physical infirmities. Some
+of these images were carried over into Christianity,
+for in Charlemagne's time, headache was frequently
+cured by following the saintly recommendation to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_063" id="Page_063"> 63</a></span>
+shape the figure of a head and place it on a cross.
+Fort tells us that "The introduction of Christianity
+among the Teutonic races offered no hindrance to a
+perpetuation, under new forms, of those social observances
+with which Norse temple idolatry was so
+intimately associated. Offering to proselytes an
+unlimited number of demoniacal &aelig;ons, similar in
+individuality and prowess to those peopling the invisible
+universe, Northern mythology readily united
+with Christian demonology."<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p>
+
+<p>The relics of the saints came to be the favorite
+substitute for the heathen charms. With the acceptance
+of the demoniacal cause of disease, exorcism
+by relics gradually grew in importance until
+it was firmly established and a preferred form in
+the sixth and subsequent centuries. Down to this
+time there still existed a feeble recognition of a possible
+system adapted to the cure of maladies, so far,
+perhaps, as the practice was restricted to municipalities.
+The rapid advancement of saintly remedies,
+consecrated oils, and other puissant articles of ecclesiastical
+appliance, enabled and encouraged numerous
+churchmen to exercise the &AElig;sculapian art; this,
+together with the ban put upon physicians and scientific
+means, soon gave the church the monopoly
+of healing. Perhaps the most thorough attestation
+of the contempt into which physicians had fallen,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_064" id="Page_064"> 64</a></span>
+compared with saintly medicists, is the fact that
+cures were invariably attempted after earthly medicine
+had been exhausted.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p>
+
+<p>Islam, Buddhism, and other religions have their
+shrines where some pilgrims are undoubtedly cured,
+but Christianity seems to have had the most varied
+and numerous collection. As early as the latter
+part of the fourth century miraculous powers were
+ascribed to the images of Jesus and the saints which
+adorned the walls of most of the churches of the
+time, and tales of wonderful cures were related of
+them. The intercessions of saints were invoked,
+and their relics began to work miracles.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Cyril, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and others
+of the early church fathers of note maintained that
+the relics of the saints had great efficacy in the cure
+of diseases. St. Augustine tells us: "Besides many
+other miracles, that Gamaliel in a dream revealed to
+a priest named Lacianus the place where the bones
+of St. Stephen were buried; that those bones being
+thus discovered, were brought to Hippo, the diocese
+of which St. Augustine was bishop; that they raised
+five persons to life; and that, although only a portion
+of the miraculous cures they effected had been
+registered, the certificates drawn up in two years
+in the diocese, and by the orders of the saint, were
+nearly seventy. In the adjoining diocese of Calama<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_065" id="Page_065"> 65</a></span>
+they were incomparably more numerous."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> This
+great and intellectual man also mentions and evidently
+credits the story that some innkeeper of his
+time put a drug into cheese which changed travellers
+who partook of it into domestic animals, and
+he further asserts after a personal test that peacock's
+flesh will not decay.</p>
+
+<p>St. Ambrose declared that "the precepts of medicine
+are contrary to celestial science, watching, and
+prayer." When the conflict between St. Ambrose
+and the Arian Empress Justina was at its height, the
+former declared that it had been revealed to him that
+relics were buried in a certain spot which he indicated.
+When the earth was removed, there was exposed a
+tomb filled with blood, and containing two gigantic
+skeletons with their heads severed from their bodies.
+These were pronounced to be the remains of St.
+Gervasius and St. Protasius, two martyrs of gigantic
+physical proportions, who were said to have been
+beheaded about three centuries before. To prove
+beyond doubt the genuineness of these relics, a
+blind man was restored to sight by coming in contact
+with them, and demoniacs were also cured
+thereby. Before being exorcised, however, the
+demons, who were supposed to have supernatural
+and indubitable knowledge, declared that the relics
+were genuine; that St. Ambrose was the deadly
+enemy of hell; that the doctrine of the Trinity was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_066" id="Page_066"> 66</a></span>
+true; and that those who rejected it would certainly
+be damned. To be sure that the testimony
+of the demons should have its proper weight in the
+controversy, on the following day St. Ambrose delivered
+an invective against all who questioned the
+miracle.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p>
+
+<p>Late researches concerning the Catacombs of
+Rome have thrown much light upon the early use
+of relics. The former opinion of the Catacombs was
+that they were used for secret worship by the persecuted
+Christians, but now we know that they were
+burial-places under the protection of Roman law,
+with entrances opening on the public roads. Their
+chapels and altars were for memorial and communion
+services. Great reverence was felt for the bodies of
+all Christians, so that for the first seven centuries
+the bodies were not disturbed, and relics, in the
+modern sense of the word, were unknown. People
+prayed at the tombs, or if they wished to take something
+away, they touched the tomb with a handkerchief,
+or else they took some oil from the lamps
+which marked the tombs. These mementos were
+regarded as true relics, so that when the Lombard
+Queen, Theodelinda, sent the abbot John for relics
+to put in her cathedral at Monza, he came back with
+over seventy little vials of oil, each with the name of
+the saint from whose tomb the oil was procured,
+and many of them are still preserved.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_067" id="Page_067"> 67</a></span>The oil from altar lamps was of therapeutic
+value, as St. Chrysostom tells us in speaking of the
+superiority of the church over ordinary houses.
+"For what is here," he asks, "that is not great and
+awful? Thus both this Table [the altar] is far more
+precious and delightful than that [any table at home],
+and this lamp than that; and this they know, as
+many as have put away diseases by anointing themselves
+with oil in faith and due season." If the
+body of a saint lay beneath the altar, the oil was
+then known as the "Oil of the Saints," and was
+even more efficacious for healing. Notice the following
+quotations on the subject taken from Dearmer's
+work.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Far more common are stories of healing by oil
+from a lamp burnt in honor of Christ or the saints.
+The following examples are from the East. The
+wounded hand of a Saracen was healed by oil from a
+lamp before the icon of St. George."</p>
+
+<p>"St. Cyrus and St. John appeared to a person
+suffering from gout, and bade him take a little oil
+in a small ampulla from the lamp that burnt before
+the image of the Saviour, in the great tetrapyle at
+Alexandria, and anoint his feet with it."</p>
+
+<p>"Similar stories are found in Western writers.
+Thus Nicetius of Lyons, by means of the oil of the
+lamp which burnt daily at his sepulchre, restored
+sight to the blind, drove demons from bodies possessed,
+restored soundness to shrunken limbs," etc.</p>
+
+<p>"An epileptic was cured by oil from the lamp
+that burnt night and day at the tomb of St. Severin."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_068" id="Page_068"> 68</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It was revealed to a blind woman, that oil from
+the lamp of St. Genevi&egrave;ve would restore her sight,
+if the warden of the church were to anoint her with
+it. A week after she brought a blind man, who was
+healed in the same manner."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p></div>
+
+<p>At the time of Gregory of Tours, application was
+made of sainted reliquaries as a remedy against the
+devil and his demons. Gregory narrates the miraculous
+efficacy of a small pellet of wax, taken from
+the tomb of St. Martin, in extinguishing an incendiary
+fire started by his Satanic majesty, which was
+instigated by malicious envy, because this omnipotent
+talisman was in the custody of an ecclesiastic! This
+Turonese bishop records many instances of cures
+being effected at Martin's tomb. He himself was
+relieved of severe pains in the head by touching the
+disordered spot with the sombre pall of St. Martin's
+sepulchre. This remedy was applied on three different
+occasions with equal success. Once he was
+cured of an attack of mortal dysentery by simply
+dissolving into a glass of water a pinch of dust scraped
+from the tomb of St. Martin and drinking the strange
+concoction. At another time, his tongue having
+become swollen and tumefied, it was restored to its
+natural size and condition by licking the railing of
+the tomb of this saint. He knew of others who had
+been equally successful. An archdeacon, named
+Leonastes had sight restored to his blind eyes at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_069" id="Page_069"> 69</a></span>
+tomb of St. Martin, but unfortunately the fact that
+he later applied to an Israelitish physician caused
+his infirmity to return. Even a toothache was
+cured by St. Martin's relics.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an apostrophe to the relics of St.
+Martin by Bishop Gregory: "Oh ineffable theriac!
+ineffable pigment! admirable antidote! celestial
+purge! superior to all drugs of the faculty! sweeter
+than aromatics! stronger than unguents together;
+thou cleanest the stomach like scammony, the lungs
+like hyssop, thou purgest the head like pyre-thrig!"<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p>
+
+<p>From the end of the fifth century the exercise of
+the medical art was almost exclusively appropriated
+by cloisters and monasteries, whose occupants boldly
+vended the miraculous remedial properties of relics,
+chrism, baptismal fluids, holy oil, rosy crosses, etc.,
+as of unquestioned virtue. In these early days
+living saints seem to have rivalled dead ones in
+their power over diseases, but of these we shall
+speak in a later chapter.</p>
+
+<p>A renewed interest sprang up when pilgrims began
+to return from their journeys to Palestine,
+bringing with them, as was natural, some souvenirs
+of their sojourn. A most interesting quotation
+from Mackay reveals the condition of these times.
+"The first pilgrims to the Holy Land brought back
+to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the
+purchase of which they had expended all their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_070" id="Page_070"> 70</a></span>
+store. The greatest favorite was the wood of the
+true cross, which, like the oil of the widow, never
+diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions
+of the Romish Church, that the Empress
+Helen, the mother of Constantine the Great, first
+discovered the veritable '<i>true cross</i>' in her pilgrimage
+to Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius
+made a present of the greater part of it to St. Ambrose,
+Bishop of Milan, by whom it was studded
+with precious stones and deposited in the principal
+church of that city. It was carried away by the
+Huns, by whom it was burnt, after they had extracted
+the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments,
+purporting to have been cut from it, were, in
+the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to be found in
+almost every church in Europe, and would, if collected
+together in one place, have been almost sufficient
+to have built a cathedral. Happy was the
+sinner who could get a sight of one of them; happier
+he who possessed one! To obtain them the
+greatest dangers were cheerfully braved. They
+were thought to preserve from all evils and to cure
+the most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages
+were made to the shrines that contained them and
+considerable revenues collected from the devotees.</p>
+
+<p>"Next in renown were those precious relics, the
+tears of the Saviour. By whom and in what manner
+they were preserved, the pilgrim did not enquire.
+Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_071" id="Page_071"> 71</a></span>
+the Holy Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of
+the Virgin Mary, and tears of St. Peter, were also
+to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets, which
+the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the
+tears, the next most precious relics were drops of the
+blood of Jesus and the martyrs, and the milk of the
+Virgin Mary. Hair and toe-nails were also in great
+repute, and were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands
+of pilgrims annually visited Palestine in the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries, to purchase pretended
+relics for the home market. The majority
+of them had no other means of subsistence than the
+profits thus obtained. Many a nail, cut from the
+filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic, was
+sold at a diamond's price, within six months after
+its severance from its parent toe, upon the supposition
+that it had once belonged to a saint or an apostle.
+Peter's toes were uncommonly prolific, for there
+were nails enough in Europe, at the time of the
+Council of Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of
+which were devoutly believed to have grown on
+the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of them
+are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle.
+The pious come from a distance of a hundred German
+miles to feast their eyes upon them."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p>
+
+<p>While some of these relics enumerated by Mackay
+seem to be such apparent frauds that none could
+credit them, they were surpassed in audacity by one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_072" id="Page_072"> 72</a></span>
+offered for sale at a monastery in Jerusalem. Here
+was presented to the prospective buyers one of the
+fingers of the Holy Ghost.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the popular relics already noted,
+an extensive and lucrative trade was carried on in
+iron filings from the chains with which, it was
+claimed, Peter and Paul were bound. These filings
+were deemed by Pope Gregory I as efficacious in
+healing as were the bones of saints or martyrs.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus2" id="illus2"></a><a href="images/illus2.jpg"><img src="images/illus2-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="253" alt="CURE THROUGH THE INTERCESSION OF A HEALING SAINT" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">CURE THROUGH THE INTERCESSION OF A HEALING SAINT</span></div>
+
+
+<p>As an example of healing at shrines in early days,
+I will reproduce Bede's description of a cure effected
+at the tomb of St. Cuthbert in 698. "There was in
+that same monastery a brother whose name was
+Bethwegan, who had for a considerable time waited
+upon the guests of the house, and is still living, having
+the testimony of all the brothers and strangers
+resorting thither, of being a man of much piety and
+religion, and serving the office put upon him only
+for the sake of the heavenly reward. This man,
+having on a certain day washed the mantels or
+garments which he used in the hospital, in the sea,
+was returning home, when on a sudden about half-way,
+he was seized with a sudden distemper in his
+body, insomuch that he fell down, and having lain
+some time, he could scarcely rise again. When at
+last he got up, he felt one-half of his body from the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_073" id="Page_073"> 73</a></span>head to the foot, struck with palsy, and with much
+difficulty he got home with the help of a staff. The
+distemper increased by degrees, and as night approached
+became still worse, so that when day returned,
+he could not rise or walk alone. In this weak
+condition, a good thought came into his mind, which
+was to go to church, the best way he could, to the
+tomb of the reverend Father Cuthbert, and there on
+his knees, to beg of the Divine Goodness either to
+be delivered from that disease, if it were for his
+good, or if the Divine Providence had ordained him
+longer to lie under the same for his punishment,
+that he might bear the pain with patience and a
+composed mind. He did accordingly, and supporting
+his weak limbs with a staff, entered the church,
+and prostrating himself before the body of the man
+of God, he with pious earnestness, prayed, that
+through his intercession, our Lord might be propitious
+to him. In the midst of his prayers he fell as
+it were, into a stupor, and as he was afterwards
+wont to relate, felt a large and broad hand touch
+his head where the pain lay, and by that touch all
+the part of his body which had been affected with the
+distemper, was delivered from the weakness, and
+restored to health down to his feet. He then awoke,
+and rose up in perfect health, and returning thanks
+to God for his recovery, told the brothers what had
+happened to him; and to the joy of them all, returned
+the more zealously, as if chastened by his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_074" id="Page_074"> 74</a></span>
+affliction, to the service which he was wont before
+so carefully to perform. The very garments which
+had been on Cuthbert's body, dedicated to God,
+either while living, or after he was dead, were not
+exempt from the virtue of performing cures, as may
+be seen in the book of his life and miracles, by such
+as shall read it."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> It should be noticed that in this
+account God alone seemed to have been the healer.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly every country had its long list of saints,
+each with his special power over some organ or disease.
+This saintly power, however, was not applied
+directly, but through their relics or through shrines
+consecrated to them. Melton, in his <i>Astrologaster</i>,
+says: "The saints of the Romanists have usurped
+the place of the zodiacal constellations in their
+governance of the parts of man's body, and that
+'for every limbe they have a saint.' Thus St. Otilia
+keepes the head instead of Aries; St. Blasius is appointed
+to governe the necke instead of Taurus; St.
+Lawrence keepes the backe and shoulders instead of
+Gemini, Cancer, and Leo; St. Erasmus rules the
+belly with the entrayles, in the place of Libra and
+Scorpius; in the stead of Sagittarius, Capricornus,
+Aquarius, and Pisces, the holy church of Rome hath
+elected St. Burgarde, St. Rochus, St. Quirinus, St.
+John, and many others, which governe the thighes,
+feet, shinnes, and knees."</p>
+
+<p>But the influence of the saints is distributed more
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_075" id="Page_075"> 75</a></span>minutely, as <i>e.g.</i>, "<i>Right Hand</i>: the top joint of the
+thumb is dedicated to God, the second joint to the
+Virgin; the top joint of the fore-finger to St. Barnabas,
+the second joint to St. John, and the third to
+St. Paul; the top joint of the second finger to Simon
+Cleophas, the second joint to Tathideo, the third to
+Joseph; the top joint of the third finger to Zaccheus,
+the second to Stephen, the third to the evangelist
+Luke; the top joint of the little finger to Leatus,
+the second to Mark, the third to Nicodemus."
+Thus the body was cared for.</p>
+
+<p>Pettigrew makes the following enumeration which
+shows the division of labor among the saints in the
+Middle Ages. In this, not the different portions of
+the body but the various diseases and infirmities
+are distributed.</p>
+
+<p>"The following list, though doubtless very imperfect,
+will yet serve to show how general was the
+appropriation of particular diseases to the Roman
+Catholic saints:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+St. Agatha, against sore breasts.<br />
+St. Agnan and St. Tignan, against scald head.<br />
+St. Anthony, against inflammations.<br />
+St. Apollonia, against toothache.<br />
+St. Avertin, against lunacy.<br />
+St. Benedict, against the stone, and also for poisons.<br />
+St. Blaise, against the quinsey, bones sticking in the throat, etc.<br />
+St. Christopher and St. Mark, against sudden death.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_076" id="Page_076"> 76</a></span>
+St. Clara, against sore eyes.<br />
+St. Erasmus, against the colic.<br />
+St. Eutrope, against dropsy.<br />
+St. Genow and St. Maur, against the gout.<br />
+St. Germanus, against diseases of children.<br />
+St. Giles and St. Hyacinth, against sterility.<br />
+St. Herbert, against hydrophobia.<br />
+St. Job and St. Fiage, against syphilis.<br />
+St. John, against epilepsy and poison.<br />
+St. Lawrence, against diseases of the back and shoulders.<br />
+St. Liberius, against the stone and fistula.<br />
+St. Maine, against the scab.<br />
+St. Margaret and St. Edine, against danger in parturition.<br />
+St. Martin, against the itch.<br />
+St. Marus, against palsy and convulsions.<br />
+St. Otilia and St. Juliana, against sore eyes and<br />
+the headache.<br />
+St. Pernel, against the ague.<br />
+St. Petronilla, St. Apollonia, and St. Lucy, against the toothache.<br />
+----, and St. Genevieve, against fevers.<br />
+St. Phaire, against hemorrhoids.<br />
+St. Quintan, against coughs.<br />
+St. Rochus, and St. Sebastian, against the plague.<br />
+St. Romanus, against demoniacal possession.<br />
+St. Ruffin, against madness.<br />
+St. Sigismund, against fevers and agues.<br />
+St. Valentine, against epilepsy.<br />
+St. Venise, against chlorosis.<br />
+St. Vitus, against madness and poisons.<br />
+St. Wallia and St. Wallery, against the stone.<br />
+St. Wolfgang, against lameness."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a><br />
+</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_077" id="Page_077"> 77</a></span></p>
+<p>Wax from the tapers illuminating the altar which
+enclosed St. Gall's mortal remains was an instantaneous
+cure for toothache, diseased eyes, and total
+deafness; a vase used by the martyred Willabrod
+for bathing thrice a year, still holding its partially
+solidified water by divine invocation after her
+death, had great remedial energy in diverse ailments;
+the water in which the ring of St. Remigius
+was immersed cured certain obstinate fevers; and
+the wine in which the bones of the saints were
+washed restored imbeciles to instant health. In
+the thirteenth century, hairs of saints, especially of
+St. Boniface, were used as a purge, and a single hair
+from the beard of St. Vincent, placed about the
+neck of an idiot, restored normal mental operations.
+With the water in which St. Sulpicius washed her
+hands aggravated infirmities were instantly cured;
+and in the twelfth century, an invalid being advised
+in a dream to drink the water in which St. Bernard
+washed his hands, the Abbot of Clairvaux went to
+him, gave him the wash water, and healed an incurable
+disease. Flowers reposing on the tomb of a
+saint, when steeped in water, were supposed to be
+especially efficacious in various diseases, and those
+blooming in aromatic beauty at the tomb of St.
+Bernard instantly cured grievous sicknesses.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> The
+belt of St. Guthlac, and the belt of St. Thomas of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_078" id="Page_078"> 78</a></span>
+Lancaster, were sovereign remedies for the headache,
+whilst the penknife and boots of Archbishop
+Becket, and a piece of his shirt, were found most
+admirably to aid parturition. Fragments of the
+veil of the saintess Coleta, and the use of her well-worn
+cloak, immediately cured a terrible luxation,
+and a cataleptic patient was restored to sanity by
+drinking from her cup.</p>
+
+<p>To show how thoroughly the idea of the efficacy
+of these relics must have been indued in the thought
+of the times, White quotes the following: "Two
+lazy beggars, one blind, the other lame, try to avoid
+the relics of St. Martin, borne about in procession,
+so that they may not be healed and lose their claim
+to alms. The blind man takes the lame man on
+his shoulders to guide him, but they are caught in
+the crowd and healed against their will." He also
+says: "Even as late as 1784 we find certain authorities
+in Bavaria ordering that anyone bitten by a
+mad dog shall at once put up prayers at the shrine
+of St. Hubert, and not waste his time in any attempts
+at medical or surgical cure."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p>
+
+<p>In addition to what Dr. White says here about
+the treatment for threatened hydrophobia in the
+eighteenth century, we find a curious mixture of
+science and superstition in the nineteenth century
+in connection with the same trouble. Early in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_079" id="Page_079"> 79</a></span>
+century physicians discovered that the most effectual
+remedy against the bite of a rabid animal was
+the cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron.
+In Tuscany, however, the iron which they heated
+was one of the nails of the true cross, and in the
+French provinces it was the key of St. Hubert.
+This, though, was only to be used in the hands of
+those who could trace their genealogy to this noble
+saint. At the abbey of St. Hubert, in the diocese
+of Liege, the intercession of the saint still continued
+to be sufficient to effect a cure, provided it was
+seconded by some religious ceremonies, and a diet
+which would reassure the patient.</p>
+
+<p>After the discovery of the "true cross," portions
+of this relic were much used for aid in any emergency.
+In addition to sanitary and healing powers,
+fragments suspended to a tree manifested the proper
+location of sacred edifices. St. Magnus, who seems
+to have carried pieces around with him, completely
+vanquished demons who frequented a locality selected
+for a chapel. Eyesight was restored to a
+humble merchant seeking the blood-stained marks
+upon the chapel of this same St. Magnus. The
+blind man was feeling his uncertain way to the
+place, where these discolorations reappeared more
+distinctly after each washing with heavy layers of
+lime.</p>
+
+<p>St. Louis, almost in the agonies of earthly dissolution,
+with rigid body, rigorous limbs, and fluctu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_080" id="Page_080"> 80</a></span>ating
+spirit, was brought to full health by the application
+to his moribund body of a piece of the true
+cross, about the year 1244; and later in the century
+miracles took place at his tomb. M. Littr&eacute;, in his
+<i>Fragment de Medecine R&eacute;trospective</i>, describes seven
+miracles which occurred at his tomb, some of which
+cures, however, were very gradual. We are also
+told that when a humble hunchback bowed the
+knee in adoration at the tomb of St. Andreas, his
+irresistible faith instantly released him from his unnatural
+rotundity. In 1243 a Ferrara writer was at
+Padua, and while attending vespers at the tomb
+where the sainted body of the Minorite Anthony
+reposed, he affirms that he saw a person who had
+been mute from his birth recover his voice and
+speak audibly.</p>
+
+<p>Saintly remedies were used to cure hemorrhages,
+readjust luxations, unite fractures, remove calculi,
+moderate the agonizing pangs of parturition, restore
+vision to the blind, and hearing to the deaf&mdash;in fact,
+in an endeavor to perform cures which modern
+medicine and surgery are counting among their
+greatest and most recent triumphs. Some things
+even more strange were attempted: paradoxical as
+it may seem, they were used to cover up crime.
+Fort tells us that among nuns and consecrated
+women in convents, some erring sisters applied the
+preventive talismanic influence of a sacred shirt or
+girdle to suppress the manifestation of conventual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_081" id="Page_081"> 81</a></span>
+irregularities of a sexual character. Animals as well
+as human beings were treated for sickness, and relics
+were used to free captive birds and animals. At a
+banquet, a costly urn was shattered by ecclesiastics,
+and through the power of Odilo it was restored to
+its original integrity. At the tombs of both St.
+Severin and St. Gall, when the light had been
+quenched, miraculous fire burst forth to renew the
+splendor.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p>
+
+<p>The allotment of certain diseases to certain saints
+did not end with the Middle Ages. I have in my
+hand a little manual entitled: <i>De l'Invocation
+miraculeuse des Saints dans les maladies et les besoins
+particuliers, par Mme. la Baronne d'Avout</i>, published
+in 1884. An invocation is given for every day in
+the year to some particular saint, who is thought to
+be especially efficacious in the cure of some specific
+disease. I shall quote but one for illustration.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="two">
+"30 MAI<br />
+S. HUBERT DE BR&Eacute;TIGNY<br />
+Pr&egrave;s Noyons (Oise).<br />
+Honor&eacute; au dioc&egrave;se de Beauvais.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"L'illustre saint Hubert, ap&ocirc;tre des Ardennes, fut
+son protecteur et lui donna son nom. Il lui obtint
+les plus heureuses dispositions pour la vertu. Lui
+aussi h&eacute;rita du pouvoir de gu&eacute;rir de la rage.</p>
+
+<p>"Les habitants de Noyon et des environs n'ont
+pas cess&eacute; de recourir &agrave; son intercession. Les per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_082" id="Page_082"> 82</a></span>sonnes
+qui touchent ses reliques ou portent sur elles
+son nom b&eacute;ni esp&eacute;rent &eacute;chapper pendant leur vie
+aux atteintes des d&eacute;mons, de la rage et du tonnerre.</p>
+
+<p>"&Agrave; Aire, dioc&egrave;se de Fr&eacute;jus, on invoque aussi sainte
+Quit&egrave;re contre la rage.</p>
+
+
+<p class="two">INVOCATION</p>
+
+<p>"Dieu tout-puissant, qui avez form&eacute; le c&oelig;ur de
+vos saints avec une admirable bont&eacute;, afin qu'ils
+deviennent pour nous une source de bienfaits et de
+consolation; assistez-nous dans le pressant besoin
+o&ugrave; nous nous trouvons et sauvez-nous de la mort,
+par les pri&egrave;res at les m&eacute;rites de saint Hubert de
+Br&eacute;tigny, afin que nous puissions vous louer et vous
+b&eacute;nir. Par N.-S. J.-C. Ainsi soit-il."</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Saint Hubert, qui pr&eacute;servez de la morsure des
+b&ecirc;tes enrag&eacute;es, ou qui gu&eacute;rissez leur morsures mortelles,
+priez pour tous les afflig&eacute;s qui vous invoquent.</i>"</p></div>
+
+<p>While there was probably some advance when
+the saints of the church took the place of the zodiacal
+constellations in the government of the human
+body, the church prevented the development along
+scientific lines, although there were many ramifications
+of saintly influence. Not the least among
+these was the healing efficacy of holy wells, pools,
+and streams, which had been empowered in some
+way by the saints. In some cases the bones of holy
+men have been buried in different parts of the continent,
+and after a certain lapse of time, water was
+said to have oozed from them, which soon formed
+a spring and cured all the diseases of the faithful.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_083" id="Page_083"> 83</a></span>Perhaps the cure of leprous Naaman by bathing
+in the Jordan, and the restoration of the sight of the
+blind man by washing in the Pool of Siloam may
+have served as examples which the credulous were
+only too ready to follow. We must also note, however,
+as a reason for their use, that in classical times
+the greater number of thermal waters, more frequently
+used then than in the present day, remained
+consecrated to the gods, to Apollo, to &AElig;sculapius,
+and, above all, to Hercules, who was named Iatricos,
+or the able physician. At any rate, many wells
+and fountains were dedicated to different saints,
+and various rites were performed there at Easter
+and other particular days, where offerings were also
+made to the saints.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland, many such sacred places have been
+visited by the sick for centuries, and England and
+Scotland have them also. Not only in the British
+Isles, but in all parts of Europe they were much
+frequented in the Middle Ages, and they are not
+without their visitors to-day. As late as 1805 the
+eminent Roman Catholic prelate, Dr. John Milner,
+gave a detailed account of a miraculous cure performed
+at a sacred well in Flintshire. Gregory of
+Tours was one of the first to notice the healing power
+of springs in connection with the saints. He asserted
+that the diseases of the sick and infirm were
+banished upon the contact of a few drops of water
+drawn from a spring dug by St. Martin's own hands.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_084" id="Page_084"> 84</a></span>From Fosbrooke's <i>British Monachism</i> we learn
+that "on a spot called Nell's Point, is a fine well, to
+which great numbers of women resort on Holy
+Thursday, and, having washed their eyes in the
+spring, they drop a pin into it. Once a year, at
+St. Mardrin's well, also, lame persons went on Corpus
+Christi evening, to lay some small offering on
+the altar, there to lie on the ground all night, drink
+of the water there, and on the next morning to take
+a good draught more of it, and carry away some of
+the water each in a bottle at their departure. At
+Muswell Hill was formerly a chapel, called our Lady
+of Muswell, from a well there, near which was her
+image; this well was continually resorted to by
+way of pilgrimage. At Walsingham, a fine green
+road was made for the pilgrims, and there was a
+holy well and cross adjacent, at which pilgrims used
+to kneel while drinking the water. It is remarkable
+that the Anglo-Saxon laws had proscribed this as
+idolatrous. Such springs were consecrated upon
+the discovery of cures effected by them. In fact,"
+Fosbrooke adds, "these consecrated wells merely
+imply a knowledge of the properties of mineral
+waters, but, through ignorance, a religious appropriation
+of their properties was made to supernatural
+causes."</p>
+
+<p>"Holywell, in the county of Flint," we are informed
+by Salverte, "derives its name from the
+Holy Well of St. Winifred, over which a chapel was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_085" id="Page_085"> 85</a></span>
+erected by the Stanley family, in the reign of
+Henry VII. The well was formerly in high repute
+as a medicinal spring. Pennant says that, in his
+time, Lancashire pilgrims were to be seen in deep
+devotion, standing in the waters up to the chin for
+hours, sending up prayers, and making a prescribed
+number of turnings; and this excess of piety was
+carried so far, as in several instances to cost the
+devotees their lives."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p>
+
+<p>Pennant also tells us of a small spring outside the
+bathing well at Whiteford, which was once famed
+for the cure of weak eyes. The patient made an
+offering of a crooked pin, and at the same time repeated
+some words. The well still remains, but the
+efficacy of its waters is lost. In recounting his tour
+of Wales, the same author describes the church of
+St. Tecla, virgin and martyr, at Llandegla. He
+says: "About two hundred yards from the church,
+in a Quillet called Gwern Degla, rises a small spring.
+The water is under the tutelage of the Saint, and to
+this day held to be extremely beneficial in the falling
+sickness. The patient washes his limbs in the
+well; makes an offering into it of four-pence; walks
+round it three times; and thrice repeats the Lord's
+Prayer. These ceremonies are never begun till
+after sun-set, in order to inspire the votaries with
+greater awe. If the afflicted be of the male sex, like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_086" id="Page_086"> 86</a></span>
+Socrates, he makes an offering of a cock to his
+&AElig;sculapius, or rather to Tecla Hygeia; if of the
+fair sex, a hen. The fowl is carried in a basket,
+first round the well; after that into the church-yard;
+when the same orisons and the same circum-ambulations
+are performed round the church. The votary
+then enters the church; gets under the communion
+table; lies down with the Bible under his or
+her head; is covered with the carpet or cloth, and
+rests there till break of day; departing after offering
+sixpence, and leaving the fowl in the church.
+If the bird dies, the cure is supposed to have been
+effected, and the disease transferred to the devoted
+victim."<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p>
+
+<p>"At Withersden," says Hasted, "is a well, which
+was once famous, being called St. Eustache's well,
+taking its name from Eustachius, Abbot of Flai,
+who is mentioned by Matt. Paris, An. 1200, to have
+been a man of learning and sanctity, and to have
+come and preached at Wye, and to have blessed a
+fountain there, so that afterwards its waters were
+endowed by such miraculous power, that by it all
+diseases were cured."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Unfortunately, wells do
+not always benefit the bathers. Lilly<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> relates that
+in 1635 Sir George Peckham died in St. Winifred's
+Well, "having continued so long mumbling his pater
+nosters and Sancta Winifreda ora pro me, that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_087" id="Page_087"> 87</a></span>
+cold struck into his body, and after his coming forth
+of that well he never spoke more."</p>
+
+<p>The people of the Highlands of Scotland regarded
+fountains with particular veneration. According to
+the Statistical Account of Scotland, the minister of
+Kirkmichael, Banffshire, said: "The sick who resort
+to them for health, address their vows to the presiding
+powers, and offer presents to conciliate their
+favor. These presents generally consist of a small
+piece of money, or a few fragrant flowers. The same
+reverence in ancient times seems to have been entertained
+by every people in Europe." Near Kirkmichael
+there was a fountain dedicated to St.
+Michael, and once celebrated for its cures. "Many
+a patient have its waters restored to health, and
+many more have attested the efficacy of their virtues.
+But, as the presiding power is sometimes
+capricious, and apt to desert his charge, it now lies
+neglected, choked with weeds, unhonored and unfrequented."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p>
+
+<p>The most noted well in Perthshire is in Trinity
+Gask. Again from the Statistical Account we quote:
+"Superstition, aided by the interested artifices of
+Popish Priests, raised, in times of ignorance and
+bigotry, this well to no small degree of celebrity.
+It was affirmed that every person who was baptized
+with the water of this well would never be seized
+with the plague. The extraordinary virtue of Trin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_088" id="Page_088"> 88</a></span>ity
+Gask well has perished with the downfall of
+superstition."<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p>
+
+<p>Pinkerton, in speaking of the river Fillan in Scotland,
+says: "In this river is a pool consecrated
+by the ancient superstition of the inhabitants of
+this country. The pool is formed by the eddying
+of the stream round a rock. Its waves were many
+years since consecrated by Fillan, one of the saints
+who converted the ancient inhabitants of Caledonia
+from paganism to the belief of Christianity. It has
+ever since been distinguished by his name, and
+esteemed of sovereign virtue in curing madness.
+About two hundred persons afflicted in this way are
+annually brought to try the benefits of its salutary
+influence. These patients are conducted by their
+friends, who first perform the ceremony of passing
+with them thrice through a neighbouring cairn: on
+this cairn they then deposit a simple offering of
+clothes, or perhaps a small bunch of heath. More
+precious offerings used once to be brought. The
+patient is then thrice immerged in the sacred pool.
+After the immersion, he is bound hand and foot,
+and left for the night in a chapel which stands near.
+If the maniac is found loose in the morning, good
+hopes are conceived of his full recovery. If he is
+still bound, his cure remains doubtful. It sometimes
+happens that death relieves him, during his
+confinement, from the troubles of life."</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_089" id="Page_089"> 89</a></span></p>
+<p>Mrs. Macaulay,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> speaking of a consecrated well
+in St. Kilda, called Tobirnimbuadh, or the spring of
+diverse virtues, says that "near the fountain stood
+an altar, on which the distressed votaries laid down
+their oblations. Before they could touch sacred
+water with any prospect of success, it was their
+constant practice to address the genius of the place
+with supplication and prayer. No one approached
+him with empty hands.... Shells and pebbles,
+rags of linen or stuffs worn out, pins, needles, or
+rusty nails were generally all the tribute that was
+paid."</p>
+
+<p>Collinson<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> mentions a well in the parish Wembton,
+called St. John's Well, to which in 1464 "an immense
+concourse of people resorted: and ... many who
+had for years labored under various bodily diseases,
+and had found no benefit from physick and
+physicians, were, by the use of these waters (after
+paying their due offerings), restored to their primitive
+health."</p>
+
+<p>Brome, in his <i>Travels</i>, 1700, observes: "In Lothien,
+two miles from Edinburg southward, is a
+spring called St. Katherine's Well, flowing continually
+with a kind of black fatness, or oil, above the
+water, proceeding (as it is thought) from the parret
+coal, which is frequent in these parts; 'tis of a marvellous
+nature, for as the coal, whereof it proceeds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_090" id="Page_090"> 90</a></span>
+is very apt quickly to kindle into a flame, so is the
+oil of a sudden operation to heal all scabs and tumors
+that trouble the outward skin, and the head and
+hands are speedily healed by virtue of this oil,
+which retains a very sweet smell; and at Aberdeen
+is another well very efficacious to dissolve the stone,
+to expel sand from the reins and bladder, being
+good for the collick and drunk in July and August,
+not inferiour, they report, to the Spaw in Germany."<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Grose tells us of a well dedicated to St. Oswald,
+between the towns of Alton and Newton. The
+neighbors have the opinion that a sick person's
+shirt thrown into the well will prognosticate the
+outcome of the disease; if it floats the sick one will
+recover, if it sinks he will die. To reward the saint
+for the information, they tear a rag off the shirt and
+hang it on the briers near by; "where," says the
+writer, "I have seen such numbers as might have
+made a fayre rheme in a paper-myll." Similar
+practices are related by other authors. Ireland
+formerly had a sanctified well in nearly every parish.
+They were marked by rude crosses and surrounded
+by fragments of cloth left as memorials. St. Ronague's
+Well, near Cork, was very popular at one
+time. Near Carrick-on-Suir is the holy well of
+Tubber Quan, the waters of which are reputed to
+have performed many miraculous cures. The well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_091" id="Page_091"> 91</a></span>
+was dedicated to two patron saints, St. Quan and
+St. Brogawn. These saints are supposed to exert
+a special influence the last three Sundays in June.
+"It is firmly believed," says Brand, "that at this
+period the two saints appear in the well in the shape
+of two small fishes, of the trout kind; and if they do
+not so appear, that no cure will take place. The
+penitents attending on these occasions ascend the
+hill barefoot, kneel by the stream and repeat a
+number of paters and aves, then enter it, go through
+the stream three times, at a slow pace, reciting
+their prayers. They then go on the gravel walk,
+and traverse it round three times on their bare
+knees, often till the blood starts in the operation,
+repeat their prayers, then traverse three times
+round a tree on their bare knees, but upon the
+grass. Having performed these exercises they cut
+off locks of their hair and tie them on the branches
+of the tree as specifics against headache."</p>
+
+<p>After being three times admonished in a dream,
+a man washed in St. Madern's Well in Cornwall and
+was miraculously cured, so say Bishop Hall and
+Father Francis. Ranulf Higden, in his <i>Polychronicon</i>,
+relates the wonderful cures performed at the
+holy well at Basingwerk. The red streaks in the
+stones surrounding it were symbols of the blood of
+St. Wenefride, martyred by Carodoc.</p>
+
+<p>The Scotch considered certain wells to have healing
+properties in the month of May. In the Ses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_092" id="Page_092"> 92</a></span>sions
+Records (June 12, 1628) it is reported that a
+number of persons were brought before the Kirk
+Sessions of Falkirk, accused of going to Christ's
+Well on the Sundays of May to seek their health,
+and the whole being found guilty were sentenced to
+repent "in linens" three several sabbaths. "In 1657
+a number of persons were publicly rebuked for visiting
+the well at Airth. The custom was to leave a
+piece of money and a napkin at the well, from which
+they took a can of water, and were not to speak a
+word either in going or returning, nor on any account
+to spill a drop of the water. Notwithstanding
+these proceedings, many are known to have
+lately travelled many miles into the Highlands,
+there to obtain water for the cure of their sick
+cattle."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p>
+
+<p>To-day, probably the most efficacious waters are
+to be found at the sacred fountain at La Salette
+and at the holy spring at Lourdes.</p>
+
+<p>We have another specific form of healing which
+should be noticed. It was especially common in
+Eastern churches, and was found to some extent in
+the West. I refer to Incubation, or "Temple-sleep."
+This practice came down through early civilizations
+and was an adopted practice among Christians.
+The patient went to some church well known for its
+cures, which was provided with mattresses or low<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_093" id="Page_093"> 93</a></span>
+couches, and attended by priests and assistants.
+Devotions being finished he lay down to sleep.
+Sometimes he slept immediately, at other times
+sleep must be wooed by fast and vigil. At any
+rate, during the sleep he dreamed that the saint
+touched him, or prescribed some remedy, and in
+the first case he awoke cured, and in the second the
+prescribed medicine brought about the relief.</p>
+
+<p>Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, wrote
+about 640 as follows: "Cyrus appeared to the sick
+man in the form of a monk, not in a dream, as he
+appears to many; but in a waking vision, just as he
+was and is represented. He told the patient to rise
+and to plunge into the warm water. Zosimos said
+it was impossible for him to move, but when the
+order was repeated, he slid like a snake into the
+bath. When he got into the water, he saw the
+saint at his side, but when he came out, the vision
+had vanished." Beside the cure of this paralytic
+at the church of Cyrus and John, he mentions the
+cure of many other diseases by this method of incubation.
+Among them are dumbness, blindness,
+barrenness, possession, scrofula, dyspepsia, a broken
+leg, deformities of limbs, lameness, gout, diseases of
+the eyes, cataract, ulcer, and dropsy.</p>
+
+<p>Among the churches of Greece and southern
+Italy incubation is still common. The climate may
+have some effect in limiting the area of this practice.
+Miss M. Hamilton furnishes us with some modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_094" id="Page_094"> 94</a></span>
+examples. In speaking of a new picture of St.
+George in the church at Arachova, she says: "It is
+a votive offering of a Russian, who came a paralytic
+to Arachova in July, 1905. He spent several weeks
+praying and sleeping in the church, and departed
+completely cured. The festival of St. George is
+held on April 23rd. They have three days of dancing
+and feasting, and at night all suppliants bring
+their rugs and sleep round the shrines in the church.
+Every year many of the sick are found to be cured
+when morning comes."</p>
+
+<p>The Church of the Evangelestria, our Lady of the
+Annunciation, is visited by about forty-five thousand
+pilgrims every year. It is situated at Tenos, and
+Miss Hamilton tells us what she saw during her
+visit there in 1906:<br /></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the morning before Annunciation Day this
+year, the pilgrims could be seen making their way
+to the church. Among them were cripples, armless,
+and legless, half-rolling up the street; blind people
+groping their way along; men and women with deformities
+of every kind; one or two showing the
+pallor of death on their faces were being carried up
+on litters. These evidently were coming to Tenos
+as a last resource, when doctors were of no avail.
+Other pilgrims were ascending after their own
+fashion, according to vows they had made. One
+woman toiled laboriously along on her knees, kissing
+the stones of the way, and clasping a silver
+Madonna and Child. Last year her daughter had
+been seized with epilepsy, and she vowed to carry in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_095" id="Page_095"> 95</a></span>
+this way this offering to the Madonna of Tenos if she
+would cure her daughter. The girl recovered and
+the other now with thankful heart was fulfilling her
+part of the bargain.</p>
+
+<p>"The eve of Annunciation Day is the time when
+the Panagia is believed to descend among the sick
+and work miraculous cures among them. Then all
+the patients are gathered together in the crypt or in
+the upper church. The Chapel of the Well is the
+popular place for incubation. There is more chance
+for miraculous cure there than in the church. The
+little crypt can accommodate only a comparatively
+small number, but they are packed together as
+tightly as possible. From the entrance up to the
+altar, they lie in two lines of three or four deep,
+with a passage down the middle large enough for
+only one person. Down the narrow way two
+streams of people press the whole evening. They
+worship at the shrines along the wall, purchase holy
+earth from the spot where the picture was discovered,
+drink at the sacred well, and are blessed by the
+priest at the altar. The cripples and the sick desiring
+healing have been engaged all day in such acts
+of worship; they have received bread and water
+from the priests in the upper church, paid homage
+to the all-powerful picture, offered their candles to
+the Madonna, and all the time sought to endue
+themselves with her presence. Now at night, still
+fixing their thoughts upon her, and permeated by
+this spirit of worship, they settle down to sleep in
+order that she may appear to them in a dream.</p>
+
+<p>"Disappointment, of course, awaits the vast majority,
+but on the evening of the vigil all are filled
+with hope. They know the precedents of former
+years, how such things have happened to some unfortunate
+people among the pilgrims every year.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_096" id="Page_096"> 96</a></span>
+Usually eight or nine miracles take place, and lists
+of them are published for distribution....</p>
+
+<p>"The church records contain accounts of the
+miracles which now amount to many hundreds.
+They are practically all of the type I have described&mdash;cure
+during a vision while incubation was
+being practised. For example, the case of a man
+from Moldavia is on record. He had become paralyzed
+during a night-watch, and the doctor could
+effect no relief. He was taken to the Chapel of the
+Well, and when asleep he thought he heard a voice
+telling him to arise. He awoke, thought it was a
+dream, and fell asleep again. A second time he
+heard a voice, and saw a white-robed woman of
+great beauty entering the church. In his fear he
+rose and walked about. His recovery was so complete
+that he could walk in the procession round the
+town the following day."<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">46</a>
+</p></div>
+
+<p>The medicinal power imputed to the sainted relics
+and shrines would naturally be considered very
+valuable. So it proved. Wealth flowed to a conventual
+treasury or a cathedral chapter where were
+deposited fragments of the martyred dead endowed
+with miraculous puissance. When the Frankish
+forces sacked Constantinople at the beginning of
+the thirteenth century, the principal object of their
+ferocious cruelties and vigilant searches was the
+acquisition of precious relics. Concerning these
+relics Fort gives the following account:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_097" id="Page_097"> 97</a></span>"These relics, captured in Constantinople, were
+divided by the troops under Marquis de Montfort,
+with the same justice as prevailed in the division of
+other booty. In this way the Venetians were enabled
+to enrich their metropolis with a piece of the
+sainted cross, an arm of St. George, part of the head
+of St. John the Baptist, the entire skeleton of St.
+Luke, that of the prophet St. Simeon, and a small
+bottle of Jesus Christ's blood. The Greek capital
+from the remotest times appears to have monopolized
+this traffic in sacred wares, claiming to possess
+a fragment of the stone on which Jacob slept, and
+the staff transformed into a serpent by Moses.</p>
+
+<p>"Here also were guarded the Holy Virgin's vestments,
+her spindle, drops of her milk, the cradle in
+which the Saviour had lain, a tooth from his adolescent
+jaw, a hair of his beard, a particle of the bread
+used in the Last Supper, and a portion of the royal
+purple worn by him before Pilate. Naturally clerical
+adventurers among the occidental Crusaders,
+pending the sacking of the Byzantine city, sought out
+most zealously these valuable remnants of pristine
+glory, and in obtaining them were by no means scrupulous
+with menaces and violence. When scattered
+through Western Europe, in the monasteries and other
+religious places, their curative properties increased
+the pilgrimages thither of the sick and diseased."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">47</a>
+</p>
+<p>He further gives us more in detail<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> an idea of the
+continual accumulation of riches which were derived
+from the exposure of these relics to the sick and infirm
+and the consequent growth in wealth of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_098" id="Page_098"> 98</a></span>
+monasteries and cathedrals. The monastic system
+was probably most responsible for the change from
+the simple adoration of the early Christians to the use
+of relics as a miraculous means of healing. Those
+which were transported with elaborate ceremonies,
+enclosed in a magnificent stone sarcophagus, and
+covered by an edifice of imposing proportions were
+almost sure to bring to their custodians great wealth.
+It is said that when the body of St. Sebastian, which
+was legitimately obtained from Rome, together with
+the purloined remains of St. Gregory, reached the
+cloister of Soissons, so great was the crowd of invalids
+who were cured, and so generous were they
+in their donations, that the monks actually counted
+eighty measures of money and one hundred pounds
+in coin. The great value of such objects may be
+calculated when it is remembered that in the year
+1056 securities amounting to ten thousand solidi
+were pledged for the production of the relics of St.
+Just and St. Pastor, consequent upon the legal
+decision of ownership between Berenger, a French
+ruler, and a Narbonnese archbishop. The Reichberg
+annals provide a further example. They state
+that the emperor demanded certain hostages, or the
+holy arm of St. George, as a suitable guarantee for
+the institution of a public mart in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Venetian merchants were among the first to realize
+the commercial value of relics, and enjoyed a
+lucrative traffic in this holy merchandise. It was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_099" id="Page_099"> 99</a></span>
+not until the eleventh century, however, that the
+government of Venice founded public marts or fairs
+for the commercial exchange of saintly relics, although
+Rome and Pavia had long conducted such
+enterprises. These fairs were placed under the
+tutelary protection of some patron saint, the Venetians,
+of course, thus honoring St. Mark. They
+were not always particular how these relics were
+procured, for it is stated that when negotiations for
+the exchange of a well-preserved body of St. Tairise
+proved unsuccessful, because the Greek monks who
+possessed it refused absolutely to sell or barter,
+these enterprising traders quietly stole the desired
+skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>Relics provided a suitable method of acquiring
+ecclesiastical fortunes for denuded cloisters or impoverished
+nunneries; and if the old relics lost their
+power it was not difficult to procure episcopal assurance
+of the miraculous powers of new ones. For
+the procuring of special funds the venerated objects
+were taken from place to place, under priestly surveillance,
+presented to the sick and infirm with
+assurance of relief, and with the demand for large
+sums of money.</p>
+
+<p>We can easily understand, then, why such donations
+were regarded as most precious presents, and
+chronicled in the conventual records as events of
+high importance. As early as the ninth century,
+documentary evidence of authenticity frequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span>
+accompanied a gift of relics, and furnished legal
+proof of ownership.</p>
+
+<p>The gift of St. Peter's knife to a German monastery
+by a benevolent abbot was deemed a most
+illustrious act. About the same time a noble pilgrim
+succeeded, after great importunity and a lavish
+outlay of money, in obtaining trifling particles of
+the relics of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, which he
+enclosed in a priceless box and donated to the monastery
+of St. Gall. This gift was considered the
+greatest event of the year, but when it is considered
+that this and similar presents insure in the community,
+where they are deposited uninterrupted
+peace, unstinted plenty, absence of catastrophies,
+and the cure of diseases, their value is explained.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial aspect of ecclesiastical cures,
+however, was discovered by other than priestly or
+monkish eyes, and different forms began to be presented.
+Of these White says: "Very important
+among these was the Agnus Dei, or piece of wax
+from the Paschal candles, stamped with the figure
+of a lamb and consecrated by the Pope. In 1471
+Pope Paul II expatiated to the Church on the efficacy
+of this fetich in preserving men from fire, shipwreck,
+tempest, lightning, and hail, as well as in
+assisting women in childbirth; and he reserved to
+himself and his successors the manufacture of it.
+Even as late as 1517 Pope Leo X issued, for a consideration,
+tickets bearing a cross and the following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span>
+inscription: 'This cross measured forty times makes
+the height of Christ in his humanity. He who kisses
+it is preserved for seven days from falling-sickness,
+apoplexy, and sudden death.'"<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p>
+
+<p>The enormous revenues procured through the
+means of relics, and the lack of certain means of
+identifying them, would naturally encourage the
+imposition of fraud. The crime would not appear
+so great after one experience, for the perpetrators
+could readily see that it really made no difference
+so far as efficacy in the cure of diseases was concerned,
+whether or not the relics were genuine.
+The history of some of the relics unfortunately
+proves them not to be relics at all, or at least not to
+be the relics which the faithful supposed them to be.
+Notice a few instances. In a magnificent shrine in
+the cathedral at Cologne are the skulls of the three
+kings, or wise men from the East, who brought gifts
+to the infant Lord. They have rested here since the
+twelfth century and have been the source of enormous
+wealth and power to the cathedral chapter.
+Not to be outdone by the cathedral, for the church
+of St. Gereon a cemetery has been depopulated,
+and the bones thus procured have been placed upon
+the walls and are known as the relics of St. Gereon
+and his Theband band of martyrs! Further competition
+arose in the neighboring church of St.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span>
+Ursula. Another cemetery was despoiled and the
+bones covering the interior of the walls are known
+as the relics of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand
+virgin martyrs. Anatomists now declare that many
+of the bones are those of men, but this made no
+more difference in their healing efficacy in the
+Middle Ages than the fact that the relics of St.
+Rosalia at Palermo, famed for their healing power,
+have lately been declared by Professor Buckland,
+the eminent osteologist, to be the bones of a goat.</p>
+
+<p>Two different investigations have been conducted
+by the French courts concerning the fountain of
+La Salette, and in both cases the miracles which
+make the shrine famous were pronounced to be
+fraudulent. The recent restoration of the cathedral
+at Trondhjem has revealed a tube in the walls, not
+unlike the apparatus discovered in the Temple of
+Isis at Pompeii; the healing power of this sacred
+spring was augmented by angelic voices which
+issued from the supposedly solid walls.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p>
+
+<p>While the golden age of the therapeutic use of
+relics was from the sixth to the sixteenth centuries,
+modern times, with its physicians, hospitals, and
+drugs, has not been deprived of this method of cure.
+Mackay, writing in the latter half of the past century,
+touches this subject.</p>
+
+<p>At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care
+a thorn, which the priests of that seminary assert to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>
+be one of the identical thorns that bound the holy
+head of the Son of God. How it came there, and
+by whom it was preserved, has never been explained.
+This is the famous thorn which the long dissensions
+of the Jansenists and the Molenists have made celebrated,
+and which worked the miraculous cure upon
+Mademoiselle Perier, an account of which is so interesting
+that I give it. The cure occurred on
+March 14, 1646.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A young pensioner in the monastery, by name
+Margaret Perier, who for three years and a half had
+suffered from a lachrymal fistula, came up in her
+turn to kiss it; and the nun, her mistress, more horrified
+than ever at the swelling and deformity of her
+eye, had a sudden impulse to touch the sore with the
+relic, believing that God was sufficiently able and
+willing to heal her. She thought no more of the
+matter, but the little girl having retired to her room,
+perceived a quarter of an hour after that her disease
+was cured; and when she told her companions, it
+was indeed found that nothing more was to be seen
+of it. There was no more tumor; and her eye,
+which the swelling (continuous for three years) had
+weakened and caused to water, had become as dry,
+as healthy, as lively as the other. The spring of
+the filthy matter, which every quarter of an hour
+ran down from nose, eye, and mouth, and at the
+very moment before the miracle had fallen upon
+her cheek (as she declared in her deposition), was
+found to be quite dried up; the bone, which had
+been rotted and putrified, was restored to its former
+condition; all the stench, proceeding from it, which
+had been so insupportable that by order of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>physicians and surgeons she was separated from
+her companions, was changed into a breath as sweet
+as an infant's; and she recovered at the same
+moment her sense of smell....</p>
+
+<p>"Mons. Felix, Chief Surgeon to the King, who
+had seen her during the month of April, was curious
+enough to return on the 8th of August, and having
+found the cure as thorough and marvellous as it had
+seemed to him at the time, declared under his hand
+that 'he was obliged to confess that God alone had
+the power to produce an effect so sudden and
+extraordinary.'"<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Mackay gives the following account of the distribution
+of relics about the middle of the nineteenth
+century: "Europe still swarms with these religious
+relics. There is hardly a Roman Catholic Church
+in Spain, Portugal, France, or Belgium, without one
+or more of them. Even the poorly endowed churches
+of the villages boast the possession of miraculous
+thighbones of the innumerable saints of the Romish
+calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable
+<i>ch&acirc;sse</i>, or thighbone of Charlemagne, which cures
+lameness. Halle has a thighbone of the Virgin
+Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be undoubted
+relics. Brussels at one time preserved,
+and perhaps does now, the teeth of St. Gudule.
+The faithful who suffered from the toothache, had
+only to pray, look at them, and be cured."<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span></p>
+<p>The miracles performed at the tomb of the
+Deacon Paris in the cemetery of St. M&eacute;dard are of
+comparatively recent occurrence, and well attested.
+For example, we have the case of "la demoiselle
+Coirin," which, to say the least, is out of the ordinary.
+"In 1716," says Dearmer, "this lady, then
+aged thirty-one, fell from her horse; paralysis and
+an ulcer followed; by 1719 the ulcer was in a horrible
+condition; in 1720 her mother refused an operation
+preferring to let her die in peace. In 1731&mdash;after
+fifteen years of an open breast&mdash;she asked a woman
+to say a novena at the tomb of Fran&ccedil;ois de Paris,
+to touch the tomb with her shift, and to bring back
+some earth. This was done on August 10th; on the
+11th she put on the shift and at once felt improved;
+on the 12th she touched the wound with the earth
+and it at once began to heal. By the end of August
+the skin was completely healed up, and on September
+24th she went out of doors."<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the most noted relics at the present time
+are the Holy Coat of Treves,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> the Winding-sheet of
+Christ at Besan&ccedil;on, and the Santa Scala at Rome.
+The last are said to be the steps which Jesus ascended
+and descended when he was brought before
+Pontius Pilate, and are held in great veneration.
+It is sacrilegious to walk upon them; the knees of
+the faithful alone must touch them, and that only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span>
+after they have reverently kissed them. Cures are
+still performed by all these relics.</p>
+
+<p>The two shrines at present best known and which
+have proved most efficacious are those of Lourdes
+in France<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> and St. Anne de Beaupr&eacute; in the province
+of Quebec. Lourdes owes its reputed healing
+power to a belief in a vision of the Virgin received
+there during the last century. Over 300,000 persons
+visit there every year, and no small proportion
+of them return with health restored as a reward for
+their faith. At Lourdes and many other shrines
+bathing forms a part of the ceremony, and on account
+of the unsanitary conditions in the former
+place, there is some danger that the French Government
+will cause its abandonment. Charcot, who established
+the Salp&eacute;tri&egrave;re hospital where hypnotism
+was so successfully used, sent fifty or sixty patients
+to Lourdes every year. He was firmly convinced of
+the healing power of faith. One commendable feature
+of the management at Lourdes is the opportunity
+given for investigation; in fact, this is courted.
+Most of the sick bring medical details of their
+diseases; an examining committee of medical men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>
+examine them after they arrive there and after the
+cure. About two hundred and fifty doctors visit
+there every year, and the widest opportunity is
+given to them for examination of the cases, regardless
+of their nationality or religious belief or scepticism.
+This attitude might well be assumed by
+these in control of other shrines or of healing cults.</p>
+
+<p>In America thousands flock to the shrine of St.
+Anne de Beaupr&eacute; annually. Here are to be found
+bones, supposed to be the wrist bones of the holy
+mother of the Virgin, and many sufferers are able
+to testify to their value in the healing of various
+diseases.</p>
+
+<p>On all parts of the Continent there are shrines of
+more or less renown as healing centres. In Normandy
+the springs of F&eacute;camp or Grand-Andely are
+much frequented; in Austria, at Mariazell, Styria,
+the church is visited by two hundred thousand pilgrims
+a year, and has been a centre of healing since
+1157; in Italy, the church of S. Maria dell' Arco,
+near Naples, has been a local Lourdes for four hundred
+years, and here, as at Amalfi, Palermo, and
+other places, the ancient practice of incubation is
+still prevalent. The adherents of the Eastern Church
+also have their shrines, and among the visitors to
+the shrines of Greece, many pilgrims are rewarded
+for their faith by being healed.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in
+all ages, and in all countries, to obtain possession of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>
+some relic of any person who had been much spoken
+of, if for nothing more than for his crimes.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> Snuff-boxes
+made from Shakespeare's mulberry-tree, twigs
+from Napoleon's willow, or bullets from the field of
+Waterloo have all been much sought after. Souvenirs
+of everything and anything are still much
+in demand. It is within the last decade that a
+foreign war-ship anchored in New York harbor, and
+after the officers courteously opened the ship for
+the inspection of visitors they found that even their
+silver toilet articles and plate had been carried away
+by the relic maniacs. A United States admiral,
+rather more facetiously than patriotically, remarked
+that "the American people of to-day would steal
+anything but a cellarful of water." I suppose the
+remark, so far as it applies to the relic-crazed crowd,
+would be as applicable to any other people of any
+other time.</p>
+
+<p>We have a right to ask, in closing this chapter,
+how it was possible for men to believe in the power
+of relics to cure diseases. The practice seems to
+have developed from the reasoning that the saints
+who helped men while in the imperfections of the
+flesh, could be of even more benefit when they were
+with God in the perfections of the spiritual life.
+St. Augustine (426), for example, speaks of comparing
+the wonders performed by pagan "deities
+with our dead men," and that the miracles wrought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span>
+by idols "are in no way comparable to the wonders
+wrought by our martyrs." Some might agree with
+this, and yet find no warrant for using relics. There
+was, however, the remembrance of the dead man
+who was restored to life by contact with the bones
+of Elisha, and of the handkerchiefs and aprons
+which touched Paul's body and were thereby filled
+with healing efficacy. Even to-day we do not fail
+to recognize the value of the association of places
+and objects, and one finds it difficult to enter Westminster
+Abbey, for instance, without feeling a thrill
+on account of the sacred clay reposing there. When
+we remember the beginning of the use of relics in
+the catacombs we can better understand the development
+of the practice.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 142 and 156.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> G. P. Fisher, <i>History of the Christian Church</i>, p. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, pp. 378 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, I, p. 379.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 268 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> J. Moses, <i>Pathological Aspects of Religions</i>, p. 133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, II, pp. <a href="#Page_303">303</a> f.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> J. W. Draper, <i>History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science</i>,
+p. 270.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> J. Moses, <i>Pathological Aspects of Religions</i>, pp. 132 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Bede, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, ed. J. A. Giles, bk. IV, chap. XXXI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 55-57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+pp. 224 f., 273-277, 457.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II,
+pp. 40 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 273.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>The Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II,
+p. 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> <i>Tour of Wales</i>, I, p. 405.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Hasted, <i>Kent</i>, III, p. 176.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> <i>History of His Life and Times</i>, p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> <i>Statistical Account of Scotland</i>, VII, p. 213, and XII, p. 464.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, XVIII, p. 487.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> C. S. Macaulay, <i>History of St. Kilda</i>, p. 95.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> <i>Somersetshire</i>, III, p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> I am much indebted to J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, pp. 1-17,
+for some of the quotations used in the discussion of this subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp.
+57-61.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> I am indebted to P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 278-281, 314-318,
+for the material on incubation. For fuller study, see L. Deubner,
+<i>De Incubatione</i>, and M. Hamilton, <i>Incubation</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 227.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 210-214, 226 f., 278.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II,
+p. 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, II, pp. 21, 29, 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 374 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, II, p. <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 105 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> R. F. Clarke, <i>The Holy Coat of Treves</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> A. T. Myers and F. W. H. Myers, "Mind Cure, Faith Cure, and
+the Miracles at Lourdes," <i>Proceedings Society Psychical Research</i>,
+IX, pp. 160-409; E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at
+Lourdes," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, October, 1895; J. B. Estrade, <i>Les
+apparitions de Lourdes, Souvenirs intimes d'un t&eacute;moin</i>; H. Bernheim,
+<i>Suggestive Therapeutics</i>, pp. 200-202; A. Imbert-Gourbyzee, <i>La Stigmatisation,
+l'extase divine, et les miracles de Lourdes</i>, II, chaps. XXI
+and XXVII; E. Zola, <i>Lourdes</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, II, p. 306.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h3>
+
+<h4>HEALERS</h4>
+
+<div class="poem2">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">"This is an art</span>
+<span class="i0">Which doth mend nature&mdash;but</span>
+<span class="i0">The art itself is nature."&mdash;<i>Winter's Tale.</i></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Some are molested by Phantasie; so some, again, by Fancy alone
+and a good conceit, are as easily recovered.... All the world
+knows there is no virtue in charms, &amp;c., but a strong conceit and
+opinion alone, as Pomponatius holds, which forceth a motion of the
+humours, spirits, and blood, which takes away the cause of the
+malady from the parts affected. The like we may say of the magical
+effects, superstitious cures, and such as are done by montebanks
+and wizards. As by wicked incredulity many are hurt (so
+saith Wierus), we find, in our experience, by the same means, many
+are relieved."</p></div>
+
+<p>In discussing the subject of healers one must keep
+in mind the fact that the healers of the first millennium
+of our era were almost wholly exorcists, on
+account of the prevailing theory, and even after that
+time exorcism, on the one hand, and the faith in
+relics and shrines on the other, formed the principal
+means of cure. It is therefore difficult to differentiate
+the other healers from the exorcists, and to
+decide whether certain cures were performed by
+healers or by relics.</p>
+
+<p>Another difficulty confronts us. Many authentic
+cures have probably been wrought by saints, but
+unfortunately most of those performed by them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>
+have little contemporary evidence to support them,
+but rest on the very shaky testimony of tradition.
+White,<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> in a keen analysis, shows how the legends
+of miraculous cures have grown around great benefactors
+of humanity, taking Francis Xavier as a
+pertinent example.</p>
+
+<p>We must also remember, however, that what are
+called miracles formed part of the evidence which
+led to the canonization of a saint, and a large number
+of healing miracles was usually included in the
+list. The procedure of the court connected with
+the canonization was conducted with the greatest
+rigor. Sitting as examiners were learned and upright
+men from all nations, and the witness must be
+irreproachable as far as character was concerned.
+The two witnesses required for each miracle must
+testify concerning the nature of the disease and the
+cure, and sign the deposition after it had been read
+to them. Following that, the examiners sifted the
+evidence in a hypercritical way and emphasized the
+weak places. Benedict XIV justly said: "The degree
+of proof required is the same as that required
+for a criminal case, since the cause of religion and
+piety is that of the commonweal." Some consideration
+must be thus given to this testimony, but
+the value of it depends on the number of years
+elapsing after the cures were performed and the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>direct connection of the witnesses with the cure in
+question.</p>
+
+<p>The craving for the miraculous in bodily cures
+prejudiced many historians, especially when the desire
+to emphasize the importance of the church was
+uppermost in the minds of the writers. We can
+consider, though, the material at hand, always
+recognizing that marvellous cures can be performed
+when the authority of the physician has all the
+weight of an infallible church behind it and the
+patient is credulous. We must notice in this connection
+that the healers up to the time of the magnetizers
+depended on religious ceremonies for their
+efficiency, with the exception of those who endorsed
+and propagated "sympathetic cures."</p>
+
+<p>As we well know, the first healing among Christians
+was done by Jesus himself and the apostles;
+after this for two centuries the exorcists performed
+most of the cures. We have accounts of one non-Christian
+healer whose cures have probably been
+handed down to us on account of his exalted position.
+Tacitus and Suetonius describe how Vespasian
+(9-79) healed in at least two cases. The
+first was a blind man well known in Alexandria.
+In the second case the historians disagree; one says
+it was a leg and the other a hand which was diseased
+and cured. According to the story, the god
+Serapis revealed to the patients that they would be
+cured by the emperor. Tacitus says that Vespasian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>
+did not believe in his own power and it was only
+after much persuasion that he was induced to try
+the experiment.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p>
+
+<p>The Christians, however, were not to be outdone
+as healers. Iren&aelig;us (130-202) gives a long list of
+infirmities which were cured by the representatives
+of the church, and in writing, about the year 180,
+draws a comparison between them and the heretics.
+"For they [the heretics] can neither confer sight on
+the blind nor hearing on the deaf, nor chase away
+all sorts of demons (except those which are sent
+into others by themselves&mdash;if they can ever do as
+much as this): nor can they cure the weak, or the
+lame, or the paralytic; or those who are distressed
+in any other part of the body, as has often been done
+in regard to bodily infirmity. Nor can they furnish
+effective remedies for those external accidents
+which may occur. And so far are they from being
+able to raise the dead, as the Lord raised them
+(and the Apostles did by means of prayer, as has
+been frequently done in the brotherhood on account
+of some necessity&mdash;the entire church in that
+particular locality entreating with much fasting and
+prayer, the spirit of the dead man has returned, and
+he has been bestowed in answer to the prayers of
+the saints&mdash;) that they do not even believe that this
+could possibly be done." He further says: "Others
+again heal the sick by laying their hands upon them,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span>and they are made whole. Yea, moreover, as I have
+said, the dead even have been raised up, and remained
+among us for many years."</p>
+
+<p>The great Origen (185-254), writing when he
+would be certain to have his words most severely
+criticised, says, after referring to the miracles of
+the apostles: "And there are still preserved among
+Christians traces of that Holy Spirit which appeared
+in the form of a dove. They expel evil spirits, and
+perform many cures, and foresee certain events, according
+to the will of the Logos." In another of
+his works we find the following: "For they [the
+Jews] have no longer prophets or miracles, traces of
+which to a considerable extent are still found among
+Christians, and some of them more remarkable than
+ever have existed among the Jews; and these we
+ourselves have witnessed."</p>
+
+<p>As has already been seen, different methods were
+used by various healers, and we must not omit a
+brief account of healing by unction. The very definite
+instructions laid down in the Epistle of James
+were evidently strictly carried out in the early
+church, but the first definite mention of anointing
+after that made by Mark and James is found in the
+writings of Tertullian (160-220). He speaks of the
+pagan emperor Severus being graciously mindful of
+Christians: "For he sought out the Christian Proculus,
+surnamed Torpacion, the steward of Euhodias,
+and in gratitude for his having once cured him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>
+by anointing, he kept him in his palace till the day
+of his death."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p>
+
+<p>If the Christians anointed pagans it is legitimate
+to suppose that they also anointed fellow-Christians,
+and that if this was performed without special mention
+about the end of the second century, it must
+have been common from the time of James to that
+period. It is probable that during the first seven
+centuries of our era the practice of praying with the
+sick and anointing them with oil never ceased.
+There may be some objection to our considering the
+subject of anointing with oil as purely mental healing,
+but according to the instructions given for its
+use there was scarcely enough oil employed to be
+of benefit otherwise, and especially as food. Mental
+healing, then, is the rationale of the cures.</p>
+
+<p>Puller<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> gives us three of the earliest incidents of
+healing by unction, the original accounts all being
+written by contemporaries and friends. Some time
+between the years 335 and 355, St. Parthenius,
+Bishop of Lampsacus, anointed a man who was
+described as "altogether withered." The account
+says: "Then getting up, he gently and gradually
+softened the man's body with the holy oil, and
+straightway made him to rise up healed." Refinus,
+a well-known writer and an eye-witness to this heal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>ing,
+tells of St. Macarius of Alexandria and four
+monks restoring, about the year 375, "a man, withered
+in all his limbs and especially in his feet." He
+says: "But when he had been anointed all over by
+them with oil in the Name of the Lord, immediately
+the soles of his feet were strengthened. And when
+they said to him, 'In the name of Jesus Christ ...
+arise, and stand on thy feet, and return to thy
+house,' immediately arising and leaping, he blessed
+God." Some years later, Palladius, the friend of St.
+Chrysostom, writes of another of St. Macarius's cures
+which he witnessed: "But at the time that we were
+there, there was brought to him from Thessalonica
+a noble and wealthy virgin, who during many years
+had been suffering from paralysis. And when she
+had been presented to him, and had been thrown
+down before the cell of the blessed man, he, being
+moved with compassion for her, with his own hands
+anointed her during twenty days with holy oil,
+pouring out prayers for her to the Lord, and so sent
+her back cured to her own city."</p>
+
+<p>The Sacramentary of Serapion, Bishop of Thmuis,
+Egypt, written about 350, provides for the consecration
+of bread and water, as well as oil, for healing;
+and in a prayer concerning oil and water there contained,
+the following words are used: "Grant healing
+power upon these creatures, that every fever
+and every demon and every sickness may depart
+through the drinking and the anointing, and that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span>
+the partaking of these creatures may be a healing
+medicine and a medicine of complete soundness in
+the Name of the Only begotten, Jesus Christ," etc.
+The Apostolic Constitutions of about 375 contain
+a prayer of consecration used over oil and water
+brought by members of the congregation, as follows:
+"Do thou now sanctify this water and this
+oil, through Christ, in the name of him that offered
+or of her that offered, and give to these things a
+power of producing health and of driving away
+diseases, of putting to flight demons, of dispersing
+every snare through Christ our Hope," etc.</p>
+
+<p>About 390, St. Jerome wrote a life of St. Hilarion
+(291-371) in which the latter is thus set forth as a
+healer: "But lo! that parched and sandy district,
+after the rain had fallen, unexpectedly produced
+such vast numbers of serpents and poisonous animals
+that many, who were bitten, would have died
+at once if they had not run to Hilarion. He therefore
+blessed some oil, with which all the husbandmen
+and shepherds touched their wounds and found
+an infallible cure."</p>
+
+<p>Oil was not always employed for anointing, but
+might be drunk by the sick, and this use of it was
+made in healing a girl, by St. Martin of Tours, about
+395. St. Germain, Bishop of Auxerre (418-448),
+when the physicians were powerless during a plague,
+blessed some oil and anointed the swollen jaws of
+those who were sick, whereupon they recovered;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span>
+and St. Genevieve of Paris, who died about 502,
+used to heal the sick with oil.</p>
+
+<p>In Bede's biography of St. Cuthbert we find an
+instance of this saint healing a girl about the year
+687. A young woman was troubled for a whole
+year with an intolerable pain in her head and side
+which the physicians were unable to relieve. Cuthbert
+"in pity anointed the wretched woman with
+oil. From that time she began to get better, and
+was well in a few days."</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the eighth century the
+anointing of the sick began to decline, largely on
+account of the changed attitude of the church. At
+this time this ceremony began to be used for spiritual
+ills rather than for bodily diseases. Before
+long, anointing was monopolized by the church for
+spiritual advantage, and is still so used by the
+Roman Catholic Church in the ceremony of Extreme
+Unction.</p>
+
+<p>In returning to the more direct methods of healing,
+we find that St. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390)
+confirmed the reports of the marvellous cures
+wrought by the martyrs, Cosmo and Damian, who
+were beheaded in 303. During the life of Gregory
+of Tours (538-594), the healing efficacy of the saints'
+relics was rivalled by the miraculous aid rendered
+to the sick by St. Julian. The solitude of the holy
+anchorite was interrupted by the persistent and
+despairing clamor of the sick to whom he gave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span>
+health. The great Turonese pontiff also tells us
+that one day Aredius, traversing Paris, found Chilperic
+prostrate with a grievous fever. The royal
+sufferer sought the saint's prayers as an irresistible
+curative.</p>
+
+<p>The daughter of a Teutonic nobleman was brought
+to St. Gall (556-640) seriously ill with an incurable
+disorder, presenting the livid appearance of an animated
+cadaver. The saint approached the unconscious
+invalid as she reclined on her mother's knee,
+and assuming the bended attitude of invocation by
+her side, made a fervent prayer and evoked the
+demon producing the sickness to instantly depart.
+The effort was all that was desired. Shortly after
+this, about the year 648, St. Vardrille, the founder
+of Fontanelle, exercised his remedial potency in
+healing the palsied arm of a forester whose indiscreet
+zeal had induced him to transfix the sainted
+abbot with a lance.</p>
+
+<p>We have rather a strange case from the beginning
+of the seventh century, where the moral and mental
+element seems to have been strong. Abbe Eustasius
+returning from Rome, whither a mission of
+Clothair II had called him, was urgently summoned
+by the sorrowful parent of a Burgundian maiden, in
+the last agonies of a frightful malady, to appear and
+cure the moribund daughter. On answering the call
+he found that the child had in her youth been consecrated
+by the vows of chastity, and on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>
+of this shrunk from a marriage sanctioned by her
+parents. Eustasius reproached the father for his
+efforts to violate the solemn obligations of the0
+virgin, and upon obtaining a formal renunciation of
+further attempts to coerce her into matrimony, the
+saint, by personal intercession, obtained a complete
+cure.</p>
+
+<p>It was found that certain remedies in the hands
+of certain saints were efficacious, but they did not
+have the same power if administered by others.
+For instance, Franciscus de Paula succored an anchylosed
+joint by the energetic surgery of three
+dried figs which he gave the suffering patient to eat.
+Similarly, a maiden grieving under a cancerous
+disease which surgical skill had frankly admitted
+was incurable, was restored to robust vigor by the
+administering of some mild herbs. This savored
+rather too much of medicine, and other holy healers
+used more orthodox means. Hugo the Holy abstracted
+a serpent from the infirm body of a woman
+by the use of holy water, and Coleta, the saintess,
+awakened from the dreamless slumber of death
+more than one hundred slain infants by the efficacy
+of a cross.</p>
+
+<p>Even such a serious disorder as leprosy was said
+to have been healed by saintly care. St. Martin,
+who gave special attention to sufferers with this
+disease, cured a leper by kissing him, we are told.
+Toward the middle of the sixth century, St. Rade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>gonde
+displayed her faith by first washing the repulsive
+sores and afterward applying her pure
+lips to them. On one occasion an insolent leper
+asserted that unless his putrefying limbs were kissed
+by this candidate for canonical honors he could
+not be cured.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p>
+
+<p>Bede (673-735), the great English historian, in
+his careful way tells us of cures performed by St.
+John of Beverly during the first part of the eighth
+century. According to this record, St. John cured
+a dumb youth, who had never spoken a word, by
+the sign of the cross on his tongue, and he afterward
+had "ready utterance." He used holy water
+on a woman so that, like Peter's wife's mother, she
+arose and ministered to them, healed a friend who
+was injured by being thrown from a horse, cured a
+nun of a grievous complaint, and restored a servant,
+an account of which I shall give in Bede's
+words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The bishop went in and saw him in a dying condition,
+and the coffin by his side, whilst all present
+were in tears. He said a prayer, blessed him, and
+on going out, as is the usual expression of comforters,
+said, 'May you soon recover.' Afterwards when
+they were sitting at table, the lad sent to his lord,
+to desire he would let him have a cup of wine, because
+he was thirsty. The earl, rejoicing that he
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>
+could drink, sent him a cup of wine, blessed by the
+bishop; which, as soon as he had drunk, he immediately
+got up, and shaking off his late infirmity,
+dressed himself, and going in to the bishop, saluted
+him and the other guests, saying, 'He would also
+eat and be merry with them.' They ordered him
+to sit down with them at the entertainment, rejoicing
+at his recovery. He sat down, ate and drank
+merrily, and behaved himself like the rest of the
+company; and living many years after, continued
+in the same state of health."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Skipping a few centuries, we find that Bernard of
+Clairvaux (1091-1153), the most prominent figure
+of the twelfth century, performed an abundance of
+cures, as his biographers testify. "The cures were
+so many that the witnesses themselves were unable
+to detail them all. At Doningen, near Rheinfeld,
+where the first Sunday of Advent was spent, Bernard
+cured, in one day, nine blind persons, ten who
+were deaf or dumb, and eighteen lame or paralytic.
+On the following Wednesday, at Schaffhausen, the
+number of miracles increased."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> Concerning these
+cures Morison says: "Thirty-six miraculous cures
+in one day would seem to have been the largest
+stretch of supernatural power which Bernard permitted
+to himself. The halt, the blind, the deaf,
+and the dumb were brought from all parts to be
+touched by Bernard. The patient was presented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>
+to him, whereupon he made the sign of the cross
+over the part affected, and the cure was perfect."<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></p>
+
+<p>The following case in which details are more fully
+given is of much interest: "At Toulouse, in the
+church of St. Saturninus, in which we were lodged,
+was a certain regular canon, named John. John
+had kept his bed for seven months, and was so reduced
+that his death was expected daily. His legs
+were so shrunken that they were scarcely larger than
+a child's arms. He was quite unable to rise to satisfy
+the wants of nature. At last his brother canons
+refused to tolerate his presence any longer among
+them, and thrust him out into the neighbouring village.
+When the poor creature heard of Bernard's
+proximity, he implored to be taken to him. Six
+men, therefore, carrying him as he lay in bed, brought
+him into a room close to that in which he was lodged.
+The abbot heard him confess his sins, and listened
+to his entreaties to be restored to health. Bernard
+mentally prayed to God: 'Behold, O Lord, they
+seek for a sign, and our words avail nothing, unless
+they be confirmed with signs following.' He then
+blessed him and left the chamber, and so did we all.
+In that very hour the sick man arose from his couch,
+and running after Bernard, kissed his feet with a
+devotion which cannot be imagined by any one
+who did not see it. One of the canons, meeting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span>
+him, nearly fainted with fright, thinking he saw his
+ghost."</p>
+
+<p>St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), the great founder
+of the Franciscan Order, was not less famed for his
+miracles of healing than for his Christ-like life and
+his stigmata. Among those cured were epileptics,
+paralytics, and the blind. A typical case of cure by
+this humble saint is given to show his method and
+its results: "Once when Francis the Saint of God
+was making a long circuit through various regions
+to preach the gospel of God's kingdom he came to
+a city called Toscanella. Here ... he was entertained
+by a knight of that same city whose only son
+was a cripple and weak in all his body. Though
+the child was of tender years he had passed the age
+of weaning; but he still remained in a cradle. The
+boy's father, seeing the man of God to be endued
+with such holiness, humbly fell at his feet and besought
+him to heal his son. Francis, deeming himself
+to be unprofitable and unworthy of such power
+and grace, for a long time refused to do it. At last,
+conquered by the urgency of the knight's entreaties,
+after offering up prayer, he laid his hand on the boy,
+blessed him, and lifted him up. And in the sight
+of all, the boy straightway arose whole in the name
+of the Lord Jesus Christ, and began to walk hither
+and thither about the house."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span></p>
+<p>St. Thomas of Hereford (1222-1282) was the last
+Englishman to be officially canonized. The extant
+documents of his canonization record no less than
+four hundred and twenty-nine miracles alleged to
+have been performed by him. The following case
+of resurrection from the dead occurred, however,
+twenty-one years after his death. I quote the account
+in full:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the 6th of September, 1303, Roger, aged two
+years and three months, the son of Gervase, one of
+the warders of Conway Castle, managed to crawl out
+of bed in the night and tumble off a bridge, a distance
+of twenty-eight feet; he was not discovered
+till the next morning, when his mother found him
+half naked and quite dead upon a hard stone at
+the bottom of the ditch, where there was no water
+or earth, but simply the rock, which had been quarried
+to build the castle. Simon Waterford, the
+vicar, who had christened the child, John de Bois,
+John Guffe, all sworn witnesses, took their oaths on
+the Gospel that they saw and handled the child
+dead. The King's Crowners (Stephen Ganny and
+William Nottingham) were presently called and
+went down into the moat. They found the child's
+body cold and stiff, and white with hoar-frost,
+stark dead, indeed. While the Crowners, as their
+office requires, began to write what they had seen,
+one John Syward, a near neighbour, came down
+and gently handled the child's body all over, and
+finding it as dead as ever any, made the sign of the
+cross upon its forehead, and earnestly prayed after
+this manner: 'Blessed St. Thomas Cantelope, you
+by whom God has wrought innumerable miracles,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>show mercy unto this little infant, and obtain he
+may return to life again. If this grace be granted
+he shall visit your holy sepulchre and render humble
+thanks to God and you for the favor.' No sooner
+had Syward spoken these words, than the child began
+to move his head and right arm a little, and
+forthwith life and vigor came back again into every
+part of his body. The Crowners, and many others
+who were standing by, saw the miracle, and in that
+very place, with great admiration, returned humble
+thanks to God and St. Thomas for what they had
+seen. The mother, now overjoyed, took the child in
+her arms, and went that day to hear mass in a
+church not far off, where, upon her knees, she recognized
+with a grateful heart that she owed the life
+of her infant to God and St. Thomas. Her devotion
+ended, she returned home, and the child, feeling
+no pain at all, walked as he was wont to do up and
+down the house, though a little scar still continued
+in one cheek, which after a few days, quite vanished
+away."<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">66</a></p></div>
+
+<p>St. Catharine of Siena (1347-1380) obtained considerable
+reputation as a healer, principally, however,
+in the line of exorcism; this, though, meant
+the cure of any disease. Like St. Paul, she was one
+of a large number of saints who healed others but
+did not cure herself; she died at the age of thirty-three.
+A woman was presented to the immaculate
+saintess for prompt remedy; by the virtue of divine
+magic a demon was forced from each part of her
+body where he had taken refuge, but resisting ab<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>solute
+ejectment from this carnal abode, made a
+desperate conflict in the throat, where by uninterrupted
+scratches he reproduced himself in the form
+of an abscess.</p>
+
+<p>On another occasion the saint was more successful.
+Laurentia, a maiden of youthful years, placed by
+her father within the sheltering walls of a cloister,
+to assume ultimately monastic vows, was quickly
+captured by an errant demon. As an irrefutable
+demonstration of the impure origin of her infirmity,
+an annalist asserts, this spirit promptly answered in
+elegant Latinity all questions propounded; but the
+strongest confirmation of this belief was the miraculous
+ability which enabled her to disclose the most
+secret thoughts of others, and divulge the mysterious
+affairs of her associates. St. Catharine at
+length liberated the suffering female from her diabolical
+tenant. More extraordinary claims are made
+for her. It is said that she stayed a plague at Varazze,
+and healed a throng at Pisa.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p>
+
+<p>Raimondo da Capua, her faithful friend and constant
+companion, wrote her biography and gives
+us different instances of remarkable cures performed
+by her. For example, he tells us that Father Matthew
+of Cenni, the director of the Hospital of la
+Misericordia, was stricken when the plague was
+raging in Siena in 1373, and of his marvellous cure.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span></p>
+<p>Perhaps we had better allow him to tell of Catharine's
+power in his own words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"One day on entering, I saw some of the brothers
+carrying Father Matthew like a corpse from the
+chapel to his room; his face was livid, and his
+strength was so far gone that he could not answer
+me when I spoke to him. 'Last night,' the brothers
+said, 'about seven o'clock, while ministering to a
+dying person, he perceived himself stricken, and
+fell at once into extreme weakness.' I helped to
+put him on his bed; ... he spoke afterwards, and
+said that he felt as if his head was separated into
+four parts. I sent for Dr. Senso, his physician;
+Dr. Senso declared to me that my friend had the
+plague, and that every symptom announced the approach
+of death. 'I fear,' he said, 'that the House
+of Mercy (Misericordia) is about to be deprived of
+its good director.' I asked if medical art could not
+save him. 'We shall see,' replied Senso, 'but I
+have only a very faint hope; his blood is too much
+poisoned.' I withdrew, praying God to save the
+life of this good man. Catharine, however, had
+heard of the illness of Father Matthew, whom she
+loved sincerely, and she lost no time in repairing to
+him. The moment she entered the room, she cried,
+with a cheerful voice, 'Get up, Father Matthew,
+get up! This is not a time to be lying idly in bed.'
+Father Matthew roused himself, sat up on his bed,
+and finally stood on his feet. Catharine retired;
+and the moment she was leaving the house, I entered
+it, and ignorant of what had happened, and
+believing my friend to be still at the point of death,
+my grief urged me to say, 'Will you allow a person
+so dear to us, and so useful to others, to die?' She
+appeared annoyed at my words, and replied, 'In
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>what terms do you address me? Am I like God, to
+deliver a man from death?' But I, beside myself
+with sorrow, pleaded, 'Speak in that way to others
+if you will, but not to me; for I know your secrets;
+and I know you obtain from God whatever you ask
+in faith.' Then Catharine bowed her head, and
+smiled just a little; after a few minutes she lifted
+up her head and looked at me full in the face, her
+countenance radiant with joy, and said, 'Well, let
+us take courage; he will not die this time,' and she
+passed on. At these words I banished all fear, for
+I understood that she had obtained some favor
+from heaven. I went straight to my sick friend,
+whom I found sitting on the side of his bed. 'Do
+you know,' he cried, 'what she has done for me?'
+He then stood up and narrated joyfully what I have
+here written. To make the matter more sure, the
+table was laid, and Father Matthew seated himself
+at it with us; they served him with vegetables and
+other light food, and he, who an hour before could
+not open his mouth, ate with us, chatting and laughing
+gaily."</p></div>
+
+<p>None of Catharine's biographers fail to relate
+wonderful instances of her healing power.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Martin Luther (1483-1546), the great leader of
+the Reformation, and St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552),
+the leader of the Counter-Reformation, were
+both healers, so it is said. Luther's cure of his
+friend and helper, Melanchthon, by prayer for and
+encouragement of the patient, is well known.
+Xavier's miracles were legion, but have been somewhat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>
+discredited by a recent author.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> I add but
+one example. "A certain Tom&eacute; Paninguem, a fencing-master,
+says, I knew Antonio de Miranda, who
+was a servant of the Father Francis, and assisted
+him when saying Mass. He told me that when going
+one night on business to Combature, he was
+bitten by a venomous serpent. He immediately fell
+down as though paralyzed and became speechless.
+He was found thus lying unconscious. Informed of
+the fact, Father Francis ordered Antonio to be carried
+to him: and when he was laid down speechless
+and senseless, the Father prayed with all those
+present. The prayer finished, he put a little saliva
+with his finger on the bitten place on Antonio's
+foot, and at the same moment, Antonio recovered
+his senses, his memory and his speech, and felt himself
+healed. I have since heard details of this occurrence
+from the mouths of several eye-witnesses."<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">70</a></p>
+
+<p>If we accept G&ouml;rres's account,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> the most remarkable
+instance of curative power possessed by a saint
+is that afforded by St. Sauveur of Horta (1520-1567).
+Outside of this one work I have been unable
+to find any reference to this saint, so I will
+give a sketch of his apparently remarkable life. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span>
+was born in Catalonia, and received the first part
+of his name from a presentiment of his sponsors
+that he was to be a savior of men, and the second
+part because he entered the monastery at Horta.
+A short time after he finished his novitiate, people
+in some way got the idea that he had a wonderful
+gift of healing, and soon patients came to him in
+crowds from all parts of the country. He continued
+healing for several years. At one time during the
+feast of the Annunciation he cured six thousand
+persons, and at another time he found ten thousand
+patients, from viceroy to laborer, waiting for him
+at Valencia before the convent of St. Marie de Jesus.
+Notwithstanding his apparently great success, his
+brother monks complained to the bishop concerning
+the dirt and disorder caused by the crowds, and
+after a reprimand he was sent at midnight to the
+monastery at Reus, where he was known as Alphonse
+and assigned to the kitchen. In spite of this, crowds
+continued to come and he was transferred from
+monastery to monastery, but always with the same
+result&mdash;the crowd sought him to be healed. He was
+known as simple, open, and obedient in his relations
+with men, and austere toward himself. He
+was patient and resigned, compassionate toward
+the poor and sick, and full of zeal for their conversion.
+The number of patients he is said to have
+cured is incredible, and it is even said that he resuscitated
+three dead persons. After his death<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span>
+miracles were performed at his tomb. Why he
+was not in favor with his superiors and his brother
+monks is unknown; his friends say they were jealous;
+his enemies, that his cures were not genuine.</p>
+
+<p>St. Philip Neri (1551-1595), the founder of the
+Oratorians, was renowned as a healer. He cured
+Clement VIII of gout by touching and prayer, a
+woman of cancer of the breast by the mere touch
+and assurance, a man of grievous symptoms such as
+loss of speech and internal pain by simply laying on
+of hands, and many similar and equally serious
+cases. The following case was counted nearly equal
+to a resurrection: "In 1560 Pietro Vittrici of Parma,
+being in the service of Cardinal Boncompagni,
+afterward Pope Gregory XIII, fell dangerously ill.
+He was given up by the physicians, and was supposed
+to be as good as dead. In this extremity he
+was visited by Philip who, as soon as he entered the
+sick man's room, began, as was his wont, to pray
+for him. He then put his hand on Pietro's forehead,
+and at the touch he instantly revived. In two
+days' time he was out of the house perfectly well
+and strong and went about telling people how he
+had been cured by Father Philip."<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p>
+
+<p>George Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the
+Quakers, performed some simple cures of which he
+himself tells us. The most famous case was that
+of the cure of a lame arm by command, the account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>
+of which we take from his pen. He thus records it:
+"After some time I went to the meeting at Arnside
+where Richard Meyer was. Now he had been long
+lame of one of his arms; and I was moved by the
+Lord to say unto him, among all the people,
+'Prophet Meyer stand up upon thy legs' (for he was
+sitting down) and he stood up and stretched out
+his arm that had been lame a long time, and said:
+'Be it known unto all you people that this day I am
+healed.' But his parents could hardly believe it,
+but after the meeting was done, had him aside and
+took off his doublet; and then they saw it was true.
+He soon after came to Swarthmore meeting, and
+there declared how the Lord had healed him. But
+after this the Lord commanded him to go to York
+with a message from him; and he disobeyed the
+Lord; and the Lord struck him again, so that he
+died about three-quarters of a year after."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> The
+cure evidently was not permanent.</p>
+
+<p>Valentine Greatrakes (1628-1683) was born in
+Affane, Ireland. He was the son of an Irish gentleman,
+had a good education, and was a Protestant.
+In 1641, at the outbreak of the Irish rebellion, he
+fled to England, and from 1649-1656 he served under
+Cromwell. In 1661, after a period of melancholy
+derangement, he believed that God had given
+him power of curing "king's evil" by touching or
+stroking and prayer. After some success with this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>
+disease, he added to his list ague, epilepsy, convulsions,
+paralysis, deafness, ulcers, aches, and lameness,
+and for a number of years he devoted three
+days in every week, from 6 <span class="smcap">A. M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, to the
+exercise of his healing gifts. The crowds which
+thronged around him were so great that the neighboring
+towns were not able to accommodate them.
+He thereupon left his house in the country and
+went to Youghal, where sick people, not only from
+all parts of Ireland but from England, continued to
+congregate in such great numbers that the magistrates
+were afraid they would infect the place with
+their diseases.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus3" id="illus3"></a><a href="images/illus3.jpg"><img src="images/illus3-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="467" alt="VALENTINE GREATRAKES" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">VALENTINE GREATRAKES</span></div>
+
+<p>In some instances he exorcised demons; in fact,
+he claimed that all diseases were caused by evil
+spirits, and every infirmity was, with him, a case
+of diabolic possession. The church endeavored to
+prohibit his operations but without avail. He was
+invited to London, and, notwithstanding that an
+exhibition before the nobility failed, thousands
+flocked to his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields. In
+the "Miscellanies" of St. Evremond a graphic sketch
+is given of his work. The results of his healing are
+there summed up as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"So great was the confidence in him, that the
+blind fancied they saw the light which they did not
+see&mdash;the deaf imagined that they heard&mdash;the lame
+that they walked straight, and the paralytic that
+they had recovered the use of their limbs. An idea
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span>of health made the sick forget for a while their
+maladies; and imagination, which was not less
+active in those merely drawn by curiosity than in
+the sick, gave a false view to the one class, from the
+desire of seeing, as it operated a false cure on the
+other from the strong desire of being healed. Such
+was the power of the Irishman over the mind, and
+such was the influence of the mind over the body.
+Nothing was spoken of in London but his prodigies;
+and these prodigies were supported by such great
+authorities that the bewildered multitude believed
+them almost without examination, while more enlightened
+people did not dare to reject them from
+their own knowledge."</p></div>
+
+<p>That there were real cures, however, seems most
+probable. The Bishop of Dromore testifies thus
+from his own observation: "I have seen pains
+strangely fly before his hands till he had chased
+them out of the body; dimness cleared, and deafness
+cured by his touch. Twenty persons at several
+times, in fits of the falling sickness, were in two or
+three minutes brought to themselves.... Running
+sores of the 'King's evil' were dried up; grievous
+sores of many months' date in a few days healed,
+cancerous knots dissolved, etc." <a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">74</a></p>
+
+<p>The celebrated Flamstead, the astronomer, when
+a lad of nineteen, went into Ireland to be touched
+by Greatrakes, and he testifies that he was an eyewitness
+of several cures, although he himself was
+not benefited. In a letter to Lord Conway, Great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span>rakes
+says: "The King's doctors, this day (for the
+confirmation of their majesties' belief), sent three
+out of the hospital to me, who came on crutches;
+but, blessed be God! they all went home well, to
+the admiration of all people, as well as the doctors."<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">75</a></p>
+
+<p>Several pamphlets were issued by medical men
+and others criticising his work, and in 1666 he published
+a vindication of himself entitled "A Brief
+Account." This contained numerous testimonials
+by Bishop Wilkins, Bishop Patrick, Dr. Cudworth,
+Dr. Whichcote, and others of distinction and intelligence.
