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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing, by
+George Barton Cutten
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Three Thousand Years of Mental Healing
+
+
+Author: George Barton Cutten
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 22, 2007  [eBook #23101]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL
+HEALING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by David Clarke, Turgut Dincer, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 23101-h.htm or 23101-h.zip:
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+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/3/1/0/23101/23101-h.zip)
+
+
+      +------------------------------------------+
+      | Transcriber's Note:                      |
+      |                                          |
+      | East Syriac Cross signs are shown by [+] |
+      +------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL HEALING
+
+by
+
+GEORGE BARTON CUTTEN, Ph.D.
+(Yale)
+President Of Acadia University
+
+Illustrated
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+1911
+
+
+[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING THE GALLIC ĆSCULAPIUS
+DISPATCHING A DEMON]
+
+
+Copyright, 1911, by
+Charles Scribner's Sons
+Published February, 1911
+
+
+
+THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY
+
+OF
+
+Artemus Wyman Sawyer, D.D., LL.D.
+
+PRESIDENT OF ACADIA UNIVERSITY
+
+1869-1896
+
+
+HE HID FROM US HIS HEART WHILE WE THOUGHT THAT HE LOVED
+  ONLY  HIS  STUDIES;  WE  LATER LEARNED THAT HE LAID
+    EMPHASIS ON THAT WHICH HE LOVED ONLY LESS--TRUE
+      KNOWLEDGE, IN ORDER THAT HE MIGHT INTRODUCE
+          IT TO THOSE THAT HE LOVED MOST--HIS
+            PUPILS. HE TAUGHT AS NONE OTHER
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                               PAGE
+
+      I. Introduction--Mental Healing                    3
+
+     II. Early Civilizations                            19
+
+    III. The Influence of Christianity                  35
+
+     IV. Relics and Shrines                             61
+
+      V. Healers                                       110
+
+     VI. Talismans                                     138
+
+    VII. Amulets                                       158
+
+   VIII. Charms                                        189
+
+     IX. Royal Touch                                   224
+
+      X. Mesmer and After                              249
+
+     XI. The Healers of the Nineteenth Century         273
+
+         Index                                         309
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present decade has experienced an intense interest in mental
+healing. This has come as a culmination of the development along these
+lines during the past half century. It has shown itself in the
+beginning of new religious sects with this as a, or the, fundamental
+tenet, in more wide-spread general movements, and in the scientific
+study and application of the principles underlying this form of
+therapeutics.
+
+Many have been led astray because, being ignorant of the mental
+healing movements and vagaries of the past, the late applications,
+veiled in metaphysical or religious verbiage, have seemed to them to
+be new in origin and principle. No one could consider an historical
+survey of the subject and reasonably hold this opinion. It is on
+account of the ignorance of similar movements, millenniums old, that
+so much, if any, originality can be credited to the founders.
+
+The object of this volume is to present a general view of mental
+healing, dealing more especially with the historical side of the
+subject. While this is divided topically, the topics are presented in
+a comparatively chronological order, and thereby trace the development
+of the subject to the present century.
+
+The term "mental healing" is given the broadest possible use, and
+comprehends any cures which may be brought about by the effect of the
+mind over the body, regardless of whether the power back of the cure
+is supposed to be deity, demons, other human beings, or the individual
+mind of the patient.
+
+It is hoped that this may contribute to the knowledge of a subject
+which is of such wide-spread popular interest.
+
+George Barton Cutten.
+
+Wolfville, Nova Scotia,
+_December 1, 1910._
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Bas-relief representing the Gallic Ćsculapius
+dispatching a demon                          _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                    FACING
+                                                      PAGE
+
+Cure through the Intercession of a Healing Saint        72
+
+Valentine Greatrakes                                   134
+
+Sir Kenelm Digby                                       152
+
+King's Touch-pieces                                    226
+
+F. A. Mesmer                                           252
+
+John Alexander Dowie                                   276
+
+George O. Barnes                                       290
+
+Mary Baker Eddy                                        302
+
+
+
+
+THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF
+MENTAL HEALING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION--MENTAL HEALING
+
+
+  "'Tis painful thinking that corrodes our
+  clay."--ARMSTRONG.
+
+  "Oh, if I could once make a resolution, and determine to
+  be well!"--WALDERSTEIN.
+
+  "The body and the mind are like a jerkin and a jerkin's
+  lining, rumple the one and you rumple the
+  other."--STERNE.
+
+  "I find, by experience, that the mind and the body are
+  more than married, for they are most intimately united;
+  and when the one suffers, the other
+  sympathizes."--CHESTERFIELD.
+
+  "Sublime is the dominion of the mind over the body, that
+  for a time can make flesh and nerve impregnable, and
+  string the sinews like steel, so that the weak become so
+  mighty."--STOWE.
+
+  "The surest road to health, say what they will, Is never
+  to suppose we shall be ill; Most of those evils we poor
+  mortals know From doctors and imagination
+  flow."--CHURCHILL.
+
+The fact that there is a reciprocal relation between mental states and
+bodily conditions, acting both for good and ill, is nothing new in
+human experience. Even among the most crude and unobserving,
+traditions and incidents have given witness to this knowledge. For
+centuries stories of the hair turning white during the night on
+account of fright or sorrow, the cause and cure of diseases through
+emotional disturbances, and death, usually directly by apoplexy,
+caused by anger, grief, or joy, have been current and generally
+accepted. On the other hand, irritability and moroseness caused by
+disordered organs of digestion, change of acumen or morals due to
+injury of the brain or nervous system, and insanity produced by bodily
+diseases, are also accepted proofs of the effect of the body on the
+mind.
+
+Recent scientific investigation has been directed along the line of
+the influence of the mind over the body, and to that phase of this
+influence which deals with the cure rather than the cause of disease.
+In addition to what the scientists have done along this line, various
+religious cults have added the application of these principles to
+their other tenets and activities, or else have made this the chief
+corner-stone of a new structure. There are some reasons why this
+connection with religion should continue to exist, and why it has been
+a great help both to the building up of these particular sects and the
+healing of the bodies of those who combine religion with mental
+healing.
+
+We must not forget that in early days the priest, the magician, and
+the physician were combined in one person, and that primitive
+religious notions are difficult to slough off. Shortly before the
+beginning of the Christian era there were some indications that
+healing was to be freed from the bondage of religion, but the
+influence of Jesus' healing upon Christians, and the overwhelming
+influence of Christianity upon the whole world, delayed this movement,
+so that it did not again become prominent until the sixteenth
+century. About this time, when therapeutics as a science began to
+shake off the shackles of religion and superstition, another startling
+innovation was noticeable, viz., the division of mental healing into
+religious and non-religious healing. This change came gradually, and
+as is usual in all reform, certain prophets saw and proclaimed the
+real truth which the people were not able to follow or receive for
+centuries.
+
+Paracelsus, who lived during the first half of the sixteenth century,
+wrote these shrewd words: "Whether the object of your faith is real or
+false, you will nevertheless obtain the same effects. Thus, if I
+believe in St. Peter's statue as I would have believed in St. Peter
+himself, I will obtain the same effects that I would have obtained
+from St. Peter; but that is superstition. Faith, however, produces
+miracles, and whether it be true or false faith, it will always
+produce the same wonders." We have also this penetrating observation
+from Pierre Ponponazzi, of Milan, an author of the same century: "We
+can easily conceive the marvellous effects which confidence and
+imagination can produce, particularly when both qualities are
+reciprocal between the subject and the person who influences them. The
+cures attributed to the influence of certain relics are the effect of
+this imagination and confidence. Quacks and philosophers know that if
+the bones of any skeleton were put in the place of the saint's bones,
+the sick would none the less experience beneficial effects, if they
+believed they were near veritable relics."
+
+What seemed to be a movement whereby mental healing should be divided
+so that only a portion of it should be connected with religion proved
+to be too far in advance of its time, and not until the advent of
+Mesmer was this accomplished. Healing other than mental, however, did
+obtain its freedom at this time. While Mesmer and his followers
+emphasized non-religious mental healing, it should not be thought that
+mental therapeutics was ever entirely separated from the church. There
+have always been found some sects which laid particular emphasis on
+it, and both Roman Catholic and Protestant orthodox Christianity have
+always admitted it. It has been considered, even if not admitted, that
+the power of the Infinite was more clearly shown by the healing of the
+body than by the restoration of the moral life. It is natural, then,
+that the sects which showed this special proof of God's presence and
+power would grow faster than their spiritual competitors, but that
+they would decline more rapidly and surely than those which espoused
+more spiritual doctrines.
+
+On the other hand, it is not difficult to see why mental healing would
+be helped by its connection with religion. Religion grips the whole
+mind more firmly than any other subject has ever done, and when one
+accepts the orthodox conception of God, he naturally expects to come
+in contact with One whose sympathies are in favor of the cure of his
+diseases, and whose power is sufficient to bring about this cure. With
+this basis there is set up in the mind of the patient an expectancy
+which has always proven to be a most valuable precursor of a cure. The
+devout religious attitude of mind is one most favorable for the
+working of suggestion, and persons of the temperament adapted to the
+religious expression most valued in the past are those who could be
+most readily affected by mental means. For these reasons, it can be
+easily understood why mental healing has continued to be associated
+with religion, and why when thus associated it has been so successful.
+
+To those not very familiar with mental healing, it has seemed strange
+that any law could be formulated which would comprehend every variety.
+In the following pages many different forms will be described, and in
+examining the subject it will be found that many and varied are the
+explanations given for the results produced. We find also a general
+distrust of all the others, or else a claim that this particular sect
+is the only real and true exponent of mental healing, and that it
+produces the only genuine cures. Those which claim to be Christian
+sects, however divergent the direct explanation of their results, give
+the final credit to God, and base their _modus operandi_ upon the
+Bible--in fact, they claim to be the direct successors of Jesus and
+his disciples in this respect.
+
+We find, however, that the healer connected with the Christian sect
+has no advantage over his Mohammedan or Buddhist brother, and that
+neither is able to succeed better than the non-religious healer in all
+cases. We recognize that when one class of healers fails in a case
+another may succeed, but the successful one is just as liable to fail
+in a second case when the first one cures. What particular form of
+suggestion is most effective in any given case depends upon the
+temperament of the individual and his education, religious training,
+and environment. When we consider the whole matter we are forced to
+the conclusion that mental cures are independent of any particular
+sect, religion, or philosophy; some are cured by one form and some by
+another. Not the creed, but some force which resides in the mind of
+every one accomplishes the cure, and the most that any religion or
+philosophy can do is to bring this force into action.
+
+As a general rule, one sharp distinction is noticed between the
+religious and the non-religious healers, viz., the religious healer
+sees no limit to his healing power, and affirms that cancer and
+Bright's disease are as easily cured, in theory at least, as neuralgia
+or insomnia; the non-religious healer, sometimes designated as the
+"scientific healer," on the contrary, recognizes that there are some
+diseases which are more easily cured than others, and that of those
+others some are practically incurable by psycho-therapeutic methods.
+
+The line has been drawn in the past between functional and organic
+diseases, the former including diseases where there is simply a
+derangement of function, like indigestion, and the latter
+comprehending the diseases where the organ is affected, like ulcer of
+the stomach. The more we know about diseases the less sure we seem to
+be about their classification; some of which we were formerly sure
+have recently caused us considerable doubt. For example, we have
+formerly classed cancer as an organic disease and consequently
+incurable by mental means. The question is now asked, "Is cancer an
+organic disease, or is it some functional derangement of the
+epithelium tissue which causes it to grow indefinitely until it
+invades some vital organ?"
+
+A further question arises due to further study. Some of the latest
+investigators claim that most if not all persons have cancer at some
+time in life, but that anti-toxin or some other remedy is supplied by
+the body itself, and the growth is stopped and the tissue absorbed.
+The question then seems to be pertinent, "If the body can produce the
+cure within itself, and this would be functional, why cannot mental
+means stimulate the body to produce it?" or "Does not mental influence
+stimulate the body to produce it?" What the cancer experts tell us of
+the wide-spread extension of the disease and its spontaneous cure, the
+tuberculosis experts affirm of tuberculosis, and certainly of the
+latter disease spontaneous cures are not uncommon. We also know that
+mental influence may, in fact does, have an indirect but no less
+beneficial influence in the cure of tuberculosis. From these examples
+one seems to be forced to either one of two conclusions, either of
+which is contrary to generally accepted ideas, viz., first, that these
+are not organic diseases; or, second, organic diseases are aided or
+cured by means of mental healing. In general, however, the distinction
+holds good; the so-called functional cases are amenable to cure by
+mental means, and the organic are much less so.
+
+Coming back, then, to the common law which underlies all cases or
+forms of mental healing, we find two general principles upon which it
+is built--the power of the mind over the body, and the importance of
+suggestion as a factor in the cure of the disease. The law may be
+tersely stated in the first person as follows: My body tends to adjust
+itself so as to be in harmony with my ideas concerning it. This law is
+equally applicable to the cause or cure of disease by mental means. To
+apply this law in a universal way as far as mental healing is
+concerned, we should notice that however the thought of cure may come
+into the mind, whether by external or auto-suggestion, if it is firmly
+rooted so as to impress the subconsciousness, that part of the mind
+which rules the bodily organs, a tendency toward cure is at once set
+up and continues as long as that thought has the ascendancy.
+
+Hack Tuke quotes Johannes Müller, a physiologist who lived during the
+first half of the last century, as follows: "It may be stated as a
+general fact that any state of body which is conceived to be
+approaching, and which is expected with certain confidence and
+certainty of occurrence, will be very prone to ensue, as the mere
+result of the idea, if it do not lie beyond the bounds of
+possibility." This is a fair statement of the law from the stand-point
+of consciousness, but does not include all of the vast influence of
+subconscious ideas which are so potent in the cure of diseases by
+mental means. Müller's observation was in advance of his times, but
+could not be expected to include the results of the latest researches
+of modern science.
+
+For a great many years physicians have recognized that not only are
+all diseases made worse by an incorrect mental attitude, but that some
+diseases are the direct result of worry and other mental disturbances.
+The mental force which causes colored water to act as an emetic, or
+postage-stamps to produce a blister, can also produce organic diseases
+of a serious nature. The large mental factor in the cause of diseases
+is generally admitted, and it seems reasonable to infer that what is
+caused by mental influence may be cured by the same means. There is
+no restriction in the power of the mind in causing disease, and should
+we restrict the mind as a factor in the cure? The trouble seems to be
+in the explanation. People ask, "How can the mind have such an effect
+upon the body?" and to the answer of this question we must now turn
+our attention.
+
+We all recognize that involuntarily certain bodily effects take place.
+We blush when we do not wish to; we betray our fears by our blanched
+faces. Some other factors of mind than the conscious mental processes
+have charge, and rule certain functions. The heart, the respiratory
+apparatus, the glands, and digestive organs all carry on their regular
+functions during sleep and also better without our direction when we
+are awake. What is the explanation of this? We have recently been
+saying that the subconsciousness rules these physical organs, and
+through this that the effects already referred to take place. So much
+has been written recently regarding the subconsciousness that anything
+more at this time would be superfluous; suffice it to say that the
+general conclusions on that subject are accepted as the basis of faith
+cure. We may, however, go further in our endeavor to explain.
+
+In such mental troubles as psychasthesia much has lately been heard
+about psycho-analysis and re-education. What does that mean in the
+language of the psychology of a few years ago? In cases of
+unreasonable fears or phobias, for example, there is a firmly rooted
+system of ideas which refuses to depart at the command of
+consciousness. We analyze the mental store to find out the cause of
+the unreasonable persistence, and sometimes, quite frequently in fact,
+have to resort to hypnosis or hypnodization to find the initial
+trouble. It is then corrected, and re-education consists in living
+over again from the first experience, the events connected with that
+fear and correcting them up to date. In this process minutes only are
+used where the original experiences took weeks. Putting it in other
+words, we have certain systems of ideas; as a psychological fact of
+long standing we know that other elements may be injected into that
+system so as to change it, or that one system may be destroyed and
+another system built up to take its place. This is the secret of cures
+of this nature--of mental troubles--the irritating factor, the thorn
+in the mind, is extracted.
+
+We have heard in modern psychology of the hot and cold places in
+consciousness, or, to use other terms for the same idea, the central
+and peripheral ideas, meaning the ideas which dominate consciousness,
+and those which are in the background. The mind can readily attend to
+only one thing at a time; if that be pain, for example, that takes up
+all of our attention. On the other hand, if for some reason some other
+ideas suddenly become central, then the pain is driven away to the
+periphery and we say we have no pain, or we have less pain. The
+sufferer from neuralgia experiences no pain as he responds to the fire
+alarm, and the toothache stops entirely as we undergo the excitement
+and fear of entering the dentist's office. Serious lesions yield to
+profound emotion born of persuasion, confidence, or excitement; either
+the gouty or rheumatic man, after hobbling about for years, finds his
+legs if pursued by a wild bull, or the weak and enfeebled invalid will
+jump from the bed and carry out heavy articles from a burning house.
+The central idea is sufficient to command all the reserve energy, and
+that idea which has suddenly and unexpectedly become central may
+remain so. What Chalmers called "the expulsive power of a new
+affection" in the cure of souls, is the precise method of operation in
+the cure of some bodily ills.
+
+I have here made two suggestions which may help to show how mental
+healing may be brought about. Not simply the alleviation of bodily
+ills, but the complete cure may result from the influence on the
+subconsciousness. A large number of cures are brought about by faith
+in certain religious practices, this faith amounting to a certainty in
+the minds of the patients before the cure is started or while it is in
+progress. Trustful expectation in any one direction acts powerfully
+through the subconsciousness because it absorbs the whole mind, and
+thus competition with other ideas, either consciously or
+subconsciously, is largely excluded. It is this which acts in mental
+healing under the caption of faith, although some abnormal conditions
+may also arise to assist the suggestion.
+
+That this confident expectation of a cure is the most potent means of
+bringing it about, doing that which no medical treatment can
+accomplish, may be affirmed as the generalized result of experiences
+of the most varied kind, extending through a long series of ages. It
+is this factor which is common to methods of the most diverse
+character. It is noticeable that any system of treatment, however
+absurd, that can be puffed into public notoriety for efficacy, any
+individual who by accident or design obtains a reputation for a
+special gift of healing, is certain to attract a multitude of
+sufferers, among whom will be many who are capable of being really
+benefited by a strong assurance of relief. Thus, the practitioner with
+a great reputation has an advantage over his neighboring physicians,
+not only on account of the superior skill which he may have acquired,
+but because his reputation causes this confident expectation, so
+beneficial in itself.
+
+There have been fashions in cures as in other things. At one time a
+certain relic, or healer, would attract and cure, and shortly
+afterward it would be deserted and inefficacious, not because it had
+lost its power, but because it had lost its reputation, and the
+people had consequently lost their faith in it. Some other relics
+would then acquire a reputation, spring into popular favor, and the
+crowds would flock to them. We have many modern instances of this
+kind. If sufficient confidence in the power of a concoction, a shrine,
+a relic, or a person can be aroused, genuine cures can be wrought
+regardless of the healing properties of the dose.
+
+The whole system of mental therapeutics may be divided into two parts;
+what we may designate as metaphysical cure denies that either matter
+or evil exists, and heals by inspiring the belief that the disease
+cannot assail the patient because he is pure spirit; the other class,
+faith cure, recognizes the disease, but cures by faith in the power of
+divinity, persons, objects, or suggestion.
+
+Without doubt the best example of the former theory and the most
+successful application of it are found in Christian Science. Perhaps
+it is not so difficult to understand the frame of mind which brought
+about this theory on the part of Mrs. Eddy. Here was an hysterical,
+neurotic woman who knew nothing all her life but illness and
+misfortune. She had suffered much from many physicians and was none
+the better but rather worse. One physician had called her disease one
+thing, another had designated it another, until confusion and
+uncertainty were increased with every physician consulted. She began
+to despair of ever either knowing about her disease or of having it
+cured. As a last resort she went to Quimby, and he told her there was
+no disease and no need of suffering. He denied the suffering, and she
+accepted his teaching; she followed him in denying disease and then
+matter, and kept on with her theory of negation and denial until she
+evolved her present theory. It was a natural reaction from all
+conceivable pains characteristic of hysteria, to no pain; from all
+conceivable diseases which different physicians had opined, to no
+disease; from the infirmity of body with its inhibitory discomfitures,
+to no body. The history of the founder of Christian Science is its
+best _raison d'ętre_, especially from a psychological stand-point, and
+the rather strange thing is that a reaction from an abnormality, going
+as it naturally does to another abnormality, should find a response in
+the religious cravings of so many; the philosophy undoubtedly would
+not attract as it does were there not connected with it, in the
+practical working of the system, the lure of mental healing.
+
+Faith cure, the other form of mental healing, has such a variety of
+forms that it is practically impossible to describe a typical one.
+Faith in some power, or, what amounts to the same thing, the
+uncritical reception of suggestions concerning the cure, is the common
+factor in all forms.
+
+The question naturally arises, Which is the best form of mental
+healing? There is no best form for all diseases and all persons. For
+example, it matters not how new associational systems are formed so
+long as they are substituted for the pernicious ones. It may be in the
+common experiences of every-day life, through the pleading of a
+friend, during sleep or trance, in some abnormal state of a hypnotic
+character, or during religious ecstasy, and we cannot well say in any
+given case that one form will be more efficacious than another. Mental
+healing creates nothing new, but simply makes use of the normal
+mechanism of the mind and body. The question then is, What method of
+mental healing is most likely to stimulate the mental mechanism so
+that physiological processes will be set up leading to a cure? The
+great power of faith and expectancy may decide the question, and the
+answer may be in favor of the form in which the patient has the most
+faith, either on account of its reputation, or on account of some
+prejudice on the part of the patient.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+  "The office of the physician extends equally to the
+  purification of mind and body; to neglect the one is to
+  expose the other to evident peril. It is not only the
+  body that by its sound constitution strengthens the
+  soul, but the well-regulated soul by its authoritative
+  power maintains the body in perfect health."--PLATO.
+
+  "Aristotle mapped out philosophy and morals in lines the
+  world yet accepts in the main, but he did not know the
+  difference between the nerves and the tendons. Rome had
+  a sound system of jurisprudence before it had a
+  physician, using only priest-craft for healing. Cicero
+  was the greatest lawyer the world has seen, but there
+  was not a man in Rome who could have cured him of a
+  colic. The Greek was an expert dialectician when he was
+  using incantations for his diseases. As late as when the
+  Puritans were enunciating their lofty principles, it was
+  generally held that the king's touch would cure
+  scrofula. Governor Winthrop, of colonial days, treated
+  'small-pox and all fevers' by a powder made from 'live
+  toads baked in an earthen pot in the open
+  air.'"--MUNGER.
+
+  "There is nothing so absurd or ridiculous that has not
+  at some time been said by some philosopher. Fontenelle
+  says he would undertake to persuade the whole republic
+  of readers to believe that the sun was neither the cause
+  of light or heat, if he could only get six philosophers
+  on his side."--GOLDSMITH.
+
+A glance at the history of medicine will show three fairly well
+defined periods. The beginning of the first is hidden in the uncertain
+days of prehistoric ages and the period continues down to early
+Christian times--perhaps the end of the second century when Galen
+died. The second period extends from this time to the fifteenth or
+sixteenth centuries, and the third period embraces the last three or
+four centuries. The second period was almost wholly stationary, and
+this, we are ashamed to say, was largely due to the prohibitive
+attitude of the church. The science of medicine, then, is almost
+wholly the result of the investigations and study of the last period.
+This means that medicine is one of the youngest of the sciences, while
+from the very nature of the case it is one of the oldest of arts.
+
+From the beginning of the art of therapeutics, mental healing has been
+a large factor in the cure. This was not recognized, of course, for
+only in the last century has the psychic element been admitted to any
+extent as a therapeutic agent. We can read back now, however, and see
+what a large element this really was. The cruder the art, the more
+powerful was the mental influence. The ways of primitive therapeutics
+are completely hidden from us except what we can gather from the races
+which retained their primitive practices in historic times. We can
+well understand, though, that the concoctions of medicine-men and
+witch-doctors could have little effect except in a suggestive way.
+Snakes' heads, toads' toes, lizards' tails, and beetles' wings have a
+small place in the pharmacopoeia of to-day, except as placebos, and
+it is extremely doubtful if they were ever valuable for any other
+purpose.
+
+The object of the primitive practitioner seems to have been to make an
+impression upon the patient either by the explanation of his disease
+or by the effort made to effect a cure. The explanation most
+frequently given was that demons were responsible for the trouble, and
+the cure of the disease was an attempted exorcism of the demon. The
+more fantastic the ceremony, the more likely the cure, on account of
+the mental influence upon the patient. The primitive man's religion
+and therapeutics were inextricably interwoven and, unless we make an
+exception of the past few years, this has always been an unprofitable
+union for one or both. All the early civilizations with the exception
+of the Greeks, as well as the Christian nations up to the sixteenth
+century, were handicapped by this partnership, and it was only by
+divorcing the two that therapeutics was able to make the great advance
+during the last period. The nature of the primitive religions was
+responsible to a great extent for the nature of the method of healing,
+therefore, appeasing the offended deity and exorcising the demon were
+therapeutic as well as religious ceremonies.
+
+The Chinese of to-day, except in some of the seaboard cities, must be
+classed among the earliest civilizations, for their mode of living has
+not changed much in the last two or three milleniums. Their system of
+medical practice partakes of the character of that found among the early
+people, with some slight modifications which show some relationship to
+the European practice during the Dark Ages.
+
+All sorts of disgusting doses are administered, and incantations and
+exorcisms are among the most effective methods of healing. For
+example, Hardy reports that a missionary told him of his being called
+in to see a man suffering from convulsions; he found him smelling
+white mice in a cage, with a dead fowl fastened on his chest, and a
+bundle of grass attached to his feet. This had been the prescription
+of a native physician.
+
+Medicines are made from asses' sinews, fowls' blood, bears' gall,
+shaving of a rhinoceros' horn, moss grown on a coffin, and the dung of
+dogs, pigs, fowl, rabbits, pigeons, and bats. Cockroach tea, bear-paw
+soup, essence of monkey paw, toads' eyebrows, and earth-worms rolled
+in honey are common doses. The excrement of a mosquito is considered
+as efficacious as it is scarce, and here, as in Europe in the Middle
+Ages, the hair of the dog that bit you is used to heal the bite and to
+prevent hydrophobia. An infusion from the bones of a tiger is believed
+to confer courage, strength, and agility, and the flesh of a snake is
+boiled and eaten to make one cunning and wise. Chips from coffins
+which have been let down into the grave are boiled and are said to
+possess great virtue for catarrh. Flies, fleas, and bedbugs prepared
+in different ways are given for various diseases. Medicines are given
+in all forms, and not infrequently pills are as large as a pigeon's
+egg. If any of these medicines ever had any beneficent effect it must
+have been through mental rather than through physical means.
+
+Nevius has left us in no doubt concerning the belief in demons among
+the Chinese, and of the effect this belief has on their theory of
+disease. Certain forms are daily observed to drive away the evil
+spirits. For this purpose Taoist priests are hired to recite formulć,
+ring bells, and manipulate bowls of water, candles, joss-sticks, and
+curious charms. Sometimes the family insists that one of the priests
+shall ascend a ladder, the rounds of which are formed of swords or
+knives with the sharp edge uppermost, and go through his exorcisms at
+the top. Instead of the priest, the mother may make a fire of paper
+and wave a small garment of her sick child over it.
+
+A relative or friend of a sick person will visit a temple and beat the
+drum, which notifies the god that there is urgent need of his help. To
+be sure that the god hears, his ears are tickled, and the part of the
+image which corresponds to the afflicted part of the sick person's
+body is rubbed. Some ashes from the censor standing before the image
+may be taken to the sick-room and there reverenced. Holy water is
+brought from the temple, boiled with tea, and drunk as a certain cure
+for disease. Spells are written on paper and burned; the ashes are
+then put into water and drunk as medicine. Charms and magical tricks
+of all kinds are tried in order to drive away the demon.
+
+There were schools of medicine in Egypt in the fifteenth century
+before the Christian era, and the Egyptians made great progress in the
+study and practice of medicine. Notwithstanding this, we find many
+examples of mental healing, or at least attempts at healing by mental
+means, among the recipes and prescriptions which have come down to us.
+Poor and superstitious persons, especially, had recourse to dreams, to
+wizards, to donations, to sacred animals, and to exvotos to the gods.
+Charms were also written for the credulous, some of which have been
+found on small pieces of papyrus, which were rolled up and worn, as by
+the modern Egyptians.
+
+The Ebers papyrus, an important and very ancient manual of Egyptian
+medicine, has thrown much light on early Egyptian practices. It shows
+that an important part of the treatment prior to 1552 B. C., consisted
+in the laying on of hands, combined with an extensive formulary and
+ceremonial rites. The physicians were the priests, and among the
+interesting contents of this manuscript are several formulć to be used
+as prayers while compounding medicaments. Some of the prescriptions
+given here are accompanied by exorcisms which were to be used at the
+same time. Many of the prescriptions could have had little but mental
+influence because the remedies recommended consisted of horrible
+mixtures of unsavory ingredients, the theory, if we can judge by the
+medicines, being that the more disgusting the dose the more
+efficacious the remedy; this is true from a mental stand-point.
+
+Demonism was not unknown; in fact, it underlay much of the treatment.
+People did not die, but they were assassinated. The murderer might
+belong to this or to the spirit world. He might be a god, a spirit, or
+the soul of a dead man that had cunningly entered a living person. The
+physician must first discover the nature of the possessing spirit, and
+then attack it. Powerful magic was the weapon used, and the healer
+must be an expert in reciting incantations and skilful in making
+amulets. On account of this, the Egyptians became the most skilled in
+magic of any people, and have their equals only in the Hindus of
+to-day. The experiences of Joseph and Moses, as recorded in the Bible,
+give us some idea of their skill at that time. After the exorcism the
+physician used medicine to relieve the disorders which the presence of
+the strange being had produced in the body.
+
+Maspéro gives us the following information: "The cure-workers are
+divided into several categories. Some incline towards sorcery, and
+have faith in formulas and talismans only; they think they have done
+enough if they have driven out the spirit. Others extol the use of
+drugs; they study the qualities of plants and minerals, describe the
+diseases to which each of the substances provided by nature is
+suitable, and settle the exact time when they must be procured and
+applied; certain herbs have no power unless they are gathered during
+the night at the full moon, others are efficacious in summer only,
+another acts equally well in winter or summer. The best doctors
+carefully avoid binding themselves exclusively to either method."[1]
+
+Among the early Egyptians the human body was divided into thirty-six
+parts, each of which was thought to be under the particular government
+of one of the aerial demons, who presided over the triple divisions of
+the twelve signs. The priests practised a separate invocation for each
+genius, which they used in order to obtain for them the cure of the
+particular member confided to their care. We have the authority of
+Origen for saying that in his time when any part of the body was
+diseased, a cure was effected by invoking the demon to whose province
+it belonged. Perhaps this is why the different parts of the body were
+assigned to the different planets, and later to different saints. It
+undoubtedly accounts for the fact that an Egyptian physician treated
+only one part of the body and refused to infringe on the domain of his
+brother physician.
+
+Incubation was commonly practised at the temples of Isis and Serapis
+as it was afterward among the Greeks. This "temple sleep" was closely
+akin in its effects to hypnotism and was undoubtedly efficacious in
+the case of some diseases.
+
+The Babylonian system of therapeutics was not unlike the Egyptian as
+far as incantations were concerned. Many of these have been
+discovered. The formulas usually consist of a description of the
+disease and its symptoms, a desire for deliverance from it, and an
+order for it to depart. Some draughts were given which may have had
+some medicinal effect, but they were supposed to be enchanted drinks.
+Knots were supposed to have some magical effect on diseases, and
+conjurations were also wrought by the power of numbers. The Book of
+Daniel shows the official recognition given to magicians, astrologers,
+and sorcerers.