+After the retirement of Greatrakes, John
+Leverett, a gardener, succeeded to the "manual
+exercise," and declared that after touching thirty
+or forty a day, he felt so much goodness go out of
+him that he was fatigued as if he had been digging
+eight roods of ground.</p>
+
+<p>About the same time that Greatrakes was working
+among the people of London, an Italian enthusiast,
+named Francisco Bagnone, was operating in
+Italy with equal success. He had only to touch
+the sick with his hands, or sometimes with a relic,
+to accomplish cures which astonished the people.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly less famous than Greatrakes was Johann
+Jacob Gassner (1727-1779). He was born at Bratz,
+near Bludenz, and became Roman Catholic priest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>
+at Kl&ouml;sterle. He believed that most diseases were
+caused by evil spirits which could be exorcised by
+conjuration and prayer. He began practising and
+soon attracted attention. In 1774 he received a
+call from the bishop at Ratisbon to Ellwangen,
+where by the mere word of command, "Cesset"
+(Give over), he cured the lame and blind, but especially
+those who were afflicted with epilepsy and
+convulsions, and who were thereby supposed to be
+obsessed. His cures were not permanent in some
+cases, and before he died he lost power and respect.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II,
+pp. 5-22.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, pp. 347 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, pp. 252 f. I am indebted to this
+excellent book for my material on the subject of Unction, as well as
+for many other quotations in this chapter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> F. W. Puller, <i>Anointing of the Sick</i>, pp. 155-158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+gives this and the other incidents just quoted. See pp. 155, 160,
+272, 275, 327.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Bede, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, bk. V, chap. V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> Quoted by P. Dearmer, <i>Body and Soul</i>, p. 359.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> J. Cotter Morison, <i>Life and Times of St. Bernard</i>, pp. 422 and
+460, for this and the following incident.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Thomas of Celano, <i>Lives of St. Francis of Assisi</i> (trans. A. G. F.
+Howell).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> <i>Dublin Review</i>, January, 1876, pp. 8-10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+pp. 278 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> See J. Butler, <i>Life of St. Catharine of Siena</i>, for many examples.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> See A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>,
+already referred to.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> Jos. Marie Cros, <i>St. Fran&ccedil;ois de Xavier, Sa vie et ses lettres</i>, II,
+p. 392.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> G&ouml;rres, <i>La mystique divine naturelle et diabolique</i> (trans. Sainte-foi),
+I, pp. 470-473.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> P. J. Bacci, <i>Life of St. Philip Neri</i> (trans. Antrobus), II, p. 168.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> G. Fox, <i>Journal</i>, I, p. 103.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> J. Moses, <i>Pathological Aspects of Religions</i>, p. 188.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> E. Salverte, <i>The Philosophy of Magic</i> (trans. Thompson), II, p.
+81.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h3>
+
+<h4>TALISMANS</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"He had the ring of Gyges, the talisman of invisibility."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hamerton.</span></p>
+
+<p>"The quack astrologer offers, for five pieces, to give you home
+with you a Talisman against Flies; a Sigil to make you fortunate at
+gaining; and a Spell that shall as certainly preserve you from being
+rob'd for the future; a sympathetic Powder for violent pains of the
+Tooth-ache."&mdash;<i>Character of a Quack Astrologer.</i></p>
+
+<p>"So far are they distant from the true knowledge of physic which
+are ignorant of astrology, that they ought not rightly to be called
+physicians, but deceivers; for it hath been many times experimented
+and proved that that which many physicians could not cure
+or remedy with their greatest and strongest medicines, the astronomer
+hath brought to pass with one simple herb, by observing the
+moving of the signs."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fabian Withers.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>In the minds of most persons the terms talisman,
+amulet, and charm are synonymous. This may be
+more or less true as far as they are used to-day, but
+in the days when these terms meant something in
+real life there was a distinction. The talisman was
+probably at first an astronomical figure, but later
+the term became more comprehensive. Pope portrays
+this astrological import in his couplet,</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Of talismans and sigils knew the power,</span>
+<span class="i05">And carefully watch'd the planetary hour."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The amulet was always carried about the person,
+while the other two might be in the possession of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span>
+the person in the case of the talisman, or, in the case
+of the charm, if a material object it could be placed
+entirely outside of one's care. The talisman and
+amulet must be a compound of some substance, the
+charm might be a gesture, a look, or a spoken word.
+Notice the example of charms according to Tennyson's
+words,</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Then, in one moment, she put forth the charm</span>
+<span class="i05">Of woven paces and of waving hands."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>They were all used for defensive purposes, <i>i. e.</i>, to
+keep away evil, in the form of demons, disease, or
+misfortune, but they might, especially the talisman,
+also attract good. Their power was of a magical
+character, and was exercised in a supernatural manner.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of the talisman probably originated from
+the belief that certain properties or virtues were impressed
+upon substances by planetary influences.
+"A talisman," says Pettigrew, "may in general
+terms be defined to be a substance composed of
+certain cabalistic characters engraved on stone,
+metal, or other material, or else written on slips of
+paper." Hyde quotes a Persian writer who defines
+the Telesm or Talismay as "a piece of art compounded
+of the celestial powers and elementary
+bodies, appropriated to certain figures or positions,
+and purposes and times, contrary to the usual
+manner."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>We are told by Maimonides that images or idols
+were called Tzelamim on account of the power or
+influence which was supposed to reside in them,
+rather than on account of their particular figure or
+form. Townley has opined that the reason for the
+production of astrological or talismanic images was
+probably the desire of early peoples to have some
+representation of the planets during their absence
+from sight, so that they might at all times be able
+to worship the planetary body itself or its representative.
+To accomplish this purpose, the astrologers
+chose certain colors, metals, stones, trees, etc., to
+represent certain planets, and constructed the talismans
+when the planets were in their exaltation and
+in a happy conjunction with other heavenly bodies.
+In addition to this, incantations were used in an
+endeavor to inspire the talisman with the power and
+influence of the planet for which it stood.</p>
+
+<p>Pettigrew says: "The Hebrew word for talisman
+(magan) signifies a paper or other material, drawn
+or engraved with the letters composing the sacred
+name <span class="smcap">Jehovah</span>, or with other characters, and improperly
+applied to astrological representations, because,
+like the letters composing 'The Incomparable
+Name,' they were supposed to serve as a defence
+against sickness, lightning, and tempest. It
+was a common practice with magicians, whenever
+a plague or other great calamity infested a country,
+to make a supposed image of the destroyer, either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span>
+in gold, silver, clay, wax, etc., under a certain configuration
+of the heavens, and to set it up in some
+particular place that the evil might be stayed."<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">76</a></p>
+
+<p>The Jewish phylacteries must therefore be considered
+talismans and not amulets. The writings
+contained in them are portions of the law and are
+prepared in a prescribed manner. Three different
+kinds are used: one for the head, another for the
+arm, and the third is attached to the door-posts.
+The following is a Hebrew talisman supposed to
+have considerable power: "It overflowed&mdash;he did
+cast darts&mdash;Shadai is all sufficient&mdash;his hand is
+strong, and is the preserver of my life in all its variations."<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Arnot gives an account of some Scottish talismans
+not unlike the phylacteries of the Jews, which
+were for use on the door-posts. "On the old houses
+still existing in Edinburgh," he says, "there are remains
+of talismanic or cabalistical characters, which
+the superstitious of earlier days had caused to be
+engraven on their fronts. These were generally
+composed of some text of Scripture, of the name of
+God, or, perhaps, of an emblematic representation
+of the resurrection."<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p>
+
+<p>The connection of astrology, or, as he calls it,
+"astronomy," and the talisman with medicine is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span>well portrayed by Chaucer in his picture of a good
+physician of his day. He says:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"With us there was a doctor of phisike;</span>
+<span class="i05">In al the world, was thar non hym lyk</span>
+<span class="i05">To speke of physik and of surgerye,</span>
+<span class="i05">For he wos groundit in astronomie.</span>
+<span class="i05">He kept his pacient a ful gret del</span>
+<span class="i05">In hourys by his magyk naturel;</span>
+<span class="i05">Wel couth he fortunen the ascendent</span>
+<span class="i05">Of his ymagys for his pacient."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fosbrooke has divided talismans into five classes,
+examples of some of which I have already given.
+They are: "1. The <i>astronomical</i>, with celestial signs
+and intelligible characters. 2. The <i>magical</i>, with
+extraordinary figures, superstitious words, and names
+of unknown angels. 3. The <i>mixed</i>, of celestial signs
+and barbarous words, but not superstitious, or with
+names of angels. 4. The <i>sigilla planetarum</i>, composed
+of Hebrew numeral letters, used by astrologers
+and fortune-tellers. 5. <i>Hebrew names and characters</i>.
+These were formed according to the cabalistic
+art."</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of signatures bears a close resemblance
+to talismans, and some believe that talismans
+have largely grown out of this doctrine. Dr. Paris<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">79</a>
+defines the doctrine as the belief that "every natural
+substance which possesses any medical virtues indicates,
+by an obvious and well-marked external<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span>
+character, the disease for which it is a remedy or
+the object for which it should be employed." Southey
+says,<a name="FNanchor_80_77" id="FNanchor_80_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_77" class="fnanchor">80</a> "The signatures [were] the books out of which
+the ancients first learned the virtues of herbs&mdash;Nature
+having stamped on divers of them legible
+characters to discover their uses." Some opined
+that the external marks were impressed by planetary
+influences, hence their connection with talismans;
+others simply reasoned it out that the Almighty
+must have placed a sign on the various
+means which he had provided for curing diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Color and shape were the two principal factors
+in interpreting the signatures. White was regarded
+as cold and red as hot, hence cold and hot qualities
+were attributed to different medicines of these
+colors respectively. Serious errors in practice resulted
+from this opinion. Red flowers were given
+for disorders of the sanguiferous system; the petals
+of the red rose, especially, bear the "signature" of
+the blood, and blood-root, on account of its red
+juice, was much prescribed for the blood. Celandine,
+having yellow juice, the yellow drug, turmeric,
+the roots of rhubarb, the flowers of saffron, and other
+yellow substances were given in jaundice; red flannel,
+looking like blood, cures blood taints, and therefore
+rheumatism, even to this day, although many
+do not know why <i>red</i> flannel is so efficacious.</p>
+
+<p>Lungwort, whose leaves bear a fancied resem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span>blance
+to the surface of the lungs, was considered
+good for pulmonary complaints, and liverwort, having
+a leaf like the liver, cured liver diseases. Eye-bright
+was a famous application for eye diseases,
+because its flowers somewhat resemble the pupil of
+the eye; bugloss, resembling a snake's head, was
+valuable for snake bite; and the peony, when in
+bud, being something like a man's head, was "very
+available against the falling sickness." Walnuts
+were considered to be the perfect signature of the
+head, the shell represented the bony skull, the irregularities
+of the kernel the convolutions of the two
+hemispheres of the brain, and the husk the scalp.
+The husk was therefore used for scalp wounds, the
+inner peel for disorders of the meninges, and the
+kernel was beneficial for the brain and tended to
+resist poisons. Lilies-of-the-valley were used for
+the cure of apoplexy, the signature reasoning being,
+as Coles says, "for as that disease is caused by the
+drooping of humors into the principal ventrices of
+the brain, so the flowers of this lily, hanging on the
+plants as if they were drops, are of wonderful use
+herein."</p>
+
+<p>Capillary herbs naturally announced themselves
+as good for diseases of the hair, and bear's grease,
+being taken from an animal thickly covered with
+hair, was recommended for the prevention of baldness.
+Nettle-tea is still a country remedy for nettle
+rash; prickly plants like thistles and holly were pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>scribed
+for pleurisy and stitch in the side, and the
+scales of the pine were used in toothache, because
+they resemble front teeth. "Kidney-beans," says
+Berdoe, "ought to have been useful for kidney diseases,
+but seem to have been overlooked except
+as articles of diet." Poppy-heads were used "with
+success" to relieve diseases of the head, and the
+root of the "mandrake," from its supposed resemblance
+to the human form, was a very ancient
+remedy for barrenness and was evidently so esteemed
+by Rachel, in the account given in Genesis
+30:14 ff.</p>
+
+<p>In the treatment of small-pox red bed coverings
+were employed in order to bring the pustules to
+the surface of the body. The patient must be indued
+with red; the bed furniture and hangings
+should be red and red substances were to be looked
+upon by the patient; burnt purple, pomegranate
+seeds, mulberries or other red ingredients were dissolved
+in their drink. John of Gladdesden, physician
+to Edward II, prescribed the following treatment
+as soon as the eruption appeared: "Cause the
+whole body of your patient to be wrapped in scarlet
+cloth, or any other red cloth, and command everything
+about the bed to be made red." He further
+says that "when the son of the renowned King of
+England (Edward II) lay sick of the small-pox I
+took care that everything around the bed should be
+of a red color; which succeeded so completely that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span>
+the Prince was restored to perfect health, without a
+vestige of a pustule remaining."</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor Francis I, when infected with smallpox,
+was rolled up in a scarlet cloth, by order of his
+physicians, as late as 1765; notwithstanding this
+treatment he died. Kampfer says that "when any
+of the Japanese emperor's children are attacked
+with the small-pox, not only the chamber and bed
+are covered with red hangings, but all persons who
+approach the sick prince must be clad in scarlet
+gowns." By a course of reasoning similar to that
+used in the treatment of small-pox, it was supposed
+that flannel dyed nine times in blue was efficacious
+in removing glandular swellings.<a name="FNanchor_81_78" id="FNanchor_81_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_78" class="fnanchor">81</a></p>
+
+<p>The astrological factor in talismans was most important
+because it was considered that certain stars
+and planets in certain relations produced certain
+diseases and contagious disorders. Astrologers, for
+example, attributed the plague to a conjunction of
+Saturn and Jupiter in Sagittarius, on the tenth of
+October, or to a conjunction of Saturn and Mars in
+the same constellation, on the twelfth of November.
+Burton makes the most generous melancholy, as
+that of Augustus, to come from the conjunction of
+Saturn and Jupiter in Libra; the bad, as that of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>
+Catiline, from the meeting of Saturn and the moon
+in Scorpio. If these disorders were produced by
+planets it was reasonable to suppose that they
+could be cured by planets.</p>
+
+<p>The virtue of herbs depended upon the planet
+under which they were sown or gathered. For example,
+verbena or vervain should be gathered at
+the rising of the dog-star, when neither the sun nor
+the moon shone, but an expiatory sacrifice of fruit
+and honey should previously have been offered to
+the earth. If this was carried out it had power to
+render the possessor invulnerable, to cure fevers,
+to eradicate poison, and to conciliate friendship.
+Notice also, that black hellebore, to be effective, was
+to be plucked not cut, and this with the right hand,
+which was then to be covered with a portion of the
+robe and secretly to be conveyed to the left hand.
+The person gathering it was to be clad in white, to be
+barefooted, and to offer a sacrifice of bread and wine.</p>
+
+<p>Not only the planets and the stars, but the moon
+has had a potent influence on medicine. For instance,
+mistletoe was to be cut with a golden knife,
+and when the moon was only six days old. Brand<a name="FNanchor_82_79" id="FNanchor_82_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_79" class="fnanchor">82</a>
+quotes from <i>The Husbandman's Practice, or Prognostication
+Forever</i>, published in 1664, the following
+curious passage, "Good to purge with electuaries,
+the moon in Cancer; with pills, the moon in Pisces;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>with potions, the moon in Virgo; good to take
+vomits, the moon being in Taurus, Virgo, or the
+latter part of Sagittarius; to purge the head by
+sneezing, the moon being in Cancer, Leo, or Virgo;
+to stop fluxes and rheumes, the moon being in
+Taurus, Virgo, or Capricorne; to bathe when the
+moon is in Cancer, Libra, Aquarius, or Pisces; to
+cut the hair off the head or beard when the moon is
+in Libra, Sagittarius, Aquarius, or Pisces."</p>
+
+<p>The Loseley manuscripts provide us with further
+examples. "Here begyneth ye waxingge of ye
+mone, and declareth in dyvers tymes to let blode,
+whiche be gode. In the furste begynynge of the
+mone it is profetable to yche man to be letten blode;
+ye ix of the mone, neyther be nyght ne by day, it is
+not good." They also tell of a physician named
+Simon Trippe, who wrote to a patient in excuse for
+not visiting him, as follows: "As for my comming
+to you upon Wensday next, verely my promise be
+past to and old pacient of mine, a very good gentlewoman,
+one Mrs. Clerk, wch now lieth in great extremity.
+I cannot possibly be with you till Thursday.
+On Fryday and Saterday the signe wilbe in
+the heart; on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, in
+the stomake; during wch time it wilbe no good
+dealing with your ordinary physicke untill Wensday
+come sevenight at the nearest, and from that time
+forwards for 15 or 16 days passing good."<a name="FNanchor_83_80" id="FNanchor_83_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_80" class="fnanchor">83</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span></p>
+<p>Not unlike this is an incident of the year 686,
+given by Bede, where "a holy Bishop having been
+asked to bless a sick maiden, asked 'when she had
+been bled?' and being told that it was on the fourth
+day of the moon, said: 'You did very indiscreetly
+and unskilfully to bleed her on the fourth day of
+the moon; for I remember that Archbishop Theodore,
+of blessed memory, said that bleeding at that
+time was very dangerous, when the light of the
+moon and the tide of the ocean is increasing; and
+what can I do to the girl if she is like to die?'"<a name="FNanchor_84_81" id="FNanchor_84_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_81" class="fnanchor">84</a></p>
+
+<p>"So great, indeed," says Fort, "became the abuse
+of medical astrology, whether by the direct juxtaposition
+of stellar influence, or through apposite
+images, that a celebrated Church Council at Paris
+declared that images of metal, wax, or other materials
+fabricated under certain constellations or
+according to fixed characters&mdash;figures of peculiar
+form, either baptized, consecrated, or exorcised, or
+rather desecrated by the performance of formal
+rites at stated periods which it was asserted, thus
+composed, possessed miraculous virtues set forth in
+superstitious writings&mdash;were placed under the ban
+and interdicted as errors of faith."<a name="FNanchor_85_82" id="FNanchor_85_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_82" class="fnanchor">85</a></p>
+
+<p>We shall see that magnetism developed from
+astrology, and some other forms of mental healing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span>from magnetism. One of these, sympathetic cures,
+was talismanic in its character, and therefore I
+give a brief account of its method of working, in
+this place.</p>
+
+<p>Sympathetic cures probably started with Paracelsus,
+although Von Helmont tells us that the
+secret was first put forth by Ericcius Wohyus, of
+Eburo. As a development from magnetism the
+former originated the "weapon salve" which excited
+so much attention about the middle of the seventeenth
+century. The following was a receipt given
+by him for the cure of any wound inflicted by a
+sharp weapon, except such as had penetrated the
+heart, the brain, or the arteries. "Take the moss
+growing on the head of a thief who has been hanged
+and left in the air; of real mummy; of human
+blood, still warm&mdash;of each, one ounce; of human
+suet, two ounces; of linseed oil, turpentine, and
+Armenian bole&mdash;of each, two drachms. Mix all
+well in a mortar, and keep the salve in an oblong,
+narrow urn." With the salve the weapon (not the
+wound), after being dipped in blood from the wound,
+was to be carefully anointed, and then laid by in
+a cool place. In the meantime, the wound was
+washed with fair, clean water, covered with a clean
+soft linen rag, and opened once a day to cleanse off
+purulent matter. A writer in the <i>Foreign Quarterly
+Review</i> says there can be no doubt about the success
+of the treatment, "for surgeons at this moment
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span>follow exactly the same method, <i>except</i> anointing
+the weapon!"</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus4" id="illus4"></a><a href="images/illus4.jpg"><img src="images/illus4-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="517" alt="SIR KENELM DIGBY" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">SIR KENELM DIGBY</span></div>
+
+<p>The weapon-salve continued to be much spoken
+of on the Continent, and Dr. Fludd, or A Fluctibus,
+the Rosicrucian, introduced it into England. He
+tried it with great success in several cases, but in
+the midst of his success an attack was made upon
+him and his favorite remedy, which, however, did
+little or nothing to diminish the belief in its efficacy.
+One "Parson Foster" wrote a pamphlet entitled
+"Hyplocrisma Spongus; or a Spunge to wipe away
+the Weapon-salve," in which he declared that it
+was as bad as witchcraft to use or recommend such
+an unguent; that it was invented by the devil,
+who, at the last day, would seize upon every person
+who had given it the least encouragement. "In
+fact," said Parson Foster, "the Devil himself gave
+it to Paracelsus; Paracelsus to the emperor; the
+emperor to the courtier; the courtier to Baptista
+Porta; and Baptista Porta to Dr. Fludd, a doctor of
+physic, yet living and practising in the famous city
+of London, who now stands tooth and nail for it."
+Dr. Fludd, thus assailed, took up his pen and defended
+the unguent in a caustic pamphlet.</p>
+
+<p>The salve changed into a powder in the hands of
+Sir Kenelm Digby, the son of Sir Edward Digby
+who was executed for his participation in the Gunpowder
+Plot. Sir Kenelm was an accomplished
+scholar and an able man, but at the same time a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>
+most extravagant defender of the powder of sympathy
+for the healing of wounds. This powder
+came into sudden and public notoriety through an
+accident to a distinguished person. Mr. James
+Howell, the well-known author of the Dendrologia,
+in endeavoring to part two friends in a duel, received
+a severe cut on the hand. Alarmed by the
+accident, one of the combatants bound up the cut
+with his garter and conveyed him home. The king
+sent his own surgeon to attend Mr. Howell, but in
+four or five days the wound was not recovering very
+rapidly and he made application to Sir Kenelm.
+The latter first inquired whether he possessed anything
+that had the blood upon it, upon which Mr.
+Howell produced the garter with which his hand
+had been bound. A basin of water in which some
+powder of vitriol had been dissolved was procured,
+and the garter immediately immersed in it, whereupon,
+to quote Sir Kenelm, Mr. Howell said, "I
+know not what ails me, but I find that I feel no more
+pain. Methinks that a pleasing kind of freshness,
+as it were a wet cold napkin, did spread over my
+hand, which hath taken away the inflammation
+that tormented me before." He was then advised
+to lay away all plasters and keep the wound clean
+and in a moderate temperature.</p>
+
+<p>To prove conclusively the efficacy of the powder
+of sympathy, after dinner the garter was taken out
+of the basin and placed to dry before the fire. No<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>
+sooner was this done than Mr. Howell's servant
+came running to Sir Kenelm saying that his master's
+hand was again inflamed, and that it was as bad as
+before. The garter was again placed in the liquid
+and before the return of the servant all was well and
+easy again. In the course of five or six days the
+wound was cicatrized and a cure performed.</p>
+
+<p>This case excited considerable attention at court,
+and on inquiry Sir Kenelm told the king that he
+learned the secret from a much-travelled Carmelite
+friar who became possessed of it while journeying
+in the East. Sir Kenelm communicated it to Dr.
+Mayerne, the king's physician, and from him it was
+known to even the country barbers. Even King
+James, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Buckingham,
+and many other noble personages believed in
+its efficacy.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a waste of time, had we space, to present
+fully Sir Kenelm's profound and lengthy explanation
+of the cure. He tried to make the cure
+more reasonable and acceptable by bringing forth
+certain alleged phenomena which he thought proved
+sympathy, and were therefore analogous in character.
+Surgeon-General Hammond calls attention
+to the fact that these inferences were invariably
+false. "It is a very curious circumstance," says
+he, "that of these, there is not one which is true.
+Thus he is wrong when he says that if the hand be
+severely burnt, the pain and inflammation are re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>lieved
+by holding it near a hot fire; that a person
+who has a bad breath is cured by putting his head
+over a privy and inhaling the air which comes from
+it; that those who are bitten by vipers or scorpions
+are cured by holding the bruised head of either of
+those animals, as the case may be, near the bitten
+part; that in times of great contagion, carrying a
+toad, or a spider, or arsenic or some other venomous
+substance, about the person is a protection; that
+hanging a toad about the neck of a horse affected
+with farcy dissipates the disease; that water evaporated
+in a close room will not be deposited on the
+walls, if a vessel of water be placed in the room;
+that venison pies smell strongly at those periods in
+which the 'beasts which are of the same nature
+and kind are in rut'; that wine in the cellar undergoes
+a fermentation when the vines in the field are
+in flower; that a table-cloth spotted with mulberries
+or red wine is more easily whitened at the season in
+which the plants are flowering than at any other;
+that washing the hands in the rays of moonlight
+which fall into a polished silver basin (without
+water) is a cure for warts; that a vessel of water put
+on the hearth of a smoky chimney is a remedy for
+the evil, and so on&mdash;not a single fact in all that he
+adduces. Yet these circumstances were regarded
+as real, and were spoken of at the times as irrefragable
+proofs of the truth of Sir Kenelm's views."<a name="FNanchor_86_83" id="FNanchor_86_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_83" class="fnanchor">86</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span></p>
+<p>We need have no doubt concerning the operation
+of sympathetic cures, for Sir Kenelm has told us of
+their virtue in his own words.<a name="FNanchor_87_84" id="FNanchor_87_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_84" class="fnanchor">87</a> His method was what
+was called the cure by the wet way, but the cure
+could also be effected in a dry way. Straus, in a
+letter to Sir Kenelm, gives an account of a cure
+performed by Lord Gilbourne, an English nobleman,
+upon a carpenter who had cut himself severely
+with his axe. "The axe, bespattered with blood,
+was sent for, besmeared with an anointment,
+wrapped up warmly, and carefully hung up in a
+closet. The carpenter was immediately relieved, and
+all went well for some time, when, however, the
+wound became exceedingly painful, and, upon resorting
+to his lordship it was ascertained that the
+axe had fallen from the nail by which it was suspended,
+and thereby become uncovered."</p>
+
+<p>Dryden in "The Tempest" (Act V, Sc. I) makes
+Ariel say, in reference to the wound received by
+Hippolito from Ferdinand:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"He must be dress'd again, as I have done it.</span>
+<span class="i05">Anoint the sword which pierced him with this weapon-salve,</span>
+<span class="i2">and wrap it close from air, till I have</span>
+<span class="i2">time to visit him again."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And in the next scene we have the following dialogue
+between Hippolito and Miranda:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+"<i>Hip.</i> O my wound pains me.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Mir.</i> I am come to ease you.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">[<i>She unwraps the sword.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Hip.</i> Alas! I feel the cold air come to me;<br />
+My wound shoots worse than ever.<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">[<i>She wipes and anoints the sword.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Mir.</i> Does it still grieve you?<br />
+<br />
+<i>Hip.</i> Now methinks, there's something<br />
+Laid just upon it.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Mir.</i> Do you find ease?<br />
+<br />
+<i>Hip.</i> Yes, yes, upon the sudden, all the pain<br />
+Is leaving me. Sweet heaven, how I am eased!"<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>Werenfels says: "If the superstitious person be
+wounded by any chance, he applies the salve, not to
+the wound, but, what is more effectual, to the weapon
+by which he received it. By a new kind of art, he
+will transplant his disease, like a scion, and graft it
+into what tree he pleases."</p>
+
+<p>The practice at the time was varied and general.
+All sorts of disgusting ingredients were gathered
+together to form the salve. Some idea of the condition
+of the science of medicine at that time may
+be gathered when we remember that a serious discussion
+was long maintained between two factions
+in the sympathetic school concerning the question
+"whether it was necessary that the moss should
+grow absolutely in the skull of a thief who had hung
+on the gallows, and whether the ointment, while
+compounding, was to be stirred with a murderer's
+knife."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span>There is no doubt that the sympathetic cures
+were really the most rapid and effective. The modern
+surgeon wonders how a wound ever healed prior
+to this treatment. There seemed to be little that
+could be imagined to prevent a wound from healing
+that the pre-sympathetic surgeon did not try. When
+the manipulations, doses, and treatments were
+transferred from the wound to the weapon, they did
+not injure the weapon, and did give the wound a
+chance to heal. In fact, leaving out the weapon
+part of the treatment, which could have none but a
+mental influence, the treatment would be recommended
+to-day. The wound was kept clean, the
+edges were brought in apposition, temperature was
+modified, and rest given. Under these circumstances,
+wounds which the surgeon had irritated so
+as to take weeks to heal, united in as many days.
+Mark this, however: the wounds treated were simple
+incisions, the ones which most readily united if
+cleansed, brought together, and left alone. Gunshot
+and similar wounds were not treated by this
+process.<a name="FNanchor_88_85" id="FNanchor_88_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_85" class="fnanchor">88</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">76</span></a>T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 63 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">77</span></a><i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, LVIII, pp. 586 and 695.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">78</span></a>H. Arnot, <i>History of Edinburgh</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> <i>Pharmacologia</i>, p. 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_77" id="Footnote_80_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_77"><span class="label">80</span></a> <i>The Doctor</i>, p. 59.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_78" id="Footnote_81_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_78"><span class="label">81</span></a> For a discussion on the doctrine of signatures see T. J. Pettigrew,
+<i>Superstitions</i>, etc., pp. 33 f.; E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of
+the Healing Art</i>, pp. 327 and 416 f.; A. D. White, <i>History of the
+Warfare of Science with Theology</i>, II, pp. 38 f.; Eccles, <i>Evolution of
+Medical Science</i>, pp. 140 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_79" id="Footnote_82_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_79"><span class="label">82</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 153. In references to this
+work, the edition used was that edited by W. Carew Hazlitt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_80" id="Footnote_83_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_80"><span class="label">83</span></a> <i>The Loseley Manuscripts</i>, pp. 263 f., quoted by Berdoe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_81" id="Footnote_84_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_81"><span class="label">84</span></a> Bede, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, bk. V, chap. III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_82" id="Footnote_85_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_82"><span class="label">85</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 299</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_83" id="Footnote_86_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_83"><span class="label">86</span></a> W. A. Hammond, <i>Spiritualism and Nervous Derangement</i>, p. 175.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_84" id="Footnote_87_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_84"><span class="label">87</span></a> Sir Kenelm Digby, <i>A late discovery made in solemne assembly of
+nobles and learned men, at Montpellier, in France, touching the cure
+of wounds, by the Powder of Sympathy</i>, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_85" id="Footnote_88_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_85"><span class="label">88</span></a> I am indebted to T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with
+the History and Practice of Surgery and Medicine</i>, pp. 201-213; C.
+Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, pp. 266-268; W. A.
+Hammond, <i>Spiritualism and Nervous Derangement</i>, pp. 170-176; for
+the material on the subject of sympathetic cures.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h3>
+
+<h4>AMULETS</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"He loved and was beloved; what more could he desire as an
+amulet against fear?"&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bulwer-Lytton</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"Such medicines are to be exploded that consist of words, characters,
+spells, and charms, which can do no good at all, but out of
+a strong conceit, as Pomponatius proves; or the Devil's policy,
+who is the first founder and teacher of them."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Burton</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"Old wives and starres are his councellors; his nightspell is his
+guard, and charms his physician. He wears Paracelsian characters
+for the toothache; and a little hallowed wax is his antidote for all
+evils."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bishop Hall</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"Neither doth Fansie only cause, but also as easily cure Diseases;
+as I may justly refer all magical and jugling Cures thereunto, performed,
+as is thought, by Saints, Images, Relicts, Holy-Waters,
+Shrines, Avemarys, Crucifixes, Benedictions, Charms, Characters,
+Sigils of the Planets and of Signs, inverted Words, &amp;c., and therefore
+all such Cures are rather to be ascribed to the Force of the
+Imagination, than any virtue in them, or their Rings, Amulets,
+Lamens, &amp;c."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ramesey</span>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Attention has already been called to the fact
+that the characteristic of the amulet is that it must
+be worn about the person, while the talisman may
+simply be in possession of a person wherever it may
+be, or deposited at a certain place by or for the person.
+The Arabic equivalent of the word Amulet
+means "that which is suspended."</p>
+
+<p>The derivation of the word is uncertain, but there
+are at least two Latin antecedents claimed for it.
+Some claim that it is derived from the barbarous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span>
+Latin word "amuletum," from amolior, to remove;
+others consider that it comes from "amula," the
+name of a small vessel with lustral water in it, which
+the Romans sometimes carried in their pockets for
+purification and expiation. Pliny says that many
+of these amul&aelig; were carved out of pieces of amber
+and hung about children's necks. Whatever the
+derivation of the word, it is doubtless of Eastern
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>There is also little doubt concerning the early
+belief in the efficacy of an amulet to ward off diseases,
+and to protect against supernatural agencies.
+So powerful were they supposed to be that an oath
+was formerly administered to persons about to fight
+a legal duel "that they had ne charme ne herb of
+virtue." St. Chrysostom and others of the church
+fathers condemned the practice very severely, and
+the Council of Laodicea (366) wisely forbade the
+priesthood from studying and practising enchantments,
+mathematics, astrology, and the binding of
+the soul by amulets.<a name="FNanchor_89_86" id="FNanchor_89_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_86" class="fnanchor">89</a></p>
+
+<p>Burton has the following passage on the subject:
+"Amulets, and Things to be borne about, I find
+prescribed, taxed by some, approved by Renodeus,
+Platerus, and others; looke for them in Mizaldus,
+Porta, Albertus, &amp;c. ... A Ring made of the
+Hoofe of an Asse's right fore-foot carried about, &amp;c.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span></p>
+<p>I say with Renodeus they are not altogether to
+be rejected. Piony doth help epilepsies. Pretious
+Stones, most diseases. A Wolf's dung carried about
+helps the Cholick. A spider, an Ague, &amp;c. ...
+Some Medicines are to be exploded, that consist of
+Words, Characters, Spells, and Charms, which can
+do no good at all, but out of a strong conceit, as
+Pomponatius proves; or the Devil's policy, who is
+the first founder and teacher of them."<a name="FNanchor_90_87" id="FNanchor_90_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_87" class="fnanchor">90</a></p>
+
+<p>"To this kind," says Bingham, "belong all Ligatures
+and Remedies, which the Schools of Physitians
+reject and condemn; whether in Inchantments or
+in certain marks, which they call Characters, or in
+some other things which are to be hanged and
+bound about the Body, and kept in a dancing
+posture. Such are Ear-rings hanged upon the tip
+of each ear, and Rings made of an Ostriche's bones
+for the Finger; or, when you are told, in a fit of
+Convulsions or shortness of Breath, to hold your
+left Thumb with your right hand."<a name="FNanchor_91_88" id="FNanchor_91_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_88" class="fnanchor">91</a></p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the wearing of amulets did not
+stop with the early civilizations or even with the
+Middle Ages. People in our own supposedly enlightened
+age indulge in them. The negro carries
+the hind foot of a rabbit, and the children see great
+virtue in a four-leafed clover; men carry luck pennies,
+and certain stones are worn in rings and scarf
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span>pins; camphor is worn about the person to avert
+febrile contagion, and anodyne necklaces of "Job's
+tears" and other equally harmless and inefficacious
+substances are placed on babies to assist them in
+teething. The camphor and necklaces are probably
+not supposed to be endowed with magical power,
+but a mistaken medical virtue is assigned to them.</p>
+
+<p>There was neither rule nor reason for the composition
+of most amulets, and one would have to be
+well acquainted with the superstitions of the various
+ages to account for them. Sometimes the shape,
+rather than the material of which they were composed
+or the inscription on them, was the efficacious
+factor. Perhaps material, shape, and inscription
+would be combined in one object; or many objects,
+each purporting to contain magical properties,
+might be grouped for special efficacy, as when
+inscribed pieces of different stones of peculiar shape
+were formed into necklaces or bracelets.</p>
+
+<p>Precious stones were often employed as amulets,
+and some even ground them up and took them internally
+in order to be more sure of their magical
+effects. "Butler quotes from Encelius, who says
+that the Garnet, if hung about the neck or taken in
+drink, much assisteth sorrow and recreates the heart;
+and the chrysolite is described as the friend of
+wisdom and the enemy of folly. Renodeus admires
+precious stones because they adorn king's crowns,
+grace the fingers, enrich our household stuff, defend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>
+us from enchantments, preserve health, cure diseases,
+drive away grief, cares, and exhilarate the mind."<a name="FNanchor_92_89" id="FNanchor_92_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_89" class="fnanchor">92</a></p>
+
+<p>Some further quotations portray to us the efficacy
+of other stones:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Heliotropius stauncheth blood, driveth away
+poisons, preserveth health; yea, and some write
+that it provoketh raine, and darkeneth the sunne,
+suffering not him that beareth it to be abused."</p>
+
+<p>"A topaze healeth the lunaticke person of his
+passion of lunacie."</p>
+
+<p>"Corneolus (cornelian) mitigateth the heate of
+the minde, and qualifieth malice, it stancheth
+bloodie fluxes."</p>
+
+<p>"A sapphire preserveth the members and maketh
+them livelie, and helpeth agues and gowts, and suffereth
+not the bearer to be afraid; it hath virtue
+against venoms, and staieth bleeding at the nose,
+being often put thereto."</p>
+
+<p>Aetius "attributed great obstetrical properties to
+the lapis aetites, and gagates stone. The sapphire
+when taken as a potion pulverized in milk, cured
+internal ulcers and checked excessive perspiration.
+The amargdine was highly recommended for strabismus...."</p>
+
+<p>"Jasper, hematite and hieratite stones were
+strongly recommended for unusual sanative virtues,
+but the sapphire excelled as a remedy for scorpion
+bites."</p>
+
+<p>"The Bezoar stone had a great reputation in
+melancholic affections. Manardus says it removes
+sadness and makes him merry that useth it."</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Noblemen wore the smargdum attached to a
+chain, in the belief of its potential virtues against
+epilepsy. The sard prevented terrible dreams, and
+the cornelian worn on the finger or suspended from
+the neck pacified anger and provoked contentment.
+Onyx superinduced troubled sleep, but fastened to
+the throat, stimulated the salivary glands. Saphirs
+cured internal ulcers and excessive perspiration,
+when taken as a potion dissolved in lacteal fluids."</p>
+
+<p>"Of the stone which hight agate. It is said that
+it hath eight virtues. One is when there is thunder,
+it doth not scathe the man who hath this stone with
+him. Another virtue is, on whatsoever house it is,
+therein a fiend may not be. The third virtue is,
+that no venom may scathe the man who hath the
+stone with him. The fourth virtue is, that the man,
+who hath on him secretly the loathly fiend, if he
+taketh in liquid any portion of the shavings of the
+stone, then soon is exhibited manifestly in him,
+that which before lay secretly hid. The fifth virtue
+is, he who is afflicted with any disease, if he taketh
+the stone in liquid, it is soon well with him. The
+sixth virtue is, that sorcery hurteth not the man
+who has the stone with him. The seventh virtue
+is, that he who taketh the stone in drink, will have
+so much the smoother body. The eighth virtue of
+the stone is, that no bite of any kind of snake may
+scathe him who tasteth the stone in liquid."</p></div>
+
+<p>Even as late as 1624, Sir John Harrington, writing
+in his "School of Salerne," says: "Alwaies in your
+hands use eyther Corall or yellow Amber, or a chalcedonium,
+or a sweet Pommander, or some like
+precious stone to be worne in a ring upon the little
+finger of the left hand; have in your rings eyther a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span>
+Smaragd, a Saphire, or a Draconites, which you
+shall bear for an ornament; for in stones, as also in
+hearbes, there is great efficacie and vertue, but they
+are not altogether perceived by us; hold sometime
+in your mouth eyther a Hyacinth, or a Crystall, or a
+Garnat, or pure Gold, or Silver, or else sometimes
+pure Sugar-candy. For Aristotle doth affirme, and
+so doth Albertus Magnus, that a Smaragd worne
+about the necke, is good against the Falling-sickness;
+for surely the virtue of an hearbe is great, but
+much more the vertue of a precious stone, which is
+very likely that they are endued with occult and
+hidden vertues."</p>
+
+<p>Precious metals as well as precious stones were
+used in the manufacture of amulets. The Scandinavians
+carried metal effigies carved out of gold or
+silver, or incised upon tiles, perpetually as amulets.
+They were safeguards against diseases and physical
+infirmities. They were also administered internally
+in cases where powerful cures were needed. Chaucer
+says:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"For gold in physic is a cordial,</span>
+<span class="i05">Therefore he loved gold in special."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Basilideans, and other sects developed from
+the Gnostic systems, assigned great power to stone
+amulets, and prepared them for their initiates, who
+used them for identification and for curative purposes.
+They quickly acquired a celebrity undi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span>minished
+for ages, and were known under the general
+name of Abraxas. They were composed of various
+materials, glass, paste, sometimes metals, but principally
+of various kinds of stones. Through the
+irresistible might of Abrax, their supreme divinity,
+the Basilideans were protected and cured. Clement
+of Alexandria strictly interdicted the use of gems
+for personal ornamentation, with evident allusion to
+the Abraxas stones. These stones had various inscriptions
+carved upon them, most of which had
+some hidden meaning of great puissance. One of
+them, for example, is engraven with Armenian letters,
+and contains a standing invocation for fruitful
+delivery; in its medicinal property it was evidently
+a cure for sterility.<a name="FNanchor_93_90" id="FNanchor_93_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_90" class="fnanchor">93</a></p>
+
+<p>From the stone itself the word "Abraxas" came
+to be used as an amulet when written on paper.
+The numerical equivalent of the Greek letters
+when added together thus, A = 1, B = 2, P = 100,
+A = 1, &#926; = 60, A = 1, &#931; = 200, is 365. The significance
+of this was that the deity was the ruler of 365 heavens,
+or of the angels inhabiting these heavens; he
+was also ruler over the 365 days of the year. Notwithstanding
+the fact that it was referred to by
+the Greek fathers, the name was evidently Egyptian
+in origin, some of the figures on the stones being
+strictly Egyptian.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p>
+<p>Amulets in the form of inscriptions were called
+"Characts," the word Abraxas being an example.
+The very powerful word "Abracadabra" was derived
+from Abraxas, and when written in the proper
+way and worn about the person was supposed to
+have a magical efficacy as an antidote against ague,
+fever, flux, and toothache. Serenus Samonicus, a
+physician in the reign of Caracalla, recommends it
+very highly for ague, instructing how it should be
+written, and commanding it to be worn around the
+neck. It might be written in either of two ways:
+reading down the left side and up the right must
+spell the same word as at the top; or, having the
+left side always start the same, reading up the right
+side should be the same as the top line. Below are
+the two forms:</p>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="ABRACADABRA">
+<tr>
+<td class="abra">ABRACADABRA<br />
+BRACADABR<br />
+RACADAB<br />
+ACADA<br />
+CAD<br />
+A</td>
+<td class="abra">ABRACADABRA<br />
+ABRACADABR<br />
+ABRACADAB<br />
+ABRACADA<br />
+ABRACAD<br />
+ABRACA<br />
+ABRAC<br />
+ABRA<br />
+ABR<br />
+AB<br />
+A</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Julius Africanus says that pronouncing the word in
+the same manner is as efficacious as writing it. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>
+Jews attributed an equal virtue to the word "Aracalan"
+employed in the same way.<a name="FNanchor_94_91" id="FNanchor_94_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_91" class="fnanchor">94</a></p>
+
+<p>Bishop Pilkington, writing in 1561, protests against
+a then current practice in this way: "What wicket
+blindenes is this than, to thinke that wearing Prayers
+written in rolles about with theym, as S. Johns
+Gospell, the length of our Lord, the measure of our
+Lady, or other like, thei shall die no sodain death,
+nor be hanged, or yf he be hanged, he shall not die.
+There is so manye suche, though ye laugh, and
+beleve it not, and not hard to shewe them with a
+wet finger." The same author observes that our
+devotion ought to "stande in depe sighes and groninges,
+wyth a full consideration of our miserable
+state and Goddes majestye, in the heart, and not in
+ynke or paper: not in hangyng writtin <span class="smcap">Scrolles</span>
+about the Necke, but lamentinge unfeignedlye our
+Synnes from the hart."</p>
+
+<p>The following charact was found in a linen purse
+belonging to a murderer named Jackson, who died
+in Chichester jail in February, 1749. He was
+"struck with such horror on being measured for
+his chains that he soon after expired."</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Ye three holy Kings,</span>
+<span class="i05">Gaspar, Melchior, Balthasar,</span>
+<span class="i05">Pray for us now, and in the hour of our death."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"These papers have touched the three heads of
+the holy Kings at Cologne. They are to preserve
+travellers from accidents on the road, headaches,
+falling sickness, fevers, witchcraft, all kinds of mischief,
+and sudden death."</p></div>
+
+<p>Belgrave prescribes a cure of agues, by a certain
+writing which the patient wears, as follows: "When
+Jesus went up to the Cross to be crucified, the Jews
+asked him, saying Art thou afraid? or hast thou the
+ague? Jesus answered and said, I am not afraid,
+neither have I the ague. All those which bear the
+name of Jesus about them shall not be afraid, nor
+yet have the ague. Amen, sweet Jesus, Amen,
+sweet Jehovah, Amen." He adds: "I have known
+many who have been cured of the ague by this writing
+only worn about them; and I had the receipt
+from one whose daughter was cured thereby, who
+had the ague upon her two years."<a name="FNanchor_95_92" id="FNanchor_95_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_92" class="fnanchor">95</a></p>
+
+<p>Among other written amulets, the first Psalm,
+when written on doeskin, was supposed to be efficacious
+in childbirth. It was necessary, however, for
+the writer of such amulets to plunge into a bath as
+soon as he had written one line, and after every new
+line it was thought necessary that he should repeat
+the plunge.</p>
+
+<p>The following process for avoiding inflamed eyes
+is taken from Marcellus, 380 A. D.: "Write on a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>clean sheet of paper &#959;&#965;&#946;&#945;&#953;&#954;,
+and hang this round
+the patient's neck, with a thread from the loom.
+In a state of purity and chastity write on a clean
+sheet of paper &#966;&#965;&#961;&#966;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#957;
+and hang it round the
+man's neck; it will stop the approach of inflammation.
+The following will stop inflammation coming
+on, written on a clean sheet of paper: <i>&#961;&#959;&#965;&#946;&#959;&#962;,
+&#961;&#957;&#959;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#945;&#962;
+&#961;&#951;&#949;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962; &#969;&#962;'
+&#954;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#945;
+&#954;&#945;&iota; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;
+&#951;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#964;&#949;&#953;</i>;
+it must be hung to the neck by a thread; and if
+both the patient and operator are in a state of
+chastity, it will stop inveterate inflammation.
+Again, write on a thin plate of gold with a needle of
+copper, <i>&#959;&#961;&#957;&#969; &#959;&#965;&#961;&#969;&#948;&#951;</i>; do this on a Monday; observe
+chastity; it will long and much avail."<a name="FNanchor_96_93" id="FNanchor_96_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_93" class="fnanchor">96</a></p>
+
+<p>In Africa, prayers taken from the Koran are written
+and worn as amulets at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of the philosopher Pascal some
+manuscript was found sewed in his doublet. This
+was a "profession of faith" which he always wore
+stitched in his clothing as a sort of amulet.</p>
+
+<p>In the East, generally, the amulet consists of certain
+names of the Deity, verses of the Koran, or particular
+passages compressed into a very small space,
+and is to be found concealed in the turban. The
+Christians wore amulets with verses selected from
+the Old and New Testaments, and particularly from
+the Gospel of John. The amulets or charms, called
+"grigris" by the African priests, are of similar <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>description.
+These were used for preservatives against
+thunderbolts and diseases, to procure many wives
+and to give them easy deliveries, to avert shipwreck
+or slavery, and to secure victory in battle. One, to
+be used for the last purpose, which had belonged to
+a king of Brak, in Senegal, was found on his body
+after he had the misfortune to be killed in battle
+with the amulet upon him. It had the following
+sentences from the Koran: "In the name of the
+merciful God! Pray to God through our Lord Mohammed.
+All that exists is so only by his command.
+He gives life, and also calls sinners to an account.
+He deprives us of life by the sole power of his name:
+these are undeniable truths. He that lives owes
+his life to the peculiar clemency of his Lord, who by
+his providence takes care of his subsistence. He is
+a wise prince or governor."<a name="FNanchor_97_94" id="FNanchor_97_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_94" class="fnanchor">97</a></p>
+
+<p>The Jews used as amulets some sacred name, such
+as the true pronunciation of the name of Jehovah,
+written down. The Mischna permitted the Jews to
+wear amulets provided they had been found efficacious
+in at least three cases by an approved person.
+One of the most famous amulets is that known as
+"Solomon's Seal."</p>
+
+<p>Ligatures, similar to the earlier amulets, a heritage
+from the northern pagan races, were freely
+applied for the prevention and cure of maladies.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span></p>
+<p>After imposing invocations and the addition of
+mystical characters, these medical charms were presumed
+to be of the greatest efficacy, and ready for
+suspension from the neck. Their efficacy was admitted
+by Christians, but they were condemned on account
+of their pagan and consequently satanic origin.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander of Tralles recommended a number of
+amulets, some of which I will mention later, but
+admits that he had no faith in them, but merely
+ordered them as placebos for rich and fastidious
+patients who could not be persuaded to adopt a
+more rational treatment. Baas tells us that "A
+regular Pagan amulet was found in 1749 on the
+breast of the prince bishop Anselm Franz of W&uuml;rzburg,
+count of Ingolstadt, after his death."</p>
+
+<p>Amulets were also worn to protect the wearer
+from charms exercised by others. The "Leech
+Book" gives us one to be worn and another to be
+taken internally for this purpose. To be used
+"against every evil rune lay, and one full of elvish
+tricks, writ for the bewitched man, this writing in
+Greek letters: Alfa, Omega, Iesvm, BERONIKH.
+Again, another dust and drink against a rune lay;
+take a bramble apple, and lupins, and pulegium,
+pound them, then sift them, put them in a pouch,
+lay them under the altar, sing nine masses over them,
+administer this to drink at three hours."</p>
+
+<p>The powers of the mandragora, as an amulet,
+place it almost in a class by itself. Fort tells us that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span>
+in addition to its power to protect herds of cattle
+and horses, to prevent misfortunes of various kinds,
+to preserve the exhilarating wine and beer against
+loss of their intoxicating property, to render successful
+commercial negotiations, and promote infallibly,
+rapid and enormous influence, "other virtues
+of a surprising character were awarded the omnipotent
+mandragora. It conciliated affection and maintained
+friendship, preserved conjugal fealty and
+developed benevolence. The immensity of worth
+inherent in this mystical medicament, its vital essence,
+was by no means confined to sustaining
+health and providing certain remedies for infirmities;
+its power manipulated tribunals and secured judicial
+favor at court; and when this resistless amulet was
+held under the arm by a suitor at law, however
+unjust his cause, the vegetable Rune controlled the
+forum and obtained the verdict."<a name="FNanchor_98_95" id="FNanchor_98_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_95" class="fnanchor">98</a></p>
+
+<p>It may be well at this point to enumerate at
+least a number of the most noted amulets, according
+to the disease for which they were supposed to
+be efficacious.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ague.</i>&mdash;On account of the periodic character of
+this disease it was considered to be a supernatural
+complaint and hence many unnatural cures were
+suggested, among which were a number of amulets.
+The Abracadabra amulet was supposed to be es<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span>pecially
+efficacious in ague. The chips of a gallows
+put into a bag and worn around the neck, or next
+the skin, have been said to have served as a cure, at
+least, so reports Brand.<a name="FNanchor_99_96" id="FNanchor_99_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_96" class="fnanchor">99</a> Millefolium or yarrow,
+worn in a little bag on the pit of the stomach is
+reported to have cured this disease, and Alexander of
+Tralles advises, for a quartan ague, that the patient
+must carry about some hairs from a goat's chin.<a name="FNanchor_100_97" id="FNanchor_100_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_97" class="fnanchor">100</a></p>
+
+<p>Elias Ashmole, in his Diary, April 11, 1681, has
+entered the following: "I tooke early in the morning
+a good dose of Elixir, and hung three spiders
+about my neck, and they drove my Ague away.
+Deo Gratias!"<a name="FNanchor_101_98" id="FNanchor_101_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_98" class="fnanchor">101</a></p>
+
+<p>Wristbands, called pericarpia, were employed in
+the cure. Robert Boyle says he was cured of a
+violent quotidian ague, after having in vain resorted
+to medical aid, by applying to his wrists "a mixture
+of two handfuls of bay salt, the same quantity
+of fresh English hops, and a quarter of a pound of
+blue currants, very diligently beaten into a brittle
+mass, without the addition of anything moist, and
+so spread upon linen and applied to his wrists."<a name="FNanchor_102_99" id="FNanchor_102_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_99" class="fnanchor">102</a></p>
+
+<p>Burton gives us a leaf from his own experience.<a name="FNanchor_103_100" id="FNanchor_103_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_100" class="fnanchor">103</a>
+"Being in the country in the vacation time, not
+many years since, at Lindly, in Leicestershire, my
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span>father's house, I first observed this amulet of a
+spider in a nut-shell, wrapped in silk, &amp;c., so applyed
+for an ague by my mother; whom, although
+I knew to have excellent skill in chirurgery, sore
+eyes, aches, &amp;c., and such experimental medicines,
+as all the country where she dwelt can witness, to
+have done many famous and good cures upon divers
+poor folks that were otherwise destitute of help,
+yet among all other experiments, this methought
+was most absurd and ridiculous. I could see no
+warrant for it. <i>Quid aranea cum Febre?</i> For what
+antipathy? till at length rambling amongst authors
+(as I often do), I found this very medicine in Dioscorides,
+approved by Matthiolus, repeated by Aldrovandus,
+<i>cap. de Aranea, lib. de Insectis</i>, I began
+to have a better opinion of it, and to give more
+credit to amulets, when I saw it in some parties
+answer to experience."</p>
+
+<p>A narrative of not a little interest, concerning Sir
+John Holt, Lord Chief Justice of the Court of King's
+Bench, 1709, should be given in this connection.
+He was extremely wild in his youth, and being once
+engaged with some of his rakish friends in a trip
+into the country, in which they had spent all their
+money, it was agreed they should try their fortune
+separately. Holt arrived at an inn at the end of a
+straggling village, ordered his horse to be taken care
+of, bespoke a supper and a bed. He then strolled
+into the kitchen, where he observed a little girl of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>
+thirteen shaking with ague. Upon making inquiry
+respecting her, the landlady told him that she
+was her only child, and had been ill nearly a year,
+notwithstanding all the assistance she could procure
+for her from physic. He gravely shook his
+head at the doctors, bade her be under no further
+concern, for that her daughter should never have
+another fit. He then wrote a few unintelligible
+words in a court hand on a scrap of parchment,
+which had been the direction fixed to a hamper,
+and rolling it up, directed that it should be bound
+upon the girl's wrist and there allowed to remain
+until she was well. The ague returned no more;
+and Holt, having remained in the house a week,
+called for his bill. "God bless you, sir," said the
+old woman, "you're nothing in my debt, I'm sure.
+I wish, on the contrary, that I was able to pay you
+for the cure which you have made of my daughter.
+Oh! if I had had the happiness to see you ten months
+ago, it would have saved me forty pounds." With
+pretended reluctance he accepted his accommodation
+as a recompense, and rode away. Many years
+elapsed, Holt advanced in his profession of the law,
+and went a circuit, as one of the judges of the Court
+of King's Bench, into the same county, where,
+among other criminals brought before him, was an
+old woman under a charge of witchcraft. To support
+this accusation, several witnesses swore that
+the prisoner had a spell with which she could either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
+cure such cattle as were sick or destroy those that
+were well, and that in the use of this spell she had
+been lately detected, and that it was now ready to
+be produced in court. Upon this statement the
+judge desired that it might be handed up to him.
+It was a dirty ball, wrapped round with several
+rags, and bound with packthread. These coverings
+he carefully removed, and beneath them found a
+piece of parchment which he immediately recognized
+as his own youthful fabrication. For a few
+moments he remained silent. At length, recollecting
+himself, he addressed the jury to the following
+effect: "Gentlemen, I must now relate a particular
+of my life, which very ill suits my present character
+and the station in which I sit; but to conceal it
+would be to aggravate the folly for which I ought
+to atone, to endanger innocence, and to countenance
+superstition. This bauble, which you suppose to
+have the power of life and death, is a senseless scroll
+which I wrote with my own hand and gave to this
+woman, whom for no other reason you accuse as a
+witch." He then related the particulars of the
+transaction, with such an effect upon the minds of
+the people that his old landlady was the last person
+tried for witchcraft in that county.<a name="FNanchor_104_101" id="FNanchor_104_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_101" class="fnanchor">104</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Calculus.</i>&mdash;Boyle tells us<a name="FNanchor_105_102" id="FNanchor_105_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_102" class="fnanchor">105</a> that the <i>Lapis Nephriticus</i>,
+a species of jasper, when bound to the left
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span>wrist, was a cure for this trouble. Others have borne
+evidence to its efficacy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Childbirth.</i>&mdash;Among the ancient Britons, when
+a birth was difficult or dangerous, a girdle, made
+for this purpose, was put around the woman and
+afforded immediate relief. Until quite recently they
+were kept by many families in the Highlands of
+Scotland. They were marked with certain figures
+and were applied with certain ceremonies derived
+from the Druids. Women in labor were also
+supposed to be quickly delivered if they were girded
+with the skin which a snake has sloughed off.<a name="FNanchor_106_103" id="FNanchor_106_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_103" class="fnanchor">106</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cholera.</i>&mdash;Bontius declared the <i>Lapis Porcinus</i> to
+be good for cholera, but dangerous to pregnant
+women. If the females of Malaica held the stone
+in their hands an abortion was produced. When
+cholera was prevalent during the early part of the
+last century, it was common in many parts of Austria,
+Germany, and Italy to wear an amulet at the
+pit of the stomach, in contact with the skin. Pettigrew
+describes one of these which was sent to him
+from Hungary. "It consists merely of a circular
+piece of copper two inches and a half in diameter,
+and is without characters."</p>
+
+<p><i>Colic.</i>&mdash;Says Pliny, the extremity of the intestine
+of the ossifrage, if worn as an amulet, is well known
+to be an excellent remedy for colic. A tick from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span>a dog's left ear, worn as an amulet, was recommended
+to allay this and all other kinds of pain,
+but one must be careful to take it from a dog that
+is black. Alexander of Tralles recommended the
+heart of a lark to be fastened to the left thigh as a
+remedy for colic. Mr. Cockayne, the editor of
+<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, gives us further remedies for colic
+which Alexander prescribed. "Thus for colic, he
+guarantees by his own experience, and the approval
+of almost all the best doctors, dung of a wolf, with
+bits of bone in it if possible, shut up in a pipe, and
+worn during the paroxysm, on the right arm, or
+thigh, or hip, taking care it touches neither the earth
+or a bath."<a name="FNanchor_107_104" id="FNanchor_107_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_104" class="fnanchor">107</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cramp.</i>&mdash;The following amulets are mentioned
+as specifics against cramp:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"&mdash;Wear bone Ring on thumb, or tye</span>
+<span class="i05">Strong Pack-thread below your thigh."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The subject of cramp rings will be considered in
+another connection.</p>
+
+<p><i>Demoniacal Possession.</i>&mdash;In the sixth century exorcists
+frequently wrote the formula on parchment
+and suspended it from the neck of the patient. This
+was as efficacious as the uttered words.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epilepsy.</i>&mdash;The elder tree has been the foundation
+of many superstitions, chief among which have
+been some connected with epilepsy. Blochwick<a name="FNanchor_108_105" id="FNanchor_108_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_105" class="fnanchor">108</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>
+tells us how to prepare an amulet from an elder
+growing on a sallow. "In the month of October,
+a little before the full moon, you pluck a twig of the
+elder, and cut the cane that is betwixt two of its
+knees, or knots, in nine pieces, and these pieces being
+bound in a piece of linen, be in a thread, so
+hung about the neck, that they touch the spoon of
+the heart, or the sword-formed cartilage; and that
+they may stay more firmly in that place, they are
+to be bound thereon with a linen or silken roller
+wrapt about the body, till the thread break of itself.
+The thread being broken and the roller removed,
+the amulet is not at all to be touched with bare
+hands, but it ought to be taken hold on by some
+instrument and buried in a place that nobody may
+touch it." Some hung a cross, made of the elder
+and the sallow entwined, about the children's neck.</p>
+
+<p>Rings of various kinds have always been supposed
+to have some superstitious power. Brand<a name="FNanchor_109_106" id="FNanchor_109_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_106" class="fnanchor">109</a>
+tells us of some of their uses. A ring made from a
+piece of silver collected at the communion is a cure
+for convulsions and fits of every kind. If the silver
+is collected on Easter Sunday its efficacy is greatly
+increased. This was the receipt in Berkshire, but
+in Devonshire silver was not necessary. Here they
+prefer a ring made from three nails or screws dug
+out of a church-yard, which had been used to fasten
+a coffin. We are also informed that another kind
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>of ring will cure fits. It must be made from five
+sixpences collected from five different bachelors,
+conveyed by the hand of a bachelor to a silversmith
+who is a bachelor. None of the persons who
+gave the sixpences, however, are to know for what
+purpose, or to whom, they gave them.<a name="FNanchor_110_107" id="FNanchor_110_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_107" class="fnanchor">110</a></p>
+
+<p>A silver ring contributed by twelve young women,
+and constantly worn on one of the pattens fingers,
+has been successfully employed in the cure of epilepsy
+after various medical means failed.<a name="FNanchor_111_108" id="FNanchor_111_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_108" class="fnanchor">111</a> Lupton
+says: "A piece of a child's navel-string borne in a
+ring is good against the falling-sickness, the pains
+of the head, and the collick."<a name="FNanchor_112_109" id="FNanchor_112_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_109" class="fnanchor">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Alexander of Tralles recommended for epilepsy a
+metal cross tied to the arm, or, in lieu of that, bits
+of sail-cloth from a shipwrecked vessel might be
+tied to the right arm and worn for seven weeks;
+the latter was a preventive as well as a cure. Among
+the ancients, Serapion prescribed crocodile's dung
+and turtle's blood as a cure for this disease.<a name="FNanchor_113_110" id="FNanchor_113_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_110" class="fnanchor">113</a> Lemius
+remarks that "Coral, Piony, Misseltoe, drive away
+the falling Sicknesse, either hung about the neck
+or drunk with wine."</p>
+
+<p><i>Erysipelas.</i>&mdash;The elder seems to have been efficacious
+in erysipelas as well as in epilepsy, at least so
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span>
+we are told in the "Anatomie of the Elder." The
+following is the method of preparing the amulet.
+It is to be made of "Elder on which the sun never
+shined. If the piece betwixt the two knots be hung
+about the patient's neck, it is much commended.
+Some cut it in little pieces, and sew it in a knot in a
+piece of a man's shirt, which seems superstitious."</p>
+
+<p><i>Evil-eye.</i>&mdash;Coral was supposed to avert the baneful
+consequences of the evil-eye, and Paracelsus
+recommends it to be worn about the necks of children.
+Douce has given engravings of several Roman
+amulets which were intended to be used against
+fascinations in general, but more particularly against
+that of the evil-eye.<a name="FNanchor_114_111" id="FNanchor_114_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_111" class="fnanchor">114</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Eye Diseases.</i>&mdash;Cotta relates, so says Pettigrew,
+"a merrie historie of an approved famous spell for
+sore eyes. By many honest testimonies it was a
+long time worne as a Jewell about many necks,
+written in paper and enclosed in silke, never failing
+to do sovereigne good when all other helpes were
+helplesse. No sight might dare to reade or open.
+At length a curious mind, while the patient slept,
+by stealth ripped open the mystical cover, and
+found the powerful characters Latin: 'Diabolus
+effodiat tibi oculos impleat foramina stercoribus.'"</p>
+
+<p>Vivisection was practised to procure an amulet
+for sore eyes, according to the following prescription:
+"If a man have a white spot, as cataract, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span>his eye, catch a fox alive, cut his tongue out, let him
+go, dry his tongue and tie it up in a red rag and
+hang it round the man's neck." Pliny's way was to
+"take the tongue of a foxe, and hange the same
+about his necke, so long it hangeth there his sight
+shall not wax feeble."</p>
+
+<p>Like was also used to cure like, at least in the following
+directions: "Take the right eye of a Frogg,
+lap it in a piece of russet cloth and hang it about
+the neck; it cureth the right eye if it bee enflamed
+or bleared. And if the left eye be greved, do the
+like by the left eye of the said Frogg."<a name="FNanchor_115_112" id="FNanchor_115_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_112" class="fnanchor">115</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Fevers.</i>&mdash;Charms rather than amulets were employed
+in fevers, yet we find that among the ancients
+Chrysippus believed in amulets for quartan
+fevers and Pliny taught that the longest tooth of
+a black dog cured quartan fevers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gout.</i>&mdash;Alexander of Tralles has preserved for us
+a remedy for gout as follows: "A remedy for the
+gout. Write, on a golden plate at the wane of the
+moon, what follows, rolling round it the sinews of
+a crane. Put it in a little bag, and wear it near
+the ankles. The words are meu, treu, mor, phor,
+teux, za, zor, phe, lou, chri, ge, ze, ou, as the sun is
+consolidated in these names, and is renewed every
+day; so consolidate this plaster as it was before,
+now, now, quick, quick, for, behold, I pronounce
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span>the great name, in which are consolidated things in
+repose, iaz, azuf, zuon, threux, bain, choog; consolidate
+this plaster as it was at first, now, now,
+quick, quick."</p>
+
+<p><i>Headache.</i>&mdash;Pliny's amulet for this disease was an
+herb picked from the head of a statue, tied with a
+red thread, and worn upon the body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hysteria.</i>&mdash;Monardes is quoted as saying: "When
+hysterical persons feel an attack coming on, they
+may be relieved by a stone, which will prevent, if
+constantly worn about the person, any subsequent
+attack. From my knowledge of cases of this kind,
+I attach credit to this amulet."</p>
+
+<p><i>Melancholy.</i>&mdash;Burton has treated much under the
+name of melancholy, and in respect of cure mentions
+several "amulets and things to be borne about."
+He recommends for head melancholy such things
+as hypericon, or St. John's-wort, gathered on a
+Friday in the hour of Jupiter, "... borne or hung
+about the neck, it mightily helps this affection, and
+drives away all fantastical spirits."<a name="FNanchor_116_113" id="FNanchor_116_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_113" class="fnanchor">116</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Plague.</i>&mdash;During the visitations of the plague, the
+inhabitants of London wore, in the region of the
+heart, amulets composed of arsenic, probably on
+account of the theory that one poison would neutralize
+the power of the other. Concerning this,
+however, Herring, in writing concerning preservatives
+against the pestilence, says: "Perceiving many
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span>
+in this Citie to weare about their Necks, upon the
+region of the Heart, certaine Placents or Amulets,
+(as preservatives against the pestilence,) confected
+of Arsenicke, my opinion is that they are so farre
+from effecting any good in that kinde, as a preservative,
+that they are very dangerous and hurtfull, if
+not pernitious, to those that weare them." Quills
+of quicksilver were commonly worn about the neck
+for the same purpose, and the powder of toad was
+employed in a similar way.</p>
+
+<p>Pope Adrian is reported to have continually carried
+an amulet composed of dried toad, arsenic, tormental,
+pearl, coral, hyacinth, smarag, and tragacanth.
+Among the Harleian Manuscripts is a letter
+from Lord Chancellor Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith
+written at a time of an alarming epidemic. Among
+other things he writes: "I am likewise bold to
+recommend my most humble duty to our dear mistress
+(Queen Elizabeth) by this LETTER AND
+RING, which hath the virtue to expell infectious
+airs, and is <i>to be worn betwixt the sweet duggs</i>, the
+chaste nest of pure constancy. I trust, sir, when
+the virtue is known, it shall not be refused for the
+value."<a name="FNanchor_117_114" id="FNanchor_117_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_114" class="fnanchor">117</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Safety from Wounds.</i>&mdash;Pettigrew gives us the two
+following examples: "De Barros, the historian, says
+that the Portuguese in vain attempted to destroy
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>a Malay so long as he wore a bracelet containing a
+bone set in gold, which rendered him proof against
+their swords. This amulet was afterward transmitted
+to the Viceroy Alfonso d'Alboquerque, as a
+valuable present.</p>
+
+<p>"In the travels of Marco Polo, we read that in an
+attempt by Kublai Khan to make a conquest of the
+island of Zipangu, a jealousy arose between the
+two commanders of the expedition, which led to an
+order for putting the whole of the inhabitants of
+the garrison to the sword; and that in obedience
+thereto, the heads of all were cut off, excepting of
+eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a diabolical
+charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced
+into the right arm, between the skin and the flesh,
+were rendered secure from the effects of iron, either
+to kill or wound. Upon this discovery being made,
+they were beaten with a heavy wooden club, and
+presently died."<a name="FNanchor_118_115" id="FNanchor_118_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_115" class="fnanchor">118</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Scrofula.</i>&mdash;Lupton says: "The Root of Vervin
+hanged at the neck of such as have the King's Evil,
+it brings a marvellous and unhoped help." To this
+Brand adds: "Squire Morley of Essex used to say
+a Prayer which he hoped would do no harm when
+he hung a bit of vervain root from a scrophulous
+person's neck. My aunt Freeman had a very high
+opinion of a baked Toad in a silk Bag, hung round
+the neck."<a name="FNanchor_119_116" id="FNanchor_119_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_116" class="fnanchor">119</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span></p>
+<p><i>Toothache.</i>&mdash;People in North Hampshire, England,
+sometimes wore a tooth taken from a corpse, kept
+in a bag and hung around the neck, as a remedy
+for toothache.</p>
+
+<p><i>Whooping-Cough.</i>&mdash;About the middle of the last
+century there appeared the following in the <i>London
+Athen&aelig;um</i>: "The popular belief as to the origin of
+the mark across the back of the ass is mentioned
+by Sir Thomas Browne, in his 'Vulgar Errors,' and
+from whatever cause it may have arisen it is certain
+that the hairs taken from the part of the animal
+so marked are held in high estimation as a cure for
+the hooping-cough. In this metropolis, at least so
+lately as 1842, an elderly lady advised a friend who
+had a child dangerously ill with that complaint, to
+procure three such hairs, and hang them round the
+neck of the sufferer in a muslin bag. It was added
+that the animal from whom the hairs are taken for
+this purpose is never worth anything afterwards,
+and, consequently, great difficulty would be experienced
+in procuring them; and further, that it was
+essential to the success of the charm that the sex of
+the animal, from whom the hairs were to be procured,
+should be the contrary to that of the party
+to be cured by them."</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Worcester Journal</i> (England), in one of its
+issues for 1845, had this astounding item: "A party
+from the city, being on a visit to a friend who lived
+at a village about four miles distant, had occasion to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span>
+go into the cottage of a poor woman, who had a child
+afflicted with the hooping-cough. In reply to some
+inquiries as to her treatment of the child, the mother
+pointed to its neck, on which was a string fastened,
+having nine knots tied in it. The poor woman
+stated that it was the stay-lace of the child's godmother
+which, if applied exactly in that manner
+about the neck, would be sure to charm away the
+most troublesome cough! Thus it may be seen that,
+with all the educational efforts of the present day,
+the monster Superstition still lurks here and there
+in his caves and secret places."<a name="FNanchor_120_117" id="FNanchor_120_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_117" class="fnanchor">120</a></p>
+
+<p>We find that not only human beings but animals
+profited by amulets. An amulet is used in the cure
+of a blind horse which could hardly have helped on
+the cure by his faith in it. "The root of cut Malowe
+hanged about the neck driveth away blemishes of
+the eyen, whether it be in a man or a horse, as I,
+Jerome of Brunsweig, have seene myselfe. I have
+myselfe done it to a blind horse that I bought for
+X crounes, and was sold agayn for XL crounes."<a name="FNanchor_121_118" id="FNanchor_121_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_118" class="fnanchor">121</a>
+That was a trick worth knowing.</p>
+
+<p>Brockett tells us that "Holy-stones, or <i>holed-stones</i>,
+are hung on the heads of horses as a charm
+against Diseases&mdash;such as sweat in their stalls are
+supposed to be cured by this application." The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span>
+efficacy of the elder also extended to animals, for
+a lame pig was formerly cured by boring a hole in
+his ear and putting a small peg into it. We are
+also told that "wood night-shade, or bitter-sweet,
+being hung about the neck of Cattell that have the
+Staggers, helpeth them."</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_86" id="Footnote_89_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_86"><span class="label">89</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 51 and 66 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_87" id="Footnote_90_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_87"><span class="label">90</span></a> R. Burton, <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, pt. II, sec. V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_88" id="Footnote_91_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_88"><span class="label">91</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 281 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_89" id="Footnote_92_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_89"><span class="label">92</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, p. 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_90" id="Footnote_93_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_90"><span class="label">93</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+pp. 94-100.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_91" id="Footnote_94_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_91"><span class="label">94</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 74 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_92" id="Footnote_95_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_92"><span class="label">95</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 278 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_93" id="Footnote_96_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_93"><span class="label">96</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 262 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_94" id="Footnote_97_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_94"><span class="label">97</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 68 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_95" id="Footnote_98_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_95"><span class="label">98</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 182.</p></div>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_96" id="Footnote_99_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_96"><span class="label">99</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 242.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_97" id="Footnote_100_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_97"><span class="label">100</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 252.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_98" id="Footnote_101_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_98"><span class="label">101</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_99" id="Footnote_102_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_99"><span class="label">102</span></a> R. Boyle, <i>Usefulness of Natural Philosophy</i>, II, p. 157.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_100" id="Footnote_103_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_100"><span class="label">103</span></a> R. Burton, <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, pt. II, sec. V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_101" id="Footnote_104_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_101"><span class="label">104</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 96-98.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_102" id="Footnote_105_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_102"><span class="label">105</span></a> R. Boyle, <i>Usefulness of Natural Philosophy</i>, Works II, p. 156.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_103" id="Footnote_106_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_103"><span class="label">106</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 257
+and 259.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_104" id="Footnote_107_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_104"><span class="label">107</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 251 f and 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_105" id="Footnote_108_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_105"><span class="label">108</span></a> <i>Anatomie of the Elder</i>, p. 52.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_106" id="Footnote_109_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_106"><span class="label">109</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 231.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_107" id="Footnote_110_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_107"><span class="label">110</span></a> <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i>, 1794, p. 889.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_108" id="Footnote_111_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_108"><span class="label">111</span></a> <i>London Medical and Physical Journal</i>, 1815.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_109" id="Footnote_112_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_109"><span class="label">112</span></a> <i>Book of Notable Things</i>, p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_110" id="Footnote_113_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_110"><span class="label">113</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 253 f and
+256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_111" id="Footnote_114_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_111"><span class="label">114</span></a> <i>Illustrations of Shakespeare</i>, I, p. 493.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_112" id="Footnote_115_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_112"><span class="label">115</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_113" id="Footnote_116_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_113"><span class="label">116</span></a> R. Burton, <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, pt. II, sec. V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_114" id="Footnote_117_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_114"><span class="label">117</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Surgery and
+Medicine</i>, p. 91.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_115" id="Footnote_118_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_115"><span class="label">118</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 79.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_116" id="Footnote_119_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_116"><span class="label">119</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_117" id="Footnote_120_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_117"><span class="label">120</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, III, p. 238.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_118" id="Footnote_121_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_118"><span class="label">121</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 148.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h3>
+
+<h4>CHARMS</h4>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"With the charmes that she saide,</span>
+<span class="i05">A fire down fro' the sky alight."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gower</span>.</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"She drew a splinter from the wound,</span>
+<span class="i05">And with a charm she staunch'd the blood."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Scott</span>.</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Thrice on my breast I spit to guard me safe</span>
+<span class="i05">From fascinating Charms."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Theocritus</span>.</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Mennes fortunes she can tell;</span>
+<span class="i05">She can by sayenge her Ave Marye,</span>
+<span class="i05">And by other Charmes of Sorcerye,</span>
+<span class="i05">Ease men of the Toth ake by and bye</span>
+<span class="i05">Yea, and fatche the Devyll from Hell."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bale</span>.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I clawed her by the backe in way of a charme,<br />
+To do me not the more good, but the less harme."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Heywood</span>
+</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Charms, as already noticed, are not unlike amulets
+in significance and similarity of power. The
+amulet must consist of some material substance so
+as to be suspended when employed, but the charm
+may be a word, gesture, look, or condition, as well
+as a material substance, and does not need to be
+attached to the body. The word "charm" is derived
+from the Latin word "carmen," signifying a verse
+in which the charms were sometimes written, examples
+of which will be given later. The medical
+term "carminative," a comforting medicine, really
+means a charm medicine, and has the same derivation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span>A charm has been defined as "a form of words or
+letters, repeated or written, whereby strange things
+are pretended to be done, beyond the ordinary
+power of nature." It can be seen, though, that
+this definition is not sufficiently comprehensive.</p>
+
+<p>For ages, people have had great faith in odd numbers.
+They have often been used as charms and
+for medicine. Some one says: "Some philosophers
+are of opinion that all things are composed of number,
+prefer the odd before the other, and attribute
+to it a great efficacy and perfection, especially in
+matters of physic: wherefore it is that many doctors
+prescribed always an odd pill, an odd draught,
+or drop to be taken by their patients. For the perfection
+thereof they allege these following numbers:
+as 7 Planets, 7 wonders of the World, 9 Muses, 3
+Graces, God is 3 in 1, &amp;c." Ravenscroft, in his
+comedy of "Mammamouchi or the Citizen Turned
+Gentleman," makes Trickmore as a physician say:
+"Let the number of his bleedings and purgations be
+odd, <i>numero Deus impare gaudet</i>" [God delights in
+an odd number].</p>
+
+<p>Nine is the number consecrated by Buddhism;
+three is sacred among Brahminical and Christian
+people. Pythagoras held that the unit or monad is
+the principle and end of all. One is a good principle.
+Two, or the dyad, is the origin of contrasts
+and separation, and is an evil principle. Three, or
+the triad, is the image of the attributes of God.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>
+Four, or the tetrad, is the most perfect of numbers
+and the root of all things. It is holy by nature.
+Five, or the pentad, is everything; it stops the
+power of poisons, and is dreaded by evil spirits.
+Six is a fortunate number. Seven is powerful for
+good or evil, and is a sacred number. Eight is the
+first cube, so is man four-square or perfect. Nine,
+as the multiple of three, is sacred. Ten, or the decade,
+is the measure of all it contains, all the numerical
+relations and harmonies.<a name="FNanchor_122_119" id="FNanchor_122_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_119" class="fnanchor">122</a></p>
+
+<p>Cornelius Agrippa wrote on the power of numbers,
+which he declares is asserted by nature herself;
+thus the herb called cinquefoil, or five-leafed
+grass, resists poison, and bans devils by virtue of
+the number five; one leaf of it taken in wine twice
+a day cures the quotidian, three the tertian, four
+the quartan fever.<a name="FNanchor_123_120" id="FNanchor_123_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_120" class="fnanchor">123</a></p>
+
+<p>The seventh son of a seventh son was supposed to
+be an infallible physician as the following quotations
+would indicate: "The seventh son of a seventh
+son is born a physician; having an intuitive knowledge
+of the art of curing all disorders, and sometimes
+the faculty of performing wonderful cures by touching
+only." "Plusieurs croyent qu'en France, les
+septi&egrave;mes gar&ccedil;ons, nez de l&eacute;gitimes mariages, sans
+que la suitte des sept ait est&eacute; interrompue par la
+naissance d'aucune fille, peuvent aussi gu&eacute;rir des
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span>fi&egrave;vres tierces, des fi&egrave;vres quartes, at mesme des
+&eacute;crouelles, apr&egrave;s avoir je&ucirc;n&eacute; trois ou neuf jours
+avant que de toucher les malades. Mais ils font
+trop de fond sur le nombre septenaire, en attribuant
+au septi&egrave;me gar&ccedil;on, pr&eacute;f&eacute;rablement &agrave; tous autres,
+une puissance qu'il y a autant de raison d'attribuer
+au sixi&egrave;me ou au huiti&egrave;me, sur le nombre
+de trois, et sur celuy de neuf, pour ne pas s'engager
+dans la superstition. Joint que de trois que je connois
+de ces septi&egrave;me gar&ccedil;ons il y en a deux qui ne
+gu&eacute;rissent de rien, et que le troisieme m'a avou&eacute;
+de bonne foy, qu'il avoit eu autrefois la reputation
+de gu&eacute;rir de quantit&eacute; des maux, quoique en effet
+il n'ait jamais guery d'aucun. C'est pourquoy
+Monsieur du Laurent a grande raison de rejetter ce
+pr&eacute;tendu pouvoir, et de la mettre au rang des
+fables, en ce qui concerne la gu&eacute;rison des &eacute;crouelles."<a name="FNanchor_124_121" id="FNanchor_124_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_121" class="fnanchor">124</a></p>
+
+<p>Charms were used to avert evil and counteract
+supposed malignant influences of all kinds, but it is
+in their connection with diseases of the body that
+we are chiefly interested. There is scarcely a disease
+for which a charm has not been given, but it
+will be seen that those which are most affected by
+charms are principally derangements of the nervous
+system, or those periodical in character&mdash;diseases,
+in fact, which have proved to be most easily influenced
+by suggestion.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span></p>
+<p>Charms might be of the most varied composition.
+The material was selected from the animal, vegetable,
+or mineral kingdom, and might consist of
+anything to which any magical property was considered
+to belong. Rags, old clothes, pins, and
+needles were frequently employed in this way. Sir
+Walter Scott had in his possession a pretended
+charm taken from an old woman who was said to
+charm and injure her neighbor's cattle. It consisted
+of feathers, parings of nails, hair, and similar
+material, wrapped in a lump of clay.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of <i>similia similibus curantur</i> seems
+to have entered into medi&aelig;val medicine, and especially
+into the manufacture of charms. The following
+prescriptions are examples: "The skin of a
+Raven's heel is good against gout, but the right
+heel skin must be laid upon the right foot if that be
+gouty, and the left upon the left.... If you would
+have man become bold or impudent let him carry
+about with him the skin or eyes of a Lion or Cock,
+and he will be fearless of his enemies, nay, he will
+be very terrible unto them. If you would have him
+talkative, give him tongues, and seek out those of
+water frogs and ducks and such creatures notorious
+for their continuall noise making."<a name="FNanchor_125_122" id="FNanchor_125_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_122" class="fnanchor">125</a></p>
+
+<p>King also tells us that "Hartes fete, Does Fete,
+Bulles fete, or any ruder beastes fete should ofte
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>
+be eaten; the same confort the sinewes. The elder
+these beastes be, the more they strengthen." It is noticeable
+that not age but youth is now honored, and
+to-day only calves' feet are accorded medicinal value.</p>
+
+<p>Fort<a name="FNanchor_126_123" id="FNanchor_126_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_123" class="fnanchor">126</a> gives the following account of the origin
+of cabbalism: "Towards the close of the fourth
+century an unknown scholiast collected the exegetical
+elucidations, explanations and interpretations
+produced by the Gemara, and united them to
+the Mishna, as a commentary out of which arose
+the Talmud. The word 'cabbala,' whose original
+significance was used in the sense of reception, or
+transmission, obtained at a later period the meaning
+of secret lore, because the metaphysical and
+theosophic idealities which had been developed in
+the Rabbinical schools, were communicated only to
+a few, and consequently remained the undisputed
+property of a limited and close organization." From
+this there developed a varied and complicated system
+of words and numbers which showed their
+power in all forms of magical marvels. Not the
+least common or puissant of these was the healing
+of the sick.</p>
+
+<p>Knots were sometimes used as charms, and Cockayne
+gives us an example in the preface of <i>Saxon
+Leechdoms</i>: "As soon as a man gets pain in his
+eyes, tie in unwrought flax as many knots as there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>
+are letters in his name, pronouncing them as you
+go, and tie it round his neck."</p>
+
+<p>Long before and long after New Testament days
+when Jesus used spittle on the blind, and the time
+when Vespasian healed the blind by the same means,
+spittle was considered a most efficacious remedy for
+various diseases. Levinus Lemnius tells us: "Divers
+experiments shew what power and quality there
+is in Man's fasting Spittle, when he hath neither
+eat nor drunk before the use of it: for it cures all
+tetters, itch, scabs, pushes, and creeping sores: and
+if venomous little beasts have fastened on any part
+of the body, as hornets, beetles, toads, spiders, and
+such like, that by their venome cause tumours and
+great pains and inflammations, do but rub the place
+with fasting Spittle, and all those effects will be
+gone and dispersed. Since the qualities and effects
+of Spittle come from the humours, (for out of them
+is it drawn by the faculty of Nature, as Fire draws
+distilled Water from hearbs) the reason may be
+easily understood why Spittle should do such strange
+things, and destroy some creatures."<a name="FNanchor_127_124" id="FNanchor_127_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_124" class="fnanchor">127</a></p>
+
+<p>In <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i> a cure for gout runs thus:
+"Before getting out of bed in the morning, spit
+on your hand, rub all your sinuews, and say, 'Flee,
+gout, flee,' etc." Sir Thomas Browne, however, is
+not quite sure that fasting spittle really is poisonous
+to snakes and vipers.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p>
+<p>Alexander of Tralles tells us that even Galen did
+homage to incantations, and quotes him as saying:
+"Some think that incantations are like old wives'
+tales; as I did for a long while. But at last I was
+convinced that there is virtue in them by plain
+proofs before my eyes. For I had trial of their
+beneficial operations in the case of those scorpion-stung,
+nor less in the case of bones stuck fast in the
+throat, immediately, by an incantation thrown up.
+And many of them are excellent, severally, and
+they reach their mark."</p>
+
+<p>Even before our day, however, there were some
+sceptics. Andrews, quoting Reginald Scot, says:
+"The Stories which our facetious author relates of
+ridiculous Charms which, by the help of credulity,
+operated Wonders, are extremely laughable. In one
+of them a poor Woman is commemorated who
+cured all diseases by muttering a certain form of
+Words over the party afflicted; for which service
+she always received one penny and a loaf of bread.
+At length, terrified by menaces of flames both in
+this world and the next, she owned that her whole
+conjuration consisted in these potent lines, which
+she always repeated in a low voice near the head of
+her patient:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Thy loaf in my hand,</span>
+<span class="i05">And thy penny in my purse,</span>
+<span class="i05">Thou art never the better&mdash;</span>
+<span class="i05">And I am never the worse.'"</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>Lord Northampton quite fittingly inquires: "What
+godly reason can any Man alyve alledge why Mother
+Joane of Stowe, speaking these wordes, and neyther
+more nor lesse,</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Our Lord was the fyrst Man,</span>
+<span class="i05">That ever Thorne prick'd upon:</span>
+<span class="i05">It never blysted nor it never belted,</span>
+<span class="i05">And I pray God, nor this not may,'</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>should cure either Beasts, or Men and Women from
+Diseases?"<a name="FNanchor_128_125" id="FNanchor_128_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_125" class="fnanchor">128</a></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps it would be well for us to treat the subject
+of charms as we have that of amulets, and present
+the different charms under the heading of the
+diseases which they were supposed to cure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ague.</i>&mdash;Many charms were given for this disease,
+some of which seem to us to-day most ridiculous.
+Brand gives a quotation from the <i>Life of Nicholas
+Mooney</i> who was a notorious highwayman, executed
+with others at Bristol, in 1752. It is as follows:
+"After the cart drew away, the hangman
+very deservedly had his head broke for attempting
+to pull off Mooney's shoes; and a fellow had like to
+have been killed in mounting the gallows to take
+away the ropes that were left after the malefactors
+were cut down. A young woman came fifteen miles
+for the sake of the rope from Mooney's neck, which
+was given to her, it being by many apprehended
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span>
+that the halter of an executed person will charm
+away the ague and perform many other cures."</p>
+
+<p>Pettigrew relates that "In Skippon's account of
+a 'Journey through the Low Countries,' he makes
+mention of the lectures of Ferrarius and his narrative
+of the cure of the ague of a Spanish lieutenant,
+by writing the words FEBRA FUGE, and cutting
+off a letter from the paper every day, and he observed
+the distemper to abate accordingly; when
+he cut the letter F last of all the ague left him. In
+the same year, he says, fifty more were reported to
+be cured in the same manner."</p>
+
+<p>Another charm for ague was only effective when
+said up the chimney on St. Agnes Eve, by the eldest
+female of the family. It was as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Tremble and go!</span>
+<span class="i2">First day shiver and burn.</span>
+<span class="i05">Tremble and quake!</span>
+<span class="i2">Second day shiver and learn:</span>
+<span class="i0">Tremble and die!</span>
+<span class="i2">Third day never return."<a name="FNanchor_129_126" id="FNanchor_129_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_126" class="fnanchor">129</a></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pliny said: "Any plant gathered from the bank
+of a brook or river before sunrise, provided that no
+one sees the person who gathers it, is considered as
+a remedy for tertian ague." Lodge, in glancing at
+the superstitious creed with respect to charms, says:
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>
+"Bring him but a Table of Lead, with Crosses (and
+'Adonai,' or 'Elohim,' written in it), and he thinks
+it will heal his ague."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Marsden, while among the Sumatrans, accidentally
+met with the following charm for the ague:
+"(Sign of the cross.) When Christ saw the cross
+he trembled and shaked and they said unto him,
+hast thou ague? and he said unto them, I have
+neither ague nor fever; and whosoever bears these
+words, either in writing or in mind, shall never be
+troubled with ague or fever. So help thy servants,
+O Lord, who put their trust in thee!"</p>
+
+<p>From Douce's notes, Mr. Brand informs us that
+it was usual with many persons about Exeter who
+had ague "to visit at dead of night the nearest
+cross road five different times, and there bury a
+new-laid egg. The visit is paid about an hour before
+the cold fit is expected; and they are persuaded
+that with the Egg they shall bury the Ague. If
+the experiment fail, (and the agitation it occasions
+may often render it successful) they attribute it
+to some unlucky accident that may have befallen
+them on the way. In the execution of this matter
+they observe the strictest silence, taking care not
+to speak to anyone, whom they may happen to
+meet. I shall here note another Remedy against
+the Ague mentioned as above, viz., by breaking a
+salted Cake of Bran and giving it to a Dog, when
+the fit comes on, by which means they suppose the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span>
+malady to be transferred from them to the Animal."<a name="FNanchor_130_127" id="FNanchor_130_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_127" class="fnanchor">130</a>
+This and similar methods were designated transplantation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bites of Venomous Animals.</i>&mdash;It is an old medical
+superstition that every animal whose bite is poisonous
+carries the cure within itself, but external
+charms were also used. It was thought that the
+poison of the Spanish fly existed in the body, while
+the head and wings contained the antidote. "A
+hair of the dog that bites you" is the cure for hydrophobia,
+the fat of the viper was the remedy for
+its bite, and "three scruples of the ashes of the witch,
+when she had been well and carefully burnt at a
+stake, is a sure catholicon against all the evil effects
+of witchcraft."<a name="FNanchor_131_128" id="FNanchor_131_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_128" class="fnanchor">131</a></p>
+
+<p>Serpents' bites, which were always considered
+very dangerous, were said to be healed by people
+called sauveurs, who had a mark of St. Catharine's
+wheel upon their palates. Snake stones, originally
+brought from Java, were supposed to absorb the
+poison by being simply placed over the bite. Russel
+mentions a charm against mosquitoes, used in
+Aleppo. It consisted of certain unintelligible characters
+inscribed on a little slip of paper, which was
+pasted over the windows or upon the lintel of the
+door. One family has obtained, through heredity,
+the power of making these charms, and they distrib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>ute
+them on a certain day of the year without remuneration.</p>
+
+<p>Navarette was told that the best remedy against
+scorpions was to make a commemoration of St.
+George when going to bed. This, he says, never
+failed, but he also rubbed the bed with garlic. The
+following is given as a cure for the sting of the scorpion:
+"The patient is to sit on an ass, with his face
+to the tail of the animal, by which the pain will be
+transmitted from the man to the beast." Or again,
+a person who was bitten by either a tarantulla or
+a mad dog must go nine times round the town on
+the Sabbath, calling upon and imploring the assistance
+of the saint. On the third night&mdash;the prayers
+being heard and granted, and the health restored&mdash;the
+madness was removed. The prayer was as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Thou who presidest over the Apulian shores,</span>
+<span class="i05">Thou who curest the bites of mad dogs,</span>
+<span class="i05">Thou, O Sacred One, ward off this cruel plague,</span>
+<span class="i05">Get thee far hence, O madness, O fury."<a name="FNanchor_132_129" id="FNanchor_132_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_129" class="fnanchor">132</a></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Burns.</i>&mdash;The following is "A Charme for a burning":</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"There came three angels out of the east;</span>
+<span class="i05">The one brought fire, the two brought frost&mdash;</span>
+<span class="i05">Out fire; in frost;</span>
+<span class="i05">In the name of the Father, and Son, and Holy Ghost.</span>
+<span class="i15">&mdash;Amen."<a name="FNanchor_133_130" id="FNanchor_133_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_130" class="fnanchor">133</a></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span>Childbirth.</i>&mdash;Many superstitious practices have
+grown up around this condition. In 1554, Bonner,
+Bishop of London, forbade "a mydwife of his diocese
+to exercise any witchecrafte, charmes, sorcerye,
+invocations, or praiers, other than such as be allowable
+and may stand with the lawes and ordinances
+of the Catholike Church." In 1559, the first year
+of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, an inquiry was
+instituted "whether you knowe any that doe use
+charmes, sorcery, enchauntementes, invocations, circles,
+witchecraftes, southsayinge, or any lyke craftes
+or imaginacions invented by the devyl, and specially
+in the tyme of woman's travaylle." Two years
+before this, the midwives took an oath among themselves,
+so Strype tells us, not to "suffer any other
+bodies' child to be set, brought, or laid before any
+woman delivered of child in the place of her natural
+child, so far forth as I can know and understand.
+Also I will not use any kind of sorcerye or incantation
+in the time of the travail of any woman."</p>
+
+<p>The eagle stone and iris were supposed to promote
+an easy delivery, and the sardonyx was laid
+<i>inter mammas</i> to procure an easy birth; a sardonyx
+formerly belonged to the monastery of St. Albans
+to be used for this purpose. In some countries,
+during childbirth, the men lie in, keep their beds,
+and are attended as if really sick, sometimes as
+long as six weeks.<a name="FNanchor_134_131" id="FNanchor_134_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_131" class="fnanchor">134</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span><i>Chorea.</i>&mdash;Of all the charms against this disease,
+St. Vitus' dance, none seemed so effectual as an
+application to the saint. In the translation of
+Naogeorgus, Barnabe Googe says:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The nexte is VITUS sodde in oyle, before whose ymage faire</span>
+<span class="i05">Both men and women bringing hennes for offring doe repaire:</span>
+<span class="i05">The cause whereof I doe not know, I think, for some disease</span>
+<span class="i05">Which he is thought to drive away from such as him doe please."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Colic.</i>&mdash;This disorder was cured by a person drinking
+the water in which he had washed his feet; we
+might well consider the cure worse than the disease.</p>
+
+<p><i>Consumption.</i>&mdash;Shaw<a name="FNanchor_135_132" id="FNanchor_135_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_132" class="fnanchor">135</a> speaks of a cure for consumptive
+diseases used in his time in Moray. "They
+pared the Nails of the Fingers and Toes of the Patient,
+put these Parings into a Rag cut from his
+clothes, then waved their Hand with the Rag thrice
+round his head crying <i>Deas soil</i>, after which they
+buried the Rag in some unknown place." Dr.
+Baas<a name="FNanchor_136_133" id="FNanchor_136_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_133" class="fnanchor">136</a> declares that natural pills of rabbit's dung
+were in use on the Rhine as a cure for consumption.</p>
+
+<p>"There is a disease," says the minister of Logierait,
+writing in 1795, "called Glacach by the Highlanders,
+which, as it affects the chest and lungs, is
+evidently of a consumptive nature. It is called
+Macdonald's disease, 'because there are particular
+tribes of Macdonalds, who were believed to cure it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>
+with the Charms of their touch, and the use of a
+certain set of words. There must be no fee given
+of any kind. Their faith in the touch of a Macdonald
+is very great.'"<a name="FNanchor_137_134" id="FNanchor_137_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_134" class="fnanchor">137</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cramp.</i>&mdash;Among the many charms for cramp, the
+following is taken from <i>Pepys' Diary</i>:<a name="FNanchor_138_135" id="FNanchor_138_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_135" class="fnanchor">138</a></p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Cramp be thou faintless,</span>
+<span class="i05">As our Lady was sinless</span>
+<span class="i05">When she bare Jesus."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Demoniacal Possession.</i>&mdash;To know when a person
+is possessed, try the following, says King: "Take the
+harte and liver of a fysshe called a Pyck, and put
+them into a pot wyth glowynge hot coles, and hold
+the same to the patient so that the smoke may entre
+into hym. If he is possessed he cannot abyde that
+smoke, but rageth and is angry." "It is good also
+to make a fyre in hys chamber of Juniper wood,
+and caste into the fire Franckincense and S. John's
+wort, for the evill spirits cannot abyde thys sent,
+and Waxe angry, whereby may be perceived whether
+a man be possessed or not."<a name="FNanchor_139_136" id="FNanchor_139_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_136" class="fnanchor">139</a> I am afraid that
+possession would be sadly common if either of these
+tests were applied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dislocation.</i>&mdash;Among the oldest charms we have
+is one given by Cato the Censor for the reduction of
+a dislocated limb, and passed on to us by Pettigrew.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span></p>
+<p>"A dislocation may be cured by this charm. Take
+a reed four or five feet long; cut it in the middle, and
+let two men hold the points towards each other for
+insertion. While this is doing repeat these words:
+<i>In Alio S. F. Motas v&oelig;ta, Daries Dardaries Astataries
+Dissunapitur</i>. Now jerk a piece of iron upon
+the reeds at their juncture, and cut right and left.
+Bind them to the dislocation or fracture, and it will
+effect a cure."<a name="FNanchor_140_137" id="FNanchor_140_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_137" class="fnanchor">140</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dropsy.</i>&mdash;Toads were formed into a powder called
+Pulvis &AElig;thiopicus, the mode of preparation being
+given in Bates's Pharmacop&oelig;ia. This powder was
+used externally, and also given internally in cases
+of dropsy and other diseases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epilepsy.</i>&mdash;The liver of a dead athlete was a
+sovereign remedy against epilepsy in early days.
+In Lincolnshire a portion of a human skull taken
+from a grave was grated and given to epileptics as
+a cure for fits, and the water in which a corpse had
+been washed was given to a man in Glasgow for
+the same purpose.<a name="FNanchor_141_138" id="FNanchor_141_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_138" class="fnanchor">141</a> Another remedy was also proposed:
+"If a man be greved wyth the fallinge sicknesse,
+let him take a he-Wolves harte and make it
+to pouder and use it: but if it be a woman, let her
+take a she-Wolves harte."<a name="FNanchor_142_139" id="FNanchor_142_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_139" class="fnanchor">142</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span></p>
+<p>John of Gladdesden, who was court physician from
+1305-1317, spoke thus concerning epilepsy: "Because
+there are many children and others afflicted
+with the epilepsy, who cannot take medicines, let
+the following experiment be tried, which I have
+found to be effectual, whether the patient was a
+demoniac, a lunatic, or an epileptic. When the
+patient and his parents have fasted three days, let
+them conduct him to church. If he be of a proper
+age, and of his right senses, let him confess. Then
+let him hear Mass on Friday, and also on Saturday.
+On Sunday let a good and religious priest read over
+the head of the patient, in the church, the gospel
+which is read in September, in the time of vintage,
+after the feast of the Holy Cross. After this, let
+the priest write the same gospel devoutly, and let
+the patient wear it about his neck, and he shall be
+cured. The gospel is, 'This kind goeth not out but
+by prayer and fasting.'"<a name="FNanchor_143_140" id="FNanchor_143_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_140" class="fnanchor">143</a></p>
+
+<p>Among some African tribes the foot of an elk is
+considered a splendid remedy against epilepsy. One
+foot only of each animal possesses virtue, and the
+way to ascertain the valuable foot is to "knock the
+beast down, when he will immediately lift up that
+leg which is most efficacious to scratch his ear.
+Then you must be ready with a sharp scymitar to
+lop off the medicinal limb, and you shall find an
+infallible remedy against the falling sickness treasured
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>
+up in his claws." The American Indians and
+medi&aelig;val Norwegians also considered this a sure
+remedy. The person afflicted, however, must apply
+it to his heart, hold it in his left hand, and rub his
+ear with it.<a name="FNanchor_144_141" id="FNanchor_144_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_141" class="fnanchor">144</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Evil-eye.</i>&mdash;Children were supposed to be most
+susceptible to the evil-eye. Charms and amulets
+were furnished against fascination in general. Certain
+figures in bronze, coral, ivory, etc., representing
+a closed hand with the thumb thrust out between
+the first and second fingers called the <i>fig</i>,
+were common. In Henry IV, Part II, Pistol
+says:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"When Pistol lies, do this; and fig me, like</span>
+<span class="i05">The bragging Spaniard."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Eye Diseases.</i>&mdash;Among the early Germans, ambulatory
+female medicists were not uncommon, and
+they cured largely through charms. The following
+is a charm used for eye diseases:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Three maidens once going</span>
+<span class="i0">On a verdant highway;</span>
+<span class="i0">One could cure blindness,</span>
+<span class="i0">Another cured cataract,</span>
+<span class="i0">Third cured inflammation;</span>
+<span class="i0">But all cured by one means."<a name="FNanchor_145_142" id="FNanchor_145_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_142" class="fnanchor">145</a></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span><i>Fevers.</i>&mdash;This charm was used for fever: "Wryt
+thys Wordys on a lorell lef&#9840;Ysmael&#9840;Ysmael&#9840;
+adjuro vos per Angelum ut soporetur iste Homo N.
+and ley thys lef under hys head that he wete not
+therof, and let hym ete Letuse oft and drynk Ip'e
+seed smal grounden in a morter, and temper yt with
+Ale."<a name="FNanchor_146_143" id="FNanchor_146_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_143" class="fnanchor">146</a></p>
+
+<p>"The fever," says Werenfels, "he will not drive
+away by medicines, but, what is a more certain remedy,
+having pared his nails and tied them to a crayfish,
+he will turn his back, and as Deucalion did the
+stones from which a new progeny of men arose,
+throw them behind him into the next river."<a name="FNanchor_147_144" id="FNanchor_147_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_144" class="fnanchor">147</a></p>
+
+<p>The "Leech book"<a name="FNanchor_148_145" id="FNanchor_148_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_145" class="fnanchor">148</a> says that for typhus fever
+the patient is to drink of a decoction of herbs over
+which many masses have been sung, then say the
+names of the four "gospellers" and a charm and a
+prayer. Again, a man is to write a charm in silence,
+and just as silently put the words in his left breast
+and take care not to go in-doors with the writing
+upon him, the words being EMMANUEL VERONICA.
+The Loseley MSS. prescribe the following
+for all manner of fevers: "Take iii drops of a woman's
+mylke yt norseth a knave childe, and do it
+in a hennes egge that ys sedentere (or sitting), and
+let hym suppe it up when the evyl takes hym."</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span></p>
+<p><i>Goitre.</i>&mdash;The dew collected from the grave of the
+last man buried in a church-yard has been used as
+a lotion for goitre, and a correspondent of <i>Notes
+and Queries</i> for May 24, 1851, furnishes two remedies
+then in use at Withyam, Sussex. "A common
+snake, held by its head and tail, is slowly drawn by
+someone standing by nine times across the front
+part of the neck of the person affected, the reptile
+being allowed, after every third time, to crawl about
+for awhile. Afterwards the snake is put alive in a
+bottle, which is corked tightly, and then buried in
+the ground. The tradition is, that as the snake
+decays, the swelling vanishes. The second mode
+of treatment is just the same as the above, with the
+exception of the snake's doom. In this case it is
+kidded, and its skin, sewn in a piece of silk, is worn
+round the diseased neck. By degrees the swelling
+in this case also disappears."</p>
+
+<p><i>Headache.</i>&mdash;In Brand's day, the rope which remained
+after a man had been hanged and cut down
+was an object of eager competition, being regarded
+as of great virtue in attacks of headache, and Gross
+says: "Moss growing on a human skull, if dried,
+powdered, and taken as snuff, will cure the Headach."
+Loadstone was also recommended as a sovereign
+remedy for this malady. Pliny said that any
+person might be immediately cured of the headache
+by the application of any plant which has grown on
+the head of a statue, provided it be folded in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span>
+shred of a garment, and tied to the part affected
+with a red string.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemorrhage.</i>&mdash;The following charm has been used
+to stop bleeding at the nose and other hemorrhages:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"In the blood of Adam Sin was taken,</span>
+<span class="i05">In the blood of Christ it was all shaken,</span>
+<span class="i05">And by the same blood I do the charge,</span>
+<span class="i05">That the blood of (insert name) run no longer at large."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pepys in his <i>Diary</i> gives us a Latin charm of which
+the following is a translation:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Blood remain in Thee,</span>
+<span class="i05">As Christ was in himself;</span>
+<span class="i05">Blood remain in thy veins,</span>
+<span class="i05">As Christ in his pains;</span>
+<span class="i05">Blood remain fixed,</span>
+<span class="i05">As Christ was on the crucifix."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Brand, the historian of Orkney, says: "They
+have a charm whereby they stop excessive bleeding
+in any, whatever way they come by it, whether by
+or without external violence. The name of the Patient
+being sent to the Charmer, he saith over some
+words, (which I heard,) upon which the blood instantly
+stoppeth, though the bleeding Patient were
+at the greatest distance from the Charmer. Yea,
+upon the saying of these words, the blood will stop
+in the bleeding throats of oxen or sheep, to the
+astonishment of Spectators. Which account we had
+from the Ministers of the Country."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span>Boyle says: "Having been one summer frequently
+subject to bleeding at the nose, and reduced to employ
+several remedies to check that distemper; that
+which I found the most effectual to stanch the blood
+was some moss of a dead man's skull, (sent for a
+present out of Ireland, where it is far less rare than
+in most other countries,) though it did but touch
+my skin, till the herb was a little warmed by it."<a name="FNanchor_149_146" id="FNanchor_149_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_146" class="fnanchor">149</a></p>
+
+<p>Brand gives "A charme to staunch blood: Jesus
+that was in Bethleem born, and baptyzed was in
+the flumen Jordane, as stente the water at hys
+comyng, so stente the blood of thys man N. thy
+servvaunt, thorw the virtu of thy holy Name &#9840;
+Jesu &#9840; &amp; of thy Cosyn swete Sent Jon. And sey
+thys charme fyve tymes with fyve Pater Nosters,
+in the worschep of the fyve woundys."<a name="FNanchor_150_147" id="FNanchor_150_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_147" class="fnanchor">150</a></p>
+
+<p>"In the year 1853," says Berdoe, "I saw among
+the more precious drugs in the shop of a pharmaceutical
+chemist at Leamington a bottle labelled in
+the ordinary way with the words, Moss from a
+Dead-Man's Skull. This has long been used, superstitiously,
+dried, powdered, and taken as snuff, for
+headache and bleeding at the nose."</p>
+
+<p><i>Herpes.</i>&mdash;Turner<a name="FNanchor_151_148" id="FNanchor_151_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_148" class="fnanchor">151</a> notices a prevalent charm
+among old women for the shingles, and which is not
+uncommonly heard of to-day. It was to smear on
+the affected part the blood from a black cat's tail.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span>
+He says that in the only case when he saw it used
+it caused considerable mischief.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incubus.</i>&mdash;Stones with holes through them were
+commonly called hag-stones, and were often attached
+to the key of the stable door to prevent witches riding
+the horses. One of these suspended at the head
+of the bed was celebrated for the prevention of
+nightmare. In the "Leech book"<a name="FNanchor_152_149" id="FNanchor_152_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_149" class="fnanchor">152</a> we find the following:
+"If a mare or hag ride a man, take lupins,
+garlic, and betony, and frankincense, bind them on
+a fawn skin, let a man have the worts on him, and
+let him go into his house." Notice the following
+from Lluellin's poems:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Some the night-mare hath prest</span>
+<span class="i0">With that weight on their brest,</span>
+<span class="i2">No returnes of their breath can passe,</span>
+<span class="i0">But to us the tale is addle,</span>
+<span class="i0">We can take off her saddle,</span>
+<span class="i2">And turn out the night-mare to grasse."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Insomnia.</i>&mdash;In the Loseley MSS. we find a receipt
+"For hym that may not slepe. Take and
+wryte yese wordes into leves of lether: Ismael!
+Ismael! adjuro te per Angelum Michaelum ut soporetur
+homo iste; and lay this under his bed, so yt
+he wot not yerof and use it allway lytell, and lytell,
+as he have nede yerto."</p>
+
+<p><i>Jaundice.</i>&mdash;This disease was sometimes cured by
+transplantation, and Paracelsus gives us a method
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>
+for carrying this out. Make seven or nine&mdash;it must
+be an odd number&mdash;cakes of the newly emitted and
+warm urine of the patient with the ashes of ash wood,
+and bury them for some days in a dunghill.</p>
+
+<p>In the journal of Dr. Edward Browne, transmitted
+to his father, Sir Thomas Browne, we read
+of a magical cure for jaundice: "Burne wood under
+a leaden vessel filled with water; take the ashes of
+that wood, and boyle it with the patient's urine;
+then lay nine long heaps of the boyled ashes upon a
+board in a ranke, and upon every heap lay nine
+spears of crocus: it hath greater effects than is credible
+to any one that shall barely read this receipt
+without experiencing."<a name="FNanchor_153_150" id="FNanchor_153_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_150" class="fnanchor">153</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Madness.</i>&mdash;The early inhabitants of Cornwall used
+"to place the disordered in mind on the brink of a
+square pool, filled with water from St. Nun's well.
+The patient, having no intimation of what was intended,
+was, by a sudden blow on the breast, tumbled
+into the pool, where he was tossed up and down
+by some persons of superior strength till, being quite
+debilitated, his fury forsook him; he was then carried
+to church, and certain masses were sung over
+him. A similar practice of the people of Perthshire
+is noticed by Sir Walter Scott in <i>Marmion</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Thence to St. Fillan's blessed well,</span>
+<span class="i05">Whose spring can frenzied dreams dispel,</span>
+<span class="i05">And the crazed brain restore."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span><i>Marasmus.</i>&mdash;Mr. Boyle relates the case of a physician
+whose wan face betokened a marasmus, and
+who was induced to try a method not unlike the
+sympathetic cures. "He took an egg and boiled
+it hard in his own warm urine; he then with a
+bodkin perforated the shell in many places, and
+buried it in an ant-hill, where it was kept to be
+devoured by the emmets; and as they wasted the
+egg, he found his distemper to abate and his
+strength to increase, insomuch that his disease left
+him."<a name="FNanchor_154_151" id="FNanchor_154_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_151" class="fnanchor">154</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Rickets.</i>&mdash;The most common method of dealing
+with this disease was by drawing the children through
+a split tree. The tree was afterward bound up and,
+as it healed and grew together, the children acquired
+strength; at least, so 'twas said. Sir John
+Cullum saw the operation performed and says that
+the ash tree was selected as most preferable for the
+purpose. "It was split longitudinally about five
+feet: the fissure was kept open by the gardener,
+whilst the friend of the child, having first stripped
+him naked, passed him thrice through it, almost
+head foremost. This accomplished, the tree was
+bound up with packthread, and as the bark healed,
+so it was said the child would recover. One of the
+cases was of rickets, the other a rupture." Drawing
+the children through a perforated stone was
+also a cure for rickets, providing that two brass
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>pins were carefully laid across each other on the
+top edge of this stone.<a name="FNanchor_155_152" id="FNanchor_155_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_152" class="fnanchor">155</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Sciatica.</i>&mdash;Sleeping on stones on a particular night
+was formerly practised in Cornwall to cure all forms
+of lameness. Boneshave was the term used for
+sciatica in Exmoor, where the following charm was
+used for its cure: The patient must lie on his back
+on the bank of a river or brook, having a straight
+staff lying by his side between him and the water,
+and must have the following words repeated over him:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Boneshave right,</span>
+<span class="i05">Boneshave straight.</span>
+<span class="i05">As the water runs by the stave</span>
+<span class="i05">Good for Boneshave."<a name="FNanchor_156_153" id="FNanchor_156_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_153" class="fnanchor">156</a></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Scrofula.</i>&mdash;Scrofula, or "king's-evil," was best
+cured by the touch of the sovereign, but, if this could
+not be accomplished, a naked virgin could cure it,
+especially if she spit three times upon it. Stroking
+the affected parts nine times with the hand of a dead
+man, particularly of one who had suffered a violent
+death as a penalty of his crime, especially if it be
+murder, was long practised, and was said to be
+efficacious in curing scrofula.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sweating Sickness.</i>&mdash;Aubrey<a name="FNanchor_157_154" id="FNanchor_157_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_154" class="fnanchor">157</a> gives a selection of
+the favorite prescriptions in use against the sweating
+sickness. Among them was the following:
+"Another very true medicine.&mdash;For to say every
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>day at seven parts of your body, seven paternosters,
+and seven Ave Marias, with one Credo at the last.
+Ye shall begyn at the ryght syde, under the right
+ere, saying the '<i>paternoster qui es in coelis, sanctificetur
+nomen tuum</i>,' with a cross made there with
+your thumb, and so say the paternoster full complete,
+and one Ave Maria, and then under the left
+ere, and then under the left armhole, and then under
+the left hole, and then the last at the heart,
+with one paternoster, Ave Maria with one Credo;
+and these thus said daily, with the grace of God is
+there no manner drede hym."</p>
+
+<p><i>Thorns.</i>&mdash;Three metrical charms have been used
+for troubles of this kind. <i>Pepys' Diary</i> records "A
+charme for a thorne":</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Jesus, that was of a Virgin Born,</span>
+<span class="i05">Was pricked both with nail and thorn;</span>
+<span class="i05">It neither wealed, nor belled, rankled nor boned;</span>
+<span class="i05">In the name of Jesus no more shall this."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another form of the same is this:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Christ was of a Virgin born,</span>
+<span class="i05">And he was pricked with a thorn;</span>
+<span class="i05">It did neither bell, nor swell;</span>
+<span class="i05">And I trust in Jesus this never will."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Brand gives another thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Unto the Virgin Mary our Saviour was born,</span>
+<span class="i05">And on his head he wore the crown of thorn;</span>
+<span class="i05">If you believe this true and mind it well,</span>
+<span class="i05">This hurt will never fester, nor yet swell."<a name="FNanchor_158_155" id="FNanchor_158_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_155" class="fnanchor">158</a></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span><i>Toothache.</i>&mdash;King in his interesting article recites
+this cure: "Seeth as many little green frogges sitting
+upon trees as thou canst get, in water: take
+the fat flowynge from them, and when nede is,
+anoynt the teth therwyth. The graye worms breathing
+under wood or stone, having many fete, these
+perced through with a bodken and then put into
+the toth, alayeth the payne."<a name="FNanchor_159_156" id="FNanchor_159_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_156" class="fnanchor">159</a> A nail driven into
+an oak tree is reported to be a cure for this pain,
+and bones from a church-yard have from ancient
+times been used as charms against this disease.</p>
+
+<p>An early idea was that toothache was caused by
+a worm and that henbane seed roasted would cure
+it. The following from "The School of Salerne"
+formulates this superstition:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"If in your teeth you hap to be tormented,</span>
+<span class="i05">By meane some little wormes therein do breed,</span>
+<span class="i05">Which pain (if heed be tane) may be prevented,</span>
+<span class="i05">Be keeping cleane your teeth, when as you feede;</span>
+<span class="i05">Burne Francomsence (a gum not evil sented),</span>
+<span class="i05">Put Henbane unto this, and Onyon seed,</span>
+<span class="i05">And with a tunnel to the tooth that's hollow,</span>
+<span class="i05">Convey the smoke thereof, and ease shall follow."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even to-day, I suppose, druggists sell henbane
+seed for this purpose. The seed is used by sprinkling
+it on hot cinders and holding the open mouth
+over the rising smoke. The heat causes the seed to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>
+sprout, and thus there appears something similar
+to a maggot, which is ignorantly supposed by the
+sufferer to have dropped from the tooth.<a name="FNanchor_160_157" id="FNanchor_160_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_157" class="fnanchor">160</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Warts.</i>&mdash;The cures for warts are many and varied.
+There have been many charms devised for their
+removal. Grose gives directions to "Steal a piece
+of beef from a butcher's shop, and rub your wart
+with it, then throw it down the necessary house, or
+bury it, and as the beef rots, your warts will decay."<a name="FNanchor_161_158" id="FNanchor_161_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_158" class="fnanchor">161</a>
+Some have great faith in having a vagrant count
+them, mark the number on the inside of his hat,
+and then when he leaves the neighborhood he
+takes the warts with him. Coffin water was also
+considered good for them.</p>
+
+<p>"For warts," says Sir Thomas Browne, "we rub
+our hands before the moon, and commit any magulated
+part to the touch of the dead. Old Women
+were always famous for curing warts; they were so
+in Lucian's time."<a name="FNanchor_162_159" id="FNanchor_162_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_159" class="fnanchor">162</a></p>
+
+<p>Sir Kenelm Digby, in a work already referred to,
+says: "One would think that it were folly that one
+should offer to wash his hands in a well-polished
+silver basin, wherein there is not a drop of water,
+yet this may be done by the reflection of the moonbeams
+only, which will afford it a competent humidity
+to do it; but they who have tried it, have found
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span>
+their hands, after they are wiped, to be much moister
+than usually; but this is an infallible way to take
+away warts from the hands, if it be often used."</p>
+
+<p>Black gives us several ways of charming away
+warts. He says: "Lancashire wise men tell us for
+warts to rub them with a cinder, and this tied up in
+paper, and dropped where four roads meet, will
+transfer the warts to whoever opens the parcel.
+Another mode of transferring warts is to touch each
+wart with a pebble, and place the pebbles in a bag,
+which should be lost on the way to church; whoever
+finds the bag gets the warts." A common
+Warwickshire custom was to rub the warts with a
+black snail, stick the snail on a thorn bush, and then,
+say the folks, as the snail dies so will the wart disappear.<a name="FNanchor_163_160" id="FNanchor_163_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_160" class="fnanchor">163</a></p>
+
+<p>Warts, on the other hand, seem in certain cases
+to be considered lucky. In "Syr Gyles Goosecappe,
+Knight," a play of 1606, Lord Momford is made to
+say: "The Creses here are excellent good: the proportion
+of the chin good; the little aptnes of it to
+sticke out; good. And the wart aboue it most exceeding
+good."</p>
+
+<p><i>Wen.</i>&mdash;A newspaper of 1777 reports: "After he
+(Doctor Dodd) had hung about ten minutes, a very
+decently dressed young woman went up to the gallows
+in order to have a wen in her face stroked
+by the Doctor's hand; it being a received opinion
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span>
+among the vulgar that it is a certain cure for such
+a disorder. The executioner, having untied the
+Doctor's hand, stroked the part affected several
+times therewith."</p>
+
+<p>At the execution of Crowley, a murderer of Warwick,
+in 1845, a similar scene is described in the
+newspapers: "At least five thousand persons of the
+lowest of the low were mustered on this occasion to
+witness the dying moments of the unhappy culprit.... As
+is usual in such cases (to their shame be it
+spoken) a number of females were present, and
+scarcely had the soul of the deceased taken its farewell
+flight from its earthly tabernacle, than the
+scaffold was crowded with members of the 'gentler
+sex' afflicted with wens in the neck, with white
+swellings in the knees, &amp;c., upon whose afflictions
+the cold clammy hand of the sufferer was passed to
+and fro for the benefit of his executioner."<a name="FNanchor_164_161" id="FNanchor_164_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_161" class="fnanchor">164</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Whooping-Cough.</i>&mdash;It was a common belief in
+Devonshire, Cornwall, and some other parts of
+England, that if one inquired of any one riding on
+a piebald horse of a remedy for this complaint, whatever
+he named was regarded as an infallible cure.
+In Suffolk and Norfolk, a favorite remedy was to
+put the head of a suffering child for a few minutes
+into a hole made in a meadow. It must be done
+in the evening with only the father and mother
+to witness it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>A child in Cornwall received the following treatment:
+"If afflicted with the hooping cough, it is
+fed with the bread and butter of a family, the heads
+of which bear respectively the names of John and
+Joan. In the time of an epidemic, so numerous
+are the applications, that the poor couple have little
+reason to be grateful to their godfathers and
+godmothers for their gift of these particular names.
+Or, if a piebald horse is to be found in the neighbourhood,
+the child is taken to it, and passed thrice
+under the belly of the animal; the mere possession
+of such a beast confers the power of curing the
+disease."</p>
+
+<p>We have an account of a cure for whooping-cough
+in a Monmouthshire paper about the middle
+of the nineteenth century. "A few days since an
+unusual circumstance was observed at Pillgwenlly,
+which caused no small degree of astonishment to
+one or two enlightened beholders. A patient ass
+stood near a house, and a family of not much more
+rational animals was grouped around it. A father
+was passing his little son under the donkey, and
+lifting him over its back a certain number of times,
+with as much solemnity and precision as if engaged
+in the performance of a sacred duty. This done,
+the father took a piece of bread, cut from an untasted
+loaf, which he offered the animal to bite at.
+Nothing loath, the Jerusalem poney laid hold of the
+piece of bread with his teeth, and instantly the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>
+father severed the outer portion of the slice from
+that in the donkey's mouth. He next clipped off
+some hairs from the neck of the animal, which he
+cut up into minute particles, and then mixed them
+with the bread which he had crumbled. This very
+tasty food was then offered to the boy who had
+been passed round the donkey so mysteriously, and
+the little fellow having eaten thereof, the donkey
+was removed by his owners. The father, his son,
+and other members of his family were moving off,
+when a bystander inquired what all these 'goings
+on' had been adopted for? The father stared at
+the ignorance of the inquirer, and then in a half
+contemptuous, half condescending tone, informed
+him that 'it was to cure his poor son's whooping-cough,
+to be sure!' Extraordinary as this may appear,
+in days when the schoolmaster is so much in
+request, it is nevertheless true."</p>
+
+<p>There is a belief in Cheshire that, if a toad is held
+for a moment within the mouth of the patient, it
+is apt to catch the disease, and so cure the person
+suffering from it. A correspondent of <i>Notes and
+Queries</i> speaks of a case in which such a phenomenon
+actually occurred; but the experiment
+is one which would not be very willingly tried.
+Brand informs us that "Roasted mice were formerly
+held in Norfolk a sure remedy for this
+complaint; nor is it certain that the belief is extinct
+even now. A poor woman's son once found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>
+himself greatly relieved after eating three roast
+mice!"<a name="FNanchor_165_162" id="FNanchor_165_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_162" class="fnanchor">165</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Worms.</i>&mdash;A Scotch writer in the last half of the
+seventeenth century observed: "In the Miscellaneous
+MSS. ... written by Baillie Dundee, among
+several medicinal receipts I find an exorcism against
+all kinds of worms in the body, in the name of the
+Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, to be repeated three
+mornings, as a certain remedy."<a name="FNanchor_166_163" id="FNanchor_166_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_163" class="fnanchor">166</a></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_119" id="Footnote_122_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_119"><span class="label">122</span></a> S. B. Gould, <i>Curious Myths of the Middle Ages</i>, p. 273.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_120" id="Footnote_123_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_120"><span class="label">123</span></a> H. Morley, <i>Life of Cornelius Agrippa</i>, I, p. 165.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_121" id="Footnote_124_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_121"><span class="label">124</span></a> M. Thiers, <i>Trait&eacute; des Superstitions</i>, p. 436.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_122" id="Footnote_125_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_122"><span class="label">125</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_123" id="Footnote_126_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_123"><span class="label">126</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_124" id="Footnote_127_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_124"><span class="label">127</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 229 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_125" id="Footnote_128_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_125"><span class="label">128</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, III, pp. 228 and 237.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_126" id="Footnote_129_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_126"><span class="label">129</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 94 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_127" id="Footnote_130_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_127"><span class="label">130</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 252 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_128" id="Footnote_131_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_128"><span class="label">131</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 416.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_129" id="Footnote_132_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_129"><span class="label">132</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Surgery and
+Medicine</i>, pp. 104-106.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_130" id="Footnote_133_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_130"><span class="label">133</span></a> <i>Pepys' Diary</i>, I, p. 323.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_131" id="Footnote_134_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_131"><span class="label">134</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 113-115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_132" id="Footnote_135_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_132"><span class="label">135</span></a> <i>History of Moray</i>, p. 248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_133" id="Footnote_136_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_133"><span class="label">136</span></a> <i>History of Medicine</i>, p. 159.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_134" id="Footnote_137_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_134"><span class="label">137</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 240 and 248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_135" id="Footnote_138_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_135"><span class="label">138</span></a> I, p. 324.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_136" id="Footnote_139_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_136"><span class="label">139</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 149.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_137" id="Footnote_140_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_137"><span class="label">140</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, p. 77.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_138" id="Footnote_141_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_138"><span class="label">141</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Medical Art</i>, pp. 397 and 414.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_139" id="Footnote_142_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_139"><span class="label">142</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_140" id="Footnote_143_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_140"><span class="label">143</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 327.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_141" id="Footnote_144_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_141"><span class="label">144</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, pp. 84 f</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_142" id="Footnote_145_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_142"><span class="label">145</span></a> G. F. Fort, <i>History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages</i>,
+p. 196.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_143" id="Footnote_146_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_143"><span class="label">146</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 237.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_144" id="Footnote_147_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_144"><span class="label">147</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_145" id="Footnote_148_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_145"><span class="label">148</span></a> II, p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_146" id="Footnote_149_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_146"><span class="label">149</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 112 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_147" id="Footnote_150_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_147"><span class="label">150</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 237, 241, and 268.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_148" id="Footnote_151_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_148"><span class="label">151</span></a> <i>Diseases of the Skin</i>, p. 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_149" id="Footnote_152_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_149"><span class="label">152</span></a> II, p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_150" id="Footnote_153_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_150"><span class="label">153</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, p. 103.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_151" id="Footnote_154_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_151"><span class="label">154</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_152" id="Footnote_155_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_152"><span class="label">155</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, pp. 249 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_153" id="Footnote_156_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_153"><span class="label">156</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 245.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_154" id="Footnote_157_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_154"><span class="label">157</span></a> <i>History of England</i>, II, p. 296.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_155" id="Footnote_158_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_155"><span class="label">158</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 264.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_156" id="Footnote_159_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_156"><span class="label">159</span></a> E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, XXXIV,
+p. 148.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_157" id="Footnote_160_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_157"><span class="label">160</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 414 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_158" id="Footnote_161_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_158"><span class="label">161</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, p. 108.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_159" id="Footnote_162_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_159"><span class="label">162</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_160" id="Footnote_163_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_160"><span class="label">163</span></a> Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, pp. 415 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_161" id="Footnote_164_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_161"><span class="label">164</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_162" id="Footnote_165_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_162"><span class="label">165</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 239.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_163" id="Footnote_166_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_163"><span class="label">166</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 240.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h3>
+
+<h4>ROYAL TOUCH</h4>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Men may die of imagination,</span>
+<span class="i05">So depe may impression be take."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Chaucer</span>.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"When time shall once have laid his lenient hand on the passions
+and pursuits of the present moment, they too shall lose that imaginary
+value which heated fancy now bestows upon them."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Blair</span>.<br />
+
+"The king is but a man, as I am; the violet smells to him as it
+does to me; the element shows to him as it doth to me; all his
+senses have but human conditions; his ceremonies laid by, in his
+nakedness he appears but a man; and though his affections are
+higher mounted than ours, yet, when they stoop, they stoop with
+the like wing."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p>
+<i>Malcolm.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Comes the king forth, I pray you?<br />
+<i>Doctor.</i> Ay, sir: there are a crew of wretched souls,<br />
+That stay his cure: their malady convinces<br />
+The great assay of art; but at his touch,<br />
+Such sanctity hath heaven given his hand,<br />
+They presently amend.<br />
+<i>Malcolm.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;I thank you, doctor.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [Exit <i>Doctor.</i><br />
+<i>Macduff.</i> What's the disease he means?<br />
+<i>Malcolm.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'Tis call'd the evil:<br />
+A most miraculous work in this good king,<br />
+Which often, since my here remain in England,<br />
+I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven,<br />
+Himself best knows; but strangely-visited people,<br />
+All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye,<br />
+The mere despair of surgery, he cures;<br />
+Hanging a golden stamp about their necks,<br />
+Put on with holy prayers: and 'tis spoken,<br />
+To the succeeding royalty he leaves<br />
+The healing benediction.&mdash;<i>Macbeth</i>, Act iv, Sc. 3.
+</p></div>
+
+
+
+<p>Perhaps we have no better example of the effect
+of the belief in healers than that presented by what
+was known as "king's touch." It is typical of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span>
+cures performed by healers, and on that account I
+shall give a rather full account of the phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>Touching by the sovereign for the amelioration
+of sundry diseases was a currently accepted therapeutic
+measure. The royal touch was especially
+efficacious in epilepsy and scrofula, the latter being
+consequently known as "king's-evil." So far as
+we are able to trace this practice in history, it began
+with Edward the Confessor in England and
+St. Louis in France. There has been not a little
+dispute concerning its real origin. "Laurentius,
+first physician to Henry IV, of France, who is indignant
+at the attempt made to derive its origin from
+Edward the Confessor, asserts the power to have
+commenced with Clovis I, A. D. 481, and says that
+Louis I, A. D. 814, added to the ceremonial of
+touching, the sign of the cross. Mezeray also says,
+that St. Louis, through humility, first added the
+sign of the cross in touching for the king's evil."<a name="FNanchor_167_164" id="FNanchor_167_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_164" class="fnanchor">167</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus5" id="illus5"></a><a href="images/illus5.jpg"><img src="images/illus5-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="635" alt="KING'S TOUCH-PIECES" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">KING'S TOUCH-PIECES</span></div>
+
+<p>William of Malmesbury gives the origin of the
+royal touch in his account of the miracles of Edward
+the Confessor. "A young woman had married a
+husband of her own age, but having no issue by
+the union, the humours collecting abundantly about
+her neck, she had contracted a sore disorder, the
+glands swelling in a dreadful manner. Admonished
+in a dream to have the part affected washed by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span>king, she entered the palace, and the king himself
+fulfilled this labour of love, by rubbing the woman's
+neck with his fingers dipped in water. Joyous
+health followed his healing hand; the lurid skin
+opened, so that worms flowed out with the purulent
+matter, and the tumour subsided. But as the
+orifice of the ulcers was large and unsightly, he
+commanded her to be supported at the royal expense
+until she should be perfectly cured. However,
+before a week had expired, a fair new skin
+returned, and hid the scars so completely, that
+nothing of the original wound could be discovered;
+and within a year becoming the mother of twins,
+she increased the admiration of Edward's holiness.
+Those who knew him more intimately, affirm that
+he often cured this complaint in Normandy; whence
+appears how false is the notion, who in our times
+assert, that the cure of this disease does not proceed
+from personal sanctity, but from hereditary virtue
+in the royal line."<a name="FNanchor_168_165" id="FNanchor_168_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_165" class="fnanchor">168</a> The fact that Edward was a
+saint as well as a king throws some light on the
+subject, for many miracles were attributed to him.
+Jeremy Collier maintained that the scrofula miracle
+is hereditary upon all his successors, but we find
+that not blood but royal prestige was the secret.
+He said "that this prince cured the king's evil is
+beyond dispute: and since the credit of this miracle
+is unquestionable, I see no reason why we should
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>scruple believing the rest.... King Edward the
+Confessor was the first that cured this distemper,
+and from him it has descended as an hereditary
+miracle upon all his successors. To dispute the
+matter of fact, is to go to the excesses of skepticism,
+to deny our senses, and be incredulous even to
+ridiculousness."<a name="FNanchor_169_166" id="FNanchor_169_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_166" class="fnanchor">169</a></p>
+
+<p>The quotation given above from William of
+Malmesbury is the earliest mention of the gift of healing
+by the royal touch. No historian at or near the
+time of Edward has alluded to the supposed power
+vested in him. Not even the bull of Pope Alexander
+III, by which Edward was canonized about
+two centuries after his decease, makes any allusion
+whatever to the cures effected by him through the
+imposition of hands.</p>
+
+<p>English and French writers have disagreed not
+only regarding the origin, but also regarding the
+real possession of the power, the English denying
+it to the French kings and the French with equal
+vigor restricting it to their own sovereigns. There
+seems to be little doubt that the sovereigns of both
+nations made cures, but the healing was confined
+to these two royal families; the intermarriages in
+the two families probably account for the belief
+in the transmission of the gift, regardless of the
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>The ability to heal certain diseases passed down
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>from reign to reign notwithstanding the religious
+belief, the character, or the legitimate succession of
+the sovereign, to the time of Queen Anne. It must
+not be supposed that the practice was continuous
+for the seven centuries from Edward the Confessor
+to Anne: we have no record whatever of the first
+four Norman kings attempting to cure any one by
+the imposition of hands, and we know that William
+III refused to attempt healing. Andrew Boorde
+defines king's-evil as an "euyl sickenes or impediment,"
+and advises as follows: "For this matter
+let euery man make frendes to the Kynges maiestie,
+for it doth pertayne to a Kynge to helpe this infirmitie
+by the grace the whiche is geuen to a Kynge
+anoynted." In his <i>Introduction to Knowledge</i> (1547-1548)
+he continues: "The Kynges of England by
+the power that God hath gyuen to them, dothe make
+sicke men whole of a sickeness called the kynges
+euyll."<a name="FNanchor_170_167" id="FNanchor_170_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_167" class="fnanchor">170</a></p>
+
+<p>There is a curious passage in Aubrey in which he
+says: "The curing of the King's Evil by the touch
+of the king, does much puzzle our philosophers, for
+whether our kings were of the house of York or
+Lancaster, it did the cure for the most part." Sir
+John Fortescue, in defending the House of Lancaster
+against the House of York, claimed that the
+crown could not descend to a female because the
+Queen was not qualified by the form of anointing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span>
+her to cure the disease called the king's-evil. It
+must have been very comforting to all concerned
+to find that the power to cure disease by the royal
+touch had not been affected by the change of sex
+of the reigning sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>The gift was not impaired by the Reformation,
+and an obdurate Roman Catholic was converted on
+finding that Elizabeth, after the Pope's excommunication,
+could cure his scrofula. Elizabeth, however,
+could not bring herself fully to accept the
+reality of these cures. She continued the practice
+on account of the pressure of public opinion, but
+upon one occasion she told a multitude of afflicted
+ones who had applied to her for relief, "God alone
+can cure your diseases." Dr. Tooker, the Queen's
+chaplain, though, certified freely to his own knowledge
+of the cures wrought by her, as did also
+William Cowles, the Queen's surgeon. Robert
+Laneham's letter, concerning the Queen's visit to
+Kenilworth Castle, relates how, on July 18, 1575,
+her Majesty touched for the evil, and that it
+was a "day of grace." "By her highnes accustumed
+mercy and charitee, nyne cured of the peynfull
+and daungerous diseaz, called the king's euill;
+for that Kings and Queenz of this Realm withoout
+oother medsin (saue only by handling and prayerz)
+only doo cure it."</p>
+
+<p>James I wished to drop it as a worn-out superstition,
+but was warned by his advisers that to do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>
+so would be to abate a prerogative of the crown;
+the practice therefore continued, and good testimony
+exists as to the cures wrought by him. The
+following is an extract from a letter from John
+Chamberlain to Sir Dudley Carleton, ambassador at
+The Hague, dated London, 14th November, 1618:
+"The Turkish Chiaus is shortly coming for the Hagh.
+On Tuesday last he took leave of the king, and
+thanked his majesty for healing his sonne of the
+kinges evill; which his majesty performed with all
+solemnity at Whitehall on Thursday was seve-night."
+Charles I also enjoyed the same power,
+notwithstanding the public declaration by Parliament
+"to inform the people of the superstition of
+being touched by the king for the evil." When a
+prisoner he cured a man by simply saying, "God
+bless thee and grant thee thy desire," the Puritans
+not permitting him to touch the patient. Whereupon
+it is asserted by Dr. John Nicholas on his own
+knowledge, the blotches and humors disappeared
+from the patient's body and appeared in the bottle
+of medicine which he held in his hand. Charles's
+blood had the same efficacy. This sovereign substituted
+in some cases the giving of a piece of silver
+instead of the gold, which was usually presented to
+the patient. Badger says that this king "excelled
+all his predecessors in the divine gift; for it is manifest
+beyond all contradiction, that he not only cured
+by his sacred touch, both with and without gold,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>
+but likewise perfectly effected the same cure by his
+prayer and benediction only." In his reign the gift
+was exercised at certain seasons of the year, Easter
+and Michaelmas being at first set apart for this
+purpose. A further regulation, which is quite suggestive,
+was that the patient must present a certificate
+to the effect that he had never before been
+touched for the disease.</p>
+
+<p>The following incident is related concerning
+Charles I: "A young gentlewoman of about sixteen
+years of age, Elizabeth Stevens, of Winchester,
+came (7 October, 1648) into the presence-chamber
+to be touched for the evill, which she was supposed
+to have; and therewith one of her eyes (that namely
+on the left side) was so much indisposed, that by
+her owne and her mother's testimony (who was then
+also present), she had not seene with that eye of
+above a month before. After prayers, read by Dr.
+Sanderson, the maide kneeled downe among others,
+likewise to be touched. And his majestie touched
+her, and put a ribbon, with a piece of money at it,
+in usuall manner, about her neck. Which done,
+his majesty turned to the lords (viz., the duke of
+Richmond, the earl of Southampton, and the earl
+of Lindsey) to discourse with them. And the said
+young gentlewoman of her own accord said openly:
+'Now, God be praised! I can see of this fore eye.'
+And afterwards declared she did see more and more
+by it, &amp; could, by degrees, endure the light of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span>
+candle. All which his majestie, in the presence of
+the said lords &amp; many others, examined himself, &amp;
+found to be true. And it hath since been discovered
+that, some months agone, the said young gentlewoman
+professed that, as soon as she was come of
+age sufficient, she would convey over to the king's
+use all her land; which to the valew of about &pound;130
+<i>per annum</i>, her father deceased had left her sole
+heyre unto."<a name="FNanchor_171_168" id="FNanchor_171_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_168" class="fnanchor">171</a></p>
+
+<p>Charles II, perhaps the most unworthy of English
+monarchs, was by far the busiest healer, and
+even while in exile in the Netherlands he retained
+the power to cure. In one month he touched two
+hundred and sixty at Breda, and Lower said: "It
+was not without success, since it was the experience
+that drew thither every day a great number of
+those diseased even from the most remote provinces
+of Germany." An official register of the persons
+touched was kept for every month in his reign, but
+about two and a half years appear to be wanting.
+The smallest number he touched in one year was
+2,983; that was in 1669. In 1682 he touched 8,500
+persons. In 1684 the throng was such that six or
+seven of the sick were trampled to death. The
+total number touched in his reign was 92,107.<a name="FNanchor_172_169" id="FNanchor_172_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_169" class="fnanchor">172</a> It
+is instructive to note, however, that while in no
+other reign were so many people touched for scrofula
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>
+and so many cures vouched for, in no other reign
+did so many people die of that disease.<a name="FNanchor_173_170" id="FNanchor_173_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_170" class="fnanchor">173</a></p>
+
+<p>John Browne, surgeon in ordinary to his majesty
+and to St. Thomas's Hospital, and author of many
+learned works on surgery and anatomy, published
+accounts of sixty cures due to this monarch. He
+says a surgeon attested the reality of the disease
+before the miracle was performed, to exclude impostors
+who were seeking the gold, for, in addition
+to the regular formula, the king hung about the neck
+of the person touched a ribbon to which was attached
+a gold coin. Notwithstanding these stringent
+measures, some were able to impose on the king,
+for the coins were often found in the shops, having
+been sold by the recipients. Says Brand: "Barrington
+tells us of an old man who was a witness in
+a cause, and averred that when Queen Anne was
+at Oxford, she touched him whilst a child for the
+evil. Barrington, when he had finished his evidence,
+'asked him whether he was really cured? upon
+which he answered with a significant smile, that he
+believed himself never to have had a complaint
+that deserved to be considered as the Evil, but that
+his parents were poor, and had no objection to the
+bit of gold.'"<a name="FNanchor_174_171" id="FNanchor_174_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_171" class="fnanchor">174</a></p>
+
+<p>While it was not unknown before, the presentation
+of a piece of gold was first generally introduced
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>in the reign of Henry VII. It probably descended
+from a practice common in the time of Edward III,
+whose coin, the rose-noble, is said to have been worn
+as an amulet to preserve from danger in battle. The
+angel-noble of Henry VII, valued at ten shillings,
+appears to have been the coin given; it was in common
+use and not made especially for this purpose.
+It had the figure of the Archangel Michael on one
+side and a ship in full sail on the other. Before
+hanging it on the patient's neck the monarch always
+crossed the sore with it. The outlay for gold coins
+presented to the afflicted on these occasions rose
+in some years as high as &pound;10,000. So great was
+the expense that after the reign of Elizabeth the
+size of the coin was reduced. Touching pieces of
+the time of Charles II are not rare even now.</p>
+
+<p>In 1684 Surgeon John Browne published a curious
+work entitled <i>Adenochoiradelogia: or an Anatomick-Chirurgical
+Treatise on Glandules and Strum&aelig;s,
+or King's Evil Swellings</i>. In this the author traces
+the gift of healing from our Saviour to the apostles,
+and thence by a continuous line of Christian kings
+and governors, and holy men, commencing with
+Edward the Confessor, whom he regards as the first
+curer of scrofula by contact or imposition of hands.
+After referring to his majesty in most flattering
+terms, he continues concerning "the admirable
+effects and wonderful events of his royal cure
+throughout all nations, where not only English,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>
+Dutch, Scotch, and Irish have reaped ease and cure,
+but French, Germans, and all countreyes whatsoever,
+far and near, have abundantly seen and received
+the same: and none ever, hitherto, I am
+certain, mist thereof, unless their little faith and
+incredulity starved their merits, or they received
+his gracious hand for curing another disease, which
+was not really evermore allowed to be cured by
+him; and as bright evidences hereof, I have presumed
+to offer that some have immediately upon
+the very touch been cured; others not so easily
+quitted from their swellings till the favor of a
+second repetition thereof. Some also, losing their
+gold, their diseases have seized them afresh, and no
+sooner have these obtained a second touch, and
+new gold, but their diseases have been seen to vanish,
+as being afraid of his majesties presence; wherein
+also have been cured many without gold; and this
+may contradict such who must needs have the king
+give them gold as well as his touch, supposing one
+invalid without the gift of both. Others seem also
+as ready for a second change of gold as a second
+touch, whereas their first being newly strung upon
+white riband, may work as well (by their favour).
+The tying the Almighty to set times and particular
+days is also another great fault of those who can
+by no means be brought to believe but at Good
+Friday and the like seasons this healing faculty is of
+more vigour and efficacy than at any other time,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span>
+although performed by the same hand. As to the
+giving of gold, this only shows his majesties royal
+well-wishes towards the recovery of those who come
+thus to be healed."<a name="FNanchor_175_172" id="FNanchor_175_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_172" class="fnanchor">175</a> He refers to some "Atheists,
+Sadducees, and ill-conditioned Pharisees" who disbelieved,
+and he gives the letter of one who went,
+a complete sceptic, to satisfy his friends, and came
+away cured and converted.</p>
+
+<p>Browne includes the following case which seems
+to him conclusive: "A Nonconformist child, in
+Norfolk, being troubled with scrofulous swellings,
+the late deceased Sir Thomas Browne, of Norwich,
+being consulted about the same, his majesty being
+then at Breda or Bruges, he advised the parents of
+the child to have it carried over to the king (his
+own method being used ineffectively); the father
+seemed very strange at this advice, and utterly
+denied it, saying the touch of the king was of no
+greater efficacy than any other man's. The mother
+of the child, adhering to the doctor's advice, studied
+all imaginable means to have it over, and at last
+prevailed with her husband to let it change the air
+for three weeks or a month; this being granted, the
+friends of the child that went with it, unknown
+to the father, carried it to Breda, where the king
+touched it, and she returned home perfectly healed.
+The child being come to its father's house, and he
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>finding so great an alteration, inquires how his
+daughter arrived at this health. The friends thereof
+assured him, that if he would not be angry with
+them, they would relate the whole truth; they,
+having his promise for the same, assured him they
+had the child to be touched at Breda, whereby they
+apparently let him see the great benefit his child
+received thereby. Hereupon the father became so
+amazed that he threw off his Nonconformity, and
+expressed his thanks in this manner: 'Farewell to
+all dissenters, and to all nonconformists; if God can
+put so much virtue into the king's hand as to heal
+my child, I'll serve that God and that king so long
+as I live, with all thankfulness.'"<a name="FNanchor_176_173" id="FNanchor_176_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_173" class="fnanchor">176</a> It is unfortunate
+that we have a change of air and food to consider
+in this case, else we might have a good example
+of a real miracle.</p>
+
+<p>Friday was usually set apart in this reign as the
+regular day for healing, but, in addition to this,
+special portions of the church year were reserved
+for the exercise of this gift. Very careful examinations
+were made by the surgeons, and those who
+were found to be suffering from the evil were presented
+with a ticket by the surgeon which entitled
+them to receive the healing touch of the king. If
+the king's touch were really efficacious, one might
+think that the disease should have been wholly
+exterminated during this reign, so great were the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span>
+number touched. On the contrary, the deaths were
+more numerous, and on account of the neglect of
+medical and surgical means it spread very widely.</p>
+
+<p>James II, it is said by Dr. Heylin, also wrought
+cures upon babes in their mothers' arms, and the
+fame of these cures was so great that the year before
+James was dethroned, a pauper of Portsmouth,
+New Hampshire, petitioned the general assembly to
+enable him to make the voyage to England to be
+healed by the royal touch. In one of his progresses
+James touched eight hundred persons in Chester
+Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>William III evidently thought of the matter as
+a superstition, and on one occasion he touched a
+patient, saying to him, "God give you better health
+and more sense"; notwithstanding the incredulity
+of the sovereign, Whiston assures us that the person
+was healed. With honest good sense, however,
+William refused to exercise the power which most
+of his subjects undoubtedly thought he possessed,
+and many protests were made, and much proof
+was adduced concerning "the balsamic virtues of
+the royal hand." This refusal to continue the
+practice of touching brought upon him the charge
+of cruelty from the parents of scrofulous children,
+while bigots lifted up their hands and eyes in holy
+horror at his impiety.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Samuel Johnson was one of the last persons
+to receive the imposition of royal hands; when a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span>
+boy of four and a half years, he was touched by
+Queen Anne, together with about two hundred
+others, on March 30, 1712. In his case at least the
+touch was inefficacious, for he was subject to scrofula
+all his life. Boswell says:<a name="FNanchor_177_174" id="FNanchor_177_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_174" class="fnanchor">177</a> "His mother, yielding
+to the superstitious notion, which, it is wonderful
+to think, prevailed so long in this country, as to the
+virtue of the royal touch; a notion which our kings
+encouraged, and to which a man of such inquiry
+and such judgment as Carte could give credit, carried
+him to London, where he was actually touched
+by Queen Anne. Mrs. Johnson, indeed, as Mr.
+Hector informed me, acted by the advice of the
+celebrated Sir John Floyer, then a physician in
+Litchfield." At this time few persons but Jacobites
+believed in king's touch as a miracle. Dr. Daniel
+Turner, though, relates that several cases of scrofula
+which had been unsuccessfully treated by himself
+and Dr. Charles Bernard, sergeant-surgeon to
+her majesty, yielded afterwards to the efficacy of
+the queen's touch.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Anne the sceptics outnumbered
+the believers and at her death the practice
+was discontinued. Among the unbelievers was the
+above-mentioned Dr. Charles Bernard, an account
+of whose conversion is given by Oldmixon as follows:
+"Yesterday the queen was graciously pleased
+to touch for the King's evil some particular persons
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>in private; and three weeks after, December 19,
+yesterday, about twelve at noon her majesty was
+pleased to touch, at St. James', about twenty persons
+afflicted with the King's evil. The more ludicrous
+sort of skeptics, in this case, asked why it
+was not called the queen's evil, as the chief court of
+justice was called the Queen's Bench. But Charles
+Bernard, the surgeon who had made this touching
+the subject of his raillery all his lifetime till he became
+body surgeon at court, and found it a good
+perquisite, solved all difficulties by telling his companions
+with a fleer '<i>Really one could not have
+thought it, if one had not seen it</i>.' A friend of mine
+heard him say it, and knew well his opinion of it."<a name="FNanchor_178_175" id="FNanchor_178_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_175" class="fnanchor">178</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1745 there was an attempted revival of the
+practice when Prince Charles Edward exercised this
+prerogative of royalty.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VII was the first monarch to establish a
+particular ceremony to be observed at the healings.
+He probably derived this from an old form of exorcism
+used for the dispossessing of evil spirits. This
+was altered at various times but may still be found
+in the prayer-book of the reign of Queen Anne.
+Indeed, it was not until some time after the accession
+of George I that the University of Oxford
+ceased to reprint the office of healing, together with
+the Liturgy.</p>
+
+<p>The routes to be travelled by royal personages
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>and the days on which the miracle was to be wrought
+were fixed at sittings of the Privy Council, and the
+clergy of all the parish churches of the realm were
+solemnly notified. They, in turn, informed the
+people, and the sufferers along the way had many
+days in which to cherish the expectation of healing,
+in itself so beneficial. The ceremony was conducted
+with great solemnity and pomp. It has been vividly
+described by Macaulay as follows: "When the appointed
+time came, several divines in full canonicals
+stood round the canopy of state. The surgeon of the
+royal household introduced the sick. A passage of
+Mark 16. was read. When the words 'They shall lay
+their hands on the sick and they shall recover,' had
+been pronounced, there was a pause and one of the
+sick was brought to the king. His Majesty stroked
+the ulcers and swellings, and hung round the patient's
+neck a white ribbon to which was fastened
+a gold coin. The other sufferers were led up in
+succession; and as each was touched the chaplain
+repeated the incantation, 'They shall lay their
+hands on the sick and they shall recover.' Then
+came the epistle, prayers, antiphonies, and a benediction."</p>
+
+<p>Evelyn, in his <i>Diary</i>, gives us the form employed
+by Charles II in July, 1660, as follows: "His
+Majestie first began to touch for evil according to
+costume, thus&mdash;His majestie sitting under his state
+in the Banquetting House, the Chirurgeons cause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span>
+the sick to be brought or led up to the throne, where
+they kneeling, the King strokes their faces or cheekes
+with both his hands at once, at which instant a
+Chaplaine in his formalities says: 'He put his hands
+on them and he healed them.' This is sayed to
+every one in particular. When they have all been
+touched they come up againe in the same order;
+and the other Chaplaine kneeling, and having angel-gold
+strung on white ribbon on his arme, delivers
+them one by one to his Majestie, who puts them
+about the necks of the touched as they passe, whilst
+the first Chaplaine repeats: 'That is the true light
+who came into the world.' Then follows an Epistle
+(as at first, a Gospel) with the Liturgy, prayers for
+the sick with some alteration, lastly the blessing:
+and the Lo. Chamberlaine and Comptroller of the
+Household, bring a basin, ewer, and towel for his
+Majestie to wash."<a name="FNanchor_179_176" id="FNanchor_179_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_176" class="fnanchor">179</a></p>
+
+<p>The belief in the efficacy of the king's touch was
+general, and Lecky tells us its genuineness "was
+asserted by the privy council, by the bishops of
+two religions, by the general voice of the clergy in
+the palmiest days of the English Church, by the
+University of Oxford, and by the enthusiastic assent
+of the people. It survived the ages of the
+Reformation, of Bacon, of Milton, and of Hobbes.
+It was by no means extinct at the age of Locke,
+and would probably have lasted still longer, had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span>
+not the change of dynasty at the Revolution assisted
+the tardy scepticism."<a name="FNanchor_180_177" id="FNanchor_180_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_177" class="fnanchor">180</a></p>
+
+<p>In France there was the same belief in the efficacy
+of the royal touch. Philip I exercised the gift, but
+the French historians say that he was deprived of
+the power on account of the irregularity of his life.
+Laurentius reports that Francis I, when a prisoner
+in Spain, cured a great number of people of struma
+(scrofula). A paraphrase of the Latin verse which
+Lascaris wrote concerning this event is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The king applies his hand, diseases fly,</span>
+<span class="i05">And though a captive, still the powers on high</span>
+<span class="i05">Regard his touch. This striking proof is giv'n,</span>
+<span class="i05">That they who bound him are the foes of Heav'n."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Concerning the touching by the kings of France,
+Pettigrew says: "In the church of St. Maclou, in
+St. Denys, Heylin (<i>Cosmograph.</i>, p. 184) says the
+kings of France, with a fast of nine days and other
+penances, used to receive the gift of healing the
+king's evil with nothing but a touch." Philip de
+Comines states, that the king always confessed before
+the cure of the king's evil. Butler (<i>Lives of the
+Saints</i>, vol. VIII, p. 394) says, 'The French kings
+usually only perform this ceremony on the day they
+have received the holy communion.' The historians
+who write under the first two families of the
+French kings are altogether silent as to the kings'
+curing the evil by the touching. (<i>Veyrard Trav.</i>,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span>
+p. 109.) Philip of Valois is reported to have cured
+1400 people afflicted with the king's evil. Of Louis
+XIII, it was said that he had assigned all his power
+to Cardinal Richelieu, except that of curing the
+king's evil. Carte says, some of the French writers
+ascribe the gift of healing to their king's devotion
+toward the relics of St. Marculf, in the church
+of Corbigny, in Champagne: to which the kings
+of France, immediately after their coronation at
+Rheims, used to go in solemn procession. A veneration
+was also paid to this saint in England, and
+a room in memory of him, in the palace of Westminster,
+has frequently been mentioned in the Rolls
+of Parliament, and which was called the Chamber
+of St. Marculf, being, as Carte conjectures, probably
+the place where the kings used to touch for the
+evil. This room was afterward called the Painted
+Chamber. The French kings practised the touch
+extensively. Gemelli, the traveller, states, that
+Louis XIV touched 1600 persons on Easter Sunday,
+1686.<a name="FNanchor_181_178" id="FNanchor_181_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_178" class="fnanchor">181</a> The words he used were, 'Le Roy te touche,
+Dieu te gu&eacute;risse.' Every Frenchman received fifteen
+sous, and every foreigner thirty. The French
+kings kept up the practice to 1776."<a name="FNanchor_182_179" id="FNanchor_182_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_179" class="fnanchor">182</a></p>
+
+<p>"Servetus," says Hammond, "who was not of a
+credulous mind, says in the first edition of his <i>Ptolemy</i>,
+published in 1535, that he had seen the king
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>
+touch many persons for the disease, but he had
+never seen any that were cured thereby. But the
+last clause of this sentence excited the ire of the
+censor, and in the next edition, published in 1541,
+the words '<i>an sanati fuerint non vidi</i>' were changed
+to '<i>pluresque sanatos passim audivi</i>': 'I have heard
+of many that were cured.' Testimony in support
+of miracles has often been manufactured, but the
+natural obstinacy and truthfulness of Servetus
+would not admit of his giving his personal endorsement
+at the expense of his convictions."<a name="FNanchor_183_180" id="FNanchor_183_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_180" class="fnanchor">183</a></p>
+
+<p>Within the last half-century we have had an
+example of the value of the royal touch. When
+cholera was raging in Naples in 1865, and the people
+were rushing from the city by thousands, King
+Victor Emmanuel went the rounds of the hospitals
+in an endeavor to stimulate courage in the hearts of
+his people. He lingered at the bedside of the patients
+and spoke encouraging words to them. On
+a cot lay one man already marked for death. The
+king stepped to his side, and pressing his damp, icy
+hand, said, "Take courage, poor man, and try to
+recover soon." That evening the physicians reported
+a diminution of the disease in the course
+of the day, and the man marked for death out of
+danger. The king had unconsciously worked a marvellous
+cure.<a name="FNanchor_184_181" id="FNanchor_184_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_181" class="fnanchor">184</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span>
+It seems certain that there was not the efficacy
+in king's touch which was claimed for it, or it would
+not have been discontinued after having held sway
+for over seven hundred years. No doubt the quasi-religious
+character of the office of the sovereign
+helped much in the belief, and when such men as
+Charles II were able to heal, little connection between
+religion and healing could longer be thought
+possible, as far as the healing by king's touch was
+concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The Hallowing of Cramp Rings was not unlike
+the king's touch. It is described by Bishop Percy
+in his <i>Northumberland Household Book</i>, where we
+have the following account: "And then the Usher
+to lay a Carpett for the Kinge to Creepe to the
+Crosse upon. An that done, there shal be a Forme
+sett upon the Carpett, before the Crucifix, and a
+Cushion laid upon it for the King to kneale upon.
+And the Master of the Jewell Howse ther to be
+ready with the Booke concerninge the Hallowing of
+the Crampe Rings, and Amner (Almoner) muste
+kneele on the right hand of the King, holdinge the
+sayde booke. When that is done the King shall rise
+and goe to the Alter, wheare a Gent. Usher shall be
+redie with a Cushion for the Kinge to kneele upon;
+and then the greatest Lords that shall be ther to
+take the Bason with the Rings and beare them
+after the Kinge to offer."</p>
+
+<p>In the Harleian Manuscripts there is a letter from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span>
+Lord Chancellor Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith, dated
+September 11, 158-, about a prevailing epidemic, and
+enclosing a ring for Queen Elizabeth to wear between
+her breasts, the said ring having "the virtue
+to expell infectious airs."</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Boorde, already quoted, says: "The
+Kynges of England doth halowe euery yere crampe
+rynges, the whyche rynges, worne on ones fynger,
+dothe helpe them the whyche hath the crampe."<a name="FNanchor_185_182" id="FNanchor_185_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_182" class="fnanchor">185</a>
+Also, "The kynges majesty hath a great help in this
+matter, in hallowynge crampe rynges, and so given
+without money or petition."</p>
+
+<p>In the account of the ceremony given by Hospinian,
+he states that "it was performed upon Good
+Friday, and that it originated from a ring which
+had been brought to King Edward by some persons
+from Jerusalem, and one which he himself hath long
+before given privately to a poor petitioner who
+asked alms of him for the love he bore to St. John
+the Evangelist. This ring was preserved with great
+veneration in Westminster Abbey, and whoever
+was touched by this relic was said to be cured of the
+cramp or of the falling sickness." Burnet informs
+us that Bishop Gardiner was at Rome in 1529, and
+that he wrote a letter to Ann Boleyn, by which it
+appears that Henry VIII blessed the cramp rings
+before as well as after the separation from Rome,
+and that she sent them as great presents thither.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span>
+"Mr. Stephens, I send you here cramp rings for you
+and Mr. Gregory and Mr. Peter, praying you to distribute
+them as you think best.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ann Boleyn.</span>"<a name="FNanchor_186_183" id="FNanchor_186_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_183" class="fnanchor">186</a></p>
+
+<p>This ceremonial was practised by previous sovereigns
+and discontinued by Edward VI. Queen
+Mary intended to revive it, and, indeed, the office
+for it was written out, but she does not appear to
+have carried her intentions into effect.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_164" id="Footnote_167_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_164"><span class="label">167</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 154 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_165" id="Footnote_168_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_165"><span class="label">168</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 372.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_166" id="Footnote_169_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_166"><span class="label">169</span></a> <i>Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain</i>, I, p. 225.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_167" id="Footnote_170_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_167"><span class="label">170</span></a> Quoted by Berdoe, <i>ibid.</i>, p. 371.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_168" id="Footnote_171_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_168"><span class="label">171</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, pp. 257 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_169" id="Footnote_172_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_169"><span class="label">172</span></a> T. B. Macaulay, <i>History of England</i>, III, pp. 378 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_170" id="Footnote_173_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_170"><span class="label">173</span></a> A. D. White, <i>History of the Warfare of Science with Theology</i>,
+II, p. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_171" id="Footnote_174_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_171"><span class="label">174</span></a> J. Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, III, p. 256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_172" id="Footnote_175_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_172"><span class="label">175</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 182-184.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_173" id="Footnote_176_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_173"><span class="label">176</span></a> Quoted by H. Tuke, <i>Influence of the Mind upon the Body</i>, pp. 359 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_174" id="Footnote_177_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_174"><span class="label">177</span></a> <i>Life of Johnson</i>, I, p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_175" id="Footnote_178_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_175"><span class="label">178</span></a> <i>History of England</i>, II, p. 302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_176" id="Footnote_179_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_176"><span class="label">179</span></a> Vol. I, p. 323.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_177" id="Footnote_180_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_177"><span class="label">180</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, I, p. 364.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_178" id="Footnote_181_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_178"><span class="label">181</span></a> This was at Versailles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_179" id="Footnote_182_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_179"><span class="label">182</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery</i>, pp. 156 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_180" id="Footnote_183_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_180"><span class="label">183</span></a> W. A. Hammond, <i>Spiritism and Nervous Derangement</i>, p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_181" id="Footnote_184_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_181"><span class="label">184</span></a> C. L. Tuckey, <i>Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion</i>, p. 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_182" id="Footnote_185_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_182"><span class="label">185</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 371.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_183" id="Footnote_186_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_183"><span class="label">186</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, p. 117.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h3>
+
+<h4>MESMER AND AFTER</h4>
+
+<div class="poem2">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Some deemed them wondrous wise,</span>
+<span class="i05">And some believed them mad."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Beattie</span>.</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"A perfect medicine for bodies that be sick</span>
+<span class="i05">Of all infirmities to be relieved;</span>
+<span class="i05">This heleth nature and prolongeth lyfe eke."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Probably</span> no one would claim that the phenomena
+now grouped under the head of hypnotism were
+unknown before the end of the sixteenth century.
+They are as old as man, yes, probably older, since
+we know that some of the same phenomena apply
+to animals. But the claim might well be made that
+while isolated facts of this kind were well known,
+especially in the East, no scientific collaboration
+and explanation were attempted until this time.</p>
+
+<p>As with all other departments of science, we may
+trace a gradual development. Astrology of old
+taught the influence of the stars upon men, which
+doctrine was accepted by the great physician Theophrastus
+Paracelsus (1490-1541). This, however,
+was only part of his belief: the human body was
+endowed with a double magnetism; one portion
+attracted to itself the planets and was nourished
+by them, the result of which was the mental powers;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span>
+the other portion attracted and disintegrated the
+elements, from which process resulted the body.
+He also claimed that the magnetic virtue of healthy
+persons attracted the enfeebled magnetism of the
+sick. With this theory of animal magnetism, it
+was only natural that he should value the use of the
+magnet very highly in the cure of diseases. This
+dual theory of magnetic cures, that of the magnetic
+influence of men on men and of the magnet on man,
+was prevalent for over a century, and found its
+latest exponent in Mesmer.</p>
+
+<p>Following Paracelsus, Glocenius, Burgrave, Helinotius,
+Robert Fludd, and Kircher believed that the
+magnet represented the universal principle by which
+all natural phenomena might be explained. This
+principle, existing as it did in the human body, was
+an important factor in health and disease. The
+great chemist Von Helmont (1577-1644) taught
+more precisely that a power resided in man by
+which he could magnetically affect others, and
+thereby cure the sick who were most influenced by
+it. He published a work on the effects of magnetism
+on the human frame.</p>
+
+<p>About the same time Balthazar Gracian, a Spaniard,
+boldly proclaimed his views. "The magnet,"
+he said, "attracts iron; iron is found everywhere;
+everything, therefore, is under the influence of magnetism.... It
+is the same agent which gives rise to
+sympathy, antipathy, and the passions." Baptista
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>Porta (1543-1615), one of the originators of the
+weapon-salve, had also great faith in the magnet.
+So effective was his work on the imaginations of
+his patients that he was considered a magician and
+prohibited from practising by the court of Rome.
+Sebastian Wirdig, professor of medicine at the University
+of Rostock, in Mecklenburg, wrote a treatise
+on "The New Medicine of the Spirits" which he
+presented to the Royal Society of London in 1673.
+He maintained that a magnetic influence took place,
+not only between the celestial and terrestrial bodies,
+but between all living things. The whole world
+was under the influence of magnetism: life was preserved
+by magnetism, death was the consequence
+of magnetism.</p>
+
+<p>Maxwell (1581-1640) propagated somewhat the
+same doctrine. He was a firm believer in sympathetic
+cures, and assumed a vital spirit of the universe
+which related all bodies. It was probably
+from this that Mesmer got his idea of what he called
+the universal fluid. It would seem, however, that
+Maxwell was aware of the great influence of imagination
+and suggestion. He said: "If you wish to
+work prodigies, abstract from the materiality of
+beings&mdash;increase the sum of spirituality in bodies&mdash;rouse
+the spirit from its slumbers. Unless you
+do one or other of these things&mdash;unless you can
+bind the idea, you can never perform anything good
+or great." About the same time, in Italy, Santanelli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span>
+propagated the theory of a universal fluid. Everything
+material possessed a radiating atmosphere
+which operated magnetically. He also recognized,
+however, the great influence of the imagination.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus6" id="illus6"></a><a href="images/illus6.jpg"><img src="images/illus6-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="481" alt="F. A. MESMER" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">F. A. MESMER</span></div>
+
+<p>About the year 1771, Father Hell, a Jesuit, and
+professor of astronomy at the University of Vienna,
+became famous through his magnetic cures, and
+invented steel plates of a peculiar form which he
+applied to the naked body as a cure for several diseases.
+In 1774 he communicated his system to
+Mesmer, the man who, more than any one else,
+drew the world's attention to the investigation of
+mental healing. Various estimates have been made
+of Mesmer's character and he frequently has been
+condemned. He was fond of display, but it is doubtful
+if he was more avaricious than most persons who
+lived before and have lived since. He was evidently
+honest in his scientific investigations and
+opinions, and this is our main concern.</p>
+
+<p>Friederich Antony Mesmer (1733-1815) was born
+at Mersbury, in Swabia, and studied medicine at the
+University of Vienna. He read freely the books
+written by the authors already mentioned, and
+accepted much of their teaching. His originality
+consisted principally in applying to the sick this
+universal principle, by means of contact and passes,
+while his predecessors infused the vital spirit through
+the use of talismans and of magic boxes. He took
+his medical degree in 1766 and chose as the subject<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span>
+of his inaugural dissertation "The Influence of the
+Planets in the Cure of Diseases." In this dissertation
+he maintained "that the sun, moon, and fixed
+stars mutually affect each other in their orbits;
+that they cause and direct in our earth a flux and
+reflux not only in the sea, but in the atmosphere,
+and affect in a similar manner all organized bodies
+through the medium of a subtle and mobile fluid,
+which pervades the universe, and associates all
+things together in mutual intercourse and harmony."
+This influence, he said, was particularly exercised
+on the nervous system, and produced two
+states, which he called <i>intension</i> and <i>remission</i>,
+which seemed to him to account for the different
+periodical revolutions observable in several maladies.</p>
+
+<p>Eight years later he met Father Hell, and after
+trying some experiments with his metallic plates
+was astonished at his success. He continued working
+with Hell for some time, but they finally quarrelled,
+and shortly afterward he stumbled upon his
+theory of animal magnetism. After this he no
+longer used the magnet in healing. The Academy
+of Science at Berlin examined his claims, but their
+report was far from favorable or flattering. Nevertheless,
+writing to a friend from Vienna, he said:
+"I have observed that the magnetic is almost the
+same as the electric fluid, and that it may be propagated
+in the same manner, by means of intermediate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>
+bodies. Steel is not the only substance adapted
+to this purpose. I have rendered paper, bread,
+wool, silk, stones, leather, glass, wood, men, and
+dogs&mdash;in short, every thing I touched&mdash;magnetic
+to such a degree, that these substances produced
+the same effects as the loadstone on diseased persons.
+I have charged jars with magnetic matter in
+the same way as is done with electricity." About
+this time he was nominated a member of the Academy
+of Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Vienna and travelling through Swabia
+and Switzerland, he met Gassner and witnessed
+some of his cures. Mesmer claimed that they were
+performed by his newly discovered magnetism. He
+arrived in Paris in 1778 and found this city more
+receptive to his arts. He at first established himself
+in an humble quarter of the city and began to
+expound his theory. The following year he published
+a paper in which he summed up his claims in
+twenty-seven assertions to which he rigidly held
+through his life. His doctrines were well received,
+and acquired an impetus at the beginning by the
+conversion of one of the leading physicians of the
+faculty of medicine, Deslon, the Comte d'Artois'
+first physician.</p>
+
+<p>Pupils and patients now flocked to him. The
+crowd was so great that Mesmer employed a <i>valet
+toucheur</i> to magnetize in his place. This was not
+sufficient; he then invented the famous <i>baquet</i>, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>
+trough, around which thirty persons might simultaneously
+be magnetized. This <i>baquet</i> is described
+as follows: "A circular, oaken case, about a foot
+high, was placed in the middle of a large hall, hung
+with thick curtains, through which only a soft and
+subdued light was allowed to penetrate; this was
+the <i>baquet</i>. At the bottom of the case, on a layer
+of powdered glass and iron filings, there lay full
+bottles, symmetrically arranged, so that the necks
+of all converged toward the centre; other bottles
+were arranged in the opposite direction, with their
+necks toward the circumference. All these objects
+were immersed in water, but this condition was
+not absolutely necessary, and the <i>baquet</i> might be
+dry. The lid was pierced with a certain number
+of holes, whence there issued jointed and moving
+iron branches, which were to be held by the
+patients. Absolute silence was maintained. The
+patients were ranged in several rows round the
+<i>baquet</i>, connected with each other by cords passed
+round their bodies, and by a second chain, formed
+by joining hands."<a name="FNanchor_187_184" id="FNanchor_187_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_184" class="fnanchor">187</a></p>
+
+<p>Additional features were provided to heighten
+the effect of the magnetic charm. "Richly stained
+glass shed a dim religious light on his spacious
+saloons, which were almost covered with mirrors.
+Orange blossoms scented all the air of his corridors;
+incense of the most expensive kinds burned in an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span>tique
+vases on his chimney-pieces; &aelig;olian harps
+sighed melodious music from distant chambers;
+while sometimes a sweet female voice, from above
+or below, stole softly upon the mysterious silence
+that was kept in the house and insisted upon from
+all visitors."<a name="FNanchor_188_185" id="FNanchor_188_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_185" class="fnanchor">188</a></p>
+
+<p>Bailly, the historian and celebrated astronomer,
+an eye-witness, describes the results. "Some patients
+remain calm and experience nothing; others
+cough, spit, feel slight pain, a local or general heat,
+and fall into sweats; others are agitated and tormented
+by convulsions. These convulsions are
+remarkable for their number, duration, and force,
+and have been known to persist for more than three
+hours. They are characterized by involuntary,
+jerking movements in all the limbs, and in the whole
+body, by contraction of the throat, by twitchings
+in the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, by
+dimness and rolling of the eyes, by piercing cries,
+tears, hiccough, and immoderate laughter. They
+are preceded or followed by a state of languor or
+dreaminess, by a species of depression, and even by
+stupor.</p>
+
+<p>"The slightest sudden noise causes the patient to
+start, and it has been observed that he is affected
+by a change of time or tune in the airs performed
+on the pianoforte; that his agitation is increased by
+a more lively movement, and that his convulsions
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span>
+then become more violent. Patients are seen to be
+absorbed in the search for one another, rushing together,
+smiling, talking affectionately, and endeavoring
+to modify their crises. They are all so submissive
+to the magnetizer that even when they appear
+to be in a stupor, his voice, a glance, or a sign will
+rouse them from it. It is impossible not to admit,
+from all these results, that some great force acts
+upon and masters the patients, and that this force
+appears to reside in the magnetizer. This convulsive
+state is termed the <i>crisis</i>. It has been observed
+that many women and few men are subject
+to such crises; that they are only established after
+the lapse of two or three hours, and that when one
+is established, others soon and successively begin.</p>
+
+<p>"When the agitation exceeds certain limits, the
+patients are transported into a padded room; the
+women's corsets are unlaced, and they may then
+strike their heads against the padded walls without
+doing themselves any injury." Notwithstanding
+these means, thousands were healed of their diseases.</p>
+
+<p>"It is impossible," says Baron Dupotet, "to conceive
+the sensation which Mesmer's experiments
+created in Paris. No theological controversy, in
+the earlier ages of the Catholic Church, was ever
+conducted with greater bitterness." He was called
+a quack, a fool, and a demon, while his friends were
+as extravagant in his praise as his foes in their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span>
+censure. After this great excitement, his life may
+largely be summed up in his challenges to different
+societies, the appointment of commissions, their examinations,
+and their reports.</p>
+
+<p>On the advice of Deslon he challenged the Faculty
+of Medicine, proposing to select twenty-four patients,
+of whom twelve should be treated according
+to the old and approved methods and twelve magnetically,
+the cures to prove the efficacy of the treatment.
+The faculty declined to accept the conditions.
+Deslon asked his colleagues on the faculty
+to summon a general meeting to examine the matter.
+Through the influence of M. de Vauzesmes,
+the meeting was very hostile to him, and he was
+condemned and threatened with having his name
+removed from the list of licensed physicians if he
+did not reform.</p>
+
+<p>Mesmer now wrote to Marie Antoinette suggesting
+that the government furnish him with houses, land,
+and a princely fortune to enable him to carry on his
+experiments untroubled. The government finally
+offered him a pension of 20,000 francs, and the
+cross of the order of St. Michael, if he had made any
+discovery in medicine, and would communicate it
+to the physicians whom the king should name.
+Mesmer refused the conditions and left Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Deslon was then called upon to renounce animal
+magnetism, but instead, invited investigation. In
+1784 the government appointed a commission to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>
+inquire into magnetism, consisting of members from
+the Faculty of Medicine and the Academy of
+Sciences. Franklin, Lavoisier, and Bailly were
+members, the last named being chosen reporter.
+Another commission, composed of members of the
+Royal Society of Medicine, was charged to make a
+distinct report on the same subject. After experimenting
+for five months the first commission presented
+two reports, one public and the other secret,
+neither of which was favorable. The Royal Society
+of Medicine presented its report a few days later,
+and agreed with the first commission with the
+exception of one member, Laurent de Jussieu, who
+dissented and published a separate report of a more
+favorable nature. The gist of the commissions'
+reports was that imagination, not magnetism, accounted
+for the results.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the commissions started their investigations,
+Mesmer returned to Paris at the invitation
+of his friends, who proposed to open a subscription
+for him for 10,000 louis. Immediately it was over-subscribed
+by over 140,000 francs. He came with
+the understanding that he was to give lectures and
+to reveal the secret of animal magnetism. The
+lectures and secrets were not satisfactory. After
+the commission reported he left Paris and returned
+to his own country where he was little heard of
+during the remainder of his life which ended in 1815.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be said of Mesmer, there seems to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span>
+be no doubt about the honesty of his most famous
+pupil, the Marquis de Puys&eacute;gur, and to him we are
+indebted for a forward step. When Mesmer left
+Paris, the marquis retired to his estate near Soissons,
+and employed his leisure in magnetizing peasants.
+He magnetized his gardener, a young man
+named Victor, and after experimenting upon him
+claimed that during the state Victor exhibited marvellous
+telepathic and clairvoyant phenomena. Unable
+to attend all the patients who applied to him,
+he followed Mesmer's plan of magnetizing a tree.
+An elm on the village green was chosen, and round
+this patients gathered on stone benches as around
+Mesmer's <i>baquet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Following Mesmer's theories very closely, the
+contribution he made was in the recognition of the
+likeness between the magnetized state and that of
+somnambulism, so that he designated this state
+"artificial somnambulism." He also modified the
+conditions of inducing this state, and simple contact
+or spoken orders were substituted for the use
+of the <i>baquet</i>. The effect was therefore milder, and
+instead of hysteria and violent crises accompanied
+by sobs, cries, and contractions, there was peaceful
+slumber. He recognized the rapport between operator
+and subject, and amnesia on awaking, and other
+phenomena now well known, but he still held to the
+Mesmeric theory of the existence of a universal fluid
+which saturated all bodies, especially the human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span>
+body. It was electric in nature, and man could display
+and diffuse this electric fluid at will.</p>
+
+<p>While the Marquis de Puys&eacute;gur was using the elm
+tree near Soissons, the Chevalier de Barbarin was
+successfully magnetizing people without paraphernalia.
+He sat by the bedside of the sick and prayed
+that they might be magnetized; his efforts were
+successful. He maintained that the effect of animal
+magnetism was produced by the mere effort of one
+human soul acting upon another; and when the
+connection had once been established the magnetizer
+could communicate his influence to the subject
+regardless of the distance which separated them.
+Numerous persons adopted this view, calling themselves
+Barbarinists after their leader. In Sweden
+and Germany they were called <i>spiritualists</i>, to distinguish
+them from the followers of de Puys&eacute;gur,
+who were called <i>experimentalists</i>.</p>
+
+<p>About the same time a doctor of Lyons, P&eacute;t&eacute;tin,
+experimented with magnetism. After his death a
+paper written by him was published describing catalepsy
+and sense transference. Numerous magnetic
+societies were founded in the principal cities of
+France. In Strasburg, the Society of Harmony, consisting
+of more than one hundred and fifty members,
+published for years the result of their work. The
+disturbance incident to the Revolution and the wars
+of the Empire which followed repressed the investigations
+of magnetism in France for several years.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span>In England the advent of magnetism seems to
+have taken place about 1788. In that year one Dr.
+Mainandus, who had been a pupil first of Mesmer
+and later of Deslon, arrived in Bristol and gave
+public lectures on the subject. People of rank and
+fortune soon came from different cities to be magnetized
+or to place themselves under his tuition.
+He afterward established himself in London where
+he was equally successful in attracting and curing
+people. So much curiosity was excited by the subject
+that, about the same time, a man named Holloway
+gave a course of lectures on animal magnetism
+in London. Large crowds gathered to hear him at
+the rate of five guineas for each pupil.</p>
+
+<p>Loutherbourg, the painter, and his wife entered
+upon a similar work. "Such was the infatuation
+of the people to be witnesses of their strange manipulations,"
+says Mackay, "that at times upwards of
+three thousand persons crowded round their house
+at Hammersmith, unable to gain admission. The
+tickets sold at prices ranging from one to three
+guineas." Loutherbourg later became a divine
+healer. From 1789 to 1798 magnetism attracted
+little or no attention in England. At the latter
+date a Connecticut Yankee, Benjamin Douglas Perkins,
+invented "metallic tractors." The Society of
+Friends built a hospital called the "Perkinean Institute"
+where all comers might be magnetized free
+of cost.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span>About 1786 animal magnetism appeared in two
+different places in Germany&mdash;on the upper Rhine
+and in Bremen. At this time Lavater paid a visit
+to Bremen and exhibited the magnetizing process
+to several doctors. Bremen was for a long time a
+focus of the new doctrine, and thereby was brought
+into bad repute. About the same time the doctrine
+spread from Strasburg over the Rhine provinces.
+Among those active in experiments were B&ouml;ckmann
+of Carlsruhe, Gmelin of Heilbronn, and Pezold of
+Dresden. Soon it spread all over Germany. In
+1789 Selle of Berlin brought forward a series of
+experiments made at the Charit&eacute; (Hospital), in
+which he confirmed some of the alleged phenomena
+but excluded the supernormal.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the early dislike, animal magnetism
+flourished in Germany during the first twenty
+years of the nineteenth century. In 1812 the Prussian
+government sent Wolfart to Mesmer at Frauenfeld,
+to acquaint himself with the subject. He returned
+to Berlin an ardent adherent of Mesmer and
+introduced magnetism into the hospital treatment.
+From this magnetism flourished so much in Berlin
+that, as Wurm relates, the Berlin physicians placed
+a monument on the grave of Mesmer at M&ouml;rsburg,
+and theological candidates received instruction in
+physiology, pathology, and the treatment of sickness
+by vital magnetism. The well-known physician
+Koreff was interested in magnetism and often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span>
+made use of it for healing purposes. Magnetism
+was introduced everywhere, especially in Russia and
+Denmark. In Switzerland and Italy it was at first
+received with less sympathy, and in 1815 the exercise
+of magnetism was forbidden in the whole of
+Austria.</p>
+
+<p>In 1813 the naturalist Deleuze published a book
+entitled <i>Histoire critique du magn&eacute;tisme animal</i>.
+Like his predecessors, he was chiefly interested in
+the therapeutic value of magnetism, and insisted
+that faith was necessary for effective treatment.
+On account of this condition any demonstration
+was impossible. He still held to the idea of a pervading
+fluid and maintained that the depth of the
+magnetic sleep depended upon the amount of the
+magnetic charge. Shortly after the appearance of
+Deleuze's book, interest in animal magnetism increased,
+and several journals dealing exclusively
+with the subject were started.</p>
+
+<p>With the death of Mesmer in 1815 ended the first
+period in the history of the phenomena known as
+animal magnetism. Up to this time the generally
+accepted theory was that of a vital fluid which permeated
+every thing and person and through which
+one person influenced another. The second period
+extended from 1815-1841 when Braid discovered
+and formulated the method of operation. The
+third period reached from 1841-1887 during which
+there was careful and scientific study of the whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span>
+subject, and hypnotism came into repute as a healing
+measure. I am inclined to posit a fourth period,
+1887 to the present time, for Myers' hypothesis of
+a subliminal self, or the theory of the subconsciousness,
+has made a great difference in the theory of
+hypnotism.</p>
+
+<p>The second period began when Abbe Faria in
+1814-15 came from India to Paris and gave public
+exhibitions, publishing the results of some of his
+experiments. He seated his subjects in an arm-chair,
+with eyes closed, and then cried out in a
+loud commanding voice, "Sleep." He used no manipulations
+and had no <i>baquet</i>, but he boasted of
+having produced five thousand somnambulists by
+this method. He opined that the state was caused
+by no unknown force, but rested in the subject
+himself. He agreed with the present generally
+accepted theory that all is subjective.</p>
+
+<p>Following Faria, Bertrand and Noizet paved the
+way for the doctrine of suggestion notwithstanding
+their inclination toward animal magnetism. Experiments
+were performed at the H&ocirc;tel-Dieu in
+1820 but later were prohibited. Through the influence
+of Foissac in 1826 the Academy of Medicine
+appointed a committee to examine the subject, and
+in 1831 a report acknowledging the genuineness of
+the phenomena was made, and therapeutic effects
+were frankly admitted. In 1837 the Academy
+appointed another commission to examine still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span>
+further, for the members as a whole were not convinced.
+The report of this commission was largely
+negative.</p>
+
+<p>After this the younger Burdin, a member of the
+Academy, proposed to award from his own purse a
+prize of 3,000 francs to any person who could read
+a given writing without the aid of his eyes, and in
+the dark. The existence of animal magnetism must
+stand or fall on this test. That was the difficulty
+during this period: the whole dispute was waged
+about, and experiments consisted in tests of, clairvoyance,
+transposition of the sense of sight, and
+other mystical phenomena, instead of dealing with
+the state as such. This, of course, made the struggle
+much easier for the opponents of mesmerism,
+but was largely the fault of the magnetizers. The
+Burdin prize was not awarded, and in 1840 Double
+proposed that the Academy should henceforth pay
+no further attention to animal magnetism, but
+treat the subject as definitely closed. This was
+certainly unfair and unscientific, but was the attitude
+assumed.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of this period another series of
+tests was being performed in Germany, but after
+1820 the belief in magnetism declined more and
+more. It flourished longest in Bremen and in
+Hamburg where Siemers was its advocate. From
+1830-1840 Hensler and Ennemoser were the chief
+exponents in Bavaria. As the scientific investiga<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span>tors
+withdrew from the study, the charlatans and
+frauds entered the field, and the marvellous and
+occult were emphasized, so that in 1840 little general
+attention was paid to the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the efforts of the London physicians
+Elliotson and Ashburner, magnetism could
+obtain little footing in England during this period.
+Numerous investigations were made, however, and
+several publications were sent forth. Townshend,
+Scoresby, and Lee are names prominent in the
+study of the subject in England at this time. In
+the next period, though, an Englishman gives the
+impetus necessary for the successful pursuit of the
+study.</p>
+
+<p>In 1841 the French magnetizer, La Fontaine, gave
+some public exhibitions in Manchester which attracted
+the attention of a physician by the name of
+James Braid. Through the aid rendered by Braid,
+animal magnetism blossomed into a science. He
+directed the subject into its proper field: he eschewed
+the occult and mysterious, and emphasized observation
+and experiment. It was Braid who gave us
+the word "hypnotism." At first a sceptic, he began
+experimenting and proved that fixity of gaze
+had in some way such an influence on the nervous
+system of the subject that he went off into a sleep.
+He therefore opined that the transmission of a fluid
+by the operator had no part in the matter.</p>
+
+<p>He further showed that an assumed attitude<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span>
+changed the subject's sentiments in harmony with
+the attitude, and that the degree of sleep varied
+with different persons, and with the same person at
+different times. He also noted the acuteness of the
+senses during hypnosis, and that verbal suggestion
+would produce hallucinations, emotions, paralysis,
+etc. Therapeutics was a subject in which he was
+naturally interested, and his experiments on different
+diseases were frequent and valuable. Braid
+made some mistakes, as was natural, but his discoveries
+covered the field so well and his ideas were
+so sound that too much credit cannot be ascribed
+to him. At first he thought hypnotism (Braidism)
+was identical with animal magnetism, but later made
+the mistake of considering it analogous, and the two
+flourished side by side and independently.</p>
+
+<p>Animal magnetism was first introduced into
+America in 1836 by Mr. Charles Poyan, a French
+gentleman. A few years later a certain Dr. Collyer
+lectured upon it in New England. New Orleans
+was, however, for a long time its chief centre. In
+1848 Grimes, working independently, appears to
+have arrived at about the same conclusions as
+Braid. He showed that most of the hypnotic phenomena
+could be produced in the waking state in
+some subjects, by means of verbal suggestion. The
+phenomena were known under the name of electro-biology.
+In 1850 Darling went to England and
+introduced electro-biology, but it was soon identified<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span>
+with Braidism, and in 1853 Durand de Gros, who
+wrote under the pseudonym of Philips, exhibited
+the phenomena of electro-biology in several countries,
+but aroused little attention.</p>
+
+<p>Azam of Bordeaux and Broca of Paris made some
+experiments following Braid's method, and several
+times performed some painless operations by this
+means. They were followed by numerous others
+in all European countries and in America. In fact,
+the interest in the subject became general, and as
+more was known about it, fewer objections were
+heard. Societies were formed for the study of hypnotism,
+publications were started devoting all their
+space to the exposition and discussion of it, and as
+this third period advanced, its scientific value was
+more and more recognized from the stand-points of
+psychology, pathology, and therapeutics.</p>
+
+<p>In a brief r&eacute;sum&eacute; like this it would be impossible
+to name even the chief experimenters in the different
+countries who contributed to this period, but
+some names stand out so prominently that they
+should be emphasized, for they must be reckoned
+in importance with Braid's. Liebeault, whose book,
+<i>Du Sommeil</i>, <i>etc.</i>, was published in 1866, has been
+called the founder of the therapeutics of suggestion.
+While suggestion in both waking and hypnotic states
+had been applied long before Liebeault's day, it was
+he who first fully and methodically recognized its
+value. We are also indebted to him for stimulating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span>
+in the study of hypnosis Bernheim and other prominent
+investigators. Liebeault at the head of the
+School of Nancy was not less known than Charcot
+at the Salp&ecirc;tri&egrave;re.</p>
+
+<p>Charcot was indefatigable in his researches, but
+was led away in his conclusions by artifacts. For
+example: three states were produced in the hypnotic
+subject which Charcot considered to be symptomatic
+and characteristic. They were catalepsy,
+lethargy, and somnambulism. Certain physical
+excitations, such as rubbing the scalp or exposing
+the eyes to a bright light, were thought to be all
+that was necessary to change the subject from one
+stage to another. It has since been shown that not
+only were the states of catalepsy, lethargy, and
+somnambulism produced by suggestion, but the
+physical stimuli were simply suggestions and signs
+by which the subject knew that a particular change
+was expected, and, in harmony with hypnotic action,
+the expected change came about. Not only
+did Charcot make this mistake, but some of his
+followers of the Salp&ecirc;tri&egrave;re School continued to
+be deceived for years afterward.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly a conclusion of Charcot's remains to-day,
+and yet so earnest was he in his investigations and
+so untiring in his experiments, that many of his
+facts contributed much to our knowledge of the
+subject even if his theories have been rejected.
+Binet, F&eacute;r&eacute;, and other followers of his have contrib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>uted
+much to the science and literature of the subject.
+The latter half of this period is not unknown
+to us to-day, and as the names connected with it
+are familiar, it remains for me to mention but one
+more name, that of the one who ushered in the
+fourth period, F. W. H. Myers.</p>
+
+<p>From its beginning Myers was prominently connected
+with the Society for Psychical Research and
+occupied the offices of president and secretary.
+He held the latter position at the time of his death
+in 1901. In 1887 he formulated his theory of the
+subliminal self or subliminal consciousness, a theory
+which has come to be more and more accepted, and
+the value of which has received increasing appreciation.
+It has been known as the "subconscious
+self" or the "subconsciousness" probably more
+than by Myers's original title; and his theory has
+been modified by some subtractions and additions,
+but it is generally accepted to-day and its exposition
+has helped solve many problems in abnormal
+psychology. In no department has it contributed
+more than in that of hypnotism, for by it this state
+has been partially explained.</p>
+
+<p>For a number of years Charcot and his followers
+put forward a physiological theory of hypnotism
+which waged war with that of the Nancy School,
+under Liebeault, but even before Charcot's death
+he recognized the validity of the Nancy claims while
+still clinging to his own. Few if any espouse Charcot's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>
+claims to-day. The general psychological
+theory of Nancy, which bases the results on suggestion,
+is that currently accepted, while a theory not
+very different from that of animal magnetism has
+been held by some of those who accepted the
+spiritualistic hypothesis, notably among whom was
+Myers.</p>
+
+<p>Hypnotism to-day is recognized as the product
+of a long line of erroneous theory and zigzag development,
+but the wheat has largely been sifted and
+the chaff thrown to the winds of antiquity. Its
+therapeutic and psychological value is duly recognized
+by science to-day.<a name="FNanchor_189_186" id="FNanchor_189_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_186" class="fnanchor">189</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_184" id="Footnote_187_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_184"><span class="label">187</span></a> Binet and F&eacute;r&eacute;, <i>Animal Magnetism</i>, p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_185" id="Footnote_188_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_185"><span class="label">188</span></a> C. Mackay, <i>Extraordinary Popular Delusions</i>, I, p. 278.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_186" id="Footnote_189_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_186"><span class="label">189</span></a> Many works and encyclopedic articles on hypnotism have been
+consulted in the preparation of this chapter, all of which were valuable,
+and few of which stand out prominently.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+<h4>THE HEALERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Medical cannot be separated from moral science, without reciprocal
+and essential mutilation."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Reid</span>.</p>
+
+<p>"Man is a dupeable animal. Quacks in medicine, quacks in religion,
+and quacks in politics know this, and act upon that knowledge.
+There is scarcely anyone who may not, like a trout, be taken
+by tickling."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Southey</span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poem2">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Canst thou minister to a mind diseas'd,</span>
+<span class="i05">Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow,</span>
+<span class="i05">Raze out the written troubles of the brain,</span>
+<span class="i05">And with some sweet oblivious antidote</span>
+<span class="i05">Cleanse the stuff'd bosom of that perilous stuff</span>
+<span class="i05">Which weighs upon the heart?"&mdash;<span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>.</span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Joy, temperance, and repose,</span>
+<span class="i05">Slam the door on the doctor's nose."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Longfellow</span>.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There seems to have been a great development
+of mental healing during the nineteenth century.