+
+The Jews seem to have got their early medical knowledge from the
+Egyptians, and changed it only in so far as their religion made it
+necessary, for with them as with others the healing art was a part of
+the religion, and the Levites were the sole practitioners. Much
+valuable medical knowledge was mixed with much that could only have
+had a mental influence. Disease was considered a punishment for sin,
+and hence the cure was religious rather than medical. The disease
+might be inflicted by God direct, and the cure would be a proof of his
+forgiveness; it might also be inflicted by Satan or the spirits of the
+air with the permission of Jehovah, and the cure would then be brought
+about by exorcism.
+
+There seems to have been a rather elaborate system of demonology among
+the Jews, who were at one time the chief exponents of the doctrine,
+and consequently the principal exorcists. Among the Jews a prominent
+"demoness of sickness is Bath-Chorin. She touches the hands and lower
+limbs by night. Many diseases are caused by demons." According to
+Josephus, "to demons may be ascribed leprosy, rabies, asthma, cardiac
+diseases, nervous diseases, which last are the specialty of evil
+demons, such as epilepsy." Incantations were in use among the later
+Jews, and amulets of neck-chains like serpents and ear-rings were
+employed to protect the wearers against the evil eye and similar
+troubles.
+
+In India, medicine became a separate science very early, according to
+the sacred books, the Vedas. Notwithstanding this, demonology played a
+large part in the production of disease according to their theories,
+and religious observances were helpful in the cures.
+
+Among the oldest documents which we possess relative to the practice
+of medicine, are the various treatises contained in the collection
+which bears the name of Hippocrates (460-375 B. C.). He was the first
+physician to relieve medicine from the trammels of superstition and
+the delusions of philosophy.
+
+The Greeks undoubtedly believed in demons, but, different from the
+nations around them, considered the demons to be well-intentioned.
+Homer (c. 1000 B. C.) speaks frequently of demons, and in one instance
+in the Odyssey tells of a sick man pining away, "one upon whom a
+hateful demon had gazed." Empedocles (c. 490-430 B. C.) taught that
+demons "were of a mixed and inconstant nature, and are subjected to a
+purgatorial process which may finally end in their ascension to higher
+abodes." Yet he attributed to them nearly all the calamities,
+vexations, and plagues incident to mankind. Plato (427-347 B. C.)
+writes of demons good and bad, and Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), the son
+of a physician, speaks directly of "demons influencing and inspiring
+the possessed." Socrates (470-399 B. C.) claimed to have continually
+with him a demon--a guardian spirit.
+
+In Greece, in early days, physicians were looked upon as gods. Even
+after the siege of Troy, the sons of the gods and the heroes were
+alone supposed to understand the secrets of medicine and surgery. At a
+late period Ćsculapius, the son of Apollo, was worshipped as a deity.
+When we speak of the art of healing in Greece, one naturally thinks of
+the apparent monopoly of the Ćsclepiades, who ministered unto the
+Grecian sick for centuries.
+
+The original seat of the worship of Ćsculapius was at Epidaurus, where
+there was a splendid temple, adorned with a gold and ivory statue of
+the god, who was represented sitting, one hand holding a staff, the
+other resting on the head of a serpent, the emblem of sagacity and
+longevity; a dog crouched at his feet. The temple was frequented by
+harmless serpents, in the form of which the god was supposed to
+manifest himself. According to Homer, his sons, Machaon and
+Podalirius, who were great warriors, treated wounds and external
+diseases only; and it is probable that their father practised in the
+same manner, as he is said to have invented the probe and the
+bandaging of wounds. His priests, the Ćsclepiades, however, practised
+incantations, and cured diseases by leading their patients to believe
+that the god himself delivered his prescriptions in dreams and
+visions; for this imposture they were roughly satirized by
+Aristophanes in his play of "Plutus." It is probable that the
+preparations, consisting of abstinence, tranquillity, and bathing,
+requisite for obtaining the divine intercourse, and, above all, the
+confidence reposed in the Ćsclepiades, were often productive of
+benefit.
+
+The excavations of Cavvadias at Epidaurus have furnished us with much
+interesting material concerning the cures performed at this ancient
+shrine, five hundred years before the beginning of the Christian era.
+If the modern physician still recognizes Ćsculapius as his patron
+saint, he must have great respect for mental healing. It appears
+certain from inscriptions found upon "stelć" that were dug up at
+Epidaurus and published in 1891, that the system of Ćsculapius was
+based upon the miracle-working of a demi-god, and not upon medical art
+as we now know it. The _modus operandi_ was unique in some details.
+The patients, mostly incurables, came laden with sacrifices. After
+prayer, they cleansed themselves with water from the holy well, and
+offered up sacrifices. Certain ceremonial acts were then performed by
+the priests, and the patients were put to sleep on the skins of the
+animals offered at the altar, or at the foot of the statue of the
+divinity, while the priests performed further sacred rites. The son of
+Apollo then appeared to them in dreams, attended to the particular
+ailments of the sufferers, and specified further sacrifices or acts
+which would restore health. In many cases the sick awoke suddenly
+cured. Large sums of money were asked for these cures; from one
+inscription we learn that a sum corresponding to $12,000 was paid as a
+fee. The record of the cure was carved on the temple as at Lourdes
+to-day, _e.g._:
+
+"Some days back, a certain Caius, who was blind, learned from an
+oracle that he should repair to the temple, put up his fervent
+prayers, cross the sanctuary from right to left, place his five
+fingers on the altar, then raise his hand and cover his eyes. He
+obeyed, and instantly his sight was restored, amid the loud
+acclamations of the multitude. These signs of the omnipotence of the
+gods were shown in the reign of Antoninus."
+
+"A blind soldier, named Valerius Apes, having consulted the oracle,
+was informed that he should mix the blood of a white cock with honey,
+to make up an ointment to be applied to his eyes for three consecutive
+days. He received his sight, and returned public thanks to the gods."
+
+"Julian appeared lost beyond all hope, from a spitting of blood. The
+gods ordered him to take from the altar some seeds of the pine, and to
+mix them with honey, of which mixture he was to eat for three days. He
+was saved, and came to thank the gods in the presence of the
+people."[2]
+
+It was not until five centuries later, when credulity concerning
+miracles was on the wane, that the priests began to study and to apply
+medical means in order to sustain the reputation of the place, and to
+keep up its enormous revenues.
+
+Temples similar to this one at Epidaurus existed at numerous places,
+among which were Rhodes, Cnidus, Cos, and one was to be found on the
+banks of the Tiber. The temple at Cos was rich in votive offerings,
+which generally represented the parts of the body healed, and an
+account of the method of cure adopted. From these singular clinical
+records, Hippocrates, a reputed descendant of Ćsculapius, is reported
+to have constructed his treatise on Dietetics.
+
+For a long time after the age of Hercules and the heroic times,
+invalids in Greece sought relief from their sufferings from these
+descendants of Ćsculapius in the temples of that god, which an
+enlightened policy had raised on elevated spots, near medicinal
+springs, and in salubrious vicinities. Those men who pretended in
+right of birth to hold the gift of curing, finally learned the art of
+it. The preservation in the temple of the history of those diseases,
+the cure of which had been sought by them, aided greatly in this happy
+culmination.
+
+Of Ćsculapius himself, it is said that he employed the trumpet to cure
+sciatica; he claimed that its continued sound made the fibres of the
+nerves to palpitate, and the pain vanished. In line with this
+treatment, Democritus affirmed that diseases are capable of being
+cured by the sound of a flute, when properly played.
+
+Herbs were also used among the Greeks, but almost wholly in the form
+of charms rather than on account of what we claim now as real
+medicinal value. For example, great virtues were ascribed to the herb
+alysson which was pounded and eaten with meat to cure hydrophobia. If
+suspended in the house, it promoted the health of the inmates and
+protected both men and cattle from enchantments; when bound in a piece
+of scarlet flannel round the necks of the latter, it preserved them
+from all diseases.
+
+There seems to have been no independent school of Roman medicine. From
+early times there was a very complicated system of superstitious
+medicine, as a part of the religion, which is supposed to have been
+borrowed from the Etruscans. This comprehended both the theory and
+cure of disease. The Romans got along for centuries without doctors;
+in fact, doctors were a Grecian importation, not made until about two
+centuries before Christ.
+
+  [1] G. Maspéro, _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_,
+  chap. VII.
+
+  [2] E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at
+  Lourdes," _Nineteenth Century_, October, 1895.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+  "The Alchemist may doubt the shining gold
+    His crucible pours out,
+  But faith, fanatic faith, once wedded fast
+    To some dear falsehood,
+  Hugs it to the last."
+
+  "Death is the cure of all diseases. There is no _catholicon_
+  or universal remedy I know, but this, which though nauseous
+  to queasy stomachs, yet to prepared appetites is nectar, and
+  a pleasant potion of immortality."--BROWNE.
+
+        "I'll tell you what now of the Devil:
+  He's no such horrid creature; cloven-footed,
+  Black, saucer-ey'd, his nostrils breathing fire,
+  As these lying Christians make him."--MASSINGER.
+
+  "If the cure be wrought, what matters it to the happy
+  invalid ... whether the cure is wrought by the touch of
+  the Divine hand or the overpowering influence of a great
+  idea upon the nervous system? If our hunger be appeased,
+  it matters little whether it is by manna rained down
+  from heaven, or a wheaten loaf raised from the harvest
+  field. Miraculous water from the rock does not quench
+  the thirst better than that which bubbles from the
+  village spring."--BERDOE.
+
+The advent of the Christian religion into the world, while purporting
+to minister especially to the spiritual life, had a wide-reaching and
+potent influence on the art of healing the body. We cannot sum up the
+effect by saying that this influence was either wholly good or
+bad--its relation to therapeutics was a mixed one. It can be
+truthfully said that nothing has retarded the science of medicine
+during the past two thousand years so much as the iron grip of
+decadent orthodoxy, and, on the other hand, no power has caused men
+and women so to sacrifice time, money, and even life itself for the
+care and nurture of the sick, as the example and precepts of Jesus
+Christ.
+
+For eighteen centuries this paradoxical position was held by the
+church, and the antithetical attitudes of hindrance and help continued
+to exist. As valuable as was the spirit instilled into the hearts of
+His followers by the tenderness of the Master, it was never sufficient
+to counterbalance the deterrent effects of the religion which they
+espoused. The retardation was caused by two related beliefs which
+permeated the church: The first was the doctrine of the power of
+demons in the lives of men, especially in the production of disease;
+and the second was the prevalence of the idea of the possibility and
+probability of the performance of miracles, particularly in the
+healing of diseases.
+
+A rather complicated science of demonology had come down from
+primitive sources through Egyptian, Babylonian, and Greek
+civilization, although the demons of the Greeks were principally good
+spirits. At the time of Christ, however, the Jews were the most ardent
+advocates of demonology, and hence the chief exorcists. They expelled
+demons partly by adjuration and partly by means of a certain
+miraculous root named Baaras. They considered it nothing at all out
+of the ordinary to meet men who were possessed by demons, and just as
+common an experience to see them healed by having the demon exorcised.
+Josephus assures us that in the reign of Vespasian he had himself seen
+a Jew named Eleazar perform an exorcism; by means of adjuration and
+the Baaras root he drew a demon through the nostrils of a possessed
+person, who fell to the ground on the accomplishment of the miracle,
+while on the command of the magician the demon, to prove that it had
+really left its victim, threw down a cup of water which had been
+placed at a distance.
+
+Knowing as we do the close relationship between Judaism and
+Christianity, it does not surprise us to discover that the Christians
+inherited the doctrine and practice of the Jews in this matter. This
+is more readily understood when we remember the connection of Jesus
+with cases of demoniacal possession, and Paul's frequent references to
+the spirits of the air. Following the example of their Master,
+Christians everywhere became exorcists. Through the influence of
+Philo's writings, Jewish demonology was propagated among Christian
+converts, and the Gnostics quickly absorbed and spread the notion of
+preternatural interposition. Next to the belief in the second coming
+of Christ, the doctrine which most influenced the action of the early
+church was that of a spiritual world and its hierarchy. Terrestrial
+things were ruled by all sorts of spiritual beings.
+
+Some philosophers, as well as the founders of different religions,
+expelled demons, and the Christians fully recognized the power
+possessed by the Jewish and gentile exorcists; the followers of
+Christ, however, claimed to be in many respects the superior of all
+others. The fathers maintained the reality of all pagan miracles as
+fully as their own, except that doubt was sometimes cast on some forms
+of healing and prophecy. Demons which had resisted all the
+enchantments of the pagans might be cast out, oracles could be
+silenced, and unclean spirits compelled to acknowledge the truth of
+the Christian faith by the Christians, who simply made the sign of the
+cross, or repeated the name of the Master.
+
+The power of the Christian exorcists was shown by still more wonderful
+feats. Demons, which were sometimes supposed to enter animals, were
+expelled. St. Hilarion (288-371), we are told, courageously confronted
+and relieved a possessed camel. "The great St. Ambrose [340-397] tells
+us that a priest, while saying mass, was troubled by the croaking of
+frogs in a neighboring marsh; that he exorcised them, and so stopped
+their noise. St. Bernard [1091-1153], as the monkish chroniclers tell
+us, mounting the pulpit to preach in his abbey, was interrupted by a
+crowd of flies; straightway the saint uttered the sacred formula of
+excommunication, when the flies fell dead upon the pavement in heaps,
+and were cast out with shovels! A formula of exorcism attributed to a
+saint of the ninth century, which remained in use down to a recent
+period, especially declares insects injurious to crops to be possessed
+of evil spirits, and names, among the animals to be excommunicated or
+exorcised, moles, mice, and serpents. The use of exorcism against
+caterpillars and grasshoppers was also common. In the thirteenth
+century a bishop of Lausanne, finding that the eels in Lake Leman
+troubled the fishermen, attempted to remove the difficulty by
+exorcism, and two centuries later one of his successors excommunicated
+all the May-bugs in the diocese. As late as 1731 there appears an
+entry on the municipal register of Thonon as follows: '_Resolved_,
+that this town join with other parishes of this province in obtaining
+from Rome an excommunication against the insects, and that it will
+contribute _pro rata_ to the expense of the same.'"
+
+Scripture was cited to prove the diabolical character of some animals
+during the Middle Ages. Says White: "Did anyone venture to deny that
+animals could be possessed by Satan, he was at once silenced by
+reference to the entrance of Satan into the serpent in the Garden of
+Eden, and to the casting of devils into swine by the Founder of
+Christianity himself."[3]
+
+Notwithstanding the pleasing theory adopted by the earlier Christian
+writers that the powers of darkness were unable to harm the faithful
+without the permission of divinity, to whom demoniacal spirits were
+ultimately subjected, unlimited power was conceded to those beings who
+existed under divine sanction. Demoniacal ćons or emanations were
+acknowledged to be the primitive source of earthly sufferings,
+pestilence among men, sickness and other bodily afflictions, but
+inflicted with the consent of God, whose messengers they were.
+
+Early Christian writers boldly asserted that all the disorders of the
+world originated with the devil and his sinister companions, because
+they were stirred with the unholy desire to obtain associates in their
+miseries. It was impossible to fix a limit to the number of these
+malevolent spirits constantly provoking diseases and infirmities upon
+men. They were alleged to surround mankind so densely that each person
+had a thousand to his right and ten thousand to the left of him.
+Endowed with the subtlest activity, they were able to reach the
+remotest points of earth in the twinkling of an eye.
+
+According to Salverte, Tatian, a sincere defender of Christianity, who
+lived in the second century, "does not deny the wonderful cures
+effected by the priests of the temples of the Polytheists; he only
+attempts to explain them by supposing that the pagan gods were actual
+demons, and that they introduced disease into the body of a healthy
+man, announcing to him, in a dream, that he should be cured if he
+implored their assistance; and then, by terminating the evil which
+they themselves had produced, they obtained the glory of having worked
+the miracle."[4]
+
+So firm was the belief that Christians could exorcise these demons
+that from the time of Justin Martyr (100-163), for about two
+centuries, there is not a single Christian writer who does not
+solemnly and explicitly assert the reality and frequent employment of
+this power. In his Second Apology, Justin says: "And now you can learn
+this from what is under your own observation. For numberless demoniacs
+throughout the whole world, and in your city, many of our Christian
+men exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified
+under Pontius Pilate, have healed and do heal, rendering helpless and
+driving the possessing demons out of the men, though they could not be
+cured by all the other exorcists, and those who used incantations and
+drugs."