+The healing by shrines, relics, and charms diminished
+in the latter part of the century on account of
+the lessening of superstition and the better understanding
+of mental laws, but additional work has
+thereby been laid upon the healers. The development
+of hypnotism and the exposition of the laws
+underlying it, the collection and publication of cases
+of cures by mental means, the lessening of faith in
+noxious doses of drugs, the increase of nervous diseases
+which are most easily helped by suggestive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span>
+therapeutics, the attempted duplication of apostolic
+gifts on the part of some sects and the general
+reaction against the materialism of the early part
+of the century as shown in the great revival of psychical
+study and research have all been factors in
+the demand for mental medicine.</p>
+
+<p>The healers have been of various kinds. Having
+already dealt with the mesmerizers and hypnotizers,
+we shall now look only at the classes of independent
+and generally less scientific investigators and experimenters.
+Some have not been regular healers but
+healed only incidentally, as, <i>e. g.</i>, the revivalists;
+some have followed James 5:14 f. in anointing with
+oil and praying&mdash;of these and others, some have
+had institutions for housing the patients; some
+have been peripatetic healers; some have simply
+used prayer; some have established their systems on
+metaphysical bases and been the founders of sects;
+some have combined the results of scientific investigations
+in an endeavor to help mankind. Many
+of these have simply followed the ways of their
+predecessors of former centuries, but a few started
+on new lines of procedure. Whatever the method,
+they have all, consciously or unconsciously, depended
+upon the influence of the patient's mind over his
+own body, and the now better understood laws of
+suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>The revivals were eighteenth and nineteenth century
+phenomena, and in discussing the part which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>
+their leaders have taken in healing we may well
+include the experience of Wesley. As a mere incident
+in his revival work, John Wesley (1703-1791),
+the great founder of Methodism, appeared in the
+rather unenviable role of exorcist. It is to his
+credit that he was not led away from his primary
+purpose by this experience, but returned to his
+preaching without any effort to add healing to his
+gifts. The account of his encounter with the demons
+can best be given by quoting his own words,
+as found in his Journal.</p>
+
+<p>"October 25 [1739]. I was sent for to one in
+Bristol who was taken ill the evening before. She
+lay on the ground furiously gnashing her teeth and
+after a while roared aloud. It was not easy for
+three or four persons to hold her, especially when
+the name of Jesus was named. We prayed. The
+violence of her symptoms ceased, though without a
+complete deliverance." Wesley was sent for later in
+the day. "She began screaming before I came into
+the room, then broke out into a horrid laughter,
+mixed with blasphemy, grievous to hear. One who
+from many circumstances apprehended a preternatural
+agent to be concerned in this, asking, 'How
+didst thou dare to enter into a Christian?' was
+answered, 'She is not a Christian, she is mine.'
+Then another question, 'Dost thou not tremble at
+the name of Jesus?' No words followed, but she
+shrunk back and trembled exceedingly. 'Art thou<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span>
+not increasing thy own damnation?' It was faintly
+answered, 'Ay! Ay!' which was followed by fresh
+cursing and blasphemy ... with spitting, and all
+the expressions of strong aversion." Two days
+later Wesley called and prayed with her again,
+when "All her pangs ceased in a moment, she was
+filled with peace, and knew that the son of wickedness
+was departed from her." On October 28 he
+exorcised two more demons whom he had evidently
+(unconsciously) been the means of producing in two
+neurotic girls. He had a few other experiences in
+healing, but always in an incidental way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus7" id="illus7"></a><a href="images/illus7.jpg"><img src="images/illus7-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="567" alt="JOHN ALEXANDER DOWIE" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">JOHN ALEXANDER DOWIE</span></div>
+
+<p>Charles G. Finney (1792-1875) had at least one
+experience as a healer. During revival services at
+Antwerp, N. Y., in 1824, two insane women were
+cured, but Finney was directly concerned in the
+restoration of only one of them. Of this he gives
+an account in his memoirs. "There were two very
+striking cases of instantaneous recovery from insanity
+during this revival. As I went into meeting
+in the afternoon of one Sabbath, I saw several ladies
+sitting in a pew, with a woman dressed in black who
+seemed to be in great distress of mind; and they
+were partly holding her, and preventing her from
+going out. As I came in, one of the ladies came to
+me and told me she was an insane woman.... I
+said a few words to her; but she replied that she
+must go; that she could not hear any praying, or
+preaching, or singing; that hell was her portion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>
+and she could not endure anything that made her
+think of heaven. I cautioned the ladies, privately,
+to keep her in her seat, if they could, without her
+disturbing the meeting. I then went into the pulpit
+and read a hymn. As soon as the singing began,
+she struggled hard to get out. But the ladies obstructed
+her passage; and kindly but persistently
+prevented her escape.... As I proceeded ... all
+at once she startled the congregation by uttering a
+loud shriek. She then cast herself almost from her
+seat, held her head very low, and I could see that
+she 'trembled very exceedingly.'... As I proceeded
+she began to look up again, and soon sat
+upright, with face wonderfully changed, indicating
+triumphant joy and peace.... She glorified God
+and rejoiced with amazing triumph. About two
+years after, I met with her, and found her still full
+of joy and peace."<a name="FNanchor_190_187" id="FNanchor_190_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_187" class="fnanchor">190</a></p>
+
+<p>The so-called "Mountain Evangelist," George O.
+Barnes, who was born in 1827, added healing to his
+other revival efforts. After leaving the Presbyterian
+Church he did his work mostly in Kentucky as
+an independent minister, and there anointed with
+oil according to James 5:14 f. In his records little
+is said about the cures, but the daily number of
+anointings is given, amounting to at least five
+thousand in all. He believed that the devil, not
+God, sends sickness: God is the great healer. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>anointing was simply a matter of faith. His formula
+varied and was very simple, as <i>e. g.</i>, "Dear
+daughter, in Jesus's precious name I anoint thee
+with this oil of healing for thy maladies. Oh, go
+on thy way rejoicing. Be of good cheer. He is
+the great healer. He will make thee whole. He
+hath commanded it. Lean thy whole weight on
+Him."<a name="FNanchor_191_188" id="FNanchor_191_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_188" class="fnanchor">191</a> His views may be judged by the following
+extract from a sermon of his on "Our Healer":
+"Oh, the hospitals and drug-stores, the bitter doses,
+the pains and racks, the tortures&mdash;great God, may
+this people believe to-day that thou hast nothing to
+do with this, that all came in with sin, and the
+devil manages it all; and wherever we are afflicted
+God stands by wringing His hands, and saying,
+'...Return to me, O backsliding children. Come
+back to me, and I will keep the devil off of you.'"<a name="FNanchor_192_189" id="FNanchor_192_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_189" class="fnanchor">192</a>
+I take also some extracts from his daily record.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"July 19 [1881]. John and I took a long walk....
+I shall not repeat the experiment, for I got
+many chiggers on me, which are tormenting me
+from head to foot while I write, I think because I
+trusted the pennyroyal to keep them off me instead
+of the Lord. It was not wilful, but a slip of
+forgetfulness, yet a door wide enough for Satan to
+enter a little bit. Now, instead of trying pennyroyal
+to get me rid of them, I will trust the Lord
+only.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"July 20. The chiggers gave exquisite torment.
+I shall never trust in pennyroyal again.</p>
+
+<p>"July 21. Satan tried to get me wavering on the
+eye question, but the dear Lord set me up more
+firmly than ever.</p>
+
+<p>"July 24. We have gotten into a little trouble
+by carelessly trying to help the dear Lord take care
+of his little organ. A key was silent, and yesterday
+Marie tried to remedy it. There was a good deal of
+taking out of keys, and dusting&mdash;result, two keys
+silent now, and one that won't be silent, but goes
+on in a bass wail through every song. So much for
+meddling with the dear Lord's work. We trust Him,
+when the lesson is learned, to set the little machine
+all right again.... The dear Lord cured the little
+organ this afternoon while we were at dinner; at
+least it was all right, as Marie with a happy smile
+informed me before she began to sing the first song.
+I gave thanks for it in the opening prayer, and then
+told the people all about it.</p>
+
+<p>"July 27. Satan is not a little busy with me,
+injecting doubts as to the right to trust for eyes.
+Faith still quenches all his fiery darts, although it
+sorely tries me to be thus inactive in these long
+summer days, without reading my beautiful edition
+of Young's Concordance, useless at the bottom of
+my trunk. My Revised New Testament I can only
+get at through others."<a name="FNanchor_193_190" id="FNanchor_193_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_190" class="fnanchor">193</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Leaving now the revivalists, let us take up the
+cases of others not revivalists who used anointing
+for healing. In her native hamlet of Maennedorf,
+Switzerland, Dorothea Trudel (1813-1862), the de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span>scendant
+of some generations of faith healers, cured
+many. Soon people began to come to her from
+near and far and, finally, at the solicitation of a
+"patient" of rank, she purchased a home where
+the afflicted could be near her. In 1856 the health
+authorities interfered. She was fined; an appeal
+was taken and, finally, she was permitted to carry
+on her work in connection with the home under
+some formal restrictions. During the course of the
+trial some authenticated cases of cure were produced:
+"one stiff knee, pronounced incurable by
+the best surgeons of France, Germany, and Switzerland;
+a leading physician testified to the recovery
+of a hopeless patient of his own; a burned foot,
+which was about to be amputated to prevent impending
+death, was healed without means. The
+evidence was incontrovertible, and the cases numerous.
+The cure was often contemporaneous with
+the confession of Christ by the unbelieving patient;
+but duration of the sickness varied with each case.
+Lunatics were commonly sent forth cured in a brief
+while." Nothing miraculous was claimed and no
+war was waged against physicians. It was not
+asserted that a cure was infallibly made, but it was
+pointed out as a simpler and more direct method.
+The means employed were gentleness, discipline,
+Bible reading, prayer, and anointing. After the
+death of Dorothea the home continued under the
+supervision of Mr. Samuel Zeller.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span>Charles Cullis (1833-1892), a young physician of
+Boston, suffered a crushing bereavement in the
+death of his wife shortly after their marriage, and
+then vowed to devote his life to charity. Inspired
+by M&uuml;ller's <i>Life of Trust</i> he established a number of
+charitable institutions, relying on prayer and faith
+for their support. Some of these institutions were
+for the cure of the sick, and in connection with
+these, and otherwise, Dr. Cullis anointed and prayed
+with all who came to him. Every summer a camp-meeting
+was held at Old Orchard Beach, Maine,
+where the large collections gathered were the subject
+of annual comment. He was followed in his
+work by Rev. A. B. Simpson, of New York, who
+now conducts it. The latter was formerly a Presbyterian
+minister but is now an independent. He
+still heals and takes up collections. From the
+efforts of Cullis and Simpson have come the Christian
+and Missionary Alliance and other similar organizations
+with Pentecost as the text and apostolic
+gifts as the much-sought-after prize. The
+proof of success is found in healing, speaking with
+tongues, trances, visions, and other abnormal phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>The "Holy Ghost and Us" movement, with headquarters
+at Shiloh, Maine, was an outgrowth of the
+Christian and Missionary Alliance propaganda. Rev.
+F. W. Sanford (1863-&nbsp;&nbsp;) was born on Bowdoinham
+Ridge, Maine. He graduated at Bates Col<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span>lege
+in 1886 and attended Cobb Divinity School for
+a short time. His ordination took place in 1887,
+after which he held two pastorates of three years
+each, presumedly in Free Baptist churches. In
+1891, while attending meetings at Old Orchard, he
+was inspired to start "a movement on strictly apostolic
+lines, which was to sweep the entire globe."
+He started on this new work early in 1893 with
+Shiloh, Maine, as the centre. Relying on faith
+alone, several buildings were erected and paid for,
+among which is Bethesda&mdash;a Home of Healing:
+"For those who believe God told the truth when He
+said, 'The prayer of Faith shall save the sick.'" In
+an account of the healing we read: "We have seen ... in
+at least one case, the restoration of the dead
+to life." Quite a following embraced the doctrine
+at one time, but lately there has been a considerable
+decline.</p>
+
+<p>An institution for faith healing was established
+in the north of London by Rev. W. E. Boardman
+(1810-1886). He called it "Bethshan" or the
+"Nursery of Faith" and refused to permit it to be
+called a hospital. The usual method of treatment
+was by anointing with oil and prayer, but it was
+claimed that many also were healed by correspondence.
+The results professed were very extravagant,
+among the cases being cancer, paralysis, advanced
+consumption, chronic rheumatism, and lameness of
+different kinds. As a proof of the cure of the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span>
+named affliction, numerous canes and crutches left
+behind by the healed were on exhibition.<a name="FNanchor_194_191" id="FNanchor_194_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_191" class="fnanchor">194</a></p>
+
+<p>It is said that Lord Radstock practised healing
+through anointing in Australia about the same
+time.</p>
+
+<p>There have been a number of prominent healers
+who have used prayer, and perhaps the laying on of
+hands, as the means for healing, and have usually
+eschewed anointing. Among these was Prince
+Hohenlohe (1794-1849). His was probably the
+greatest name in mental healing in the nineteenth
+century. He was born in Waldenburg and educated
+at several institutions. He was ordained
+priest in 1815 and officiated at Olm&uuml;tz, Munich,
+and other places. In 1820 he met a peasant, Martin
+Michel, who had performed some wonderful
+cures, and in connection with him effected a so-called
+miraculous cure on a princess of Schwarzenberg who
+had been for some years a paralytic.<a name="FNanchor_195_192" id="FNanchor_195_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_192" class="fnanchor">195</a> From this
+experience he became enthusiastic in healing, and
+he acquired such a fame as a performer of miraculous
+cures that multitudes flocked from different
+countries to receive the benefit of his supposed
+supernatural gifts. In one year (1848-49) there
+were eighteen thousand people who obtained access
+to him. His name and his titles probably had not
+a little to do with his wide influence. They were
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span>
+Alexander Leopold Franz Emmerich, Prince of
+Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsf&uuml;rst, Archbishop
+and Grand Provost of Grosswardein, Hungary, and
+Abbot of St. Michael's at Gaborjan.</p>
+
+<p>The testimony concerning his cures is from reliable
+witnesses. Notice the letter written by the
+ex-King of Bavaria to Count von Sinsheim, describing
+his own case:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">My dear Count</span>:</p>
+
+<p>There are still miracles. The ten last days of the
+last month, the people of W&uuml;rzburg might believe
+themselves in the times of the Apostles. The deaf
+heard, the blind saw, the lame freely walked, not by
+the aid of art, but by a few short prayers, and by
+the invocation of the name of Jesus.... On the
+evening of the 28th, the number of persons cured, of
+both sexes, and of every age, amounted to more than
+twenty. These were of all classes of the people, from
+the humblest to a prince of the blood, who, without
+any exterior means, recovered, on the 27th at noon,
+the hearing which he had lost from his infancy. This
+cure was effected by a prayer made for him during
+some minutes, by a priest who is scarcely more than
+twenty-seven years of age&mdash;the Prince Hohenlohe.
+Although I do not hear so well as the majority of
+the persons who are about me, there is no comparison
+between my actual state and that which it was
+before. Besides, I perceive daily that I hear more
+clearly.... My hearing, at present, is very sensitive.
+Last Friday, the music of the troop which
+defiled in the square in front of the palace, struck
+my tympanum so strongly, that for the first time, I
+was obliged to close the window of my cabinet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>The inhabitants of W&uuml;rzburg have testified, by the
+most lively and sincere acclamations, the pleasure
+which my cure has given them. You are at liberty
+to communicate my letter, and to allow any one
+who wishes, to take a copy of it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bruckenau</span>, <i>July 3d, 1822</i>. <span class="smcap">Louis</span>, <i>Prince Royal</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Professor Onymus, of the University of W&uuml;rzburg,
+reported a number of cases cured by Prince
+Hohenlohe, which he himself witnessed. He gives
+the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Captain Ruthlein, an old gentleman of Thundorf,
+70 years of age, who had long been pronounced
+incurable of paralysis, which kept his hand clenched,
+and who had not left his room for many years, has
+been perfectly cured. Eight days after his cure he
+paid me a visit, rejoicing in the happiness of being
+able to walk freely.</p>
+
+<p>"A man, of about 50, named Bramdel, caused
+himself to be carried by six men from Carlstadt to
+the Court at Stauffenburg. His arms and legs were
+utterly paralyzed, hanging like those of a dead man,
+and his face was of a corpse-like pallor. On the
+prayer of the Prince he was instantly cured, rose
+to his feet, and walked perfectly, to the profound
+astonishment of all present.</p>
+
+<p>"A student of Burglauer, near Murmerstadt, had
+lost for two years the use of his legs; he was brought
+in a carriage, and though he was only partially relieved
+by the first and second prayer of the Prince,
+at the third he found himself perfectly well.</p>
+
+<p>"These cures are real and they are permanent.
+If any one would excite doubts of the genuineness
+of the cases operated by Prince Hohenlohe, it is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>
+only necessary to come hither and consult a thousand
+other eye and ear witnesses like myself. Every
+one is ready to give all possible information about
+them."<a name="FNanchor_196_193" id="FNanchor_196_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_193" class="fnanchor">196</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The Mormons, under the leadership of Joseph
+Smith, Jr. (1805-1844), were healing the sick about
+the time that Prince Hohenlohe was performing his
+miracles on the other side of the water. Smith was
+born in Sharon, Vermont. The Mormon Church
+(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints)
+was founded in 1830 in Palmyra, New York, and
+moved from there to Kirkland, Ohio; Independence,
+Missouri; Nauvoo, Illinois; and thence to
+Utah. Smith was successively first elder, prophet,
+seer, and revelator. The year the church was
+founded Smith began his healing career as an exorcist,
+casting the devil out of Newel Knight in
+Colesville, New York. Following this, there was a
+firm belief in demoniacal possession, and exorcism
+was practised by both Smith and his followers,
+principally by means of command. This exorcism
+led up to faith healing.</p>
+
+<p>Smith's maternal uncle, Jason Mack, was a firm
+believer in healing by prayer and practised it; later,
+the Oneida Community of Perfectionists in western
+New York cured by faith; both of these facts would
+be known to the founder of Mormonism. After
+adopting faith healing he soon became proficient in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span>the art. Numerous well-attested cures were performed
+by Smith and his followers in other places.
+Elder Richards advertised in England "Bones set
+through Faith in Christ," and Elder Phillips made
+the additional statement that "while commanding
+the bones, they came together, making a noise like
+the crushing of an old basket." All forms of disease
+were treated, but not always successfully, as
+may be inferred from Smith's own words: "The
+cholera burst forth among us, even those on guard
+fell to the earth with their guns in their hands.... At
+the commencement I attempted to lay on hands
+for their recovery, but I quickly learned by painful
+experience, that when the great Jehovah decrees
+destruction upon any people, makes known His determination,
+man must not attempt to stay his
+hand." The means employed varied, but included
+at different times prayer, command, laying on of
+hands, consecrated handkerchiefs and other cloths,
+baptism, and infrequently anointing.<a name="FNanchor_197_194" id="FNanchor_197_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_194" class="fnanchor">197</a></p>
+
+<p>Crossing the ocean again, we find Johann Christolph
+Blumhardt (1805-1880) performing wonderful
+acts of healing. He assumed his first independent
+charge in 1838 when he became pastor of the village
+church at Moettlinger, Wurtemberg. He was known
+afterward as Pastor Blumhardt. Among his parishioners
+was Gottliebin Ditters, generally thought
+to be possessed by an evil spirit. After two years
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span>prayer and care for this woman, he saw her restored
+to peace of mind. This was the beginning of a life
+of faith in the efficacy of prayer for healing. After
+the restoration of Gottliebin a spontaneous and entirely
+unexpected revival took place in Moettlinger.
+Multitudes came from afar to hear this sincere man
+preach his simple sermons, and in many cases bodily
+disease left those who confessed and upon whom
+Blumhardt laid his hands. It became noised about
+that those who repented, with whom the pastor
+prayed and upon whom he laid his hands, would be
+healed. "One morning a mother rushed to his
+house, saying that she had by an accident scalded
+her child with boiling soup. The infant was found
+screaming with agony. He took the child in his
+arms, prayed over it, and it grew quiet. It had no
+further pain, and the effects of the scalding were
+quickly gone. Another child was nearly blind with
+disease. A neighboring pastor, when consulted, said
+to the parents: 'If you believe Jesus can and will
+heal your child, by all means go to Blumhardt, but
+if you have not got the faith, don't do it on any
+account; let an operation be performed.' 'Well,
+we have faith,' they said, and went to Blumhardt.
+Three days after it was perfectly well." These
+events could not fail to attract attention, and miracles
+or healings from his prayers were of constant
+occurrence. In 1852 Blumhardt moved to Boll,
+Wurtemberg, and until his death he continued his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span>
+healing. He did not despise human means of
+healing, but he stoutly held that Jesus would
+answer the prayer of faith uttered for and by
+the sick.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of the century Father Mathew
+(1790-1856) attracted a large number of persons
+who were in need of healing. He was best known
+as the famous apostle of temperance, and was to
+Ireland in the nineteenth century what Wesley was
+to England in the eighteenth. He also travelled
+over England and Scotland and spent two years
+in America. In one period of nine months he induced
+two hundred thousand persons to take the
+temperance pledge. Among other things he cured
+blindness, lameness, paralysis, hysteria, headache,
+and lunacy. After his death the same diseases
+which he had cured during his lifetime were just
+as effectively relieved by visiting the good father's
+tomb, in the firm belief that a miracle would be performed.
+From the following cure, his first one, it
+will be seen that the discovery of his healing power
+was rather accidental.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A young lady, of position and intelligence, was
+for years the victim of the most violent headaches,
+which assumed a chronic character. Eminent advice
+was had but in vain; the malady became more
+intense, the agony more excruciating. Starting up
+one day from the sofa on which she lay in a delirium
+of pain, she exclaimed&mdash;'I cannot endure this torture
+any longer; I will go and see what Father Mathew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span>
+can do for me.' She immediately proceeded to
+Lehanagh, where Father Mathew was then sick and
+feeble. Flinging herself on her knees before him she
+besought his prayers and blessing. In fact, stung
+by intolerable suffering she asked him to cure her.
+'My dear child, you ask me what no mortal has
+power to do. The power to cure rests alone with
+God. I have no such power.' 'Then bless me, and
+pray for me&mdash;place your hand on my head,' implored
+the afflicted lady. 'I cannot refuse to pray
+for you, or to bless you,' said Father Mathew, who
+did pray for and bless her, and place his hand upon
+her poor throbbing brow. Was it faith?&mdash;was it
+magnetism?&mdash;was it the force of imagination exerted
+wonderfully? I shall not venture to pronounce
+what it was; but that lady returned to her home
+perfectly cured of her distressing malady. More
+than that&mdash;cured completely, from that moment,
+forward."<a name="FNanchor_198_195" id="FNanchor_198_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_195" class="fnanchor">198</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>About the same time, Mrs. Elizabeth Mix, a
+negro woman living in Connecticut, achieved great
+fame through her healing by prayer. Many testified
+to the efficacy of her prayers and bewailed her
+death.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus8" id="illus8"></a><a href="images/illus8.jpg"><img src="images/illus8-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="524" alt="GEORGE O. BARNES" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">GEORGE O. BARNES</span></div>
+
+<p>Francis Schlatter (1856-1909) was a native of
+Alsace, France. He was born a Roman Catholic and,
+so far as he was affiliated with any denomination,
+always remained one. When a year old, he was blind
+and deaf and was cured by his mother's prayers.
+He came to America in 1891, and first settled at
+Jamestown, Long Island. Early in 1893 he moved to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span>Denver, Colorado, and in the following July he felt
+impelled by inner promptings to start out, he knew
+not whither. Probably mentally unbalanced, he
+wandered through the wilderness of the great Southwest
+without shoes or hat. Fasts, temptations,
+visions, arrests and imprisonments, and healings
+combined to furnish his experience during these
+wanderings, always, as he said, being led by the
+Father. In July, 1895, he arrived at Las Lunas,
+New Mexico, where he first attracted public attention
+as a healer. From here he went to Albuquerque,
+where he treated as many as six hundred
+persons in a day, many very effectively. After forty
+days' fast, which was broken by a hearty meal of
+solid food, he went to Denver and here reached the
+pinnacle of his fame and success. At the home of
+a sympathizer, daily from 9 <span class="smcap">A. M.</span> to 4 <span class="smcap">P. M.</span>, he
+treated those who came to him, always without
+any remuneration. From two thousand to five
+thousand people would congregate in line, reaching
+nearly around a city block, five or six abreast, but
+he was never able to treat more than two thousand
+in a day. Crowds came from other cities, and some
+few from great distances, even the New England
+States. He stood inside a fence, and as each one
+came along he held the patient's hand for a short
+time; lifting up his eyes, he prayed and then assured
+the sufferer of relief within a certain time.
+Through the mail and in other ways he received<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span>
+handkerchiefs which he blessed and returned with
+assurance of relief through them. Not all cases
+handled were restored to health or even noticeably
+eased, but large numbers testified to cures, some of
+which came immediately and others by degrees.
+He did not preach. Although he never claimed it,
+when asked, "Are you the Christ?" he always replied,
+"I am." He wore a beard and long hair, and
+dressed in the plainest clothes. In appearance he
+looked not unlike the pictures of the traditional
+Christ. Afterward he appeared in different parts
+of the United States, but never with the same
+success in healing as in Denver.<a name="FNanchor_199_196" id="FNanchor_199_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_196" class="fnanchor">199</a></p>
+
+<p>The once famous Dr. Newton arrived in Boston in
+1859 on one of his visits, and caused an extraordinary
+sensation. Astonishing results were reported
+in the way of cures. The lame, having no further
+need of crutches, left them behind; the blind were
+cured, and several chronic cases were relieved. He
+had many followers and disciples among whom was
+"Dr." Bryant, who settled in Detroit and healed
+there. Rev. J. M. Buckley, D.D., met Dr. Newton
+on a Mississippi steam-boat, when the latter was
+returning from Havana with his daughter who was
+very low with consumption, and the father doubted
+if she would reach home alive. When asked
+"Doctor, why could you not heal her?" he replied
+"It seems as if we cannot always affect our own
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>kindred." At this time he denounced his pupil, Dr.
+Bryant, as an "unmitigated fraud who had no
+genuine healing power."</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"If Bryant be an unmitigated fraud, how do you
+account for the cures which he makes?" asked Dr.
+Buckley.</p>
+
+<p>"Oh!" said the doctor, "they are caused by the
+faith of the people and the concentration of their
+minds upon his operations with the expectation of
+being cured. Now," said he, "nobody would go to
+see Bryant unless they had some faith that he might
+cure them, and when he begins his operations with
+great positiveness of manner, and when they see
+the crutches he has there, and hear the people testify
+that they have been cured, it produces a tremendous
+influence on them; and then he gets them started
+in the way of exercising, and they do a good many
+things that they thought they could not do; their
+appetites and spirits revive, and if toning them up
+can possibly reduce the diseased tendency, many
+of them will get well."</p>
+
+<p>Said Dr. Buckley: "Doctor, pardon me, is not
+that a correct account of the manner in which you
+perform your wonderful works?"</p>
+
+<p>"Oh, no," said he; "the difference between a
+genuine healer and a quack like Bryant is as wide
+as the poles."<a name="FNanchor_200_197" id="FNanchor_200_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_197" class="fnanchor">200</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>Father John of Cronstadt (1829-1908) was a
+saintly man, and furnishes us with an example of
+the healers among the Orthodox Church of the East.
+He was famed in all Russia for his sanctity, and was
+so thronged by crowds for his healing power that he
+often had to escape by side doors after celebrating
+the communion. His cures were many, but I choose
+his own account of one as an example.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A certain person who was sick unto death from
+inflammation of the bowels for nine days, without
+having obtained the slightest relief from medical
+aid, as soon as he had communicated of the Holy
+Sacrament, upon the morning of the ninth day, regained
+his health and rose from his bed of sickness
+in the evening of the same day. He received the
+Holy Communion with firm faith. I prayed to the
+Lord to cure him. 'Lord,' said I, 'heal thy servant
+of his sickness. He is worthy, therefore grant him
+this. He loves thy priests and sends them his
+gifts.' I also prayed for him in church before the
+altar of the Lord, at the Liturgy, during the prayer:
+'Thou who hast given us grace at this time, with
+one accord to make our common supplication unto
+thee,' and before the Holy Mysteries themselves.
+I prayed in the following words: 'Lord, our life!
+It is as easy for thee to cure every malady as it is
+for me to think of healing. It is as easy for thee
+to raise every man from the dead as it is for me to
+think of the possibility of the resurrection of the
+dead. Cure, then, thy servant Basil of his cruel
+malady, and do not let him die; do not let his wife
+and children be given up to weeping.' And the
+Lord graciously heard, and had mercy upon him,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span>
+although he was within a hair's breadth of death.
+Glory to thine omnipotence and mercy, that thou,
+Lord, hast vouchsafed to hear me!"<a name="FNanchor_201_198" id="FNanchor_201_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_198" class="fnanchor">201</a></p></div>
+
+<p>For the past century and a half healing has been
+carried on among the Pennsylvania Germans by
+means of a superstitious practice known as "Pow-wow."
+A book called <i>The Sixth Book of Moses, or
+Black Art</i> is said to be the basis of the practice. The
+practitioners are usually women of the most ignorant,
+degraded, and, not infrequently, immoral class,
+and in harmony with this, a firm belief in witchcraft
+is entertained by them. Notwithstanding this,
+they are employed at times by intelligent and respectable
+people, even by those whose standing in
+the community might well guarantee a disbelief in
+such incantations. The healers treat for burns,
+erysipelas and all skin diseases, goitre, tumors,
+rheumatism, and some other similar troubles. They
+have different formulas for the various diseases, and
+the belief is current that if a healer should reveal
+the formula to her own sex, she would lose her
+power, and if she told more than one of the opposite
+sex, the power would be taken from her. The
+following is the method of operating for burns:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Take a piece of red woolen yarn and wrap it into
+the shape of a ball. Pass it slowly around the burn
+and while doing so, repeat three times, 'The fire
+burneth, water quencheth, the pain ceaseth.' After
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>which reverse the movement and repeat the words
+again three times. Then take the yarn upstairs,
+pull out the chimney-stop, put the yarn in the
+chimney, and as soon as it disappears the burn is
+healed."</p></div>
+
+<p>There have been a number of cases of local healers
+and I give two examples: "At the time of the
+prevalence of cholera in Canada, a man named
+Ayers, who came out of the States, and was said to
+be a graduate of the University of New Jersey, was
+given out to be St. Roche, the principal patron
+saint of the Canadians, and renowned for his power
+in averting pestilential diseases. He was reported
+to have descended from heaven to cure his suffering
+people of the cholera, and many were the cases in
+which he appeared to afford relief. Many were thus
+dispossessed of their fright in anticipation of the
+disease, who might, probably, but for his inspiriting
+influence, have fallen victims to their apprehensions.
+The remedy he employed was an admixture of maple
+sugar, charcoal, and lard."<a name="FNanchor_202_199" id="FNanchor_202_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_199" class="fnanchor">202</a></p>
+
+<p>"The <i>Month</i> for June, 1892, published an account,
+by the late Earl of Denbigh, of a cure worked by a
+member of a family named Cancelli of Lady Denbigh
+in 1850. She was suffering severely from
+rheumatism, and the Pope (Pius IX) mentioned
+to the Earl that near Foligno there was a family of</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span></p>
+<p>peasants who were credited with a miraculous power
+of curing rheumatic disorders. Lord Denbigh succeeded
+in getting one of the family, an old man, to
+come, and learned from him the legend of the cure.
+The belief was that in the reign of Nero, the Apostles
+Peter and Paul took refuge in the hut of an old couple
+named Cancelli, near Foligno, and, as a proof of
+gratitude, gave to the male descendants of the family
+living near the spot the power of curing rheumatic
+disorders to the end of time. Lord Denbigh described
+how the old man made a solemn invocation,
+using the sign of the cross, and, in fact, Lady Denbigh
+did recover at once. In a few days the pains
+returned, but she made an act of resignation, and
+they then left her, and never returned with any
+acuteness."<a name="FNanchor_203_200" id="FNanchor_203_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_200" class="fnanchor">203</a></p>
+
+<p>What we may designate "Metaphysical Healing"
+originated with Phineas Parkhurst Quimby (1802-1866).
+The movement was important, not so much
+on account of what Quimby himself was able to
+accomplish by it, as because of the work that has
+been carried on since by at least three of his pupils.
+He was born in Lebanon, New Hampshire, and in
+early life was a watch and clock maker. In 1840
+he began experimenting with mesmerism, and accounts
+of these experiments were published in the
+Maine papers of that time. After this he developed
+a system of mental healing of his own, practising it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span>
+in different towns in Maine for some years. About
+1858 he settled as a practitioner in Portland and
+remained there until his death. I shall quote brief
+extracts in his own words, which portray his system.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"My practice is unlike all medical practice. I
+give no medicine, and make no outward applications.
+I tell the patient his troubles, and what he
+thinks is his disease; and my explanation is the cure.
+If I succeed in correcting his errors, I change the
+fluids of the system and establish the truth, or
+health. The truth is the cure. This mode of practice
+applies to all cases."</p>
+
+<p>"The greatest evil that follows taking an opinion
+for a truth is disease."</p>
+
+<p>"Man is made up of truth and belief; and, if he
+is deceived into a belief that he has, or is liable to
+have, a disease, the belief is catching, and the effect
+follows it."</p>
+
+<p>"Disease being made by our belief, or by our
+parents' belief, or by public opinion, there is no
+formula to be adopted, but every one must be
+reached in his particular case. Therefore it requires
+great shrewdness or wisdom to get the better
+of the error. Disease is our error and the work of
+the devil."<a name="FNanchor_204_201" id="FNanchor_204_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_201" class="fnanchor">204</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Quimby made many wonderful and mostly speedy
+cures, and although he wrote out his system, it has
+never been published. Among his patients was Mrs.
+Patterson from Hill, New Hampshire, who went to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span>
+Portland in 1862. She had been a confirmed invalid
+for six years. To quote her own words, published in
+the <i>Portland Evening Courier</i> in 1862, she made a
+rapid recovery. "Three weeks since I quitted my
+nurse and sick room en route for Portland. The
+belief of my recovery had died out of the hearts of
+those who were most anxious for it. With this
+mental and physical depression I first visited P. P.
+Quimby, and in less than one week from that time I
+ascended by a stairway of one hundred and eighty-two
+steps to the dome of the City Hall, and am improving
+<i>ad infinitum</i>. To the most subtle reasoning,
+such a proof, coupled, too, as it is with numberless
+similar ones, demonstrates his power to heal." Mrs.
+Patterson, afterward Mrs. Eddy, proclaimed after
+his death a doctrine very similar to Quimby's.
+She called it "Christian Science," a name Quimby
+applied to his teaching, although usually he called
+it "Science of Health."</p>
+
+<p>Another patient of Quimby's was Julius A. Dresser,
+who visited him first in 1860. Of him Mr.
+Dresser says: "The first person in this age who penetrated
+the depths of truth so far as to discover and
+bring forth a true science of life, and publicly apply
+it to the healing of the sick, was Phineas Parkhurst
+Quimby of Belfast, Me."</p>
+
+<p>Rev. W. F. Evans was still another patient and
+disciple of Quimby's. His testimony is as follows:
+"Disease being in its root a wrong belief, change that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>
+belief and we cure the disease.... The late Dr.
+Quimby, of Portland, one of the most successful
+healers of this or any age, embraced this view of
+the nature of disease, and by a long succession of
+most remarkable cures ... proved the truth of
+the theory.... Had he lived in a remote age or
+country, the wonderful facts which occurred in his
+practice would have now been deemed either mythical
+or miraculous."</p>
+
+<p>These three, Messrs. Evans and Dresser and Mrs.
+Eddy, proved to be Quimby's most famous patients
+and disciples. Evans became a noted and voluminous
+writer on mental healing, Mr. Dresser has been
+identified with the New Thought movement of which
+his son H. W. Dresser is probably the best exponent,
+and Mrs. Eddy ruled the Christian Scientists with a
+rod of iron.</p>
+
+<p>Warren F. Evans visited Quimby twice in the
+year 1863, and at these times obtained his knowledge
+of Quimby's methods. Up to this time he had been
+a Swedenborgian clergyman, and his beliefs enabled
+him the better to grasp the new doctrines. On the
+occasion of the second visit he told his healer that
+he thought he could cure the sick in this way, and
+Quimby agreed with him. On returning home he
+tried it, and his first attempts were so successful that
+he became a practitioner, using only mental means,
+and continued in this work. He wrote several books
+on the subject of mental healing, the first one,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span>
+<i>The Mental Cure</i>, appearing in 1869, six years before
+Mrs. Eddy's <i>Science and Health</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps, strictly speaking, the New Thought
+movement does not come within the scope of our
+subject, except as we see in it an outgrowth and application
+of the Quimby doctrine, for two reasons.
+In the first place, its purpose is mental hygiene
+rather than cure, and it is all the more valuable for
+that. Of course, in establishing hygienic practices
+many disorders are cured, but prevention is the
+main feature. The second reason why we might
+perhaps not include it in a r&eacute;sum&eacute; of the healers is
+that it is intended to be for the use of the individual
+to prevent his employing a healer of any kind. The
+same objection, however, would do away to some
+extent with a discussion of Christian Science. The
+principles of New Thought are that the mind has
+an influence on the body, and that good, sweet, pure
+thoughts have a salutary effect, but the opposite
+ones injure the body. Don't worry, don't think of
+disease, don't look for trouble, but fill the mind with
+the opposite positive thoughts and life will be happy
+and the body will be well. The doctrines are expounded
+differently by the various leaders, and
+emphasis is laid on different points, some emphasizing
+more fully the religious aspects of the movement,
+for example. The principal writers on the
+subject are H. W. Dresser, R. W. Trine, H. Wood,
+and H. Fletcher.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span>Mrs. Mary A. Morse Baker Glover Patterson Eddy
+(1821-1910) was born at Bow, New Hampshire.
+After a precocious and neurotic childhood, she
+united with the Congregational Church when seventeen
+years of age. At the age of twenty-two she
+married George Washington Glover, probably the
+best of her husbands. His death, six months later,
+was followed by the birth of her only child and a
+ten years' widowhood. During this time she stayed
+with her relatives and had long periods of illness,
+principally of an hysterical character. She then
+experimented to some extent with mesmerism and
+clairvoyance. In 1853 she married Dr. Daniel Patterson,
+an itinerant dentist, from whom she got a
+divorce, and as Mrs. Patterson she went first to
+"Dr." Quimby in 1862. She visited Quimby again
+in 1864, at which time, with some others, she studied
+with him. After Quimby's death she began teaching
+what she then called his science. For the next
+few years she wandered from town to town about
+Boston in straitened circumstances, healing, teaching,
+and endeavoring to found an organized society.
+It was not, however, until 1875 that the organization
+was formed in Lynn, and later in the same year
+appeared her <i>Science and Health</i>. The years since
+then have been filled with controversies in the law
+courts and newspapers, caresses and blows from
+the ruling hand of Mother Eddy, and numerous
+developments from small beginnings, until now
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span>over one hundred thousand are identified with the
+organization. These are almost without exception
+proselytes from other churches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="illus9" id="illus9"></a><a href="images/illus9.jpg"><img src="images/illus9-tb.jpg"
+width="400" height="551" alt="MARY BAKER EDDY" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">MARY BAKER EDDY</span></div>
+
+<p>Mrs. Eddy's doctrines are founded on a metaphysical
+theory known as subjective idealism, and
+advanced centuries before her birth. It posits the
+all-comprehensiveness of mind and the non-existence
+of matter. If bodies do not exist, diseases cannot
+exist, and must be only mental delusions. If the
+mind is freed of these delusions the disease is gone.
+This was Quimby's method of procedure already
+quoted. In <i>Science and Health</i> she says that the
+object of treatment is "to destroy the patient's
+belief in his physical condition." She also advises:
+"Mentally contradict every complaint of the body."
+She continues: "All disease is the result of education,
+and can carry its ill effects no further than
+mortal mind maps out the way. Destroy fear,"
+she says, "and you end the fever." However, as
+with other healers, practice and theory are two
+different things. Listen further: "It would be
+foolish to venture beyond our present understanding,
+foolish to stop eating, until we gain more goodness
+and a clearer comprehension of the living God."
+Again: "Until the advancing age admits the efficacy
+and the supremacy of Mind, it is better to leave
+the adjustment of broken bones and dislocations to
+the fingers of the surgeon, while you confine yourself
+chiefly to mental reconstruction, and the pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span>vention
+of inflammation and protracted confinement."<a name="FNanchor_205_202" id="FNanchor_205_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_202" class="fnanchor">205</a></p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Christian Science, no modern
+religious movement has come so prominently
+before the public and gained so many adherents in
+a short time as the Christian Catholic Apostle Church
+of Zion, and both movements owe their popularity
+solely to their healing. John Alexander Dowie
+(1847-1907), the founder of this sect, was born in
+Edinburgh, Scotland, but in 1860, with his parents,
+he went to Australia, returning for two years to his
+native city for college study. In 1870 he was ordained
+to the Congregational ministry. He served
+three churches, and after some political activity
+was offered a portfolio in the Australian cabinet of
+Sir Henry Parks. In 1882 he went to Melbourne and
+established a large independent church, building a
+tabernacle for worship. About this time he became
+a firm believer in Divine Healing in direct answer to
+prayer. He arrived in San Francisco in 1888 and
+spent two years in organizing branches of the Divine
+Healing Association of which he was president.
+He went to Chicago in 1890 and continued there
+holding meetings for some years. In 1895 he broke
+away from the International Divine Healing Association,
+which he had been chiefly instrumental in
+organizing, and insisted that his followers should
+not remain in the churches. The following year<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>
+the Christian Catholic Church was organized. Of
+this organization Mr. Dowie was known as General
+Overseer, then as Prophet, and in 1904 as First
+Apostle. He also proclaimed himself in general as
+the messenger of the Covenant and Elijah the Restorer.
+In 1900 Mr. Dowie said: "About twenty-two
+thousand have been baptized by triune immersion
+up to the present, and this includes practically
+all the members." This, however, was a great exaggeration.
+In 1901 the head-quarters of the church
+was moved to Zion City, forty-two miles north of
+Chicago. He preached the threefold gospel of
+Salvation, Healing, and Holy Living. Dowie differed
+from Christian Science in proclaiming the
+reality of disease, the distinctive feature of his
+doctrine being that all bodily ailment is the work
+of the Devil, and that Christ came to destroy the
+works of the Devil. His contempt for external
+means may be judged from the title of a pamphlet,
+<i>Doctors, Drugs, and Devils</i>; nevertheless, he used
+physicians at least to diagnose cases at different
+times, a licensed medical doctor, Speicher, being
+associated with him from the beginning of his work
+in Chicago. Dentists are a factor of Zion City,
+and it is said he also used an oculist. According to
+his doctrine there are four methods of cure: "The
+first is the direct prayer of faith; the second, intercessory
+prayer of two or more; the third, the
+anointing of the elders, with the prayer of faith;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span>
+and the fourth, the laying on of hands of those who
+believe, and whom God has prepared and called to
+that ministry." In addition to this, teaching is the
+basis of all other methods. The first ten years of
+his healing he is said to have laid hands on eighteen
+thousand sick, and he declared that the greater part
+of them were fully healed. In some of his later
+years he said in an issue of his paper: "I pray and
+lay hands on seventy thousand people in a year."
+That would make one hundred and seventy-five
+thousand in two and a half years; but in the time
+preceding the statement he reported only seven
+hundred cures. Evidently very few were helped.
+However, in Shiloh Tabernacle at Zion City are
+exhibited on the walls crutches, canes, surgical instruments,
+trusses, and almost every form of apparatus
+used by the medical profession, presented by
+people who have now no further use for them on
+account of their being healed.<a name="FNanchor_206_203" id="FNanchor_206_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_203" class="fnanchor">206</a></p>
+
+<p>Our study began with the mental therapeutics of
+over a millennium before the birth of Christ; let us
+now close with that of the twentieth century after,
+in giving some account of the so-called Emmanuel
+Movement. In 1905 there was formed in connection
+with Emmanuel Church, Boston, a tuberculosis
+class for the alleviation of unfortunates of this
+kind. In this experience it was found that certain
+psychic and social factors greatly aided in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span>
+cure, and in the following year, 1906, the work expanded
+into what has been called the "Emmanuel
+Movement." It is an attempt to combine the wisdom
+and efforts of the physician, the clergyman,
+the psychologist, and the sociologist, to combat
+conditions most frequently met in a large city. In
+the medical phase of the work mental healing has
+had a large place, and has been emphasized most in
+the popular presentation of the movement, and so
+far as the idea has spread, it has been almost wholly
+in connection with this aspect. What the future
+of this will be is uncertain, but it seems probable
+that its most valuable service will be in stimulating
+the physicians to take up the work which properly
+belongs to them&mdash;the work of therapeutics in all its
+branches, mental and physical.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_187" id="Footnote_190_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_187"><span class="label">190</span></a> C. G. Finney, <i>Memoirs</i>, pp. 108 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_188" id="Footnote_191_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_188"><span class="label">191</span></a> W.T. Price, <i>Without Scrip or Purse, or the "Mountain Evangelist,"
+George O. Barnes</i>, p. 451.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_189" id="Footnote_192_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_189"><span class="label">192</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 610.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_190" id="Footnote_193_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_190"><span class="label">193</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 301 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_191" id="Footnote_194_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_191"><span class="label">194</span></a> J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred Phenomena,"
+<i>Century</i>, XXXII, pp. 221 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_192" id="Footnote_195_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_192"><span class="label">195</span></a> <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, article "Hohenlohe."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_193" id="Footnote_196_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_193"><span class="label">196</span></a> D. H. Tuke, <i>Influence of the Mind upon the Body</i>, pp. 355 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_194" id="Footnote_197_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_194"><span class="label">197</span></a> I. W. Riley, <i>The Founder of Mormonism</i>, chaps. VIII and IX.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_195" id="Footnote_198_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_195"><span class="label">198</span></a> J. F. Maguire, <i>Father Mathew</i>, pp. 529 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_196" id="Footnote_199_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_196"><span class="label">199</span></a> <i>Biography of Francis Schlatter, The Healer</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_197" id="Footnote_200_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_197"><span class="label">200</span></a> J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred Phenomena,"
+<i>Century</i>, XXXII, pp. 221 f.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_198" id="Footnote_201_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_198"><span class="label">201</span></a> Father John, <i>My Life in Christ</i> (trans. Goulaeff), p. 201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_199" id="Footnote_202_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_199"><span class="label">202</span></a> T. J. Pettigrew, <i>Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and
+Surgery</i>, p. 53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_200" id="Footnote_203_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_200"><span class="label">203</span></a> E. Berdoe, <i>Origin and Growth of the Healing Art</i>, p. 482.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_201" id="Footnote_204_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_201"><span class="label">204</span></a> J. A. Dresser, <i>The True History of Mental Science</i>; A. G. Dresser,
+<i>The Philosophy of P. P. Quimby</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_202" id="Footnote_205_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_202"><span class="label">205</span></a> G. Milmine, <i>Mary Baker G. Eddy</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_203" id="Footnote_206_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_203"><span class="label">206</span></a> R. Harlan, <i>John Alexander Dowie</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308-309</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS" id="INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS"></a>INDEX OF SUBJECTS</h3>
+
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li><span class="smcap">Abraxas,</span> <a href="#Page_165">165</a> ff.
+</li><li>
+Ague, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> f., <a href="#Page_197">197</a> ff.<br />
+</li><li>
+Amulets, Chapter VII&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>definition of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> f., <a href="#Page_158">158</a> f.</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Astrology, <a href="#Page_141">140</a> f., <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.
+</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Baquet,</span> Mesmer's, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> f.
+</li><li>
+Bites of venomous animals, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> f.
+</li><li>
+Burns, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.
+</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Cabbalism,</span> <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.
+</li><li>
+Calculus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> f.
+</li><li>
+Cancer, <a href="#Page_009">9</a> f.
+</li><li>
+Canonization, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li><li>
+Catacombs, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>.</li><li>
+Characts, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> ff.</li>
+<li>
+Charms, Chapter VIII&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>composition of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>definition of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> f.</li>
+</ul>
+</li><li>
+Childbirth, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li>
+Cholera, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li><li>
+Chorea, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li>
+Christianity, influence of, Chapter III.</li><li>
+Christian Science, <a href="#Page_016">16</a> f., <a href="#Page_298">298</a> f., <a href="#Page_302">302</a> f.</li><li>
+Colic, <a href="#Page_177">177</a> f., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li>
+Consumption, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> f.</li><li>
+Cramp, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> ff.</li><li>
+Cross, true, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_079">79</a> f.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Demonology&mdash;</span>
+<ul>
+<li>and animals, <a href="#Page_038">38</a> f.</li>
+<li>and Apostolic Fathers, <a href="#Page_040">40</a> ff.</li>
+<li>and Dark Ages, <a href="#Page_044">44</a> ff.</li>
+<li>Christian, <a href="#Page_037">37</a> ff.</li>
+<li>Jewish, <a href="#Page_036">36</a> f.</li>
+</ul></li><li>
+Diseases, functional and organic, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>.</li><li>
+Dislocations, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> f.</li><li>
+Dropsy, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Emmanuel Movement,</span> <a href="#Page_306">306</a> f.</li><li>
+Epilepsy, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> f., <a href="#Page_205">205</a> ff.</li><li>
+Erysipelas, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> f.</li><li>
+Evil eye, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li>
+Exorcism, <a href="#Page_049">49</a> ff., <a href="#Page_126">126</a> f., <a href="#Page_134">134</a> f., <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.
+<ul>
+<li>by amulets, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li><li>
+by charms, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li><li>
+by relics, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>
+Eye disease, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> f., <a href="#Page_181">181</a> f., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Faith,</span> <a href="#Page_014">14</a> f.</li><li>
+Faith cure, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_017">17</a>.</li><li>
+Fevers, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Gems,</span> <a href="#Page_161">161</a> ff., <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li><li>
+Goitre, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li><li>
+Gout, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> f.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Headache,</span> <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> f.</li><li>
+Healers, Chapter V&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>and exorcism, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li><li>
+by unction, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> ff.</li><li>
+Christian, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> ff.</li><li>
+Mesmeric, Chapter X.</li><li>
+of nineteenth century, Chapter XI.</li>
+</ul></li><li>
+Herpes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> f.</li><li>
+Hypnotism, Chapter X.&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>controversy over, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.</li>
+<li>historic periods of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> f.</li>
+<li>Mesmer and, <a href="#Page_252">252</a> ff.</li>
+<li>scientific period of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a> f.</li>
+</ul></li><li>
+Hysteria, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span><span class="smcap">Incubation</span>, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_092">92</a> ff.
+<ul>
+<li>Greek, <a href="#Page_093">93</a> ff.</li>
+</ul></li><li>
+Incubus, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>
+Insanity, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>
+Insomnia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Jaundice</span>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> f.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>
+<span class="smcap">Magnetism</span>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> ff.</li>
+<li>
+Mandragora, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> f.</li>
+<li>
+Marasmus, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li>
+Medicine and church, <a href="#Page_053">53</a> ff.
+<ul>
+<li>Babylonian, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese, <a href="#Page_021">21</a> ff.</li>
+<li>Egyptian, <a href="#Page_024">24</a> ff.</li>
+<li>Greek, <a href="#Page_028">28</a> ff.</li>
+<li>History of, <a href="#Page_019">19</a> f.</li>
+<li>Indian, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>.</li>
+<li>Jewish, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Primitive, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>.</li>
+<li>Roman, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>.</li>
+</ul></li><li>
+Melancholy, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li>
+Mental healing, explanation of, <a href="#Page_007">7</a> ff.</li><li>
+Mesmerism. See Hypnotism.</li><li>
+Metaphysical cures, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> ff.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Numbers</span>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a> ff.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Oil of Saints</span>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a> f.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Pericarpia</span>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li><li>
+Phylacteries, <a href="#Page_141">140</a>.</li><li>
+Plague, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li>
+Pools, <a href="#Page_083">83</a> ff., <a href="#Page_092">92</a>.</li><li>
+Prayer, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> f., <a href="#Page_280">280</a> ff., <a href="#Page_283">283</a> f., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li><li>
+Psycho-analysis, <a href="#Page_012">12</a> f.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Re-education</span>, <a href="#Page_012">12</a> f.</li><li>
+Relics, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>, Chapter V&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>and Church Fathers, <a href="#Page_064">64</a> f.</li>
+<li>cost of, <a href="#Page_096">96</a> ff.</li>
+<li>fraud among, <a href="#Page_101">101</a> f.</li>
+<li>from Holy Land, <a href="#Page_069">69</a> ff.</li>
+</ul></li><li>
+Religion and Healing, <a href="#Page_004">4</a> ff., <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, Chapter III.</li><li>
+Revivalists, <a href="#Page_274">274</a> ff.</li><li>
+Rickets, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> f.</li><li>
+Rings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> f., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a> ff.</li><li>
+Royal Touch, Chapter IX&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>origin of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> ff.</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Saints and Diseases</span>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a> ff., <a href="#Page_081">81</a> f.</li><li>
+Sciatica, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li><li>
+Scrofula, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, Chapter IX.</li><li>
+Shrines, Chapter IV&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>modern, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> f.</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>
+Sick, care of, <a href="#Page_057">57</a> f.</li><li>
+Signatures, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> ff.</li><li>
+Spittle, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li><li>
+Subconsciousness, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>.</li><li>
+Suggestions, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> f.</li><li>
+Sweating sickness, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li><li>
+Sympathetic cures, <a href="#Page_150">150</a> ff.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Talismans</span>, Chapter VI&mdash;
+<ul>
+<li>definition of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a> ff., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+</ul></li><li>
+Therapeutics. See Medicine.</li><li>
+Thorns, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li><li>
+Toothache, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> f.</li><li>
+Touch pieces, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> f.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Unction</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> ff., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Warts</span>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> f.</li><li>
+Weapon-salve, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.</li><li>
+Wells, holy, <a href="#Page_083">83</a> ff.</li><li>
+Wen, <a href="#Page_219">219</a> f.</li><li>
+Whooping-cough, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> ff.</li><li>
+Worms, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li><li>
+Wounds, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> f.</li>
+</ul>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>INDEX OF NAMES</h3>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>
+<span class="smcap">Abraham</span>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li><li>
+Adam, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>.</li><li>
+Adrian, Pope, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li><li>
+&AElig;sculapius, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li>
+Agatha, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Agnan, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Agrippa, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li><li>
+Albans, St., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li>
+Albertus Magnus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li><li>
+Alboquerque, A. d'. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li>
+Alexander III, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li><li>
+Alexander of Tralles, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li>
+Ambrose, St., <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>.</li><li>
+Andreas, St., <a href="#Page_080">80</a>.</li><li>
+Andrews, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li>
+Anne, Queen, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li>
+Anne, St., de Beaupr&eacute;, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li>
+Anthony, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>.</li><li>
+Antoinette, Marie, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li><li>
+Antoninus, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>.</li><li>
+Apes, Valerius, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>.</li><li>
+Apollo, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li>
+Apollonia, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Aquarius, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Aredius, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li>
+Aries, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>.</li><li>
+Aristotle, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li><li>
+Armstrong, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li>
+Arnot, H., <a href="#Page_141">140</a>.</li><li>
+Ashburner, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li>
+Ashmole, E. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li><li>
+Athanasius, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>.</li><li>
+Aubrey, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li><li>
+Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li><li>
+Aurelian, Father, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>.</li><li>
+Avertin, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Ayers, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li>
+Azam, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Baas,</span> <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li>
+Bacci, P. J., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li>
+Bacon, F., <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li>
+Bacon, R., <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Badger, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li><li>
+Bagnone, F., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li>
+Bailly, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li>
+Balsius, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Baltus, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li>
+Barbarin, de, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li><li>
+Bargrave, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Barnabas, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Barnes, G. O., <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li><li>
+Barrington, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li><li>
+Barros, de, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li><li>
+Bates, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li><li>
+Bath-Chorin, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>.</li><li>
+Becket, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>.</li><li>
+Bede, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li><li>
+Belgrade, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li><li>
+Benedict, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+
+Benedict XIV, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li><li>
+
+Berdoe, E., <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li><li>
+
+Berenger, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bernard, Dr. C., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bernard of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bernard, St., <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bernheim, H., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bertrand, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li>
+
+Binet, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bingham, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li><li>
+
+Black, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li><li>
+
+Blair, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li><li>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span>
+</li><li>
+Blaise, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+
+Blochwick, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li><li>
+
+Blumhardt, J. C., <a href="#Page_287">287</a> f.</li><li>
+
+Boardman, W. E., <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li><li>
+
+B&ouml;ckmann, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bois, John de, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li>
+
+Boleyn, A., <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li>
+
+Boncompagni, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li>
+
+Boniface, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bonner, Bishop, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bontius, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li><li>
+
+Boorde, A., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bossuet, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>.</li><li>
+
+Boswell, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li>
+
+Boyle, R., <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li><li>
+
+Braid, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bramdel, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li>
+
+Brand, J., <a href="#Page_090">90</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li><li>
+
+Brand the Historian, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li><li>
+
+Broca, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li>
+
+Brockett, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li><li>
+
+Brogawn, St., <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li>
+
+Browne, Dr. E., <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li>
+
+Browne, J., <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li><li>
+
+Browne, Sir T., <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li><li>
+
+Bryant, Dr., <a href="#Page_292">292</a> f.</li><li>
+Buckingham, Duke of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li><li>
+Buckland, Prof., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li><li>
+Buckle, H. T., <a href="#Page_045">45</a>.</li><li>
+Buckley, J. M., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li><li>
+Bulwer-Lytton, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li><li>
+Burdin, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li>
+Burgarde, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Burgrave, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Burnet, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+Burton, R., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li>
+Butler, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li>
+Butler, A., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li><li>
+Butler, J., <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Caius</span>, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>.</li><li>
+Calama, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li>
+Calixtus II, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>.</li><li>
+Cancelli, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li>
+Capricornus, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Capua, Raimondo da, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li>
+Carodoc, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>.</li><li>
+Catharine, St., <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li><li>
+Cato the Censor, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li><li>
+Chalmers, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>.</li><li>
+Chamberlain, J., <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li><li>
+Charcot, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li>
+Charles I, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li>
+Charles II, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li><li>
+Charles II of Spain, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>.</li><li>
+Charles Edward, Prince, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li>
+Chaucer, <a href="#Page_061">61</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li><li>
+Chesterfield, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li>
+Chilperic, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li>
+Christopher, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Chrysippus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li><li>
+Chrysostom, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li><li>
+Churchill, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li>
+Cicero, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li>
+Clairvaux, Abbot of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+Clara, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Clarke, R. F., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li>
+Clement of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li><li>
+Clement VIII, Pope, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li>
+Cleophas, Simon, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Clerk, Mrs., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li><li>
+Clothair II, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li>
+Clovis I, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li>
+Cockayne, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li><li>
+Coirin, la demoiselle, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li>
+Coles, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li><li>
+Coleta, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li>
+Collier, J., <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li><li>
+Collinson, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>.</li><li>
+Collyer, Dr., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li>
+Comines, P. de, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li>
+Conway, Lord, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li><li>
+Cosmo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li>
+Cotta, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li><li>
+Cowles, W., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li><li>
+Cromwell, O., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li><li>
+Cros, J. M., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li>
+Crowley, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li><li>
+Cudworth, Dr., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li>
+Cullis, C., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li><li>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span>
+Cullum, Sir J., <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li><li>
+Cuthbert, St., <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li>
+Cyprian, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li>
+Cyril, St., <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li>
+Cyrus, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Damian</span>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li>
+Darling, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li>
+Dearmer, P., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li>
+Delenze, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li><li>
+Democritus, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>.</li><li>
+Denbigh, Earl of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li>
+Deslon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li>
+Deubner, L., <a href="#Page_096">96</a>.</li><li>
+Deucalion, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li><li>
+Digby, Sir E., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li><li>
+Digby, Sir K., <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff., <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li><li>
+Ditters, G., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li>
+Dodd, Dr., <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li><li>
+Donce, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li><li>
+Dowie, J. A., <a href="#Page_304">304</a> f.</li><li>
+Draper, J. W., <a href="#Page_072">72</a>.</li><li>
+Dresser, A. G., <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li><li>
+Dresser, H. W., <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li>
+Dresser, J. A., <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li><li>
+Dromore, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li><li>
+Dryden, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li>
+Dundee, B., <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li><li>
+Dupotel, Baron, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li><li>
+Durham, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Dziewicki, M. H., <a href="#Page_051">51</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Eccles</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li><li>
+Eddy, Mrs., <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li><li>
+Edine, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Edward the Confessor, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li><li>
+Edward II, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li><li>
+Edward III, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li><li>
+Edward VI, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li>
+Eleazar, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>.</li><li>
+Elisha, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li><li>
+Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+Elliotson, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li>
+Elpideus, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Empedocles, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>.</li><li>
+Encelius, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li><li>
+Ennemoser, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li>
+Ennodius, St., <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Erasmus, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Estrade, J. B., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li>
+Euhodias, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li>
+Eustachius, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li>
+Eustasius, Abbe, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li>
+Eutrope, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Evans, W. F., <a href="#Page_299">299</a> f.</li><li>
+Evelyn, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li><li>
+Evremond, St., <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Fabian, Pope</span>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li>
+Faria, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li>
+Farnham, N. de, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Fecamp, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li>
+Felix, Minucius, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>.</li><li>
+Felix, Mons, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li><li>
+Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li>
+F&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li><li>
+Ferrarius, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li><li>
+Fiage, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Fillan, St., <a href="#Page_088">88</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li>
+Finney, C. G., <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li><li>
+Fisher, G. P., <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li>
+Fitz-Nigel, R., <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Fletcher, <a href="#Page_061">61</a>.</li><li>
+Fletcher, H., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li>
+Floyer, Sir J., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li>
+Fluctibus, A., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li><li>
+Fludd, Dr., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Foissac, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li>
+Fontenelle, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li>
+Fort, G. F., <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li>
+Fortescue, Sir J., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li><li>
+Fosbrooke, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li><li>
+Foster, Parson, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li><li>
+Fox, G., <a href="#Page_132">132</a> f.</li><li>
+Francis, Father, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li>
+Francis I, Emperor, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li><li>
+Francis I, King, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li>
+Francis, St., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li><li>
+Franklin, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li>
+Franz, A., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li><li>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Galen</span>, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li>
+Gall, St., <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li>
+Gamaliel, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li>
+Ganny, S., <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li>
+Gardiner, Bishop, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+Gassner, J. J., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li><li>
+Gemelli, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li>
+Gemini, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Genevieve, St., <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li>
+Genow, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+George I, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li>
+George, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_094">94</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li>
+Gereon, St., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li><li>
+Germain, St., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li><li>
+Germanus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Gervasius, St., <a href="#Page_065">65</a>.</li><li>
+Gilbourne, Lord, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li>
+Giles, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Glocenius, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Gmelin, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li>
+Goldsmith, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li>
+Googe, B., <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li>
+
+G&ouml;rres, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li>
+Gower, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li><li>
+Gracian, B., <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Greatrakes, V., <a href="#Page_133">133</a> ff.</li><li>
+Gregory, Mr., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li>
+Gregory, of Nazianzus, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li>
+Gregory, of Tours, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li>
+Gregory, St., <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li>
+Gregory the Great, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>.</li><li>
+Gregory XIII, Pope, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li>
+Grimes, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li>
+Gros, D. de, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li><li>
+Grose, <a href="#Page_090">90</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li><li>
+Gudule, St., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li><li>
+Guffe, John, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li>
+Guthlac, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Hall, Bishop</span>, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li><li>
+Hamerton, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li><li>
+Hamilton, Miss M., <a href="#Page_093">93</a>, <a href="#Page_094">94</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>.</li><li>
+Hammond, W. A., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li><li>
+Hardy, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>.</li><li>
+Harlan, R., <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li><li>
+Harrington, Sir J., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li><li>
+Hasted, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li>
+Hatton, Lord Charles, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+Helen, Empress, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>.</li><li>
+Helinotius, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Hell, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li><li>
+Helmont, von, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li><li>
+Henry II and III, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Henry IV, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li>
+Henry VII, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li><li>
+Henry VIII, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+Hensler, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li>
+Hercules, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li>
+Herring, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li>
+Herz, Frau, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>.</li><li>
+Heylin, Dr., <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li>
+Heywood, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li><li>
+Higden, Ranulf, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li>
+Hilarion, St., <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li><li>
+Hippo, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.</li><li>
+Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>.</li><li>
+Hippolito, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li>
+Hobbes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li>
+Hohenlohe, Prince, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> f.</li><li>
+Holloway, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li>
+Holt, Sir J., <a href="#Page_174">174</a> f.</li><li>
+Homer, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>.</li><li>
+Hospinian, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+Howell, A. G., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li><li>
+Howell, J., <a href="#Page_152">152</a> f.</li><li>
+Hubert, St., <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>.</li><li>
+Hugo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li>
+Hyacinth, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Hyde, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li><li>
+Hygeia, Tecla, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Iatricos</span>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li>
+Imbert-Gourbyzee, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li>
+Innocent II, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>.</li><li>
+Innocent III, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>.</li><li>
+Iren&aelig;us, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Jackson</span>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li><li>
+Jacob, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li><li>
+James, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li>
+James I, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li><li>
+James II, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li><li>
+Jerome, of Brunsweig, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li><li>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span>
+Jerome, St., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li><li>
+Joane, Mother, of Stowe, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li><li>
+Job, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+John, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li>
+John, Father, of Cronstadt, <a href="#Page_294">294</a> f.</li><li>
+John, of Gladdesden, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li><li>
+John, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li>
+John, St., of Beverly, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li>
+Johnson, Dr. S., <a href="#Page_238">238</a> f.</li><li>
+Johnson, Mrs., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li>
+Joseph, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Josephus, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>.</li><li>
+Julian, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>.</li><li>
+Juliana, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li><li>
+Julius Africanus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li><li>
+Jussieu, L. de, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li>
+Just, St., <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li>
+Justina, Empress, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Kampfer</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li><li>
+King, E. A., <a href="#Page_060">60</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li><li>
+Kircher, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Koreff, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li>
+Kublai Khan, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Lacianus</span>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lactantius, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+La Fontaine, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Laneham, R., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lascaris, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Laurent, du, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Laurentia, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Laurentius, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lavater, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lavoisier, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li><li>
+Lawrence, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Leatus, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lecky, W. E. H., <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lee, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lemnius, L., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Leo, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Leo, Pope, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Leonastes, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Leverett, John, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Liberius, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Libra, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Liebeault, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lilly, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lindsey, Earl of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Littr&eacute; M., <a href="#Page_080">80</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Lluellin, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.&nbsp;</li><li>
+Locke, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li>
+Lodge, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li><li>
+London, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Longfellow, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li>
+Louis I, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li>
+Louis XIII, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li>
+Louis, Prince, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li>
+Louis, St., <a href="#Page_079">79</a>.</li><li>
+Loutherbourg, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li>
+Lucian, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li><li>
+Lucy, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Luke, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li>
+Lupton, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li>
+Luther, Martin, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Macarius, St</span>., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li>
+Macaulay, C. S., <a href="#Page_089">89</a>.</li><li>
+Macaulay, Mrs., <a href="#Page_089">89</a>.</li><li>
+Macaulay, T. B., <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li><li>
+Macdonald, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li><li>
+Machaon, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>.</li><li>
+Mack, J., <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li><li>
+Mackay, C., <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li>
+Madern, St., <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li>
+Magnus, St., <a href="#Page_079">79</a>.</li><li>
+Maimonides, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li><li>
+Mainadus, Dr., <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li>
+Maine, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Marcellus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li><li>
+Margaret, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Maria, S. dell 'Arco, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li>
+Mark, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li>
+Marsden, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li><li>
+Martin, St., <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li>
+Martyr, Justin, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>.</li><li>
+Marus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Mary, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>.</li><li>
+Mary, Queen, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li>
+Masp&eacute;ro, G., <a href="#Page_025">25</a>, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>.</li><li>
+Massinger, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>.</li><li>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span>
+Matthew, Father, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a> f.</li><li>
+Maur, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Maxwell, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li><li>
+Mayerne, Dr., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li><li>
+Meaux, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>.</li><li>
+Melanchthon, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li><li>
+Melton, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Mesmer, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Meyer, R., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li><li>
+Mezeray, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li><li>
+Michel, M., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li><li>
+Milmine, G., <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li><li>
+Milner, John, Dr., <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li>
+Milton, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li><li>
+Miranda, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li>
+Miranda, A., de, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li>
+Mix, E., <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li><li>
+Mizaldus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li><li>
+Momford, Lord, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li><li>
+Monardes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li><li>
+Montfort, Marquis, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li>
+Mooney, N., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li><li>
+Morison, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li>
+Morley, H., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li><li>
+Morley, Squire, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li>
+Moses, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li>
+Moses, J., <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li><li>
+M&uuml;ller, Johannes, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>.</li><li>
+Munger, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li>
+Murmerstadt, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li>
+Myers, A. T., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li>
+Myers, F. W. H., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Naaman</span>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>.</li><li>
+Nabonnese, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li>
+Napoleon, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li><li>
+Navarette, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li><li>
+Neri, St. Philip, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li>
+Nevius, J.F., <a href="#Page_060">60</a>.</li><li>
+Newton, Dr., <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li><li>
+Nicetius, <a href="#Page_067">67</a>.</li><li>
+Nicholas, Dr. J., <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li><li>
+Nicodemus, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Noizet, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li><li>
+Northampton, Lord, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li><li>
+Nottingham, William, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li>
+Nun, St., <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Odilo</span>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>.</li><li>
+Oldmixon, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li>
+Onymus, Prof., <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li>
+Origen, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li>
+Oswald, St., <a href="#Page_090">90</a>.</li><li>
+Otilia, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Palladius</span>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li>
+Paninguem, Tom&eacute;, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li>
+Paracelsus, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li><li>
+Paris, Deacon, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li>
+Paris, Dr., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li><li>
+Parthenius, St., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li>
+Pascal, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li><li>
+Pastor, St., <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li>
+Patrick, Bishop, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li>
+Patterson, Mrs., <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li><li>
+Paul III, Pope, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li><li>
+Paul, St., <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li><li>
+Paula, Franciscus de, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li><li>
+Peckham, Sir G., <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li>
+Peebles, J. M., <a href="#Page_060">60</a>.</li><li>
+Pennant, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>.</li><li>
+Pepys, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li><li>
+Percy, Bishop, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li><li>
+Perier, Mademoiselle, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li><li>
+Perkins, B. D., <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li><li>
+Pernel, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Peter, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li>
+Peter, St., <a href="#Page_005">5</a>, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li>
+Pet&eacute;tin, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li><li>
+Petronilla, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Pettigrew, T. J., <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li>
+Pezold, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li>
+Phaire, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Philip I, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li><li>
+Philip II of Spain, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>.</li><li>
+Philip of Valois, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li>
+Phillips, Elder, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li>
+Philo, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>.</li><li>
+Pilate, Pontius, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li><li>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span>
+Pilkington, Bishop, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li><li>
+Pinkerton, <a href="#Page_088">88</a>.</li><li>
+Pisces, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Pistol, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li><li>
+Pius IX, Pope, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li>
+Platerus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li><li>
+Plato, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>.</li><li>
+Pliny, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li><li>
+Podalirius, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>.</li><li>
+Polo, Marco, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li><li>
+Pomponatius, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li><li>
+Ponponazzi, Pierre, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>.</li><li>
+Pope, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li><li>
+Porta, B., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li><li>
+Posidonius, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>.</li><li>
+Poyan, C, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li><li>
+Price, W. T., <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li><li>
+Protasius, St., <a href="#Page_065">65</a>.</li><li>
+Puller, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li>
+Puys&eacute;gur, Marquis de, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li><li>
+Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Quan, St.</span>, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li>
+Quimby, P. P., <a href="#Page_017">17</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> ff., <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li><li>
+Quintan, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Quirinus, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Rachel,</span> <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li><li>
+Radegonde, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li><li>
+Radstock, Lord, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li><li>
+Ramesay, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li><li>
+Raphael, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>.</li><li>
+Ravenscroft, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li><li>
+Refinus, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li><li>
+Reid, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li>
+Remigius, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+Renodeus, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li><li>
+Richards, Elder, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li>
+Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li>
+Richmond, Duke of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li>
+Riley, I. W., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li><li>
+Roche, St., <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li><li>
+Rochus, St., <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Romanus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Rosalia, St., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li><li>
+Ruffian, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Russel, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li><li>
+Rusticus, Elpidius, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Ruthlein, Captain, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Sagittarius</span>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Salverte, E., <a href="#Page_040">40</a>, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li>
+Samonicus, S., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li><li>
+Sanderson, Dr., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li>
+Sanford, F. W., <a href="#Page_281">281</a> f.</li><li>
+Saturninus, St., <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li><li>
+Sauveur, St., of Horta, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> f.</li><li>
+Schlatter, F., <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li><li>
+Scoresby, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li>
+Scorpius, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Scott, R., <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li><li>
+Scott, W., <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li><li>
+Sebastian, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>.</li><li>
+Selle, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li>
+Senso, Dr., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li><li>
+Serapion, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li><li>
+Severin, St., <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>.</li><li>
+Severus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li>
+Servetus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li><li>
+Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li>
+Shaw, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li>
+Siemers, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li><li>
+Sigismund, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Simeon, St., <a href="#Page_097">97</a>.</li><li>
+Simpson, A. B., <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li><li>
+Sinsheim, Count von, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li><li>
+Skippon, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li><li>
+Smith, Joseph, Jr., <a href="#Page_286">286</a> f.</li><li>
+Smith, Sir T., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li><li>
+Socrates, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>.</li><li>
+Sophronius, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>.</li><li>
+Southampton, Earl of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li>
+Southey, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li><li>
+Stengal, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>.</li><li>
+Stephen, St., <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Stephens, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li><li>
+Sterne, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li>
+Stevens, E., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li><li>
+Stowe, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li>
+Straus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li><li>
+Strype, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li><li>
+Styria, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li><li>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span>
+Sulpicius, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+Syward, John, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Tacitus</span>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li><li>
+Tairise, St., <a href="#Page_099">99</a>.</li><li>
+Tathiedo, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Tatian, <a href="#Page_040">40</a>.</li><li>
+Taurus, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>.</li><li>
+Tecla, St., <a href="#Page_085">85</a>.</li><li>
+Tennyson A., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li><li>
+Tenos, Madonna of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a>.</li><li>
+Tertullian, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li>
+Theocritus, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li><li>
+Theodelinda, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>.</li><li>
+Theodoric, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>.</li><li>
+Theodosius, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>.</li><li>
+Thiers, M., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li><li>
+Thmuis, Bishop, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li><li>
+Thomas, of Celano, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li><li>
+Thomas, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+Thomas St. of Hereford, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li>
+Tignan, St., <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Tooker, Dr., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li><li>
+Torpacion, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li><li>
+Townley, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li><li>
+Townshend, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li><li>
+Trickmore, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li><li>
+Trine, R. W., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li>
+Trippe, S., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li><li>
+Trundel, D., <a href="#Page_279">279</a> f.</li><li>
+Tuckey, C. L., <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li><li>
+Tuke, H., <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li><li>
+Turner, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li><li>
+Turner, Dr. D., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Ursula, St</span>., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Valentine</span>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Vanzesmes, de, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li><li>
+Vardrille, St., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li><li>
+Venise, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Vespasian, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li><li>
+Victor, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li><li>
+Victor Emmanuel, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li><li>
+Vincent, St., <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+Vittrici, Pietro, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li><li>
+Vitus, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Walderstein</span>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>.</li><li>
+Wallery, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Wallia, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Waterford, Simon, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li><li>
+Wenefride, St., <a href="#Page_091">91</a>.</li><li>
+Werenfels, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li><li>
+Wesley, J., <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li><li>
+Westbury, Lord, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>.</li><li>
+Whichcote, Dr., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li>
+White, A. D., <a href="#Page_039">39</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li><li>
+Wierus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li><li>
+Wilkins, Bishop, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li><li>
+Willabrod, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>.</li><li>
+William III, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li><li>
+William of Malmesbury, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li><li>
+Wilson, Mr., <a href="#Page_048">48</a>.</li><li>
+Winthrop, Governor, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>.</li><li>
+Wirdig, S., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li><li>
+Withers, F., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li><li>
+Wohyus, E., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li><li>
+Wolfart, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li><li>
+Wolfgang, St., <a href="#Page_076">76</a>.</li><li>
+Wood, H., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Xavier, St. Francis</span>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li><li>
+&nbsp;</li><li>
+<span class="smcap">Zaccheus</span>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>.</li><li>
+Zeller, S., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li><li>
+Zola, E., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li><li>
+Zosimos, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL HEALING***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 23101-h.txt or 23101-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/1/0/23101">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/3/1/0/23101</a></p>
+<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.</p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,10069 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing, by
+George Barton Cutten
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing
+
+
+Author: George Barton Cutten
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 22, 2007  [eBook #23101]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL
+HEALING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by David Clarke, Turgut Dincer, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 23101-h.htm or 23101-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/1/0/23101/23101-h/23101-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/1/0/23101/23101-h.zip)
+
+
+      +------------------------------------------+
+      | Transcriber's Note:                      |
+      |                                          |
+      | East Syriac Cross signs are shown by [+] |
+      +------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL HEALING
+
+by
+
+GEORGE BARTON CUTTEN, Ph.D.
+(Yale)
+President Of Acadia University
+
+Illustrated
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+1911
+
+
+[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING THE GALLIC AESCULAPIUS
+DISPATCHING A DEMON]
+
+
+Copyright, 1911, by
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+Published February, 1911
+
+
+
+THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY
+
+OF
+
+Artemus Wyman Sawyer, D.D., LL.D.
+
+PRESIDENT OF ACADIA UNIVERSITY
+
+1869-1896
+
+
+HE HID FROM US HIS HEART WHILE WE THOUGHT THAT HE LOVED
+  ONLY  HIS  STUDIES;  WE  LATER LEARNED THAT HE LAID
+    EMPHASIS ON THAT WHICH HE LOVED ONLY LESS--TRUE
+      KNOWLEDGE, IN ORDER THAT HE MIGHT INTRODUCE
+          IT TO THOSE THAT HE LOVED MOST--HIS
+            PUPILS. HE TAUGHT AS NONE OTHER
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                               PAGE
+
+      I. Introduction--Mental Healing                    3
+
+     II. Early Civilizations                            19
+
+    III. The Influence of Christianity                  35
+
+     IV. Relics and Shrines                             61
+
+      V. Healers                                       110
+
+     VI. Talismans                                     138
+
+    VII. Amulets                                       158
+
+   VIII. Charms                                        189
+
+     IX. Royal Touch                                   224
+
+      X. Mesmer and After                              249
+
+     XI. The Healers of the Nineteenth Century         273
+
+         Index                                         309
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present decade has experienced an intense interest in mental
+healing. This has come as a culmination of the development along these
+lines during the past half century. It has shown itself in the
+beginning of new religious sects with this as a, or the, fundamental
+tenet, in more wide-spread general movements, and in the scientific
+study and application of the principles underlying this form of
+therapeutics.
+
+Many have been led astray because, being ignorant of the mental
+healing movements and vagaries of the past, the late applications,
+veiled in metaphysical or religious verbiage, have seemed to them to
+be new in origin and principle. No one could consider an historical
+survey of the subject and reasonably hold this opinion. It is on
+account of the ignorance of similar movements, millenniums old, that
+so much, if any, originality can be credited to the founders.
+
+The object of this volume is to present a general view of mental
+healing, dealing more especially with the historical side of the
+subject. While this is divided topically, the topics are presented in
+a comparatively chronological order, and thereby trace the development
+of the subject to the present century.
+
+The term "mental healing" is given the broadest possible use, and
+comprehends any cures which may be brought about by the effect of the
+mind over the body, regardless of whether the power back of the cure
+is supposed to be deity, demons, other human beings, or the individual
+mind of the patient.
+
+It is hoped that this may contribute to the knowledge of a subject
+which is of such wide-spread popular interest.
+
+George Barton Cutten.
+
+Wolfville, Nova Scotia,
+_December 1, 1910._
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Bas-relief representing the Gallic AEsculapius
+dispatching a demon                          _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                    FACING
+                                                      PAGE
+
+Cure through the Intercession of a Healing Saint        72
+
+Valentine Greatrakes                                   134
+
+Sir Kenelm Digby                                       152
+
+King's Touch-pieces                                    226
+
+F. A. Mesmer                                           252
+
+John Alexander Dowie                                   276
+
+George O. Barnes                                       290
+
+Mary Baker Eddy                                        302
+
+
+
+
+THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF
+MENTAL HEALING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION--MENTAL HEALING
+
+
+  "'Tis painful thinking that corrodes our
+  clay."--ARMSTRONG.
+
+  "Oh, if I could once make a resolution, and determine to
+  be well!"--WALDERSTEIN.
+
+  "The body and the mind are like a jerkin and a jerkin's
+  lining, rumple the one and you rumple the
+  other."--STERNE.
+
+  "I find, by experience, that the mind and the body are
+  more than married, for they are most intimately united;
+  and when the one suffers, the other
+  sympathizes."--CHESTERFIELD.
+
+  "Sublime is the dominion of the mind over the body, that
+  for a time can make flesh and nerve impregnable, and
+  string the sinews like steel, so that the weak become so
+  mighty."--STOWE.
+
+  "The surest road to health, say what they will, Is never
+  to suppose we shall be ill; Most of those evils we poor
+  mortals know From doctors and imagination
+  flow."--CHURCHILL.
+
+The fact that there is a reciprocal relation between mental states and
+bodily conditions, acting both for good and ill, is nothing new in
+human experience. Even among the most crude and unobserving,
+traditions and incidents have given witness to this knowledge. For
+centuries stories of the hair turning white during the night on
+account of fright or sorrow, the cause and cure of diseases through
+emotional disturbances, and death, usually directly by apoplexy,
+caused by anger, grief, or joy, have been current and generally
+accepted. On the other hand, irritability and moroseness caused by
+disordered organs of digestion, change of acumen or morals due to
+injury of the brain or nervous system, and insanity produced by bodily
+diseases, are also accepted proofs of the effect of the body on the
+mind.
+
+Recent scientific investigation has been directed along the line of
+the influence of the mind over the body, and to that phase of this
+influence which deals with the cure rather than the cause of disease.
+In addition to what the scientists have done along this line, various
+religious cults have added the application of these principles to
+their other tenets and activities, or else have made this the chief
+corner-stone of a new structure. There are some reasons why this
+connection with religion should continue to exist, and why it has been
+a great help both to the building up of these particular sects and the
+healing of the bodies of those who combine religion with mental
+healing.
+
+We must not forget that in early days the priest, the magician, and
+the physician were combined in one person, and that primitive
+religious notions are difficult to slough off. Shortly before the
+beginning of the Christian era there were some indications that
+healing was to be freed from the bondage of religion, but the
+influence of Jesus' healing upon Christians, and the overwhelming
+influence of Christianity upon the whole world, delayed this movement,
+so that it did not again become prominent until the sixteenth
+century. About this time, when therapeutics as a science began to
+shake off the shackles of religion and superstition, another startling
+innovation was noticeable, viz., the division of mental healing into
+religious and non-religious healing. This change came gradually, and
+as is usual in all reform, certain prophets saw and proclaimed the
+real truth which the people were not able to follow or receive for
+centuries.
+
+Paracelsus, who lived during the first half of the sixteenth century,
+wrote these shrewd words: "Whether the object of your faith is real or
+false, you will nevertheless obtain the same effects. Thus, if I
+believe in St. Peter's statue as I would have believed in St. Peter
+himself, I will obtain the same effects that I would have obtained
+from St. Peter; but that is superstition. Faith, however, produces
+miracles, and whether it be true or false faith, it will always
+produce the same wonders." We have also this penetrating observation
+from Pierre Ponponazzi, of Milan, an author of the same century: "We
+can easily conceive the marvellous effects which confidence and
+imagination can produce, particularly when both qualities are
+reciprocal between the subject and the person who influences them. The
+cures attributed to the influence of certain relics are the effect of
+this imagination and confidence. Quacks and philosophers know that if
+the bones of any skeleton were put in the place of the saint's bones,
+the sick would none the less experience beneficial effects, if they
+believed they were near veritable relics."
+
+What seemed to be a movement whereby mental healing should be divided
+so that only a portion of it should be connected with religion proved
+to be too far in advance of its time, and not until the advent of
+Mesmer was this accomplished. Healing other than mental, however, did
+obtain its freedom at this time. While Mesmer and his followers
+emphasized non-religious mental healing, it should not be thought that
+mental therapeutics was ever entirely separated from the church. There
+have always been found some sects which laid particular emphasis on
+it, and both Roman Catholic and Protestant orthodox Christianity have
+always admitted it. It has been considered, even if not admitted, that
+the power of the Infinite was more clearly shown by the healing of the
+body than by the restoration of the moral life. It is natural, then,
+that the sects which showed this special proof of God's presence and
+power would grow faster than their spiritual competitors, but that
+they would decline more rapidly and surely than those which espoused
+more spiritual doctrines.
+
+On the other hand, it is not difficult to see why mental healing would
+be helped by its connection with religion. Religion grips the whole
+mind more firmly than any other subject has ever done, and when one
+accepts the orthodox conception of God, he naturally expects to come
+in contact with One whose sympathies are in favor of the cure of his
+diseases, and whose power is sufficient to bring about this cure. With
+this basis there is set up in the mind of the patient an expectancy
+which has always proven to be a most valuable precursor of a cure. The
+devout religious attitude of mind is one most favorable for the
+working of suggestion, and persons of the temperament adapted to the
+religious expression most valued in the past are those who could be
+most readily affected by mental means. For these reasons, it can be
+easily understood why mental healing has continued to be associated
+with religion, and why when thus associated it has been so successful.
+
+To those not very familiar with mental healing, it has seemed strange
+that any law could be formulated which would comprehend every variety.
+In the following pages many different forms will be described, and in
+examining the subject it will be found that many and varied are the
+explanations given for the results produced. We find also a general
+distrust of all the others, or else a claim that this particular sect
+is the only real and true exponent of mental healing, and that it
+produces the only genuine cures. Those which claim to be Christian
+sects, however divergent the direct explanation of their results, give
+the final credit to God, and base their _modus operandi_ upon the
+Bible--in fact, they claim to be the direct successors of Jesus and
+his disciples in this respect.
+
+We find, however, that the healer connected with the Christian sect
+has no advantage over his Mohammedan or Buddhist brother, and that
+neither is able to succeed better than the non-religious healer in all
+cases. We recognize that when one class of healers fails in a case
+another may succeed, but the successful one is just as liable to fail
+in a second case when the first one cures. What particular form of
+suggestion is most effective in any given case depends upon the
+temperament of the individual and his education, religious training,
+and environment. When we consider the whole matter we are forced to
+the conclusion that mental cures are independent of any particular
+sect, religion, or philosophy; some are cured by one form and some by
+another. Not the creed, but some force which resides in the mind of
+every one accomplishes the cure, and the most that any religion or
+philosophy can do is to bring this force into action.
+
+As a general rule, one sharp distinction is noticed between the
+religious and the non-religious healers, viz., the religious healer
+sees no limit to his healing power, and affirms that cancer and
+Bright's disease are as easily cured, in theory at least, as neuralgia
+or insomnia; the non-religious healer, sometimes designated as the
+"scientific healer," on the contrary, recognizes that there are some
+diseases which are more easily cured than others, and that of those
+others some are practically incurable by psycho-therapeutic methods.
+
+The line has been drawn in the past between functional and organic
+diseases, the former including diseases where there is simply a
+derangement of function, like indigestion, and the latter
+comprehending the diseases where the organ is affected, like ulcer of
+the stomach. The more we know about diseases the less sure we seem to
+be about their classification; some of which we were formerly sure
+have recently caused us considerable doubt. For example, we have
+formerly classed cancer as an organic disease and consequently
+incurable by mental means. The question is now asked, "Is cancer an
+organic disease, or is it some functional derangement of the
+epithelium tissue which causes it to grow indefinitely until it
+invades some vital organ?"
+
+A further question arises due to further study. Some of the latest
+investigators claim that most if not all persons have cancer at some
+time in life, but that anti-toxin or some other remedy is supplied by
+the body itself, and the growth is stopped and the tissue absorbed.
+The question then seems to be pertinent, "If the body can produce the
+cure within itself, and this would be functional, why cannot mental
+means stimulate the body to produce it?" or "Does not mental influence
+stimulate the body to produce it?" What the cancer experts tell us of
+the wide-spread extension of the disease and its spontaneous cure, the
+tuberculosis experts affirm of tuberculosis, and certainly of the
+latter disease spontaneous cures are not uncommon. We also know that
+mental influence may, in fact does, have an indirect but no less
+beneficial influence in the cure of tuberculosis. From these examples
+one seems to be forced to either one of two conclusions, either of
+which is contrary to generally accepted ideas, viz., first, that these
+are not organic diseases; or, second, organic diseases are aided or
+cured by means of mental healing. In general, however, the distinction
+holds good; the so-called functional cases are amenable to cure by
+mental means, and the organic are much less so.
+
+Coming back, then, to the common law which underlies all cases or
+forms of mental healing, we find two general principles upon which it
+is built--the power of the mind over the body, and the importance of
+suggestion as a factor in the cure of the disease. The law may be
+tersely stated in the first person as follows: My body tends to adjust
+itself so as to be in harmony with my ideas concerning it. This law is
+equally applicable to the cause or cure of disease by mental means. To
+apply this law in a universal way as far as mental healing is
+concerned, we should notice that however the thought of cure may come
+into the mind, whether by external or auto-suggestion, if it is firmly
+rooted so as to impress the subconsciousness, that part of the mind
+which rules the bodily organs, a tendency toward cure is at once set
+up and continues as long as that thought has the ascendancy.
+
+Hack Tuke quotes Johannes Mueller, a physiologist who lived during the
+first half of the last century, as follows: "It may be stated as a
+general fact that any state of body which is conceived to be
+approaching, and which is expected with certain confidence and
+certainty of occurrence, will be very prone to ensue, as the mere
+result of the idea, if it do not lie beyond the bounds of
+possibility." This is a fair statement of the law from the stand-point
+of consciousness, but does not include all of the vast influence of
+subconscious ideas which are so potent in the cure of diseases by
+mental means. Mueller's observation was in advance of his times, but
+could not be expected to include the results of the latest researches
+of modern science.
+
+For a great many years physicians have recognized that not only are
+all diseases made worse by an incorrect mental attitude, but that some
+diseases are the direct result of worry and other mental disturbances.
+The mental force which causes colored water to act as an emetic, or
+postage-stamps to produce a blister, can also produce organic diseases
+of a serious nature. The large mental factor in the cause of diseases
+is generally admitted, and it seems reasonable to infer that what is
+caused by mental influence may be cured by the same means. There is
+no restriction in the power of the mind in causing disease, and should
+we restrict the mind as a factor in the cure? The trouble seems to be
+in the explanation. People ask, "How can the mind have such an effect
+upon the body?" and to the answer of this question we must now turn
+our attention.
+
+We all recognize that involuntarily certain bodily effects take place.
+We blush when we do not wish to; we betray our fears by our blanched
+faces. Some other factors of mind than the conscious mental processes
+have charge, and rule certain functions. The heart, the respiratory
+apparatus, the glands, and digestive organs all carry on their regular
+functions during sleep and also better without our direction when we
+are awake. What is the explanation of this? We have recently been
+saying that the subconsciousness rules these physical organs, and
+through this that the effects already referred to take place. So much
+has been written recently regarding the subconsciousness that anything
+more at this time would be superfluous; suffice it to say that the
+general conclusions on that subject are accepted as the basis of faith
+cure. We may, however, go further in our endeavor to explain.
+
+In such mental troubles as psychasthesia much has lately been heard
+about psycho-analysis and re-education. What does that mean in the
+language of the psychology of a few years ago? In cases of
+unreasonable fears or phobias, for example, there is a firmly rooted
+system of ideas which refuses to depart at the command of
+consciousness. We analyze the mental store to find out the cause of
+the unreasonable persistence, and sometimes, quite frequently in fact,
+have to resort to hypnosis or hypnodization to find the initial
+trouble. It is then corrected, and re-education consists in living
+over again from the first experience, the events connected with that
+fear and correcting them up to date. In this process minutes only are
+used where the original experiences took weeks. Putting it in other
+words, we have certain systems of ideas; as a psychological fact of
+long standing we know that other elements may be injected into that
+system so as to change it, or that one system may be destroyed and
+another system built up to take its place. This is the secret of cures
+of this nature--of mental troubles--the irritating factor, the thorn
+in the mind, is extracted.
+
+We have heard in modern psychology of the hot and cold places in
+consciousness, or, to use other terms for the same idea, the central
+and peripheral ideas, meaning the ideas which dominate consciousness,
+and those which are in the background. The mind can readily attend to
+only one thing at a time; if that be pain, for example, that takes up
+all of our attention. On the other hand, if for some reason some other
+ideas suddenly become central, then the pain is driven away to the
+periphery and we say we have no pain, or we have less pain. The
+sufferer from neuralgia experiences no pain as he responds to the fire
+alarm, and the toothache stops entirely as we undergo the excitement
+and fear of entering the dentist's office. Serious lesions yield to
+profound emotion born of persuasion, confidence, or excitement; either
+the gouty or rheumatic man, after hobbling about for years, finds his
+legs if pursued by a wild bull, or the weak and enfeebled invalid will
+jump from the bed and carry out heavy articles from a burning house.
+The central idea is sufficient to command all the reserve energy, and
+that idea which has suddenly and unexpectedly become central may
+remain so. What Chalmers called "the expulsive power of a new
+affection" in the cure of souls, is the precise method of operation in
+the cure of some bodily ills.
+
+I have here made two suggestions which may help to show how mental
+healing may be brought about. Not simply the alleviation of bodily
+ills, but the complete cure may result from the influence on the
+subconsciousness. A large number of cures are brought about by faith
+in certain religious practices, this faith amounting to a certainty in
+the minds of the patients before the cure is started or while it is in
+progress. Trustful expectation in any one direction acts powerfully
+through the subconsciousness because it absorbs the whole mind, and
+thus competition with other ideas, either consciously or
+subconsciously, is largely excluded. It is this which acts in mental
+healing under the caption of faith, although some abnormal conditions
+may also arise to assist the suggestion.
+
+That this confident expectation of a cure is the most potent means of
+bringing it about, doing that which no medical treatment can
+accomplish, may be affirmed as the generalized result of experiences
+of the most varied kind, extending through a long series of ages. It
+is this factor which is common to methods of the most diverse
+character. It is noticeable that any system of treatment, however
+absurd, that can be puffed into public notoriety for efficacy, any
+individual who by accident or design obtains a reputation for a
+special gift of healing, is certain to attract a multitude of
+sufferers, among whom will be many who are capable of being really
+benefited by a strong assurance of relief. Thus, the practitioner with
+a great reputation has an advantage over his neighboring physicians,
+not only on account of the superior skill which he may have acquired,
+but because his reputation causes this confident expectation, so
+beneficial in itself.
+
+There have been fashions in cures as in other things. At one time a
+certain relic, or healer, would attract and cure, and shortly
+afterward it would be deserted and inefficacious, not because it had
+lost its power, but because it had lost its reputation, and the
+people had consequently lost their faith in it. Some other relics
+would then acquire a reputation, spring into popular favor, and the
+crowds would flock to them. We have many modern instances of this
+kind. If sufficient confidence in the power of a concoction, a shrine,
+a relic, or a person can be aroused, genuine cures can be wrought
+regardless of the healing properties of the dose.
+
+The whole system of mental therapeutics may be divided into two parts;
+what we may designate as metaphysical cure denies that either matter
+or evil exists, and heals by inspiring the belief that the disease
+cannot assail the patient because he is pure spirit; the other class,
+faith cure, recognizes the disease, but cures by faith in the power of
+divinity, persons, objects, or suggestion.
+
+Without doubt the best example of the former theory and the most
+successful application of it are found in Christian Science. Perhaps
+it is not so difficult to understand the frame of mind which brought
+about this theory on the part of Mrs. Eddy. Here was an hysterical,
+neurotic woman who knew nothing all her life but illness and
+misfortune. She had suffered much from many physicians and was none
+the better but rather worse. One physician had called her disease one
+thing, another had designated it another, until confusion and
+uncertainty were increased with every physician consulted. She began
+to despair of ever either knowing about her disease or of having it
+cured. As a last resort she went to Quimby, and he told her there was
+no disease and no need of suffering. He denied the suffering, and she
+accepted his teaching; she followed him in denying disease and then
+matter, and kept on with her theory of negation and denial until she
+evolved her present theory. It was a natural reaction from all
+conceivable pains characteristic of hysteria, to no pain; from all
+conceivable diseases which different physicians had opined, to no
+disease; from the infirmity of body with its inhibitory discomfitures,
+to no body. The history of the founder of Christian Science is its
+best _raison d'etre_, especially from a psychological stand-point, and
+the rather strange thing is that a reaction from an abnormality, going
+as it naturally does to another abnormality, should find a response in
+the religious cravings of so many; the philosophy undoubtedly would
+not attract as it does were there not connected with it, in the
+practical working of the system, the lure of mental healing.
+
+Faith cure, the other form of mental healing, has such a variety of
+forms that it is practically impossible to describe a typical one.
+Faith in some power, or, what amounts to the same thing, the
+uncritical reception of suggestions concerning the cure, is the common
+factor in all forms.
+
+The question naturally arises, Which is the best form of mental
+healing? There is no best form for all diseases and all persons. For
+example, it matters not how new associational systems are formed so
+long as they are substituted for the pernicious ones. It may be in the
+common experiences of every-day life, through the pleading of a
+friend, during sleep or trance, in some abnormal state of a hypnotic
+character, or during religious ecstasy, and we cannot well say in any
+given case that one form will be more efficacious than another. Mental
+healing creates nothing new, but simply makes use of the normal
+mechanism of the mind and body. The question then is, What method of
+mental healing is most likely to stimulate the mental mechanism so
+that physiological processes will be set up leading to a cure? The
+great power of faith and expectancy may decide the question, and the
+answer may be in favor of the form in which the patient has the most
+faith, either on account of its reputation, or on account of some
+prejudice on the part of the patient.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+  "The office of the physician extends equally to the
+  purification of mind and body; to neglect the one is to
+  expose the other to evident peril. It is not only the
+  body that by its sound constitution strengthens the
+  soul, but the well-regulated soul by its authoritative
+  power maintains the body in perfect health."--PLATO.
+
+  "Aristotle mapped out philosophy and morals in lines the
+  world yet accepts in the main, but he did not know the
+  difference between the nerves and the tendons. Rome had
+  a sound system of jurisprudence before it had a
+  physician, using only priest-craft for healing. Cicero
+  was the greatest lawyer the world has seen, but there
+  was not a man in Rome who could have cured him of a
+  colic. The Greek was an expert dialectician when he was
+  using incantations for his diseases. As late as when the
+  Puritans were enunciating their lofty principles, it was
+  generally held that the king's touch would cure
+  scrofula. Governor Winthrop, of colonial days, treated
+  'small-pox and all fevers' by a powder made from 'live
+  toads baked in an earthen pot in the open
+  air.'"--MUNGER.
+
+  "There is nothing so absurd or ridiculous that has not
+  at some time been said by some philosopher. Fontenelle
+  says he would undertake to persuade the whole republic
+  of readers to believe that the sun was neither the cause
+  of light or heat, if he could only get six philosophers
+  on his side."--GOLDSMITH.
+
+A glance at the history of medicine will show three fairly well
+defined periods. The beginning of the first is hidden in the uncertain
+days of prehistoric ages and the period continues down to early
+Christian times--perhaps the end of the second century when Galen
+died. The second period extends from this time to the fifteenth or
+sixteenth centuries, and the third period embraces the last three or
+four centuries. The second period was almost wholly stationary, and
+this, we are ashamed to say, was largely due to the prohibitive
+attitude of the church. The science of medicine, then, is almost
+wholly the result of the investigations and study of the last period.
+This means that medicine is one of the youngest of the sciences, while
+from the very nature of the case it is one of the oldest of arts.
+
+From the beginning of the art of therapeutics, mental healing has been
+a large factor in the cure. This was not recognized, of course, for
+only in the last century has the psychic element been admitted to any
+extent as a therapeutic agent. We can read back now, however, and see
+what a large element this really was. The cruder the art, the more
+powerful was the mental influence. The ways of primitive therapeutics
+are completely hidden from us except what we can gather from the races
+which retained their primitive practices in historic times. We can
+well understand, though, that the concoctions of medicine-men and
+witch-doctors could have little effect except in a suggestive way.
+Snakes' heads, toads' toes, lizards' tails, and beetles' wings have a
+small place in the pharmacopoeia of to-day, except as placebos, and
+it is extremely doubtful if they were ever valuable for any other
+purpose.
+
+The object of the primitive practitioner seems to have been to make an
+impression upon the patient either by the explanation of his disease
+or by the effort made to effect a cure. The explanation most
+frequently given was that demons were responsible for the trouble, and
+the cure of the disease was an attempted exorcism of the demon. The
+more fantastic the ceremony, the more likely the cure, on account of
+the mental influence upon the patient. The primitive man's religion
+and therapeutics were inextricably interwoven and, unless we make an
+exception of the past few years, this has always been an unprofitable
+union for one or both. All the early civilizations with the exception
+of the Greeks, as well as the Christian nations up to the sixteenth
+century, were handicapped by this partnership, and it was only by
+divorcing the two that therapeutics was able to make the great advance
+during the last period. The nature of the primitive religions was
+responsible to a great extent for the nature of the method of healing,
+therefore, appeasing the offended deity and exorcising the demon were
+therapeutic as well as religious ceremonies.
+
+The Chinese of to-day, except in some of the seaboard cities, must be
+classed among the earliest civilizations, for their mode of living has
+not changed much in the last two or three milleniums. Their system of
+medical practice partakes of the character of that found among the early
+people, with some slight modifications which show some relationship to
+the European practice during the Dark Ages.
+
+All sorts of disgusting doses are administered, and incantations and
+exorcisms are among the most effective methods of healing. For
+example, Hardy reports that a missionary told him of his being called
+in to see a man suffering from convulsions; he found him smelling
+white mice in a cage, with a dead fowl fastened on his chest, and a
+bundle of grass attached to his feet. This had been the prescription
+of a native physician.
+
+Medicines are made from asses' sinews, fowls' blood, bears' gall,
+shaving of a rhinoceros' horn, moss grown on a coffin, and the dung of
+dogs, pigs, fowl, rabbits, pigeons, and bats. Cockroach tea, bear-paw
+soup, essence of monkey paw, toads' eyebrows, and earth-worms rolled
+in honey are common doses. The excrement of a mosquito is considered
+as efficacious as it is scarce, and here, as in Europe in the Middle
+Ages, the hair of the dog that bit you is used to heal the bite and to
+prevent hydrophobia. An infusion from the bones of a tiger is believed
+to confer courage, strength, and agility, and the flesh of a snake is
+boiled and eaten to make one cunning and wise. Chips from coffins
+which have been let down into the grave are boiled and are said to
+possess great virtue for catarrh. Flies, fleas, and bedbugs prepared
+in different ways are given for various diseases. Medicines are given
+in all forms, and not infrequently pills are as large as a pigeon's
+egg. If any of these medicines ever had any beneficent effect it must
+have been through mental rather than through physical means.
+
+Nevius has left us in no doubt concerning the belief in demons among
+the Chinese, and of the effect this belief has on their theory of
+disease. Certain forms are daily observed to drive away the evil
+spirits. For this purpose Taoist priests are hired to recite formulae,
+ring bells, and manipulate bowls of water, candles, joss-sticks, and
+curious charms. Sometimes the family insists that one of the priests
+shall ascend a ladder, the rounds of which are formed of swords or
+knives with the sharp edge uppermost, and go through his exorcisms at
+the top. Instead of the priest, the mother may make a fire of paper
+and wave a small garment of her sick child over it.
+
+A relative or friend of a sick person will visit a temple and beat the
+drum, which notifies the god that there is urgent need of his help. To
+be sure that the god hears, his ears are tickled, and the part of the
+image which corresponds to the afflicted part of the sick person's
+body is rubbed. Some ashes from the censor standing before the image
+may be taken to the sick-room and there reverenced. Holy water is
+brought from the temple, boiled with tea, and drunk as a certain cure
+for disease. Spells are written on paper and burned; the ashes are
+then put into water and drunk as medicine. Charms and magical tricks
+of all kinds are tried in order to drive away the demon.
+
+There were schools of medicine in Egypt in the fifteenth century
+before the Christian era, and the Egyptians made great progress in the
+study and practice of medicine. Notwithstanding this, we find many
+examples of mental healing, or at least attempts at healing by mental
+means, among the recipes and prescriptions which have come down to us.
+Poor and superstitious persons, especially, had recourse to dreams, to
+wizards, to donations, to sacred animals, and to exvotos to the gods.
+Charms were also written for the credulous, some of which have been
+found on small pieces of papyrus, which were rolled up and worn, as by
+the modern Egyptians.
+
+The Ebers papyrus, an important and very ancient manual of Egyptian
+medicine, has thrown much light on early Egyptian practices. It shows
+that an important part of the treatment prior to 1552 B. C., consisted
+in the laying on of hands, combined with an extensive formulary and
+ceremonial rites. The physicians were the priests, and among the
+interesting contents of this manuscript are several formulae to be used
+as prayers while compounding medicaments. Some of the prescriptions
+given here are accompanied by exorcisms which were to be used at the
+same time. Many of the prescriptions could have had little but mental
+influence because the remedies recommended consisted of horrible
+mixtures of unsavory ingredients, the theory, if we can judge by the
+medicines, being that the more disgusting the dose the more
+efficacious the remedy; this is true from a mental stand-point.
+
+Demonism was not unknown; in fact, it underlay much of the treatment.
+People did not die, but they were assassinated. The murderer might
+belong to this or to the spirit world. He might be a god, a spirit, or
+the soul of a dead man that had cunningly entered a living person. The
+physician must first discover the nature of the possessing spirit, and
+then attack it. Powerful magic was the weapon used, and the healer
+must be an expert in reciting incantations and skilful in making
+amulets. On account of this, the Egyptians became the most skilled in
+magic of any people, and have their equals only in the Hindus of
+to-day. The experiences of Joseph and Moses, as recorded in the Bible,
+give us some idea of their skill at that time. After the exorcism the
+physician used medicine to relieve the disorders which the presence of
+the strange being had produced in the body.
+
+Maspero gives us the following information: "The cure-workers are
+divided into several categories. Some incline towards sorcery, and
+have faith in formulas and talismans only; they think they have done
+enough if they have driven out the spirit. Others extol the use of
+drugs; they study the qualities of plants and minerals, describe the
+diseases to which each of the substances provided by nature is
+suitable, and settle the exact time when they must be procured and
+applied; certain herbs have no power unless they are gathered during
+the night at the full moon, others are efficacious in summer only,
+another acts equally well in winter or summer. The best doctors
+carefully avoid binding themselves exclusively to either method."[1]
+
+Among the early Egyptians the human body was divided into thirty-six
+parts, each of which was thought to be under the particular government
+of one of the aerial demons, who presided over the triple divisions of
+the twelve signs. The priests practised a separate invocation for each
+genius, which they used in order to obtain for them the cure of the
+particular member confided to their care. We have the authority of
+Origen for saying that in his time when any part of the body was
+diseased, a cure was effected by invoking the demon to whose province
+it belonged. Perhaps this is why the different parts of the body were
+assigned to the different planets, and later to different saints. It
+undoubtedly accounts for the fact that an Egyptian physician treated
+only one part of the body and refused to infringe on the domain of his
+brother physician.
+
+Incubation was commonly practised at the temples of Isis and Serapis
+as it was afterward among the Greeks. This "temple sleep" was closely
+akin in its effects to hypnotism and was undoubtedly efficacious in
+the case of some diseases.
+
+The Babylonian system of therapeutics was not unlike the Egyptian as
+far as incantations were concerned. Many of these have been
+discovered. The formulas usually consist of a description of the
+disease and its symptoms, a desire for deliverance from it, and an
+order for it to depart. Some draughts were given which may have had
+some medicinal effect, but they were supposed to be enchanted drinks.
+Knots were supposed to have some magical effect on diseases, and
+conjurations were also wrought by the power of numbers. The Book of
+Daniel shows the official recognition given to magicians, astrologers,
+and sorcerers.
+
+The Jews seem to have got their early medical knowledge from the
+Egyptians, and changed it only in so far as their religion made it
+necessary, for with them as with others the healing art was a part of
+the religion, and the Levites were the sole practitioners. Much
+valuable medical knowledge was mixed with much that could only have
+had a mental influence. Disease was considered a punishment for sin,
+and hence the cure was religious rather than medical. The disease
+might be inflicted by God direct, and the cure would be a proof of his
+forgiveness; it might also be inflicted by Satan or the spirits of the
+air with the permission of Jehovah, and the cure would then be brought
+about by exorcism.
+
+There seems to have been a rather elaborate system of demonology among
+the Jews, who were at one time the chief exponents of the doctrine,
+and consequently the principal exorcists. Among the Jews a prominent
+"demoness of sickness is Bath-Chorin. She touches the hands and lower
+limbs by night. Many diseases are caused by demons." According to
+Josephus, "to demons may be ascribed leprosy, rabies, asthma, cardiac
+diseases, nervous diseases, which last are the specialty of evil
+demons, such as epilepsy." Incantations were in use among the later
+Jews, and amulets of neck-chains like serpents and ear-rings were
+employed to protect the wearers against the evil eye and similar
+troubles.
+
+In India, medicine became a separate science very early, according to
+the sacred books, the Vedas. Notwithstanding this, demonology played a
+large part in the production of disease according to their theories,
+and religious observances were helpful in the cures.
+
+Among the oldest documents which we possess relative to the practice
+of medicine, are the various treatises contained in the collection
+which bears the name of Hippocrates (460-375 B. C.). He was the first
+physician to relieve medicine from the trammels of superstition and
+the delusions of philosophy.
+
+The Greeks undoubtedly believed in demons, but, different from the
+nations around them, considered the demons to be well-intentioned.
+Homer (c. 1000 B. C.) speaks frequently of demons, and in one instance
+in the Odyssey tells of a sick man pining away, "one upon whom a
+hateful demon had gazed." Empedocles (c. 490-430 B. C.) taught that
+demons "were of a mixed and inconstant nature, and are subjected to a
+purgatorial process which may finally end in their ascension to higher
+abodes." Yet he attributed to them nearly all the calamities,
+vexations, and plagues incident to mankind. Plato (427-347 B. C.)
+writes of demons good and bad, and Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), the son
+of a physician, speaks directly of "demons influencing and inspiring
+the possessed." Socrates (470-399 B. C.) claimed to have continually
+with him a demon--a guardian spirit.
+
+In Greece, in early days, physicians were looked upon as gods. Even
+after the siege of Troy, the sons of the gods and the heroes were
+alone supposed to understand the secrets of medicine and surgery. At a
+late period AEsculapius, the son of Apollo, was worshipped as a deity.
+When we speak of the art of healing in Greece, one naturally thinks of
+the apparent monopoly of the AEsclepiades, who ministered unto the
+Grecian sick for centuries.
+
+The original seat of the worship of AEsculapius was at Epidaurus, where
+there was a splendid temple, adorned with a gold and ivory statue of
+the god, who was represented sitting, one hand holding a staff, the
+other resting on the head of a serpent, the emblem of sagacity and
+longevity; a dog crouched at his feet. The temple was frequented by
+harmless serpents, in the form of which the god was supposed to
+manifest himself. According to Homer, his sons, Machaon and
+Podalirius, who were great warriors, treated wounds and external
+diseases only; and it is probable that their father practised in the
+same manner, as he is said to have invented the probe and the
+bandaging of wounds. His priests, the AEsclepiades, however, practised
+incantations, and cured diseases by leading their patients to believe
+that the god himself delivered his prescriptions in dreams and
+visions; for this imposture they were roughly satirized by
+Aristophanes in his play of "Plutus." It is probable that the
+preparations, consisting of abstinence, tranquillity, and bathing,
+requisite for obtaining the divine intercourse, and, above all, the
+confidence reposed in the AEsclepiades, were often productive of
+benefit.
+
+The excavations of Cavvadias at Epidaurus have furnished us with much
+interesting material concerning the cures performed at this ancient
+shrine, five hundred years before the beginning of the Christian era.
+If the modern physician still recognizes AEsculapius as his patron
+saint, he must have great respect for mental healing. It appears
+certain from inscriptions found upon "stelae" that were dug up at
+Epidaurus and published in 1891, that the system of AEsculapius was
+based upon the miracle-working of a demi-god, and not upon medical art
+as we now know it. The _modus operandi_ was unique in some details.
+The patients, mostly incurables, came laden with sacrifices. After
+prayer, they cleansed themselves with water from the holy well, and
+offered up sacrifices. Certain ceremonial acts were then performed by
+the priests, and the patients were put to sleep on the skins of the
+animals offered at the altar, or at the foot of the statue of the
+divinity, while the priests performed further sacred rites. The son of
+Apollo then appeared to them in dreams, attended to the particular
+ailments of the sufferers, and specified further sacrifices or acts
+which would restore health. In many cases the sick awoke suddenly
+cured. Large sums of money were asked for these cures; from one
+inscription we learn that a sum corresponding to $12,000 was paid as a
+fee. The record of the cure was carved on the temple as at Lourdes
+to-day, _e.g._:
+
+"Some days back, a certain Caius, who was blind, learned from an
+oracle that he should repair to the temple, put up his fervent
+prayers, cross the sanctuary from right to left, place his five
+fingers on the altar, then raise his hand and cover his eyes. He
+obeyed, and instantly his sight was restored, amid the loud
+acclamations of the multitude. These signs of the omnipotence of the
+gods were shown in the reign of Antoninus."
+
+"A blind soldier, named Valerius Apes, having consulted the oracle,
+was informed that he should mix the blood of a white cock with honey,
+to make up an ointment to be applied to his eyes for three consecutive
+days. He received his sight, and returned public thanks to the gods."
+
+"Julian appeared lost beyond all hope, from a spitting of blood. The
+gods ordered him to take from the altar some seeds of the pine, and to
+mix them with honey, of which mixture he was to eat for three days. He
+was saved, and came to thank the gods in the presence of the
+people."[2]
+
+It was not until five centuries later, when credulity concerning
+miracles was on the wane, that the priests began to study and to apply
+medical means in order to sustain the reputation of the place, and to
+keep up its enormous revenues.
+
+Temples similar to this one at Epidaurus existed at numerous places,
+among which were Rhodes, Cnidus, Cos, and one was to be found on the
+banks of the Tiber. The temple at Cos was rich in votive offerings,
+which generally represented the parts of the body healed, and an
+account of the method of cure adopted. From these singular clinical
+records, Hippocrates, a reputed descendant of AEsculapius, is reported
+to have constructed his treatise on Dietetics.
+
+For a long time after the age of Hercules and the heroic times,
+invalids in Greece sought relief from their sufferings from these
+descendants of AEsculapius in the temples of that god, which an
+enlightened policy had raised on elevated spots, near medicinal
+springs, and in salubrious vicinities. Those men who pretended in
+right of birth to hold the gift of curing, finally learned the art of
+it. The preservation in the temple of the history of those diseases,
+the cure of which had been sought by them, aided greatly in this happy
+culmination.
+
+Of AEsculapius himself, it is said that he employed the trumpet to cure
+sciatica; he claimed that its continued sound made the fibres of the
+nerves to palpitate, and the pain vanished. In line with this
+treatment, Democritus affirmed that diseases are capable of being
+cured by the sound of a flute, when properly played.
+
+Herbs were also used among the Greeks, but almost wholly in the form
+of charms rather than on account of what we claim now as real
+medicinal value. For example, great virtues were ascribed to the herb
+alysson which was pounded and eaten with meat to cure hydrophobia. If
+suspended in the house, it promoted the health of the inmates and
+protected both men and cattle from enchantments; when bound in a piece
+of scarlet flannel round the necks of the latter, it preserved them
+from all diseases.
+
+There seems to have been no independent school of Roman medicine. From
+early times there was a very complicated system of superstitious
+medicine, as a part of the religion, which is supposed to have been
+borrowed from the Etruscans. This comprehended both the theory and
+cure of disease. The Romans got along for centuries without doctors;
+in fact, doctors were a Grecian importation, not made until about two
+centuries before Christ.
+
+  [1] G. Maspero, _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_,
+  chap. VII.
+
+  [2] E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at
+  Lourdes," _Nineteenth Century_, October, 1895.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+  "The Alchemist may doubt the shining gold
+    His crucible pours out,
+  But faith, fanatic faith, once wedded fast
+    To some dear falsehood,
+  Hugs it to the last."
+
+  "Death is the cure of all diseases. There is no _catholicon_
+  or universal remedy I know, but this, which though nauseous
+  to queasy stomachs, yet to prepared appetites is nectar, and
+  a pleasant potion of immortality."--BROWNE.
+
+        "I'll tell you what now of the Devil:
+  He's no such horrid creature; cloven-footed,
+  Black, saucer-ey'd, his nostrils breathing fire,
+  As these lying Christians make him."--MASSINGER.
+
+  "If the cure be wrought, what matters it to the happy
+  invalid ... whether the cure is wrought by the touch of
+  the Divine hand or the overpowering influence of a great
+  idea upon the nervous system? If our hunger be appeased,
+  it matters little whether it is by manna rained down
+  from heaven, or a wheaten loaf raised from the harvest
+  field. Miraculous water from the rock does not quench
+  the thirst better than that which bubbles from the
+  village spring."--BERDOE.
+
+The advent of the Christian religion into the world, while purporting
+to minister especially to the spiritual life, had a wide-reaching and
+potent influence on the art of healing the body. We cannot sum up the
+effect by saying that this influence was either wholly good or
+bad--its relation to therapeutics was a mixed one. It can be
+truthfully said that nothing has retarded the science of medicine
+during the past two thousand years so much as the iron grip of
+decadent orthodoxy, and, on the other hand, no power has caused men
+and women so to sacrifice time, money, and even life itself for the
+care and nurture of the sick, as the example and precepts of Jesus
+Christ.
+
+For eighteen centuries this paradoxical position was held by the
+church, and the antithetical attitudes of hindrance and help continued
+to exist. As valuable as was the spirit instilled into the hearts of
+His followers by the tenderness of the Master, it was never sufficient
+to counterbalance the deterrent effects of the religion which they
+espoused. The retardation was caused by two related beliefs which
+permeated the church: The first was the doctrine of the power of
+demons in the lives of men, especially in the production of disease;
+and the second was the prevalence of the idea of the possibility and
+probability of the performance of miracles, particularly in the
+healing of diseases.
+
+A rather complicated science of demonology had come down from
+primitive sources through Egyptian, Babylonian, and Greek
+civilization, although the demons of the Greeks were principally good
+spirits. At the time of Christ, however, the Jews were the most ardent
+advocates of demonology, and hence the chief exorcists. They expelled
+demons partly by adjuration and partly by means of a certain
+miraculous root named Baaras. They considered it nothing at all out
+of the ordinary to meet men who were possessed by demons, and just as
+common an experience to see them healed by having the demon exorcised.
+Josephus assures us that in the reign of Vespasian he had himself seen
+a Jew named Eleazar perform an exorcism; by means of adjuration and
+the Baaras root he drew a demon through the nostrils of a possessed
+person, who fell to the ground on the accomplishment of the miracle,
+while on the command of the magician the demon, to prove that it had
+really left its victim, threw down a cup of water which had been
+placed at a distance.
+
+Knowing as we do the close relationship between Judaism and
+Christianity, it does not surprise us to discover that the Christians
+inherited the doctrine and practice of the Jews in this matter. This
+is more readily understood when we remember the connection of Jesus
+with cases of demoniacal possession, and Paul's frequent references to
+the spirits of the air. Following the example of their Master,
+Christians everywhere became exorcists. Through the influence of
+Philo's writings, Jewish demonology was propagated among Christian
+converts, and the Gnostics quickly absorbed and spread the notion of
+preternatural interposition. Next to the belief in the second coming
+of Christ, the doctrine which most influenced the action of the early
+church was that of a spiritual world and its hierarchy. Terrestrial
+things were ruled by all sorts of spiritual beings.
+
+Some philosophers, as well as the founders of different religions,
+expelled demons, and the Christians fully recognized the power
+possessed by the Jewish and gentile exorcists; the followers of
+Christ, however, claimed to be in many respects the superior of all
+others. The fathers maintained the reality of all pagan miracles as
+fully as their own, except that doubt was sometimes cast on some forms
+of healing and prophecy. Demons which had resisted all the
+enchantments of the pagans might be cast out, oracles could be
+silenced, and unclean spirits compelled to acknowledge the truth of
+the Christian faith by the Christians, who simply made the sign of the
+cross, or repeated the name of the Master.
+
+The power of the Christian exorcists was shown by still more wonderful
+feats. Demons, which were sometimes supposed to enter animals, were
+expelled. St. Hilarion (288-371), we are told, courageously confronted
+and relieved a possessed camel. "The great St. Ambrose [340-397] tells
+us that a priest, while saying mass, was troubled by the croaking of
+frogs in a neighboring marsh; that he exorcised them, and so stopped
+their noise. St. Bernard [1091-1153], as the monkish chroniclers tell
+us, mounting the pulpit to preach in his abbey, was interrupted by a
+crowd of flies; straightway the saint uttered the sacred formula of
+excommunication, when the flies fell dead upon the pavement in heaps,
+and were cast out with shovels! A formula of exorcism attributed to a
+saint of the ninth century, which remained in use down to a recent
+period, especially declares insects injurious to crops to be possessed
+of evil spirits, and names, among the animals to be excommunicated or
+exorcised, moles, mice, and serpents. The use of exorcism against
+caterpillars and grasshoppers was also common. In the thirteenth
+century a bishop of Lausanne, finding that the eels in Lake Leman
+troubled the fishermen, attempted to remove the difficulty by
+exorcism, and two centuries later one of his successors excommunicated
+all the May-bugs in the diocese. As late as 1731 there appears an
+entry on the municipal register of Thonon as follows: '_Resolved_,
+that this town join with other parishes of this province in obtaining
+from Rome an excommunication against the insects, and that it will
+contribute _pro rata_ to the expense of the same.'"
+
+Scripture was cited to prove the diabolical character of some animals
+during the Middle Ages. Says White: "Did anyone venture to deny that
+animals could be possessed by Satan, he was at once silenced by
+reference to the entrance of Satan into the serpent in the Garden of
+Eden, and to the casting of devils into swine by the Founder of
+Christianity himself."[3]
+
+Notwithstanding the pleasing theory adopted by the earlier Christian
+writers that the powers of darkness were unable to harm the faithful
+without the permission of divinity, to whom demoniacal spirits were
+ultimately subjected, unlimited power was conceded to those beings who
+existed under divine sanction. Demoniacal aeons or emanations were
+acknowledged to be the primitive source of earthly sufferings,
+pestilence among men, sickness and other bodily afflictions, but
+inflicted with the consent of God, whose messengers they were.
+
+Early Christian writers boldly asserted that all the disorders of the
+world originated with the devil and his sinister companions, because
+they were stirred with the unholy desire to obtain associates in their
+miseries. It was impossible to fix a limit to the number of these
+malevolent spirits constantly provoking diseases and infirmities upon
+men. They were alleged to surround mankind so densely that each person
+had a thousand to his right and ten thousand to the left of him.
+Endowed with the subtlest activity, they were able to reach the
+remotest points of earth in the twinkling of an eye.
+
+According to Salverte, Tatian, a sincere defender of Christianity, who
+lived in the second century, "does not deny the wonderful cures
+effected by the priests of the temples of the Polytheists; he only
+attempts to explain them by supposing that the pagan gods were actual
+demons, and that they introduced disease into the body of a healthy
+man, announcing to him, in a dream, that he should be cured if he
+implored their assistance; and then, by terminating the evil which
+they themselves had produced, they obtained the glory of having worked
+the miracle."[4]
+
+So firm was the belief that Christians could exorcise these demons
+that from the time of Justin Martyr (100-163), for about two
+centuries, there is not a single Christian writer who does not
+solemnly and explicitly assert the reality and frequent employment of
+this power. In his Second Apology, Justin says: "And now you can learn
+this from what is under your own observation. For numberless demoniacs
+throughout the whole world, and in your city, many of our Christian
+men exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified
+under Pontius Pilate, have healed and do heal, rendering helpless and
+driving the possessing demons out of the men, though they could not be
+cured by all the other exorcists, and those who used incantations and
+drugs."
+
+Irenaeus (130-202) held that mankind, through transgressions of divine
+command, fell absolutely from the time of Adam into the power of
+Satan. On the other hand, he assures us that all Christians possessed
+the power of working miracles; that they prophesied, cast out devils,
+healed the sick, and sometimes even raised the dead; that some who had
+been thus resuscitated lived for many years among them, and that it
+would be impossible to reckon the wonderful acts that were daily
+performed.[5]
+
+Tertullian (160-220) insisted that a malevolent angel was in constant
+attendance upon every person, but in writing to the pagans in a time
+of persecution he challenged his opponents to bring forth any person
+who was possessed by a demon or any of those prophets or virgins who
+were supposed to be inspired by a divinity. He asserted that all
+demons would be compelled to confess their diabolical character when
+questioned by any Christians, and invited the pagans, if it were
+otherwise, to put the Christian immediately to death, for this, he
+thought, was the simplest and most decisive demonstration of the
+faith.
+
+Lecky tells us of the attitude of the fathers toward demonism in the
+following words: "Justin Martyr, Origen, Lactantius, Athanasius, and
+Minucius Felix, all in language equally solemn and explicit, call upon
+the pagans to form their own opinions from the confessions wrung from
+their own gods. We hear from them, that when a Christian began to
+pray, to make the sign of the cross, or to utter the name of his
+Master in the presence of a possessed or inspired person, the latter,
+by screams and frightful contortions, exhibited the torture that was
+inflicted, and by this torture the evil spirit was compelled to avow
+its nature. Several of the Christian writers declare that this was
+generally known to pagans."[6]
+
+Origen (185-254) said: "It is demons which produce famine,
+unfruitfulness, corruptions of the air, pestilence; they hover
+concealed in clouds in the lower atmosphere, and are attracted by the
+blood and incense which the heathen offer to them as gods." He
+thought, though, that Raphael had special care of the sick and the
+infirm. Cyprian (186-258) charged that demons caused luxations and
+fractures of the limbs, undermined the health, and harassed with
+diseases. Up to this time it was the privilege of any Christian to
+exorcise demons, but Pope Fabian (236-250) assigned a definite name
+and functions to exorcists as a separate order. To-day the priest has
+included in his ordination vows those of exorcist. Gregory of
+Nazianzus (329-390) declared that bodily pains are provoked by demons,
+and that medicines are useless, but that demoniacs are often cured by
+laying on of consecrated hands. St. Augustine (354-430) said: "All
+diseases of Christians are to be ascribed to these demons; chiefly do
+they torment fresh-baptized Christians, yea, even the guiltless
+new-born infants."
+
+Baltus[7] says: "De tous les anciens auteurs ecclesiastiques, n'y en
+ayant pas un qui n'ait parle de ce pouvoir admirable que les Chretiens
+avoient de chasser les demons," and Gregory of Tours (538-594) says
+that exorcism was common in his time, having himself seen a monk named
+Julian cure by his words a possessed person. This testimony of
+Gregory's concerning the prevalence of exorcisms at the end of the
+sixth century is interesting in view of the facts that the Council of
+Laodicea, in the fourth century, forbade any one to exorcise, except
+those duly authorized by the bishop, and that in the very beginning of
+the fifth century a physician named Posidonius denied the existence of
+possession. The fathers of the church, however, ridiculed the solemn
+assertion of physicians that many of these alleged demoniacal
+infirmities were attributable to material agencies, and were fully
+persuaded in their own minds that demons took possession of the
+organism of the human body.
+
+At about this time, such a broad-minded man as Gregory the Great
+(540-604) solemnly related that a nun, having eaten some lettuce without
+making the sign of the cross, swallowed a devil, and that, when
+commanded by a holy man to come forth, the devil replied: "How am I to
+blame? I was sitting on the lettuce, and this woman, not having made the
+sign of the cross, ate me along with it." This is but an example of the
+ideas concerning the entrance of demons into the possessed.[8] Besides
+the possibility of being taken into the mouth with one's food, they
+might enter while the mouth was opened to breathe. Exorcists were
+therefore careful to keep their mouths closed when casting out evil
+spirits, lest the imps should jump into their mouths from the mouths of
+the patients. Another theory was that the devil entered human beings
+during sleep, and at a comparatively recent period a king of Spain,
+Charles II (1661-1700), kept off the devil while asleep by the presence
+of his confessor and two friars.[9]
+
+Shortly before the reign of Gregory, there came into vogue the fashion
+of exorcising demons by means of a written formula rather than by the
+earlier means of making the sign of the cross and invoking the name of
+Jesus. The theory of demonology was never very clear nor consistent.
+By some it was claimed that in the practice of the magical arts evil
+spirits provided cure for sickness, others maintained that they could
+not heal any diseases, and hence the true test of Christianity was the
+ability to cure bodily ills. A compromise position was that demons
+were only successful in eliminating diseases which they had themselves
+caused. There was not a little doubt in some cases about the character
+of the possessing spirits, and it behooved people to be careful;
+demons might use men as habitations, and while posing as good angels
+vitiate health and provoke disease.
+
+At the beginning of the seventh century, we have an account of an
+exorcism by St. Gall (556-640), and during the Carlovingian age the
+healing at Monte Cassino was based on the Satanic origin of disease.
+When the conversion of northern races to Christianity began,
+demonology received a stimulus. An unlimited number of demons, similar
+in individuality and prowess, were substituted for the pagan demons,
+and the pagan gods were added as additional demons. When proselytes
+were taken into the church, care was taken to exorcise all evil
+spirits. During the baptismal service the Satanic hosts, as
+originators of sin, vice, and maladies, were expelled by insufflation
+of the officiating clergyman, the sign of the cross, and the
+invocation of the Triune Deity. The earliest formulas for such
+expulsion directed a double exhalation of the priest.[10]
+
+In all epidemics of the Middle Ages, such persons as were afflicted by
+pestilent diseases were declared contaminated by the devil, and
+carried to churches and chapels, a dozen at a time, securely bound
+together. They were thrown upon the floor, where they lay, according
+to the attestation of a pitying chronicler, until dead or restored to
+health.
+
+Unsound mind was universally accepted as a specific distinction of
+diabolical power, and caused by the corporeal presence of an impure
+spirit. Imbeciles and the insane were, throughout the Middle Ages,
+especially conceded to be the abode of avenging and frenzied demons.
+In aggravated cases, the actual presence of the medicinal saint was
+necessary; in less vexatious maladies, the bare imposition of hands,
+accompanied by plaintive prayer, quickly healed the diseased.[11]
+
+As early as the fifth century before Christ, Hippocrates of Cos
+asserted that madness was simply a disease of the brain, but
+notwithstanding the reiteration of this scientific truth the church
+repudiated it, and as late as the Reformation, Martin Luther
+maintained that not only was insanity caused by diabolical influences,
+but that "Satan produces all the maladies which afflict mankind." Even
+much later, however, when other diseases were assigned a physical
+origin, insanity was still thought to be demoniacal possession. As
+late as Bossuet's time, lunacy was thought to be the work of demons.
+The cultured and progressive Bishop of Meaux, while trying to throw
+off the shackles of superstition, delivered and published two great
+sermons in which demoniacal possession is defended. To show how the
+idea has clung, notwithstanding the advancement and enlightenment of
+late years, we may notice a trial which took place at Wemding, in
+southern Germany, in 1892, of which White tells us.
+
+   "A boy had become hysterical, and the Capuchin Father
+   Aurelian tried to exorcise him, and charged a peasant's
+   wife, Frau Herz, with bewitching him, on evidence that
+   would have cost the woman her life at any time during
+   the seventeenth century. Thereupon the woman's husband
+   brought suit against Father Aurelian for slander. The
+   latter urged in his defence that the boy was possessed
+   of an evil spirit, if anybody ever was; that what had
+   been said and done was in accordance with the rules and
+   regulations of the Church, as laid down in decrees,
+   formulas, and rituals sanctioned by popes, councils,
+   and innumerable bishops during ages. All in vain. The
+   court condemned the good father to fine and
+   imprisonment."[12]
+
+I cannot refrain from quoting in this connection the now famous
+epitaph of Lord Westbury's, suggested by the decision given by him as
+Lord Chancellor in the case against Mr. Wilson in which it was charged
+that the latter denied the doctrine of eternal punishment. The court
+decided that it did "not find in the formularies of the English Church
+any such distinct declaration upon the subject as to require it to
+punish the expression of a hope by a clergyman that even the ultimate
+pardon of the wicked who are condemned in the day of judgment may be
+consistent with the will of Almighty God." The following is the
+epitaph:
+
+          "RICHARD BARON WESTBURY,
+      Lord High Chancellor of England.
+        He was an eminent Christian,
+     An energetic and merciful Statesman,
+  And a still more eminent and merciful Judge.
+    During his three years' tenure of office
+He abolished the ancient method of conveying land,
+The time-honored institution of the Insolvents' Court,
+                   And
+         The Eternity of Punishment.
+   Toward the close of his earthly career,
+In the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council,
+       He dismissed Hell with costs,
+  And took away from Orthodox members of the
+            Church of England
+ Their last hope of everlasting damnation."[13]
+
+In the Middle Ages there was a strange and incongruous mixture of
+medicine and exorcism. Notice the following prescriptions:
+
+  "If an elf or a goblin come, smear his forehead with
+  this salve, put it on his eyes, cense him with incense,
+  and sign him frequently with the sign of the cross."
+
+  "For a fiend-sick man: When a devil possesses a man, or
+  controls him from within with disease, a spew-drink of
+  lupin, bishopwort, henbane, garlic. Pound these
+  together, add ale and holy water."
+
+  "A drink for a fiend-sick man, to be drunk out of a
+  church bell: Githrife, cynoglossum, yarrow, lupin,
+  flower-de-luce, fennel, lichen, lovage. Work up to a
+  drink with clear ale, sing seven masses over it, add
+  garlic and holy water, and let the possessed sing the
+  _Beati Immaculati_; then let him drink the dose out of a
+  church bell, and let the priest sing over him the
+  _Domine Sancte Pater Omnipotens_."[14]
+
+Three methods of driving out demons from the insane were used: the
+main weapon against the devil and his angels has always been exorcism
+by means of ecclesiastical formula and signs. These formulas
+degenerated at one time to the vilest cursings, threatenings, and
+vulgarities. A second means was by an effort to disgust the demon and
+wound his pride. This might simply precede the exorcism proper. To
+accomplish this purpose of offending the demons, the most blasphemous
+and obscene epithets were used by the exorcist, which were allowable
+and perfectly proper when addressing demons. Most of these are so
+indecent that they cannot be printed, but the following are some
+examples:
+
+  "Thou lustful and stupid one,... thou lean sow,
+  famine-stricken and most impure,... thou wrinkled beast,
+  thou mangy beast, thou beast of all beasts the most
+  beastly,... thou mad spirit,... thou bestial and foolish
+  drunkard,... most greedy wolf,... most abominable
+  whisperer,... thou sooty spirit from Tartarus!... I cast
+  thee down, O Tartarean boor,... into the infernal
+  kitchen!... Loathsome cobbler,... dingy collier,...
+  filthy sow (_scrofa stercorata_),... perfidious boar,...
+  envious crocodile,... malodorous drudge,... wounded
+  basilisk,... rust-colored asp,... swollen toad,...
+  entangled spider,... lousy swineherd (_porcarie
+  pedicose_),... lowest of the low,... cudgelled ass,"
+  etc.[15]
+
+The pride of the demon was also to be wounded by the use of the
+vilest-smelling drugs, by trampling underfoot and spitting upon the
+picture of the devil, or even by sprinkling upon it foul compounds.
+Some even tried to scare the demon by using large-sounding words and
+names.
+
+The third method of exorcism was punishment. The attempt was
+frequently made to scourge the demon out of the body. The exorcism was
+more effective if the name of the demon could be ascertained. If
+successful in procuring the name, it was written on a piece of paper
+and burned in a fire previously blessed, which caused the demons to
+suffer all the torments in the accompanying exorcisms. All forms of
+torture were employed, and in the great cities of Europe, "witch
+towers," where witches and demoniacs were tortured, and "fool towers,"
+where the more gentle lunatics were imprisoned, may still be seen.
+The treatment of the insane in the Middle Ages is one of the darkest
+blots on the growing civilization.
+
+The exorcism being completed, when some of the weaker demons were put
+to flight an after service was held in which everything belonging to
+the patient was exorcised, so that the demon might not hide there and
+return to the patient. The exorcised demons were forbidden to return,
+and the demons remaining in the body were commanded to leave all the
+remainder of the body, and to descend into the little toe of the right
+foot, and there to rest quietly.
+
+After the Reformation, two contests shaped themselves in the matter of
+exorcisms. The Protestants and the Roman Catholics vied with each
+other in the power, rapidity, and duration of the exorcisms. Both put
+forth miraculous claims, and with as much energy denied the power of
+the other. They agreed in one thing, and that was the erroneous
+position and teaching of the physicians. This, however, was but a
+continuation of that rivalry between the advancement of science and
+the conservation of theology, which is as old as history. In our
+examination of the influence of Christianity upon mental healing, it
+may be well for us to glance at the discouraging attitude of
+Christianity toward medicine.[16]
+
+The usurpation of healing by the church, which was a most serious
+drawback to the therapeutic art, will be traced in the following
+chapters; there are, however, some other ways in which the church
+retarded the work of physicians. Chief among these was the theory
+propagated by Christians that it was unlawful to meddle with the
+bodies of the dead. This theory came down from ancient times, but was
+eagerly accepted by the church, principally on account of the doctrine
+of the bodily resurrection. In addition to this, surgery was forbidden
+because the Church of Rome adopted the maxim that "the church abhors
+the shedding of blood." A recent English historian has remarked that
+of all organizations in human history, the Church of Rome has caused
+the spilling of most innocent blood, but it refused to allow the
+surgeons to spill a drop.
+
+Monks were prohibited the practice of surgery in 1248, and by
+subsequent councils, and all dissections were considered sacrilege.
+Surgery was considered dishonorable until the fifteenth or sixteenth
+centuries. The use of medicine was also discouraged. Down through the
+centuries a few churchmen and many others, especially Jews and Arabs,
+took up the study. The church authorities did everything possible to
+thwart it. Supernatural means were so abundant that the use of drugs
+was not only irreligious but superfluous. Monks who took medicine were
+punished, and physicians in the thirteenth century could not treat
+patients without calling in ecclesiastical advice.
+
+We are told that in the reign of Philip II of Spain a famous Spanish
+doctor was actually condemned by the Inquisition to be burnt for
+having performed a surgical operation, and it was only by royal favor
+that he was permitted instead to expiate his crime by a pilgrimage to
+the Holy Land, where he died in poverty and exile.
+
+This restriction was continued for three centuries, and consequently
+threw medical work into the hands of charlatans among Christians, and
+of Jews. The clergy of the city of Hall protested that "it were better
+to die with Christ than to be cured by a Jew doctor aided by the
+devil." The Jesuit professor, Stengal, said that God permits illness
+because of His wish to glorify Himself through the miracles wrought by
+the church, and His desire to test the faith of men by letting them
+choose between the holy aid of the church and the illicit resort to
+medicine.
+
+There was another reason for the antagonism of the church to
+physicians; the physicians in this case were inside the church. The
+monks converted medicine to the basest uses. In connection with the
+authority of the church, it was employed for extorting money from the
+sick. They knew little or nothing about medicine, so used charms,
+amulets, and relics in healing. The ignorance and cupidity of the
+monks led the Lateran Council, under the pontificate of Calixtus II,
+in 1123, to forbid priests and monks to attend the sick otherwise than
+as ministers of religion. It had little or no effect, so that Innocent
+II, in a council at Rheims in 1131, enforced the decree prohibiting
+the monks frequenting schools of medicine, and directing them to
+confine their practice to their own monasteries. They still disobeyed,
+and a Lateran Council in 1139 threatened all who neglected its orders
+with the severest penalties and suspension from the exercise of all
+ecclesiastical functions; such practices were denounced as a neglect
+of the sacred objects of their profession in exchange for ungodly
+lucre. When the priests found that they could no longer confine the
+practice of medicine to themselves, it was stigmatized and denounced.
+At the Council of Tours in 1163, Alexander III maintained that through
+medicine the devil tried to seduce the priesthood, and threatened with
+excommunication any ecclesiastic who studied medicine. In 1215,
+Innocent III fulminated an anathema against surgery and any priest
+practising it. Even this was not effectual.[17]
+
+What we see in connection with dissection and surgery and medicine was
+repeated at a later date with inoculation, vaccination, and
+anaesthetics. There were the same objections by the church on
+theological grounds, the same stubborn battle, and the same
+inevitable defeat of the theological position.
+
+So long as disease was attributed to a demoniacal cause, so long did
+exorcisms and other miraculous cures continue, and so far as these
+cures were efficacious, they must be classed as mental healing.
+Probably they continued longer in insanity and mental derangement on
+account of the beneficent and soothing effect of religion upon a
+diseased mind. Priestly cures of all kinds were largely, if not
+wholly, suggestive, and no history of mental healing would be complete
+without a resume of ecclesiastical therapeutics. Many vagaries of
+healing which the church introduced might be mentioned to show to what
+extent the people may be misled in the name of religion. For example,
+the doctrine of signatures, to be later discussed, was disseminated by
+priests and monks, and if these medicines were ever effective it must
+have been by mental means.
+
+The demon theory of disease, which began before the age of history,
+and continued down through the savage ages and religions, through the
+early civilizations, through the gospel history, and dominated early
+Christianity, was finally, in the sixteenth century, to be vigorously
+assailed and largely overcome. The cost of this was considerable;
+attached as it was to the Christian church, it seemed necessary to
+destroy the whole Christian fabric in order to unravel this one
+thread. Atheism, therefore, was rampant, and science and atheism
+became almost synonymous, and continued so until the church freed
+science from its centuries of bondage and allowed it to develop so as
+to be again in these days a co-laborer.
+
+In pleasing contrast to the destructive and deterrent efforts of the
+church against the development of medicine is the helpful care of the
+sick exercised by Christians. The example of Jesus as shown by his
+tender sympathy, his helpful acts, and his instruction to his
+followers, bore fruit in the relief and care of sufferers by
+individuals and religious asylums. About the year 1000 and later, the
+infirmaries which were attached to numerous monasteries, and the
+_hospitia_ along the routes of travel which opened their doors to sick
+pilgrims, were but the development of a less portentous attempt on the
+part of individuals and societies to care for the sick. The Knights of
+St. John, or the Hospitalers as they were called, assumed as their
+special duty the nursing and doctoring of those in need of such
+attention, especially of sick and infirm pilgrims and crusaders.
+
+Hospitals for the sick, orphanages for foundlings, and great
+institutions for the proper care of paupers developed with immense
+strides, and during the twelfth century expanded into gigantic
+proportions. In the ensuing age, the mediaeval mind was fired with a
+faith in the efficacy of unstinted charity; members of society, from
+holy pontiff to the humblest recluse by the wayside, rivalled each
+other in gratuities of clothing and food, founding of hospitals, and
+endowment of beneficent public institutions. St. Louis's highest claim
+to pious glory arose from his restless and unstinted charities to the
+indigent and sick. Even the lepers, which were shunned or segregated,
+were treated by Christian institutions; and saints and saintesses
+found pious expression for their humility in personal attendance and
+even loving embraces of these unsightly beings covered with repulsive
+sores. For the last millennium there has not been a time when
+Christian love and benevolence have not sought the opportunity of
+ministering to the sick.
+
+One can easily recognize the effect which this fact would have on
+mental healing. The church fostered the ideas of exorcism and the
+cures by relics and shrines, and deprecated the use of medicine. If
+the hospitals and infirmaries were almost wholly in the hands of the
+monks and churchmen, there was little hope for the development of
+other than ecclesiastical mental healing. The untold good which
+Christian ministrations to the sick accomplished must be acknowledged,
+but it was not an unmixed benefit to the race as a whole.
+
+We may more easily see, perhaps, the connection between the church and
+the development of medicine, and the despotic power of the church in
+this regard, when we remember that physicians were formerly a part of
+the clergy, and it was not until 1542 that the papal legate in France
+gave them permission to marry. In 1552 the doctors in law obtained
+like permission. An early priestly physician has survived to fame by
+the name of Elpideus, sometimes confused with Elpidius Rusticus. He
+was both a deacon of the church and a skilled surgeon, and was very
+favorably mentioned by St. Ennodius as a person of fine culture. He
+was sufficiently dexterous and skilful to heal the Gothic ruler,
+Theodoric, of a grievous illness.[18] Salverte gives us additional
+examples: "Richard Fitz-Nigel, who died Bishop of London, in 1198, had
+been apothecary to Henry II. The celebrated Roger Bacon, who
+flourished in the thirteenth century, although a monk, yet practised
+medicine. Nicolas de Farnham, a physician to Henry III, was created
+Bishop of Durham; and many doctors of medicine were at various times
+elevated to ecclesiastical dignities."[19]
+
+The grip of the church accomplished its purpose, and science,
+especially the science of medicine, was strangled, almost to the
+death. Even the people of the time recognized the shortcomings of the
+physicians. Henricus Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), writing in 1530,
+said with pleasant irony that physic was "a certaine Arte of
+manslaughter," and that "well neare alwaies there is more daunger in
+the Physition and the Medicine than in the sicknesse itselfe." He also
+gives the following picture of a fashionable doctor of his time: "Clad
+in brave apparaile, having ringes on his fingers glimmeringe with
+pretious stoanes, and which hath gotten fame and credence for having
+been in farre countries, or having an obstinate manner of vaunting
+with stiffe lies that he hath great remedies, and for having
+continually in his mouth many wordes halfe Greeke and barbarous....
+But this will prove to be true, that Physitians moste commonlye be
+naught. They have one common honour with the hangman, that is to saye,
+to kill menne and to be recompensed therefore."[20]
+
+  [3] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, p. 113.
+
+  [4] E. Salverte, _Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 94.
+
+  [5] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I, p.
+  378.
+
+  [6] _Ibid._, I, p. 383.
+
+  [7] _Reponse a l'histoire des oracles_, p. 296.
+
+  [8] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, p. 101.
+
+  [9] H. T. Buckle, _History of Civilization in England_,
+  II, p. 270.
+
+  [10] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 201.
+
+  [11] For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D.
+  White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, pp. 97-134.
+
+  [12] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, p. 128.
+
+  [13] Nash, _Life of Lord Westbury_, II, p. 78.
+
+  [14] Cockayne, _Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Star-craft
+  of Early England_, II, p. 177.
+
+  [15] M. H. Dziewicki, "Exorcizo Te," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXIV, p. 580.
+
+  [16] For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D.
+  White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, pp. 1-167.
+
+  [17] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Surgery and Medicine_, pp. 51 f.
+
+  [18] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 142 f.
+
+  [19] E. Salverte, _Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 96.
+
+  [20] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 151.
+
+  For further references to the effect of demonism, see J.
+  F. Nevius, _Demon Possession and Allied Themes_; J. M.
+  Peebles, _The Demonism of the Ages and Spirit
+  Obsessions_; articles on "Demon," "Demonism,"
+  "Demoniacal Possession," and "Devil," in the _Catholic
+  Encyclopedia_, the _New International Encyclopedia_, and
+  the _Encyclopedia Britannica_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+RELICS AND SHRINES
+
+
+  "A fouth o' auld knick-knackets,
+  Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets,
+  Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets,
+                  A towmond guid;
+  An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets,
+                  Afore the flood."--BURNS.
+
+  "For to that holy wood is consecrate
+  A virtuous well, about whose flowery banks
+  The nimble-footed fairies dance their rounds
+  By the pale moonshine, dipping oftentimes
+  Their stolen children, so to make them free
+  From dying flesh and dull mortality."--FLETCHER.
+
+  "Ne was ther such another pardoner,
+  For in his male he hadde a pilwebeer,
+  Which that he saide was oure lady veyl;
+  He seide, he hadde a gobet of the seyl
+  That seynt Peter hadde, whan that he wente
+  Uppon the see, til Jhesu Crist him pente.
+  He hadde a cros of latoun ful of stones,
+  And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.
+  But with these reliques, whanne that he fond
+  A poure persoun dwelling uppon lond,
+  Upon a day he gat him more moneye
+  Than that the persoun gat in monthes tweye.
+  And thus with feyned flaterie and japes,
+  He made the persoun and the people his apes."--CHAUCER.
+
+A wide-spread movement developed in the early church as a result of
+which innumerable miracles of healing were credited to the power of
+saints, indirectly through the medium of streams and pools of water
+which were reputed to have some connection with a particular saint,
+or through the efficacy still clinging to the relics of holy persons.
+
+On account of the growth of the belief in demonism in the Christian
+church, and the need of supernatural means to counteract diabolic
+diseases, saintly relics came into common use for this purpose, and
+afterward when demonism was not so thoroughly credited as the cause of
+diseases, relics were still considered to hold their power over
+physical infirmities. In addition to this, the missionary efforts and
+successes of the church had some influence in establishing and
+continuing cures by relics and similar means. The missionaries found
+that their converts had formerly employed various amulets and charms
+for the healing of diseases, and that they continued to have great
+faith in them for that purpose. To wean them from their heathen
+customs, Christian amulets and charms had to be substituted, or, as
+was sometimes the case, the heathen fetich was continued, but with a
+Christian significance.
+
+The early Scandinavians carried effigies carved out of gold or silver
+as safeguards against disease, or applied those made out of certain
+other materials, as the mandragora root or linen or wood, to the
+diseased part as a cure of physical infirmities. Some of these images
+were carried over into Christianity, for in Charlemagne's time,
+headache was frequently cured by following the saintly recommendation
+to shape the figure of a head and place it on a cross. Fort tells us
+that "The introduction of Christianity among the Teutonic races
+offered no hindrance to a perpetuation, under new forms, of those
+social observances with which Norse temple idolatry was so intimately
+associated. Offering to proselytes an unlimited number of demoniacal
+aeons, similar in individuality and prowess to those peopling the
+invisible universe, Northern mythology readily united with Christian
+demonology."[21]
+
+The relics of the saints came to be the favorite substitute for the
+heathen charms. With the acceptance of the demoniacal cause of
+disease, exorcism by relics gradually grew in importance until it was
+firmly established and a preferred form in the sixth and subsequent
+centuries. Down to this time there still existed a feeble recognition
+of a possible system adapted to the cure of maladies, so far, perhaps,
+as the practice was restricted to municipalities. The rapid
+advancement of saintly remedies, consecrated oils, and other puissant
+articles of ecclesiastical appliance, enabled and encouraged numerous
+churchmen to exercise the AEsculapian art; this, together with the ban
+put upon physicians and scientific means, soon gave the church the
+monopoly of healing. Perhaps the most thorough attestation of the
+contempt into which physicians had fallen, compared with saintly
+medicists, is the fact that cures were invariably attempted after
+earthly medicine had been exhausted.[22]
+
+Islam, Buddhism, and other religions have their shrines where some
+pilgrims are undoubtedly cured, but Christianity seems to have had the
+most varied and numerous collection. As early as the latter part of
+the fourth century miraculous powers were ascribed to the images of
+Jesus and the saints which adorned the walls of most of the churches
+of the time, and tales of wonderful cures were related of them. The
+intercessions of saints were invoked, and their relics began to work
+miracles.[23]
+
+St. Cyril, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and others of the early church
+fathers of note maintained that the relics of the saints had great
+efficacy in the cure of diseases. St. Augustine tells us: "Besides
+many other miracles, that Gamaliel in a dream revealed to a priest
+named Lacianus the place where the bones of St. Stephen were buried;
+that those bones being thus discovered, were brought to Hippo, the
+diocese of which St. Augustine was bishop; that they raised five
+persons to life; and that, although only a portion of the miraculous
+cures they effected had been registered, the certificates drawn up in
+two years in the diocese, and by the orders of the saint, were nearly
+seventy. In the adjoining diocese of Calama they were incomparably
+more numerous."[24] This great and intellectual man also mentions and
+evidently credits the story that some innkeeper of his time put a drug
+into cheese which changed travellers who partook of it into domestic
+animals, and he further asserts after a personal test that peacock's
+flesh will not decay.
+
+St. Ambrose declared that "the precepts of medicine are contrary to
+celestial science, watching, and prayer." When the conflict between
+St. Ambrose and the Arian Empress Justina was at its height, the
+former declared that it had been revealed to him that relics were
+buried in a certain spot which he indicated. When the earth was
+removed, there was exposed a tomb filled with blood, and containing
+two gigantic skeletons with their heads severed from their bodies.
+These were pronounced to be the remains of St. Gervasius and St.
+Protasius, two martyrs of gigantic physical proportions, who were said
+to have been beheaded about three centuries before. To prove beyond
+doubt the genuineness of these relics, a blind man was restored to
+sight by coming in contact with them, and demoniacs were also cured
+thereby. Before being exorcised, however, the demons, who were
+supposed to have supernatural and indubitable knowledge, declared that
+the relics were genuine; that St. Ambrose was the deadly enemy of
+hell; that the doctrine of the Trinity was true; and that those who
+rejected it would certainly be damned. To be sure that the testimony
+of the demons should have its proper weight in the controversy, on the
+following day St. Ambrose delivered an invective against all who
+questioned the miracle.[25]
+
+Late researches concerning the Catacombs of Rome have thrown much
+light upon the early use of relics. The former opinion of the
+Catacombs was that they were used for secret worship by the persecuted
+Christians, but now we know that they were burial-places under the
+protection of Roman law, with entrances opening on the public roads.
+Their chapels and altars were for memorial and communion services.
+Great reverence was felt for the bodies of all Christians, so that for
+the first seven centuries the bodies were not disturbed, and relics,
+in the modern sense of the word, were unknown. People prayed at the
+tombs, or if they wished to take something away, they touched the tomb
+with a handkerchief, or else they took some oil from the lamps which
+marked the tombs. These mementos were regarded as true relics, so that
+when the Lombard Queen, Theodelinda, sent the abbot John for relics to
+put in her cathedral at Monza, he came back with over seventy little
+vials of oil, each with the name of the saint from whose tomb the oil
+was procured, and many of them are still preserved.
+
+The oil from altar lamps was of therapeutic value, as St. Chrysostom
+tells us in speaking of the superiority of the church over ordinary
+houses. "For what is here," he asks, "that is not great and awful?
+Thus both this Table [the altar] is far more precious and delightful
+than that [any table at home], and this lamp than that; and this they
+know, as many as have put away diseases by anointing themselves with
+oil in faith and due season." If the body of a saint lay beneath the
+altar, the oil was then known as the "Oil of the Saints," and was even
+more efficacious for healing. Notice the following quotations on the
+subject taken from Dearmer's work.
+
+   "Far more common are stories of healing by oil from a
+   lamp burnt in honor of Christ or the saints. The
+   following examples are from the East. The wounded hand
+   of a Saracen was healed by oil from a lamp before the
+   icon of St. George."
+
+   "St. Cyrus and St. John appeared to a person suffering
+   from gout, and bade him take a little oil in a small
+   ampulla from the lamp that burnt before the image of
+   the Saviour, in the great tetrapyle at Alexandria, and
+   anoint his feet with it."
+
+   "Similar stories are found in Western writers. Thus
+   Nicetius of Lyons, by means of the oil of the lamp
+   which burnt daily at his sepulchre, restored sight to
+   the blind, drove demons from bodies possessed, restored
+   soundness to shrunken limbs," etc.
+
+   "An epileptic was cured by oil from the lamp that burnt
+   night and day at the tomb of St. Severin."
+
+  "It was revealed to a blind woman, that oil from the
+  lamp of St. Genevieve would restore her sight, if the
+  warden of the church were to anoint her with it. A week
+  after she brought a blind man, who was healed in the
+  same manner."[26]
+
+At the time of Gregory of Tours, application was made of sainted
+reliquaries as a remedy against the devil and his demons. Gregory
+narrates the miraculous efficacy of a small pellet of wax, taken from
+the tomb of St. Martin, in extinguishing an incendiary fire started by
+his Satanic majesty, which was instigated by malicious envy, because
+this omnipotent talisman was in the custody of an ecclesiastic! This
+Turonese bishop records many instances of cures being effected at
+Martin's tomb. He himself was relieved of severe pains in the head by
+touching the disordered spot with the sombre pall of St. Martin's
+sepulchre. This remedy was applied on three different occasions with
+equal success. Once he was cured of an attack of mortal dysentery by
+simply dissolving into a glass of water a pinch of dust scraped from
+the tomb of St. Martin and drinking the strange concoction. At another
+time, his tongue having become swollen and tumefied, it was restored
+to its natural size and condition by licking the railing of the tomb
+of this saint. He knew of others who had been equally successful. An
+archdeacon, named Leonastes had sight restored to his blind eyes at
+the tomb of St. Martin, but unfortunately the fact that he later
+applied to an Israelitish physician caused his infirmity to return.
+Even a toothache was cured by St. Martin's relics.
+
+The following is an apostrophe to the relics of St. Martin by Bishop
+Gregory: "Oh ineffable theriac! ineffable pigment! admirable antidote!
+celestial purge! superior to all drugs of the faculty! sweeter than
+aromatics! stronger than unguents together; thou cleanest the stomach
+like scammony, the lungs like hyssop, thou purgest the head like
+pyre-thrig!"[27]
+
+From the end of the fifth century the exercise of the medical art was
+almost exclusively appropriated by cloisters and monasteries, whose
+occupants boldly vended the miraculous remedial properties of relics,
+chrism, baptismal fluids, holy oil, rosy crosses, etc., as of
+unquestioned virtue. In these early days living saints seem to have
+rivalled dead ones in their power over diseases, but of these we shall
+speak in a later chapter.
+
+A renewed interest sprang up when pilgrims began to return from their
+journeys to Palestine, bringing with them, as was natural, some
+souvenirs of their sojourn. A most interesting quotation from Mackay
+reveals the condition of these times. "The first pilgrims to the Holy
+Land brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the
+purchase of which they had expended all their store. The greatest
+favorite was the wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the
+widow, never diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions
+of the Romish Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of
+Constantine the Great, first discovered the veritable '_true cross_'
+in her pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius made a present
+of the greater part of it to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it
+was studded with precious stones and deposited in the principal church
+of that city. It was carried away by the Huns, by whom it was burnt,
+after they had extracted the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments,
+purporting to have been cut from it, were, in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, to be found in almost every church in Europe, and would, if
+collected together in one place, have been almost sufficient to have
+built a cathedral. Happy was the sinner who could get a sight of one
+of them; happier he who possessed one! To obtain them the greatest
+dangers were cheerfully braved. They were thought to preserve from all
+evils and to cure the most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages
+were made to the shrines that contained them and considerable revenues
+collected from the devotees.
+
+"Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the Saviour.
+By whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrim did not
+enquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of the Holy
+Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, and tears of
+St. Peter, were also to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets,
+which the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the tears, the next
+most precious relics were drops of the blood of Jesus and the martyrs,
+and the milk of the Virgin Mary. Hair and toe-nails were also in great
+repute, and were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands of pilgrims
+annually visited Palestine in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to
+purchase pretended relics for the home market. The majority of them
+had no other means of subsistence than the profits thus obtained. Many
+a nail, cut from the filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic,
+was sold at a diamond's price, within six months after its severance
+from its parent toe, upon the supposition that it had once belonged to
+a saint or an apostle. Peter's toes were uncommonly prolific, for
+there were nails enough in Europe, at the time of the Council of
+Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of which were devoutly believed
+to have grown on the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of them
+are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. The pious come
+from a distance of a hundred German miles to feast their eyes upon
+them."[28]
+
+While some of these relics enumerated by Mackay seem to be such
+apparent frauds that none could credit them, they were surpassed in
+audacity by one offered for sale at a monastery in Jerusalem. Here
+was presented to the prospective buyers one of the fingers of the Holy
+Ghost.[29]
+
+In addition to the popular relics already noted, an extensive and
+lucrative trade was carried on in iron filings from the chains with
+which, it was claimed, Peter and Paul were bound. These filings were
+deemed by Pope Gregory I as efficacious in healing as were the bones
+of saints or martyrs.[30]
+
+[Illustration: CURE THROUGH THE INTERCESSION OF A HEALING SAINT]
+
+As an example of healing at shrines in early days, I will reproduce
+Bede's description of a cure effected at the tomb of St. Cuthbert in
+698. "There was in that same monastery a brother whose name was
+Bethwegan, who had for a considerable time waited upon the guests of
+the house, and is still living, having the testimony of all the
+brothers and strangers resorting thither, of being a man of much piety
+and religion, and serving the office put upon him only for the sake of
+the heavenly reward. This man, having on a certain day washed the
+mantels or garments which he used in the hospital, in the sea, was
+returning home, when on a sudden about halfway, he was seized with a
+sudden distemper in his body, insomuch that he fell down, and having
+lain some time, he could scarcely rise again. When at last he got up,
+he felt one-half of his body from the head to the foot, struck with
+palsy, and with much difficulty he got home with the help of a staff.
+The distemper increased by degrees, and as night approached became
+still worse, so that when day returned, he could not rise or walk
+alone. In this weak condition, a good thought came into his mind,
+which was to go to church, the best way he could, to the tomb of the
+reverend Father Cuthbert, and there on his knees, to beg of the Divine
+Goodness either to be delivered from that disease, if it were for his
+good, or if the Divine Providence had ordained him longer to lie under
+the same for his punishment, that he might bear the pain with patience
+and a composed mind. He did accordingly, and supporting his weak limbs
+with a staff, entered the church, and prostrating himself before the
+body of the man of God, he with pious earnestness, prayed, that
+through his intercession, our Lord might be propitious to him. In the
+midst of his prayers he fell as it were, into a stupor, and as he was
+afterwards wont to relate, felt a large and broad hand touch his head
+where the pain lay, and by that touch all the part of his body which
+had been affected with the distemper, was delivered from the weakness,
+and restored to health down to his feet. He then awoke, and rose up in
+perfect health, and returning thanks to God for his recovery, told the
+brothers what had happened to him; and to the joy of them all,
+returned the more zealously, as if chastened by his affliction, to
+the service which he was wont before so carefully to perform. The very
+garments which had been on Cuthbert's body, dedicated to God, either
+while living, or after he was dead, were not exempt from the virtue of
+performing cures, as may be seen in the book of his life and miracles,
+by such as shall read it."[31] It should be noticed that in this
+account God alone seemed to have been the healer.
+
+Nearly every country had its long list of saints, each with his
+special power over some organ or disease. This saintly power, however,
+was not applied directly, but through their relics or through shrines
+consecrated to them. Melton, in his _Astrologaster_, says: "The saints
+of the Romanists have usurped the place of the zodiacal constellations
+in their governance of the parts of man's body, and that 'for every
+limbe they have a saint.' Thus St. Otilia keepes the head instead of
+Aries; St. Blasius is appointed to governe the necke instead of
+Taurus; St. Lawrence keepes the backe and shoulders instead of Gemini,
+Cancer, and Leo; St. Erasmus rules the belly with the entrayles, in
+the place of Libra and Scorpius; in the stead of Sagittarius,
+Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, the holy church of Rome hath
+elected St. Burgarde, St. Rochus, St. Quirinus, St. John, and many
+others, which governe the thighes, feet, shinnes, and knees."
+
+But the influence of the saints is distributed more minutely, as
+_e. g._, "_Right Hand_: the top joint of the thumb is dedicated to God,
+the second joint to the Virgin; the top joint of the fore-finger to
+St. Barnabas, the second joint to St. John, and the third to St. Paul;
+the top joint of the second finger to Simon Cleophas, the second joint
+to Tathideo, the third to Joseph; the top joint of the third finger to
+Zaccheus, the second to Stephen, the third to the evangelist Luke; the
+top joint of the little finger to Leatus, the second to Mark, the
+third to Nicodemus." Thus the body was cared for.
+
+Pettigrew makes the following enumeration which shows the division of
+labor among the saints in the Middle Ages. In this, not the different
+portions of the body but the various diseases and infirmities are
+distributed.
+
+"The following list, though doubtless very imperfect, will yet serve to
+show how general was the appropriation of particular diseases to the
+Roman Catholic saints:
+
+  St. Agatha, against sore breasts.
+  St. Agnan and St. Tignan, against scald head.
+  St. Anthony, against inflammations.
+  St. Apollonia, against toothache.
+  St. Avertin, against lunacy.
+  St. Benedict, against the stone, and also for poisons.
+  St. Blaise, against the quinsey, bones sticking in the throat, etc.
+  St. Christopher and St. Mark, against sudden death.
+  St. Clara, against sore eyes.
+  St. Erasmus, against the colic.
+  St. Eutrope, against dropsy.
+  St. Genow and St. Maur, against the gout.
+  St. Germanus, against diseases of children.
+  St. Giles and St. Hyacinth, against sterility.
+  St. Herbert, against hydrophobia.
+  St. Job and St. Fiage, against syphilis.
+  St. John, against epilepsy and poison.
+  St. Lawrence, against diseases of the back and shoulders.
+  St. Liberius, against the stone and fistula.
+  St. Maine, against the scab.
+  St. Margaret and St. Edine, against danger in parturition.
+  St. Martin, against the itch.
+  St. Marus, against palsy and convulsions.
+  St. Otilia and St. Juliana, against sore eyes and
+  the headache.
+  St. Pernel, against the ague.
+  St. Petronilla, St. Apollonia, and St. Lucy, against the toothache.
+  ----, and St. Genevieve, against fevers.
+  St. Phaire, against hemorrhoids.
+  St. Quintan, against coughs.
+  St. Rochus, and St. Sebastian, against the plague.
+  St. Romanus, against demoniacal possession.
+  St. Ruffin, against madness.
+  St. Sigismund, against fevers and agues.
+  St. Valentine, against epilepsy.
+  St. Venise, against chlorosis.
+  St. Vitus, against madness and poisons.
+  St. Wallia and St. Wallery, against the stone.
+  St. Wolfgang, against lameness."[32]
+
+Wax from the tapers illuminating the altar which enclosed St. Gall's
+mortal remains was an instantaneous cure for toothache, diseased eyes,
+and total deafness; a vase used by the martyred Willabrod for bathing
+thrice a year, still holding its partially solidified water by divine
+invocation after her death, had great remedial energy in diverse
+ailments; the water in which the ring of St. Remigius was immersed
+cured certain obstinate fevers; and the wine in which the bones of the
+saints were washed restored imbeciles to instant health. In the
+thirteenth century, hairs of saints, especially of St. Boniface, were
+used as a purge, and a single hair from the beard of St. Vincent,
+placed about the neck of an idiot, restored normal mental operations.
+With the water in which St. Sulpicius washed her hands aggravated
+infirmities were instantly cured; and in the twelfth century, an
+invalid being advised in a dream to drink the water in which St.
+Bernard washed his hands, the Abbot of Clairvaux went to him, gave him
+the wash water, and healed an incurable disease. Flowers reposing on
+the tomb of a saint, when steeped in water, were supposed to be
+especially efficacious in various diseases, and those blooming in
+aromatic beauty at the tomb of St. Bernard instantly cured grievous
+sicknesses.[33] The belt of St. Guthlac, and the belt of St. Thomas
+of Lancaster, were sovereign remedies for the headache, whilst the
+penknife and boots of Archbishop Becket, and a piece of his shirt,
+were found most admirably to aid parturition. Fragments of the veil of
+the saintess Coleta, and the use of her well-worn cloak, immediately
+cured a terrible luxation, and a cataleptic patient was restored to
+sanity by drinking from her cup.
+
+To show how thoroughly the idea of the efficacy of these relics must
+have been indued in the thought of the times, White quotes the
+following: "Two lazy beggars, one blind, the other lame, try to avoid
+the relics of St. Martin, borne about in procession, so that they may
+not be healed and lose their claim to alms. The blind man takes the
+lame man on his shoulders to guide him, but they are caught in the
+crowd and healed against their will." He also says: "Even as late as
+1784 we find certain authorities in Bavaria ordering that anyone
+bitten by a mad dog shall at once put up prayers at the shrine of St.
+Hubert, and not waste his time in any attempts at medical or surgical
+cure."[34]
+
+In addition to what Dr. White says here about the treatment for
+threatened hydrophobia in the eighteenth century, we find a curious
+mixture of science and superstition in the nineteenth century in
+connection with the same trouble. Early in this century physicians
+discovered that the most effectual remedy against the bite of a rabid
+animal was the cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron. In
+Tuscany, however, the iron which they heated was one of the nails of
+the true cross, and in the French provinces it was the key of St.
+Hubert. This, though, was only to be used in the hands of those who
+could trace their genealogy to this noble saint. At the abbey of St.
+Hubert, in the diocese of Liege, the intercession of the saint still
+continued to be sufficient to effect a cure, provided it was seconded
+by some religious ceremonies, and a diet which would reassure the
+patient.
+
+After the discovery of the "true cross," portions of this relic were
+much used for aid in any emergency. In addition to sanitary and
+healing powers, fragments suspended to a tree manifested the proper
+location of sacred edifices. St. Magnus, who seems to have carried
+pieces around with him, completely vanquished demons who frequented a
+locality selected for a chapel. Eyesight was restored to a humble
+merchant seeking the blood-stained marks upon the chapel of this same
+St. Magnus. The blind man was feeling his uncertain way to the place,
+where these discolorations reappeared more distinctly after each
+washing with heavy layers of lime.
+
+St. Louis, almost in the agonies of earthly dissolution, with rigid
+body, rigorous limbs, and fluctuating spirit, was brought to full
+health by the application to his moribund body of a piece of the true
+cross, about the year 1244; and later in the century miracles took
+place at his tomb. M. Littre, in his _Fragment de Medecine
+Retrospective_, describes seven miracles which occurred at his tomb,
+some of which cures, however, were very gradual. We are also told that
+when a humble hunchback bowed the knee in adoration at the tomb of St.
+Andreas, his irresistible faith instantly released him from his
+unnatural rotundity. In 1243 a Ferrara writer was at Padua, and while
+attending vespers at the tomb where the sainted body of the Minorite
+Anthony reposed, he affirms that he saw a person who had been mute
+from his birth recover his voice and speak audibly.
+
+Saintly remedies were used to cure hemorrhages, readjust luxations,
+unite fractures, remove calculi, moderate the agonizing pangs of
+parturition, restore vision to the blind, and hearing to the deaf--in
+fact, in an endeavor to perform cures which modern medicine and
+surgery are counting among their greatest and most recent triumphs.
+Some things even more strange were attempted: paradoxical as it may
+seem, they were used to cover up crime. Fort tells us that among nuns
+and consecrated women in convents, some erring sisters applied the
+preventive talismanic influence of a sacred shirt or girdle to
+suppress the manifestation of conventual irregularities of a sexual
+character. Animals as well as human beings were treated for sickness,
+and relics were used to free captive birds and animals. At a banquet,
+a costly urn was shattered by ecclesiastics, and through the power of
+Odilo it was restored to its original integrity. At the tombs of both
+St. Severin and St. Gall, when the light had been quenched, miraculous
+fire burst forth to renew the splendor.[35]
+
+The allotment of certain diseases to certain saints did not end with
+the Middle Ages. I have in my hand a little manual entitled: _De
+l'Invocation miraculeuse des Saints dans les maladies et les besoins
+particuliers, par Mme. la Baronne d'Avout_, published in 1884. An
+invocation is given for every day in the year to some particular
+saint, who is thought to be especially efficacious in the cure of some
+specific disease. I shall quote but one for illustration.
+
+  "30 MAI
+  S. HUBERT DE BRETIGNY
+  Pres Noyons (Oise).
+  Honore au diocese de Beauvais.
+
+  "L'illustre saint Hubert, apotre des Ardennes, fut son
+  protecteur et lui donna son nom. Il lui obtint les plus
+  heureuses dispositions pour la vertu. Lui aussi herita
+  du pouvoir de guerir de la rage.
+
+  "Les habitants de Noyon et des environs n'ont pas cesse
+  de recourir a son intercession. Les personnes qui
+  touchent ses reliques ou portent sur elles son nom beni
+  esperent echapper pendant leur vie aux atteintes des
+  demons, de la rage et du tonnerre.
+
+  "A Aire, diocese de Frejus, on invoque aussi sainte
+  Quitere contre la rage.
+
+  INVOCATION
+
+  "Dieu tout-puissant, qui avez forme le coeur de vos
+  saints avec une admirable bonte, afin qu'ils deviennent
+  pour nous une source de bienfaits et de consolation;
+  assistez-nous dans le pressant besoin ou nous nous
+  trouvons et sauvez-nous de la mort, par les prieres at
+  les merites de saint Hubert de Bretigny, afin que nous
+  puissions vous louer et vous benir. Par N.-S. J.-C.
+  Ainsi soit-il.
+
+  "_Saint Hubert, qui preservez de la morsure des betes
+  enragees, ou qui guerissez leur morsures mortelles,
+  priez pour tous les affliges qui vous invoquent._"
+
+While there was probably some advance when the saints of the church
+took the place of the zodiacal constellations in the government of the
+human body, the church prevented the development along scientific
+lines, although there were many ramifications of saintly influence.
+Not the least among these was the healing efficacy of holy wells,
+pools, and streams, which had been empowered in some way by the
+saints. In some cases the bones of holy men have been buried in
+different parts of the continent, and after a certain lapse of time,
+water was said to have oozed from them, which soon formed a spring and
+cured all the diseases of the faithful.
+
+Perhaps the cure of leprous Naaman by bathing in the Jordan, and the
+restoration of the sight of the blind man by washing in the Pool of
+Siloam may have served as examples which the credulous were only too
+ready to follow. We must also note, however, as a reason for their
+use, that in classical times the greater number of thermal waters,
+more frequently used then than in the present day, remained
+consecrated to the gods, to Apollo, to AEsculapius, and, above all, to
+Hercules, who was named Iatricos, or the able physician. At any rate,
+many wells and fountains were dedicated to different saints, and
+various rites were performed there at Easter and other particular
+days, where offerings were also made to the saints.
+
+In Ireland, many such sacred places have been visited by the sick for
+centuries, and England and Scotland have them also. Not only in the
+British Isles, but in all parts of Europe they were much frequented in
+the Middle Ages, and they are not without their visitors to-day. As
+late as 1805 the eminent Roman Catholic prelate, Dr. John Milner, gave
+a detailed account of a miraculous cure performed at a sacred well in
+Flintshire. Gregory of Tours was one of the first to notice the
+healing power of springs in connection with the saints. He asserted
+that the diseases of the sick and infirm were banished upon the
+contact of a few drops of water drawn from a spring dug by St.
+Martin's own hands.
+
+From Fosbrooke's _British Monachism_ we learn that "on a spot called
+Nell's Point, is a fine well, to which great numbers of women resort
+on Holy Thursday, and, having washed their eyes in the spring, they
+drop a pin into it. Once a year, at St. Mardrin's well, also, lame
+persons went on Corpus Christi evening, to lay some small offering on
+the altar, there to lie on the ground all night, drink of the water
+there, and on the next morning to take a good draught more of it, and
+carry away some of the water each in a bottle at their departure. At
+Muswell Hill was formerly a chapel, called our Lady of Muswell, from a
+well there, near which was her image; this well was continually
+resorted to by way of pilgrimage. At Walsingham, a fine green road was
+made for the pilgrims, and there was a holy well and cross adjacent,
+at which pilgrims used to kneel while drinking the water. It is
+remarkable that the Anglo-Saxon laws had proscribed this as
+idolatrous. Such springs were consecrated upon the discovery of cures
+effected by them. In fact," Fosbrooke adds, "these consecrated wells
+merely imply a knowledge of the properties of mineral waters, but,
+through ignorance, a religious appropriation of their properties was
+made to supernatural causes."
+
+"Holywell, in the county of Flint," we are informed by Salverte,
+"derives its name from the Holy Well of St. Winifred, over which a
+chapel was erected by the Stanley family, in the reign of Henry VII.
+The well was formerly in high repute as a medicinal spring. Pennant
+says that, in his time, Lancashire pilgrims were to be seen in deep
+devotion, standing in the waters up to the chin for hours, sending up
+prayers, and making a prescribed number of turnings; and this excess
+of piety was carried so far, as in several instances to cost the
+devotees their lives."[36]
+
+Pennant also tells us of a small spring outside the bathing well at
+Whiteford, which was once famed for the cure of weak eyes. The patient
+made an offering of a crooked pin, and at the same time repeated some
+words. The well still remains, but the efficacy of its waters is lost.
+In recounting his tour of Wales, the same author describes the church
+of St. Tecla, virgin and martyr, at Llandegla. He says: "About two
+hundred yards from the church, in a Quillet called Gwern Degla, rises
+a small spring. The water is under the tutelage of the Saint, and to
+this day held to be extremely beneficial in the falling sickness. The
+patient washes his limbs in the well; makes an offering into it of
+four-pence; walks round it three times; and thrice repeats the Lord's
+Prayer. These ceremonies are never begun till after sun-set, in order
+to inspire the votaries with greater awe. If the afflicted be of the
+male sex, like Socrates, he makes an offering of a cock to his
+AEsculapius, or rather to Tecla Hygeia; if of the fair sex, a hen. The
+fowl is carried in a basket, first round the well; after that into the
+church-yard; when the same orisons and the same circum-ambulations are
+performed round the church. The votary then enters the church; gets
+under the communion table; lies down with the Bible under his or her
+head; is covered with the carpet or cloth, and rests there till break
+of day; departing after offering sixpence, and leaving the fowl in the
+church. If the bird dies, the cure is supposed to have been effected,
+and the disease transferred to the devoted victim."[37]
+
+"At Withersden," says Hasted, "is a well, which was once famous, being
+called St. Eustache's well, taking its name from Eustachius, Abbot of
+Flai, who is mentioned by Matt. Paris, An. 1200, to have been a man of
+learning and sanctity, and to have come and preached at Wye, and to
+have blessed a fountain there, so that afterwards its waters were
+endowed by such miraculous power, that by it all diseases were
+cured."[38] Unfortunately, wells do not always benefit the bathers.
+Lilly[39] relates that in 1635 Sir George Peckham died in St.
+Winifred's Well, "having continued so long mumbling his pater nosters
+and Sancta Winifreda ora pro me, that the cold struck into his body,
+and after his coming forth of that well he never spoke more."
+
+The people of the Highlands of Scotland regarded fountains with
+particular veneration. According to the Statistical Account of
+Scotland, the minister of Kirkmichael, Banffshire, said: "The sick who
+resort to them for health, address their vows to the presiding powers,
+and offer presents to conciliate their favor. These presents generally
+consist of a small piece of money, or a few fragrant flowers. The same
+reverence in ancient times seems to have been entertained by every
+people in Europe." Near Kirkmichael there was a fountain dedicated to
+St. Michael, and once celebrated for its cures. "Many a patient have
+its waters restored to health, and many more have attested the
+efficacy of their virtues. But, as the presiding power is sometimes
+capricious, and apt to desert his charge, it now lies neglected,
+choked with weeds, unhonored and unfrequented."[40]
+
+The most noted well in Perthshire is in Trinity Gask. Again from the
+Statistical Account we quote: "Superstition, aided by the interested
+artifices of Popish Priests, raised, in times of ignorance and
+bigotry, this well to no small degree of celebrity. It was affirmed
+that every person who was baptized with the water of this well would
+never be seized with the plague. The extraordinary virtue of Trinity
+Gask well has perished with the downfall of superstition."[41]
+
+Pinkerton, in speaking of the river Fillan in Scotland, says: "In this
+river is a pool consecrated by the ancient superstition of the
+inhabitants of this country. The pool is formed by the eddying of the
+stream round a rock. Its waves were many years since consecrated by
+Fillan, one of the saints who converted the ancient inhabitants of
+Caledonia from paganism to the belief of Christianity. It has ever
+since been distinguished by his name, and esteemed of sovereign virtue
+in curing madness. About two hundred persons afflicted in this way are
+annually brought to try the benefits of its salutary influence. These
+patients are conducted by their friends, who first perform the
+ceremony of passing with them thrice through a neighbouring cairn: on
+this cairn they then deposit a simple offering of clothes, or perhaps
+a small bunch of heath. More precious offerings used once to be
+brought. The patient is then thrice immerged in the sacred pool. After
+the immersion, he is bound hand and foot, and left for the night in a
+chapel which stands near. If the maniac is found loose in the morning,
+good hopes are conceived of his full recovery. If he is still bound,
+his cure remains doubtful. It sometimes happens that death relieves
+him, during his confinement, from the troubles of life."
+
+Mrs. Macaulay,[42] speaking of a consecrated well in St. Kilda, called
+Tobirnimbuadh, or the spring of diverse virtues, says that "near the
+fountain stood an altar, on which the distressed votaries laid down
+their oblations. Before they could touch sacred water with any
+prospect of success, it was their constant practice to address the
+genius of the place with supplication and prayer. No one approached
+him with empty hands.... Shells and pebbles, rags of linen or stuffs
+worn out, pins, needles, or rusty nails were generally all the tribute
+that was paid."
+
+Collinson[43] mentions a well in the parish Wembton, called St. John's
+Well, to which in 1464 "an immense concourse of people resorted: and
+... many who had for years labored under various bodily diseases, and
+had found no benefit from physick and physicians, were, by the use of
+these waters (after paying their due offerings), restored to their
+primitive health."
+
+Brome, in his _Travels_, 1700, observes: "In Lothien, two miles from
+Edinburg southward, is a spring called St. Katherine's Well, flowing
+continually with a kind of black fatness, or oil, above the water,
+proceeding (as it is thought) from the parret coal, which is frequent
+in these parts; 'tis of a marvellous nature, for as the coal, whereof
+it proceeds, is very apt quickly to kindle into a flame, so is the
+oil of a sudden operation to heal all scabs and tumors that trouble
+the outward skin, and the head and hands are speedily healed by virtue
+of this oil, which retains a very sweet smell; and at Aberdeen is
+another well very efficacious to dissolve the stone, to expel sand
+from the reins and bladder, being good for the collick and drunk in
+July and August, not inferiour, they report, to the Spaw in
+Germany."[44]
+
+Grose tells us of a well dedicated to St. Oswald, between the towns of
+Alton and Newton. The neighbors have the opinion that a sick person's
+shirt thrown into the well will prognosticate the outcome of the
+disease; if it floats the sick one will recover, if it sinks he will
+die. To reward the saint for the information, they tear a rag off the
+shirt and hang it on the briers near by; "where," says the writer, "I
+have seen such numbers as might have made a fayre rheme in a
+paper-myll." Similar practices are related by other authors. Ireland
+formerly had a sanctified well in nearly every parish. They were
+marked by rude crosses and surrounded by fragments of cloth left as
+memorials. St. Ronague's Well, near Cork, was very popular at one
+time. Near Carrick-on-Suir is the holy well of Tubber Quan, the waters
+of which are reputed to have performed many miraculous cures. The
+well was dedicated to two patron saints, St. Quan and St. Brogawn.
+These saints are supposed to exert a special influence the last three
+Sundays in June. "It is firmly believed," says Brand, "that at this
+period the two saints appear in the well in the shape of two small
+fishes, of the trout kind; and if they do not so appear, that no cure
+will take place. The penitents attending on these occasions ascend the
+hill barefoot, kneel by the stream and repeat a number of paters and
+aves, then enter it, go through the stream three times, at a slow
+pace, reciting their prayers. They then go on the gravel walk, and
+traverse it round three times on their bare knees, often till the
+blood starts in the operation, repeat their prayers, then traverse
+three times round a tree on their bare knees, but upon the grass.
+Having performed these exercises they cut off locks of their hair and
+tie them on the branches of the tree as specifics against headache."
+
+After being three times admonished in a dream, a man washed in St.
+Madern's Well in Cornwall and was miraculously cured, so say Bishop
+Hall and Father Francis. Ranulf Higden, in his _Polychronicon_,
+relates the wonderful cures performed at the holy well at Basingwerk.
+The red streaks in the stones surrounding it were symbols of the blood
+of St. Wenefride, martyred by Carodoc.
+
+The Scotch considered certain wells to have healing properties in the
+month of May. In the Sessions Records (June 12, 1628) it is reported
+that a number of persons were brought before the Kirk Sessions of
+Falkirk, accused of going to Christ's Well on the Sundays of May to
+seek their health, and the whole being found guilty were sentenced to
+repent "in linens" three several sabbaths. "In 1657 a number of
+persons were publicly rebuked for visiting the well at Airth. The
+custom was to leave a piece of money and a napkin at the well, from
+which they took a can of water, and were not to speak a word either in
+going or returning, nor on any account to spill a drop of the water.
+Notwithstanding these proceedings, many are known to have lately
+travelled many miles into the Highlands, there to obtain water for the
+cure of their sick cattle."[45]
+
+To-day, probably the most efficacious waters are to be found at the
+sacred fountain at La Salette and at the holy spring at Lourdes.
+
+We have another specific form of healing which should be noticed. It
+was especially common in Eastern churches, and was found to some
+extent in the West. I refer to Incubation, or "Temple-sleep." This
+practice came down through early civilizations and was an adopted
+practice among Christians. The patient went to some church well known
+for its cures, which was provided with mattresses or low couches, and
+attended by priests and assistants. Devotions being finished he lay
+down to sleep. Sometimes he slept immediately, at other times sleep
+must be wooed by fast and vigil. At any rate, during the sleep he
+dreamed that the saint touched him, or prescribed some remedy, and in
+the first case he awoke cured, and in the second the prescribed
+medicine brought about the relief.
+
+Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, wrote about 640 as follows:
+"Cyrus appeared to the sick man in the form of a monk, not in a dream,
+as he appears to many; but in a waking vision, just as he was and is
+represented. He told the patient to rise and to plunge into the warm
+water. Zosimos said it was impossible for him to move, but when the
+order was repeated, he slid like a snake into the bath. When he got
+into the water, he saw the saint at his side, but when he came out,
+the vision had vanished." Beside the cure of this paralytic at the
+church of Cyrus and John, he mentions the cure of many other diseases
+by this method of incubation. Among them are dumbness, blindness,
+barrenness, possession, scrofula, dyspepsia, a broken leg, deformities
+of limbs, lameness, gout, diseases of the eyes, cataract, ulcer, and
+dropsy.
+
+Among the churches of Greece and southern Italy incubation is still
+common. The climate may have some effect in limiting the area of this
+practice. Miss M. Hamilton furnishes us with some modern examples. In
+speaking of a new picture of St. George in the church at Arachova, she
+says: "It is a votive offering of a Russian, who came a paralytic to
+Arachova in July, 1905. He spent several weeks praying and sleeping in
+the church, and departed completely cured. The festival of St. George
+is held on April 23rd. They have three days of dancing and feasting,
+and at night all suppliants bring their rugs and sleep round the
+shrines in the church. Every year many of the sick are found to be
+cured when morning comes."
+
+The Church of the Evangelestria, our Lady of the Annunciation, is
+visited by about forty-five thousand pilgrims every year. It is
+situated at Tenos, and Miss Hamilton tells us what she saw during her
+visit there in 1906:
+
+  "On the morning before Annunciation Day this year, the
+  pilgrims could be seen making their way to the church.
+  Among them were cripples, armless, and legless,
+  half-rolling up the street; blind people groping their
+  way along; men and women with deformities of every kind;
+  one or two showing the pallor of death on their faces
+  were being carried up on litters. These evidently were
+  coming to Tenos as a last resource, when doctors were of
+  no avail. Other pilgrims were ascending after their own
+  fashion, according to vows they had made. One woman
+  toiled laboriously along on her knees, kissing the
+  stones of the way, and clasping a silver Madonna and
+  Child. Last year her daughter had been seized with
+  epilepsy, and she vowed to carry in this way this
+  offering to the Madonna of Tenos if she would cure her
+  daughter. The girl recovered and the other now with
+  thankful heart was fulfilling her part of the bargain.
+
+  "The eve of Annunciation Day is the time when the
+  Panagia is believed to descend among the sick and work
+  miraculous cures among them. Then all the patients are
+  gathered together in the crypt or in the upper church.
+  The Chapel of the Well is the popular place for
+  incubation. There is more chance for miraculous cure
+  there than in the church. The little crypt can
+  accommodate only a comparatively small number, but they
+  are packed together as tightly as possible. From the
+  entrance up to the altar, they lie in two lines of three
+  or four deep, with a passage down the middle large
+  enough for only one person. Down the narrow way two
+  streams of people press the whole evening. They worship
+  at the shrines along the wall, purchase holy earth from
+  the spot where the picture was discovered, drink at the
+  sacred well, and are blessed by the priest at the altar.
+  The cripples and the sick desiring healing have been
+  engaged all day in such acts of worship; they have
+  received bread and water from the priests in the upper
+  church, paid homage to the all-powerful picture, offered
+  their candles to the Madonna, and all the time sought to
+  endue themselves with her presence. Now at night, still
+  fixing their thoughts upon her, and permeated by this
+  spirit of worship, they settle down to sleep in order
+  that she may appear to them in a dream.
+
+  "Disappointment, of course, awaits the vast majority,
+  but on the evening of the vigil all are filled with
+  hope. They know the precedents of former years, how such
+  things have happened to some unfortunate people among
+  the pilgrims every year. Usually eight or nine miracles
+  take place, and lists of them are published for
+  distribution....
+
+  "The church records contain accounts of the miracles
+  which now amount to many hundreds. They are practically
+  all of the type I have described--cure during a vision
+  while incubation was being practised. For example, the
+  case of a man from Moldavia is on record. He had become
+  paralyzed during a night-watch, and the doctor could
+  effect no relief. He was taken to the Chapel of the
+  Well, and when asleep he thought he heard a voice
+  telling him to arise. He awoke, thought it was a dream,
+  and fell asleep again. A second time he heard a voice,
+  and saw a white-robed woman of great beauty entering the
+  church. In his fear he rose and walked about. His
+  recovery was so complete that he could walk in the
+  procession round the town the following day."[46]
+
+The medicinal power imputed to the sainted relics and shrines would
+naturally be considered very valuable. So it proved. Wealth flowed to
+a conventual treasury or a cathedral chapter where were deposited
+fragments of the martyred dead endowed with miraculous puissance. When
+the Frankish forces sacked Constantinople at the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, the principal object of their ferocious cruelties
+and vigilant searches was the acquisition of precious relics.
+Concerning these relics Fort gives the following account:
+
+  "These relics, captured in Constantinople, were divided
+  by the troops under Marquis de Montfort, with the same
+  justice as prevailed in the division of other booty. In
+  this way the Venetians were enabled to enrich their
+  metropolis with a piece of the sainted cross, an arm of
+  St. George, part of the head of St. John the Baptist,
+  the entire skeleton of St. Luke, that of the prophet St.
+  Simeon, and a small bottle of Jesus Christ's blood. The
+  Greek capital from the remotest times appears to have
+  monopolized this traffic in sacred wares, claiming to
+  possess a fragment of the stone on which Jacob slept,
+  and the staff transformed into a serpent by Moses.