+
+Irenćus (130-202) held that mankind, through transgressions of divine
+command, fell absolutely from the time of Adam into the power of
+Satan. On the other hand, he assures us that all Christians possessed
+the power of working miracles; that they prophesied, cast out devils,
+healed the sick, and sometimes even raised the dead; that some who had
+been thus resuscitated lived for many years among them, and that it
+would be impossible to reckon the wonderful acts that were daily
+performed.[5]
+
+Tertullian (160-220) insisted that a malevolent angel was in constant
+attendance upon every person, but in writing to the pagans in a time
+of persecution he challenged his opponents to bring forth any person
+who was possessed by a demon or any of those prophets or virgins who
+were supposed to be inspired by a divinity. He asserted that all
+demons would be compelled to confess their diabolical character when
+questioned by any Christians, and invited the pagans, if it were
+otherwise, to put the Christian immediately to death, for this, he
+thought, was the simplest and most decisive demonstration of the
+faith.
+
+Lecky tells us of the attitude of the fathers toward demonism in the
+following words: "Justin Martyr, Origen, Lactantius, Athanasius, and
+Minucius Felix, all in language equally solemn and explicit, call upon
+the pagans to form their own opinions from the confessions wrung from
+their own gods. We hear from them, that when a Christian began to
+pray, to make the sign of the cross, or to utter the name of his
+Master in the presence of a possessed or inspired person, the latter,
+by screams and frightful contortions, exhibited the torture that was
+inflicted, and by this torture the evil spirit was compelled to avow
+its nature. Several of the Christian writers declare that this was
+generally known to pagans."[6]
+
+Origen (185-254) said: "It is demons which produce famine,
+unfruitfulness, corruptions of the air, pestilence; they hover
+concealed in clouds in the lower atmosphere, and are attracted by the
+blood and incense which the heathen offer to them as gods." He
+thought, though, that Raphael had special care of the sick and the
+infirm. Cyprian (186-258) charged that demons caused luxations and
+fractures of the limbs, undermined the health, and harassed with
+diseases. Up to this time it was the privilege of any Christian to
+exorcise demons, but Pope Fabian (236-250) assigned a definite name
+and functions to exorcists as a separate order. To-day the priest has
+included in his ordination vows those of exorcist. Gregory of
+Nazianzus (329-390) declared that bodily pains are provoked by demons,
+and that medicines are useless, but that demoniacs are often cured by
+laying on of consecrated hands. St. Augustine (354-430) said: "All
+diseases of Christians are to be ascribed to these demons; chiefly do
+they torment fresh-baptized Christians, yea, even the guiltless
+new-born infants."
+
+Baltus[7] says: "De tous les anciens auteurs ecclésiastiques, n'y en
+ayant pas un qui n'ait parlé de ce pouvoir admirable que les Chrétiens
+avoient de chasser les démons," and Gregory of Tours (538-594) says
+that exorcism was common in his time, having himself seen a monk named
+Julian cure by his words a possessed person. This testimony of
+Gregory's concerning the prevalence of exorcisms at the end of the
+sixth century is interesting in view of the facts that the Council of
+Laodicea, in the fourth century, forbade any one to exorcise, except
+those duly authorized by the bishop, and that in the very beginning of
+the fifth century a physician named Posidonius denied the existence of
+possession. The fathers of the church, however, ridiculed the solemn
+assertion of physicians that many of these alleged demoniacal
+infirmities were attributable to material agencies, and were fully
+persuaded in their own minds that demons took possession of the
+organism of the human body.
+
+At about this time, such a broad-minded man as Gregory the Great
+(540-604) solemnly related that a nun, having eaten some lettuce without
+making the sign of the cross, swallowed a devil, and that, when
+commanded by a holy man to come forth, the devil replied: "How am I to
+blame? I was sitting on the lettuce, and this woman, not having made the
+sign of the cross, ate me along with it." This is but an example of the
+ideas concerning the entrance of demons into the possessed.[8] Besides
+the possibility of being taken into the mouth with one's food, they
+might enter while the mouth was opened to breathe. Exorcists were
+therefore careful to keep their mouths closed when casting out evil
+spirits, lest the imps should jump into their mouths from the mouths of
+the patients. Another theory was that the devil entered human beings
+during sleep, and at a comparatively recent period a king of Spain,
+Charles II (1661-1700), kept off the devil while asleep by the presence
+of his confessor and two friars.[9]
+
+Shortly before the reign of Gregory, there came into vogue the fashion
+of exorcising demons by means of a written formula rather than by the
+earlier means of making the sign of the cross and invoking the name of
+Jesus. The theory of demonology was never very clear nor consistent.
+By some it was claimed that in the practice of the magical arts evil
+spirits provided cure for sickness, others maintained that they could
+not heal any diseases, and hence the true test of Christianity was the
+ability to cure bodily ills. A compromise position was that demons
+were only successful in eliminating diseases which they had themselves
+caused. There was not a little doubt in some cases about the character
+of the possessing spirits, and it behooved people to be careful;
+demons might use men as habitations, and while posing as good angels
+vitiate health and provoke disease.
+
+At the beginning of the seventh century, we have an account of an
+exorcism by St. Gall (556-640), and during the Carlovingian age the
+healing at Monte Cassino was based on the Satanic origin of disease.
+When the conversion of northern races to Christianity began,
+demonology received a stimulus. An unlimited number of demons, similar
+in individuality and prowess, were substituted for the pagan demons,
+and the pagan gods were added as additional demons. When proselytes
+were taken into the church, care was taken to exorcise all evil
+spirits. During the baptismal service the Satanic hosts, as
+originators of sin, vice, and maladies, were expelled by insufflation
+of the officiating clergyman, the sign of the cross, and the
+invocation of the Triune Deity. The earliest formulas for such
+expulsion directed a double exhalation of the priest.[10]
+
+In all epidemics of the Middle Ages, such persons as were afflicted by
+pestilent diseases were declared contaminated by the devil, and
+carried to churches and chapels, a dozen at a time, securely bound
+together. They were thrown upon the floor, where they lay, according
+to the attestation of a pitying chronicler, until dead or restored to
+health.
+
+Unsound mind was universally accepted as a specific distinction of
+diabolical power, and caused by the corporeal presence of an impure
+spirit. Imbeciles and the insane were, throughout the Middle Ages,
+especially conceded to be the abode of avenging and frenzied demons.
+In aggravated cases, the actual presence of the medicinal saint was
+necessary; in less vexatious maladies, the bare imposition of hands,
+accompanied by plaintive prayer, quickly healed the diseased.[11]
+
+As early as the fifth century before Christ, Hippocrates of Cos
+asserted that madness was simply a disease of the brain, but
+notwithstanding the reiteration of this scientific truth the church
+repudiated it, and as late as the Reformation, Martin Luther
+maintained that not only was insanity caused by diabolical influences,
+but that "Satan produces all the maladies which afflict mankind." Even
+much later, however, when other diseases were assigned a physical
+origin, insanity was still thought to be demoniacal possession. As
+late as Bossuet's time, lunacy was thought to be the work of demons.
+The cultured and progressive Bishop of Meaux, while trying to throw
+off the shackles of superstition, delivered and published two great
+sermons in which demoniacal possession is defended. To show how the
+idea has clung, notwithstanding the advancement and enlightenment of
+late years, we may notice a trial which took place at Wemding, in
+southern Germany, in 1892, of which White tells us.
+
+   "A boy had become hysterical, and the Capuchin Father
+   Aurelian tried to exorcise him, and charged a peasant's
+   wife, Frau Herz, with bewitching him, on evidence that
+   would have cost the woman her life at any time during
+   the seventeenth century. Thereupon the woman's husband
+   brought suit against Father Aurelian for slander. The
+   latter urged in his defence that the boy was possessed
+   of an evil spirit, if anybody ever was; that what had
+   been said and done was in accordance with the rules and
+   regulations of the Church, as laid down in decrees,
+   formulas, and rituals sanctioned by popes, councils,
+   and innumerable bishops during ages. All in vain. The
+   court condemned the good father to fine and
+   imprisonment."[12]
+
+I cannot refrain from quoting in this connection the now famous
+epitaph of Lord Westbury's, suggested by the decision given by him as
+Lord Chancellor in the case against Mr. Wilson in which it was charged
+that the latter denied the doctrine of eternal punishment. The court
+decided that it did "not find in the formularies of the English Church
+any such distinct declaration upon the subject as to require it to
+punish the expression of a hope by a clergyman that even the ultimate
+pardon of the wicked who are condemned in the day of judgment may be
+consistent with the will of Almighty God." The following is the
+epitaph:
+
+          "RICHARD BARON WESTBURY,
+      Lord High Chancellor of England.
+        He was an eminent Christian,
+     An energetic and merciful Statesman,
+  And a still more eminent and merciful Judge.
+    During his three years' tenure of office
+He abolished the ancient method of conveying land,
+The time-honored institution of the Insolvents' Court,
+                   And
+         The Eternity of Punishment.
+   Toward the close of his earthly career,
+In the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council,
+       He dismissed Hell with costs,
+  And took away from Orthodox members of the
+            Church of England
+ Their last hope of everlasting damnation."[13]
+
+In the Middle Ages there was a strange and incongruous mixture of
+medicine and exorcism. Notice the following prescriptions:
+
+  "If an elf or a goblin come, smear his forehead with
+  this salve, put it on his eyes, cense him with incense,
+  and sign him frequently with the sign of the cross."
+
+  "For a fiend-sick man: When a devil possesses a man, or
+  controls him from within with disease, a spew-drink of
+  lupin, bishopwort, henbane, garlic. Pound these
+  together, add ale and holy water."
+
+  "A drink for a fiend-sick man, to be drunk out of a
+  church bell: Githrife, cynoglossum, yarrow, lupin,
+  flower-de-luce, fennel, lichen, lovage. Work up to a
+  drink with clear ale, sing seven masses over it, add
+  garlic and holy water, and let the possessed sing the
+  _Beati Immaculati_; then let him drink the dose out of a
+  church bell, and let the priest sing over him the
+  _Domine Sancte Pater Omnipotens_."[14]
+
+Three methods of driving out demons from the insane were used: the
+main weapon against the devil and his angels has always been exorcism
+by means of ecclesiastical formula and signs. These formulas
+degenerated at one time to the vilest cursings, threatenings, and
+vulgarities. A second means was by an effort to disgust the demon and
+wound his pride. This might simply precede the exorcism proper. To
+accomplish this purpose of offending the demons, the most blasphemous
+and obscene epithets were used by the exorcist, which were allowable
+and perfectly proper when addressing demons. Most of these are so
+indecent that they cannot be printed, but the following are some
+examples:
+
+  "Thou lustful and stupid one,... thou lean sow,
+  famine-stricken and most impure,... thou wrinkled beast,
+  thou mangy beast, thou beast of all beasts the most
+  beastly,... thou mad spirit,... thou bestial and foolish
+  drunkard,... most greedy wolf,... most abominable
+  whisperer,... thou sooty spirit from Tartarus!... I cast
+  thee down, O Tartarean boor,... into the infernal
+  kitchen!... Loathsome cobbler,... dingy collier,...
+  filthy sow (_scrofa stercorata_),... perfidious boar,...
+  envious crocodile,... malodorous drudge,... wounded
+  basilisk,... rust-colored asp,... swollen toad,...
+  entangled spider,... lousy swineherd (_porcarie
+  pedicose_),... lowest of the low,... cudgelled ass,"
+  etc.[15]
+
+The pride of the demon was also to be wounded by the use of the
+vilest-smelling drugs, by trampling underfoot and spitting upon the
+picture of the devil, or even by sprinkling upon it foul compounds.
+Some even tried to scare the demon by using large-sounding words and
+names.
+
+The third method of exorcism was punishment. The attempt was
+frequently made to scourge the demon out of the body. The exorcism was
+more effective if the name of the demon could be ascertained. If
+successful in procuring the name, it was written on a piece of paper
+and burned in a fire previously blessed, which caused the demons to
+suffer all the torments in the accompanying exorcisms. All forms of
+torture were employed, and in the great cities of Europe, "witch
+towers," where witches and demoniacs were tortured, and "fool towers,"
+where the more gentle lunatics were imprisoned, may still be seen.
+The treatment of the insane in the Middle Ages is one of the darkest
+blots on the growing civilization.
+
+The exorcism being completed, when some of the weaker demons were put
+to flight an after service was held in which everything belonging to
+the patient was exorcised, so that the demon might not hide there and
+return to the patient. The exorcised demons were forbidden to return,
+and the demons remaining in the body were commanded to leave all the
+remainder of the body, and to descend into the little toe of the right
+foot, and there to rest quietly.
+
+After the Reformation, two contests shaped themselves in the matter of
+exorcisms. The Protestants and the Roman Catholics vied with each
+other in the power, rapidity, and duration of the exorcisms. Both put
+forth miraculous claims, and with as much energy denied the power of
+the other. They agreed in one thing, and that was the erroneous
+position and teaching of the physicians. This, however, was but a
+continuation of that rivalry between the advancement of science and
+the conservation of theology, which is as old as history. In our
+examination of the influence of Christianity upon mental healing, it
+may be well for us to glance at the discouraging attitude of
+Christianity toward medicine.[16]
+
+The usurpation of healing by the church, which was a most serious
+drawback to the therapeutic art, will be traced in the following
+chapters; there are, however, some other ways in which the church
+retarded the work of physicians. Chief among these was the theory
+propagated by Christians that it was unlawful to meddle with the
+bodies of the dead. This theory came down from ancient times, but was
+eagerly accepted by the church, principally on account of the doctrine
+of the bodily resurrection. In addition to this, surgery was forbidden
+because the Church of Rome adopted the maxim that "the church abhors
+the shedding of blood." A recent English historian has remarked that
+of all organizations in human history, the Church of Rome has caused
+the spilling of most innocent blood, but it refused to allow the
+surgeons to spill a drop.
+
+Monks were prohibited the practice of surgery in 1248, and by
+subsequent councils, and all dissections were considered sacrilege.
+Surgery was considered dishonorable until the fifteenth or sixteenth
+centuries. The use of medicine was also discouraged. Down through the
+centuries a few churchmen and many others, especially Jews and Arabs,
+took up the study. The church authorities did everything possible to
+thwart it. Supernatural means were so abundant that the use of drugs
+was not only irreligious but superfluous. Monks who took medicine were
+punished, and physicians in the thirteenth century could not treat
+patients without calling in ecclesiastical advice.
+
+We are told that in the reign of Philip II of Spain a famous Spanish
+doctor was actually condemned by the Inquisition to be burnt for
+having performed a surgical operation, and it was only by royal favor
+that he was permitted instead to expiate his crime by a pilgrimage to
+the Holy Land, where he died in poverty and exile.
+
+This restriction was continued for three centuries, and consequently
+threw medical work into the hands of charlatans among Christians, and
+of Jews. The clergy of the city of Hall protested that "it were better
+to die with Christ than to be cured by a Jew doctor aided by the
+devil." The Jesuit professor, Stengal, said that God permits illness
+because of His wish to glorify Himself through the miracles wrought by
+the church, and His desire to test the faith of men by letting them
+choose between the holy aid of the church and the illicit resort to
+medicine.
+
+There was another reason for the antagonism of the church to
+physicians; the physicians in this case were inside the church. The
+monks converted medicine to the basest uses. In connection with the
+authority of the church, it was employed for extorting money from the
+sick. They knew little or nothing about medicine, so used charms,
+amulets, and relics in healing. The ignorance and cupidity of the
+monks led the Lateran Council, under the pontificate of Calixtus II,
+in 1123, to forbid priests and monks to attend the sick otherwise than
+as ministers of religion. It had little or no effect, so that Innocent
+II, in a council at Rheims in 1131, enforced the decree prohibiting
+the monks frequenting schools of medicine, and directing them to
+confine their practice to their own monasteries. They still disobeyed,
+and a Lateran Council in 1139 threatened all who neglected its orders
+with the severest penalties and suspension from the exercise of all
+ecclesiastical functions; such practices were denounced as a neglect
+of the sacred objects of their profession in exchange for ungodly
+lucre. When the priests found that they could no longer confine the
+practice of medicine to themselves, it was stigmatized and denounced.