+
+  "Here also were guarded the Holy Virgin's vestments, her
+  spindle, drops of her milk, the cradle in which the
+  Saviour had lain, a tooth from his adolescent jaw, a
+  hair of his beard, a particle of the bread used in the
+  Last Supper, and a portion of the royal purple worn by
+  him before Pilate. Naturally clerical adventurers among
+  the occidental Crusaders, pending the sacking of the
+  Byzantine city, sought out most zealously these valuable
+  remnants of pristine glory, and in obtaining them were
+  by no means scrupulous with menaces and violence. When
+  scattered through Western Europe, in the monasteries and
+  other religious places, their curative properties
+  increased the pilgrimages thither of the sick and
+  diseased."[47]
+
+He further gives us more in detail[48] an idea of the continual
+accumulation of riches which were derived from the exposure of these
+relics to the sick and infirm and the consequent growth in wealth of
+the monasteries and cathedrals. The monastic system was probably most
+responsible for the change from the simple adoration of the early
+Christians to the use of relics as a miraculous means of healing.
+Those which were transported with elaborate ceremonies, enclosed in a
+magnificent stone sarcophagus, and covered by an edifice of imposing
+proportions were almost sure to bring to their custodians great
+wealth. It is said that when the body of St. Sebastian, which was
+legitimately obtained from Rome, together with the purloined remains
+of St. Gregory, reached the cloister of Soissons, so great was the
+crowd of invalids who were cured, and so generous were they in their
+donations, that the monks actually counted eighty measures of money
+and one hundred pounds in coin. The great value of such objects may be
+calculated when it is remembered that in the year 1056 securities
+amounting to ten thousand solidi were pledged for the production of
+the relics of St. Just and St. Pastor, consequent upon the legal
+decision of ownership between Berenger, a French ruler, and a
+Narbonnese archbishop. The Reichberg annals provide a further example.
+They state that the emperor demanded certain hostages, or the holy arm
+of St. George, as a suitable guarantee for the institution of a public
+mart in Germany.
+
+Venetian merchants were among the first to realize the commercial
+value of relics, and enjoyed a lucrative traffic in this holy
+merchandise. It was not until the eleventh century, however, that the
+government of Venice founded public marts or fairs for the commercial
+exchange of saintly relics, although Rome and Pavia had long conducted
+such enterprises. These fairs were placed under the tutelary
+protection of some patron saint, the Venetians, of course, thus
+honoring St. Mark. They were not always particular how these relics
+were procured, for it is stated that when negotiations for the
+exchange of a well-preserved body of St. Tairise proved unsuccessful,
+because the Greek monks who possessed it refused absolutely to sell or
+barter, these enterprising traders quietly stole the desired skeleton.
+
+Relics provided a suitable method of acquiring ecclesiastical fortunes
+for denuded cloisters or impoverished nunneries; and if the old relics
+lost their power it was not difficult to procure episcopal assurance
+of the miraculous powers of new ones. For the procuring of special
+funds the venerated objects were taken from place to place, under
+priestly surveillance, presented to the sick and infirm with assurance
+of relief, and with the demand for large sums of money.
+
+We can easily understand, then, why such donations were regarded as
+most precious presents, and chronicled in the conventual records as
+events of high importance. As early as the ninth century, documentary
+evidence of authenticity frequently accompanied a gift of relics, and
+furnished legal proof of ownership.
+
+The gift of St. Peter's knife to a German monastery by a benevolent
+abbot was deemed a most illustrious act. About the same time a noble
+pilgrim succeeded, after great importunity and a lavish outlay of
+money, in obtaining trifling particles of the relics of Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob, which he enclosed in a priceless box and donated to
+the monastery of St. Gall. This gift was considered the greatest event
+of the year, but when it is considered that this and similar presents
+insure in the community, where they are deposited uninterrupted peace,
+unstinted plenty, absence of catastrophies, and the cure of diseases,
+their value is explained.
+
+The commercial aspect of ecclesiastical cures, however, was discovered
+by other than priestly or monkish eyes, and different forms began to
+be presented. Of these White says: "Very important among these was the
+Agnus Dei, or piece of wax from the Paschal candles, stamped with the
+figure of a lamb and consecrated by the Pope. In 1471 Pope Paul II
+expatiated to the Church on the efficacy of this fetich in preserving
+men from fire, shipwreck, tempest, lightning, and hail, as well as in
+assisting women in childbirth; and he reserved to himself and his
+successors the manufacture of it. Even as late as 1517 Pope Leo X
+issued, for a consideration, tickets bearing a cross and the
+following inscription: 'This cross measured forty times makes the
+height of Christ in his humanity. He who kisses it is preserved for
+seven days from falling-sickness, apoplexy, and sudden death.'"[49]
+
+The enormous revenues procured through the means of relics, and the
+lack of certain means of identifying them, would naturally encourage
+the imposition of fraud. The crime would not appear so great after one
+experience, for the perpetrators could readily see that it really made
+no difference so far as efficacy in the cure of diseases was
+concerned, whether or not the relics were genuine. The history of some
+of the relics unfortunately proves them not to be relics at all, or at
+least not to be the relics which the faithful supposed them to be.
+Notice a few instances. In a magnificent shrine in the cathedral at
+Cologne are the skulls of the three kings, or wise men from the East,
+who brought gifts to the infant Lord. They have rested here since the
+twelfth century and have been the source of enormous wealth and power
+to the cathedral chapter. Not to be outdone by the cathedral, for the
+church of St. Gereon a cemetery has been depopulated, and the bones
+thus procured have been placed upon the walls and are known as the
+relics of St. Gereon and his Theband band of martyrs! Further
+competition arose in the neighboring church of St. Ursula. Another
+cemetery was despoiled and the bones covering the interior of the
+walls are known as the relics of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand
+virgin martyrs. Anatomists now declare that many of the bones are
+those of men, but this made no more difference in their healing
+efficacy in the Middle Ages than the fact that the relics of St.
+Rosalia at Palermo, famed for their healing power, have lately been
+declared by Professor Buckland, the eminent osteologist, to be the
+bones of a goat.
+
+Two different investigations have been conducted by the French courts
+concerning the fountain of La Salette, and in both cases the miracles
+which make the shrine famous were pronounced to be fraudulent. The
+recent restoration of the cathedral at Trondhjem has revealed a tube
+in the walls, not unlike the apparatus discovered in the Temple of
+Isis at Pompeii; the healing power of this sacred spring was augmented
+by angelic voices which issued from the supposedly solid walls.[50]
+
+While the golden age of the therapeutic use of relics was from the
+sixth to the sixteenth centuries, modern times, with its physicians,
+hospitals, and drugs, has not been deprived of this method of cure.
+Mackay, writing in the latter half of the past century, touches this
+subject.
+
+At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which the
+priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns
+that bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by
+whom it was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous
+thorn which the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the Molenists
+have made celebrated, and which worked the miraculous cure upon
+Mademoiselle Perier, an account of which is so interesting that I give
+it. The cure occurred on March 14, 1646.
+
+  "A young pensioner in the monastery, by name Margaret
+  Perier, who for three years and a half had suffered from
+  a lachrymal fistula, came up in her turn to kiss it; and
+  the nun, her mistress, more horrified than ever at the
+  swelling and deformity of her eye, had a sudden impulse
+  to touch the sore with the relic, believing that God was
+  sufficiently able and willing to heal her. She thought
+  no more of the matter, but the little girl having
+  retired to her room, perceived a quarter of an hour
+  after that her disease was cured; and when she told her
+  companions, it was indeed found that nothing more was to
+  be seen of it. There was no more tumor; and her eye,
+  which the swelling (continuous for three years) had
+  weakened and caused to water, had become as dry, as
+  healthy, as lively as the other. The spring of the
+  filthy matter, which every quarter of an hour ran down
+  from nose, eye, and mouth, and at the very moment before
+  the miracle had fallen upon her cheek (as she declared
+  in her deposition), was found to be quite dried up; the
+  bone, which had been rotted and putrified, was restored
+  to its former condition; all the stench, proceeding from
+  it, which had been so insupportable that by order of the
+  physicians and surgeons she was separated from her
+  companions, was changed into a breath as sweet as an
+  infant's; and she recovered at the same moment her sense
+  of smell....
+
+  "Mons. Felix, Chief Surgeon to the King, who had seen
+  her during the month of April, was curious enough to
+  return on the 8th of August, and having found the cure
+  as thorough and marvellous as it had seemed to him at
+  the time, declared under his hand that 'he was obliged
+  to confess that God alone had the power to produce an
+  effect so sudden and extraordinary.'"[51]
+
+Mackay gives the following account of the distribution of relics about
+the middle of the nineteenth century: "Europe still swarms with these
+religious relics. There is hardly a Roman Catholic Church in Spain,
+Portugal, France, or Belgium, without one or more of them. Even the
+poorly endowed churches of the villages boast the possession of
+miraculous thighbones of the innumerable saints of the Romish
+calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable _chasse_, or
+thighbone of Charlemagne, which cures lameness. Halle has a thighbone
+of the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be undoubted
+relics. Brussels at one time preserved, and perhaps does now, the
+teeth of St. Gudule. The faithful who suffered from the toothache, had
+only to pray, look at them, and be cured."[52]
+
+The miracles performed at the tomb of the Deacon Paris in the cemetery
+of St. Medard are of comparatively recent occurrence, and well
+attested. For example, we have the case of "la demoiselle Coirin,"
+which, to say the least, is out of the ordinary. "In 1716," says
+Dearmer, "this lady, then aged thirty-one, fell from her horse;
+paralysis and an ulcer followed; by 1719 the ulcer was in a horrible
+condition; in 1720 her mother refused an operation preferring to let
+her die in peace. In 1731--after fifteen years of an open breast--she
+asked a woman to say a novena at the tomb of Francois de Paris, to
+touch the tomb with her shift, and to bring back some earth. This was
+done on August 10th; on the 11th she put on the shift and at once felt
+improved; on the 12th she touched the wound with the earth and it at
+once began to heal. By the end of August the skin was completely
+healed up, and on September 24th she went out of doors."[53]
+
+Among the most noted relics at the present time are the Holy Coat of
+Treves,[54] the Winding-sheet of Christ at Besancon, and the Santa
+Scala at Rome. The last are said to be the steps which Jesus ascended
+and descended when he was brought before Pontius Pilate, and are held
+in great veneration. It is sacrilegious to walk upon them; the knees
+of the faithful alone must touch them, and that only after they have
+reverently kissed them. Cures are still performed by all these relics.
+
+The two shrines at present best known and which have proved most
+efficacious are those of Lourdes in France[55] and St. Anne de Beaupre
+in the province of Quebec. Lourdes owes its reputed healing power to a
+belief in a vision of the Virgin received there during the last
+century. Over 300,000 persons visit there every year, and no small
+proportion of them return with health restored as a reward for their
+faith. At Lourdes and many other shrines bathing forms a part of the
+ceremony, and on account of the unsanitary conditions in the former
+place, there is some danger that the French Government will cause its
+abandonment. Charcot, who established the Salpetriere hospital where
+hypnotism was so successfully used, sent fifty or sixty patients to
+Lourdes every year. He was firmly convinced of the healing power of
+faith. One commendable feature of the management at Lourdes is the
+opportunity given for investigation; in fact, this is courted. Most of
+the sick bring medical details of their diseases; an examining
+committee of medical men examine them after they arrive there and
+after the cure. About two hundred and fifty doctors visit there every
+year, and the widest opportunity is given to them for examination of
+the cases, regardless of their nationality or religious belief or
+scepticism. This attitude might well be assumed by these in control of
+other shrines or of healing cults.
+
+In America thousands flock to the shrine of St. Anne de Beaupre
+annually. Here are to be found bones, supposed to be the wrist bones
+of the holy mother of the Virgin, and many sufferers are able to
+testify to their value in the healing of various diseases.
+
+On all parts of the Continent there are shrines of more or less renown
+as healing centres. In Normandy the springs of Fecamp or Grand-Andely
+are much frequented; in Austria, at Mariazell, Styria, the church is
+visited by two hundred thousand pilgrims a year, and has been a centre
+of healing since 1157; in Italy, the church of S. Maria dell' Arco,
+near Naples, has been a local Lourdes for four hundred years, and
+here, as at Amalfi, Palermo, and other places, the ancient practice of
+incubation is still prevalent. The adherents of the Eastern Church
+also have their shrines, and among the visitors to the shrines of
+Greece, many pilgrims are rewarded for their faith by being healed.
+
+It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in all
+countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any person who had
+been much spoken of, if for nothing more than for his crimes.[56]
+Snuff-boxes made from Shakespeare's mulberry-tree, twigs from
+Napoleon's willow, or bullets from the field of Waterloo have all been
+much sought after. Souvenirs of everything and anything are still much
+in demand. It is within the last decade that a foreign war-ship
+anchored in New York harbor, and after the officers courteously opened
+the ship for the inspection of visitors they found that even their
+silver toilet articles and plate had been carried away by the relic
+maniacs. A United States admiral, rather more facetiously than
+patriotically, remarked that "the American people of to-day would
+steal anything but a cellarful of water." I suppose the remark, so far
+as it applies to the relic-crazed crowd, would be as applicable to any
+other people of any other time.
+
+We have a right to ask, in closing this chapter, how it was possible
+for men to believe in the power of relics to cure diseases. The
+practice seems to have developed from the reasoning that the saints
+who helped men while in the imperfections of the flesh, could be of
+even more benefit when they were with God in the perfections of the
+spiritual life. St. Augustine (426), for example, speaks of comparing
+the wonders performed by pagan "deities with our dead men," and that
+the miracles wrought by idols "are in no way comparable to the
+wonders wrought by our martyrs." Some might agree with this, and yet
+find no warrant for using relics. There was, however, the remembrance
+of the dead man who was restored to life by contact with the bones of
+Elisha, and of the handkerchiefs and aprons which touched Paul's body
+and were thereby filled with healing efficacy. Even to-day we do not
+fail to recognize the value of the association of places and objects,
+and one finds it difficult to enter Westminster Abbey, for instance,
+without feeling a thrill on account of the sacred clay reposing there.
+When we remember the beginning of the use of relics in the catacombs
+we can better understand the development of the practice.
+
+[21] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 201.
+
+[22] _Ibid._, pp. 142 and 156.
+
+[23] G. P. Fisher, _History of the Christian Church_, p. 117.
+
+[24] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I, pp. 378 f.
+
+[25] _Ibid._, I, p. 379.
+
+[26] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 268 f.
+
+[27] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, p. 133.
+
+[28] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, pp. 303 f.
+
+[29] J. W. Draper, _History of the Conflict Between Religion and
+Science_, p. 270.
+
+[30] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, pp. 132 f.
+
+[31] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, ed. J. A. Giles, bk. IV, chap.
+XXXI.
+
+[32] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 55-57.
+
+[33] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+pp. 224 f., 273-277, 457.
+
+[34] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_,
+II, pp. 40 f.
+
+[35] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 273.
+
+[36] E. Salverte, _The Philosophy of Magic_ (trans. Thompson), II, p.
+93.
+
+[37] _Tour of Wales_, I, p. 405.
+
+[38] Hasted, _Kent_, III, p. 176.
+
+[39] _History of His Life and Times_, p. 32.
+
+[40] _Statistical Account of Scotland_, VII, p. 213, and XII, p. 464.
+
+[41] _Ibid._, XVIII, p. 487.
+
+[42] C. S. Macaulay, _History of St. Kilda_, p. 95.
+
+[43] _Somersetshire_, III, p. 104.
+
+[44] I am much indebted to J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, pp. 1-17,
+for some of the quotations used in the discussion of this subject.
+
+[45] _Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and Surgery_, pp.
+57-61.
+
+[46] I am indebted to P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 278-281,
+314-318, for the material on incubation. For fuller study, see L.
+Deubner, _De Incubatione_, and M. Hamilton, _Incubation_.
+
+[47] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 227.
+
+[48] _Ibid._, pp. 210-214, 226 f., 278.
+
+[49] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_,
+II, p. 30.
+
+[50] _Ibid._, II, pp. 21, 29, 43.
+
+[51] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 374 f.
+
+[52] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, p. 304.
+
+[53] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 105 f.
+
+[54] R. F. Clarke, _The Holy Coat of Treves_.
+
+[55] A. T. Myers and F. W. H. Myers, "Mind Cure, Faith Cure, and the
+Miracles at Lourdes," _Proceedings Society Psychical Research_, IX,
+pp. 160-409; E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at Lourdes,"
+_Nineteenth Century_, October, 1895; J. B. Estrade, _Les apparitions
+de Lourdes, Souvenirs intimes d'un temoin_; H. Bernheim, _Suggestive
+Therapeutics_, pp. 200-202; A. Imbert-Gourbyzee, _La Stigmatisation,
+l'extase divine, et les miracles de Lourdes_, II, chaps. XXI and
+XXVII; E. Zola, _Lourdes_.
+
+[56] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, p. 306.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HEALERS
+
+
+         "This is an art
+  Which doth mend nature--but
+  The art itself is nature."--_Winter's Tale._
+
+  "Some are molested by Phantasie; so some, again, by
+  Fancy alone and a good conceit, are as easily
+  recovered.... All the world knows there is no virtue in
+  charms, &c., but a strong conceit and opinion alone, as
+  Pomponatius holds, which forceth a motion of the
+  humours, spirits, and blood, which takes away the cause
+  of the malady from the parts affected. The like we may
+  say of the magical effects, superstitious cures, and
+  such as are done by montebanks and wizards. As by wicked
+  incredulity many are hurt (so saith Wierus), we find, in
+  our experience, by the same means, many are relieved."
+
+In discussing the subject of healers one must keep in mind the fact
+that the healers of the first millennium of our era were almost wholly
+exorcists, on account of the prevailing theory, and even after that
+time exorcism, on the one hand, and the faith in relics and shrines on
+the other, formed the principal means of cure. It is therefore
+difficult to differentiate the other healers from the exorcists, and
+to decide whether certain cures were performed by healers or by
+relics.
+
+Another difficulty confronts us. Many authentic cures have probably
+been wrought by saints, but unfortunately most of those performed by
+them have little contemporary evidence to support them, but rest on
+the very shaky testimony of tradition. White,[57] in a keen analysis,
+shows how the legends of miraculous cures have grown around great
+benefactors of humanity, taking Francis Xavier as a pertinent example.
+
+We must also remember, however, that what are called miracles formed
+part of the evidence which led to the canonization of a saint, and a
+large number of healing miracles was usually included in the list. The
+procedure of the court connected with the canonization was conducted
+with the greatest rigor. Sitting as examiners were learned and upright
+men from all nations, and the witness must be irreproachable as far as
+character was concerned. The two witnesses required for each miracle
+must testify concerning the nature of the disease and the cure, and
+sign the deposition after it had been read to them. Following that,
+the examiners sifted the evidence in a hypercritical way and
+emphasized the weak places. Benedict XIV justly said: "The degree of
+proof required is the same as that required for a criminal case, since
+the cause of religion and piety is that of the commonweal." Some
+consideration must be thus given to this testimony, but the value of
+it depends on the number of years elapsing after the cures were
+performed and the direct connection of the witnesses with the cure in
+question.
+
+The craving for the miraculous in bodily cures prejudiced many
+historians, especially when the desire to emphasize the importance of
+the church was uppermost in the minds of the writers. We can consider,
+though, the material at hand, always recognizing that marvellous cures
+can be performed when the authority of the physician has all the
+weight of an infallible church behind it and the patient is credulous.
+We must notice in this connection that the healers up to the time of
+the magnetizers depended on religious ceremonies for their efficiency,
+with the exception of those who endorsed and propagated "sympathetic
+cures."
+
+As we well know, the first healing among Christians was done by Jesus
+himself and the apostles; after this for two centuries the exorcists
+performed most of the cures. We have accounts of one non-Christian
+healer whose cures have probably been handed down to us on account of
+his exalted position. Tacitus and Suetonius describe how Vespasian
+(9-79) healed in at least two cases. The first was a blind man well
+known in Alexandria. In the second case the historians disagree; one
+says it was a leg and the other a hand which was diseased and cured.
+According to the story, the god Serapis revealed to the patients that
+they would be cured by the emperor. Tacitus says that Vespasian did
+not believe in his own power and it was only after much persuasion
+that he was induced to try the experiment.[58]
+
+The Christians, however, were not to be outdone as healers. Irenaeus
+(130-202) gives a long list of infirmities which were cured by the
+representatives of the church, and in writing, about the year 180,
+draws a comparison between them and the heretics. "For they [the
+heretics] can neither confer sight on the blind nor hearing on the
+deaf, nor chase away all sorts of demons (except those which are sent
+into others by themselves--if they can ever do as much as this): nor
+can they cure the weak, or the lame, or the paralytic; or those who
+are distressed in any other part of the body, as has often been done
+in regard to bodily infirmity. Nor can they furnish effective remedies
+for those external accidents which may occur. And so far are they from
+being able to raise the dead, as the Lord raised them (and the
+Apostles did by means of prayer, as has been frequently done in the
+brotherhood on account of some necessity--the entire church in that
+particular locality entreating with much fasting and prayer, the
+spirit of the dead man has returned, and he has been bestowed in
+answer to the prayers of the saints--) that they do not even believe
+that this could possibly be done." He further says: "Others again heal
+the sick by laying their hands upon them, and they are made whole.
+Yea, moreover, as I have said, the dead even have been raised up, and
+remained among us for many years."
+
+The great Origen (185-254), writing when he would be certain to have
+his words most severely criticised, says, after referring to the
+miracles of the apostles: "And there are still preserved among
+Christians traces of that Holy Spirit which appeared in the form of a
+dove. They expel evil spirits, and perform many cures, and foresee
+certain events, according to the will of the Logos." In another of his
+works we find the following: "For they [the Jews] have no longer
+prophets or miracles, traces of which to a considerable extent are
+still found among Christians, and some of them more remarkable than
+ever have existed among the Jews; and these we ourselves have
+witnessed."
+
+As has already been seen, different methods were used by various
+healers, and we must not omit a brief account of healing by unction.
+The very definite instructions laid down in the Epistle of James were
+evidently strictly carried out in the early church, but the first
+definite mention of anointing after that made by Mark and James is
+found in the writings of Tertullian (160-220). He speaks of the pagan
+emperor Severus being graciously mindful of Christians: "For he sought
+out the Christian Proculus, surnamed Torpacion, the steward of
+Euhodias, and in gratitude for his having once cured him by
+anointing, he kept him in his palace till the day of his death."[59]
+
+If the Christians anointed pagans it is legitimate to suppose that
+they also anointed fellow-Christians, and that if this was performed
+without special mention about the end of the second century, it must
+have been common from the time of James to that period. It is probable
+that during the first seven centuries of our era the practice of
+praying with the sick and anointing them with oil never ceased. There
+may be some objection to our considering the subject of anointing with
+oil as purely mental healing, but according to the instructions given
+for its use there was scarcely enough oil employed to be of benefit
+otherwise, and especially as food. Mental healing, then, is the
+rationale of the cures.
+
+Puller[60] gives us three of the earliest incidents of healing by
+unction, the original accounts all being written by contemporaries and
+friends. Some time between the years 335 and 355, St. Parthenius,
+Bishop of Lampsacus, anointed a man who was described as "altogether
+withered." The account says: "Then getting up, he gently and gradually
+softened the man's body with the holy oil, and straightway made him to
+rise up healed." Refinus, a well-known writer and an eye-witness to
+this healing, tells of St. Macarius of Alexandria and four monks
+restoring, about the year 375, "a man, withered in all his limbs and
+especially in his feet." He says: "But when he had been anointed all
+over by them with oil in the Name of the Lord, immediately the soles
+of his feet were strengthened. And when they said to him, 'In the name
+of Jesus Christ ... arise, and stand on thy feet, and return to thy
+house,' immediately arising and leaping, he blessed God." Some years
+later, Palladius, the friend of St. Chrysostom, writes of another of
+St. Macarius's cures which he witnessed: "But at the time that we were
+there, there was brought to him from Thessalonica a noble and wealthy
+virgin, who during many years had been suffering from paralysis. And
+when she had been presented to him, and had been thrown down before
+the cell of the blessed man, he, being moved with compassion for her,
+with his own hands anointed her during twenty days with holy oil,
+pouring out prayers for her to the Lord, and so sent her back cured to
+her own city."
+
+The Sacramentary of Serapion, Bishop of Thmuis, Egypt, written about
+350, provides for the consecration of bread and water, as well as oil,
+for healing; and in a prayer concerning oil and water there contained,
+the following words are used: "Grant healing power upon these
+creatures, that every fever and every demon and every sickness may
+depart through the drinking and the anointing, and that the partaking
+of these creatures may be a healing medicine and a medicine of
+complete soundness in the Name of the Only begotten, Jesus Christ,"
+etc. The Apostolic Constitutions of about 375 contain a prayer of
+consecration used over oil and water brought by members of the
+congregation, as follows: "Do thou now sanctify this water and this
+oil, through Christ, in the name of him that offered or of her that
+offered, and give to these things a power of producing health and of
+driving away diseases, of putting to flight demons, of dispersing
+every snare through Christ our Hope," etc.
+
+About 390, St. Jerome wrote a life of St. Hilarion (291-371) in which
+the latter is thus set forth as a healer: "But lo! that parched and
+sandy district, after the rain had fallen, unexpectedly produced such
+vast numbers of serpents and poisonous animals that many, who were
+bitten, would have died at once if they had not run to Hilarion. He
+therefore blessed some oil, with which all the husbandmen and
+shepherds touched their wounds and found an infallible cure."
+
+Oil was not always employed for anointing, but might be drunk by the
+sick, and this use of it was made in healing a girl, by St. Martin of
+Tours, about 395. St. Germain, Bishop of Auxerre (418-448), when the
+physicians were powerless during a plague, blessed some oil and
+anointed the swollen jaws of those who were sick, whereupon they
+recovered; and St. Genevieve of Paris, who died about 502, used to
+heal the sick with oil.
+
+In Bede's biography of St. Cuthbert we find an instance of this saint
+healing a girl about the year 687. A young woman was troubled for a
+whole year with an intolerable pain in her head and side which the
+physicians were unable to relieve. Cuthbert "in pity anointed the
+wretched woman with oil. From that time she began to get better, and
+was well in a few days."
+
+At the beginning of the eighth century the anointing of the sick began
+to decline, largely on account of the changed attitude of the church.
+At this time this ceremony began to be used for spiritual ills rather
+than for bodily diseases. Before long, anointing was monopolized by
+the church for spiritual advantage, and is still so used by the Roman
+Catholic Church in the ceremony of Extreme Unction.
+
+In returning to the more direct methods of healing, we find that St.
+Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) confirmed the reports of the marvellous
+cures wrought by the martyrs, Cosmo and Damian, who were beheaded in
+303. During the life of Gregory of Tours (538-594), the healing
+efficacy of the saints' relics was rivalled by the miraculous aid
+rendered to the sick by St. Julian. The solitude of the holy anchorite
+was interrupted by the persistent and despairing clamor of the sick to
+whom he gave health. The great Turonese pontiff also tells us that
+one day Aredius, traversing Paris, found Chilperic prostrate with a
+grievous fever. The royal sufferer sought the saint's prayers as an
+irresistible curative.
+
+The daughter of a Teutonic nobleman was brought to St. Gall (556-640)
+seriously ill with an incurable disorder, presenting the livid
+appearance of an animated cadaver. The saint approached the
+unconscious invalid as she reclined on her mother's knee, and assuming
+the bended attitude of invocation by her side, made a fervent prayer
+and evoked the demon producing the sickness to instantly depart. The
+effort was all that was desired. Shortly after this, about the year
+648, St. Vardrille, the founder of Fontanelle, exercised his remedial
+potency in healing the palsied arm of a forester whose indiscreet zeal
+had induced him to transfix the sainted abbot with a lance.
+
+We have rather a strange case from the beginning of the seventh
+century, where the moral and mental element seems to have been strong.
+Abbe Eustasius returning from Rome, whither a mission of Clothair II
+had called him, was urgently summoned by the sorrowful parent of a
+Burgundian maiden, in the last agonies of a frightful malady, to
+appear and cure the moribund daughter. On answering the call he found
+that the child had in her youth been consecrated by the vows of
+chastity, and on account of this shrunk from a marriage sanctioned by
+her parents. Eustasius reproached the father for his efforts to
+violate the solemn obligations of the virgin, and upon obtaining a
+formal renunciation of further attempts to coerce her into matrimony,
+the saint, by personal intercession, obtained a complete cure.
+
+It was found that certain remedies in the hands of certain saints were
+efficacious, but they did not have the same power if administered by
+others. For instance, Franciscus de Paula succored an anchylosed joint
+by the energetic surgery of three dried figs which he gave the
+suffering patient to eat. Similarly, a maiden grieving under a
+cancerous disease which surgical skill had frankly admitted was
+incurable, was restored to robust vigor by the administering of some
+mild herbs. This savored rather too much of medicine, and other holy
+healers used more orthodox means. Hugo the Holy abstracted a serpent
+from the infirm body of a woman by the use of holy water, and Coleta,
+the saintess, awakened from the dreamless slumber of death more than
+one hundred slain infants by the efficacy of a cross.
+
+Even such a serious disorder as leprosy was said to have been healed
+by saintly care. St. Martin, who gave special attention to sufferers
+with this disease, cured a leper by kissing him, we are told. Toward
+the middle of the sixth century, St. Radegonde displayed her faith by
+first washing the repulsive sores and afterward applying her pure lips
+to them. On one occasion an insolent leper asserted that unless his
+putrefying limbs were kissed by this candidate for canonical honors he
+could not be cured.[61]
+
+Bede (673-735), the great English historian, in his careful way tells
+us of cures performed by St. John of Beverly during the first part of
+the eighth century. According to this record, St. John cured a dumb
+youth, who had never spoken a word, by the sign of the cross on his
+tongue, and he afterward had "ready utterance." He used holy water on
+a woman so that, like Peter's wife's mother, she arose and ministered
+to them, healed a friend who was injured by being thrown from a horse,
+cured a nun of a grievous complaint, and restored a servant, an
+account of which I shall give in Bede's words:
+
+  "The bishop went in and saw him in a dying condition,
+  and the coffin by his side, whilst all present were in
+  tears. He said a prayer, blessed him, and on going out,
+  as is the usual expression of comforters, said, 'May you
+  soon recover.' Afterwards when they were sitting at
+  table, the lad sent to his lord, to desire he would let
+  him have a cup of wine, because he was thirsty. The
+  earl, rejoicing that he could drink, sent him a cup of
+  wine, blessed by the bishop; which, as soon as he had
+  drunk, he immediately got up, and shaking off his late
+  infirmity, dressed himself, and going in to the bishop,
+  saluted him and the other guests, saying, 'He would also
+  eat and be merry with them.' They ordered him to sit
+  down with them at the entertainment, rejoicing at his
+  recovery. He sat down, ate and drank merrily, and
+  behaved himself like the rest of the company; and living
+  many years after, continued in the same state of
+  health."[62]
+
+Skipping a few centuries, we find that Bernard of Clairvaux
+(1091-1153), the most prominent figure of the twelfth century,
+performed an abundance of cures, as his biographers testify. "The
+cures were so many that the witnesses themselves were unable to detail
+them all. At Doningen, near Rheinfeld, where the first Sunday of
+Advent was spent, Bernard cured, in one day, nine blind persons, ten
+who were deaf or dumb, and eighteen lame or paralytic. On the
+following Wednesday, at Schaffhausen, the number of miracles
+increased."[63] Concerning these cures Morison says: "Thirty-six
+miraculous cures in one day would seem to have been the largest
+stretch of supernatural power which Bernard permitted to himself. The
+halt, the blind, the deaf, and the dumb were brought from all parts to
+be touched by Bernard. The patient was presented to him, whereupon he
+made the sign of the cross over the part affected, and the cure was
+perfect."[64]
+
+The following case in which details are more fully given is of much
+interest: "At Toulouse, in the church of St. Saturninus, in which we
+were lodged, was a certain regular canon, named John. John had kept
+his bed for seven months, and was so reduced that his death was
+expected daily. His legs were so shrunken that they were scarcely
+larger than a child's arms. He was quite unable to rise to satisfy the
+wants of nature. At last his brother canons refused to tolerate his
+presence any longer among them, and thrust him out into the
+neighbouring village. When the poor creature heard of Bernard's
+proximity, he implored to be taken to him. Six men, therefore,
+carrying him as he lay in bed, brought him into a room close to that
+in which he was lodged. The abbot heard him confess his sins, and
+listened to his entreaties to be restored to health. Bernard mentally
+prayed to God: 'Behold, O Lord, they seek for a sign, and our words
+avail nothing, unless they be confirmed with signs following.' He then
+blessed him and left the chamber, and so did we all. In that very hour
+the sick man arose from his couch, and running after Bernard, kissed
+his feet with a devotion which cannot be imagined by any one who did
+not see it. One of the canons, meeting him, nearly fainted with
+fright, thinking he saw his ghost."
+
+St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), the great founder of the Franciscan
+Order, was not less famed for his miracles of healing than for his
+Christ-like life and his stigmata. Among those cured were epileptics,
+paralytics, and the blind. A typical case of cure by this humble saint
+is given to show his method and its results: "Once when Francis the
+Saint of God was making a long circuit through various regions to
+preach the gospel of God's kingdom he came to a city called
+Toscanella. Here ... he was entertained by a knight of that same city
+whose only son was a cripple and weak in all his body. Though the
+child was of tender years he had passed the age of weaning; but he
+still remained in a cradle. The boy's father, seeing the man of God to
+be endued with such holiness, humbly fell at his feet and besought him
+to heal his son. Francis, deeming himself to be unprofitable and
+unworthy of such power and grace, for a long time refused to do it. At
+last, conquered by the urgency of the knight's entreaties, after
+offering up prayer, he laid his hand on the boy, blessed him, and
+lifted him up. And in the sight of all, the boy straightway arose
+whole in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, and began to walk hither
+and thither about the house."[65]
+
+St. Thomas of Hereford (1222-1282) was the last Englishman to be
+officially canonized. The extant documents of his canonization record
+no less than four hundred and twenty-nine miracles alleged to have
+been performed by him. The following case of resurrection from the
+dead occurred, however, twenty-one years after his death. I quote the
+account in full:
+
+  "On the 6th of September, 1303, Roger, aged two years
+  and three months, the son of Gervase, one of the warders
+  of Conway Castle, managed to crawl out of bed in the
+  night and tumble off a bridge, a distance of
+  twenty-eight feet; he was not discovered till the next
+  morning, when his mother found him half naked and quite
+  dead upon a hard stone at the bottom of the ditch, where
+  there was no water or earth, but simply the rock, which
+  had been quarried to build the castle. Simon Waterford,
+  the vicar, who had christened the child, John de Bois,
+  John Guffe, all sworn witnesses, took their oaths on the
+  Gospel that they saw and handled the child dead. The
+  King's Crowners (Stephen Ganny and William Nottingham)
+  were presently called and went down into the moat. They
+  found the child's body cold and stiff, and white with
+  hoar-frost, stark dead, indeed. While the Crowners, as
+  their office requires, began to write what they had
+  seen, one John Syward, a near neighbour, came down and
+  gently handled the child's body all over, and finding it
+  as dead as ever any, made the sign of the cross upon its
+  forehead, and earnestly prayed after this manner:
+  'Blessed St. Thomas Cantelope, you by whom God has
+  wrought innumerable miracles, show mercy unto this
+  little infant, and obtain he may return to life again.
+  If this grace be granted he shall visit your holy
+  sepulchre and render humble thanks to God and you for
+  the favor.' No sooner had Syward spoken these words,
+  than the child began to move his head and right arm a
+  little, and forthwith life and vigor came back again
+  into every part of his body. The Crowners, and many
+  others who were standing by, saw the miracle, and in
+  that very place, with great admiration, returned humble
+  thanks to God and St. Thomas for what they had seen. The
+  mother, now overjoyed, took the child in her arms, and
+  went that day to hear mass in a church not far off,
+  where, upon her knees, she recognized with a grateful
+  heart that she owed the life of her infant to God and
+  St. Thomas. Her devotion ended, she returned home, and
+  the child, feeling no pain at all, walked as he was wont
+  to do up and down the house, though a little scar still
+  continued in one cheek, which after a few days, quite
+  vanished away."[66]
+
+St. Catharine of Siena (1347-1380) obtained considerable reputation as
+a healer, principally, however, in the line of exorcism; this, though,
+meant the cure of any disease. Like St. Paul, she was one of a large
+number of saints who healed others but did not cure herself; she died
+at the age of thirty-three. A woman was presented to the immaculate
+saintess for prompt remedy; by the virtue of divine magic a demon was
+forced from each part of her body where he had taken refuge, but
+resisting absolute ejectment from this carnal abode, made a desperate
+conflict in the throat, where by uninterrupted scratches he reproduced
+himself in the form of an abscess.
+
+On another occasion the saint was more successful. Laurentia, a maiden
+of youthful years, placed by her father within the sheltering walls of
+a cloister, to assume ultimately monastic vows, was quickly captured
+by an errant demon. As an irrefutable demonstration of the impure
+origin of her infirmity, an annalist asserts, this spirit promptly
+answered in elegant Latinity all questions propounded; but the
+strongest confirmation of this belief was the miraculous ability which
+enabled her to disclose the most secret thoughts of others, and
+divulge the mysterious affairs of her associates. St. Catharine at
+length liberated the suffering female from her diabolical tenant. More
+extraordinary claims are made for her. It is said that she stayed a
+plague at Varazze, and healed a throng at Pisa.[67]
+
+Raimondo da Capua, her faithful friend and constant companion, wrote
+her biography and gives us different instances of remarkable cures
+performed by her. For example, he tells us that Father Matthew of
+Cenni, the director of the Hospital of la Misericordia, was stricken
+when the plague was raging in Siena in 1373, and of his marvellous
+cure.
+
+Perhaps we had better allow him to tell of Catharine's power in his
+own words:
+
+  "One day on entering, I saw some of the brothers carrying Father
+  Matthew like a corpse from the chapel to his room; his face was
+  livid, and his strength was so far gone that he could not answer me
+  when I spoke to him. 'Last night,' the brothers said, 'about seven
+  o'clock, while ministering to a dying person, he perceived himself
+  stricken, and fell at once into extreme weakness.' I helped to put
+  him on his bed; ... he spoke afterwards, and said that he felt as if
+  his head was separated into four parts. I sent for Dr. Senso, his
+  physician; Dr. Senso declared to me that my friend had the plague,
+  and  that every symptom announced the approach of death. 'I fear,'
+  he said, 'that the House of Mercy (Misericordia) is about to be
+  deprived of its good director.' I asked if medical art could not
+  save him. 'We shall see,' replied Senso, 'but I have only a very
+  faint hope; his blood is too much poisoned.' I withdrew, praying God
+  to save the life of this good man. Catharine, however, had heard of
+  the illness of Father Matthew, whom she loved sincerely, and she
+  lost no time in repairing to him. The moment she entered the room,
+  she cried, with a cheerful voice, 'Get up, Father Matthew, get up!
+  This is not a time to be lying idly in bed.' Father Matthew roused
+  himself, sat up on his bed, and finally stood on his feet. Catharine
+  retired; and the moment she was leaving the house, I entered it, and
+  ignorant of what had happened, and believing my friend to be still
+  at the point of death, my grief urged me to say, 'Will you allow a
+  person so dear to us, and so useful to others, to die?' She appeared
+  annoyed at my words, and replied, 'In what terms do you address me?
+  Am I like God, to deliver a man from death?' But I, beside myself
+  with sorrow, pleaded, 'Speak in that way to others if you will, but
+  not to me; for I know your secrets; and I know you obtain from God
+  whatever you ask in faith.' Then Catharine bowed her head, and
+  smiled just a little; after a few minutes she lifted up her head and
+  looked at me full in the face, her countenance radiant with joy, and
+  said, 'Well, let us take courage; he will not die this time,' and
+  she passed on. At these words I banished all fear, for I understood
+  that she had obtained some favor from heaven. I went straight to my
+  sick friend, whom I found sitting on the side of his bed. 'Do you
+  know,' he cried, 'what she has done for me?' He then stood up and
+  narrated joyfully what I have here written. To make the matter more
+  sure, the table was laid, and Father Matthew seated himself at it
+  with us; they served him with vegetables and other light food, and
+  he, who an hour before could not open his mouth, ate with us,
+  chatting and laughing gaily."
+
+None of Catharine's biographers fail to relate wonderful instances of
+her healing power.[68]
+
+Martin Luther (1483-1546), the great leader of the Reformation, and
+St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552), the leader of the Counter-Reformation,
+were both healers, so it is said. Luther's cure of his friend and
+helper, Melanchthon, by prayer for and encouragement of the patient,
+is well known. Xavier's miracles were legion, but have been somewhat
+discredited by a recent author.[69] I add but one example. "A certain
+Tome Paninguem, a fencing-master, says, I knew Antonio de Miranda, who
+was a servant of the Father Francis, and assisted him when saying
+Mass. He told me that when going one night on business to Combature,
+he was bitten by a venomous serpent. He immediately fell down as
+though paralyzed and became speechless. He was found thus lying
+unconscious. Informed of the fact, Father Francis ordered Antonio to
+be carried to him: and when he was laid down speechless and senseless,
+the Father prayed with all those present. The prayer finished, he put
+a little saliva with his finger on the bitten place on Antonio's foot,
+and at the same moment, Antonio recovered his senses, his memory and
+his speech, and felt himself healed. I have since heard details of
+this occurrence from the mouths of several eye-witnesses."[70]
+
+If we accept Goerres's account,[71] the most remarkable instance of
+curative power possessed by a saint is that afforded by St. Sauveur of
+Horta (1520-1567). Outside of this one work I have been unable to find
+any reference to this saint, so I will give a sketch of his apparently
+remarkable life. He was born in Catalonia, and received the first part
+of his name from a presentiment of his sponsors that he was to be a
+savior of men, and the second part because he entered the monastery at
+Horta. A short time after he finished his novitiate, people in some
+way got the idea that he had a wonderful gift of healing, and soon
+patients came to him in crowds from all parts of the country. He
+continued healing for several years. At one time during the feast of
+the Annunciation he cured six thousand persons, and at another time he
+found ten thousand patients, from viceroy to laborer, waiting for him
+at Valencia before the convent of St. Marie de Jesus. Notwithstanding
+his apparently great success, his brother monks complained to the
+bishop concerning the dirt and disorder caused by the crowds, and
+after a reprimand he was sent at midnight to the monastery at Reus,
+where he was known as Alphonse and assigned to the kitchen. In spite
+of this, crowds continued to come and he was transferred from
+monastery to monastery, but always with the same result--the crowd
+sought him to be healed. He was known as simple, open, and obedient in
+his relations with men, and austere toward himself. He was patient and
+resigned, compassionate toward the poor and sick, and full of zeal for
+their conversion. The number of patients he is said to have cured is
+incredible, and it is even said that he resuscitated three dead
+persons. After his death miracles were performed at his tomb. Why he
+was not in favor with his superiors and his brother monks is unknown;
+his friends say they were jealous; his enemies, that his cures were
+not genuine.
+
+St. Philip Neri (1551-1595), the founder of the Oratorians, was
+renowned as a healer. He cured Clement VIII of gout by touching and
+prayer, a woman of cancer of the breast by the mere touch and
+assurance, a man of grievous symptoms such as loss of speech and
+internal pain by simply laying on of hands, and many similar and
+equally serious cases. The following case was counted nearly equal to
+a resurrection: "In 1560 Pietro Vittrici of Parma, being in the
+service of Cardinal Boncompagni, afterward Pope Gregory XIII, fell
+dangerously ill. He was given up by the physicians, and was supposed
+to be as good as dead. In this extremity he was visited by Philip who,
+as soon as he entered the sick man's room, began, as was his wont, to
+pray for him. He then put his hand on Pietro's forehead, and at the
+touch he instantly revived. In two days' time he was out of the house
+perfectly well and strong and went about telling people how he had
+been cured by Father Philip."[72]
+
+George Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the Quakers, performed some
+simple cures of which he himself tells us. The most famous case was
+that of the cure of a lame arm by command, the account of which we
+take from his pen. He thus records it: "After some time I went to the
+meeting at Arnside where Richard Meyer was. Now he had been long lame
+of one of his arms; and I was moved by the Lord to say unto him, among
+all the people, 'Prophet Meyer stand up upon thy legs' (for he was
+sitting down) and he stood up and stretched out his arm that had been
+lame a long time, and said: 'Be it known unto all you people that this
+day I am healed.' But his parents could hardly believe it, but after
+the meeting was done, had him aside and took off his doublet; and then
+they saw it was true. He soon after came to Swarthmore meeting, and
+there declared how the Lord had healed him. But after this the Lord
+commanded him to go to York with a message from him; and he disobeyed
+the Lord; and the Lord struck him again, so that he died about
+three-quarters of a year after."[73] The cure evidently was not
+permanent.
+
+Valentine Greatrakes (1628-1683) was born in Affane, Ireland. He was
+the son of an Irish gentleman, had a good education, and was a
+Protestant. In 1641, at the outbreak of the Irish rebellion, he fled
+to England, and from 1649-1656 he served under Cromwell. In 1661,
+after a period of melancholy derangement, he believed that God had
+given him power of curing "king's evil" by touching or stroking and
+prayer. After some success with this disease, he added to his list
+ague, epilepsy, convulsions, paralysis, deafness, ulcers, aches, and
+lameness, and for a number of years he devoted three days in every
+week, from 6 A. M. to 6 P. M., to the exercise of his healing gifts.
+The crowds which thronged around him were so great that the
+neighboring towns were not able to accommodate them. He thereupon left
+his house in the country and went to Youghal, where sick people, not
+only from all parts of Ireland but from England, continued to
+congregate in such great numbers that the magistrates were afraid they
+would infect the place with their diseases.
+
+In some instances he exorcised demons; in fact, he claimed that all
+diseases were caused by evil spirits, and every infirmity was, with
+him, a case of diabolic possession. The church endeavored to prohibit
+his operations but without avail. He was invited to London, and,
+notwithstanding that an exhibition before the nobility failed,
+thousands flocked to his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields. In the
+"Miscellanies" of St. Evremond a graphic sketch is given of his work.
+The results of his healing are there summed up as follows:
+
+  "So great was the confidence in him, that the blind
+  fancied they saw the light which they did not see--the
+  deaf imagined that they heard--the lame that they
+  walked straight, and the paralytic that they had
+  recovered the use of their limbs. An idea of health
+  made the sick forget for a while their maladies; and
+  imagination, which was not less active in those merely
+  drawn by curiosity than in the sick, gave a false view
+  to the one class, from the desire of seeing, as it
+  operated a false cure on the other from the strong
+  desire of being healed. Such was the power of the
+  Irishman over the mind, and such was the influence of
+  the mind over the body. Nothing was spoken of in London
+  but his prodigies; and these prodigies were supported
+  by such great authorities that the bewildered multitude
+  believed them almost without examination, while more
+  enlightened people did not dare to reject them from
+  their own knowledge."
+
+That there were real cures, however, seems most probable. The Bishop
+of Dromore testifies thus from his own observation: "I have seen pains
+strangely fly before his hands till he had chased them out of the
+body; dimness cleared, and deafness cured by his touch. Twenty persons
+at several times, in fits of the falling sickness, were in two or
+three minutes brought to themselves.... Running sores of the 'King's
+evil' were dried up; grievous sores of many months' date in a few days
+healed, cancerous knots dissolved, etc." [74]
+
+The celebrated Flamstead, the astronomer, when a lad of nineteen,
+went into Ireland to be touched by Greatrakes, and he testifies that
+he was an eyewitness of several cures, although he himself was not
+benefited. In a letter to Lord Conway, Greatrakes says: "The King's
+doctors, this day (for the confirmation of their majesties' belief),
+sent three out of the hospital to me, who came on crutches; but,
+blessed be God! they all went home well, to the admiration of all
+people, as well as the doctors."[75]
+
+Several pamphlets were issued by medical men and others criticising
+his work, and in 1666 he published a vindication of himself entitled
+"A Brief Account." This contained numerous testimonials by Bishop
+Wilkins, Bishop Patrick, Dr. Cudworth, Dr. Whichcote, and others of
+distinction and intelligence. After the retirement of Greatrakes, John
+Leverett, a gardener, succeeded to the "manual exercise," and declared
+that after touching thirty or forty a day, he felt so much goodness go
+out of him that he was fatigued as if he had been digging eight roods
+of ground.
+
+About the same time that Greatrakes was working among the people of
+London, an Italian enthusiast, named Francisco Bagnone, was operating
+in Italy with equal success. He had only to touch the sick with his
+hands, or sometimes with a relic, to accomplish cures which astonished
+the people.
+
+Hardly less famous than Greatrakes was Johann Jacob Gassner
+(1727-1779). He was born at Bratz, near Bludenz, and became Roman
+Catholic priest at Kloesterle. He believed that most diseases were
+caused by evil spirits which could be exorcised by conjuration and
+prayer. He began practising and soon attracted attention. In 1774 he
+received a call from the bishop at Ratisbon to Ellwangen, where by the
+mere word of command, "Cesset" (Give over), he cured the lame and
+blind, but especially those who were afflicted with epilepsy and
+convulsions, and who were thereby supposed to be obsessed. His cures
+were not permanent in some cases, and before he died he lost power and
+respect.
+
+
+  [57] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, pp. 5-22.
+
+  [58] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I,
+  pp. 347 f.
+
+  [59] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 252 f. I am
+  indebted to this excellent book for my material on the
+  subject of Unction, as well as for many other quotations
+  in this chapter.
+
+  [60] F. W. Puller, _Anointing of the Sick_, pp. 155-158.
+
+  [61] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, gives this and the other incidents just
+  quoted. See pp. 155, 160, 272, 275, 327.
+
+  [62] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, bk. V, chap. V.
+
+  [63] Quoted by P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, p. 359.
+
+  [64] J. Cotter Morison, _Life and Times of St. Bernard_,
+  pp. 422 and 460, for this and the following incident.
+
+  [65] Thomas of Celano, _Lives of St. Francis of Assisi_
+  (trans. A. G. F. Howell).
+
+  [66] _Dublin Review_, January, 1876, pp. 8-10.
+
+  [67] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 278 f.
+
+  [68] See J. Butler, _Life of St. Catharine of Siena_,
+  for many examples.
+
+  [69] See A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, already referred to.
+
+  [70] Jos. Marie Cros, _St. Francois de Xavier, Sa vie et
+  ses lettres_, II, p. 392.
+
+  [71] Goerres, _La mystique divine naturelle et
+  diabolique_ (trans. Sainte-foi), I, pp. 470-473.
+
+  [72] P. J. Bacci, _Life of St. Philip Neri_ (trans.
+  Antrobus), II, p. 168.
+
+  [73] G. Fox, _Journal_, I, p. 103.
+
+  [74] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, p.
+  188.
+
+  [75] E. Salverte, _The Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 81.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TALISMANS
+
+
+  "He had the ring of Gyges, the talisman of invisibility."
+                                                     --HAMERTON.
+
+  "The quack astrologer offers, for five pieces, to give
+  you home with you a Talisman against Flies; a Sigil to
+  make you fortunate at gaining; and a Spell that shall as
+  certainly preserve you from being rob'd for the future;
+  a sympathetic Powder for violent pains of the
+  Tooth-ache."--_Character of a Quack Astrologer._
+
+  "So far are they distant from the true knowledge of
+  physic which are ignorant of astrology, that they ought
+  not rightly to be called physicians, but deceivers; for
+  it hath been many times experimented and proved that
+  that which many physicians could not cure or remedy with
+  their greatest and strongest medicines, the astronomer
+  hath brought to pass with one simple herb, by observing
+  the moving of the signs."--FABIAN WITHERS.
+
+In the minds of most persons the terms talisman, amulet, and charm are
+synonymous. This may be more or less true as far as they are used
+to-day, but in the days when these terms meant something in real life
+there was a distinction. The talisman was probably at first an
+astronomical figure, but later the term became more comprehensive.
+Pope portrays this astrological import in his couplet,
+
+  "Of talismans and sigils knew the power,
+   And carefully watch'd the planetary hour."
+
+The amulet was always carried about the person, while the other two
+might be in the possession of the person in the case of the talisman,
+or, in the case of the charm, if a material object it could be placed
+entirely outside of one's care. The talisman and amulet must be a
+compound of some substance, the charm might be a gesture, a look, or a
+spoken word. Notice the example of charms according to Tennyson's
+words,
+
+  "Then, in one moment, she put forth the charm
+   Of woven paces and of waving hands."
+
+They were all used for defensive purposes, _i. e._, to keep away evil,
+in the form of demons, disease, or misfortune, but they might,
+especially the talisman, also attract good. Their power was of a
+magical character, and was exercised in a supernatural manner.
+
+The idea of the talisman probably originated from the belief that
+certain properties or virtues were impressed upon substances by
+planetary influences. "A talisman," says Pettigrew, "may in general
+terms be defined to be a substance composed of certain cabalistic
+characters engraved on stone, metal, or other material, or else
+written on slips of paper." Hyde quotes a Persian writer who defines
+the Telesm or Talismay as "a piece of art compounded of the celestial
+powers and elementary bodies, appropriated to certain figures or
+positions, and purposes and times, contrary to the usual manner."
+
+We are told by Maimonides that images or idols were called Tzelamim on
+account of the power or influence which was supposed to reside in
+them, rather than on account of their particular figure or form.
+Townley has opined that the reason for the production of astrological
+or talismanic images was probably the desire of early peoples to have
+some representation of the planets during their absence from sight, so
+that they might at all times be able to worship the planetary body
+itself or its representative. To accomplish this purpose, the
+astrologers chose certain colors, metals, stones, trees, etc., to
+represent certain planets, and constructed the talismans when the
+planets were in their exaltation and in a happy conjunction with other
+heavenly bodies. In addition to this, incantations were used in an
+endeavor to inspire the talisman with the power and influence of the
+planet for which it stood.
+
+Pettigrew says: "The Hebrew word for talisman (magan) signifies a
+paper or other material, drawn or engraved with the letters composing
+the sacred name Jehovah, or with other characters, and improperly
+applied to astrological representations, because, like the letters
+composing 'The Incomparable Name,' they were supposed to serve as a
+defence against sickness, lightning, and tempest. It was a common
+practice with magicians, whenever a plague or other great calamity
+infested a country, to make a supposed image of the destroyer, either
+in gold, silver, clay, wax, etc., under a certain configuration of the
+heavens, and to set it up in some particular place that the evil might
+be stayed."[76]
+
+The Jewish phylacteries must therefore be considered talismans and not
+amulets. The writings contained in them are portions of the law and
+are prepared in a prescribed manner. Three different kinds are used:
+one for the head, another for the arm, and the third is attached to
+the door-posts. The following is a Hebrew talisman supposed to have
+considerable power: "It overflowed--he did cast darts--Shadai is all
+sufficient--his hand is strong, and is the preserver of my life in all
+its variations."[77]
+
+Arnot gives an account of some Scottish talismans not unlike the
+phylacteries of the Jews, which were for use on the door-posts. "On
+the old houses still existing in Edinburgh," he says, "there are
+remains of talismanic or cabalistical characters, which the
+superstitious of earlier days had caused to be engraven on their
+fronts. These were generally composed of some text of Scripture, of
+the name of God, or, perhaps, of an emblematic representation of the
+resurrection."[78]
+
+The connection of astrology, or, as he calls it, "astronomy," and the
+talisman with medicine is well portrayed by Chaucer in his picture of
+a good physician of his day. He says:
+
+ "With us there was a doctor of phisike;
+  In al the world, was thar non hym lyk
+  To speke of physik and of surgerye,
+  For he wos groundit in astronomie.
+  He kept his pacient a ful gret del
+  In hourys by his magyk naturel;
+  Wel couth he fortunen the ascendent
+  Of his ymagys for his pacient."
+
+Fosbrooke has divided talismans into five classes, examples of some of
+which I have already given. They are: "1. The _astronomical_, with
+celestial signs and intelligible characters. 2. The _magical_, with
+extraordinary figures, superstitious words, and names of unknown
+angels. 3. The _mixed_, of celestial signs and barbarous words, but
+not superstitious, or with names of angels. 4. The _sigilla
+planetarum_, composed of Hebrew numeral letters, used by astrologers
+and fortune-tellers. 5. _Hebrew names and characters_. These were
+formed according to the cabalistic art."
+
+The doctrine of signatures bears a close resemblance to talismans,
+and some believe that talismans have largely grown out of this
+doctrine. Dr. Paris[79] defines the doctrine as the belief that "every
+natural substance which possesses any medical virtues indicates, by an
+obvious and well-marked external character, the disease for which it
+is a remedy or the object for which it should be employed." Southey
+says,[80] "The signatures [were] the books out of which the ancients
+first learned the virtues of herbs--Nature having stamped on divers of
+them legible characters to discover their uses." Some opined that the
+external marks were impressed by planetary influences, hence their
+connection with talismans; others simply reasoned it out that the
+Almighty must have placed a sign on the various means which he had
+provided for curing diseases.
+
+Color and shape were the two principal factors in interpreting the
+signatures. White was regarded as cold and red as hot, hence cold and
+hot qualities were attributed to different medicines of these colors
+respectively. Serious errors in practice resulted from this opinion.
+Red flowers were given for disorders of the sanguiferous system; the
+petals of the red rose, especially, bear the "signature" of the blood,
+and blood-root, on account of its red juice, was much prescribed for
+the blood. Celandine, having yellow juice, the yellow drug, turmeric,
+the roots of rhubarb, the flowers of saffron, and other yellow
+substances were given in jaundice; red flannel, looking like blood,
+cures blood taints, and therefore rheumatism, even to this day,
+although many do not know why _red_ flannel is so efficacious.
+
+Lungwort, whose leaves bear a fancied resemblance to the surface of
+the lungs, was considered good for pulmonary complaints, and
+liverwort, having a leaf like the liver, cured liver diseases.
+Eye-bright was a famous application for eye diseases, because its
+flowers somewhat resemble the pupil of the eye; bugloss, resembling a
+snake's head, was valuable for snake bite; and the peony, when in bud,
+being something like a man's head, was "very available against the
+falling sickness." Walnuts were considered to be the perfect signature
+of the head, the shell represented the bony skull, the irregularities
+of the kernel the convolutions of the two hemispheres of the brain,
+and the husk the scalp. The husk was therefore used for scalp
+wounds, the inner peel for disorders of the meninges, and the
+kernel was beneficial for the brain and tended to resist poisons.
+Lilies-of-the-valley were used for the cure of apoplexy, the signature
+reasoning being, as Coles says, "for as that disease is caused by the
+drooping of humors into the principal ventrices of the brain, so the
+flowers of this lily, hanging on the plants as if they were drops, are
+of wonderful use herein."
+
+Capillary herbs naturally announced themselves as good for diseases
+of the hair, and bear's grease, being taken from an animal thickly
+covered with hair, was recommended for the prevention of baldness.
+Nettle-tea is still a country remedy for nettle rash; prickly plants
+like thistles and holly were prescribed for pleurisy and stitch in
+the side, and the scales of the pine were used in toothache, because
+they resemble front teeth. "Kidney-beans," says Berdoe, "ought to have
+been useful for kidney diseases, but seem to have been overlooked
+except as articles of diet." Poppy-heads were used "with success" to
+relieve diseases of the head, and the root of the "mandrake," from its
+supposed resemblance to the human form, was a very ancient remedy for
+barrenness and was evidently so esteemed by Rachel, in the account
+given in Genesis 30:14 ff.
+
+In the treatment of small-pox red bed coverings were employed in
+order to bring the pustules to the surface of the body. The patient
+must be indued with red; the bed furniture and hangings should be red
+and red substances were to be looked upon by the patient; burnt
+purple, pomegranate seeds, mulberries or other red ingredients were
+dissolved in their drink. John of Gladdesden, physician to Edward II,
+prescribed the following treatment as soon as the eruption appeared:
+"Cause the whole body of your patient to be wrapped in scarlet cloth,
+or any other red cloth, and command everything about the bed to be
+made red." He further says that "when the son of the renowned King of
+England (Edward II) lay sick of the small-pox I took care that
+everything around the bed should be of a red color; which succeeded so
+completely that the Prince was restored to perfect health, without a
+vestige of a pustule remaining."
+
+The Emperor Francis I, when infected with smallpox, was rolled up in a
+scarlet cloth, by order of his physicians, as late as 1765;
+notwithstanding this treatment he died. Kampfer says that "when any of
+the Japanese emperor's children are attacked with the small-pox, not
+only the chamber and bed are covered with red hangings, but all
+persons who approach the sick prince must be clad in scarlet gowns."
+By a course of reasoning similar to that used in the treatment of
+small-pox, it was supposed that flannel dyed nine times in blue was
+efficacious in removing glandular swellings.[81]
+
+The astrological factor in talismans was most important because it
+was considered that certain stars and planets in certain relations
+produced certain diseases and contagious disorders. Astrologers, for
+example, attributed the plague to a conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter
+in Sagittarius, on the tenth of October, or to a conjunction of Saturn
+and Mars in the same constellation, on the twelfth of November. Burton
+makes the most generous melancholy, as that of Augustus, to come from
+the conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in Libra; the bad, as that of
+Catiline, from the meeting of Saturn and the moon in Scorpio. If these
+disorders were produced by planets it was reasonable to suppose that
+they could be cured by planets.
+
+The virtue of herbs depended upon the planet under which they were
+sown or gathered. For example, verbena or vervain should be gathered
+at the rising of the dog-star, when neither the sun nor the moon
+shone, but an expiatory sacrifice of fruit and honey should previously
+have been offered to the earth. If this was carried out it had power
+to render the possessor invulnerable, to cure fevers, to eradicate
+poison, and to conciliate friendship. Notice also, that black
+hellebore, to be effective, was to be plucked not cut, and this with
+the right hand, which was then to be covered with a portion of the
+robe and secretly to be conveyed to the left hand. The person
+gathering it was to be clad in white, to be barefooted, and to offer a
+sacrifice of bread and wine.
+
+Not only the planets and the stars, but the moon has had a potent
+influence on medicine. For instance, mistletoe was to be cut with a
+golden knife, and when the moon was only six days old. Brand[82]
+quotes from _The Husbandman's Practice, or Prognostication Forever_,
+published in 1664, the following curious passage, "Good to purge with
+electuaries, the moon in Cancer; with pills, the moon in Pisces; with
+potions, the moon in Virgo; good to take vomits, the moon being in
+Taurus, Virgo, or the latter part of Sagittarius; to purge the head by
+sneezing, the moon being in Cancer, Leo, or Virgo; to stop fluxes and
+rheumes, the moon being in Taurus, Virgo, or Capricorne; to bathe when
+the moon is in Cancer, Libra, Aquarius, or Pisces; to cut the hair off
+the head or beard when the moon is in Libra, Sagittarius, Aquarius, or
+Pisces."
+
+The Loseley manuscripts provide us with further examples. "Here
+begyneth ye waxingge of ye mone, and declareth in dyvers tymes to let
+blode, whiche be gode. In the furste begynynge of the mone it is
+profetable to yche man to be letten blode; ye ix of the mone, neyther
+be nyght ne by day, it is not good." They also tell of a physician
+named Simon Trippe, who wrote to a patient in excuse for not visiting
+him, as follows: "As for my comming to you upon Wensday next, verely
+my promise be past to and old pacient of mine, a very good
+gentlewoman, one Mrs. Clerk, wch now lieth in great extremity. I
+cannot possibly be with you till Thursday. On Fryday and Saterday the
+signe wilbe in the heart; on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, in the
+stomake; during wch time it wilbe no good dealing with your ordinary
+physicke untill Wensday come sevenight at the nearest, and from that
+time forwards for 15 or 16 days passing good."[83]
+
+Not unlike this is an incident of the year 686, given by Bede, where
+"a holy Bishop having been asked to bless a sick maiden, asked 'when
+she had been bled?' and being told that it was on the fourth day of
+the moon, said: 'You did very indiscreetly and unskilfully to bleed
+her on the fourth day of the moon; for I remember that Archbishop
+Theodore, of blessed memory, said that bleeding at that time was very
+dangerous, when the light of the moon and the tide of the ocean is
+increasing; and what can I do to the girl if she is like to die?'"[84]
+
+"So great, indeed," says Fort, "became the abuse of medical astrology,
+whether by the direct juxtaposition of stellar influence, or through
+apposite images, that a celebrated Church Council at Paris declared
+that images of metal, wax, or other materials fabricated under certain
+constellations or according to fixed characters--figures of peculiar
+form, either baptized, consecrated, or exorcised, or rather desecrated
+by the performance of formal rites at stated periods which it was
+asserted, thus composed, possessed miraculous virtues set forth in
+superstitious writings--were placed under the ban and interdicted as
+errors of faith."[85]
+
+We shall see that magnetism developed from astrology, and some other
+forms of mental healing from magnetism. One of these, sympathetic
+cures, was talismanic in its character, and therefore I give a brief
+account of its method of working, in this place.
+
+Sympathetic cures probably started with Paracelsus, although Von
+Helmont tells us that the secret was first put forth by Ericcius
+Wohyus, of Eburo. As a development from magnetism the former
+originated the "weapon salve" which excited so much attention about
+the middle of the seventeenth century. The following was a receipt
+given by him for the cure of any wound inflicted by a sharp weapon,
+except such as had penetrated the heart, the brain, or the arteries.
+"Take the moss growing on the head of a thief who has been hanged and
+left in the air; of real mummy; of human blood, still warm--of each,
+one ounce; of human suet, two ounces; of linseed oil, turpentine, and
+Armenian bole--of each, two drachms. Mix all well in a mortar, and
+keep the salve in an oblong, narrow urn." With the salve the weapon
+(not the wound), after being dipped in blood from the wound, was to be
+carefully anointed, and then laid by in a cool place. In the meantime,
+the wound was washed with fair, clean water, covered with a clean soft
+linen rag, and opened once a day to cleanse off purulent matter. A
+writer in the _Foreign Quarterly Review_ says there can be no doubt
+about the success of the treatment, "for surgeons at this moment
+follow exactly the same method, _except_ anointing the weapon!"
+
+[Illustration: SIR KENELM DIGBY]
+
+The weapon-salve continued to be much spoken of on the Continent, and
+Dr. Fludd, or A Fluctibus, the Rosicrucian, introduced it into
+England. He tried it with great success in several cases, but in the
+midst of his success an attack was made upon him and his favorite
+remedy, which, however, did little or nothing to diminish the belief
+in its efficacy. One "Parson Foster" wrote a pamphlet entitled
+"Hyplocrisma Spongus; or a Spunge to wipe away the Weapon-salve," in
+which he declared that it was as bad as witchcraft to use or recommend
+such an unguent; that it was invented by the devil, who, at the last
+day, would seize upon every person who had given it the least
+encouragement. "In fact," said Parson Foster, "the Devil himself gave
+it to Paracelsus; Paracelsus to the emperor; the emperor to the
+courtier; the courtier to Baptista Porta; and Baptista Porta to Dr.
+Fludd, a doctor of physic, yet living and practising in the famous
+city of London, who now stands tooth and nail for it." Dr. Fludd, thus
+assailed, took up his pen and defended the unguent in a caustic
+pamphlet.
+
+The salve changed into a powder in the hands of Sir Kenelm Digby, the
+son of Sir Edward Digby who was executed for his participation in the
+Gunpowder Plot. Sir Kenelm was an accomplished scholar and an able
+man, but at the same time a most extravagant defender of the powder of
+sympathy for the healing of wounds. This powder came into sudden and
+public notoriety through an accident to a distinguished person. Mr.
+James Howell, the well-known author of the Dendrologia, in endeavoring
+to part two friends in a duel, received a severe cut on the hand.
+Alarmed by the accident, one of the combatants bound up the cut with
+his garter and conveyed him home. The king sent his own surgeon to
+attend Mr. Howell, but in four or five days the wound was not
+recovering very rapidly and he made application to Sir Kenelm. The
+latter first inquired whether he possessed anything that had the blood
+upon it, upon which Mr. Howell produced the garter with which his hand
+had been bound. A basin of water in which some powder of vitriol had
+been dissolved was procured, and the garter immediately immersed in
+it, whereupon, to quote Sir Kenelm, Mr. Howell said, "I know not what
+ails me, but I find that I feel no more pain. Methinks that a pleasing
+kind of freshness, as it were a wet cold napkin, did spread over my
+hand, which hath taken away the inflammation that tormented me
+before." He was then advised to lay away all plasters and keep the
+wound clean and in a moderate temperature.
+
+To prove conclusively the efficacy of the powder of sympathy, after
+dinner the garter was taken out of the basin and placed to dry before
+the fire. No sooner was this done than Mr. Howell's servant came
+running to Sir Kenelm saying that his master's hand was again
+inflamed, and that it was as bad as before. The garter was again
+placed in the liquid and before the return of the servant all was well
+and easy again. In the course of five or six days the wound was
+cicatrized and a cure performed.
+
+This case excited considerable attention at court, and on inquiry Sir
+Kenelm told the king that he learned the secret from a much-travelled
+Carmelite friar who became possessed of it while journeying in the
+East. Sir Kenelm communicated it to Dr. Mayerne, the king's physician,
+and from him it was known to even the country barbers. Even King
+James, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Buckingham, and many other
+noble personages believed in its efficacy.
+
+It would be a waste of time, had we space, to present fully Sir
+Kenelm's profound and lengthy explanation of the cure. He tried to
+make the cure more reasonable and acceptable by bringing forth certain
+alleged phenomena which he thought proved sympathy, and were therefore
+analogous in character. Surgeon-General Hammond calls attention to the
+fact that these inferences were invariably false. "It is a very
+curious circumstance," says he, "that of these, there is not one which
+is true. Thus he is wrong when he says that if the hand be severely
+burnt, the pain and inflammation are relieved by holding it near a hot
+fire; that a person who has a bad breath is cured by putting his head
+over a privy and inhaling the air which comes from it; that those who
+are bitten by vipers or scorpions are cured by holding the bruised
+head of either of those animals, as the case may be, near the bitten
+part; that in times of great contagion, carrying a toad, or a spider,
+or arsenic or some other venomous substance, about the person is a
+protection; that hanging a toad about the neck of a horse affected
+with farcy dissipates the disease; that water evaporated in a close
+room will not be deposited on the walls, if a vessel of water be
+placed in the room; that venison pies smell strongly at those periods
+in which the 'beasts which are of the same nature and kind are in
+rut'; that wine in the cellar undergoes a fermentation when the vines
+in the field are in flower; that a table-cloth spotted with mulberries
+or red wine is more easily whitened at the season in which the plants
+are flowering than at any other; that washing the hands in the rays of
+moonlight which fall into a polished silver basin (without water) is a
+cure for warts; that a vessel of water put on the hearth of a smoky
+chimney is a remedy for the evil, and so on--not a single fact in all
+that he adduces. Yet these circumstances were regarded as real, and
+were spoken of at the times as irrefragable proofs of the truth of Sir
+Kenelm's views."[86]
+
+We need have no doubt concerning the operation of sympathetic cures,
+for Sir Kenelm has told us of their virtue in his own words.[87] His
+method was what was called the cure by the wet way, but the cure could
+also be effected in a dry way. Straus, in a letter to Sir Kenelm,
+gives an account of a cure performed by Lord Gilbourne, an English
+nobleman, upon a carpenter who had cut himself severely with his axe.
+"The axe, bespattered with blood, was sent for, besmeared with an
+anointment, wrapped up warmly, and carefully hung up in a closet. The
+carpenter was immediately relieved, and all went well for some time,
+when, however, the wound became exceedingly painful, and, upon
+resorting to his lordship it was ascertained that the axe had fallen
+from the nail by which it was suspended, and thereby become
+uncovered."
+
+Dryden in "The Tempest" (Act V, Sc. I) makes Ariel say, in reference
+to the wound received by Hippolito from Ferdinand:
+
+ "He must be dress'd again, as I have done it.
+  Anoint the sword which pierced him with this weapon-salve,
+     and wrap it close from air, till I have
+     time to visit him again."
+
+And in the next scene we have the following dialogue between
+Hippolito and Miranda:
+
+"_Hip._ O my wound pains me.
+
+_Mir._ I am come to ease you.
+
+                [_She unwraps the sword._
+
+_Hip._ Alas! I feel the cold air come to me;
+My wound shoots worse than ever.
+
+                [_She wipes and anoints the sword._
+
+_Mir._ Does it still grieve you?
+
+_Hip._ Now methinks, there's something
+Laid just upon it.
+
+_Mir._ Do you find ease?
+
+_Hip._ Yes, yes, upon the sudden, all the pain
+Is leaving me. Sweet heaven, how I am eased!"
+
+Werenfels says: "If the superstitious person be wounded by any chance,
+he applies the salve, not to the wound, but, what is more effectual,
+to the weapon by which he received it. By a new kind of art, he will
+transplant his disease, like a scion, and graft it into what tree he
+pleases."
+
+The practice at the time was varied and general. All sorts of
+disgusting ingredients were gathered together to form the salve. Some
+idea of the condition of the science of medicine at that time may be
+gathered when we remember that a serious discussion was long
+maintained between two factions in the sympathetic school concerning
+the question "whether it was necessary that the moss should grow
+absolutely in the skull of a thief who had hung on the gallows, and
+whether the ointment, while compounding, was to be stirred with a
+murderer's knife."
+
+There is no doubt that the sympathetic cures were really the most
+rapid and effective. The modern surgeon wonders how a wound ever
+healed prior to this treatment. There seemed to be little that could
+be imagined to prevent a wound from healing that the pre-sympathetic
+surgeon did not try. When the manipulations, doses, and treatments
+were transferred from the wound to the weapon, they did not injure the
+weapon, and did give the wound a chance to heal. In fact, leaving out
+the weapon part of the treatment, which could have none but a mental
+influence, the treatment would be recommended to-day. The wound was
+kept clean, the edges were brought in apposition, temperature was
+modified, and rest given. Under these circumstances, wounds which the
+surgeon had irritated so as to take weeks to heal, united in as many
+days. Mark this, however: the wounds treated were simple incisions,
+the ones which most readily united if cleansed, brought together, and
+left alone. Gunshot and similar wounds were not treated by this
+process.[88]
+
+  [76] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected
+  with ... Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 63 f.
+
+  [77] _Gentleman's Magazine_, LVIII, pp. 586 and 695.
+
+  [78] H. Arnot, _History of Edinburgh_.
+
+  [79] _Pharmacologia_, p. 51.
+
+  [80] _The Doctor_, p. 59.
+
+  [81] For a discussion on the doctrine of signatures see
+  T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions_, etc., pp. 33 f.; E.
+  Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_, pp. 327
+  and 416 f.; A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of
+  Science with Theology_, II, pp. 38 f.; Eccles,
+  _Evolution of Medical Science_, pp. 140 f.
+
+  [82] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 153. In
+  references to this work, the edition used was that
+  edited by W. Carew Hazlitt.
+
+  [83] _The Loseley Manuscripts_, pp. 263 f., quoted by
+  Berdoe.
+
+  [84] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, bk. V, chap. III.
+
+  [85] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 299.
+
+  [86] W. A. Hammond, _Spiritualism and Nervous
+  Derangement_, p. 175.
+
+  [87] Sir Kenelm Digby, _A late discovery made in solemne
+  assembly of nobles and learned men, at Montpellier, in
+  France, touching the cure of wounds, by the Powder of
+  Sympathy_, etc.
+
+  [88] I am indebted to T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions
+  Connected with the History and Practice of Surgery and
+  Medicine_, pp. 201-213; C. Mackay, _Extraordinary
+  Popular Delusions_, pp. 266-268; W. A. Hammond,
+  _Spiritualism and Nervous Derangement_, pp. 170-176; for
+  the material on the subject of sympathetic cures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+AMULETS
+
+
+  "He loved and was beloved; what more could he desire as
+  an amulet against fear?"--BULWER-LYTTON.
+
+  "Such medicines are to be exploded that consist of
+  words, characters, spells, and charms, which can do no
+  good at all, but out of a strong conceit, as Pomponatius
+  proves; or the Devil's policy, who is the first founder
+  and teacher of them."--BURTON.
+
+  "Old wives and starres are his councellors; his
+  nightspell is his guard, and charms his physician. He
+  wears Paracelsian characters for the toothache; and a
+  little hallowed wax is his antidote for all
+  evils."--BISHOP HALL.
+
+  "Neither doth Fansie only cause, but also as easily cure
+  Diseases; as I may justly refer all magical and jugling
+  Cures thereunto, performed, as is thought, by Saints,
+  Images, Relicts, Holy-Waters, Shrines, Avemarys,
+  Crucifixes, Benedictions, Charms, Characters, Sigils of
+  the Planets and of Signs, inverted Words, &c., and
+  therefore all such Cures are rather to be ascribed to
+  the Force of the Imagination, than any virtue in them,
+  or their Rings, Amulets, Lamens, &c."--RAMESEY.
+
+Attention has already been called to the fact that the characteristic
+of the amulet is that it must be worn about the person, while the
+talisman may simply be in possession of a person wherever it may be,
+or deposited at a certain place by or for the person. The Arabic
+equivalent of the word Amulet means "that which is suspended."
+
+The derivation of the word is uncertain, but there are at least two
+Latin antecedents claimed for it. Some claim that it is derived from the
+barbarous Latin word "amuletum," from amolior, to remove; others
+consider that it comes from "amula," the name of a small vessel with
+lustral water in it, which the Romans sometimes carried in their pockets
+for purification and expiation. Pliny says that many of these amulae were
+carved out of pieces of amber and hung about children's necks. Whatever
+the derivation of the word, it is doubtless of Eastern origin.
+
+There is also little doubt concerning the early belief in the efficacy
+of an amulet to ward off diseases, and to protect against supernatural
+agencies. So powerful were they supposed to be that an oath was
+formerly administered to persons about to fight a legal duel "that
+they had ne charme ne herb of virtue." St. Chrysostom and others of
+the church fathers condemned the practice very severely, and the
+Council of Laodicea (366) wisely forbade the priesthood from studying
+and practising enchantments, mathematics, astrology, and the binding
+of the soul by amulets.[89]
+
+Burton has the following passage on the subject: "Amulets, and Things
+to be borne about, I find prescribed, taxed by some, approved by
+Renodeus, Platerus, and others; looke for them in Mizaldus, Porta,
+Albertus, &c.... A Ring made of the Hoofe of an Asse's right
+fore-foot carried about, &c. I say with Renodeus they are not
+altogether to be rejected. Piony doth help epilepsies. Pretious
+Stones, most diseases. A Wolf's dung carried about helps the Cholick.
+A spider, an Ague, &c.... Some Medicines are to be exploded, that
+consist of Words, Characters, Spells, and Charms, which can do no good
+at all, but out of a strong conceit, as Pomponatius proves; or the
+Devil's policy, who is the first founder and teacher of them."[90]
+
+"To this kind," says Bingham, "belong all Ligatures and Remedies,
+which the Schools of Physitians reject and condemn; whether in
+Inchantments or in certain marks, which they call Characters, or in
+some other things which are to be hanged and bound about the Body, and
+kept in a dancing posture. Such are Ear-rings hanged upon the tip of
+each ear, and Rings made of an Ostriche's bones for the Finger; or,
+when you are told, in a fit of Convulsions or shortness of Breath, to
+hold your left Thumb with your right hand."[91]
+
+Unfortunately the wearing of amulets did not stop with the early
+civilizations or even with the Middle Ages. People in our own
+supposedly enlightened age indulge in them. The negro carries the hind
+foot of a rabbit, and the children see great virtue in a four-leafed
+clover; men carry luck pennies, and certain stones are worn in rings
+and scarf pins; camphor is worn about the person to avert febrile
+contagion, and anodyne necklaces of "Job's tears" and other equally
+harmless and inefficacious substances are placed on babies to assist
+them in teething. The camphor and necklaces are probably not supposed
+to be endowed with magical power, but a mistaken medical virtue is
+assigned to them.
+
+There was neither rule nor reason for the composition of most amulets,
+and one would have to be well acquainted with the superstitions of the
+various ages to account for them. Sometimes the shape, rather than the
+material of which they were composed or the inscription on them, was
+the efficacious factor. Perhaps material, shape, and inscription would
+be combined in one object; or many objects, each purporting to contain
+magical properties, might be grouped for special efficacy, as when
+inscribed pieces of different stones of peculiar shape were formed
+into necklaces or bracelets.
+
+Precious stones were often employed as amulets, and some even ground
+them up and took them internally in order to be more sure of their
+magical effects. "Butler quotes from Encelius, who says that the
+Garnet, if hung about the neck or taken in drink, much assisteth
+sorrow and recreates the heart; and the chrysolite is described as the
+friend of wisdom and the enemy of folly. Renodeus admires precious
+stones because they adorn king's crowns, grace the fingers, enrich our
+household stuff, defend us from enchantments, preserve health, cure
+diseases, drive away grief, cares, and exhilarate the mind."[92]
+
+Some further quotations portray to us the efficacy of other stones:
+
+  "Heliotropius stauncheth blood, driveth away poisons,
+  preserveth health; yea, and some write that it provoketh
+  raine, and darkeneth the sunne, suffering not him that
+  beareth it to be abused."
+
+  "A topaze healeth the lunaticke person of his passion of
+  lunacie."
+
+  "Corneolus (cornelian) mitigateth the heate of the
+  minde, and qualifieth malice, it stancheth bloodie
+  fluxes."
+
+  "A sapphire preserveth the members and maketh them
+  livelie, and helpeth agues and gowts, and suffereth not
+  the bearer to be afraid; it hath virtue against venoms,
+  and staieth bleeding at the nose, being often put
+  thereto."
+
+  Aetius "attributed great obstetrical properties to the
+  lapis aetites, and gagates stone. The sapphire when
+  taken as a potion pulverized in milk, cured internal
+  ulcers and checked excessive perspiration. The amargdine
+  was highly recommended for strabismus...."
+
+  "Jasper, hematite and hieratite stones were strongly
+  recommended for unusual sanative virtues, but the
+  sapphire excelled as a remedy for scorpion bites."
+
+  "The Bezoar stone had a great reputation in melancholic
+  affections. Manardus says it removes sadness and makes
+  him merry that useth it."
+
+  "Noblemen wore the smargdum attached to a chain, in the
+  belief of its potential virtues against epilepsy. The
+  sard prevented terrible dreams, and the cornelian worn
+  on the finger or suspended from the neck pacified anger
+  and provoked contentment. Onyx superinduced troubled
+  sleep, but fastened to the throat, stimulated the
+  salivary glands. Saphirs cured internal ulcers and
+  excessive perspiration, when taken as a potion dissolved
+  in lacteal fluids."
+
+  "Of the stone which hight agate. It is said that it hath
+  eight virtues. One is when there is thunder, it doth not
+  scathe the man who hath this stone with him. Another
+  virtue is, on whatsoever house it is, therein a fiend
+  may not be. The third virtue is, that no venom may
+  scathe the man who hath the stone with him. The fourth
+  virtue is, that the man, who hath on him secretly the
+  loathly fiend, if he taketh in liquid any portion of the
+  shavings of the stone, then soon is exhibited manifestly
+  in him, that which before lay secretly hid. The fifth
+  virtue is, he who is afflicted with any disease, if he
+  taketh the stone in liquid, it is soon well with him.
+  The sixth virtue is, that sorcery hurteth not the man
+  who has the stone with him. The seventh virtue is, that
+  he who taketh the stone in drink, will have so much the
+  smoother body. The eighth virtue of the stone is, that
+  no bite of any kind of snake may scathe him who tasteth
+  the stone in liquid."
+
+Even as late as 1624, Sir John Harrington, writing in his "School of
+Salerne," says: "Alwaies in your hands use eyther Corall or yellow
+Amber, or a chalcedonium, or a sweet Pommander, or some like precious
+stone to be worne in a ring upon the little finger of the left hand;
+have in your rings eyther a Smaragd, a Saphire, or a Draconites, which
+you shall bear for an ornament; for in stones, as also in hearbes,
+there is great efficacie and vertue, but they are not altogether
+perceived by us; hold sometime in your mouth eyther a Hyacinth, or a
+Crystall, or a Garnat, or pure Gold, or Silver, or else sometimes pure
+Sugar-candy. For Aristotle doth affirme, and so doth Albertus Magnus,
+that a Smaragd worne about the necke, is good against the
+Falling-sickness; for surely the virtue of an hearbe is great, but
+much more the vertue of a precious stone, which is very likely that
+they are endued with occult and hidden vertues."
+
+Precious metals as well as precious stones were used in the
+manufacture of amulets. The Scandinavians carried metal effigies
+carved out of gold or silver, or incised upon tiles, perpetually as
+amulets. They were safeguards against diseases and physical
+infirmities. They were also administered internally in cases where
+powerful cures were needed. Chaucer says:
+
+ "For gold in physic is a cordial,
+  Therefore he loved gold in special."
+
+The Basilideans, and other sects developed from the Gnostic systems,
+assigned great power to stone amulets, and prepared them for their
+initiates, who used them for identification and for curative purposes.
+They quickly acquired a celebrity undiminished for ages, and were
+known under the general name of Abraxas. They were composed of various
+materials, glass, paste, sometimes metals, but principally of various
+kinds of stones. Through the irresistible might of Abrax, their
+supreme divinity, the Basilideans were protected and cured. Clement of
+Alexandria strictly interdicted the use of gems for personal
+ornamentation, with evident allusion to the Abraxas stones. These
+stones had various inscriptions carved upon them, most of which had
+some hidden meaning of great puissance. One of them, for example, is
+engraven with Armenian letters, and contains a standing invocation for
+fruitful delivery; in its medicinal property it was evidently a cure
+for sterility.[93]
+
+From the stone itself the word "Abraxas" came to be used as an amulet
+when written on paper. The numerical equivalent of the Greek letters
+when added together thus, A = 1, B = 2, R = 100, A = 1, X = 60, A = 1,
+S = 200, is 365. The significance of this was that the deity was the
+ruler of 365 heavens, or of the angels inhabiting these heavens; he
+was also ruler over the 365 days of the year. Notwithstanding the fact
+that it was referred to by the Greek fathers, the name was evidently
+Egyptian in origin, some of the figures on the stones being strictly
+Egyptian.
+
+Amulets in the form of inscriptions were called "Characts," the word
+Abraxas being an example. The very powerful word "Abracadabra" was
+derived from Abraxas, and when written in the proper way and worn
+about the person was supposed to have a magical efficacy as an
+antidote against ague, fever, flux, and toothache. Serenus Samonicus,
+a physician in the reign of Caracalla, recommends it very highly for
+ague, instructing how it should be written, and commanding it to be
+worn around the neck. It might be written in either of two ways:
+reading down the left side and up the right must spell the same word
+as at the top; or, having the left side always start the same, reading
+up the right side should be the same as the top line. Below are the
+two forms:
+
+          ABRACADABRA            ABRACADABRA
+           BRACADABR              ABRACADABR
+            RACADAB                ABRACADAB
+             ACADA                  ABRACADA
+              CAD                    ABRACAD
+               A                      ABRACA
+                                       ABRAC
+                                        ABRA
+                                         ABR
+                                          AB
+                                           A
+
+Julius Africanus says that pronouncing the word in the same manner is
+as efficacious as writing it. The Jews attributed an equal virtue to
+the word "Aracalan" employed in the same way.[94]
+
+Bishop Pilkington, writing in 1561, protests against a then current
+practice in this way: "What wicket blindenes is this than, to thinke
+that wearing Prayers written in rolles about with theym, as S. Johns
+Gospell, the length of our Lord, the measure of our Lady, or other
+like, thei shall die no sodain death, nor be hanged, or yf he be
+hanged, he shall not die. There is so manye suche, though ye laugh,
+and beleve it not, and not hard to shewe them with a wet finger." The
+same author observes that our devotion ought to "stande in depe sighes
+and groninges, wyth a full consideration of our miserable state and
+Goddes majestye, in the heart, and not in ynke or paper: not in
+hangyng writtin Scrolles about the Necke, but lamentinge unfeignedlye
+our Synnes from the hart."
+
+The following charact was found in a linen purse belonging to a
+murderer named Jackson, who died in Chichester jail in February, 1749.
+He was "struck with such horror on being measured for his chains that
+he soon after expired."
+
+ "Ye three holy Kings,
+  Gaspar, Melchior, Balthasar,
+  Pray for us now, and in the hour of our death."
+
+  "These papers have touched the three heads of the holy
+  Kings at Cologne. They are to preserve travellers from
+  accidents on the road, headaches, falling sickness,
+  fevers, witchcraft, all kinds of mischief, and sudden
+  death."
+
+Belgrave prescribes a cure of agues, by a certain writing which the
+patient wears, as follows: "When Jesus went up to the Cross to be
+crucified, the Jews asked him, saying Art thou afraid? or hast thou
+the ague? Jesus answered and said, I am not afraid, neither have I the
+ague. All those which bear the name of Jesus about them shall not be
+afraid, nor yet have the ague. Amen, sweet Jesus, Amen, sweet Jehovah,
+Amen." He adds: "I have known many who have been cured of the ague by
+this writing only worn about them; and I had the receipt from one
+whose daughter was cured thereby, who had the ague upon her two
+years."[95]
+
+Among other written amulets, the first Psalm, when written on doeskin,
+was supposed to be efficacious in childbirth. It was necessary,
+however, for the writer of such amulets to plunge into a bath as soon
+as he had written one line, and after every new line it was thought
+necessary that he should repeat the plunge.
+
+The following process for avoiding inflamed eyes is taken from
+Marcellus, 380 A. D.: "Write on a clean sheet of paper [Greek:
+oubaik], and hang this round the patient's neck, with a thread from
+the loom. In a state of purity and chastity write on a clean sheet of
+paper [Greek: phyrpharan] and hang it round the man's neck; it will
+stop the approach of inflammation. The following will stop
+inflammation coming on, written on a clean sheet of paper: [Greek:
+roubos rnoneiras reelios os. kantephora kai pantes eakotei]; it must
+be hung to the neck by a thread; and if both the patient and operator
+are in a state of chastity, it will stop inveterate inflammation.
+Again, write on a thin plate of gold with a needle of copper, [Greek:
+orno ourode]; do this on a Monday; observe chastity; it will long and
+much avail."[96]
+
+In Africa, prayers taken from the Koran are written and worn as
+amulets at the present time.
+
+After the death of the philosopher Pascal some manuscript was found
+sewed in his doublet. This was a "profession of faith" which he always
+wore stitched in his clothing as a sort of amulet.
+
+In the East, generally, the amulet consists of certain names of the
+Deity, verses of the Koran, or particular passages compressed into a
+very small space, and is to be found concealed in the turban. The
+Christians wore amulets with verses selected from the Old and New
+Testaments, and particularly from the Gospel of John. The amulets or
+charms, called "grigris" by the African priests, are of similar
+description. These were used for preservatives against thunderbolts
+and diseases, to procure many wives and to give them easy deliveries,
+to avert shipwreck or slavery, and to secure victory in battle. One,
+to be used for the last purpose, which had belonged to a king of Brak,
+in Senegal, was found on his body after he had the misfortune to be
+killed in battle with the amulet upon him. It had the following
+sentences from the Koran: "In the name of the merciful God! Pray to
+God through our Lord Mohammed. All that exists is so only by his
+command. He gives life, and also calls sinners to an account. He
+deprives us of life by the sole power of his name: these are
+undeniable truths. He that lives owes his life to the peculiar
+clemency of his Lord, who by his providence takes care of his
+subsistence. He is a wise prince or governor."[97]
+
+The Jews used as amulets some sacred name, such as the true
+pronunciation of the name of Jehovah, written down. The Mischna
+permitted the Jews to wear amulets provided they had been found
+efficacious in at least three cases by an approved person. One of the
+most famous amulets is that known as "Solomon's Seal."
+
+Ligatures, similar to the earlier amulets, a heritage from the
+northern pagan races, were freely applied for the prevention and cure
+of maladies.
+
+After imposing invocations and the addition of mystical characters,
+these medical charms were presumed to be of the greatest efficacy, and
+ready for suspension from the neck. Their efficacy was admitted by
+Christians, but they were condemned on account of their pagan and
+consequently satanic origin.
+
+Alexander of Tralles recommended a number of amulets, some of which I
+will mention later, but admits that he had no faith in them, but
+merely ordered them as placebos for rich and fastidious patients who
+could not be persuaded to adopt a more rational treatment. Baas tells
+us that "A regular Pagan amulet was found in 1749 on the breast of the
+prince bishop Anselm Franz of Wurzburg, count of Ingolstadt, after his
+death."
+
+Amulets were also worn to protect the wearer from charms exercised by
+others. The "Leech Book" gives us one to be worn and another to be
+taken internally for this purpose. To be used "against every evil rune
+lay, and one full of elvish tricks, writ for the bewitched man, this
+writing in Greek letters: Alfa, Omega, Iesvm, BERONIKH. Again, another
+dust and drink against a rune lay; take a bramble apple, and lupins,
+and pulegium, pound them, then sift them, put them in a pouch, lay
+them under the altar, sing nine masses over them, administer this to
+drink at three hours."
+
+The powers of the mandragora, as an amulet, place it almost in a class
+by itself. Fort tells us that in addition to its power to protect
+herds of cattle and horses, to prevent misfortunes of various kinds,
+to preserve the exhilarating wine and beer against loss of their
+intoxicating property, to render successful commercial negotiations,
+and promote infallibly, rapid and enormous influence, "other virtues
+of a surprising character were awarded the omnipotent mandragora. It
+conciliated affection and maintained friendship, preserved conjugal
+fealty and developed benevolence. The immensity of worth inherent in
+this mystical medicament, its vital essence, was by no means confined
+to sustaining health and providing certain remedies for infirmities;
+its power manipulated tribunals and secured judicial favor at court;
+and when this resistless amulet was held under the arm by a suitor at
+law, however unjust his cause, the vegetable Rune controlled the forum
+and obtained the verdict."[98]
+
+It may be well at this point to enumerate at least a number of the
+most noted amulets, according to the disease for which they were
+supposed to be efficacious.
+
+_Ague._--On account of the periodic character of this disease it was
+considered to be a supernatural complaint and hence many unnatural
+cures were suggested, among which were a number of amulets. The
+Abracadabra amulet was supposed to be especially efficacious in ague.
+The chips of a gallows put into a bag and worn around the neck, or
+next the skin, have been said to have served as a cure, at least, so
+reports Brand.[99] Millefolium or yarrow, worn in a little bag on the
+pit of the stomach is reported to have cured this disease, and
+Alexander of Tralles advises, for a quartan ague, that the patient
+must carry about some hairs from a goat's chin.[100]
+
+Elias Ashmole, in his Diary, April 11, 1681, has entered the
+following: "I tooke early in the morning a good dose of Elixir, and
+hung three spiders about my neck, and they drove my Ague away. Deo
+Gratias!"[101]
+
+Wristbands, called pericarpia, were employed in the cure. Robert Boyle
+says he was cured of a violent quotidian ague, after having in vain
+resorted to medical aid, by applying to his wrists "a mixture of two
+handfuls of bay salt, the same quantity of fresh English hops, and a
+quarter of a pound of blue currants, very diligently beaten into a
+brittle mass, without the addition of anything moist, and so spread
+upon linen and applied to his wrists."[102]
+
+Burton gives us a leaf from his own experience.[103] "Being in the
+country in the vacation time, not many years since, at Lindly, in
+Leicestershire, my father's house, I first observed this amulet of a
+spider in a nut-shell, wrapped in silk, &c., so applyed for an ague by
+my mother; whom, although I knew to have excellent skill in
+chirurgery, sore eyes, aches, &c., and such experimental medicines, as
+all the country where she dwelt can witness, to have done many famous
+and good cures upon divers poor folks that were otherwise destitute of
+help, yet among all other experiments, this methought was most absurd
+and ridiculous. I could see no warrant for it. _Quid aranea cum
+Febre?_ For what antipathy? till at length rambling amongst authors
+(as I often do), I found this very medicine in Dioscorides, approved
+by Matthiolus, repeated by Aldrovandus, _cap. de Aranea, lib. de
+Insectis_, I began to have a better opinion of it, and to give more
+credit to amulets, when I saw it in some parties answer to
+experience."