+At the Council of Tours in 1163, Alexander III maintained that through
+medicine the devil tried to seduce the priesthood, and threatened with
+excommunication any ecclesiastic who studied medicine. In 1215,
+Innocent III fulminated an anathema against surgery and any priest
+practising it. Even this was not effectual.[17]
+
+What we see in connection with dissection and surgery and medicine was
+repeated at a later date with inoculation, vaccination, and
+anćsthetics. There were the same objections by the church on
+theological grounds, the same stubborn battle, and the same
+inevitable defeat of the theological position.
+
+So long as disease was attributed to a demoniacal cause, so long did
+exorcisms and other miraculous cures continue, and so far as these
+cures were efficacious, they must be classed as mental healing.
+Probably they continued longer in insanity and mental derangement on
+account of the beneficent and soothing effect of religion upon a
+diseased mind. Priestly cures of all kinds were largely, if not
+wholly, suggestive, and no history of mental healing would be complete
+without a résumé of ecclesiastical therapeutics. Many vagaries of
+healing which the church introduced might be mentioned to show to what
+extent the people may be misled in the name of religion. For example,
+the doctrine of signatures, to be later discussed, was disseminated by
+priests and monks, and if these medicines were ever effective it must
+have been by mental means.
+
+The demon theory of disease, which began before the age of history,
+and continued down through the savage ages and religions, through the
+early civilizations, through the gospel history, and dominated early
+Christianity, was finally, in the sixteenth century, to be vigorously
+assailed and largely overcome. The cost of this was considerable;
+attached as it was to the Christian church, it seemed necessary to
+destroy the whole Christian fabric in order to unravel this one
+thread. Atheism, therefore, was rampant, and science and atheism
+became almost synonymous, and continued so until the church freed
+science from its centuries of bondage and allowed it to develop so as
+to be again in these days a co-laborer.
+
+In pleasing contrast to the destructive and deterrent efforts of the
+church against the development of medicine is the helpful care of the
+sick exercised by Christians. The example of Jesus as shown by his
+tender sympathy, his helpful acts, and his instruction to his
+followers, bore fruit in the relief and care of sufferers by
+individuals and religious asylums. About the year 1000 and later, the
+infirmaries which were attached to numerous monasteries, and the
+_hospitia_ along the routes of travel which opened their doors to sick
+pilgrims, were but the development of a less portentous attempt on the
+part of individuals and societies to care for the sick. The Knights of
+St. John, or the Hospitalers as they were called, assumed as their
+special duty the nursing and doctoring of those in need of such
+attention, especially of sick and infirm pilgrims and crusaders.
+
+Hospitals for the sick, orphanages for foundlings, and great
+institutions for the proper care of paupers developed with immense
+strides, and during the twelfth century expanded into gigantic
+proportions. In the ensuing age, the medićval mind was fired with a
+faith in the efficacy of unstinted charity; members of society, from
+holy pontiff to the humblest recluse by the wayside, rivalled each
+other in gratuities of clothing and food, founding of hospitals, and
+endowment of beneficent public institutions. St. Louis's highest claim
+to pious glory arose from his restless and unstinted charities to the
+indigent and sick. Even the lepers, which were shunned or segregated,
+were treated by Christian institutions; and saints and saintesses
+found pious expression for their humility in personal attendance and
+even loving embraces of these unsightly beings covered with repulsive
+sores. For the last millennium there has not been a time when
+Christian love and benevolence have not sought the opportunity of
+ministering to the sick.
+
+One can easily recognize the effect which this fact would have on
+mental healing. The church fostered the ideas of exorcism and the
+cures by relics and shrines, and deprecated the use of medicine. If
+the hospitals and infirmaries were almost wholly in the hands of the
+monks and churchmen, there was little hope for the development of
+other than ecclesiastical mental healing. The untold good which
+Christian ministrations to the sick accomplished must be acknowledged,
+but it was not an unmixed benefit to the race as a whole.
+
+We may more easily see, perhaps, the connection between the church and
+the development of medicine, and the despotic power of the church in
+this regard, when we remember that physicians were formerly a part of
+the clergy, and it was not until 1542 that the papal legate in France
+gave them permission to marry. In 1552 the doctors in law obtained
+like permission. An early priestly physician has survived to fame by
+the name of Elpideus, sometimes confused with Elpidius Rusticus. He
+was both a deacon of the church and a skilled surgeon, and was very
+favorably mentioned by St. Ennodius as a person of fine culture. He
+was sufficiently dexterous and skilful to heal the Gothic ruler,
+Theodoric, of a grievous illness.[18] Salverte gives us additional
+examples: "Richard Fitz-Nigel, who died Bishop of London, in 1198, had
+been apothecary to Henry II. The celebrated Roger Bacon, who
+flourished in the thirteenth century, although a monk, yet practised
+medicine. Nicolas de Farnham, a physician to Henry III, was created
+Bishop of Durham; and many doctors of medicine were at various times
+elevated to ecclesiastical dignities."[19]
+
+The grip of the church accomplished its purpose, and science,
+especially the science of medicine, was strangled, almost to the
+death. Even the people of the time recognized the shortcomings of the
+physicians. Henricus Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), writing in 1530,
+said with pleasant irony that physic was "a certaine Arte of
+manslaughter," and that "well neare alwaies there is more daunger in
+the Physition and the Medicine than in the sicknesse itselfe." He also
+gives the following picture of a fashionable doctor of his time: "Clad
+in brave apparaile, having ringes on his fingers glimmeringe with
+pretious stoanes, and which hath gotten fame and credence for having
+been in farre countries, or having an obstinate manner of vaunting
+with stiffe lies that he hath great remedies, and for having
+continually in his mouth many wordes halfe Greeke and barbarous....
+But this will prove to be true, that Physitians moste commonlye be
+naught. They have one common honour with the hangman, that is to saye,
+to kill menne and to be recompensed therefore."[20]
+
+  [3] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, p. 113.
+
+  [4] E. Salverte, _Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 94.
+
+  [5] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I, p.
+  378.
+
+  [6] _Ibid._, I, p. 383.
+
+  [7] _Réponse a l'histoire des oracles_, p. 296.
+
+  [8] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, p. 101.
+
+  [9] H. T. Buckle, _History of Civilization in England_,
+  II, p. 270.
+
+  [10] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 201.
+
+  [11] For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D.
+  White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, pp. 97-134.
+
+  [12] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, p. 128.
+
+  [13] Nash, _Life of Lord Westbury_, II, p. 78.
+
+  [14] Cockayne, _Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Star-craft
+  of Early England_, II, p. 177.
+
+  [15] M. H. Dziewicki, "Exorcizo Te," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXIV, p. 580.
+
+  [16] For a full discussion of this subject, see A. D.
+  White, _History of the Warfare of Science with
+  Theology_, II, pp. 1-167.
+
+  [17] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Surgery and Medicine_, pp. 51 f.
+
+  [18] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 142 f.
+
+  [19] E. Salverte, _Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 96.
+
+  [20] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 151.
+
+  For further references to the effect of demonism, see J.
+  F. Nevius, _Demon Possession and Allied Themes_; J. M.
+  Peebles, _The Demonism of the Ages and Spirit
+  Obsessions_; articles on "Demon," "Demonism,"
+  "Demoniacal Possession," and "Devil," in the _Catholic
+  Encyclopedia_, the _New International Encyclopedia_, and
+  the _Encyclopedia Britannica_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+RELICS AND SHRINES
+
+
+  "A fouth o' auld knick-knackets,
+  Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets,
+  Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets,
+                  A towmond guid;
+  An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets,
+                  Afore the flood."--BURNS.
+
+  "For to that holy wood is consecrate
+  A virtuous well, about whose flowery banks
+  The nimble-footed fairies dance their rounds
+  By the pale moonshine, dipping oftentimes
+  Their stolen children, so to make them free
+  From dying flesh and dull mortality."--FLETCHER.
+
+  "Ne was ther such another pardoner,
+  For in his male he hadde a pilwebeer,
+  Which that he saide was oure lady veyl;
+  He seide, he hadde a gobet of the seyl
+  That seynt Peter hadde, whan that he wente
+  Uppon the see, til Jhesu Crist him pente.
+  He hadde a cros of latoun ful of stones,
+  And in a glas he hadde pigges bones.
+  But with these reliques, whanne that he fond
+  A poure persoun dwelling uppon lond,
+  Upon a day he gat him more moneye
+  Than that the persoun gat in monthes tweye.
+  And thus with feyned flaterie and japes,
+  He made the persoun and the people his apes."--CHAUCER.
+
+A wide-spread movement developed in the early church as a result of
+which innumerable miracles of healing were credited to the power of
+saints, indirectly through the medium of streams and pools of water
+which were reputed to have some connection with a particular saint,
+or through the efficacy still clinging to the relics of holy persons.
+
+On account of the growth of the belief in demonism in the Christian
+church, and the need of supernatural means to counteract diabolic
+diseases, saintly relics came into common use for this purpose, and
+afterward when demonism was not so thoroughly credited as the cause of
+diseases, relics were still considered to hold their power over
+physical infirmities. In addition to this, the missionary efforts and
+successes of the church had some influence in establishing and
+continuing cures by relics and similar means. The missionaries found
+that their converts had formerly employed various amulets and charms
+for the healing of diseases, and that they continued to have great
+faith in them for that purpose. To wean them from their heathen
+customs, Christian amulets and charms had to be substituted, or, as
+was sometimes the case, the heathen fetich was continued, but with a
+Christian significance.
+
+The early Scandinavians carried effigies carved out of gold or silver
+as safeguards against disease, or applied those made out of certain
+other materials, as the mandragora root or linen or wood, to the
+diseased part as a cure of physical infirmities. Some of these images
+were carried over into Christianity, for in Charlemagne's time,
+headache was frequently cured by following the saintly recommendation
+to shape the figure of a head and place it on a cross. Fort tells us
+that "The introduction of Christianity among the Teutonic races
+offered no hindrance to a perpetuation, under new forms, of those
+social observances with which Norse temple idolatry was so intimately
+associated. Offering to proselytes an unlimited number of demoniacal
+ćons, similar in individuality and prowess to those peopling the
+invisible universe, Northern mythology readily united with Christian
+demonology."[21]
+
+The relics of the saints came to be the favorite substitute for the
+heathen charms. With the acceptance of the demoniacal cause of
+disease, exorcism by relics gradually grew in importance until it was
+firmly established and a preferred form in the sixth and subsequent
+centuries. Down to this time there still existed a feeble recognition
+of a possible system adapted to the cure of maladies, so far, perhaps,
+as the practice was restricted to municipalities. The rapid
+advancement of saintly remedies, consecrated oils, and other puissant
+articles of ecclesiastical appliance, enabled and encouraged numerous
+churchmen to exercise the Ćsculapian art; this, together with the ban
+put upon physicians and scientific means, soon gave the church the
+monopoly of healing. Perhaps the most thorough attestation of the
+contempt into which physicians had fallen, compared with saintly
+medicists, is the fact that cures were invariably attempted after
+earthly medicine had been exhausted.[22]
+
+Islam, Buddhism, and other religions have their shrines where some
+pilgrims are undoubtedly cured, but Christianity seems to have had the
+most varied and numerous collection. As early as the latter part of
+the fourth century miraculous powers were ascribed to the images of
+Jesus and the saints which adorned the walls of most of the churches
+of the time, and tales of wonderful cures were related of them. The
+intercessions of saints were invoked, and their relics began to work
+miracles.[23]
+
+St. Cyril, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and others of the early church
+fathers of note maintained that the relics of the saints had great
+efficacy in the cure of diseases. St. Augustine tells us: "Besides
+many other miracles, that Gamaliel in a dream revealed to a priest
+named Lacianus the place where the bones of St. Stephen were buried;
+that those bones being thus discovered, were brought to Hippo, the
+diocese of which St. Augustine was bishop; that they raised five
+persons to life; and that, although only a portion of the miraculous
+cures they effected had been registered, the certificates drawn up in
+two years in the diocese, and by the orders of the saint, were nearly
+seventy. In the adjoining diocese of Calama they were incomparably
+more numerous."[24] This great and intellectual man also mentions and
+evidently credits the story that some innkeeper of his time put a drug
+into cheese which changed travellers who partook of it into domestic
+animals, and he further asserts after a personal test that peacock's
+flesh will not decay.
+
+St. Ambrose declared that "the precepts of medicine are contrary to
+celestial science, watching, and prayer." When the conflict between
+St. Ambrose and the Arian Empress Justina was at its height, the
+former declared that it had been revealed to him that relics were
+buried in a certain spot which he indicated. When the earth was
+removed, there was exposed a tomb filled with blood, and containing
+two gigantic skeletons with their heads severed from their bodies.
+These were pronounced to be the remains of St. Gervasius and St.
+Protasius, two martyrs of gigantic physical proportions, who were said
+to have been beheaded about three centuries before. To prove beyond
+doubt the genuineness of these relics, a blind man was restored to
+sight by coming in contact with them, and demoniacs were also cured
+thereby. Before being exorcised, however, the demons, who were
+supposed to have supernatural and indubitable knowledge, declared that
+the relics were genuine; that St. Ambrose was the deadly enemy of
+hell; that the doctrine of the Trinity was true; and that those who
+rejected it would certainly be damned. To be sure that the testimony
+of the demons should have its proper weight in the controversy, on the
+following day St. Ambrose delivered an invective against all who
+questioned the miracle.[25]
+
+Late researches concerning the Catacombs of Rome have thrown much
+light upon the early use of relics. The former opinion of the
+Catacombs was that they were used for secret worship by the persecuted
+Christians, but now we know that they were burial-places under the
+protection of Roman law, with entrances opening on the public roads.
+Their chapels and altars were for memorial and communion services.
+Great reverence was felt for the bodies of all Christians, so that for
+the first seven centuries the bodies were not disturbed, and relics,
+in the modern sense of the word, were unknown. People prayed at the
+tombs, or if they wished to take something away, they touched the tomb
+with a handkerchief, or else they took some oil from the lamps which
+marked the tombs. These mementos were regarded as true relics, so that
+when the Lombard Queen, Theodelinda, sent the abbot John for relics to
+put in her cathedral at Monza, he came back with over seventy little
+vials of oil, each with the name of the saint from whose tomb the oil
+was procured, and many of them are still preserved.
+
+The oil from altar lamps was of therapeutic value, as St. Chrysostom
+tells us in speaking of the superiority of the church over ordinary
+houses. "For what is here," he asks, "that is not great and awful?
+Thus both this Table [the altar] is far more precious and delightful
+than that [any table at home], and this lamp than that; and this they
+know, as many as have put away diseases by anointing themselves with
+oil in faith and due season." If the body of a saint lay beneath the
+altar, the oil was then known as the "Oil of the Saints," and was even
+more efficacious for healing. Notice the following quotations on the
+subject taken from Dearmer's work.
+
+   "Far more common are stories of healing by oil from a
+   lamp burnt in honor of Christ or the saints. The
+   following examples are from the East. The wounded hand
+   of a Saracen was healed by oil from a lamp before the
+   icon of St. George."
+
+   "St. Cyrus and St. John appeared to a person suffering
+   from gout, and bade him take a little oil in a small
+   ampulla from the lamp that burnt before the image of
+   the Saviour, in the great tetrapyle at Alexandria, and
+   anoint his feet with it."
+
+   "Similar stories are found in Western writers. Thus
+   Nicetius of Lyons, by means of the oil of the lamp
+   which burnt daily at his sepulchre, restored sight to
+   the blind, drove demons from bodies possessed, restored
+   soundness to shrunken limbs," etc.
+
+   "An epileptic was cured by oil from the lamp that burnt
+   night and day at the tomb of St. Severin."