+
+A narrative of not a little interest, concerning Sir John Holt, Lord
+Chief Justice of the Court of King's Bench, 1709, should be given in
+this connection. He was extremely wild in his youth, and being once
+engaged with some of his rakish friends in a trip into the country, in
+which they had spent all their money, it was agreed they should try
+their fortune separately. Holt arrived at an inn at the end of a
+straggling village, ordered his horse to be taken care of, bespoke a
+supper and a bed. He then strolled into the kitchen, where he observed
+a little girl of thirteen shaking with ague. Upon making inquiry
+respecting her, the landlady told him that she was her only child, and
+had been ill nearly a year, notwithstanding all the assistance she
+could procure for her from physic. He gravely shook his head at the
+doctors, bade her be under no further concern, for that her daughter
+should never have another fit. He then wrote a few unintelligible
+words in a court hand on a scrap of parchment, which had been the
+direction fixed to a hamper, and rolling it up, directed that it
+should be bound upon the girl's wrist and there allowed to remain
+until she was well. The ague returned no more; and Holt, having
+remained in the house a week, called for his bill. "God bless you,
+sir," said the old woman, "you're nothing in my debt, I'm sure. I
+wish, on the contrary, that I was able to pay you for the cure which
+you have made of my daughter. Oh! if I had had the happiness to see
+you ten months ago, it would have saved me forty pounds." With
+pretended reluctance he accepted his accommodation as a recompense,
+and rode away. Many years elapsed, Holt advanced in his profession of
+the law, and went a circuit, as one of the judges of the Court of
+King's Bench, into the same county, where, among other criminals
+brought before him, was an old woman under a charge of witchcraft. To
+support this accusation, several witnesses swore that the prisoner had
+a spell with which she could either cure such cattle as were sick or
+destroy those that were well, and that in the use of this spell she
+had been lately detected, and that it was now ready to be produced in
+court. Upon this statement the judge desired that it might be handed
+up to him. It was a dirty ball, wrapped round with several rags, and
+bound with packthread. These coverings he carefully removed, and
+beneath them found a piece of parchment which he immediately
+recognized as his own youthful fabrication. For a few moments he
+remained silent. At length, recollecting himself, he addressed the
+jury to the following effect: "Gentlemen, I must now relate a
+particular of my life, which very ill suits my present character and
+the station in which I sit; but to conceal it would be to aggravate
+the folly for which I ought to atone, to endanger innocence, and to
+countenance superstition. This bauble, which you suppose to have the
+power of life and death, is a senseless scroll which I wrote with my
+own hand and gave to this woman, whom for no other reason you accuse
+as a witch." He then related the particulars of the transaction, with
+such an effect upon the minds of the people that his old landlady was
+the last person tried for witchcraft in that county.[104]
+
+_Calculus._--Boyle tells us[105] that the _Lapis Nephriticus_, a
+species of jasper, when bound to the left wrist, was a cure for this
+trouble. Others have borne evidence to its efficacy.
+
+_Childbirth._--Among the ancient Britons, when a birth was difficult
+or dangerous, a girdle, made for this purpose, was put around the
+woman and afforded immediate relief. Until quite recently they were
+kept by many families in the Highlands of Scotland. They were marked
+with certain figures and were applied with certain ceremonies derived
+from the Druids. Women in labor were also supposed to be quickly
+delivered if they were girded with the skin which a snake has sloughed
+off.[106]
+
+_Cholera._--Bontius declared the _Lapis Porcinus_ to be good for
+cholera, but dangerous to pregnant women. If the females of Malaica
+held the stone in their hands an abortion was produced. When cholera
+was prevalent during the early part of the last century, it was common
+in many parts of Austria, Germany, and Italy to wear an amulet at the
+pit of the stomach, in contact with the skin. Pettigrew describes one
+of these which was sent to him from Hungary. "It consists merely of a
+circular piece of copper two inches and a half in diameter, and is
+without characters."
+
+_Colic._--Says Pliny, the extremity of the intestine of the ossifrage,
+if worn as an amulet, is well known to be an excellent remedy for
+colic. A tick from a dog's left ear, worn as an amulet, was
+recommended to allay this and all other kinds of pain, but one must be
+careful to take it from a dog that is black. Alexander of Tralles
+recommended the heart of a lark to be fastened to the left thigh as a
+remedy for colic. Mr. Cockayne, the editor of _Saxon Leechdoms_, gives
+us further remedies for colic which Alexander prescribed. "Thus for
+colic, he guarantees by his own experience, and the approval of almost
+all the best doctors, dung of a wolf, with bits of bone in it if
+possible, shut up in a pipe, and worn during the paroxysm, on the
+right arm, or thigh, or hip, taking care it touches neither the earth
+or a bath."[107]
+
+_Cramp._--The following amulets are mentioned as specifics against
+cramp:
+
+"--Wear bone Ring on thumb, or tye Strong Pack-thread below your
+thigh."
+
+The subject of cramp rings will be considered in another connection.
+
+_Demoniacal Possession._--In the sixth century exorcists frequently
+wrote the formula on parchment and suspended it from the neck of the
+patient. This was as efficacious as the uttered words.
+
+_Epilepsy._--The elder tree has been the foundation of many
+superstitions, chief among which have been some connected with
+epilepsy. Blochwick[108] tells us how to prepare an amulet from an
+elder growing on a sallow. "In the month of October, a little before
+the full moon, you pluck a twig of the elder, and cut the cane that is
+betwixt two of its knees, or knots, in nine pieces, and these pieces
+being bound in a piece of linen, be in a thread, so hung about the
+neck, that they touch the spoon of the heart, or the sword-formed
+cartilage; and that they may stay more firmly in that place, they are
+to be bound thereon with a linen or silken roller wrapt about the
+body, till the thread break of itself. The thread being broken and the
+roller removed, the amulet is not at all to be touched with bare
+hands, but it ought to be taken hold on by some instrument and buried
+in a place that nobody may touch it." Some hung a cross, made of the
+elder and the sallow entwined, about the children's neck.
+
+Rings of various kinds have always been supposed to have some
+superstitious power. Brand[109] tells us of some of their uses. A ring
+made from a piece of silver collected at the communion is a cure for
+convulsions and fits of every kind. If the silver is collected on
+Easter Sunday its efficacy is greatly increased. This was the receipt
+in Berkshire, but in Devonshire silver was not necessary. Here they
+prefer a ring made from three nails or screws dug out of a
+church-yard, which had been used to fasten a coffin. We are also
+informed that another kind of ring will cure fits. It must be made
+from five sixpences collected from five different bachelors, conveyed
+by the hand of a bachelor to a silversmith who is a bachelor. None of
+the persons who gave the sixpences, however, are to know for what
+purpose, or to whom, they gave them.[110]
+
+A silver ring contributed by twelve young women, and constantly worn
+on one of the pattens fingers, has been successfully employed in the
+cure of epilepsy after various medical means failed.[111] Lupton
+says: "A piece of a child's navel-string borne in a ring is good
+against the falling-sickness, the pains of the head, and the
+collick."[112]
+
+Alexander of Tralles recommended for epilepsy a metal cross tied to
+the arm, or, in lieu of that, bits of sail-cloth from a shipwrecked
+vessel might be tied to the right arm and worn for seven weeks; the
+latter was a preventive as well as a cure. Among the ancients,
+Serapion prescribed crocodile's dung and turtle's blood as a cure for
+this disease.[113] Lemius remarks that "Coral, Piony, Misseltoe, drive
+away the falling Sicknesse, either hung about the neck or drunk with
+wine."
+
+_Erysipelas._--The elder seems to have been efficacious in erysipelas
+as well as in epilepsy, at least so we are told in the "Anatomie of
+the Elder." The following is the method of preparing the amulet. It is
+to be made of "Elder on which the sun never shined. If the piece
+betwixt the two knots be hung about the patient's neck, it is much
+commended. Some cut it in little pieces, and sew it in a knot in a
+piece of a man's shirt, which seems superstitious."
+
+_Evil-eye._--Coral was supposed to avert the baneful consequences of
+the evil-eye, and Paracelsus recommends it to be worn about the necks
+of children. Douce has given engravings of several Roman amulets
+which were intended to be used against fascinations in general, but
+more particularly against that of the evil-eye.[114]
+
+_Eye Diseases._--Cotta relates, so says Pettigrew, "a merrie historie
+of an approved famous spell for sore eyes. By many honest testimonies
+it was a long time worne as a Jewell about many necks, written in
+paper and enclosed in silke, never failing to do sovereigne good when
+all other helpes were helplesse. No sight might dare to reade or open.
+At length a curious mind, while the patient slept, by stealth ripped
+open the mystical cover, and found the powerful characters Latin:
+'Diabolus effodiat tibi oculos impleat foramina stercoribus.'"
+
+Vivisection was practised to procure an amulet for sore eyes,
+according to the following prescription: "If a man have a white spot,
+as cataract, in his eye, catch a fox alive, cut his tongue out, let
+him go, dry his tongue and tie it up in a red rag and hang it round
+the man's neck." Pliny's way was to "take the tongue of a foxe, and
+hange the same about his necke, so long it hangeth there his sight
+shall not wax feeble."
+
+Like was also used to cure like, at least in the following directions:
+"Take the right eye of a Frogg, lap it in a piece of russet cloth and
+hang it about the neck; it cureth the right eye if it bee enflamed or
+bleared. And if the left eye be greved, do the like by the left eye of
+the said Frogg."[115]
+
+_Fevers._--Charms rather than amulets were employed in fevers, yet we
+find that among the ancients Chrysippus believed in amulets for
+quartan fevers and Pliny taught that the longest tooth of a black dog
+cured quartan fevers.
+
+_Gout._--Alexander of Tralles has preserved for us a remedy for gout
+as follows: "A remedy for the gout. Write, on a golden plate at the
+wane of the moon, what follows, rolling round it the sinews of a
+crane. Put it in a little bag, and wear it near the ankles. The words
+are meu, treu, mor, phor, teux, za, zor, phe, lou, chri, ge, ze, ou,
+as the sun is consolidated in these names, and is renewed every day;
+so consolidate this plaster as it was before, now, now, quick, quick,
+for, behold, I pronounce the great name, in which are consolidated
+things in repose, iaz, azuf, zuon, threux, bain, choog; consolidate
+this plaster as it was at first, now, now, quick, quick."
+
+_Headache._--Pliny's amulet for this disease was an herb picked from
+the head of a statue, tied with a red thread, and worn upon the body.
+
+_Hysteria._--Monardes is quoted as saying: "When hysterical persons
+feel an attack coming on, they may be relieved by a stone, which will
+prevent, if constantly worn about the person, any subsequent attack.
+From my knowledge of cases of this kind, I attach credit to this
+amulet."
+
+_Melancholy._--Burton has treated much under the name of melancholy,
+and in respect of cure mentions several "amulets and things to be
+borne about." He recommends for head melancholy such things as
+hypericon, or St. John's-wort, gathered on a Friday in the hour of
+Jupiter, "... borne or hung about the neck, it mightily helps this
+affection, and drives away all fantastical spirits."[116]
+
+_Plague._--During the visitations of the plague, the inhabitants of
+London wore, in the region of the heart, amulets composed of arsenic,
+probably on account of the theory that one poison would neutralize the
+power of the other. Concerning this, however, Herring, in writing
+concerning preservatives against the pestilence, says: "Perceiving
+many in this Citie to weare about their Necks, upon the region of the
+Heart, certaine Placents or Amulets, (as preservatives against the
+pestilence,) confected of Arsenicke, my opinion is that they are so
+farre from effecting any good in that kinde, as a preservative, that
+they are very dangerous and hurtfull, if not pernitious, to those that
+weare them." Quills of quicksilver were commonly worn about the neck
+for the same purpose, and the powder of toad was employed in a similar
+way.
+
+Pope Adrian is reported to have continually carried an amulet composed
+of dried toad, arsenic, tormental, pearl, coral, hyacinth, smarag, and
+tragacanth. Among the Harleian Manuscripts is a letter from Lord
+Chancellor Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith written at a time of an alarming
+epidemic. Among other things he writes: "I am likewise bold to
+recommend my most humble duty to our dear mistress (Queen Elizabeth)
+by this LETTER AND RING, which hath the virtue to expell infectious
+airs, and is _to be worn betwixt the sweet duggs_, the chaste nest of
+pure constancy. I trust, sir, when the virtue is known, it shall not
+be refused for the value."[117]
+
+_Safety from Wounds._--Pettigrew gives us the two following examples:
+"De Barros, the historian, says that the Portuguese in vain attempted
+to destroy a Malay so long as he wore a bracelet containing a bone set
+in gold, which rendered him proof against their swords. This amulet
+was afterward transmitted to the Viceroy Alfonso d'Alboquerque, as a
+valuable present.
+
+"In the travels of Marco Polo, we read that in an attempt by Kublai
+Khan to make a conquest of the island of Zipangu, a jealousy arose
+between the two commanders of the expedition, which led to an order
+for putting the whole of the inhabitants of the garrison to the sword;
+and that in obedience thereto, the heads of all were cut off,
+excepting of eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a diabolical
+charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced into the right arm,
+between the skin and the flesh, were rendered secure from the effects
+of iron, either to kill or wound. Upon this discovery being made, they
+were beaten with a heavy wooden club, and presently died."[118]
+
+_Scrofula._--Lupton says: "The Root of Vervin hanged at the neck of
+such as have the King's Evil, it brings a marvellous and unhoped
+help." To this Brand adds: "Squire Morley of Essex used to say a
+Prayer which he hoped would do no harm when he hung a bit of vervain
+root from a scrophulous person's neck. My aunt Freeman had a very high
+opinion of a baked Toad in a silk Bag, hung round the neck."[119]
+
+_Toothache._--People in North Hampshire, England, sometimes wore a
+tooth taken from a corpse, kept in a bag and hung around the neck, as
+a remedy for toothache.
+
+_Whooping-Cough._--About the middle of the last century there appeared
+the following in the _London Athenaeum_: "The popular belief as to the
+origin of the mark across the back of the ass is mentioned by Sir
+Thomas Browne, in his 'Vulgar Errors,' and from whatever cause it may
+have arisen it is certain that the hairs taken from the part of the
+animal so marked are held in high estimation as a cure for the
+hooping-cough. In this metropolis, at least so lately as 1842, an
+elderly lady advised a friend who had a child dangerously ill with
+that complaint, to procure three such hairs, and hang them round the
+neck of the sufferer in a muslin bag. It was added that the animal
+from whom the hairs are taken for this purpose is never worth anything
+afterwards, and, consequently, great difficulty would be experienced
+in procuring them; and further, that it was essential to the success
+of the charm that the sex of the animal, from whom the hairs were to
+be procured, should be the contrary to that of the party to be cured
+by them."
+
+The _Worcester Journal_ (England), in one of its issues for 1845, had
+this astounding item: "A party from the city, being on a visit to a
+friend who lived at a village about four miles distant, had occasion
+to go into the cottage of a poor woman, who had a child afflicted with
+the hooping-cough. In reply to some inquiries as to her treatment of
+the child, the mother pointed to its neck, on which was a string
+fastened, having nine knots tied in it. The poor woman stated that it
+was the stay-lace of the child's godmother which, if applied exactly
+in that manner about the neck, would be sure to charm away the most
+troublesome cough! Thus it may be seen that, with all the educational
+efforts of the present day, the monster Superstition still lurks here
+and there in his caves and secret places."[120]
+
+We find that not only human beings but animals profited by amulets. An
+amulet is used in the cure of a blind horse which could hardly have
+helped on the cure by his faith in it. "The root of cut Malowe hanged
+about the neck driveth away blemishes of the eyen, whether it be in a
+man or a horse, as I, Jerome of Brunsweig, have seene myselfe. I have
+myselfe done it to a blind horse that I bought for X crounes, and was
+sold agayn for XL crounes."[121] That was a trick worth knowing.
+
+Brockett tells us that "Holy-stones, or _holed-stones_, are hung on
+the heads of horses as a charm against Diseases--such as sweat in
+their stalls are supposed to be cured by this application." The
+efficacy of the elder also extended to animals, for a lame pig was
+formerly cured by boring a hole in his ear and putting a small peg
+into it. We are also told that "wood night-shade, or bitter-sweet,
+being hung about the neck of Cattell that have the Staggers, helpeth
+them."
+
+  [89] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 51 and 66 f.
+
+  [90] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec. V.
+
+  [91] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 281 f.
+
+  [92] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 70.
+
+  [93] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 94-100.
+
+  [94] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 74 f.
+
+  [95] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 278 f.
+
+  [96] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 262 f.
+
+  [97] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 68 f.
+
+  [98] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 182.
+
+  [99] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 242.
+
+  [100] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 252.
+
+  [101] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [102] R. Boyle, _Usefulness of Natural Philosophy_, II,
+  p. 157.
+
+  [103] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec.
+  V.
+
+  [104] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 96-98.
+
+  [105] R. Boyle, _Usefulness of Natural Philosophy_,
+  Works II, p. 156.
+
+  [106] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, pp. 257 and 259.
+
+  [107] _Ibid._, pp. 251 f and 254.
+
+  [108] _Anatomie of the Elder_, p. 52.
+
+  [109] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 231.
+
+  [110] _Gentleman's Magazine_, 1794, p. 889.
+
+  [111] _London Medical and Physical Journal_, 1815.
+
+  [112] _Book of Notable Things_, p. 92.
+
+  [113] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 253 f and 256.
+
+  [114] _Illustrations of Shakespeare_, I, p. 493.
+
+  [115] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [116] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec.
+  V.
+
+  [117] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Surgery and Medicine_, p. 91.
+
+  [118] _Ibid._, p. 79.
+
+  [119] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 256.
+
+  [120] _Ibid._, III, p. 238.
+
+  [121] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 148.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CHARMS
+
+
+  "With the charmes that she saide, A fire down fro' the
+  sky alight."--GOWER.
+
+  "She drew a splinter from the wound, And with a charm
+  she staunch'd the blood."--SCOTT.
+
+  "Thrice on my breast I spit to guard me safe From
+  fascinating Charms."--THEOCRITUS.
+
+  "Mennes fortunes she can tell; She can by sayenge her
+  Ave Marye, And by other Charmes of Sorcerye, Ease men of
+  the Toth ake by and bye Yea, and fatche the Devyll from
+  Hell."--BALE.
+
+  "I clawed her by the backe in way of a charme, To do me
+  not the more good, but the less harme."--HEYWOOD.
+
+Charms, as already noticed, are not unlike amulets in significance and
+similarity of power. The amulet must consist of some material
+substance so as to be suspended when employed, but the charm may be a
+word, gesture, look, or condition, as well as a material substance,
+and does not need to be attached to the body. The word "charm" is
+derived from the Latin word "carmen," signifying a verse in which the
+charms were sometimes written, examples of which will be given later.
+The medical term "carminative," a comforting medicine, really means a
+charm medicine, and has the same derivation.
+
+A charm has been defined as "a form of words or letters, repeated or
+written, whereby strange things are pretended to be done, beyond the
+ordinary power of nature." It can be seen, though, that this
+definition is not sufficiently comprehensive.
+
+For ages, people have had great faith in odd numbers. They have often
+been used as charms and for medicine. Some one says: "Some
+philosophers are of opinion that all things are composed of number,
+prefer the odd before the other, and attribute to it a great efficacy
+and perfection, especially in matters of physic: wherefore it is that
+many doctors prescribed always an odd pill, an odd draught, or drop to
+be taken by their patients. For the perfection thereof they allege
+these following numbers: as 7 Planets, 7 wonders of the World, 9
+Muses, 3 Graces, God is 3 in 1, &c." Ravenscroft, in his comedy of
+"Mammamouchi or the Citizen Turned Gentleman," makes Trickmore as a
+physician say: "Let the number of his bleedings and purgations be odd,
+_numero Deus impare gaudet_" [God delights in an odd number].
+
+Nine is the number consecrated by Buddhism; three is sacred among
+Brahminical and Christian people. Pythagoras held that the unit or
+monad is the principle and end of all. One is a good principle. Two,
+or the dyad, is the origin of contrasts and separation, and is an evil
+principle. Three, or the triad, is the image of the attributes of God.
+Four, or the tetrad, is the most perfect of numbers and the root of
+all things. It is holy by nature. Five, or the pentad, is everything;
+it stops the power of poisons, and is dreaded by evil spirits. Six is
+a fortunate number. Seven is powerful for good or evil, and is a
+sacred number. Eight is the first cube, so is man four-square or
+perfect. Nine, as the multiple of three, is sacred. Ten, or the
+decade, is the measure of all it contains, all the numerical relations
+and harmonies.[122]
+
+Cornelius Agrippa wrote on the power of numbers, which he declares is
+asserted by nature herself; thus the herb called cinquefoil, or
+five-leafed grass, resists poison, and bans devils by virtue of the
+number five; one leaf of it taken in wine twice a day cures the
+quotidian, three the tertian, four the quartan fever.[123]
+
+The seventh son of a seventh son was supposed to be an infallible
+physician as the following quotations would indicate: "The seventh son
+of a seventh son is born a physician; having an intuitive knowledge of
+the art of curing all disorders, and sometimes the faculty of
+performing wonderful cures by touching only." "Plusieurs croyent qu'en
+France, les septiemes garcons, nez de legitimes mariages, sans que la
+suitte des sept ait este interrompue par la naissance d'aucune fille,
+peuvent aussi guerir des fievres tierces, des fievres quartes, at
+mesme des ecrouelles, apres avoir jeune trois ou neuf jours avant que
+de toucher les malades. Mais ils font trop de fond sur le nombre
+septenaire, en attribuant au septieme garcon, preferablement a tous
+autres, une puissance qu'il y a autant de raison d'attribuer au
+sixieme ou au huitieme, sur le nombre de trois, et sur celuy de neuf,
+pour ne pas s'engager dans la superstition. Joint que de trois que je
+connois de ces septieme garcons il y en a deux qui ne guerissent de
+rien, et que le troisieme m'a avoue de bonne foy, qu'il avoit eu
+autrefois la reputation de guerir de quantite des maux, quoique en
+effet il n'ait jamais guery d'aucun. C'est pourquoy Monsieur du
+Laurent a grande raison de rejetter ce pretendu pouvoir, et de la
+mettre au rang des fables, en ce qui concerne la guerison des
+ecrouelles."[124]
+
+Charms were used to avert evil and counteract supposed malignant
+influences of all kinds, but it is in their connection with diseases
+of the body that we are chiefly interested. There is scarcely a
+disease for which a charm has not been given, but it will be seen that
+those which are most affected by charms are principally derangements
+of the nervous system, or those periodical in character--diseases, in
+fact, which have proved to be most easily influenced by suggestion.
+
+Charms might be of the most varied composition. The material was
+selected from the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, and might
+consist of anything to which any magical property was considered to
+belong. Rags, old clothes, pins, and needles were frequently employed
+in this way. Sir Walter Scott had in his possession a pretended charm
+taken from an old woman who was said to charm and injure her
+neighbor's cattle. It consisted of feathers, parings of nails, hair,
+and similar material, wrapped in a lump of clay.
+
+The theory of _similia similibus curantur_ seems to have entered into
+mediaeval medicine, and especially into the manufacture of charms. The
+following prescriptions are examples: "The skin of a Raven's heel is
+good against gout, but the right heel skin must be laid upon the right
+foot if that be gouty, and the left upon the left.... If you would
+have man become bold or impudent let him carry about with him the skin
+or eyes of a Lion or Cock, and he will be fearless of his enemies,
+nay, he will be very terrible unto them. If you would have him
+talkative, give him tongues, and seek out those of water frogs and
+ducks and such creatures notorious for their continuall noise
+making."[125]
+
+King also tells us that "Hartes fete, Does Fete, Bulles fete, or any
+ruder beastes fete should ofte be eaten; the same confort the sinewes.
+The elder these beastes be, the more they strengthen." It is
+noticeable that not age but youth is now honored, and to-day only
+calves' feet are accorded medicinal value.
+
+Fort[126] gives the following account of the origin of cabbalism:
+"Towards the close of the fourth century an unknown scholiast
+collected the exegetical elucidations, explanations and
+interpretations produced by the Gemara, and united them to the Mishna,
+as a commentary out of which arose the Talmud. The word 'cabbala,'
+whose original significance was used in the sense of reception, or
+transmission, obtained at a later period the meaning of secret lore,
+because the metaphysical and theosophic idealities which had been
+developed in the Rabbinical schools, were communicated only to a few,
+and consequently remained the undisputed property of a limited and
+close organization." From this there developed a varied and
+complicated system of words and numbers which showed their power in
+all forms of magical marvels. Not the least common or puissant of
+these was the healing of the sick.
+
+Knots were sometimes used as charms, and Cockayne gives us an example
+in the preface of _Saxon Leechdoms_: "As soon as a man gets pain in
+his eyes, tie in unwrought flax as many knots as there are letters in
+his name, pronouncing them as you go, and tie it round his neck."
+
+Long before and long after New Testament days when Jesus used spittle
+on the blind, and the time when Vespasian healed the blind by the same
+means, spittle was considered a most efficacious remedy for various
+diseases. Levinus Lemnius tells us: "Divers experiments shew what
+power and quality there is in Man's fasting Spittle, when he hath
+neither eat nor drunk before the use of it: for it cures all tetters,
+itch, scabs, pushes, and creeping sores: and if venomous little beasts
+have fastened on any part of the body, as hornets, beetles, toads,
+spiders, and such like, that by their venome cause tumours and great
+pains and inflammations, do but rub the place with fasting Spittle,
+and all those effects will be gone and dispersed. Since the qualities
+and effects of Spittle come from the humours, (for out of them is it
+drawn by the faculty of Nature, as Fire draws distilled Water from
+hearbs) the reason may be easily understood why Spittle should do such
+strange things, and destroy some creatures."[127]
+
+In _Saxon Leechdoms_ a cure for gout runs thus: "Before getting out of
+bed in the morning, spit on your hand, rub all your sinuews, and say,
+'Flee, gout, flee,' etc." Sir Thomas Browne, however, is not quite
+sure that fasting spittle really is poisonous to snakes and vipers.
+
+Alexander of Tralles tells us that even Galen did homage to
+incantations, and quotes him as saying: "Some think that incantations
+are like old wives' tales; as I did for a long while. But at last I
+was convinced that there is virtue in them by plain proofs before my
+eyes. For I had trial of their beneficial operations in the case of
+those scorpion-stung, nor less in the case of bones stuck fast in the
+throat, immediately, by an incantation thrown up. And many of them are
+excellent, severally, and they reach their mark."
+
+Even before our day, however, there were some sceptics. Andrews,
+quoting Reginald Scot, says: "The Stories which our facetious author
+relates of ridiculous Charms which, by the help of credulity, operated
+Wonders, are extremely laughable. In one of them a poor Woman is
+commemorated who cured all diseases by muttering a certain form of
+Words over the party afflicted; for which service she always received
+one penny and a loaf of bread. At length, terrified by menaces of
+flames both in this world and the next, she owned that her whole
+conjuration consisted in these potent lines, which she always repeated
+in a low voice near the head of her patient:
+
+ 'Thy loaf in my hand,
+  And thy penny in my purse,
+  Thou art never the better--
+  And I am never the worse.'"
+
+Lord Northampton quite fittingly inquires: "What godly reason can any
+Man alyve alledge why Mother Joane of Stowe, speaking these wordes,
+and neyther more nor lesse,
+
+ 'Our Lord was the fyrst Man,
+  That ever Thorne prick'd upon:
+  It never blysted nor it never belted,
+  And I pray God, nor this not may,'
+
+should cure either Beasts, or Men and Women from Diseases?"[128]
+
+Perhaps it would be well for us to treat the subject of charms as we
+have that of amulets, and present the different charms under the
+heading of the diseases which they were supposed to cure.
+
+_Ague._--Many charms were given for this disease, some of which seem
+to us to-day most ridiculous. Brand gives a quotation from the _Life
+of Nicholas Mooney_ who was a notorious highwayman, executed with
+others at Bristol, in 1752. It is as follows: "After the cart drew
+away, the hangman very deservedly had his head broke for attempting to
+pull off Mooney's shoes; and a fellow had like to have been killed in
+mounting the gallows to take away the ropes that were left after the
+malefactors were cut down. A young woman came fifteen miles for the
+sake of the rope from Mooney's neck, which was given to her, it being
+by many apprehended that the halter of an executed person will charm
+away the ague and perform many other cures."
+
+Pettigrew relates that "In Skippon's account of a 'Journey through the
+Low Countries,' he makes mention of the lectures of Ferrarius and his
+narrative of the cure of the ague of a Spanish lieutenant, by writing
+the words FEBRA FUGE, and cutting off a letter from the paper every
+day, and he observed the distemper to abate accordingly; when he cut
+the letter F last of all the ague left him. In the same year, he says,
+fifty more were reported to be cured in the same manner."
+
+Another charm for ague was only effective when said up the chimney on
+St. Agnes Eve, by the eldest female of the family. It was as follows:
+
+ "Tremble and go!
+    First day shiver and burn.
+  Tremble and quake!
+    Second day shiver and learn:
+  Tremble and die!
+    Third day never return."[129]
+
+Pliny said: "Any plant gathered from the bank of a brook or river
+before sunrise, provided that no one sees the person who gathers it,
+is considered as a remedy for tertian ague." Lodge, in glancing at the
+superstitious creed with respect to charms, says: "Bring him but a
+Table of Lead, with Crosses (and 'Adonai,' or 'Elohim,' written in
+it), and he thinks it will heal his ague."
+
+Mr. Marsden, while among the Sumatrans, accidentally met with the
+following charm for the ague: "(Sign of the cross.) When Christ saw
+the cross he trembled and shaked and they said unto him, hast thou
+ague? and he said unto them, I have neither ague nor fever; and
+whosoever bears these words, either in writing or in mind, shall never
+be troubled with ague or fever. So help thy servants, O Lord, who put
+their trust in thee!"
+
+From Douce's notes, Mr. Brand informs us that it was usual with many
+persons about Exeter who had ague "to visit at dead of night the
+nearest cross road five different times, and there bury a new-laid
+egg. The visit is paid about an hour before the cold fit is expected;
+and they are persuaded that with the Egg they shall bury the Ague. If
+the experiment fail, (and the agitation it occasions may often render
+it successful) they attribute it to some unlucky accident that may
+have befallen them on the way. In the execution of this matter they
+observe the strictest silence, taking care not to speak to anyone,
+whom they may happen to meet. I shall here note another Remedy against
+the Ague mentioned as above, viz., by breaking a salted Cake of Bran
+and giving it to a Dog, when the fit comes on, by which means they
+suppose the malady to be transferred from them to the Animal."[130]
+This and similar methods were designated transplantation.
+
+_Bites of Venomous Animals._--It is an old medical superstition that
+every animal whose bite is poisonous carries the cure within itself,
+but external charms were also used. It was thought that the poison of
+the Spanish fly existed in the body, while the head and wings
+contained the antidote. "A hair of the dog that bites you" is the cure
+for hydrophobia, the fat of the viper was the remedy for its bite, and
+"three scruples of the ashes of the witch, when she had been well and
+carefully burnt at a stake, is a sure catholicon against all the evil
+effects of witchcraft."[131]
+
+Serpents' bites, which were always considered very dangerous, were
+said to be healed by people called sauveurs, who had a mark of St.
+Catharine's wheel upon their palates. Snake stones, originally brought
+from Java, were supposed to absorb the poison by being simply placed
+over the bite. Russel mentions a charm against mosquitoes, used in
+Aleppo. It consisted of certain unintelligible characters inscribed on
+a little slip of paper, which was pasted over the windows or upon the
+lintel of the door. One family has obtained, through heredity, the
+power of making these charms, and they distribute them on a certain
+day of the year without remuneration.
+
+Navarette was told that the best remedy against scorpions was to make
+a commemoration of St. George when going to bed. This, he says, never
+failed, but he also rubbed the bed with garlic. The following is given
+as a cure for the sting of the scorpion: "The patient is to sit on an
+ass, with his face to the tail of the animal, by which the pain will
+be transmitted from the man to the beast." Or again, a person who was
+bitten by either a tarantulla or a mad dog must go nine times round
+the town on the Sabbath, calling upon and imploring the assistance of
+the saint. On the third night--the prayers being heard and granted,
+and the health restored--the madness was removed. The prayer was as
+follows:
+
+
+ "Thou who presidest over the Apulian shores,
+  Thou who curest the bites of mad dogs,
+  Thou, O Sacred One, ward off this cruel plague,
+  This dismal gnawing of dogs.
+  Get thee far hence, O madness, O fury."[132]
+
+_Burns._--The following is "A Charme for a burning":
+
+ "There came three angels out of the east;
+  The one brought fire, the two brought frost--
+  Out fire; in frost;
+  In the name of the Father, and Son, and Holy Ghost.
+  --Amen."[133]
+
+_Childbirth._--Many superstitious practices have grown up around this
+condition. In 1554, Bonner, Bishop of London, forbade "a mydwife of
+his diocese to exercise any witchecrafte, charmes, sorcerye,
+invocations, or praiers, other than such as be allowable and may stand
+with the lawes and ordinances of the Catholike Church." In 1559, the
+first year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, an inquiry was instituted
+"whether you knowe any that doe use charmes, sorcery, enchauntementes,
+invocations, circles, witchecraftes, southsayinge, or any lyke craftes
+or imaginacions invented by the devyl, and specially in the tyme of
+woman's travaylle." Two years before this, the midwives took an oath
+among themselves, so Strype tells us, not to "suffer any other bodies'
+child to be set, brought, or laid before any woman delivered of child
+in the place of her natural child, so far forth as I can know and
+understand. Also I will not use any kind of sorcerye or incantation in
+the time of the travail of any woman."
+
+The eagle stone and iris were supposed to promote an easy delivery,
+and the sardonyx was laid _inter mammas_ to procure an easy birth; a
+sardonyx formerly belonged to the monastery of St. Albans to be used
+for this purpose. In some countries, during childbirth, the men lie
+in, keep their beds, and are attended as if really sick, sometimes as
+long as six weeks.[134]
+
+_Chorea._--Of all the charms against this disease, St. Vitus' dance,
+none seemed so effectual as an application to the saint. In the
+translation of Naogeorgus, Barnabe Googe says:
+
+ "The nexte is VITUS sodde in oyle, before whose ymage faire
+  Both men and women bringing hennes for offring doe repaire:
+  The cause whereof I doe not know, I think, for some disease
+  Which he is thought to drive away from such as him doe please."
+
+_Colic._--This disorder was cured by a person drinking the water in
+which he had washed his feet; we might well consider the cure worse
+than the disease.
+
+_Consumption._--Shaw[135] speaks of a cure for consumptive diseases
+used in his time in Moray. "They pared the Nails of the Fingers and
+Toes of the Patient, put these Parings into a Rag cut from his
+clothes, then waved their Hand with the Rag thrice round his head
+crying _Deas soil_, after which they buried the Rag in some unknown
+place." Dr. Baas[136] declares that natural pills of rabbit's dung
+were in use on the Rhine as a cure for consumption.
+
+"There is a disease," says the minister of Logierait, writing in 1795,
+"called Glacach by the Highlanders, which, as it affects the chest and
+lungs, is evidently of a consumptive nature. It is called Macdonald's
+disease, 'because there are particular tribes of Macdonalds, who were
+believed to cure it with the Charms of their touch, and the use of a
+certain set of words. There must be no fee given of any kind. Their
+faith in the touch of a Macdonald is very great.'"[137]
+
+_Cramp._--Among the many charms for cramp, the following is taken from
+_Pepys' Diary_:[138]
+
+ "Cramp be thou faintless,
+  As our Lady was sinless
+  When she bare Jesus."
+
+_Demoniacal Possession._--To know when a person is possessed, try the
+following, says King: "Take the harte and liver of a fysshe called a
+Pyck, and put them into a pot wyth glowynge hot coles, and hold the
+same to the patient so that the smoke may entre into hym. If he is
+possessed he cannot abyde that smoke, but rageth and is angry." "It is
+good also to make a fyre in hys chamber of Juniper wood, and caste
+into the fire Franckincense and S. John's wort, for the evill spirits
+cannot abyde thys sent, and Waxe angry, whereby may be perceived
+whether a man be possessed or not."[139] I am afraid that possession
+would be sadly common if either of these tests were applied.
+
+_Dislocation._--Among the oldest charms we have is one given by Cato
+the Censor for the reduction of a dislocated limb, and passed on to us
+by Pettigrew.
+
+"A dislocation may be cured by this charm. Take a reed four or five
+feet long; cut it in the middle, and let two men hold the points
+towards each other for insertion. While this is doing repeat these
+words: _In Alio S. F. Motas vaeta, Daries Dardaries Astataries
+Dissunapitur_. Now jerk a piece of iron upon the reeds at their
+juncture, and cut right and left. Bind them to the dislocation or
+fracture, and it will effect a cure."[140]
+
+_Dropsy._--Toads were formed into a powder called Pulvis AEthiopicus,
+the mode of preparation being given in Bates's Pharmacopoeia. This
+powder was used externally, and also given internally in cases of
+dropsy and other diseases.
+
+_Epilepsy._--The liver of a dead athlete was a sovereign remedy
+against epilepsy in early days. In Lincolnshire a portion of a human
+skull taken from a grave was grated and given to epileptics as a cure
+for fits, and the water in which a corpse had been washed was given to
+a man in Glasgow for the same purpose.[141] Another remedy was also
+proposed: "If a man be greved wyth the fallinge sicknesse, let him
+take a he-Wolves harte and make it to pouder and use it: but if it be
+a woman, let her take a she-Wolves harte."[142]
+
+John of Gladdesden, who was court physician from 1305-1317, spoke thus
+concerning epilepsy: "Because there are many children and others
+afflicted with the epilepsy, who cannot take medicines, let the
+following experiment be tried, which I have found to be effectual,
+whether the patient was a demoniac, a lunatic, or an epileptic. When
+the patient and his parents have fasted three days, let them conduct
+him to church. If he be of a proper age, and of his right senses, let
+him confess. Then let him hear Mass on Friday, and also on Saturday.
+On Sunday let a good and religious priest read over the head of the
+patient, in the church, the gospel which is read in September, in the
+time of vintage, after the feast of the Holy Cross. After this, let
+the priest write the same gospel devoutly, and let the patient wear it
+about his neck, and he shall be cured. The gospel is, 'This kind goeth
+not out but by prayer and fasting.'"[143]
+
+Among some African tribes the foot of an elk is considered a splendid
+remedy against epilepsy. One foot only of each animal possesses
+virtue, and the way to ascertain the valuable foot is to "knock the
+beast down, when he will immediately lift up that leg which is most
+efficacious to scratch his ear. Then you must be ready with a sharp
+scymitar to lop off the medicinal limb, and you shall find an
+infallible remedy against the falling sickness treasured up in his
+claws." The American Indians and mediaeval Norwegians also considered
+this a sure remedy. The person afflicted, however, must apply it to
+his heart, hold it in his left hand, and rub his ear with it.[144]
+
+_Evil-eye._--Children were supposed to be most susceptible to the
+evil-eye. Charms and amulets were furnished against fascination in
+general. Certain figures in bronze, coral, ivory, etc., representing a
+closed hand with the thumb thrust out between the first and second
+fingers called the _fig_, were common. In Henry IV, Part II, Pistol
+says:
+
+ "When Pistol lies, do this; and fig me, like
+  The bragging Spaniard."
+
+_Eye Diseases._--Among the early Germans, ambulatory female medicists
+were not uncommon, and they cured largely through charms. The
+following is a charm used for eye diseases:
+
+ "Three maidens once going
+  On a verdant highway;
+  One could cure blindness,
+  Another cured cataract,
+  Third cured inflammation;
+  But all cured by one means."[145]
+
+_Fevers._--This charm was used for fever: "Wryt thys Wordys on a
+lorell lef[+]Ysmael[+]Ysmael[+] adjuro vos per Angelum ut soporetur
+iste Homo N. and ley thys lef under hys head that he wete not therof,
+and let hym ete Letuse oft and drynk Ip'e seed smal grounden in a
+morter, and temper yt with Ale."[146]
+
+"The fever," says Werenfels, "he will not drive away by medicines,
+but, what is a more certain remedy, having pared his nails and tied
+them to a crayfish, he will turn his back, and as Deucalion did the
+stones from which a new progeny of men arose, throw them behind him
+into the next river."[147]
+
+The "Leech book"[148] says that for typhus fever the patient is to
+drink of a decoction of herbs over which many masses have been sung,
+then say the names of the four "gospellers" and a charm and a prayer.
+Again, a man is to write a charm in silence, and just as silently put
+the words in his left breast and take care not to go in-doors with the
+writing upon him, the words being EMMANUEL VERONICA. The Loseley MSS.
+prescribe the following for all manner of fevers: "Take iii drops of a
+woman's mylke yt norseth a knave childe, and do it in a hennes egge
+that ys sedentere (or sitting), and let hym suppe it up when the evyl
+takes hym."
+
+_Goitre._--The dew collected from the grave of the last man buried in
+a church-yard has been used as a lotion for goitre, and a
+correspondent of _Notes and Queries_ for May 24, 1851, furnishes two
+remedies then in use at Withyam, Sussex. "A common snake, held by its
+head and tail, is slowly drawn by someone standing by nine times
+across the front part of the neck of the person affected, the reptile
+being allowed, after every third time, to crawl about for awhile.
+Afterwards the snake is put alive in a bottle, which is corked
+tightly, and then buried in the ground. The tradition is, that as the
+snake decays, the swelling vanishes. The second mode of treatment is
+just the same as the above, with the exception of the snake's doom. In
+this case it is kidded, and its skin, sewn in a piece of silk, is worn
+round the diseased neck. By degrees the swelling in this case also
+disappears."
+
+_Headache._--In Brand's day, the rope which remained after a man had
+been hanged and cut down was an object of eager competition, being
+regarded as of great virtue in attacks of headache, and Gross says:
+"Moss growing on a human skull, if dried, powdered, and taken as
+snuff, will cure the Headach." Loadstone was also recommended as a
+sovereign remedy for this malady. Pliny said that any person might be
+immediately cured of the headache by the application of any plant
+which has grown on the head of a statue, provided it be folded in the
+shred of a garment, and tied to the part affected with a red string.
+
+_Hemorrhage._--The following charm has been used to stop bleeding at
+the nose and other hemorrhages:
+
+ "In the blood of Adam Sin was taken,
+  In the blood of Christ it was all shaken,
+  And by the same blood I do the charge,
+  That the blood of (insert name) run no longer at large."
+
+Pepys in his _Diary_ gives us a Latin charm of which the following is
+a translation:
+
+ "Blood remain in Thee,
+  As Christ was in himself;
+  Blood remain in thy veins,
+  As Christ in his pains;
+  Blood remain fixed,
+  As Christ was on the crucifix."
+
+Brand, the historian of Orkney, says: "They have a charm whereby they
+stop excessive bleeding in any, whatever way they come by it, whether
+by or without external violence. The name of the Patient being sent to
+the Charmer, he saith over some words, (which I heard,) upon which the
+blood instantly stoppeth, though the bleeding Patient were at the
+greatest distance from the Charmer. Yea, upon the saying of these
+words, the blood will stop in the bleeding throats of oxen or sheep,
+to the astonishment of Spectators. Which account we had from the
+Ministers of the Country."
+
+Boyle says: "Having been one summer frequently subject to bleeding at
+the nose, and reduced to employ several remedies to check that
+distemper; that which I found the most effectual to stanch the blood
+was some moss of a dead man's skull, (sent for a present out of
+Ireland, where it is far less rare than in most other countries,)
+though it did but touch my skin, till the herb was a little warmed by
+it."[149]
+
+Brand gives "A charme to staunch blood: Jesus that was in Bethleem born,
+and baptyzed was in the flumen Jordane, as stente the water at hys
+comyng, so stente the blood of thys man N. thy servvaunt, thorw the
+virtu of thy holy Name [+] Jesu [+] & of thy Cosyn swete Sent Jon. And
+sey thys charme fyve tymes with fyve Pater Nosters, in the worschep of
+the fyve woundys."[150]
+
+"In the year 1853," says Berdoe, "I saw among the more precious drugs
+in the shop of a pharmaceutical chemist at Leamington a bottle
+labelled in the ordinary way with the words, Moss from a Dead-Man's
+Skull. This has long been used, superstitiously, dried, powdered, and
+taken as snuff, for headache and bleeding at the nose."
+
+_Herpes._--Turner[151] notices a prevalent charm among old women for
+the shingles, and which is not uncommonly heard of to-day. It was to
+smear on the affected part the blood from a black cat's tail.
+He says that in the only case when he saw it used it caused
+considerable mischief.
+
+_Incubus._--Stones with holes through them were commonly called
+hag-stones, and were often attached to the key of the stable door to
+prevent witches riding the horses. One of these suspended at the head
+of the bed was celebrated for the prevention of nightmare. In the
+"Leech book"[152] we find the following: "If a mare or hag ride a man,
+take lupins, garlic, and betony, and frankincense, bind them on a fawn
+skin, let a man have the worts on him, and let him go into his house."
+Notice the following from Lluellin's poems:
+
+ "Some the night-mare hath prest
+  With that weight on their brest,
+    No returnes of their breath can passe,
+  But to us the tale is addle,
+  We can take off her saddle,
+    And turn out the night-mare to grasse."
+
+_Insomnia._--In the Loseley MSS. we find a receipt "For hym that may
+not slepe. Take and wryte yese wordes into leves of lether: Ismael!
+Ismael! adjuro te per Angelum Michaelum ut soporetur homo iste; and
+lay this under his bed, so yt he wot not yerof and use it allway
+lytell, and lytell, as he have nede yerto."
+
+_Jaundice._--This disease was sometimes cured by transplantation, and
+Paracelsus gives us a method for carrying this out. Make seven or
+nine--it must be an odd number--cakes of the newly emitted and warm
+urine of the patient with the ashes of ash wood, and bury them for
+some days in a dunghill.
+
+In the journal of Dr. Edward Browne, transmitted to his father, Sir
+Thomas Browne, we read of a magical cure for jaundice: "Burne wood
+under a leaden vessel filled with water; take the ashes of that wood,
+and boyle it with the patient's urine; then lay nine long heaps of the
+boyled ashes upon a board in a ranke, and upon every heap lay nine
+spears of crocus: it hath greater effects than is credible to any one
+that shall barely read this receipt without experiencing."[153]
+
+_Madness._--The early inhabitants of Cornwall used "to place the
+disordered in mind on the brink of a square pool, filled with water
+from St. Nun's well. The patient, having no intimation of what was
+intended, was, by a sudden blow on the breast, tumbled into the pool,
+where he was tossed up and down by some persons of superior strength
+till, being quite debilitated, his fury forsook him; he was then
+carried to church, and certain masses were sung over him. A similar
+practice of the people of Perthshire is noticed by Sir Walter Scott in
+_Marmion_.
+
+ "Thence to St. Fillan's blessed well,
+  Whose spring can frenzied dreams dispel,
+  And the crazed brain restore."
+
+_Marasmus._--Mr. Boyle relates the case of a physician whose wan face
+betokened a marasmus, and who was induced to try a method not unlike
+the sympathetic cures. "He took an egg and boiled it hard in his own
+warm urine; he then with a bodkin perforated the shell in many
+places, and buried it in an ant-hill, where it was kept to be devoured
+by the emmets; and as they wasted the egg, he found his distemper to
+abate and his strength to increase, insomuch that his disease left
+him."[154]
+
+_Rickets._--The most common method of dealing with this disease was by
+drawing the children through a split tree. The tree was afterward
+bound up and, as it healed and grew together, the children acquired
+strength; at least, so 'twas said. Sir John Cullum saw the operation
+performed and says that the ash tree was selected as most preferable
+for the purpose. "It was split longitudinally about five feet: the
+fissure was kept open by the gardener, whilst the friend of the child,
+having first stripped him naked, passed him thrice through it, almost
+head foremost. This accomplished, the tree was bound up with
+packthread, and as the bark healed, so it was said the child would
+recover. One of the cases was of rickets, the other a rupture."
+Drawing the children through a perforated stone was also a cure for
+rickets, providing that two brass pins were carefully laid across each
+other on the top edge of this stone.[155]
+
+_Sciatica._--Sleeping on stones on a particular night was formerly
+practised in Cornwall to cure all forms of lameness. Boneshave was the
+term used for sciatica in Exmoor, where the following charm was used
+for its cure: The patient must lie on his back on the bank of a river
+or brook, having a straight staff lying by his side between him and
+the water, and must have the following words repeated over him:
+
+ "Boneshave right,
+  Boneshave straight.
+  As the water runs by the stave
+  Good for Boneshave."[156]
+
+_Scrofula._--Scrofula, or "king's-evil," was best cured by the touch
+of the sovereign, but, if this could not be accomplished, a naked
+virgin could cure it, especially if she spit three times upon it.
+Stroking the affected parts nine times with the hand of a dead man,
+particularly of one who had suffered a violent death as a penalty of
+his crime, especially if it be murder, was long practised, and was
+said to be efficacious in curing scrofula.
+
+_Sweating Sickness._--Aubrey[157] gives a selection of the favorite
+prescriptions in use against the sweating sickness. Among them was the
+following: "Another very true medicine.--For to say every day at seven
+parts of your body, seven paternosters, and seven Ave Marias, with one
+Credo at the last. Ye shall begyn at the ryght syde, under the right
+ere, saying the '_paternoster qui es in coelis, sanctificetur nomen
+tuum_,' with a cross made there with your thumb, and so say the
+paternoster full complete, and one Ave Maria, and then under the left
+ere, and then under the left armhole, and then under the left hole,
+and then the last at the heart, with one paternoster, Ave Maria with
+one Credo; and these thus said daily, with the grace of God is there
+no manner drede hym."
+
+_Thorns._--Three metrical charms have been used for troubles of this
+kind. _Pepys' Diary_ records "A charme for a thorne":
+
+ "Jesus, that was of a Virgin Born,
+  Was pricked both with nail and thorn;
+  It neither wealed, nor belled, rankled nor boned;
+  In the name of Jesus no more shall this."
+
+Another form of the same is this:
+
+ "Christ was of a Virgin born,
+  And he was pricked with a thorn;
+  It did neither bell, nor swell;
+  And I trust in Jesus this never will."
+
+Brand gives another thus:
+
+ "Unto the Virgin Mary our Saviour was born,
+  And on his head he wore the crown of thorn;
+  If you believe this true and mind it well,
+  This hurt will never fester, nor yet swell."[158]
+
+_Toothache._--King in his interesting article recites this cure:
+"Seeth as many little green frogges sitting upon trees as thou canst
+get, in water: take the fat flowynge from them, and when nede is,
+anoynt the teth therwyth. The graye worms breathing under wood or
+stone, having many fete, these perced through with a bodken and then
+put into the toth, alayeth the payne."[159] A nail driven into an oak
+tree is reported to be a cure for this pain, and bones from a
+church-yard have from ancient times been used as charms against this
+disease.
+
+An early idea was that toothache was caused by a worm and that henbane
+seed roasted would cure it. The following from "The School of Salerne"
+formulates this superstition:
+
+ "If in your teeth you hap to be tormented,
+  By meane some little wormes therein do breed,
+  Which pain (if heed be tane) may be prevented,
+  Be keeping cleane your teeth, when as you feede;
+  Burne Francomsence (a gum not evil sented),
+  Put Henbane unto this, and Onyon seed,
+  And with a tunnel to the tooth that's hollow,
+  Convey the smoke thereof, and ease shall follow."
+
+Even to-day, I suppose, druggists sell henbane seed for this purpose.
+The seed is used by sprinkling it on hot cinders and holding the open
+mouth over the rising smoke. The heat causes the seed to sprout, and
+thus there appears something similar to a maggot, which is ignorantly
+supposed by the sufferer to have dropped from the tooth.[160]
+
+_Warts._--The cures for warts are many and varied. There have been
+many charms devised for their removal. Grose gives directions to
+"Steal a piece of beef from a butcher's shop, and rub your wart with
+it, then throw it down the necessary house, or bury it, and as the
+beef rots, your warts will decay."[161] Some have great faith in
+having a vagrant count them, mark the number on the inside of his hat,
+and then when he leaves the neighborhood he takes the warts with him.
+Coffin water was also considered good for them.
+
+"For warts," says Sir Thomas Browne, "we rub our hands before the
+moon, and commit any magulated part to the touch of the dead. Old
+Women were always famous for curing warts; they were so in Lucian's
+time."[162]
+
+Sir Kenelm Digby, in a work already referred to, says: "One would
+think that it were folly that one should offer to wash his hands in a
+well-polished silver basin, wherein there is not a drop of water, yet
+this may be done by the reflection of the moonbeams only, which will
+afford it a competent humidity to do it; but they who have tried it,
+have found their hands, after they are wiped, to be much moister than
+usually; but this is an infallible way to take away warts from the
+hands, if it be often used."
+
+Black gives us several ways of charming away warts. He says:
+"Lancashire wise men tell us for warts to rub them with a cinder, and
+this tied up in paper, and dropped where four roads meet, will
+transfer the warts to whoever opens the parcel. Another mode of
+transferring warts is to touch each wart with a pebble, and place the
+pebbles in a bag, which should be lost on the way to church; whoever
+finds the bag gets the warts." A common Warwickshire custom was to rub
+the warts with a black snail, stick the snail on a thorn bush, and
+then, say the folks, as the snail dies so will the wart
+disappear.[163]
+
+Warts, on the other hand, seem in certain cases to be considered
+lucky. In "Syr Gyles Goosecappe, Knight," a play of 1606, Lord Momford
+is made to say: "The Creses here are excellent good: the proportion
+of the chin good; the little aptnes of it to sticke out; good. And the
+wart aboue it most exceeding good."
+
+_Wen._--A newspaper of 1777 reports: "After he (Doctor Dodd) had hung
+about ten minutes, a very decently dressed young woman went up to the
+gallows in order to have a wen in her face stroked by the Doctor's
+hand; it being a received opinion among the vulgar that it is a
+certain cure for such a disorder. The executioner, having untied the
+Doctor's hand, stroked the part affected several times therewith."
+
+At the execution of Crowley, a murderer of Warwick, in 1845, a similar
+scene is described in the newspapers: "At least five thousand persons
+of the lowest of the low were mustered on this occasion to witness the
+dying moments of the unhappy culprit.... As is usual in such cases (to
+their shame be it spoken) a number of females were present, and
+scarcely had the soul of the deceased taken its farewell flight from
+its earthly tabernacle, than the scaffold was crowded with members of
+the 'gentler sex' afflicted with wens in the neck, with white
+swellings in the knees, &c., upon whose afflictions the cold clammy
+hand of the sufferer was passed to and fro for the benefit of his
+executioner."[164]
+
+_Whooping-Cough._--It was a common belief in Devonshire, Cornwall, and
+some other parts of England, that if one inquired of any one riding on
+a piebald horse of a remedy for this complaint, whatever he named was
+regarded as an infallible cure. In Suffolk and Norfolk, a favorite
+remedy was to put the head of a suffering child for a few minutes into
+a hole made in a meadow. It must be done in the evening with only the
+father and mother to witness it.
+
+A child in Cornwall received the following treatment: "If afflicted
+with the hooping cough, it is fed with the bread and butter of a
+family, the heads of which bear respectively the names of John and
+Joan. In the time of an epidemic, so numerous are the applications,
+that the poor couple have little reason to be grateful to their
+godfathers and godmothers for their gift of these particular names.
+Or, if a piebald horse is to be found in the neighbourhood, the child
+is taken to it, and passed thrice under the belly of the animal; the
+mere possession of such a beast confers the power of curing the
+disease."
+
+We have an account of a cure for whooping-cough in a Monmouthshire
+paper about the middle of the nineteenth century. "A few days since an
+unusual circumstance was observed at Pillgwenlly, which caused no
+small degree of astonishment to one or two enlightened beholders. A
+patient ass stood near a house, and a family of not much more rational
+animals was grouped around it. A father was passing his little son
+under the donkey, and lifting him over its back a certain number of
+times, with as much solemnity and precision as if engaged in the
+performance of a sacred duty. This done, the father took a piece of
+bread, cut from an untasted loaf, which he offered the animal to bite
+at. Nothing loath, the Jerusalem poney laid hold of the piece of bread
+with his teeth, and instantly the father severed the outer portion of
+the slice from that in the donkey's mouth. He next clipped off some
+hairs from the neck of the animal, which he cut up into minute
+particles, and then mixed them with the bread which he had crumbled.
+This very tasty food was then offered to the boy who had been passed
+round the donkey so mysteriously, and the little fellow having eaten
+thereof, the donkey was removed by his owners. The father, his son,
+and other members of his family were moving off, when a bystander
+inquired what all these 'goings on' had been adopted for? The father
+stared at the ignorance of the inquirer, and then in a half
+contemptuous, half condescending tone, informed him that 'it was to
+cure his poor son's whooping-cough, to be sure!' Extraordinary as this
+may appear, in days when the schoolmaster is so much in request, it is
+nevertheless true."
+
+There is a belief in Cheshire that, if a toad is held for a moment
+within the mouth of the patient, it is apt to catch the disease, and
+so cure the person suffering from it. A correspondent of _Notes and
+Queries_ speaks of a case in which such a phenomenon actually
+occurred; but the experiment is one which would not be very willingly
+tried. Brand informs us that "Roasted mice were formerly held in
+Norfolk a sure remedy for this complaint; nor is it certain that the
+belief is extinct even now. A poor woman's son once found himself
+greatly relieved after eating three roast mice!"[165]
+
+_Worms._--A Scotch writer in the last half of the seventeenth century
+observed: "In the Miscellaneous MSS. ... written by Baillie Dundee,
+among several medicinal receipts I find an exorcism against all kinds
+of worms in the body, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,
+to be repeated three mornings, as a certain remedy."[166]
+
+
+  [122] S. B. Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_,
+  p. 273.
+
+  [123] H. Morley, _Life of Cornelius Agrippa_, I, p. 165.
+
+  [124] M. Thiers, _Traite des Superstitions_, p. 436.
+
+  [125] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [126] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 72.
+
+  [127] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 229 f.
+
+  [128] _Ibid._, III, pp. 228 and 237.
+
+  [129] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 94 f.
+
+  [130] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 252 f.
+
+  [131] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 416.
+
+  [132] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Surgery and Medicine_, pp. 104-106.
+
+  [133] _Pepys' Diary_, I, p. 323.
+
+  [134] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 113-115.
+
+  [135] _History of Moray_, p. 248.
+
+  [136] _History of Medicine_, p. 159.
+
+  [137] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 240 and
+  248.
+
+  [138] I, p. 324.
+
+  [139] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 149.
+
+  [140] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 77.
+
+  [141] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Medical Art_,
+  pp. 397 and 414.
+
+  [142] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [143] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 327.
+
+  [144] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 84 f.
+
+  [145] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 196.
+
+  [146] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 237.
+
+  [147] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 92.
+
+  [148] II, p. 139.
+
+  [149] _Ibid._, pp. 112 f.
+
+  [150] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 237,
+  241, and 268.
+
+  [151] _Diseases of the Skin_, p. 82.
+
+  [152] II, p. 139.
+
+  [153] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 103.
+
+  [154] _Ibid._, p. 102.
+
+  [155] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 249 f.
+
+  [156] _Ibid._, p. 245.
+
+  [157] _History of England_, II, p. 296.
+
+  [158] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 264.
+
+  [159] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 148.
+
+  [160] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 414 f.
+
+  [161] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 108.
+
+  [162] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 241.
+
+  [163] Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 415 f.
+
+  [164] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 241.
+
+  [165] _Ibid._, p. 239.
+
+  [166] _Ibid._, p. 240.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ROYAL TOUCH
+
+
+ "Men may die of imagination,
+  So depe may impression be take."--CHAUCER.
+
+  "When time shall once have laid his lenient hand on the
+  passions and pursuits of the present moment, they too
+  shall lose that imaginary value which heated fancy now
+  bestows upon them."--BLAIR.
+
+  "The king is but a man, as I am; the violet smells to
+  him as it does to me; the element shows to him as it
+  doth to me; all his senses have but human conditions;
+  his ceremonies laid by, in his nakedness he appears but
+  a man; and though his affections are higher mounted than
+  ours, yet, when they stoop, they stoop with the like
+  wing."--SHAKESPEARE.
+
+  _Malcolm._        Comes the king forth, I pray you?
+
+  _Doctor._ Ay, sir: there are a crew of wretched souls,
+  That stay his cure: their malady convinces
+  The great assay of art; but at his touch,
+  Such sanctity hath heaven given his hand,
+  They presently amend.
+
+  _Malcolm._    I thank you, doctor.  [Exit _Doctor._
+
+  _Macduff._ What's the disease he means?
+
+  _Malcolm._           'Tis call'd the evil:
+  A most miraculous work in this good king,
+  Which often, since my here remain in England,
+  I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven,
+  Himself best knows; but strangely-visited people,
+  All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye,
+  The mere despair of surgery, he cures;
+  Hanging a golden stamp about their necks,
+  Put on with holy prayers: and 'tis spoken,
+  To the succeeding royalty he leaves
+  The healing benediction.--_Macbeth_, Act iv, Sc. 3.
+
+Perhaps we have no better example of the effect of the belief in
+healers than that presented by what was known as "king's touch." It is
+typical of the cures performed by healers, and on that account I shall
+give a rather full account of the phenomenon.
+
+Touching by the sovereign for the amelioration of sundry diseases was
+a currently accepted therapeutic measure. The royal touch was
+especially efficacious in epilepsy and scrofula, the latter being
+consequently known as "king's-evil." So far as we are able to trace
+this practice in history, it began with Edward the Confessor in
+England and St. Louis in France. There has been not a little dispute
+concerning its real origin. "Laurentius, first physician to Henry IV,
+of France, who is indignant at the attempt made to derive its origin
+from Edward the Confessor, asserts the power to have commenced with
+Clovis I, A. D. 481, and says that Louis I, A. D. 814, added to the
+ceremonial of touching, the sign of the cross. Mezeray also says, that
+St. Louis, through humility, first added the sign of the cross in
+touching for the king's evil."[167]
+
+[Illustration: KING'S TOUCH-PIECES]
+
+William of Malmesbury gives the origin of the royal touch in his
+account of the miracles of Edward the Confessor. "A young woman had
+married a husband of her own age, but having no issue by the union,
+the humours collecting abundantly about her neck, she had contracted a
+sore disorder, the glands swelling in a dreadful manner. Admonished in
+a dream to have the part affected washed by the king, she entered the
+palace, and the king himself fulfilled this labour of love, by rubbing
+the woman's neck with his fingers dipped in water. Joyous health
+followed his healing hand; the lurid skin opened, so that worms flowed
+out with the purulent matter, and the tumour subsided. But as the
+orifice of the ulcers was large and unsightly, he commanded her to be
+supported at the royal expense until she should be perfectly cured.
+However, before a week had expired, a fair new skin returned, and hid
+the scars so completely, that nothing of the original wound could be
+discovered; and within a year becoming the mother of twins, she
+increased the admiration of Edward's holiness. Those who knew him more
+intimately, affirm that he often cured this complaint in Normandy;
+whence appears how false is the notion, who in our times assert, that
+the cure of this disease does not proceed from personal sanctity, but
+from hereditary virtue in the royal line."[168] The fact that Edward
+was a saint as well as a king throws some light on the subject, for
+many miracles were attributed to him. Jeremy Collier maintained that
+the scrofula miracle is hereditary upon all his successors, but we
+find that not blood but royal prestige was the secret. He said "that
+this prince cured the king's evil is beyond dispute: and since the
+credit of this miracle is unquestionable, I see no reason why we
+should scruple believing the rest.... King Edward the Confessor was
+the first that cured this distemper, and from him it has descended as
+an hereditary miracle upon all his successors. To dispute the matter
+of fact, is to go to the excesses of skepticism, to deny our senses,
+and be incredulous even to ridiculousness."[169]
+
+The quotation given above from William of Malmesbury is the earliest
+mention of the gift of healing by the royal touch. No historian at or
+near the time of Edward has alluded to the supposed power vested in
+him. Not even the bull of Pope Alexander III, by which Edward was
+canonized about two centuries after his decease, makes any allusion
+whatever to the cures effected by him through the imposition of hands.
+
+English and French writers have disagreed not only regarding the
+origin, but also regarding the real possession of the power, the
+English denying it to the French kings and the French with equal vigor
+restricting it to their own sovereigns. There seems to be little doubt
+that the sovereigns of both nations made cures, but the healing was
+confined to these two royal families; the intermarriages in the two
+families probably account for the belief in the transmission of the
+gift, regardless of the origin.
+
+The ability to heal certain diseases passed down from reign to reign
+notwithstanding the religious belief, the character, or the legitimate
+succession of the sovereign, to the time of Queen Anne. It must not be
+supposed that the practice was continuous for the seven centuries from
+Edward the Confessor to Anne: we have no record whatever of the first
+four Norman kings attempting to cure any one by the imposition of
+hands, and we know that William III refused to attempt healing. Andrew
+Boorde defines king's-evil as an "euyl sickenes or impediment," and
+advises as follows: "For this matter let euery man make frendes to the
+Kynges maiestie, for it doth pertayne to a Kynge to helpe this
+infirmitie by the grace the whiche is geuen to a Kynge anoynted." In
+his _Introduction to Knowledge_ (1547-1548) he continues: "The Kynges
+of England by the power that God hath gyuen to them, dothe make sicke
+men whole of a sickeness called the kynges euyll."[170]
+
+There is a curious passage in Aubrey in which he says: "The curing of
+the King's Evil by the touch of the king, does much puzzle our
+philosophers, for whether our kings were of the house of York or
+Lancaster, it did the cure for the most part." Sir John Fortescue, in
+defending the House of Lancaster against the House of York, claimed
+that the crown could not descend to a female because the Queen was not
+qualified by the form of anointing her to cure the disease called the
+king's-evil. It must have been very comforting to all concerned to find
+that the power to cure disease by the royal touch had not been affected
+by the change of sex of the reigning sovereign.
+
+The gift was not impaired by the Reformation, and an obdurate Roman
+Catholic was converted on finding that Elizabeth, after the Pope's
+excommunication, could cure his scrofula. Elizabeth, however, could
+not bring herself fully to accept the reality of these cures. She
+continued the practice on account of the pressure of public opinion,
+but upon one occasion she told a multitude of afflicted ones who had
+applied to her for relief, "God alone can cure your diseases." Dr.
+Tooker, the Queen's chaplain, though, certified freely to his own
+knowledge of the cures wrought by her, as did also William Cowles, the
+Queen's surgeon. Robert Laneham's letter, concerning the Queen's visit
+to Kenilworth Castle, relates how, on July 18, 1575, her Majesty
+touched for the evil, and that it was a "day of grace." "By her
+highnes accustumed mercy and charitee, nyne cured of the peynfull and
+daungerous diseaz, called the king's euill; for that Kings and Queenz
+of this Realm withoout oother medsin (saue only by handling and
+prayerz) only doo cure it."
+
+James I wished to drop it as a worn-out superstition, but was warned
+by his advisers that to do so would be to abate a prerogative of the
+crown; the practice therefore continued, and good testimony exists as
+to the cures wrought by him. The following is an extract from a letter
+from John Chamberlain to Sir Dudley Carleton, ambassador at The Hague,
+dated London, 14th November, 1618: "The Turkish Chiaus is shortly
+coming for the Hagh. On Tuesday last he took leave of the king, and
+thanked his majesty for healing his sonne of the kinges evill; which
+his majesty performed with all solemnity at Whitehall on Thursday was
+sevenight." Charles I also enjoyed the same power, notwithstanding
+the public declaration by Parliament "to inform the people of the
+superstition of being touched by the king for the evil." When a
+prisoner he cured a man by simply saying, "God bless thee and grant
+thee thy desire," the Puritans not permitting him to touch the
+patient. Whereupon it is asserted by Dr. John Nicholas on his own
+knowledge, the blotches and humors disappeared from the patient's body
+and appeared in the bottle of medicine which he held in his hand.
+Charles's blood had the same efficacy. This sovereign substituted in
+some cases the giving of a piece of silver instead of the gold, which
+was usually presented to the patient. Badger says that this king
+"excelled all his predecessors in the divine gift; for it is manifest
+beyond all contradiction, that he not only cured by his sacred touch,
+both with and without gold, but likewise perfectly effected the same
+cure by his prayer and benediction only." In his reign the gift was
+exercised at certain seasons of the year, Easter and Michaelmas being
+at first set apart for this purpose. A further regulation, which is
+quite suggestive, was that the patient must present a certificate to
+the effect that he had never before been touched for the disease.
+
+The following incident is related concerning Charles I: "A young
+gentlewoman of about sixteen years of age, Elizabeth Stevens, of
+Winchester, came (7 October, 1648) into the presence-chamber to be
+touched for the evill, which she was supposed to have; and therewith
+one of her eyes (that namely on the left side) was so much indisposed,
+that by her owne and her mother's testimony (who was then also
+present), she had not seene with that eye of above a month before.
+After prayers, read by Dr. Sanderson, the maide kneeled downe among
+others, likewise to be touched. And his majestie touched her, and put
+a ribbon, with a piece of money at it, in usuall manner, about her
+neck. Which done, his majesty turned to the lords (viz., the duke of
+Richmond, the earl of Southampton, and the earl of Lindsey) to
+discourse with them. And the said young gentlewoman of her own accord
+said openly: 'Now, God be praised! I can see of this fore eye.' And
+afterwards declared she did see more and more by it, & could, by
+degrees, endure the light of the candle. All which his majestie, in
+the presence of the said lords & many others, examined himself, &
+found to be true. And it hath since been discovered that, some months
+agone, the said young gentlewoman professed that, as soon as she was
+come of age sufficient, she would convey over to the king's use all
+her land; which to the valew of about L130 _per annum_, her father
+deceased had left her sole heyre unto."[171]
+
+Charles II, perhaps the most unworthy of English monarchs, was by far
+the busiest healer, and even while in exile in the Netherlands he
+retained the power to cure. In one month he touched two hundred and
+sixty at Breda, and Lower said: "It was not without success, since it
+was the experience that drew thither every day a great number of those
+diseased even from the most remote provinces of Germany." An official
+register of the persons touched was kept for every month in his reign,
+but about two and a half years appear to be wanting. The smallest
+number he touched in one year was 2,983; that was in 1669. In 1682 he
+touched 8,500 persons. In 1684 the throng was such that six or seven
+of the sick were trampled to death. The total number touched in his
+reign was 92,107.[172] It is instructive to note, however, that while
+in no other reign were so many people touched for scrofula and so many
+cures vouched for, in no other reign did so many people die of that
+disease.[173]
+
+John Browne, surgeon in ordinary to his majesty and to St. Thomas's
+Hospital, and author of many learned works on surgery and anatomy,
+published accounts of sixty cures due to this monarch. He says a
+surgeon attested the reality of the disease before the miracle was
+performed, to exclude impostors who were seeking the gold, for, in
+addition to the regular formula, the king hung about the neck of the
+person touched a ribbon to which was attached a gold coin.
+Notwithstanding these stringent measures, some were able to impose on
+the king, for the coins were often found in the shops, having been
+sold by the recipients. Says Brand: "Barrington tells us of an old man
+who was a witness in a cause, and averred that when Queen Anne was at
+Oxford, she touched him whilst a child for the evil. Barrington, when
+he had finished his evidence, 'asked him whether he was really cured?
+upon which he answered with a significant smile, that he believed
+himself never to have had a complaint that deserved to be considered
+as the Evil, but that his parents were poor, and had no objection to
+the bit of gold.'"[174]
+
+While it was not unknown before, the presentation of a piece of gold
+was first generally introduced in the reign of Henry VII. It probably
+descended from a practice common in the time of Edward III, whose
+coin, the rose-noble, is said to have been worn as an amulet to
+preserve from danger in battle. The angel-noble of Henry VII, valued
+at ten shillings, appears to have been the coin given; it was in
+common use and not made especially for this purpose. It had the figure
+of the Archangel Michael on one side and a ship in full sail on the
+other. Before hanging it on the patient's neck the monarch always
+crossed the sore with it. The outlay for gold coins presented to the
+afflicted on these occasions rose in some years as high as L10,000. So
+great was the expense that after the reign of Elizabeth the size of
+the coin was reduced. Touching pieces of the time of Charles II are
+not rare even now.
+
+In 1684 Surgeon John Browne published a curious work entitled
+_Adenochoiradelogia: or an Anatomick-Chirurgical Treatise on Glandules
+and Strumaes, or King's Evil Swellings_. In this the author traces the
+gift of healing from our Saviour to the apostles, and thence by a
+continuous line of Christian kings and governors, and holy men,
+commencing with Edward the Confessor, whom he regards as the first
+curer of scrofula by contact or imposition of hands. After referring
+to his majesty in most flattering terms, he continues concerning "the
+admirable effects and wonderful events of his royal cure throughout
+all nations, where not only English, Dutch, Scotch, and Irish have
+reaped ease and cure, but French, Germans, and all countreyes
+whatsoever, far and near, have abundantly seen and received the same:
+and none ever, hitherto, I am certain, mist thereof, unless their
+little faith and incredulity starved their merits, or they received
+his gracious hand for curing another disease, which was not really
+evermore allowed to be cured by him; and as bright evidences hereof, I
+have presumed to offer that some have immediately upon the very touch
+been cured; others not so easily quitted from their swellings till the
+favor of a second repetition thereof. Some also, losing their gold,
+their diseases have seized them afresh, and no sooner have these
+obtained a second touch, and new gold, but their diseases have been
+seen to vanish, as being afraid of his majesties presence; wherein
+also have been cured many without gold; and this may contradict such
+who must needs have the king give them gold as well as his touch,
+supposing one invalid without the gift of both. Others seem also as
+ready for a second change of gold as a second touch, whereas their
+first being newly strung upon white riband, may work as well (by their
+favour). The tying the Almighty to set times and particular days is
+also another great fault of those who can by no means be brought to
+believe but at Good Friday and the like seasons this healing faculty
+is of more vigour and efficacy than at any other time, although
+performed by the same hand. As to the giving of gold, this only shows
+his majesties royal well-wishes towards the recovery of those who come
+thus to be healed."[175] He refers to some "Atheists, Sadducees, and
+ill-conditioned Pharisees" who disbelieved, and he gives the letter of
+one who went, a complete sceptic, to satisfy his friends, and came
+away cured and converted.
+
+Browne includes the following case which seems to him conclusive: "A
+Nonconformist child, in Norfolk, being troubled with scrofulous
+swellings, the late deceased Sir Thomas Browne, of Norwich, being
+consulted about the same, his majesty being then at Breda or Bruges,
+he advised the parents of the child to have it carried over to the
+king (his own method being used ineffectively); the father seemed very
+strange at this advice, and utterly denied it, saying the touch of the
+king was of no greater efficacy than any other man's. The mother of
+the child, adhering to the doctor's advice, studied all imaginable
+means to have it over, and at last prevailed with her husband to let
+it change the air for three weeks or a month; this being granted, the
+friends of the child that went with it, unknown to the father, carried
+it to Breda, where the king touched it, and she returned home
+perfectly healed. The child being come to its father's house, and he
+finding so great an alteration, inquires how his daughter arrived at
+this health. The friends thereof assured him, that if he would not be
+angry with them, they would relate the whole truth; they, having his
+promise for the same, assured him they had the child to be touched at
+Breda, whereby they apparently let him see the great benefit his child
+received thereby. Hereupon the father became so amazed that he threw
+off his Nonconformity, and expressed his thanks in this manner:
+'Farewell to all dissenters, and to all nonconformists; if God
+can put so much virtue into the king's hand as to heal my child,
+I'll serve that God and that king so long as I live, with all
+thankfulness.'"[176] It is unfortunate that we have a change of air
+and food to consider in this case, else we might have a good example
+of a real miracle.
+
+Friday was usually set apart in this reign as the regular day for
+healing, but, in addition to this, special portions of the church year
+were reserved for the exercise of this gift. Very careful examinations
+were made by the surgeons, and those who were found to be suffering
+from the evil were presented with a ticket by the surgeon which
+entitled them to receive the healing touch of the king. If the king's
+touch were really efficacious, one might think that the disease should
+have been wholly exterminated during this reign, so great were the
+number touched. On the contrary, the deaths were more numerous, and on
+account of the neglect of medical and surgical means it spread very
+widely.
+
+James II, it is said by Dr. Heylin, also wrought cures upon babes in
+their mothers' arms, and the fame of these cures was so great that the
+year before James was dethroned, a pauper of Portsmouth, New
+Hampshire, petitioned the general assembly to enable him to make the
+voyage to England to be healed by the royal touch. In one of his
+progresses James touched eight hundred persons in Chester Cathedral.
+
+William III evidently thought of the matter as a superstition, and on
+one occasion he touched a patient, saying to him, "God give you better
+health and more sense"; notwithstanding the incredulity of the
+sovereign, Whiston assures us that the person was healed. With honest
+good sense, however, William refused to exercise the power which most
+of his subjects undoubtedly thought he possessed, and many protests
+were made, and much proof was adduced concerning "the balsamic virtues
+of the royal hand." This refusal to continue the practice of touching
+brought upon him the charge of cruelty from the parents of scrofulous
+children, while bigots lifted up their hands and eyes in holy horror
+at his impiety.
+
+Dr. Samuel Johnson was one of the last persons to receive the
+imposition of royal hands; when a boy of four and a half years, he was
+touched by Queen Anne, together with about two hundred others, on
+March 30, 1712. In his case at least the touch was inefficacious, for
+he was subject to scrofula all his life. Boswell says:[177] "His
+mother, yielding to the superstitious notion, which, it is wonderful
+to think, prevailed so long in this country, as to the virtue of the
+royal touch; a notion which our kings encouraged, and to which a man
+of such inquiry and such judgment as Carte could give credit, carried
+him to London, where he was actually touched by Queen Anne. Mrs.
+Johnson, indeed, as Mr. Hector informed me, acted by the advice of the
+celebrated Sir John Floyer, then a physician in Litchfield." At this
+time few persons but Jacobites believed in king's touch as a miracle.
+Dr. Daniel Turner, though, relates that several cases of scrofula
+which had been unsuccessfully treated by himself and Dr. Charles
+Bernard, sergeant-surgeon to her majesty, yielded afterwards to the
+efficacy of the queen's touch.
+
+During the reign of Anne the sceptics outnumbered the believers and at
+her death the practice was discontinued. Among the unbelievers was the
+above-mentioned Dr. Charles Bernard, an account of whose conversion is
+given by Oldmixon as follows: "Yesterday the queen was graciously
+pleased to touch for the King's evil some particular persons in
+private; and three weeks after, December 19, yesterday, about twelve
+at noon her majesty was pleased to touch, at St. James', about twenty
+persons afflicted with the King's evil. The more ludicrous sort of
+skeptics, in this case, asked why it was not called the queen's evil,
+as the chief court of justice was called the Queen's Bench. But
+Charles Bernard, the surgeon who had made this touching the subject of
+his raillery all his lifetime till he became body surgeon at court,
+and found it a good perquisite, solved all difficulties by telling his
+companions with a fleer '_Really one could not have thought it, if one
+had not seen it_.' A friend of mine heard him say it, and knew well
+his opinion of it."[178]
+
+In 1745 there was an attempted revival of the practice when Prince
+Charles Edward exercised this prerogative of royalty.
+
+Henry VII was the first monarch to establish a particular ceremony to
+be observed at the healings. He probably derived this from an old form
+of exorcism used for the dispossessing of evil spirits. This was
+altered at various times but may still be found in the prayer-book of
+the reign of Queen Anne. Indeed, it was not until some time after the
+accession of George I that the University of Oxford ceased to reprint
+the office of healing, together with the Liturgy.
+
+The routes to be travelled by royal personages and the days on which
+the miracle was to be wrought were fixed at sittings of the Privy
+Council, and the clergy of all the parish churches of the realm were
+solemnly notified. They, in turn, informed the people, and the
+sufferers along the way had many days in which to cherish the
+expectation of healing, in itself so beneficial. The ceremony was
+conducted with great solemnity and pomp. It has been vividly described
+by Macaulay as follows: "When the appointed time came, several divines
+in full canonicals stood round the canopy of state. The surgeon of the
+royal household introduced the sick. A passage of Mark 16. was read.
+When the words 'They shall lay their hands on the sick and they shall
+recover,' had been pronounced, there was a pause and one of the sick
+was brought to the king. His Majesty stroked the ulcers and swellings,
+and hung round the patient's neck a white ribbon to which was fastened
+a gold coin. The other sufferers were led up in succession; and as
+each was touched the chaplain repeated the incantation, 'They shall
+lay their hands on the sick and they shall recover.' Then came the
+epistle, prayers, antiphonies, and a benediction."
+
+Evelyn, in his _Diary_, gives us the form employed by Charles II in
+July, 1660, as follows: "His Majestie first began to touch for evil
+according to costume, thus--His majestie sitting under his state in
+the Banquetting House, the Chirurgeons cause the sick to be brought or
+led up to the throne, where they kneeling, the King strokes their
+faces or cheekes with both his hands at once, at which instant a
+Chaplaine in his formalities says: 'He put his hands on them and he
+healed them.' This is sayed to every one in particular. When they have
+all been touched they come up againe in the same order; and the other
+Chaplaine kneeling, and having angel-gold strung on white ribbon on
+his arme, delivers them one by one to his Majestie, who puts them
+about the necks of the touched as they passe, whilst the first
+Chaplaine repeats: 'That is the true light who came into the world.'
+Then follows an Epistle (as at first, a Gospel) with the Liturgy,
+prayers for the sick with some alteration, lastly the blessing: and
+the Lo. Chamberlaine and Comptroller of the Household, bring a basin,
+ewer, and towel for his Majestie to wash."[179]
+
+The belief in the efficacy of the king's touch was general, and Lecky
+tells us its genuineness "was asserted by the privy council, by the
+bishops of two religions, by the general voice of the clergy in the
+palmiest days of the English Church, by the University of Oxford, and
+by the enthusiastic assent of the people. It survived the ages of the
+Reformation, of Bacon, of Milton, and of Hobbes. It was by no means
+extinct at the age of Locke, and would probably have lasted still
+longer, had not the change of dynasty at the Revolution assisted the
+tardy scepticism."[180]
+
+In France there was the same belief in the efficacy of the royal
+touch. Philip I exercised the gift, but the French historians say that
+he was deprived of the power on account of the irregularity of his
+life. Laurentius reports that Francis I, when a prisoner in Spain,
+cured a great number of people of struma (scrofula). A paraphrase of
+the Latin verse which Lascaris wrote concerning this event is as
+follows:
+
+ "The king applies his hand, diseases fly,
+  And though a captive, still the powers on high
+  Regard his touch. This striking proof is giv'n,
+  That they who bound him are the foes of Heav'n."
+
+Concerning the touching by the kings of France, Pettigrew says: "In
+the church of St. Maclou, in St. Denys, Heylin (_Cosmograph._, p. 184)
+says the kings of France, with a fast of nine days and other penances,
+used to receive the gift of healing the king's evil with nothing but a
+touch. Philip de Comines states, that the king always confessed before
+the cure of the king's evil. Butler (_Lives of the Saints_, vol. VIII,
+p. 394) says, 'The French kings usually only perform this ceremony on
+the day they have received the holy communion.' The historians who
+write under the first two families of the French kings are altogether
+silent as to the kings' curing the evil by the touching. (_Veyrard
+Trav._, p. 109.) Philip of Valois is reported to have cured 1400 people
+afflicted with the king's evil. Of Louis XIII, it was said that he had
+assigned all his power to Cardinal Richelieu, except that of curing
+the king's evil. Carte says, some of the French writers ascribe the
+gift of healing to their king's devotion toward the relics of St.
+Marculf, in the church of Corbigny, in Champagne: to which the kings
+of France, immediately after their coronation at Rheims, used to go in
+solemn procession. A veneration was also paid to this saint in
+England, and a room in memory of him, in the palace of Westminster,
+has frequently been mentioned in the Rolls of Parliament, and which
+was called the Chamber of St. Marculf, being, as Carte conjectures,
+probably the place where the kings used to touch for the evil. This
+room was afterward called the Painted Chamber. The French kings
+practised the touch extensively. Gemelli, the traveller, states, that
+Louis XIV touched 1600 persons on Easter Sunday, 1686.[181] The words
+he used were, 'Le Roy te touche, Dieu te guerisse.' Every Frenchman
+received fifteen sous, and every foreigner thirty. The French kings
+kept up the practice to 1776."[182]
+
+"Servetus," says Hammond, "who was not of a credulous mind, says in
+the first edition of his _Ptolemy_, published in 1535, that he had
+seen the king touch many persons for the disease, but he had never
+seen any that were cured thereby. But the last clause of this sentence
+excited the ire of the censor, and in the next edition, published in
+1541, the words '_an sanati fuerint non vidi_' were changed to
+'_pluresque sanatos passim audivi_': 'I have heard of many that were
+cured.' Testimony in support of miracles has often been manufactured,
+but the natural obstinacy and truthfulness of Servetus would not admit
+of his giving his personal endorsement at the expense of his
+convictions."[183]
+
+Within the last half-century we have had an example of the value of
+the royal touch. When cholera was raging in Naples in 1865, and the
+people were rushing from the city by thousands, King Victor Emmanuel
+went the rounds of the hospitals in an endeavor to stimulate courage
+in the hearts of his people. He lingered at the bedside of the
+patients and spoke encouraging words to them. On a cot lay one man
+already marked for death. The king stepped to his side, and pressing
+his damp, icy hand, said, "Take courage, poor man, and try to recover
+soon." That evening the physicians reported a diminution of the
+disease in the course of the day, and the man marked for death out of
+danger. The king had unconsciously worked a marvellous cure.[184]
+
+It seems certain that there was not the efficacy in king's touch which
+was claimed for it, or it would not have been discontinued after
+having held sway for over seven hundred years. No doubt the
+quasi-religious character of the office of the sovereign helped much
+in the belief, and when such men as Charles II were able to heal,
+little connection between religion and healing could longer be thought
+possible, as far as the healing by king's touch was concerned.
+
+The Hallowing of Cramp Rings was not unlike the king's touch. It is
+described by Bishop Percy in his _Northumberland Household Book_,
+where we have the following account: "And then the Usher to lay a
+Carpett for the Kinge to Creepe to the Crosse upon. An that done,
+there shal be a Forme sett upon the Carpett, before the Crucifix, and
+a Cushion laid upon it for the King to kneale upon. And the Master of
+the Jewell Howse ther to be ready with the Booke concerninge the
+Hallowing of the Crampe Rings, and Amner (Almoner) muste kneele on
+the right hand of the King, holdinge the sayde booke. When that is
+done the King shall rise and goe to the Alter, wheare a Gent. Usher
+shall be redie with a Cushion for the Kinge to kneele upon; and then
+the greatest Lords that shall be ther to take the Bason with the Rings
+and beare them after the Kinge to offer."
+
+In the Harleian Manuscripts there is a letter from Lord Chancellor
+Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith, dated September 11, 158-, about a
+prevailing epidemic, and enclosing a ring for Queen Elizabeth to wear
+between her breasts, the said ring having "the virtue to expell
+infectious airs."
+
+Andrew Boorde, already quoted, says: "The Kynges of England doth
+halowe euery yere crampe rynges, the whyche rynges, worne on ones
+fynger, dothe helpe them the whyche hath the crampe."[185] Also, "The
+kynges majesty hath a great help in this matter, in hallowynge crampe
+rynges, and so given without money or petition."
+
+In the account of the ceremony given by Hospinian, he states that "it
+was performed upon Good Friday, and that it originated from a ring
+which had been brought to King Edward by some persons from Jerusalem,
+and one which he himself hath long before given privately to a poor
+petitioner who asked alms of him for the love he bore to St. John the
+Evangelist. This ring was preserved with great veneration in
+Westminster Abbey, and whoever was touched by this relic was said to
+be cured of the cramp or of the falling sickness." Burnet informs us
+that Bishop Gardiner was at Rome in 1529, and that he wrote a letter
+to Ann Boleyn, by which it appears that Henry VIII blessed the cramp
+rings before as well as after the separation from Rome, and that she
+sent them as great presents thither.
+
+"Mr. Stephens, I send you here cramp rings for you and Mr. Gregory and
+Mr. Peter, praying you to distribute them as you think best.--Ann
+Boleyn."[186]
+
+This ceremonial was practised by previous sovereigns and discontinued
+by Edward VI. Queen Mary intended to revive it, and, indeed, the
+office for it was written out, but she does not appear to have carried
+her intentions into effect.
+
+  [167] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 154
+  f.
+
+  [168] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 372.
+
+  [169] _Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain_, I, p.
+  225.
+
+  [170] Quoted by Berdoe, _ibid._, p. 371.
+
+  [171] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, pp. 257 f.
+
+  [172] T. B. Macaulay, _History of England_, III, pp. 378
+  f.
+
+  [173] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, p. 47.
+
+  [174] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 256.
+
+  [175] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp.
+  182-184.
+
+  [176] Quoted by H. Tuke, _Influence of the Mind upon the
+  Body_, pp. 359 f.
+
+  [177] _Life of Johnson_, I, p. 42.
+
+  [178] _History of England_, II, p. 302.
+
+  [179] Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+  [180] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I,
+  p. 364.
+
+  [181] This was at Versailles.
+
+  [182] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 156
+  f.
+
+  [183] W. A. Hammond, _Spiritism and Nervous
+  Derangement_, p. 150.
+
+  [184] C. L. Tuckey, _Treatment by Hypnotism and
+  Suggestion_, p. 30.
+
+  [185] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 371.
+
+  [186] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 117.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MESMER AND AFTER
+
+
+ "Some deemed them wondrous wise,
+  And some believed them mad."--BEATTIE.
+
+ "A perfect medicine for bodies that be sick
+  Of all infirmities to be relieved;
+  This heleth nature and prolongeth lyfe eke."
+
+Probably no one would claim that the phenomena now grouped under the
+head of hypnotism were unknown before the end of the sixteenth
+century. They are as old as man, yes, probably older, since we know
+that some of the same phenomena apply to animals. But the claim might
+well be made that while isolated facts of this kind were well known,
+especially in the East, no scientific collaboration and explanation
+were attempted until this time.
+
+As with all other departments of science, we may trace a gradual
+development. Astrology of old taught the influence of the stars upon
+men, which doctrine was accepted by the great physician Theophrastus
+Paracelsus (1490-1541). This, however, was only part of his belief:
+the human body was endowed with a double magnetism; one portion
+attracted to itself the planets and was nourished by them, the result
+of which was the mental powers; the other portion attracted and
+disintegrated the elements, from which process resulted the body. He
+also claimed that the magnetic virtue of healthy persons attracted the
+enfeebled magnetism of the sick. With this theory of animal magnetism,
+it was only natural that he should value the use of the magnet very
+highly in the cure of diseases. This dual theory of magnetic cures,
+that of the magnetic influence of men on men and of the magnet on man,
+was prevalent for over a century, and found its latest exponent in
+Mesmer.
+
+Following Paracelsus, Glocenius, Burgrave, Helinotius, Robert Fludd,
+and Kircher believed that the magnet represented the universal
+principle by which all natural phenomena might be explained. This
+principle, existing as it did in the human body, was an important
+factor in health and disease. The great chemist Von Helmont
+(1577-1644) taught more precisely that a power resided in man by which
+he could magnetically affect others, and thereby cure the sick who
+were most influenced by it. He published a work on the effects of
+magnetism on the human frame.
+
+About the same time Balthazar Gracian, a Spaniard, boldly proclaimed
+his views. "The magnet," he said, "attracts iron; iron is found
+everywhere; everything, therefore, is under the influence of
+magnetism.... It is the same agent which gives rise to sympathy,
+antipathy, and the passions." Baptista Porta (1543-1615), one of the
+originators of the weapon-salve, had also great faith in the magnet.
+So effective was his work on the imaginations of his patients that he
+was considered a magician and prohibited from practising by the court
+of Rome. Sebastian Wirdig, professor of medicine at the University of
+Rostock, in Mecklenburg, wrote a treatise on "The New Medicine of the
+Spirits" which he presented to the Royal Society of London in 1673. He
+maintained that a magnetic influence took place, not only between the
+celestial and terrestrial bodies, but between all living things. The
+whole world was under the influence of magnetism: life was preserved
+by magnetism, death was the consequence of magnetism.
+
+Maxwell (1581-1640) propagated somewhat the same doctrine. He was a
+firm believer in sympathetic cures, and assumed a vital spirit of the
+universe which related all bodies. It was probably from this that
+Mesmer got his idea of what he called the universal fluid. It would
+seem, however, that Maxwell was aware of the great influence of
+imagination and suggestion. He said: "If you wish to work prodigies,
+abstract from the materiality of beings--increase the sum of
+spirituality in bodies--rouse the spirit from its slumbers. Unless you
+do one or other of these things--unless you can bind the idea, you can
+never perform anything good or great." About the same time, in Italy,
+Santanelli propagated the theory of a universal fluid. Everything
+material possessed a radiating atmosphere which operated
+magnetically. He also recognized, however, the great influence of the
+imagination.
+
+[Illustration: F. A. MESMER]
+
+About the year 1771, Father Hell, a Jesuit, and professor of astronomy
+at the University of Vienna, became famous through his magnetic cures,
+and invented steel plates of a peculiar form which he applied to the
+naked body as a cure for several diseases. In 1774 he communicated his
+system to Mesmer, the man who, more than any one else, drew the
+world's attention to the investigation of mental healing. Various
+estimates have been made of Mesmer's character and he frequently has
+been condemned. He was fond of display, but it is doubtful if he was
+more avaricious than most persons who lived before and have lived
+since. He was evidently honest in his scientific investigations and
+opinions, and this is our main concern.
+
+Friederich Antony Mesmer (1733-1815) was born at Mersbury, in Swabia,
+and studied medicine at the University of Vienna. He read freely the
+books written by the authors already mentioned, and accepted much of
+their teaching. His originality consisted principally in applying to
+the sick this universal principle, by means of contact and passes,
+while his predecessors infused the vital spirit through the use of
+talismans and of magic boxes. He took his medical degree in 1766 and
+chose as the subject of his inaugural dissertation "The Influence of
+the Planets in the Cure of Diseases." In this dissertation he
+maintained "that the sun, moon, and fixed stars mutually affect each
+other in their orbits; that they cause and direct in our earth a flux
+and reflux not only in the sea, but in the atmosphere, and affect in a
+similar manner all organized bodies through the medium of a subtle and
+mobile fluid, which pervades the universe, and associates all things
+together in mutual intercourse and harmony." This influence, he said,
+was particularly exercised on the nervous system, and produced two
+states, which he called _intension_ and _remission_, which seemed to
+him to account for the different periodical revolutions observable in
+several maladies.
+
+Eight years later he met Father Hell, and after trying some
+experiments with his metallic plates was astonished at his success. He
+continued working with Hell for some time, but they finally
+quarrelled, and shortly afterward he stumbled upon his theory of
+animal magnetism. After this he no longer used the magnet in healing.
+The Academy of Science at Berlin examined his claims, but their report
+was far from favorable or flattering. Nevertheless, writing to a
+friend from Vienna, he said: "I have observed that the magnetic is
+almost the same as the electric fluid, and that it may be propagated
+in the same manner, by means of intermediate bodies. Steel is not the
+only substance adapted to this purpose. I have rendered paper, bread,
+wool, silk, stones, leather, glass, wood, men, and dogs--in short,
+every thing I touched--magnetic to such a degree, that these
+substances produced the same effects as the loadstone on diseased
+persons. I have charged jars with magnetic matter in the same way as
+is done with electricity." About this time he was nominated a member
+of the Academy of Bavaria.
+
+Leaving Vienna and travelling through Swabia and Switzerland, he met
+Gassner and witnessed some of his cures. Mesmer claimed that they were
+performed by his newly discovered magnetism. He arrived in Paris in
+1778 and found this city more receptive to his arts. He at first
+established himself in an humble quarter of the city and began to
+expound his theory. The following year he published a paper in which
+he summed up his claims in twenty-seven assertions to which he rigidly
+held through his life. His doctrines were well received, and acquired
+an impetus at the beginning by the conversion of one of the leading
+physicians of the faculty of medicine, Deslon, the Comte d'Artois'
+first physician.
+
+Pupils and patients now flocked to him. The crowd was so great that
+Mesmer employed a _valet toucheur_ to magnetize in his place. This was
+not sufficient; he then invented the famous _baquet_, or trough,
+around which thirty persons might simultaneously be magnetized. This
+_baquet_ is described as follows: "A circular, oaken case, about a
+foot high, was placed in the middle of a large hall, hung with thick
+curtains, through which only a soft and subdued light was allowed to
+penetrate; this was the _baquet_. At the bottom of the case, on a
+layer of powdered glass and iron filings, there lay full bottles,
+symmetrically arranged, so that the necks of all converged toward the
+centre; other bottles were arranged in the opposite direction, with
+their necks toward the circumference. All these objects were immersed
+in water, but this condition was not absolutely necessary, and the
+_baquet_ might be dry. The lid was pierced with a certain number of
+holes, whence there issued jointed and moving iron branches, which
+were to be held by the patients. Absolute silence was maintained. The
+patients were ranged in several rows round the _baquet_, connected
+with each other by cords passed round their bodies, and by a second
+chain, formed by joining hands."[187]
+
+Additional features were provided to heighten the effect of the
+magnetic charm. "Richly stained glass shed a dim religious light on
+his spacious saloons, which were almost covered with mirrors. Orange
+blossoms scented all the air of his corridors; incense of the most
+expensive kinds burned in antique vases on his chimney-pieces; aeolian
+harps sighed melodious music from distant chambers; while sometimes a
+sweet female voice, from above or below, stole softly upon the
+mysterious silence that was kept in the house and insisted upon from
+all visitors."[188]
+
+Bailly, the historian and celebrated astronomer, an eye-witness,
+describes the results. "Some patients remain calm and experience
+nothing; others cough, spit, feel slight pain, a local or general
+heat, and fall into sweats; others are agitated and tormented by
+convulsions. These convulsions are remarkable for their number,
+duration, and force, and have been known to persist for more than
+three hours. They are characterized by involuntary, jerking movements
+in all the limbs, and in the whole body, by contraction of the throat,
+by twitchings in the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, by dimness
+and rolling of the eyes, by piercing cries, tears, hiccough, and
+immoderate laughter. They are preceded or followed by a state of
+languor or dreaminess, by a species of depression, and even by stupor.
+
+"The slightest sudden noise causes the patient to start, and it has
+been observed that he is affected by a change of time or tune in the
+airs performed on the pianoforte; that his agitation is increased by a
+more lively movement, and that his convulsions then become more
+violent. Patients are seen to be absorbed in the search for one
+another, rushing together, smiling, talking affectionately, and
+endeavoring to modify their crises. They are all so submissive to the
+magnetizer that even when they appear to be in a stupor, his voice, a
+glance, or a sign will rouse them from it. It is impossible not to
+admit, from all these results, that some great force acts upon and
+masters the patients, and that this force appears to reside in the
+magnetizer. This convulsive state is termed the _crisis_. It has been
+observed that many women and few men are subject to such crises; that
+they are only established after the lapse of two or three hours, and
+that when one is established, others soon and successively begin.
+
+"When the agitation exceeds certain limits, the patients are
+transported into a padded room; the women's corsets are unlaced, and
+they may then strike their heads against the padded walls without
+doing themselves any injury." Notwithstanding these means, thousands
+were healed of their diseases.
+
+"It is impossible," says Baron Dupotet, "to conceive the sensation
+which Mesmer's experiments created in Paris. No theological
+controversy, in the earlier ages of the Catholic Church, was ever
+conducted with greater bitterness." He was called a quack, a fool, and
+a demon, while his friends were as extravagant in his praise as his
+foes in their censure. After this great excitement, his life may
+largely be summed up in his challenges to different societies, the
+appointment of commissions, their examinations, and their reports.
+
+On the advice of Deslon he challenged the Faculty of Medicine,
+proposing to select twenty-four patients, of whom twelve should be
+treated according to the old and approved methods and twelve
+magnetically, the cures to prove the efficacy of the treatment. The
+faculty declined to accept the conditions. Deslon asked his colleagues
+on the faculty to summon a general meeting to examine the matter.
+Through the influence of M. de Vauzesmes, the meeting was very hostile
+to him, and he was condemned and threatened with having his name
+removed from the list of licensed physicians if he did not reform.
+
+Mesmer now wrote to Marie Antoinette suggesting that the government
+furnish him with houses, land, and a princely fortune to enable him to
+carry on his experiments untroubled. The government finally offered
+him a pension of 20,000 francs, and the cross of the order of St.
+Michael, if he had made any discovery in medicine, and would
+communicate it to the physicians whom the king should name. Mesmer
+refused the conditions and left Paris.
+
+Deslon was then called upon to renounce animal magnetism, but instead,
+invited investigation. In 1784 the government appointed a commission
+to inquire into magnetism, consisting of members from the Faculty of
+Medicine and the Academy of Sciences. Franklin, Lavoisier, and Bailly
+were members, the last named being chosen reporter. Another
+commission, composed of members of the Royal Society of Medicine, was
+charged to make a distinct report on the same subject. After
+experimenting for five months the first commission presented two
+reports, one public and the other secret, neither of which was
+favorable. The Royal Society of Medicine presented its report a few
+days later, and agreed with the first commission with the exception of
+one member, Laurent de Jussieu, who dissented and published a separate
+report of a more favorable nature. The gist of the commissions'
+reports was that imagination, not magnetism, accounted for the
+results.
+
+Soon after the commissions started their investigations, Mesmer
+returned to Paris at the invitation of his friends, who proposed to
+open a subscription for him for 10,000 louis. Immediately it was
+over-subscribed by over 140,000 francs. He came with the
+understanding that he was to give lectures and to reveal the secret of
+animal magnetism. The lectures and secrets were not satisfactory.
+After the commission reported he left Paris and returned to his own
+country where he was little heard of during the remainder of his life
+which ended in 1815.
+
+Whatever may be said of Mesmer, there seems to be no doubt about the
+honesty of his most famous pupil, the Marquis de Puysegur, and to him
+we are indebted for a forward step. When Mesmer left Paris, the
+marquis retired to his estate near Soissons, and employed his leisure
+in magnetizing peasants. He magnetized his gardener, a young man named
+Victor, and after experimenting upon him claimed that during the state
+Victor exhibited marvellous telepathic and clairvoyant phenomena.
+Unable to attend all the patients who applied to him, he followed
+Mesmer's plan of magnetizing a tree. An elm on the village green was
+chosen, and round this patients gathered on stone benches as around
+Mesmer's _baquet_.
+
+Following Mesmer's theories very closely, the contribution he made was
+in the recognition of the likeness between the magnetized state and
+that of somnambulism, so that he designated this state "artificial
+somnambulism." He also modified the conditions of inducing this
+state, and simple contact or spoken orders were substituted for the
+use of the _baquet_. The effect was therefore milder, and instead of
+hysteria and violent crises accompanied by sobs, cries, and
+contractions, there was peaceful slumber. He recognized the rapport
+between operator and subject, and amnesia on awaking, and other
+phenomena now well known, but he still held to the Mesmeric theory of
+the existence of a universal fluid which saturated all bodies,
+especially the human body. It was electric in nature, and man could
+display and diffuse this electric fluid at will.
+
+While the Marquis de Puysegur was using the elm tree near Soissons,
+the Chevalier de Barbarin was successfully magnetizing people without
+paraphernalia. He sat by the bedside of the sick and prayed that they
+might be magnetized; his efforts were successful. He maintained that
+the effect of animal magnetism was produced by the mere effort of one
+human soul acting upon another; and when the connection had once been
+established the magnetizer could communicate his influence to the
+subject regardless of the distance which separated them. Numerous
+persons adopted this view, calling themselves Barbarinists after their
+leader. In Sweden and Germany they were called _spiritualists_, to
+distinguish them from the followers of de Puysegur, who were called
+_experimentalists_.
+
+About the same time a doctor of Lyons, Petetin, experimented with
+magnetism. After his death a paper written by him was published
+describing catalepsy and sense transference. Numerous magnetic
+societies were founded in the principal cities of France. In
+Strasburg, the Society of Harmony, consisting of more than one hundred
+and fifty members, published for years the result of their work. The
+disturbance incident to the Revolution and the wars of the Empire
+which followed repressed the investigations of magnetism in France for
+several years.
+
+In England the advent of magnetism seems to have taken place about
+1788. In that year one Dr. Mainandus, who had been a pupil first of
+Mesmer and later of Deslon, arrived in Bristol and gave public
+lectures on the subject. People of rank and fortune soon came from
+different cities to be magnetized or to place themselves under his
+tuition. He afterward established himself in London where he was
+equally successful in attracting and curing people. So much curiosity
+was excited by the subject that, about the same time, a man named
+Holloway gave a course of lectures on animal magnetism in London.
+Large crowds gathered to hear him at the rate of five guineas for each
+pupil.
+
+Loutherbourg, the painter, and his wife entered upon a similar work.
+"Such was the infatuation of the people to be witnesses of their
+strange manipulations," says Mackay, "that at times upwards of three
+thousand persons crowded round their house at Hammersmith, unable to
+gain admission. The tickets sold at prices ranging from one to three
+guineas." Loutherbourg later became a divine healer. From 1789 to 1798
+magnetism attracted little or no attention in England. At the latter
+date a Connecticut Yankee, Benjamin Douglas Perkins, invented
+"metallic tractors." The Society of Friends built a hospital called
+the "Perkinean Institute" where all comers might be magnetized free of
+cost.
+
+About 1786 animal magnetism appeared in two different places in
+Germany--on the upper Rhine and in Bremen. At this time Lavater paid a
+visit to Bremen and exhibited the magnetizing process to several
+doctors. Bremen was for a long time a focus of the new doctrine, and
+thereby was brought into bad repute. About the same time the doctrine
+spread from Strasburg over the Rhine provinces. Among those active in
+experiments were Boeckmann of Carlsruhe, Gmelin of Heilbronn, and
+Pezold of Dresden. Soon it spread all over Germany. In 1789 Selle of
+Berlin brought forward a series of experiments made at the Charite
+(Hospital), in which he confirmed some of the alleged phenomena but
+excluded the supernormal.
+
+Notwithstanding the early dislike, animal magnetism flourished in
+Germany during the first twenty years of the nineteenth century. In
+1812 the Prussian government sent Wolfart to Mesmer at Frauenfeld, to
+acquaint himself with the subject. He returned to Berlin an ardent
+adherent of Mesmer and introduced magnetism into the hospital
+treatment. From this magnetism flourished so much in Berlin that, as
+Wurm relates, the Berlin physicians placed a monument on the grave of
+Mesmer at Moersburg, and theological candidates received instruction in
+physiology, pathology, and the treatment of sickness by vital
+magnetism. The well-known physician Koreff was interested in magnetism
+and often made use of it for healing purposes. Magnetism was
+introduced everywhere, especially in Russia and Denmark. In
+Switzerland and Italy it was at first received with less sympathy, and
+in 1815 the exercise of magnetism was forbidden in the whole of
+Austria.
+
+In 1813 the naturalist Deleuze published a book entitled _Histoire
+critique du magnetisme animal_. Like his predecessors, he was chiefly
+interested in the therapeutic value of magnetism, and insisted that
+faith was necessary for effective treatment. On account of this
+condition any demonstration was impossible. He still held to the idea
+of a pervading fluid and maintained that the depth of the magnetic
+sleep depended upon the amount of the magnetic charge. Shortly after
+the appearance of Deleuze's book, interest in animal magnetism
+increased, and several journals dealing exclusively with the subject
+were started.
+
+With the death of Mesmer in 1815 ended the first period in the history
+of the phenomena known as animal magnetism. Up to this time the
+generally accepted theory was that of a vital fluid which permeated
+every thing and person and through which one person influenced
+another. The second period extended from 1815-1841 when Braid
+discovered and formulated the method of operation. The third period
+reached from 1841-1887 during which there was careful and scientific
+study of the whole subject, and hypnotism came into repute as a
+healing measure. I am inclined to posit a fourth period, 1887 to the
+present time, for Myers' hypothesis of a subliminal self, or the
+theory of the subconsciousness, has made a great difference in the
+theory of hypnotism.
+
+The second period began when Abbe Faria in 1814-15 came from India to
+Paris and gave public exhibitions, publishing the results of some of
+his experiments. He seated his subjects in an armchair, with eyes
+closed, and then cried out in a loud commanding voice, "Sleep." He
+used no manipulations and had no _baquet_, but he boasted of having
+produced five thousand somnambulists by this method. He opined that
+the state was caused by no unknown force, but rested in the subject
+himself. He agreed with the present generally accepted theory that all
+is subjective.
+
+Following Faria, Bertrand and Noizet paved the way for the doctrine of
+suggestion notwithstanding their inclination toward animal magnetism.
+Experiments were performed at the Hotel-Dieu in 1820 but later were
+prohibited. Through the influence of Foissac in 1826 the Academy of
+Medicine appointed a committee to examine the subject, and in 1831 a
+report acknowledging the genuineness of the phenomena was made, and
+therapeutic effects were frankly admitted. In 1837 the Academy
+appointed another commission to examine still further, for the members
+as a whole were not convinced. The report of this commission was
+largely negative.
+
+After this the younger Burdin, a member of the Academy, proposed to
+award from his own purse a prize of 3,000 francs to any person who
+could read a given writing without the aid of his eyes, and in the
+dark. The existence of animal magnetism must stand or fall on this
+test. That was the difficulty during this period: the whole dispute
+was waged about, and experiments consisted in tests of, clairvoyance,
+transposition of the sense of sight, and other mystical phenomena,
+instead of dealing with the state as such. This, of course, made the
+struggle much easier for the opponents of mesmerism, but was largely
+the fault of the magnetizers. The Burdin prize was not awarded, and in
+1840 Double proposed that the Academy should henceforth pay no further
+attention to animal magnetism, but treat the subject as definitely
+closed. This was certainly unfair and unscientific, but was the
+attitude assumed.
+
+At the beginning of this period another series of tests was being
+performed in Germany, but after 1820 the belief in magnetism declined
+more and more. It flourished longest in Bremen and in Hamburg where
+Siemers was its advocate. From 1830-1840 Hensler and Ennemoser were
+the chief exponents in Bavaria. As the scientific investigators
+withdrew from the study, the charlatans and frauds entered the field,
+and the marvellous and occult were emphasized, so that in 1840 little
+general attention was paid to the subject.
+
+Notwithstanding the efforts of the London physicians Elliotson and
+Ashburner, magnetism could obtain little footing in England during
+this period. Numerous investigations were made, however, and several
+publications were sent forth. Townshend, Scoresby, and Lee are names
+prominent in the study of the subject in England at this time. In the
+next period, though, an Englishman gives the impetus necessary for the
+successful pursuit of the study.
+
+In 1841 the French magnetizer, La Fontaine, gave some public
+exhibitions in Manchester which attracted the attention of a physician
+by the name of James Braid. Through the aid rendered by Braid, animal
+magnetism blossomed into a science. He directed the subject into its
+proper field: he eschewed the occult and mysterious, and emphasized
+observation and experiment. It was Braid who gave us the word
+"hypnotism." At first a sceptic, he began experimenting and proved
+that fixity of gaze had in some way such an influence on the nervous
+system of the subject that he went off into a sleep. He therefore
+opined that the transmission of a fluid by the operator had no part in
+the matter.
+
+He further showed that an assumed attitude changed the subject's
+sentiments in harmony with the attitude, and that the degree of sleep
+varied with different persons, and with the same person at different
+times. He also noted the acuteness of the senses during hypnosis, and
+that verbal suggestion would produce hallucinations, emotions,
+paralysis, etc. Therapeutics was a subject in which he was naturally
+interested, and his experiments on different diseases were frequent
+and valuable. Braid made some mistakes, as was natural, but his
+discoveries covered the field so well and his ideas were so sound
+that too much credit cannot be ascribed to him. At first he thought
+hypnotism (Braidism) was identical with animal magnetism, but later
+made the mistake of considering it analogous, and the two flourished
+side by side and independently.
+
+Animal magnetism was first introduced into America in 1836 by Mr.
+Charles Poyan, a French gentleman. A few years later a certain Dr.
+Collyer lectured upon it in New England. New Orleans was, however, for
+a long time its chief centre. In 1848 Grimes, working independently,
+appears to have arrived at about the same conclusions as Braid. He
+showed that most of the hypnotic phenomena could be produced in the
+waking state in some subjects, by means of verbal suggestion. The
+phenomena were known under the name of electro-biology. In 1850
+Darling went to England and introduced electro-biology, but it was
+soon identified with Braidism, and in 1853 Durand de Gros, who wrote
+under the pseudonym of Philips, exhibited the phenomena of
+electro-biology in several countries, but aroused little attention.
+
+Azam of Bordeaux and Broca of Paris made some experiments following
+Braid's method, and several times performed some painless operations
+by this means. They were followed by numerous others in all European
+countries and in America. In fact, the interest in the subject became
+general, and as more was known about it, fewer objections were heard.
+Societies were formed for the study of hypnotism, publications were
+started devoting all their space to the exposition and discussion of
+it, and as this third period advanced, its scientific value was more
+and more recognized from the stand-points of psychology, pathology,
+and therapeutics.
+
+In a brief resume like this it would be impossible to name even the
+chief experimenters in the different countries who contributed to this
+period, but some names stand out so prominently that they should be
+emphasized, for they must be reckoned in importance with Braid's.
+Liebeault, whose book, _Du Sommeil_, _etc._, was published in 1866,
+has been called the founder of the therapeutics of suggestion. While
+suggestion in both waking and hypnotic states had been applied long
+before Liebeault's day, it was he who first fully and methodically
+recognized its value. We are also indebted to him for stimulating in
+the study of hypnosis Bernheim and other prominent investigators.
+Liebeault at the head of the School of Nancy was not less known than
+Charcot at the Salpetriere.
+
+Charcot was indefatigable in his researches, but was led away in his
+conclusions by artifacts. For example: three states were produced in
+the hypnotic subject which Charcot considered to be symptomatic and
+characteristic. They were catalepsy, lethargy, and somnambulism.
+Certain physical excitations, such as rubbing the scalp or exposing
+the eyes to a bright light, were thought to be all that was necessary
+to change the subject from one stage to another. It has since been
+shown that not only were the states of catalepsy, lethargy, and
+somnambulism produced by suggestion, but the physical stimuli were
+simply suggestions and signs by which the subject knew that a
+particular change was expected, and, in harmony with hypnotic action,
+the expected change came about. Not only did Charcot make this
+mistake, but some of his followers of the Salpetriere School continued
+to be deceived for years afterward.
+
+Hardly a conclusion of Charcot's remains to-day, and yet so earnest
+was he in his investigations and so untiring in his experiments, that
+many of his facts contributed much to our knowledge of the subject
+even if his theories have been rejected. Binet, Fere, and other
+followers of his have contributed much to the science and literature
+of the subject. The latter half of this period is not unknown to us
+to-day, and as the names connected with it are familiar, it remains
+for me to mention but one more name, that of the one who ushered in
+the fourth period, F. W. H. Myers.
+
+From its beginning Myers was prominently connected with the Society
+for Psychical Research and occupied the offices of president and
+secretary. He held the latter position at the time of his death in
+1901. In 1887 he formulated his theory of the subliminal self or
+subliminal consciousness, a theory which has come to be more and more
+accepted, and the value of which has received increasing appreciation.
+It has been known as the "subconscious self" or the "subconsciousness"
+probably more than by Myers's original title; and his theory has been
+modified by some subtractions and additions, but it is generally
+accepted to-day and its exposition has helped solve many problems in
+abnormal psychology. In no department has it contributed more than in
+that of hypnotism, for by it this state has been partially explained.
+
+For a number of years Charcot and his followers put forward a
+physiological theory of hypnotism which waged war with that of the
+Nancy School, under Liebeault, but even before Charcot's death he
+recognized the validity of the Nancy claims while still clinging to
+his own. Few if any espouse Charcot's claims to-day. The general
+psychological theory of Nancy, which bases the results on suggestion,
+is that currently accepted, while a theory not very different from
+that of animal magnetism has been held by some of those who accepted
+the spiritualistic hypothesis, notably among whom was Myers.
+
+Hypnotism to-day is recognized as the product of a long line of
+erroneous theory and zigzag development, but the wheat has largely
+been sifted and the chaff thrown to the winds of antiquity. Its
+therapeutic and psychological value is duly recognized by science
+to-day.[189]
+
+
+  [187] Binet and Fere, _Animal Magnetism_, p. 8.
+
+  [188] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, I,
+  p. 278.
+
+  [189] Many works and encyclopedic articles on hypnotism
+  have been consulted in the preparation of this chapter,
+  all of which were valuable, and few of which stand out
+  prominently.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE HEALERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+  "Medical cannot be separated from moral science, without
+  reciprocal and essential mutilation."--REID.
+
+  "Man is a dupeable animal. Quacks in medicine, quacks in
+  religion, and quacks in politics know this, and act upon
+  that knowledge. There is scarcely anyone who may not,
+  like a trout, be taken by tickling."--SOUTHEY.
+
+ "Canst thou minister to a mind diseas'd,
+  Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow,
+  Raze out the written troubles of the brain,
+  And with some sweet oblivious antidote
+  Cleanse the stuff'd bosom of that perilous stuff
+  Which weighs upon the heart?"--SHAKESPEARE.
+
+ "Joy, temperance, and repose,
+  Slam the door on the doctor's nose."--LONGFELLOW.
+
+There seems to have been a great development of mental healing during
+the nineteenth century. The healing by shrines, relics, and charms
+diminished in the latter part of the century on account of the
+lessening of superstition and the better understanding of mental laws,
+but additional work has thereby been laid upon the healers. The
+development of hypnotism and the exposition of the laws underlying it,
+the collection and publication of cases of cures by mental means, the
+lessening of faith in noxious doses of drugs, the increase of nervous
+diseases which are most easily helped by suggestive therapeutics, the
+attempted duplication of apostolic gifts on the part of some sects and
+the general reaction against the materialism of the early part of the
+century as shown in the great revival of psychical study and research
+have all been factors in the demand for mental medicine.
+
+The healers have been of various kinds. Having already dealt with the
+mesmerizers and hypnotizers, we shall now look only at the classes of
+independent and generally less scientific investigators and
+experimenters. Some have not been regular healers but healed only
+incidentally, as, _e. g._, the revivalists; some have followed James
+5:14 f. in anointing with oil and praying--of these and others, some
+have had institutions for housing the patients; some have been
+peripatetic healers; some have simply used prayer; some have
+established their systems on metaphysical bases and been the founders
+of sects; some have combined the results of scientific investigations
+in an endeavor to help mankind. Many of these have simply followed the
+ways of their predecessors of former centuries, but a few started on
+new lines of procedure. Whatever the method, they have all,
+consciously or unconsciously, depended upon the influence of the
+patient's mind over his own body, and the now better understood laws
+of suggestion.
+
+The revivals were eighteenth and nineteenth century phenomena, and in
+discussing the part which their leaders have taken in healing we may
+well include the experience of Wesley. As a mere incident in his
+revival work, John Wesley (1703-1791), the great founder of Methodism,
+appeared in the rather unenviable role of exorcist. It is to his
+credit that he was not led away from his primary purpose by this
+experience, but returned to his preaching without any effort to add
+healing to his gifts. The account of his encounter with the demons can
+best be given by quoting his own words, as found in his Journal.
+
+"October 25 [1739]. I was sent for to one in Bristol who was taken ill
+the evening before. She lay on the ground furiously gnashing her teeth
+and after a while roared aloud. It was not easy for three or four
+persons to hold her, especially when the name of Jesus was named. We
+prayed. The violence of her symptoms ceased, though without a complete
+deliverance." Wesley was sent for later in the day. "She began
+screaming before I came into the room, then broke out into a horrid
+laughter, mixed with blasphemy, grievous to hear. One who from many
+circumstances apprehended a preternatural agent to be concerned in
+this, asking, 'How didst thou dare to enter into a Christian?' was
+answered, 'She is not a Christian, she is mine.' Then another
+question, 'Dost thou not tremble at the name of Jesus?' No words
+followed, but she shrunk back and trembled exceedingly. 'Art thou not
+increasing thy own damnation?' It was faintly answered, 'Ay! Ay!'
+which was followed by fresh cursing and blasphemy ... with spitting,
+and all the expressions of strong aversion." Two days later Wesley
+called and prayed with her again, when "All her pangs ceased in a
+moment, she was filled with peace, and knew that the son of wickedness
+was departed from her." On October 28 he exorcised two more demons
+whom he had evidently (unconsciously) been the means of producing in
+two neurotic girls. He had a few other experiences in healing, but
+always in an incidental way.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN ALEXANDER DOWIE]
+
+Charles G. Finney (1792-1875) had at least one experience as a healer.
+During revival services at Antwerp, N. Y., in 1824, two insane women
+were cured, but Finney was directly concerned in the restoration of
+only one of them. Of this he gives an account in his memoirs. "There
+were two very striking cases of instantaneous recovery from insanity
+during this revival. As I went into meeting in the afternoon of one
+Sabbath, I saw several ladies sitting in a pew, with a woman dressed
+in black who seemed to be in great distress of mind; and they were
+partly holding her, and preventing her from going out. As I came in,
+one of the ladies came to me and told me she was an insane woman.... I
+said a few words to her; but she replied that she must go; that she
+could not hear any praying, or preaching, or singing; that hell was
+her portion, and she could not endure anything that made her think of
+heaven. I cautioned the ladies, privately, to keep her in her seat, if
+they could, without her disturbing the meeting. I then went into the
+pulpit and read a hymn. As soon as the singing began, she struggled
+hard to get out. But the ladies obstructed her passage; and kindly but
+persistently prevented her escape.... As I proceeded ... all at once
+she startled the congregation by uttering a loud shriek. She then cast
+herself almost from her seat, held her head very low, and I could see
+that she 'trembled very exceedingly.' ... As I proceeded she began to
+look up again, and soon sat upright, with face wonderfully changed,
+indicating triumphant joy and peace.... She glorified God and rejoiced
+with amazing triumph. About two years after, I met with her, and found
+her still full of joy and peace."[190]
+
+The so-called "Mountain Evangelist," George O. Barnes, who was born in
+1827, added healing to his other revival efforts. After leaving the
+Presbyterian Church he did his work mostly in Kentucky as an
+independent minister, and there anointed with oil according to James
+5:14 f. In his records little is said about the cures, but the daily
+number of anointings is given, amounting to at least five thousand in
+all. He believed that the devil, not God, sends sickness: God is the
+great healer. The anointing was simply a matter of faith. His formula
+varied and was very simple, as _e. g._, "Dear daughter, in Jesus's
+precious name I anoint thee with this oil of healing for thy maladies.
+Oh, go on thy way rejoicing. Be of good cheer. He is the great healer.
+He will make thee whole. He hath commanded it. Lean thy whole weight
+on Him."[191] His views may be judged by the following extract from a
+sermon of his on "Our Healer": "Oh, the hospitals and drug-stores, the
+bitter doses, the pains and racks, the tortures--great God, may this
+people believe to-day that thou hast nothing to do with this, that all
+came in with sin, and the devil manages it all; and wherever we are
+afflicted God stands by wringing His hands, and saying, '... Return to
+me, O backsliding children. Come back to me, and I will keep the devil
+off of you.'"[192] I take also some extracts from his daily record.
+
+  "July 19 [1881]. John and I took a long walk.... I shall
+  not repeat the experiment, for I got many chiggers on
+  me, which are tormenting me from head to foot while I
+  write, I think because I trusted the pennyroyal to keep
+  them off me instead of the Lord. It was not wilful, but
+  a slip of forgetfulness, yet a door wide enough for
+  Satan to enter a little bit. Now, instead of trying
+  pennyroyal to get me rid of them, I will trust the Lord
+  only.
+
+  "July 20. The chiggers gave exquisite torment. I shall
+  never trust in pennyroyal again.
+
+  "July 21. Satan tried to get me wavering on the eye
+  question, but the dear Lord set me up more firmly than
+  ever.
+
+  "July 24. We have gotten into a little trouble by
+  carelessly trying to help the dear Lord take care of his
+  little organ. A key was silent, and yesterday Marie
+  tried to remedy it. There was a good deal of taking out
+  of keys, and dusting--result, two keys silent now, and
+  one that won't be silent, but goes on in a bass wail
+  through every song. So much for meddling with the dear
+  Lord's work. We trust Him, when the lesson is learned,
+  to set the little machine all right again.... The dear
+  Lord cured the little organ this afternoon while we were
+  at dinner; at least it was all right, as Marie with a
+  happy smile informed me before she began to sing the
+  first song. I gave thanks for it in the opening prayer,
+  and then told the people all about it.
+
+  "July 27. Satan is not a little busy with me, injecting
+  doubts as to the right to trust for eyes. Faith still
+  quenches all his fiery darts, although it sorely tries
+  me to be thus inactive in these long summer days,
+  without reading my beautiful edition of Young's
+  Concordance, useless at the bottom of my trunk. My
+  Revised New Testament I can only get at through
+  others."[193]
+
+Leaving now the revivalists, let us take up the cases of others not
+revivalists who used anointing for healing. In her native hamlet of
+Maennedorf, Switzerland, Dorothea Trudel (1813-1862), the descendant
+of some generations of faith healers, cured many. Soon people began to
+come to her from near and far and, finally, at the solicitation of a
+"patient" of rank, she purchased a home where the afflicted could be
+near her. In 1856 the health authorities interfered. She was fined; an
+appeal was taken and, finally, she was permitted to carry on her work
+in connection with the home under some formal restrictions. During the
+course of the trial some authenticated cases of cure were produced:
+"one stiff knee, pronounced incurable by the best surgeons of France,
+Germany, and Switzerland; a leading physician testified to the
+recovery of a hopeless patient of his own; a burned foot, which was
+about to be amputated to prevent impending death, was healed without
+means. The evidence was incontrovertible, and the cases numerous. The
+cure was often contemporaneous with the confession of Christ by the
+unbelieving patient; but duration of the sickness varied with each
+case. Lunatics were commonly sent forth cured in a brief while."
+Nothing miraculous was claimed and no war was waged against
+physicians. It was not asserted that a cure was infallibly made, but
+it was pointed out as a simpler and more direct method. The means
+employed were gentleness, discipline, Bible reading, prayer, and
+anointing. After the death of Dorothea the home continued under the
+supervision of Mr. Samuel Zeller.
+
+Charles Cullis (1833-1892), a young physician of Boston, suffered a
+crushing bereavement in the death of his wife shortly after their
+marriage, and then vowed to devote his life to charity. Inspired by
+Mueller's _Life of Trust_ he established a number of charitable
+institutions, relying on prayer and faith for their support. Some of
+these institutions were for the cure of the sick, and in connection
+with these, and otherwise, Dr. Cullis anointed and prayed with all who
+came to him. Every summer a camp-meeting was held at Old Orchard
+Beach, Maine, where the large collections gathered were the subject of
+annual comment. He was followed in his work by Rev. A. B. Simpson, of
+New York, who now conducts it. The latter was formerly a Presbyterian
+minister but is now an independent. He still heals and takes
+up collections. From the efforts of Cullis and Simpson have
+come the Christian and Missionary Alliance and other similar
+organizations with Pentecost as the text and apostolic gifts as the
+much-sought-after prize. The proof of success is found in healing,
+speaking with tongues, trances, visions, and other abnormal phenomena.
+
+The "Holy Ghost and Us" movement, with headquarters at Shiloh, Maine,
+was an outgrowth of the Christian and Missionary Alliance propaganda.
+Rev. F. W. Sanford (1863- ) was born on Bowdoinham Ridge, Maine. He
+graduated at Bates College in 1886 and attended Cobb Divinity School
+for a short time. His ordination took place in 1887, after which he
+held two pastorates of three years each, presumedly in Free Baptist
+churches. In 1891, while attending meetings at Old Orchard, he was
+inspired to start "a movement on strictly apostolic lines, which was
+to sweep the entire globe." He started on this new work early in 1893
+with Shiloh, Maine, as the centre. Relying on faith alone, several
+buildings were erected and paid for, among which is Bethesda--a Home
+of Healing: "For those who believe God told the truth when He said,
+'The prayer of Faith shall save the sick.'" In an account of the
+healing we read: "We have seen ... in at least one case, the
+restoration of the dead to life." Quite a following embraced the
+doctrine at one time, but lately there has been a considerable
+decline.
+
+An institution for faith healing was established in the north of
+London by Rev. W. E. Boardman (1810-1886). He called it "Bethshan" or
+the "Nursery of Faith" and refused to permit it to be called a
+hospital. The usual method of treatment was by anointing with oil and
+prayer, but it was claimed that many also were healed by
+correspondence. The results professed were very extravagant, among the
+cases being cancer, paralysis, advanced consumption, chronic
+rheumatism, and lameness of different kinds. As a proof of the cure of
+the last named affliction, numerous canes and crutches left behind by
+the healed were on exhibition.[194]
+
+It is said that Lord Radstock practised healing through anointing in
+Australia about the same time.
+
+There have been a number of prominent healers who have used prayer,
+and perhaps the laying on of hands, as the means for healing, and have
+usually eschewed anointing. Among these was Prince Hohenlohe
+(1794-1849). His was probably the greatest name in mental healing in
+the nineteenth century. He was born in Waldenburg and educated at
+several institutions. He was ordained priest in 1815 and officiated
+at Olmuetz, Munich, and other places. In 1820 he met a peasant, Martin
+Michel, who had performed some wonderful cures, and in connection with
+him effected a so-called miraculous cure on a princess of
+Schwarzenberg who had been for some years a paralytic.[195] From this
+experience he became enthusiastic in healing, and he acquired such a
+fame as a performer of miraculous cures that multitudes flocked from
+different countries to receive the benefit of his supposed
+supernatural gifts. In one year (1848-49) there were eighteen thousand
+people who obtained access to him. His name and his titles probably
+had not a little to do with his wide influence. They were Alexander
+Leopold Franz Emmerich, Prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfuerst,
+Archbishop and Grand Provost of Grosswardein, Hungary, and Abbot of St.
+Michael's at Gaborjan.
+
+The testimony concerning his cures is from reliable witnesses. Notice
+the letter written by the ex-King of Bavaria to Count von Sinsheim,
+describing his own case:
+
+  My dear Count:
+
+  There are still miracles. The ten last days of the last
+  month, the people of Wuerzburg might believe themselves
+  in the times of the Apostles. The deaf heard, the blind
+  saw, the lame freely walked, not by the aid of art, but
+  by a few short prayers, and by the invocation of the
+  name of Jesus.... On the evening of the 28th, the number
+  of persons cured, of both sexes, and of every age,
+  amounted to more than twenty. These were of all classes
+  of the people, from the humblest to a prince of the
+  blood, who, without any exterior means, recovered, on
+  the 27th at noon, the hearing which he had lost from
+  his infancy. This cure was effected by a prayer made for
+  him during some minutes, by a priest who is scarcely
+  more than twenty-seven years of age--the Prince
+  Hohenlohe. Although I do not hear so well as the
+  majority of the persons who are about me, there is no
+  comparison between my actual state and that which it was
+  before. Besides, I perceive daily that I hear more
+  clearly.... My hearing, at present, is very sensitive.
+  Last Friday, the music of the troop which defiled in the
+  square in front of the palace, struck my tympanum so
+  strongly, that for the first time, I was obliged to
+  close the window of my cabinet.
+
+  The inhabitants of Wuerzburg have testified, by the most
+  lively and sincere acclamations, the pleasure which my
+  cure has given them. You are at liberty to communicate
+  my letter, and to allow any one who wishes, to take a
+  copy of it.
+
+  Bruckenau, _July 3d, 1822_. Louis, _Prince Royal_.
+
+Professor Onymus, of the University of Wuerzburg, reported a number of
+cases cured by Prince Hohenlohe, which he himself witnessed. He gives
+the following:
+
+  "Captain Ruthlein, an old gentleman of Thundorf, 70
+  years of age, who had long been pronounced incurable of
+  paralysis, which kept his hand clenched, and who had not
+  left his room for many years, has been perfectly cured.
+  Eight days after his cure he paid me a visit, rejoicing
+  in the happiness of being able to walk freely.
+
+  "A man, of about 50, named Bramdel, caused himself to be
+  carried by six men from Carlstadt to the Court at
+  Stauffenburg. His arms and legs were utterly paralyzed,
+  hanging like those of a dead man, and his face was of a
+  corpse-like pallor. On the prayer of the Prince he was
+  instantly cured, rose to his feet, and walked perfectly,
+  to the profound astonishment of all present.
+
+  "A student of Burglauer, near Murmerstadt, had lost for
+  two years the use of his legs; he was brought in a
+  carriage, and though he was only partially relieved by
+  the first and second prayer of the Prince, at the third
+  he found himself perfectly well.
+
+  "These cures are real and they are permanent. If any one
+  would excite doubts of the genuineness of the cases
+  operated by Prince Hohenlohe, it is only necessary to
+  come hither and consult a thousand other eye and ear
+  witnesses like myself. Every one is ready to give all
+  possible information about them."[196]
+
+The Mormons, under the leadership of Joseph Smith, Jr. (1805-1844),
+were healing the sick about the time that Prince Hohenlohe was
+performing his miracles on the other side of the water. Smith was born
+in Sharon, Vermont. The Mormon Church (The Church of Jesus Christ of
+Latter Day Saints) was founded in 1830 in Palmyra, New York, and moved
+from there to Kirkland, Ohio; Independence, Missouri; Nauvoo,
+Illinois; and thence to Utah. Smith was successively first elder,
+prophet, seer, and revelator. The year the church was founded Smith
+began his healing career as an exorcist, casting the devil out of
+Newel Knight in Colesville, New York. Following this, there was a firm
+belief in demoniacal possession, and exorcism was practised by both
+Smith and his followers, principally by means of command. This
+exorcism led up to faith healing.
+
+Smith's maternal uncle, Jason Mack, was a firm believer in healing by
+prayer and practised it; later, the Oneida Community of Perfectionists
+in western New York cured by faith; both of these facts would be known
+to the founder of Mormonism. After adopting faith healing he soon
+became proficient in the art. Numerous well-attested cures were
+performed by Smith and his followers in other places. Elder Richards
+advertised in England "Bones set through Faith in Christ," and Elder
+Phillips made the additional statement that "while commanding the
+bones, they came together, making a noise like the crushing of an old
+basket." All forms of disease were treated, but not always
+successfully, as may be inferred from Smith's own words: "The cholera
+burst forth among us, even those on guard fell to the earth with their
+guns in their hands.... At the commencement I attempted to lay on
+hands for their recovery, but I quickly learned by painful experience,
+that when the great Jehovah decrees destruction upon any people, makes
+known His determination, man must not attempt to stay his hand." The
+means employed varied, but included at different times prayer,
+command, laying on of hands, consecrated handkerchiefs and other
+cloths, baptism, and infrequently anointing.[197]
+
+Crossing the ocean again, we find Johann Christolph Blumhardt
+(1805-1880) performing wonderful acts of healing. He assumed his first
+independent charge in 1838 when he became pastor of the village church
+at Moettlinger, Wurtemberg. He was known afterward as Pastor
+Blumhardt. Among his parishioners was Gottliebin Ditters, generally
+thought to be possessed by an evil spirit. After two years prayer and
+care for this woman, he saw her restored to peace of mind. This was
+the beginning of a life of faith in the efficacy of prayer for
+healing. After the restoration of Gottliebin a spontaneous and
+entirely unexpected revival took place in Moettlinger. Multitudes came
+from afar to hear this sincere man preach his simple sermons, and in
+many cases bodily disease left those who confessed and upon whom
+Blumhardt laid his hands. It became noised about that those who
+repented, with whom the pastor prayed and upon whom he laid his hands,
+would be healed. "One morning a mother rushed to his house, saying
+that she had by an accident scalded her child with boiling soup. The
+infant was found screaming with agony. He took the child in his arms,
+prayed over it, and it grew quiet. It had no further pain, and the
+effects of the scalding were quickly gone. Another child was nearly
+blind with disease. A neighboring pastor, when consulted, said to the
+parents: 'If you believe Jesus can and will heal your child, by all
+means go to Blumhardt, but if you have not got the faith, don't do it
+on any account; let an operation be performed.' 'Well, we have faith,'
+they said, and went to Blumhardt. Three days after it was perfectly
+well." These events could not fail to attract attention, and miracles
+or healings from his prayers were of constant occurrence. In 1852
+Blumhardt moved to Boll, Wurtemberg, and until his death he continued
+his healing. He did not despise human means of healing, but he stoutly
+held that Jesus would answer the prayer of faith uttered for and by
+the sick.
+
+About the middle of the century Father Mathew (1790-1856) attracted a
+large number of persons who were in need of healing. He was best
+known as the famous apostle of temperance, and was to Ireland in the
+nineteenth century what Wesley was to England in the eighteenth. He
+also travelled over England and Scotland and spent two years in
+America. In one period of nine months he induced two hundred thousand
+persons to take the temperance pledge. Among other things he cured
+blindness, lameness, paralysis, hysteria, headache, and lunacy. After
+his death the same diseases which he had cured during his lifetime
+were just as effectively relieved by visiting the good father's tomb,
+in the firm belief that a miracle would be performed. From the
+following cure, his first one, it will be seen that the discovery of
+his healing power was rather accidental.
+
+  "A young lady, of position and intelligence, was for
+  years the victim of the most violent headaches, which
+  assumed a chronic character. Eminent advice was had but
+  in vain; the malady became more intense, the agony more
+  excruciating. Starting up one day from the sofa on which
+  she lay in a delirium of pain, she exclaimed--'I cannot
+  endure this torture any longer; I will go and see what
+  Father Mathew can do for me.' She immediately proceeded
+  to Lehanagh, where Father Mathew was then sick and
+  feeble. Flinging herself on her knees before him she
+  besought his prayers and blessing. In fact, stung by
+  intolerable suffering she asked him to cure her. 'My
+  dear child, you ask me what no mortal has power to do.
+  The power to cure rests alone with God. I have no such
+  power.' 'Then bless me, and pray for me--place your hand
+  on my head,' implored the afflicted lady. 'I cannot
+  refuse to pray for you, or to bless you,' said Father
+  Mathew, who did pray for and bless her, and place his
+  hand upon her poor throbbing brow. Was it faith?--was it
+  magnetism?--was it the force of imagination exerted
+  wonderfully? I shall not venture to pronounce what it
+  was; but that lady returned to her home perfectly cured
+  of her distressing malady. More than that--cured
+  completely, from that moment, forward."[198]
+
+About the same time, Mrs. Elizabeth Mix, a negro woman living in
+Connecticut, achieved great fame through her healing by prayer. Many
+testified to the efficacy of her prayers and bewailed her death.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE O. BARNES]
+
+Francis Schlatter (1856-1909) was a native of Alsace, France. He was
+born a Roman Catholic and, so far as he was affiliated with any
+denomination, always remained one. When a year old, he was blind and
+deaf and was cured by his mother's prayers. He came to America in
+1891, and first settled at Jamestown, Long Island. Early in 1893 he
+moved to Denver, Colorado, and in the following July he felt impelled
+by inner promptings to start out, he knew not whither. Probably
+mentally unbalanced, he wandered through the wilderness of the great
+Southwest without shoes or hat. Fasts, temptations, visions, arrests
+and imprisonments, and healings combined to furnish his experience
+during these wanderings, always, as he said, being led by the Father.
+In July, 1895, he arrived at Las Lunas, New Mexico, where he first
+attracted public attention as a healer. From here he went to
+Albuquerque, where he treated as many as six hundred persons in a day,
+many very effectively. After forty days' fast, which was broken by a
+hearty meal of solid food, he went to Denver and here reached the
+pinnacle of his fame and success. At the home of a sympathizer, daily
+from 9 A. M. to 4 P. M., he treated those who came to him, always
+without any remuneration. From two thousand to five thousand people
+would congregate in line, reaching nearly around a city block, five or
+six abreast, but he was never able to treat more than two thousand in
+a day. Crowds came from other cities, and some few from great
+distances, even the New England States. He stood inside a fence, and
+as each one came along he held the patient's hand for a short time;
+lifting up his eyes, he prayed and then assured the sufferer of
+relief within a certain time. Through the mail and in other ways he
+received handkerchiefs which he blessed and returned with assurance of
+relief through them. Not all cases handled were restored to health or
+even noticeably eased, but large numbers testified to cures, some of
+which came immediately and others by degrees. He did not preach.
+Although he never claimed it, when asked, "Are you the Christ?" he
+always replied, "I am." He wore a beard and long hair, and dressed in
+the plainest clothes. In appearance he looked not unlike the pictures
+of the traditional Christ. Afterward he appeared in different parts of
+the United States, but never with the same success in healing as in
+Denver.[199]
+
+The once famous Dr. Newton arrived in Boston in 1859 on one of his
+visits, and caused an extraordinary sensation. Astonishing results
+were reported in the way of cures. The lame, having no further need of
+crutches, left them behind; the blind were cured, and several chronic
+cases were relieved. He had many followers and disciples among whom
+was "Dr." Bryant, who settled in Detroit and healed there. Rev. J. M.
+Buckley, D.D., met Dr. Newton on a Mississippi steam-boat, when the
+latter was returning from Havana with his daughter who was very low
+with consumption, and the father doubted if she would reach home
+alive. When asked "Doctor, why could you not heal her?" he replied "It
+seems as if we cannot always affect our own kindred." At this time he
+denounced his pupil, Dr. Bryant, as an "unmitigated fraud who had no
+genuine healing power."
+
+  "If Bryant be an unmitigated fraud, how do you account
+  for the cures which he makes?" asked Dr. Buckley.
+
+  "Oh!" said the doctor, "they are caused by the faith of
+  the people and the concentration of their minds upon his
+  operations with the expectation of being cured. Now,"
+  said he, "nobody would go to see Bryant unless they had
+  some faith that he might cure them, and when he begins
+  his operations with great positiveness of manner, and
+  when they see the crutches he has there, and hear the
+  people testify that they have been cured, it produces a
+  tremendous influence on them; and then he gets them
+  started in the way of exercising, and they do a good
+  many things that they thought they could not do; their
+  appetites and spirits revive, and if toning them up can
+  possibly reduce the diseased tendency, many of them will
+  get well."
+
+  Said Dr. Buckley: "Doctor, pardon me, is not that a
+  correct account of the manner in which you perform your
+  wonderful works?"
+
+  "Oh, no," said he; "the difference between a genuine
+  healer and a quack like Bryant is as wide as the
+  poles."[200]
+
+Father John of Cronstadt (1829-1908) was a saintly man, and furnishes
+us with an example of the healers among the Orthodox Church of the
+East. He was famed in all Russia for his sanctity, and was so thronged
+by crowds for his healing power that he often had to escape by side
+doors after celebrating the communion. His cures were many, but I
+choose his own account of one as an example.
+
+  "A certain person who was sick unto death from
+  inflammation of the bowels for nine days, without having
+  obtained the slightest relief from medical aid, as soon
+  as he had communicated of the Holy Sacrament, upon the
+  morning of the ninth day, regained his health and rose
+  from his bed of sickness in the evening of the same day.
+  He received the Holy Communion with firm faith. I prayed
+  to the Lord to cure him. 'Lord,' said I, 'heal thy
+  servant of his sickness. He is worthy, therefore grant
+  him this. He loves thy priests and sends them his
+  gifts.' I also prayed for him in church before the altar
+  of the Lord, at the Liturgy, during the prayer: 'Thou
+  who hast given us grace at this time, with one accord to
+  make our common supplication unto thee,' and before the
+  Holy Mysteries themselves. I prayed in the following
+  words: 'Lord, our life! It is as easy for thee to cure
+  every malady as it is for me to think of healing. It is
+  as easy for thee to raise every man from the dead as it
+  is for me to think of the possibility of the
+  resurrection of the dead. Cure, then, thy servant Basil
+  of his cruel malady, and do not let him die; do not let
+  his wife and children be given up to weeping.' And the
+  Lord graciously heard, and had mercy upon him, although
+  he was within a hair's breadth of death. Glory to thine
+  omnipotence and mercy, that thou, Lord, hast vouchsafed
+  to hear me!"[201]
+
+For the past century and a half healing has been carried on among the
+Pennsylvania Germans by means of a superstitious practice known as
+"Pow-wow." A book called _The Sixth Book of Moses, or Black Art_ is
+said to be the basis of the practice. The practitioners are usually
+women of the most ignorant, degraded, and, not infrequently, immoral
+class, and in harmony with this, a firm belief in witchcraft is
+entertained by them. Notwithstanding this, they are employed at times
+by intelligent and respectable people, even by those whose standing in
+the community might well guarantee a disbelief in such incantations.
+The healers treat for burns, erysipelas and all skin diseases, goitre,
+tumors, rheumatism, and some other similar troubles. They have
+different formulas for the various diseases, and the belief is current
+that if a healer should reveal the formula to her own sex, she would
+lose her power, and if she told more than one of the opposite sex,
+the power would be taken from her. The following is the method of
+operating for burns:
+
+  "Take a piece of red woolen yarn and wrap it into the
+  shape of a ball. Pass it slowly around the burn and
+  while doing so, repeat three times, 'The fire burneth,
+  water quencheth, the pain ceaseth.' After which reverse
+  the movement and repeat the words again three times.
+  Then take the yarn upstairs, pull out the chimney-stop,
+  put the yarn in the chimney, and as soon as it
+  disappears the burn is healed."
+
+There have been a number of cases of local healers and I give two
+examples: "At the time of the prevalence of cholera in Canada, a man
+named Ayers, who came out of the States, and was said to be a graduate
+of the University of New Jersey, was given out to be St. Roche, the
+principal patron saint of the Canadians, and renowned for his power in
+averting pestilential diseases. He was reported to have descended from
+heaven to cure his suffering people of the cholera, and many were the
+cases in which he appeared to afford relief. Many were thus
+dispossessed of their fright in anticipation of the disease, who
+might, probably, but for his inspiriting influence, have fallen
+victims to their apprehensions. The remedy he employed was an
+admixture of maple sugar, charcoal, and lard."[202]
+
+"The _Month_ for June, 1892, published an account, by the late Earl of
+Denbigh, of a cure worked by a member of a family named Cancelli of
+Lady Denbigh in 1850. She was suffering severely from rheumatism, and
+the Pope (Pius IX) mentioned to the Earl that near Foligno there was a
+family of peasants who were credited with a miraculous power of curing
+rheumatic disorders. Lord Denbigh succeeded in getting one of the
+family, an old man, to come, and learned from him the legend of the
+cure. The belief was that in the reign of Nero, the Apostles Peter and
+Paul took refuge in the hut of an old couple named Cancelli, near
+Foligno, and, as a proof of gratitude, gave to the male descendants of
+the family living near the spot the power of curing rheumatic
+disorders to the end of time. Lord Denbigh described how the old man
+made a solemn invocation, using the sign of the cross, and, in fact,
+Lady Denbigh did recover at once. In a few days the pains returned,
+but she made an act of resignation, and they then left her, and never
+returned with any acuteness."[203]
+
+What we may designate "Metaphysical Healing" originated with Phineas
+Parkhurst Quimby (1802-1866). The movement was important, not so much
+on account of what Quimby himself was able to accomplish by it, as
+because of the work that has been carried on since by at least three
+of his pupils. He was born in Lebanon, New Hampshire, and in early
+life was a watch and clock maker. In 1840 he began experimenting with
+mesmerism, and accounts of these experiments were published in the
+Maine papers of that time. After this he developed a system of mental
+healing of his own, practising it in different towns in Maine for some
+years. About 1858 he settled as a practitioner in Portland and
+remained there until his death. I shall quote brief extracts in his
+own words, which portray his system.
+
+  "My practice is unlike all medical practice. I give no
+  medicine, and make no outward applications. I tell the
+  patient his troubles, and what he thinks is his disease;
+  and my explanation is the cure. If I succeed in
+  correcting his errors, I change the fluids of the system
+  and establish the truth, or health. The truth is the
+  cure. This mode of practice applies to all cases."
+
+  "The greatest evil that follows taking an opinion for a
+  truth is disease."
+
+  "Man is made up of truth and belief; and, if he is
+  deceived into a belief that he has, or is liable to
+  have, a disease, the belief is catching, and the effect
+  follows it."
+
+  "Disease being made by our belief, or by our parents'
+  belief, or by public opinion, there is no formula to be
+  adopted, but every one must be reached in his
+  particular case. Therefore it requires great shrewdness
+  or wisdom to get the better of the error. Disease is our
+  error and the work of the devil."[204]
+
+Quimby made many wonderful and mostly speedy cures, and although he
+wrote out his system, it has never been published. Among his patients
+was Mrs. Patterson from Hill, New Hampshire, who went to Portland in
+1862. She had been a confirmed invalid for six years. To quote her own
+words, published in the _Portland Evening Courier_ in 1862, she made a
+rapid recovery. "Three weeks since I quitted my nurse and sick room en
+route for Portland. The belief of my recovery had died out of the
+hearts of those who were most anxious for it. With this mental and
+physical depression I first visited P. P. Quimby, and in less than one
+week from that time I ascended by a stairway of one hundred and
+eighty-two steps to the dome of the City Hall, and am improving _ad
+infinitum_. To the most subtle reasoning, such a proof, coupled, too,
+as it is with numberless similar ones, demonstrates his power to
+heal." Mrs. Patterson, afterward Mrs. Eddy, proclaimed after his death
+a doctrine very similar to Quimby's. She called it "Christian
+Science," a name Quimby applied to his teaching, although usually he
+called it "Science of Health."
+
+Another patient of Quimby's was Julius A. Dresser, who visited him
+first in 1860. Of him Mr. Dresser says: "The first person in this age
+who penetrated the depths of truth so far as to discover and bring
+forth a true science of life, and publicly apply it to the healing of
+the sick, was Phineas Parkhurst Quimby of Belfast, Me."
+
+Rev. W. F. Evans was still another patient and disciple of Quimby's.
+His testimony is as follows: "Disease being in its root a wrong
+belief, change that belief and we cure the disease.... The late Dr.
+Quimby, of Portland, one of the most successful healers of this or any
+age, embraced this view of the nature of disease, and by a long
+succession of most remarkable cures ... proved the truth of the
+theory.... Had he lived in a remote age or country, the wonderful
+facts which occurred in his practice would have now been deemed either
+mythical or miraculous."
+
+These three, Messrs. Evans and Dresser and Mrs. Eddy, proved to be
+Quimby's most famous patients and disciples. Evans became a noted and
+voluminous writer on mental healing, Mr. Dresser has been identified
+with the New Thought movement of which his son H. W. Dresser is
+probably the best exponent, and Mrs. Eddy ruled the Christian
+Scientists with a rod of iron.
+
+Warren F. Evans visited Quimby twice in the year 1863, and at these
+times obtained his knowledge of Quimby's methods. Up to this time he
+had been a Swedenborgian clergyman, and his beliefs enabled him the
+better to grasp the new doctrines. On the occasion of the second visit
+he told his healer that he thought he could cure the sick in this way,
+and Quimby agreed with him. On returning home he tried it, and his
+first attempts were so successful that he became a practitioner, using
+only mental means, and continued in this work. He wrote several books
+on the subject of mental healing, the first one, _The Mental Cure_,
+appearing in 1869, six years before Mrs. Eddy's _Science and Health_.
+
+Perhaps, strictly speaking, the New Thought movement does not come
+within the scope of our subject, except as we see in it an outgrowth
+and application of the Quimby doctrine, for two reasons. In the first
+place, its purpose is mental hygiene rather than cure, and it is all
+the more valuable for that. Of course, in establishing hygienic
+practices many disorders are cured, but prevention is the main
+feature. The second reason why we might perhaps not include it in a
+resume of the healers is that it is intended to be for the use of the
+individual to prevent his employing a healer of any kind. The same
+objection, however, would do away to some extent with a discussion of
+Christian Science. The principles of New Thought are that the mind has
+an influence on the body, and that good, sweet, pure thoughts have a
+salutary effect, but the opposite ones injure the body. Don't worry,
+don't think of disease, don't look for trouble, but fill the mind
+with the opposite positive thoughts and life will be happy and the
+body will be well. The doctrines are expounded differently by the
+various leaders, and emphasis is laid on different points, some
+emphasizing more fully the religious aspects of the movement, for
+example. The principal writers on the subject are H. W. Dresser, R. W.
+Trine, H. Wood, and H. Fletcher.
+
+Mrs. Mary A. Morse Baker Glover Patterson Eddy (1821-1910) was born at
+Bow, New Hampshire. After a precocious and neurotic childhood, she
+united with the Congregational Church when seventeen years of age. At
+the age of twenty-two she married George Washington Glover, probably
+the best of her husbands. His death, six months later, was followed by
+the birth of her only child and a ten years' widowhood. During this
+time she stayed with her relatives and had long periods of illness,
+principally of an hysterical character. She then experimented to some
+extent with mesmerism and clairvoyance. In 1853 she married Dr. Daniel
+Patterson, an itinerant dentist, from whom she got a divorce, and as
+Mrs. Patterson she went first to "Dr." Quimby in 1862. She visited
+Quimby again in 1864, at which time, with some others, she studied
+with him. After Quimby's death she began teaching what she then called
+his science. For the next few years she wandered from town to town
+about Boston in straitened circumstances, healing, teaching, and
+endeavoring to found an organized society. It was not, however, until
+1875 that the organization was formed in Lynn, and later in the same
+year appeared her _Science and Health_. The years since then have been
+filled with controversies in the law courts and newspapers, caresses
+and blows from the ruling hand of Mother Eddy, and numerous
+developments from small beginnings, until now over one hundred
+thousand are identified with the organization. These are almost
+without exception proselytes from other churches.
+
+[Illustration: MARY BAKER EDDY]
+
+Mrs. Eddy's doctrines are founded on a metaphysical theory known as
+subjective idealism, and advanced centuries before her birth. It
+posits the all-comprehensiveness of mind and the non-existence of
+matter. If bodies do not exist, diseases cannot exist, and must be
+only mental delusions. If the mind is freed of these delusions the
+disease is gone. This was Quimby's method of procedure already quoted.
+In _Science and Health_ she says that the object of treatment is "to
+destroy the patient's belief in his physical condition." She also
+advises: "Mentally contradict every complaint of the body." She
+continues: "All disease is the result of education, and can carry its
+ill effects no further than mortal mind maps out the way. Destroy
+fear," she says, "and you end the fever." However, as with other
+healers, practice and theory are two different things. Listen further:
+"It would be foolish to venture beyond our present understanding,
+foolish to stop eating, until we gain more goodness and a clearer
+comprehension of the living God." Again: "Until the advancing age
+admits the efficacy and the supremacy of Mind, it is better to leave
+the adjustment of broken bones and dislocations to the fingers of the
+surgeon, while you confine yourself chiefly to mental reconstruction,
+and the prevention of inflammation and protracted confinement."[205]
+
+With the exception of Christian Science, no modern religious movement
+has come so prominently before the public and gained so many adherents
+in a short time as the Christian Catholic Apostle Church of Zion, and
+both movements owe their popularity solely to their healing. John
+Alexander Dowie (1847-1907), the founder of this sect, was born in
+Edinburgh, Scotland, but in 1860, with his parents, he went to
+Australia, returning for two years to his native city for college
+study. In 1870 he was ordained to the Congregational ministry. He
+served three churches, and after some political activity was offered a
+portfolio in the Australian cabinet of Sir Henry Parks. In 1882 he
+went to Melbourne and established a large independent church, building
+a tabernacle for worship. About this time he became a firm believer in
+Divine Healing in direct answer to prayer. He arrived in San Francisco
+in 1888 and spent two years in organizing branches of the Divine
+Healing Association of which he was president. He went to Chicago in
+1890 and continued there holding meetings for some years. In 1895 he
+broke away from the International Divine Healing Association, which he
+had been chiefly instrumental in organizing, and insisted that his
+followers should not remain in the churches. The following year the
+Christian Catholic Church was organized. Of this organization Mr.
+Dowie was known as General Overseer, then as Prophet, and in 1904 as
+First Apostle. He also proclaimed himself in general as the messenger
+of the Covenant and Elijah the Restorer. In 1900 Mr. Dowie said:
+"About twenty-two thousand have been baptized by triune immersion up
+to the present, and this includes practically all the members." This,
+however, was a great exaggeration. In 1901 the head-quarters of the
+church was moved to Zion City, forty-two miles north of Chicago. He
+preached the threefold gospel of Salvation, Healing, and Holy Living.
+Dowie differed from Christian Science in proclaiming the reality of
+disease, the distinctive feature of his doctrine being that all bodily
+ailment is the work of the Devil, and that Christ came to destroy the
+works of the Devil. His contempt for external means may be judged from
+the title of a pamphlet, _Doctors, Drugs, and Devils_; nevertheless,
+he used physicians at least to diagnose cases at different times, a
+licensed medical doctor, Speicher, being associated with him from the
+beginning of his work in Chicago. Dentists are a factor of Zion City,
+and it is said he also used an oculist. According to his doctrine
+there are four methods of cure: "The first is the direct prayer of
+faith; the second, intercessory prayer of two or more; the third, the
+anointing of the elders, with the prayer of faith; and the fourth, the
+laying on of hands of those who believe, and whom God has prepared and
+called to that ministry." In addition to this, teaching is the basis
+of all other methods. The first ten years of his healing he is said to
+have laid hands on eighteen thousand sick, and he declared that the
+greater part of them were fully healed. In some of his later years he
+said in an issue of his paper: "I pray and lay hands on seventy
+thousand people in a year." That would make one hundred and
+seventy-five thousand in two and a half years; but in the time
+preceding the statement he reported only seven hundred cures.
+Evidently very few were helped. However, in Shiloh Tabernacle at Zion
+City are exhibited on the walls crutches, canes, surgical instruments,
+trusses, and almost every form of apparatus used by the medical
+profession, presented by people who have now no further use for them
+on account of their being healed.[206]
+
+Our study began with the mental therapeutics of over a millennium
+before the birth of Christ; let us now close with that of the
+twentieth century after, in giving some account of the so-called
+Emmanuel Movement. In 1905 there was formed in connection with
+Emmanuel Church, Boston, a tuberculosis class for the alleviation of
+unfortunates of this kind. In this experience it was found that
+certain psychic and social factors greatly aided in a cure, and in the
+following year, 1906, the work expanded into what has been called the
+"Emmanuel Movement." It is an attempt to combine the wisdom and
+efforts of the physician, the clergyman, the psychologist, and the
+sociologist, to combat conditions most frequently met in a large city.
+In the medical phase of the work mental healing has had a large place,
+and has been emphasized most in the popular presentation of the
+movement, and so far as the idea has spread, it has been almost wholly
+in connection with this aspect. What the future of this will be is
+uncertain, but it seems probable that its most valuable service will
+be in stimulating the physicians to take up the work which properly
+belongs to them--the work of therapeutics in all its branches, mental
+and physical.
+
+
+  [190] C. G. Finney, _Memoirs_, pp. 108 f.
+
+  [191] W.T. Price, _Without Scrip or Purse, or the
+  "Mountain Evangelist," George O. Barnes_, p. 451.
+
+  [192] _Ibid._, p. 610.
+
+  [193] _Ibid._, pp. 301 ff.
+
+  [194] J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred
+  Phenomena," _Century_, XXXII, pp. 221 f.
+
+  [195] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, article "Hohenlohe."
+
+  [196] D. H. Tuke, _Influence of the Mind upon the
+  Body_, pp. 355 ff.
+
+  [197] I. W. Riley, _The Founder of Mormonism_, chaps.
+  VIII and IX.
+
+  [198] J. F. Maguire, _Father Mathew_, pp. 529 f.
+
+  [199] _Biography of Francis Schlatter, The Healer_.
+
+  [200] J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred
+  Phenomena," _Century_, XXXII, pp. 221 f.
+
+  [201] Father John, _My Life in Christ_ (trans.
+  Goulaeff), p. 201.
+
+  [202] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 53.
+
+  [203] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 482.
+
+  [204] J. A. Dresser, _The True History of Mental
+  Science_; A. G. Dresser, _The Philosophy of P. P.
+  Quimby_.
+
+  [205] G. Milmine, _Mary Baker G. Eddy_.
+
+  [206] R. Harlan, _John Alexander Dowie_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+ABRAXAS, 165 ff.
+
+Ague, 168, 172 f., 197 ff.
+
+Amulets, Chapter VII--
+  definition of, 138 f., 158 f.
+
+Astrology, 141 f., 146 ff.
+
+
+BAQUET, Mesmer's, 255 f.
+
+Bites of venomous animals, 200 f.
+
+Burns, 201.
+
+
+CABBALISM, 194.
+
+Calculus, 176 f.
+
+Cancer, 9 f.
+
+Canonization, 111.
+
+Catacombs, 66.
+
+Characts, 166 ff.
+
+Charms, Chapter VIII--
+  composition of, 193.
+  definition of, 189 f.
+
+Childbirth, 162, 168, 177, 202.
+
+Cholera, 177.
+
+Chorea, 203.
+
+Christianity, influence of, Chapter III.
+
+Christian Science, 16 f., 298 f., 302 f.
+
+Colic, 177 f., 203.
+
+Consumption, 203 f.
+
+Cramp, 178, 204, 246 ff.
+
+Cross, true, 69, 79 f.
+
+
+DEMONOLOGY--
+  and animals, 38 f.
+  and Apostolic Fathers, 40 ff.
+  and Dark Ages, 44 ff.
+  Christian, 37 ff.
+  Jewish, 36 f.
+
+Diseases, functional and organic, 9.
+
+Dislocations, 204 f.
+
+Dropsy, 205.
+
+
+EMMANUEL MOVEMENT, 306 f.
+
+Epilepsy, 178 f., 205 ff.
+
+Erysipelas, 180 f.
+
+Evil eye, 181, 207.
+
+Exorcism, 49 ff., 126 f., 134 f., 275, 286.
+  by amulets, 178.
+  by charms, 204.
+  by relics, 63.
+
+Eye disease, 168 f., 181 f., 207.
+
+
+FAITH, 14 f.
+
+Faith cure, 16, 17.
+
+Fevers, 166, 182, 208.
+
+
+GEMS, 161 ff., 176.
+
+Goitre, 209.
+
+Gout, 182 f.
+
+
+HEADACHE, 183, 209 f.
+
+Healers, Chapter V--
+  and exorcism, 110.
+  by unction, 114 ff.
+  Christian, 113 ff.
+  Mesmeric, Chapter X.
+  of nineteenth century, Chapter XI.
+
+Hemorrhage, 210 f.
+
+Herpes, 211 f.
+
+Hypnotism, Chapter X.--
+  controversy over, 257 ff.
+  historic periods of, 264 f.
+  Mesmer and, 252 ff.
+  scientific period of, 267 f.
+
+Hysteria, 183.
+
+
+INCUBATION, 26, 92 ff.
+  Greek, 93 ff.
+
+Incubus, 212.
+
+Insanity, 162, 183, 213.
+
+Insomnia, 212.
+
+
+JAUNDICE, 212 f.
+
+
+MAGNETISM, 249 ff.
+
+Mandragora, 171 f.
+
+Marasmus, 214.
+
+Medicine and church, 53 ff.
+  Babylonian, 27.
+  Chinese, 21 ff.
+  Egyptian, 24 ff.
+  Greek, 28 ff.
+  History of, 19 f.
+  Indian, 28.
+  Jewish, 27.
+  Primitive, 4, 20.
+  Roman, 34.
+
+Melancholy, 183.
+
+Mental healing, explanation of, 7 ff.
+
+Mesmerism. See Hypnotism.
+
+Metaphysical cures, 16, 297 ff.
+
+
+NUMBERS, 190 ff.
+
+
+OIL OF SAINTS, 66 f.
+
+
+PERICARPIA, 173.
+
+Phylacteries, 141.
+
+Plague, 183.
+
+Pools, 83 ff., 92.
+
+Prayer, 274 f., 280 ff., 283 f., 288, 291, 294.
+
+Psycho-analysis, 12 f.
+
+
+RE-EDUCATION, 12 f.
+
+Relics, 5, Chapter V--
+  and Church Fathers, 64 f.
+  cost of, 96 ff.
+  fraud among, 101 f.
+  from Holy Land, 69 ff.
+
+Religion and Healing, 4 ff., 21, Chapter III.
+
+Revivalists, 274 ff.
+
+Rickets, 214 f.
+
+Rings, 179 f., 184, 246 ff.
+
+Royal Touch, Chapter IX--
+  ceremony of, 240 ff.
+  origin of, 225 ff.
+
+
+SAINTS AND DISEASES, 74 ff., 81 f.
+
+Sciatica, 215.
+
+Scrofula, 185, 215, Chapter IX.
+
+Shrines, Chapter IV--
+  modern, 106 f.
+
+Sick, care of, 57 f.
+
+Signatures, 56, 142 ff.
+
+Spittle, 195.
+
+Subconsciousness, 11, 12, 14.
+
+Suggestions, 8, 251 f.
+
+Sweating sickness, 215.
+
+Sympathetic cures, 150 ff.
+
+
+TALISMANS, Chapter VI--
+  definition of, 138 ff., 142.
+
+Therapeutics. See Medicine.
+
+Thorns, 216.
+
+Toothache, 166, 186, 217 f.
+
+Touch pieces, 233 f.
+
+
+UNCTION, 144 ff., 274, 280.
+
+
+WARTS, 218 f.
+
+Weapon-salve, 151 ff.
+
+Wells, holy, 83 ff.
+
+Wen, 219 f.
+
+Whooping-cough, 186, 220 ff.
+
+Worms, 223.
+
+Wounds, 184 f.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF NAMES
+
+
+ABRAHAM, 100.
+
+Adam, 41.
+
+Adrian, Pope, 184.
+
+AEsculapius, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 63, 83, 86.
+
+Agatha, St., 75.
+
+Agnan, St., 75.
+
+Agrippa, 59, 191.
+
+Albans, St., 202.
+
+Albertus Magnus, 159, 164.
+
+Alboquerque, A. d'. 185.
+
+Alexander III, 55, 227.
+
+Alexander of Tralles, 171, 173, 178, 180, 182, 196.
+
+Ambrose, St., 38, 64, 65, 66, 70.
+
+Andreas, St., 80.
+
+Andrews, 196.
+
+Anne, Queen, 228, 233, 239, 240.
+
+Anne, St., de Beaupre, 106, 107.
+
+Anthony, St., 75, 80.
+
+Antoinette, Marie, 258.
+
+Antoninus, 31.
+
+Apes, Valerius, 32.
+
+Apollo, 29, 31, 83.
+
+Apollonia, St., 75, 76.
+
+Aquarius, 74.
+
+Aredius, 119.
+
+Aries, 74.
+
+Aristophanes, 31.
+
+Aristotle, 19, 29, 164.
+
+Armstrong, 3.
+
+Arnot, H., 141.
+
+Ashburner, 267.
+
+Ashmole, E. 173.
+
+Athanasius, 42.
+
+Aubrey, 215, 228.
+
+Augustine, St., 43, 64, 108.
+
+Aurelian, Father, 48.
+
+Avertin, St., 75.
+
+Ayers, 296.
+
+Azam, 269.
+
+
+BAAS, 171, 203.
+
+Bacci, P. J., 132.
+
+Bacon, F., 242.
+
+Bacon, R., 59.
+
+Badger, 230.
+
+Bagnone, F., 136.
+
+Bailly, 256, 259.
+
+Balsius, St., 74.
+
+Baltus, 43.
+
+Barbarin, de, 261.
+
+Bargrave, 250.
+
+Barnabas, St., 75.
+
+Barnes, G. O., 277.
+
+Barrington, 233.
+
+Barros, de, 184.
+
+Bates, 205.
+
+Bath-Chorin, 28.
+
+Becket, 78.
+
+Bede, 72, 74, 118, 121, 122, 149.
+
+Belgrade, 168.
+
+Benedict, St., 75.
+
+Benedict XIV, 111.
+
+Berdoe, E., 32, 35, 106, 129, 145, 146, 148, 169, 174, 177, 180, 200, 205,
+  211, 218, 226, 228, 297.
+
+Berenger, 98.
+
+Bernard, Dr. C., 239, 240.
+
+Bernard of Clairvaux, 122, 123.
+
+Bernard, St., 38, 77.
+
+Bernheim, H., 106, 270.
+
+Bertrand, 265.
+
+Binet, 255, 270.
+
+Bingham, 160.
+
+Black, 219.
+
+Blair, 224.
+
+Blaise, St., 75.
+
+Blochwick, 178.
+
+Blumhardt, J. C., 287 f.
+
+Boardman, W. E., 282.
+
+Boeckmann, 263.
+
+Bois, John de, 125.
+
+Boleyn, A., 247, 248.
+
+Boncompagni, Cardinal, 132.
+
+Boniface, St., 77.
+
+Bonner, Bishop, 202.
+
+Bontius, 177.
+
+Boorde, A., 228, 247.
+
+Bossuet, 47.
+
+Boswell, 239.
+
+Boyle, R., 173, 176, 211, 214.
+
+Braid, 264, 267, 268, 269.
+
+Bramdel, 285.
+
+Brand, J., 90, 147, 160, 168, 173, 179, 185, 195, 197, 199, 200, 204, 208,
+   209, 211, 215, 216, 218, 220, 232, 233.
+
+Brand the Historian, 210.
+
+Broca, 269.
+
+Brockett, 187.
+
+Brogawn, St., 91.
+
+Browne, Dr. E., 213.
+
+Browne, J., 233, 234, 236.
+
+Browne, Sir T., 35, 186, 195, 213, 218, 236.
+
+Bryant, Dr., 292 f.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of, 153.
+
+Buckland, Prof., 102.
+
+Buckle, H. T., 45.
+
+Buckley, J. M., 283, 292, 293.
+
+Bulwer-Lytton, 158.
+
+Burdin, 266.
+
+Burgarde, St., 74.
+
+Burgrave, 250.
+
+Burnet, 247.
+
+Burton, R., 158, 159, 160, 173, 183.
+
+Butler, 243.
+
+Butler, A., 161.
+
+Butler, J., 129.
+
+
+CAIUS, 31.
+
+Calama, 64.
+
+Calixtus II, 55.
+
+Cancelli, 296.
+
+Capricornus, 74.
+
+Capua, Raimondo da, 127, 128, 129.
+
+Carodoc, 9.
+
+Catharine, St., 126, 127.
+
+Cato the Censor, 204.
+
+Chalmers, 14.
+
+Chamberlain, J., 230.
+
+Charcot, 106, 270.
+
+Charles I, 230, 231.
+
+Charles II, 232, 234, 241, 246.
+
+Charles II of Spain, 45.
+
+Charles Edward, Prince, 240.
+
+Chaucer, 61, 142, 164, 224.
+
+Chesterfield, 3.
+
+Chilperic, 119.
+
+Christopher, St., 75.
+
+Chrysippus, 182.
+
+Chrysostom, St., 67, 116, 159.
+
+Churchill, 3.
+
+Cicero, 19.
+
+Clairvaux, Abbot of, 77.
+
+Clara, St., 76.
+
+Clarke, R. F., 105.
+
+Clement of Alexandria, 165.
+
+Clement VIII, Pope, 132.
+
+Cleophas, Simon, 75.
+
+Clerk, Mrs., 148.
+
+Clothair II, 119.
+
+Clovis I, 225.
+
+Cockayne, 178, 194.
+
+Coirin, la demoiselle, 105.
+
+Coles, 144.
+
+Coleta, 78, 120.
+
+Collier, J., 226.
+
+Collinson, 89.
+
+Collyer, Dr., 268.
+
+Comines, P. de, 243.
+
+Conway, Lord, 135.
+
+Cosmo, 118.
+
+Cotta, 181.
+
+Cowles, W., 229.
+
+Cromwell, O., 113.
+
+Cros, J. M., 130.
+
+Crowley, 220.
+
+Cudworth, Dr., 136.
+
+Cullis, C., 281.
+
+Cullum, Sir J., 214.
+
+Cuthbert, St., 72, 73, 74, 118.
+
+Cyprian, 43.
+
+Cyril, St., 64.
+
+Cyrus, St., 67, 159, 116.
+
+
+DAMIAN, 118.
+
+Darling, 268.
+
+Dearmer, P., 67, 68, 96, 105, 115, 121.
+
+Delenze, 264.
+
+Democritus, 33.
+
+Denbigh, Earl of, 296.
+
+Deslon, 254, 258, 262.
+
+Deubner, L., 96.
+
+Deucalion, 208.
+
+Digby, Sir E., 151.
+
+Digby, Sir K., 151 ff., 155, 218.
+
+Ditters, G., 287.
+
+Dodd, Dr., 219.
+
+Donce, 181, 199.
+
+Dowie, J. A., 304 f.
+
+Draper, J. W., 72.
+
+Dresser, A. G., 298.
+
+Dresser, H. W., 300, 301.
+
+Dresser, J. A., 298, 299.
+
+Dromore, Bishop of, 135.
+
+Dryden, 155.
+
+Dundee, B., 223.
+
+Dupotel, Baron, 257.
+
+Durham, Bishop of, 59.
+
+Dziewicki, M. H., 51.
+
+
+ECCLES, 146.
+
+Eddy, Mrs., 16, 299, 300, 301, 302.
+
+Edine, St., 76.
+
+Edward the Confessor, 225, 226, 227, 228, 234.
+
+Edward II, 145.
+
+Edward III, 234.
+
+Edward VI, 248.
+
+Eleazar, 37.
+
+Elisha, 109.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 184, 202, 229, 234, 247.
+
+Elliotson, 267.
+
+Elpideus, 59.
+
+Empedocles, 29.
+
+Encelius, 161.
+
+Ennemoser, 266.
+
+Ennodius, St., 59.
+
+Erasmus, St., 74, 76.
+
+Estrade, J. B., 106.
+
+Euhodias, 114.
+
+Eustachius, 86.
+
+Eustasius, Abbe, 119, 120.
+
+Eutrope, St., 76.
+
+Evans, W. F., 299 f.
+
+Evelyn, 241.
+
+Evremond, St., 134.
+
+
+FABIAN, POPE, 43.
+
+Faria, 265.
+
+Farnham, N. de, 59.
+
+Fecamp, 107.
+
+Felix, Minucius, 42.
+
+Felix, Mons, 104.
+
+Ferdinand, 155.
+
+Fere, 255, 270.
+
+Ferrarius, 198.
+
+Fiage, St., 76.
+
+Fillan, St., 88, 213.
+
+Finney, C. G., 276, 277.
+
+Fisher, G. P., 64.
+
+Fitz-Nigel, R., 59.
+
+Fletcher, 61.
+
+Fletcher, H., 301.
+
+Floyer, Sir J., 239.
+
+Fluctibus, A., 151.
+
+Fludd, Dr., 151, 250.
+
+Foissac, 265.
+
+Fontenelle, 19.
+
+Fort, G. F., 46, 59, 63, 77, 80, 81, 96, 97, 121, 127, 149, 165, 171, 172,
+   194, 207.
+
+Fortescue, Sir J., 228.
+
+Fosbrooke, 84, 142.
+
+Foster, Parson, 151.
+
+Fox, G., 132 f.
+
+Francis, Father, 91.
+
+Francis I, Emperor, 146.
+
+Francis I, King, 243.
+
+Francis, St., 124.
+
+Franklin, 259.
+
+Franz, A., 171.
+
+
+GALEN, 19, 196.
+
+Gall, St., 46, 77, 81, 100, 119.
+
+Gamaliel, 64.
+
+Ganny, S., 125.
+
+Gardiner, Bishop, 247.
+
+Gassner, J. J., 136, 254.
+
+Gemelli, 244.
+
+Gemini, 74.
+
+Genevieve, St., 68, 76, 118.
+
+Genow, St., 76.
+
+George I, 240.
+
+George, St., 67, 94, 97, 98.
+
+Gereon, St., 101.
+
+Germain, St., 117.
+
+Germanus, St., 76.
+
+Gervasius, St., 65.
+
+Gilbourne, Lord, 155.
+
+Giles, St., 76.
+
+Glocenius, 250.
+
+Gmelin, 263.
+
+Goldsmith, 19.
+
+Googe, B., 203.
+
+Goerres, 130.
+
+Gower, 189.
+
+Gracian, B., 250.
+
+Greatrakes, V., 133 ff.
+
+Gregory, Mr., 248.
+
+Gregory, of Nazianzus, 43, 118.
+
+Gregory, of Tours, 44, 68, 69, 83, 118.
+
+Gregory, St., 98.
+
+Gregory the Great, 44, 45, 72.
+
+Gregory XIII, Pope, 132.
+
+Grimes, 268.
+
+Gros, D. de, 269.
+
+Grose, 90, 218.
+
+Gudule, St., 104.
+
+Guffe, John, 125.
+
+Guthlac, St., 77.
+
+
+HALL, BISHOP, 91, 158.
+
+Hamerton, 138.
+
+Hamilton, Miss M., 93, 94, 96.
+
+Hammond, W. A., 153, 154, 157, 244, 245.
+
+Hardy, 22.
+
+Harlan, R., 306.
+
+Harrington, Sir J., 163.
+
+Hasted, 86.
+
+Hatton, Lord Charles, 184, 247.
+
+Helen, Empress, 70.
+
+Helinotius, 250.
+
+Hell, 252, 253.
+
+Helmont, von, 150.
+
+Henry II and III, 59.
+
+Henry IV, 225.
+
+Henry VII, 85, 234, 240.
+
+Henry VIII, 247.
+
+Hensler, 266.
+
+Hercules, 33, 83.
+
+Herring, 183.
+
+Herz, Frau, 48.
+
+Heylin, Dr., 238, 243.
+
+Heywood, 189.
+
+Higden, Ranulf, 91.
+
+Hilarion, St., 38, 117.
+
+Hippo, 64.
+
+Hippocrates, 28, 32, 47.
+
+Hippolito, 155.
+
+Hobbes, 242.
+
+Hohenlohe, Prince, 283 f.
+
+Holloway, 262.
+
+Holt, Sir J., 174 f.
+
+Homer, 29, 30.
+
+Hospinian, 247.
+
+Howell, A. G., 124.
+
+Howell, J., 152 f.
+
+Hubert, St., 78, 79, 81, 82.
+
+Hugo, 120.
+
+Hyacinth, St., 76.
+
+Hyde, 139.
+
+Hygeia, Tecla, 86.
+
+
+IATRICOS, 83.
+
+Imbert-Gourbyzee, 106.
+
+Innocent II, 55.
+
+Innocent III, 55.
+
+Irenaeus, 41, 113.
+
+Isaac, 100.
+
+
+JACKSON, 167.
+
+Jacob, 97, 100.
+
+James, 114, 115.
+
+James I, 229.
+
+James II, 153, 238.
+
+Jerome, of Brunsweig, 187.
+
+Jerome, St., 117.
+
+Joane, Mother, of Stowe, 197.
+
+Job, St., 76.
+
+John, 66, 123.
+
+John, Father, of Cronstadt, 294 f.
+
+John, of Gladdesden, 145, 206.
+
+John, St., 67, 74, 75, 76, 93, 97.
+
+John, St., of Beverly, 121.
+
+Johnson, Dr. S., 238 f.
+
+Johnson, Mrs., 239.
+
+Joseph, 25, 75.
+
+Josephus, 28, 37.
+
+Julian, 32, 44.
+
+Juliana, St., 76, 118.
+
+Julius Africanus, 166.
+
+Jussieu, L. de, 259.
+
+Just, St., 98.
+
+Justina, Empress, 65.
+
+
+KAMPFER, 146.
+
+King, E. A., 60, 173, 182, 187, 193, 204, 205, 217.
+
+Kircher, 250.
+
+Koreff, 263.
+
+Kublai Khan, 185.
+
+
+LACIANUS, 64.
+
+Lactantius, 42.
+
+La Fontaine, 267.
+
+Laneham, R., 229.
+
+Lascaris, 243.
+
+Laurent, du, 192.
+
+Laurentia, 127.
+
+Laurentius, 225, 243.
+
+Lavater, 263.
+
+Lavoisier, 259.
+
+Lawrence, St., 74, 76.
+
+Leatus, 75.
+
+Lecky, W. E. H., 42, 65, 113, 242, 243.
+
+Lee, 267.
+
+Lemnius, L., 195.
+
+Leo, 74.
+
+Leo, Pope, 100.
+
+Leonastes, 68.
+
+Leverett, John, 136.
+
+Liberius, St., 76.
+
+Libra, 74.
+
+Liebeault, 269, 270, 271.
+
+Lilly, 86.
+
+Lindsey, Earl of, 231.
+
+Littre M., 80.
+
+Lluellin, 212.
+
+Locke, 242.
+
+Lodge, 198.
+
+London, Bishop of, 59.
+
+Longfellow, 273.
+
+Louis I, 225.
+
+Louis XIII, 244.
+
+Louis, Prince, 285.
+
+Louis, St., 79.
+
+Loutherbourg, 262.
+
+Lucian, 218.
+
+Lucy, St., 76.
+
+Luke, 75, 97.
+
+Lupton, 180, 185.
+
+Luther, Martin, 47, 129.
+
+
+MACARIUS, St., 116.
+
+Macaulay, C. S., 89.
+
+Macaulay, Mrs., 89.
+
+Macaulay, T. B., 232, 241.
+
+Macdonald, 204.
+
+Machaon, 30.
+
+Mack, J., 286.
+
+Mackay, C., 69, 71, 100, 104, 108, 157, 256, 262.
+
+Madern, St., 91.
+
+Magnus, St., 79.
+
+Maimonides, 140.
+
+Mainadus, Dr., 262.
+
+Maine, St., 76.
+
+Marcellus, 168.
+
+Margaret, St., 76.
+
+Maria, S. dell 'Arco, 107.
+
+Mark, 75, 99, 114.
+
+Marsden, 199.
+
+Martin, St., 68, 69, 76, 78, 83, 117, 120.
+
+Martyr, Justin, 41, 42.
+
+Marus, St., 76.
+
+Mary, 71.
+
+Mary, Queen, 248.
+
+Maspero, G., 25, 26.
+
+Massinger, 35.
+
+Matthew, Father, 127, 128, 289 f.
+
+Maur, St., 76.
+
+Maxwell, 251.
+
+Mayerne, Dr., 153.
+
+Meaux, Bishop of, 47.
+
+Melanchthon, 129.
+
+Melton, 74.
+
+Mesmer, 6, 250.
+
+Meyer, R., 133.
+
+Mezeray, 225.
+
+Michel, M., 283.
+
+Milmine, G., 304.
+
+Milner, John, Dr., 83.
+
+Milton, 242.
+
+Miranda, 155.
+
+Miranda, A., de, 130.
+
+Mix, E., 290.
+
+Mizaldus, 159.
+
+Momford, Lord, 219.
+
+Monardes, 183.
+
+Montfort, Marquis, 97.
+
+Mooney, N., 197.
+
+Morison, 122, 123.
+
+Morley, H., 191.
+
+Morley, Squire, 185.
+
+Moses, 25, 69, 72, 97.
+
+Moses, J., 135.
+
+Mueller, Johannes, 11.
+
+Munger, 19.
+
+Murmerstadt, 285.
+
+Myers, A. T., 106.
+
+Myers, F. W. H., 106, 265, 271.
+
+
+NAAMAN, 83.
+
+Nabonnese, 98.
+
+Napoleon, 108.
+
+Navarette, 201.
+
+Neri, St. Philip, 132.
+
+Nevius, J.F., 60.
+
+Newton, Dr., 292.
+
+Nicetius, 67.
+
+Nicholas, Dr. J., 230.
+
+Nicodemus, 75.
+
+Noizet, 265.
+
+Northampton, Lord, 197.
+
+Nottingham, William, 125.
+
+Nun, St., 213.
+
+
+Odilo, 81.
+
+Oldmixon, 239.
+
+Onymus, Prof., 285.
+
+Origen, 26, 42, 43, 114.
+
+Oswald, St., 90.
+
+Otilia, St., 74, 76.
+
+
+PALLADIUS, 116.
+
+Paninguem, Tome, 130.
+
+Paracelsus, 5, 150, 151, 181, 212, 249, 250.
+
+Paris, Deacon, 105.
+
+Paris, Dr., 142.
+
+Parthenius, St., 115.
+
+Pascal, 169.
+
+Pastor, St., 98.
+
+Patrick, Bishop, 136.
+
+Patterson, Mrs., 298.
+
+Paul III, Pope, 100.
+
+Paul, St., 37, 72, 75, 126.
+
+Paula, Franciscus de, 120.
+
+Peckham, Sir G., 86.
+
+Peebles, J. M., 60.
+
+Pennant, 85.
+
+Pepys, 201, 204, 210, 216.
+
+Percy, Bishop, 246.
+
+Perier, Mademoiselle, 103.
+
+Perkins, B. D., 262.
+
+Pernel, St., 76.
+
+Peter, 248.
+
+Peter, St., 5, 71, 72, 100, 121.
+
+Petetin, 261.
+
+Petronilla, St., 76.
+
+Pettigrew, T. J., 55, 75, 76, 139, 140, 141, 146, 157, 159, 162, 167, 170,
+   176, 177, 181, 184, 198, 201, 202, 204, 205, 207, 208, 213, 218, 225,
+   236, 244, 248, 296.
+
+Pezold, 263.
+
+Phaire, St., 76.
+
+Philip I, 243.
+
+Philip II of Spain, 54.
+
+Philip of Valois, 244.
+
+Phillips, Elder, 287.
+
+Philo, 37.
+
+Pilate, Pontius, 41, 97, 105.
+
+Pilkington, Bishop, 167.
+
+Pinkerton, 88.
+
+Pisces, 74.
+
+Pistol, 207.
+
+Pius IX, Pope, 296.
+
+Platerus, 159.
+
+Plato, 19, 29.
+
+Pliny, 159, 177, 182, 183, 198, 209.
+
+Podalirius, 30.
+
+Polo, Marco, 185.
+
+Pomponatius, 160.
+
+Ponponazzi, Pierre, 25.
+
+Pope, 138.
+
+Porta, B., 151, 159, 251.
+
+Posidonius, 44.
+
+Poyan, C, 268.
+
+Price, W. T., 278.
+
+Protasius, St., 65.
+
+Puller, 115.
+
+Puysegur, Marquis de, 260, 261.
+
+Pythagoras, 190.
+
+
+QUAN, ST., 91.
+
+Quimby, P. P., 17, 297 ff., 302, 303.
+
+Quintan, St., 76.
+
+Quirinus, St., 74.
+
+
+RACHEL, 145.
+
+Radegonde, 121.
+
+Radstock, Lord, 283.
+
+Ramesay, 158.
+
+Raphael, 43.
+
+Ravenscroft, 190.
+
+Refinus, 115.
+
+Reid, 273.
+
+Remigius, St., 77.
+
+Renodeus, 159, 160, 161.
+
+Richards, Elder, 287.
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal, 244.
+
+Richmond, Duke of, 231.
+
+Riley, I. W., 287.
+
+Roche, St., 296.
+
+Rochus, St., 74, 76.
+
+Romanus, St., 76.
+
+Rosalia, St., 102.
+
+Ruffian, St., 76.
+
+Russel, 200.
+
+Rusticus, Elpidius, 59.
+
+Ruthlein, Captain, 285.
+
+
+SAGITTARIUS, 74.
+
+Salverte, E., 40, 41, 59, 83, 85, 136.
+
+Samonicus, S., 166.
+
+Sanderson, Dr., 231.
+
+Sanford, F. W., 281 f.
+
+Saturninus, St., 123.
+
+Sauveur, St., of Horta, 130 f.
+
+Schlatter, F., 290.
+
+Scoresby, 267.
+
+Scorpius, 74.
+
+Scott, R., 196.
+
+Scott, W., 189, 193, 213.
+
+Sebastian, St., 76, 98.
+
+Selle, 263.
+
+Senso, Dr., 128.
+
+Serapion, 180.
+
+Severin, St., 67, 81.
+
+Severus, 114.
+
+Servetus, 244.
+
+Shakespeare, 108, 224, 273.
+
+Shaw, 203.
+
+Siemers, 266.
+
+Sigismund, St., 76.
+
+Simeon, St., 97.
+
+Simpson, A. B., 281.
+
+Sinsheim, Count von, 284.
+
+Skippon, 198.
+
+Smith, Joseph, Jr., 286 f.
+
+Smith, Sir T., 184, 247.
+
+Socrates, 29, 86.
+
+Sophronius, 93.
+
+Southampton, Earl of, 231.
+
+Southey, 143, 273.
+
+Stengal, 54.
+
+Stephen, St., 64, 75.
+
+Stephens, 248.
+
+Sterne, 3.
+
+Stevens, E., 231.
+
+Stowe, 3.
+
+Straus, 155.
+
+Strype, 202.
+
+Styria, 107.
+
+Sulpicius, St., 77.
+
+Syward, John, 125, 126.
+
+
+TACITUS, 112.
+
+Tairise, St., 99.
+
+Tathiedo, 75.
+
+Tatian, 40.
+
+Taurus, 74.
+
+Tecla, St., 85.
+
+Tennyson A., 139
+
+Tenos, Madonna of, 95.
+
+Tertullian, 42, 114.
+
+Theocritus, 189.
+
+Theodelinda, 66.
+
+Theodoric, 59.
+
+Theodosius, 70.
+
+Thiers, M., 192.
+
+Thmuis, Bishop, 116.
+
+Thomas, of Celano, 124.
+
+Thomas, St., 77.
+
+Thomas St. of Hereford, 125.
+
+Tignan, St., 75.
+
+Tooker, Dr., 229.
+
+Torpacion, 114.
+
+Townley, 140.
+
+Townshend, 267.
+
+Trickmore, 190.
+
+Trine, R. W., 301.
+
+Trippe, S., 148.
+
+Trundel, D., 279 f.
+
+Tuckey, C. L., 245.
+
+Tuke, H., 11, 237, 286.
+
+Turner, 211.
+
+Turner, Dr. D., 239.
+
+
+URSULA, ST., 102.
+
+
+VALENTINE, 76.
+
+Vanzesmes, de, 258.
+
+Vardrille, St., 119.
+
+Venise, St., 76.
+
+Vespasian, 37, 112, 195.
+
+Victor, 260.
+
+Victor Emmanuel, 245.
+
+Vincent, St., 77.
+
+Vittrici, Pietro, 132.
+
+Vitus, St., 76, 203.
+
+
+WALDERSTEIN, 3.
+
+Wallery, St., 76.
+
+Wallia, St., 76.
+
+Waterford, Simon, 125.
+
+Wenefride, St., 91.
+
+Werenfels, 156, 208.
+
+Wesley, J., 275, 276.
+
+Westbury, Lord, 48, 49.
+
+Whichcote, Dr., 136.
+
+White, A. D., 39, 44, 47, 48, 52, 78, 100, 101, 110, 146, 233.
+
+Wierus, 110.
+
+Wilkins, Bishop, 136.
+
+Willabrod, 77.
+
+William III, 228, 238.
+
+William of Malmesbury, 225, 227.
+
+Wilson, Mr., 48.
+
+Winthrop, Governor, 19.
+
+Wirdig, S., 251.
+
+Withers, F., 138.
+
+Wohyus, E., 150.
+
+Wolfart, 263.
+
+Wolfgang, St., 76.
+
+Wood, H., 301.
+
+
+XAVIER, ST. FRANCIS, 111, 129, 130.
+
+
+ZACCHEUS, 75.
+
+Zeller, S., 280.
+
+Zola, E., 106.
+
+Zosimos, 93.
+
+
+
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