+
+  "It was revealed to a blind woman, that oil from the
+  lamp of St. Genevičve would restore her sight, if the
+  warden of the church were to anoint her with it. A week
+  after she brought a blind man, who was healed in the
+  same manner."[26]
+
+At the time of Gregory of Tours, application was made of sainted
+reliquaries as a remedy against the devil and his demons. Gregory
+narrates the miraculous efficacy of a small pellet of wax, taken from
+the tomb of St. Martin, in extinguishing an incendiary fire started by
+his Satanic majesty, which was instigated by malicious envy, because
+this omnipotent talisman was in the custody of an ecclesiastic! This
+Turonese bishop records many instances of cures being effected at
+Martin's tomb. He himself was relieved of severe pains in the head by
+touching the disordered spot with the sombre pall of St. Martin's
+sepulchre. This remedy was applied on three different occasions with
+equal success. Once he was cured of an attack of mortal dysentery by
+simply dissolving into a glass of water a pinch of dust scraped from
+the tomb of St. Martin and drinking the strange concoction. At another
+time, his tongue having become swollen and tumefied, it was restored
+to its natural size and condition by licking the railing of the tomb
+of this saint. He knew of others who had been equally successful. An
+archdeacon, named Leonastes had sight restored to his blind eyes at
+the tomb of St. Martin, but unfortunately the fact that he later
+applied to an Israelitish physician caused his infirmity to return.
+Even a toothache was cured by St. Martin's relics.
+
+The following is an apostrophe to the relics of St. Martin by Bishop
+Gregory: "Oh ineffable theriac! ineffable pigment! admirable antidote!
+celestial purge! superior to all drugs of the faculty! sweeter than
+aromatics! stronger than unguents together; thou cleanest the stomach
+like scammony, the lungs like hyssop, thou purgest the head like
+pyre-thrig!"[27]
+
+From the end of the fifth century the exercise of the medical art was
+almost exclusively appropriated by cloisters and monasteries, whose
+occupants boldly vended the miraculous remedial properties of relics,
+chrism, baptismal fluids, holy oil, rosy crosses, etc., as of
+unquestioned virtue. In these early days living saints seem to have
+rivalled dead ones in their power over diseases, but of these we shall
+speak in a later chapter.
+
+A renewed interest sprang up when pilgrims began to return from their
+journeys to Palestine, bringing with them, as was natural, some
+souvenirs of their sojourn. A most interesting quotation from Mackay
+reveals the condition of these times. "The first pilgrims to the Holy
+Land brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the
+purchase of which they had expended all their store. The greatest
+favorite was the wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the
+widow, never diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions
+of the Romish Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of
+Constantine the Great, first discovered the veritable '_true cross_'
+in her pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius made a present
+of the greater part of it to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it
+was studded with precious stones and deposited in the principal church
+of that city. It was carried away by the Huns, by whom it was burnt,
+after they had extracted the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments,
+purporting to have been cut from it, were, in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries, to be found in almost every church in Europe, and would, if
+collected together in one place, have been almost sufficient to have
+built a cathedral. Happy was the sinner who could get a sight of one
+of them; happier he who possessed one! To obtain them the greatest
+dangers were cheerfully braved. They were thought to preserve from all
+evils and to cure the most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages
+were made to the shrines that contained them and considerable revenues
+collected from the devotees.
+
+"Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the Saviour.
+By whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrim did not
+enquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of the Holy
+Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, and tears of
+St. Peter, were also to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets,
+which the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the tears, the next
+most precious relics were drops of the blood of Jesus and the martyrs,
+and the milk of the Virgin Mary. Hair and toe-nails were also in great
+repute, and were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands of pilgrims
+annually visited Palestine in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to
+purchase pretended relics for the home market. The majority of them
+had no other means of subsistence than the profits thus obtained. Many
+a nail, cut from the filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic,
+was sold at a diamond's price, within six months after its severance
+from its parent toe, upon the supposition that it had once belonged to
+a saint or an apostle. Peter's toes were uncommonly prolific, for
+there were nails enough in Europe, at the time of the Council of
+Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of which were devoutly believed
+to have grown on the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of them
+are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. The pious come
+from a distance of a hundred German miles to feast their eyes upon
+them."[28]
+
+While some of these relics enumerated by Mackay seem to be such
+apparent frauds that none could credit them, they were surpassed in
+audacity by one offered for sale at a monastery in Jerusalem. Here
+was presented to the prospective buyers one of the fingers of the Holy
+Ghost.[29]
+
+In addition to the popular relics already noted, an extensive and
+lucrative trade was carried on in iron filings from the chains with
+which, it was claimed, Peter and Paul were bound. These filings were
+deemed by Pope Gregory I as efficacious in healing as were the bones
+of saints or martyrs.[30]
+
+[Illustration: CURE THROUGH THE INTERCESSION OF A HEALING SAINT]
+
+As an example of healing at shrines in early days, I will reproduce
+Bede's description of a cure effected at the tomb of St. Cuthbert in
+698. "There was in that same monastery a brother whose name was
+Bethwegan, who had for a considerable time waited upon the guests of
+the house, and is still living, having the testimony of all the
+brothers and strangers resorting thither, of being a man of much piety
+and religion, and serving the office put upon him only for the sake of
+the heavenly reward. This man, having on a certain day washed the
+mantels or garments which he used in the hospital, in the sea, was
+returning home, when on a sudden about halfway, he was seized with a
+sudden distemper in his body, insomuch that he fell down, and having
+lain some time, he could scarcely rise again. When at last he got up,
+he felt one-half of his body from the head to the foot, struck with
+palsy, and with much difficulty he got home with the help of a staff.
+The distemper increased by degrees, and as night approached became
+still worse, so that when day returned, he could not rise or walk
+alone. In this weak condition, a good thought came into his mind,
+which was to go to church, the best way he could, to the tomb of the
+reverend Father Cuthbert, and there on his knees, to beg of the Divine
+Goodness either to be delivered from that disease, if it were for his
+good, or if the Divine Providence had ordained him longer to lie under
+the same for his punishment, that he might bear the pain with patience
+and a composed mind. He did accordingly, and supporting his weak limbs
+with a staff, entered the church, and prostrating himself before the
+body of the man of God, he with pious earnestness, prayed, that
+through his intercession, our Lord might be propitious to him. In the
+midst of his prayers he fell as it were, into a stupor, and as he was
+afterwards wont to relate, felt a large and broad hand touch his head
+where the pain lay, and by that touch all the part of his body which
+had been affected with the distemper, was delivered from the weakness,
+and restored to health down to his feet. He then awoke, and rose up in
+perfect health, and returning thanks to God for his recovery, told the
+brothers what had happened to him; and to the joy of them all,
+returned the more zealously, as if chastened by his affliction, to
+the service which he was wont before so carefully to perform. The very
+garments which had been on Cuthbert's body, dedicated to God, either
+while living, or after he was dead, were not exempt from the virtue of
+performing cures, as may be seen in the book of his life and miracles,
+by such as shall read it."[31] It should be noticed that in this
+account God alone seemed to have been the healer.
+
+Nearly every country had its long list of saints, each with his
+special power over some organ or disease. This saintly power, however,
+was not applied directly, but through their relics or through shrines
+consecrated to them. Melton, in his _Astrologaster_, says: "The saints
+of the Romanists have usurped the place of the zodiacal constellations
+in their governance of the parts of man's body, and that 'for every
+limbe they have a saint.' Thus St. Otilia keepes the head instead of
+Aries; St. Blasius is appointed to governe the necke instead of
+Taurus; St. Lawrence keepes the backe and shoulders instead of Gemini,
+Cancer, and Leo; St. Erasmus rules the belly with the entrayles, in
+the place of Libra and Scorpius; in the stead of Sagittarius,
+Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, the holy church of Rome hath
+elected St. Burgarde, St. Rochus, St. Quirinus, St. John, and many
+others, which governe the thighes, feet, shinnes, and knees."
+
+But the influence of the saints is distributed more minutely, as
+_e. g._, "_Right Hand_: the top joint of the thumb is dedicated to God,
+the second joint to the Virgin; the top joint of the fore-finger to
+St. Barnabas, the second joint to St. John, and the third to St. Paul;
+the top joint of the second finger to Simon Cleophas, the second joint
+to Tathideo, the third to Joseph; the top joint of the third finger to
+Zaccheus, the second to Stephen, the third to the evangelist Luke; the
+top joint of the little finger to Leatus, the second to Mark, the
+third to Nicodemus." Thus the body was cared for.
+
+Pettigrew makes the following enumeration which shows the division of
+labor among the saints in the Middle Ages. In this, not the different
+portions of the body but the various diseases and infirmities are
+distributed.
+
+"The following list, though doubtless very imperfect, will yet serve to
+show how general was the appropriation of particular diseases to the
+Roman Catholic saints:
+
+  St. Agatha, against sore breasts.
+  St. Agnan and St. Tignan, against scald head.
+  St. Anthony, against inflammations.
+  St. Apollonia, against toothache.
+  St. Avertin, against lunacy.
+  St. Benedict, against the stone, and also for poisons.
+  St. Blaise, against the quinsey, bones sticking in the throat, etc.
+  St. Christopher and St. Mark, against sudden death.
+  St. Clara, against sore eyes.
+  St. Erasmus, against the colic.
+  St. Eutrope, against dropsy.
+  St. Genow and St. Maur, against the gout.
+  St. Germanus, against diseases of children.
+  St. Giles and St. Hyacinth, against sterility.
+  St. Herbert, against hydrophobia.
+  St. Job and St. Fiage, against syphilis.
+  St. John, against epilepsy and poison.
+  St. Lawrence, against diseases of the back and shoulders.
+  St. Liberius, against the stone and fistula.
+  St. Maine, against the scab.
+  St. Margaret and St. Edine, against danger in parturition.
+  St. Martin, against the itch.
+  St. Marus, against palsy and convulsions.
+  St. Otilia and St. Juliana, against sore eyes and
+  the headache.
+  St. Pernel, against the ague.
+  St. Petronilla, St. Apollonia, and St. Lucy, against the toothache.
+  ----, and St. Genevieve, against fevers.
+  St. Phaire, against hemorrhoids.
+  St. Quintan, against coughs.
+  St. Rochus, and St. Sebastian, against the plague.
+  St. Romanus, against demoniacal possession.
+  St. Ruffin, against madness.
+  St. Sigismund, against fevers and agues.
+  St. Valentine, against epilepsy.
+  St. Venise, against chlorosis.
+  St. Vitus, against madness and poisons.
+  St. Wallia and St. Wallery, against the stone.
+  St. Wolfgang, against lameness."[32]
+
+Wax from the tapers illuminating the altar which enclosed St. Gall's
+mortal remains was an instantaneous cure for toothache, diseased eyes,
+and total deafness; a vase used by the martyred Willabrod for bathing
+thrice a year, still holding its partially solidified water by divine
+invocation after her death, had great remedial energy in diverse
+ailments; the water in which the ring of St. Remigius was immersed
+cured certain obstinate fevers; and the wine in which the bones of the
+saints were washed restored imbeciles to instant health. In the
+thirteenth century, hairs of saints, especially of St. Boniface, were
+used as a purge, and a single hair from the beard of St. Vincent,
+placed about the neck of an idiot, restored normal mental operations.
+With the water in which St. Sulpicius washed her hands aggravated
+infirmities were instantly cured; and in the twelfth century, an
+invalid being advised in a dream to drink the water in which St.
+Bernard washed his hands, the Abbot of Clairvaux went to him, gave him
+the wash water, and healed an incurable disease. Flowers reposing on
+the tomb of a saint, when steeped in water, were supposed to be
+especially efficacious in various diseases, and those blooming in
+aromatic beauty at the tomb of St. Bernard instantly cured grievous
+sicknesses.[33] The belt of St. Guthlac, and the belt of St. Thomas
+of Lancaster, were sovereign remedies for the headache, whilst the
+penknife and boots of Archbishop Becket, and a piece of his shirt,
+were found most admirably to aid parturition. Fragments of the veil of
+the saintess Coleta, and the use of her well-worn cloak, immediately
+cured a terrible luxation, and a cataleptic patient was restored to
+sanity by drinking from her cup.
+
+To show how thoroughly the idea of the efficacy of these relics must
+have been indued in the thought of the times, White quotes the
+following: "Two lazy beggars, one blind, the other lame, try to avoid
+the relics of St. Martin, borne about in procession, so that they may
+not be healed and lose their claim to alms. The blind man takes the
+lame man on his shoulders to guide him, but they are caught in the
+crowd and healed against their will." He also says: "Even as late as
+1784 we find certain authorities in Bavaria ordering that anyone
+bitten by a mad dog shall at once put up prayers at the shrine of St.
+Hubert, and not waste his time in any attempts at medical or surgical
+cure."[34]
+
+In addition to what Dr. White says here about the treatment for
+threatened hydrophobia in the eighteenth century, we find a curious
+mixture of science and superstition in the nineteenth century in
+connection with the same trouble. Early in this century physicians
+discovered that the most effectual remedy against the bite of a rabid
+animal was the cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron. In
+Tuscany, however, the iron which they heated was one of the nails of
+the true cross, and in the French provinces it was the key of St.
+Hubert. This, though, was only to be used in the hands of those who
+could trace their genealogy to this noble saint. At the abbey of St.
+Hubert, in the diocese of Liege, the intercession of the saint still
+continued to be sufficient to effect a cure, provided it was seconded
+by some religious ceremonies, and a diet which would reassure the
+patient.
+
+After the discovery of the "true cross," portions of this relic were
+much used for aid in any emergency. In addition to sanitary and
+healing powers, fragments suspended to a tree manifested the proper
+location of sacred edifices. St. Magnus, who seems to have carried
+pieces around with him, completely vanquished demons who frequented a
+locality selected for a chapel. Eyesight was restored to a humble
+merchant seeking the blood-stained marks upon the chapel of this same
+St. Magnus. The blind man was feeling his uncertain way to the place,
+where these discolorations reappeared more distinctly after each
+washing with heavy layers of lime.
+
+St. Louis, almost in the agonies of earthly dissolution, with rigid
+body, rigorous limbs, and fluctuating spirit, was brought to full
+health by the application to his moribund body of a piece of the true
+cross, about the year 1244; and later in the century miracles took
+place at his tomb. M. Littré, in his _Fragment de Medecine
+Rétrospective_, describes seven miracles which occurred at his tomb,
+some of which cures, however, were very gradual. We are also told that
+when a humble hunchback bowed the knee in adoration at the tomb of St.
+Andreas, his irresistible faith instantly released him from his
+unnatural rotundity. In 1243 a Ferrara writer was at Padua, and while
+attending vespers at the tomb where the sainted body of the Minorite
+Anthony reposed, he affirms that he saw a person who had been mute
+from his birth recover his voice and speak audibly.
+
+Saintly remedies were used to cure hemorrhages, readjust luxations,
+unite fractures, remove calculi, moderate the agonizing pangs of
+parturition, restore vision to the blind, and hearing to the deaf--in
+fact, in an endeavor to perform cures which modern medicine and
+surgery are counting among their greatest and most recent triumphs.
+Some things even more strange were attempted: paradoxical as it may
+seem, they were used to cover up crime. Fort tells us that among nuns
+and consecrated women in convents, some erring sisters applied the
+preventive talismanic influence of a sacred shirt or girdle to
+suppress the manifestation of conventual irregularities of a sexual
+character. Animals as well as human beings were treated for sickness,
+and relics were used to free captive birds and animals. At a banquet,
+a costly urn was shattered by ecclesiastics, and through the power of
+Odilo it was restored to its original integrity. At the tombs of both
+St. Severin and St. Gall, when the light had been quenched, miraculous
+fire burst forth to renew the splendor.[35]
+
+The allotment of certain diseases to certain saints did not end with
+the Middle Ages. I have in my hand a little manual entitled: _De
+l'Invocation miraculeuse des Saints dans les maladies et les besoins
+particuliers, par Mme. la Baronne d'Avout_, published in 1884. An
+invocation is given for every day in the year to some particular
+saint, who is thought to be especially efficacious in the cure of some
+specific disease. I shall quote but one for illustration.
+
+  "30 MAI
+  S. HUBERT DE BRÉTIGNY
+  Prčs Noyons (Oise).
+  Honoré au diocčse de Beauvais.
+
+  "L'illustre saint Hubert, apôtre des Ardennes, fut son
+  protecteur et lui donna son nom. Il lui obtint les plus
+  heureuses dispositions pour la vertu. Lui aussi hérita
+  du pouvoir de guérir de la rage.
+
+  "Les habitants de Noyon et des environs n'ont pas cessé
+  de recourir ŕ son intercession. Les personnes qui
+  touchent ses reliques ou portent sur elles son nom béni
+  espérent échapper pendant leur vie aux atteintes des
+  démons, de la rage et du tonnerre.
+
+  "Ŕ Aire, diocčse de Fréjus, on invoque aussi sainte
+  Quitčre contre la rage.
+
+  INVOCATION
+
+  "Dieu tout-puissant, qui avez formé le coeur de vos
+  saints avec une admirable bonté, afin qu'ils deviennent
+  pour nous une source de bienfaits et de consolation;
+  assistez-nous dans le pressant besoin oů nous nous
+  trouvons et sauvez-nous de la mort, par les pričres at
+  les mérites de saint Hubert de Brétigny, afin que nous
+  puissions vous louer et vous bénir. Par N.-S. J.-C.
+  Ainsi soit-il.
+
+  "_Saint Hubert, qui préservez de la morsure des bętes
+  enragées, ou qui guérissez leur morsures mortelles,
+  priez pour tous les affligés qui vous invoquent._"
+
+While there was probably some advance when the saints of the church
+took the place of the zodiacal constellations in the government of the
+human body, the church prevented the development along scientific
+lines, although there were many ramifications of saintly influence.
+Not the least among these was the healing efficacy of holy wells,
+pools, and streams, which had been empowered in some way by the
+saints. In some cases the bones of holy men have been buried in
+different parts of the continent, and after a certain lapse of time,
+water was said to have oozed from them, which soon formed a spring and
+cured all the diseases of the faithful.
+
+Perhaps the cure of leprous Naaman by bathing in the Jordan, and the
+restoration of the sight of the blind man by washing in the Pool of
+Siloam may have served as examples which the credulous were only too
+ready to follow. We must also note, however, as a reason for their
+use, that in classical times the greater number of thermal waters,
+more frequently used then than in the present day, remained
+consecrated to the gods, to Apollo, to Ćsculapius, and, above all, to
+Hercules, who was named Iatricos, or the able physician. At any rate,
+many wells and fountains were dedicated to different saints, and
+various rites were performed there at Easter and other particular
+days, where offerings were also made to the saints.
+
+In Ireland, many such sacred places have been visited by the sick for
+centuries, and England and Scotland have them also. Not only in the
+British Isles, but in all parts of Europe they were much frequented in
+the Middle Ages, and they are not without their visitors to-day. As
+late as 1805 the eminent Roman Catholic prelate, Dr. John Milner, gave
+a detailed account of a miraculous cure performed at a sacred well in
+Flintshire. Gregory of Tours was one of the first to notice the
+healing power of springs in connection with the saints. He asserted
+that the diseases of the sick and infirm were banished upon the
+contact of a few drops of water drawn from a spring dug by St.
+Martin's own hands.
+
+From Fosbrooke's _British Monachism_ we learn that "on a spot called
+Nell's Point, is a fine well, to which great numbers of women resort
+on Holy Thursday, and, having washed their eyes in the spring, they
+drop a pin into it. Once a year, at St. Mardrin's well, also, lame
+persons went on Corpus Christi evening, to lay some small offering on
+the altar, there to lie on the ground all night, drink of the water
+there, and on the next morning to take a good draught more of it, and
+carry away some of the water each in a bottle at their departure. At
+Muswell Hill was formerly a chapel, called our Lady of Muswell, from a
+well there, near which was her image; this well was continually
+resorted to by way of pilgrimage. At Walsingham, a fine green road was
+made for the pilgrims, and there was a holy well and cross adjacent,
+at which pilgrims used to kneel while drinking the water. It is
+remarkable that the Anglo-Saxon laws had proscribed this as
+idolatrous. Such springs were consecrated upon the discovery of cures
+effected by them. In fact," Fosbrooke adds, "these consecrated wells
+merely imply a knowledge of the properties of mineral waters, but,
+through ignorance, a religious appropriation of their properties was
+made to supernatural causes."
+
+"Holywell, in the county of Flint," we are informed by Salverte,
+"derives its name from the Holy Well of St. Winifred, over which a
+chapel was erected by the Stanley family, in the reign of Henry VII.
+The well was formerly in high repute as a medicinal spring. Pennant
+says that, in his time, Lancashire pilgrims were to be seen in deep
+devotion, standing in the waters up to the chin for hours, sending up
+prayers, and making a prescribed number of turnings; and this excess
+of piety was carried so far, as in several instances to cost the
+devotees their lives."[36]
+
+Pennant also tells us of a small spring outside the bathing well at
+Whiteford, which was once famed for the cure of weak eyes. The patient
+made an offering of a crooked pin, and at the same time repeated some
+words. The well still remains, but the efficacy of its waters is lost.
+In recounting his tour of Wales, the same author describes the church
+of St. Tecla, virgin and martyr, at Llandegla. He says: "About two
+hundred yards from the church, in a Quillet called Gwern Degla, rises
+a small spring. The water is under the tutelage of the Saint, and to
+this day held to be extremely beneficial in the falling sickness. The
+patient washes his limbs in the well; makes an offering into it of
+four-pence; walks round it three times; and thrice repeats the Lord's
+Prayer. These ceremonies are never begun till after sun-set, in order
+to inspire the votaries with greater awe. If the afflicted be of the
+male sex, like Socrates, he makes an offering of a cock to his
+Ćsculapius, or rather to Tecla Hygeia; if of the fair sex, a hen. The
+fowl is carried in a basket, first round the well; after that into the
+church-yard; when the same orisons and the same circum-ambulations are
+performed round the church. The votary then enters the church; gets
+under the communion table; lies down with the Bible under his or her
+head; is covered with the carpet or cloth, and rests there till break
+of day; departing after offering sixpence, and leaving the fowl in the
+church. If the bird dies, the cure is supposed to have been effected,
+and the disease transferred to the devoted victim."[37]
+
+"At Withersden," says Hasted, "is a well, which was once famous, being
+called St. Eustache's well, taking its name from Eustachius, Abbot of
+Flai, who is mentioned by Matt. Paris, An. 1200, to have been a man of
+learning and sanctity, and to have come and preached at Wye, and to
+have blessed a fountain there, so that afterwards its waters were
+endowed by such miraculous power, that by it all diseases were
+cured."[38] Unfortunately, wells do not always benefit the bathers.
+Lilly[39] relates that in 1635 Sir George Peckham died in St.
+Winifred's Well, "having continued so long mumbling his pater nosters
+and Sancta Winifreda ora pro me, that the cold struck into his body,
+and after his coming forth of that well he never spoke more."
+
+The people of the Highlands of Scotland regarded fountains with
+particular veneration. According to the Statistical Account of
+Scotland, the minister of Kirkmichael, Banffshire, said: "The sick who
+resort to them for health, address their vows to the presiding powers,
+and offer presents to conciliate their favor. These presents generally
+consist of a small piece of money, or a few fragrant flowers. The same
+reverence in ancient times seems to have been entertained by every
+people in Europe." Near Kirkmichael there was a fountain dedicated to
+St. Michael, and once celebrated for its cures. "Many a patient have
+its waters restored to health, and many more have attested the
+efficacy of their virtues. But, as the presiding power is sometimes
+capricious, and apt to desert his charge, it now lies neglected,
+choked with weeds, unhonored and unfrequented."[40]
+
+The most noted well in Perthshire is in Trinity Gask. Again from the
+Statistical Account we quote: "Superstition, aided by the interested
+artifices of Popish Priests, raised, in times of ignorance and
+bigotry, this well to no small degree of celebrity. It was affirmed
+that every person who was baptized with the water of this well would
+never be seized with the plague. The extraordinary virtue of Trinity
+Gask well has perished with the downfall of superstition."[41]
+
+Pinkerton, in speaking of the river Fillan in Scotland, says: "In this
+river is a pool consecrated by the ancient superstition of the
+inhabitants of this country. The pool is formed by the eddying of the
+stream round a rock. Its waves were many years since consecrated by
+Fillan, one of the saints who converted the ancient inhabitants of
+Caledonia from paganism to the belief of Christianity. It has ever
+since been distinguished by his name, and esteemed of sovereign virtue
+in curing madness. About two hundred persons afflicted in this way are
+annually brought to try the benefits of its salutary influence. These
+patients are conducted by their friends, who first perform the
+ceremony of passing with them thrice through a neighbouring cairn: on
+this cairn they then deposit a simple offering of clothes, or perhaps
+a small bunch of heath. More precious offerings used once to be
+brought. The patient is then thrice immerged in the sacred pool. After
+the immersion, he is bound hand and foot, and left for the night in a
+chapel which stands near. If the maniac is found loose in the morning,
+good hopes are conceived of his full recovery. If he is still bound,
+his cure remains doubtful. It sometimes happens that death relieves
+him, during his confinement, from the troubles of life."
+
+Mrs. Macaulay,[42] speaking of a consecrated well in St. Kilda, called
+Tobirnimbuadh, or the spring of diverse virtues, says that "near the
+fountain stood an altar, on which the distressed votaries laid down
+their oblations. Before they could touch sacred water with any
+prospect of success, it was their constant practice to address the
+genius of the place with supplication and prayer. No one approached
+him with empty hands.... Shells and pebbles, rags of linen or stuffs
+worn out, pins, needles, or rusty nails were generally all the tribute
+that was paid."
+
+Collinson[43] mentions a well in the parish Wembton, called St. John's
+Well, to which in 1464 "an immense concourse of people resorted: and
+... many who had for years labored under various bodily diseases, and
+had found no benefit from physick and physicians, were, by the use of
+these waters (after paying their due offerings), restored to their
+primitive health."
+
+Brome, in his _Travels_, 1700, observes: "In Lothien, two miles from
+Edinburg southward, is a spring called St. Katherine's Well, flowing
+continually with a kind of black fatness, or oil, above the water,
+proceeding (as it is thought) from the parret coal, which is frequent
+in these parts; 'tis of a marvellous nature, for as the coal, whereof
+it proceeds, is very apt quickly to kindle into a flame, so is the
+oil of a sudden operation to heal all scabs and tumors that trouble
+the outward skin, and the head and hands are speedily healed by virtue
+of this oil, which retains a very sweet smell; and at Aberdeen is
+another well very efficacious to dissolve the stone, to expel sand
+from the reins and bladder, being good for the collick and drunk in
+July and August, not inferiour, they report, to the Spaw in
+Germany."[44]
+
+Grose tells us of a well dedicated to St. Oswald, between the towns of
+Alton and Newton. The neighbors have the opinion that a sick person's
+shirt thrown into the well will prognosticate the outcome of the
+disease; if it floats the sick one will recover, if it sinks he will
+die. To reward the saint for the information, they tear a rag off the
+shirt and hang it on the briers near by; "where," says the writer, "I
+have seen such numbers as might have made a fayre rheme in a
+paper-myll." Similar practices are related by other authors. Ireland
+formerly had a sanctified well in nearly every parish. They were
+marked by rude crosses and surrounded by fragments of cloth left as
+memorials. St. Ronague's Well, near Cork, was very popular at one
+time. Near Carrick-on-Suir is the holy well of Tubber Quan, the waters
+of which are reputed to have performed many miraculous cures. The
+well was dedicated to two patron saints, St. Quan and St. Brogawn.
+These saints are supposed to exert a special influence the last three
+Sundays in June. "It is firmly believed," says Brand, "that at this
+period the two saints appear in the well in the shape of two small
+fishes, of the trout kind; and if they do not so appear, that no cure
+will take place. The penitents attending on these occasions ascend the
+hill barefoot, kneel by the stream and repeat a number of paters and
+aves, then enter it, go through the stream three times, at a slow
+pace, reciting their prayers. They then go on the gravel walk, and
+traverse it round three times on their bare knees, often till the
+blood starts in the operation, repeat their prayers, then traverse
+three times round a tree on their bare knees, but upon the grass.
+Having performed these exercises they cut off locks of their hair and
+tie them on the branches of the tree as specifics against headache."
+
+After being three times admonished in a dream, a man washed in St.
+Madern's Well in Cornwall and was miraculously cured, so say Bishop
+Hall and Father Francis. Ranulf Higden, in his _Polychronicon_,
+relates the wonderful cures performed at the holy well at Basingwerk.
+The red streaks in the stones surrounding it were symbols of the blood
+of St. Wenefride, martyred by Carodoc.
+
+The Scotch considered certain wells to have healing properties in the
+month of May. In the Sessions Records (June 12, 1628) it is reported
+that a number of persons were brought before the Kirk Sessions of
+Falkirk, accused of going to Christ's Well on the Sundays of May to
+seek their health, and the whole being found guilty were sentenced to
+repent "in linens" three several sabbaths. "In 1657 a number of
+persons were publicly rebuked for visiting the well at Airth. The
+custom was to leave a piece of money and a napkin at the well, from
+which they took a can of water, and were not to speak a word either in
+going or returning, nor on any account to spill a drop of the water.
+Notwithstanding these proceedings, many are known to have lately
+travelled many miles into the Highlands, there to obtain water for the
+cure of their sick cattle."[45]
+
+To-day, probably the most efficacious waters are to be found at the
+sacred fountain at La Salette and at the holy spring at Lourdes.
+
+We have another specific form of healing which should be noticed. It
+was especially common in Eastern churches, and was found to some
+extent in the West. I refer to Incubation, or "Temple-sleep." This
+practice came down through early civilizations and was an adopted
+practice among Christians. The patient went to some church well known
+for its cures, which was provided with mattresses or low couches, and
+attended by priests and assistants. Devotions being finished he lay
+down to sleep. Sometimes he slept immediately, at other times sleep
+must be wooed by fast and vigil. At any rate, during the sleep he
+dreamed that the saint touched him, or prescribed some remedy, and in
+the first case he awoke cured, and in the second the prescribed
+medicine brought about the relief.
+
+Sophronius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, wrote about 640 as follows:
+"Cyrus appeared to the sick man in the form of a monk, not in a dream,
+as he appears to many; but in a waking vision, just as he was and is
+represented. He told the patient to rise and to plunge into the warm
+water. Zosimos said it was impossible for him to move, but when the
+order was repeated, he slid like a snake into the bath. When he got
+into the water, he saw the saint at his side, but when he came out,
+the vision had vanished." Beside the cure of this paralytic at the
+church of Cyrus and John, he mentions the cure of many other diseases
+by this method of incubation. Among them are dumbness, blindness,
+barrenness, possession, scrofula, dyspepsia, a broken leg, deformities
+of limbs, lameness, gout, diseases of the eyes, cataract, ulcer, and
+dropsy.
+
+Among the churches of Greece and southern Italy incubation is still
+common. The climate may have some effect in limiting the area of this
+practice. Miss M. Hamilton furnishes us with some modern examples. In
+speaking of a new picture of St. George in the church at Arachova, she
+says: "It is a votive offering of a Russian, who came a paralytic to
+Arachova in July, 1905. He spent several weeks praying and sleeping in
+the church, and departed completely cured. The festival of St. George
+is held on April 23rd. They have three days of dancing and feasting,
+and at night all suppliants bring their rugs and sleep round the
+shrines in the church. Every year many of the sick are found to be
+cured when morning comes."
+
+The Church of the Evangelestria, our Lady of the Annunciation, is
+visited by about forty-five thousand pilgrims every year. It is
+situated at Tenos, and Miss Hamilton tells us what she saw during her
+visit there in 1906:
+
+  "On the morning before Annunciation Day this year, the
+  pilgrims could be seen making their way to the church.
+  Among them were cripples, armless, and legless,
+  half-rolling up the street; blind people groping their
+  way along; men and women with deformities of every kind;
+  one or two showing the pallor of death on their faces
+  were being carried up on litters. These evidently were
+  coming to Tenos as a last resource, when doctors were of
+  no avail. Other pilgrims were ascending after their own
+  fashion, according to vows they had made. One woman
+  toiled laboriously along on her knees, kissing the
+  stones of the way, and clasping a silver Madonna and
+  Child. Last year her daughter had been seized with
+  epilepsy, and she vowed to carry in this way this
+  offering to the Madonna of Tenos if she would cure her
+  daughter. The girl recovered and the other now with
+  thankful heart was fulfilling her part of the bargain.
+
+  "The eve of Annunciation Day is the time when the
+  Panagia is believed to descend among the sick and work
+  miraculous cures among them. Then all the patients are
+  gathered together in the crypt or in the upper church.
+  The Chapel of the Well is the popular place for
+  incubation. There is more chance for miraculous cure
+  there than in the church. The little crypt can
+  accommodate only a comparatively small number, but they
+  are packed together as tightly as possible. From the
+  entrance up to the altar, they lie in two lines of three
+  or four deep, with a passage down the middle large
+  enough for only one person. Down the narrow way two
+  streams of people press the whole evening. They worship
+  at the shrines along the wall, purchase holy earth from
+  the spot where the picture was discovered, drink at the
+  sacred well, and are blessed by the priest at the altar.
+  The cripples and the sick desiring healing have been
+  engaged all day in such acts of worship; they have
+  received bread and water from the priests in the upper
+  church, paid homage to the all-powerful picture, offered
+  their candles to the Madonna, and all the time sought to
+  endue themselves with her presence. Now at night, still
+  fixing their thoughts upon her, and permeated by this
+  spirit of worship, they settle down to sleep in order
+  that she may appear to them in a dream.
+
+  "Disappointment, of course, awaits the vast majority,
+  but on the evening of the vigil all are filled with
+  hope. They know the precedents of former years, how such
+  things have happened to some unfortunate people among
+  the pilgrims every year. Usually eight or nine miracles
+  take place, and lists of them are published for
+  distribution....
+
+  "The church records contain accounts of the miracles
+  which now amount to many hundreds. They are practically
+  all of the type I have described--cure during a vision
+  while incubation was being practised. For example, the
+  case of a man from Moldavia is on record. He had become
+  paralyzed during a night-watch, and the doctor could
+  effect no relief. He was taken to the Chapel of the
+  Well, and when asleep he thought he heard a voice
+  telling him to arise. He awoke, thought it was a dream,
+  and fell asleep again. A second time he heard a voice,
+  and saw a white-robed woman of great beauty entering the
+  church. In his fear he rose and walked about. His
+  recovery was so complete that he could walk in the
+  procession round the town the following day."[46]
+
+The medicinal power imputed to the sainted relics and shrines would
+naturally be considered very valuable. So it proved. Wealth flowed to
+a conventual treasury or a cathedral chapter where were deposited
+fragments of the martyred dead endowed with miraculous puissance. When
+the Frankish forces sacked Constantinople at the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, the principal object of their ferocious cruelties
+and vigilant searches was the acquisition of precious relics.
+Concerning these relics Fort gives the following account:
+
+  "These relics, captured in Constantinople, were divided
+  by the troops under Marquis de Montfort, with the same
+  justice as prevailed in the division of other booty. In
+  this way the Venetians were enabled to enrich their
+  metropolis with a piece of the sainted cross, an arm of
+  St. George, part of the head of St. John the Baptist,
+  the entire skeleton of St. Luke, that of the prophet St.
+  Simeon, and a small bottle of Jesus Christ's blood. The
+  Greek capital from the remotest times appears to have
+  monopolized this traffic in sacred wares, claiming to
+  possess a fragment of the stone on which Jacob slept,
+  and the staff transformed into a serpent by Moses.
+
+  "Here also were guarded the Holy Virgin's vestments, her
+  spindle, drops of her milk, the cradle in which the
+  Saviour had lain, a tooth from his adolescent jaw, a
+  hair of his beard, a particle of the bread used in the
+  Last Supper, and a portion of the royal purple worn by
+  him before Pilate. Naturally clerical adventurers among
+  the occidental Crusaders, pending the sacking of the
+  Byzantine city, sought out most zealously these valuable
+  remnants of pristine glory, and in obtaining them were
+  by no means scrupulous with menaces and violence. When
+  scattered through Western Europe, in the monasteries and
+  other religious places, their curative properties
+  increased the pilgrimages thither of the sick and
+  diseased."[47]
+
+He further gives us more in detail[48] an idea of the continual
+accumulation of riches which were derived from the exposure of these
+relics to the sick and infirm and the consequent growth in wealth of
+the monasteries and cathedrals. The monastic system was probably most
+responsible for the change from the simple adoration of the early
+Christians to the use of relics as a miraculous means of healing.
+Those which were transported with elaborate ceremonies, enclosed in a
+magnificent stone sarcophagus, and covered by an edifice of imposing
+proportions were almost sure to bring to their custodians great
+wealth. It is said that when the body of St. Sebastian, which was
+legitimately obtained from Rome, together with the purloined remains
+of St. Gregory, reached the cloister of Soissons, so great was the
+crowd of invalids who were cured, and so generous were they in their
+donations, that the monks actually counted eighty measures of money
+and one hundred pounds in coin. The great value of such objects may be
+calculated when it is remembered that in the year 1056 securities
+amounting to ten thousand solidi were pledged for the production of
+the relics of St. Just and St. Pastor, consequent upon the legal
+decision of ownership between Berenger, a French ruler, and a
+Narbonnese archbishop. The Reichberg annals provide a further example.
+They state that the emperor demanded certain hostages, or the holy arm
+of St. George, as a suitable guarantee for the institution of a public
+mart in Germany.
+
+Venetian merchants were among the first to realize the commercial
+value of relics, and enjoyed a lucrative traffic in this holy
+merchandise. It was not until the eleventh century, however, that the
+government of Venice founded public marts or fairs for the commercial
+exchange of saintly relics, although Rome and Pavia had long conducted
+such enterprises. These fairs were placed under the tutelary
+protection of some patron saint, the Venetians, of course, thus
+honoring St. Mark. They were not always particular how these relics
+were procured, for it is stated that when negotiations for the
+exchange of a well-preserved body of St. Tairise proved unsuccessful,
+because the Greek monks who possessed it refused absolutely to sell or
+barter, these enterprising traders quietly stole the desired skeleton.
+
+Relics provided a suitable method of acquiring ecclesiastical fortunes
+for denuded cloisters or impoverished nunneries; and if the old relics
+lost their power it was not difficult to procure episcopal assurance
+of the miraculous powers of new ones. For the procuring of special
+funds the venerated objects were taken from place to place, under
+priestly surveillance, presented to the sick and infirm with assurance
+of relief, and with the demand for large sums of money.
+
+We can easily understand, then, why such donations were regarded as
+most precious presents, and chronicled in the conventual records as
+events of high importance. As early as the ninth century, documentary
+evidence of authenticity frequently accompanied a gift of relics, and
+furnished legal proof of ownership.
+
+The gift of St. Peter's knife to a German monastery by a benevolent
+abbot was deemed a most illustrious act. About the same time a noble
+pilgrim succeeded, after great importunity and a lavish outlay of
+money, in obtaining trifling particles of the relics of Abraham,
+Isaac, and Jacob, which he enclosed in a priceless box and donated to
+the monastery of St. Gall. This gift was considered the greatest event
+of the year, but when it is considered that this and similar presents
+insure in the community, where they are deposited uninterrupted peace,
+unstinted plenty, absence of catastrophies, and the cure of diseases,
+their value is explained.
+
+The commercial aspect of ecclesiastical cures, however, was discovered
+by other than priestly or monkish eyes, and different forms began to
+be presented. Of these White says: "Very important among these was the
+Agnus Dei, or piece of wax from the Paschal candles, stamped with the
+figure of a lamb and consecrated by the Pope. In 1471 Pope Paul II
+expatiated to the Church on the efficacy of this fetich in preserving
+men from fire, shipwreck, tempest, lightning, and hail, as well as in
+assisting women in childbirth; and he reserved to himself and his
+successors the manufacture of it. Even as late as 1517 Pope Leo X
+issued, for a consideration, tickets bearing a cross and the
+following inscription: 'This cross measured forty times makes the
+height of Christ in his humanity. He who kisses it is preserved for
+seven days from falling-sickness, apoplexy, and sudden death.'"[49]
+
+The enormous revenues procured through the means of relics, and the
+lack of certain means of identifying them, would naturally encourage
+the imposition of fraud. The crime would not appear so great after one
+experience, for the perpetrators could readily see that it really made
+no difference so far as efficacy in the cure of diseases was
+concerned, whether or not the relics were genuine. The history of some
+of the relics unfortunately proves them not to be relics at all, or at
+least not to be the relics which the faithful supposed them to be.
+Notice a few instances. In a magnificent shrine in the cathedral at
+Cologne are the skulls of the three kings, or wise men from the East,
+who brought gifts to the infant Lord. They have rested here since the
+twelfth century and have been the source of enormous wealth and power
+to the cathedral chapter. Not to be outdone by the cathedral, for the
+church of St. Gereon a cemetery has been depopulated, and the bones
+thus procured have been placed upon the walls and are known as the
+relics of St. Gereon and his Theband band of martyrs! Further
+competition arose in the neighboring church of St. Ursula. Another
+cemetery was despoiled and the bones covering the interior of the
+walls are known as the relics of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand
+virgin martyrs. Anatomists now declare that many of the bones are
+those of men, but this made no more difference in their healing
+efficacy in the Middle Ages than the fact that the relics of St.
+Rosalia at Palermo, famed for their healing power, have lately been
+declared by Professor Buckland, the eminent osteologist, to be the
+bones of a goat.
+
+Two different investigations have been conducted by the French courts
+concerning the fountain of La Salette, and in both cases the miracles
+which make the shrine famous were pronounced to be fraudulent. The
+recent restoration of the cathedral at Trondhjem has revealed a tube
+in the walls, not unlike the apparatus discovered in the Temple of
+Isis at Pompeii; the healing power of this sacred spring was augmented
+by angelic voices which issued from the supposedly solid walls.[50]
+
+While the golden age of the therapeutic use of relics was from the
+sixth to the sixteenth centuries, modern times, with its physicians,
+hospitals, and drugs, has not been deprived of this method of cure.
+Mackay, writing in the latter half of the past century, touches this
+subject.
+
+At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which the
+priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns
+that bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by
+whom it was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous
+thorn which the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the Molenists
+have made celebrated, and which worked the miraculous cure upon
+Mademoiselle Perier, an account of which is so interesting that I give
+it. The cure occurred on March 14, 1646.
+
+  "A young pensioner in the monastery, by name Margaret
+  Perier, who for three years and a half had suffered from
+  a lachrymal fistula, came up in her turn to kiss it; and
+  the nun, her mistress, more horrified than ever at the
+  swelling and deformity of her eye, had a sudden impulse
+  to touch the sore with the relic, believing that God was
+  sufficiently able and willing to heal her. She thought
+  no more of the matter, but the little girl having
+  retired to her room, perceived a quarter of an hour
+  after that her disease was cured; and when she told her
+  companions, it was indeed found that nothing more was to
+  be seen of it. There was no more tumor; and her eye,
+  which the swelling (continuous for three years) had
+  weakened and caused to water, had become as dry, as
+  healthy, as lively as the other. The spring of the
+  filthy matter, which every quarter of an hour ran down
+  from nose, eye, and mouth, and at the very moment before
+  the miracle had fallen upon her cheek (as she declared
+  in her deposition), was found to be quite dried up; the
+  bone, which had been rotted and putrified, was restored
+  to its former condition; all the stench, proceeding from
+  it, which had been so insupportable that by order of the
+  physicians and surgeons she was separated from her
+  companions, was changed into a breath as sweet as an
+  infant's; and she recovered at the same moment her sense
+  of smell....
+
+  "Mons. Felix, Chief Surgeon to the King, who had seen
+  her during the month of April, was curious enough to
+  return on the 8th of August, and having found the cure
+  as thorough and marvellous as it had seemed to him at
+  the time, declared under his hand that 'he was obliged
+  to confess that God alone had the power to produce an
+  effect so sudden and extraordinary.'"[51]
+
+Mackay gives the following account of the distribution of relics about
+the middle of the nineteenth century: "Europe still swarms with these
+religious relics. There is hardly a Roman Catholic Church in Spain,
+Portugal, France, or Belgium, without one or more of them. Even the
+poorly endowed churches of the villages boast the possession of
+miraculous thighbones of the innumerable saints of the Romish
+calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable _châsse_, or
+thighbone of Charlemagne, which cures lameness. Halle has a thighbone
+of the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be undoubted
+relics. Brussels at one time preserved, and perhaps does now, the
+teeth of St. Gudule. The faithful who suffered from the toothache, had
+only to pray, look at them, and be cured."[52]
+
+The miracles performed at the tomb of the Deacon Paris in the cemetery
+of St. Médard are of comparatively recent occurrence, and well
+attested. For example, we have the case of "la demoiselle Coirin,"
+which, to say the least, is out of the ordinary. "In 1716," says
+Dearmer, "this lady, then aged thirty-one, fell from her horse;
+paralysis and an ulcer followed; by 1719 the ulcer was in a horrible
+condition; in 1720 her mother refused an operation preferring to let
+her die in peace. In 1731--after fifteen years of an open breast--she
+asked a woman to say a novena at the tomb of François de Paris, to
+touch the tomb with her shift, and to bring back some earth. This was
+done on August 10th; on the 11th she put on the shift and at once felt
+improved; on the 12th she touched the wound with the earth and it at
+once began to heal. By the end of August the skin was completely
+healed up, and on September 24th she went out of doors."[53]
+
+Among the most noted relics at the present time are the Holy Coat of
+Treves,[54] the Winding-sheet of Christ at Besançon, and the Santa
+Scala at Rome. The last are said to be the steps which Jesus ascended
+and descended when he was brought before Pontius Pilate, and are held
+in great veneration. It is sacrilegious to walk upon them; the knees
+of the faithful alone must touch them, and that only after they have
+reverently kissed them. Cures are still performed by all these relics.
+
+The two shrines at present best known and which have proved most
+efficacious are those of Lourdes in France[55] and St. Anne de Beaupré
+in the province of Quebec. Lourdes owes its reputed healing power to a
+belief in a vision of the Virgin received there during the last
+century. Over 300,000 persons visit there every year, and no small
+proportion of them return with health restored as a reward for their
+faith. At Lourdes and many other shrines bathing forms a part of the
+ceremony, and on account of the unsanitary conditions in the former
+place, there is some danger that the French Government will cause its
+abandonment. Charcot, who established the Salpétričre hospital where
+hypnotism was so successfully used, sent fifty or sixty patients to
+Lourdes every year. He was firmly convinced of the healing power of
+faith. One commendable feature of the management at Lourdes is the
+opportunity given for investigation; in fact, this is courted. Most of
+the sick bring medical details of their diseases; an examining
+committee of medical men examine them after they arrive there and
+after the cure. About two hundred and fifty doctors visit there every
+year, and the widest opportunity is given to them for examination of
+the cases, regardless of their nationality or religious belief or
+scepticism. This attitude might well be assumed by these in control of
+other shrines or of healing cults.
+
+In America thousands flock to the shrine of St. Anne de Beaupré
+annually. Here are to be found bones, supposed to be the wrist bones
+of the holy mother of the Virgin, and many sufferers are able to
+testify to their value in the healing of various diseases.
+
+On all parts of the Continent there are shrines of more or less renown
+as healing centres. In Normandy the springs of Fécamp or Grand-Andely
+are much frequented; in Austria, at Mariazell, Styria, the church is
+visited by two hundred thousand pilgrims a year, and has been a centre
+of healing since 1157; in Italy, the church of S. Maria dell' Arco,
+near Naples, has been a local Lourdes for four hundred years, and
+here, as at Amalfi, Palermo, and other places, the ancient practice of
+incubation is still prevalent. The adherents of the Eastern Church
+also have their shrines, and among the visitors to the shrines of
+Greece, many pilgrims are rewarded for their faith by being healed.
+
+It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in all
+countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any person who had
+been much spoken of, if for nothing more than for his crimes.[56]
+Snuff-boxes made from Shakespeare's mulberry-tree, twigs from
+Napoleon's willow, or bullets from the field of Waterloo have all been
+much sought after. Souvenirs of everything and anything are still much
+in demand. It is within the last decade that a foreign war-ship
+anchored in New York harbor, and after the officers courteously opened
+the ship for the inspection of visitors they found that even their
+silver toilet articles and plate had been carried away by the relic
+maniacs. A United States admiral, rather more facetiously than
+patriotically, remarked that "the American people of to-day would
+steal anything but a cellarful of water." I suppose the remark, so far
+as it applies to the relic-crazed crowd, would be as applicable to any
+other people of any other time.
+
+We have a right to ask, in closing this chapter, how it was possible
+for men to believe in the power of relics to cure diseases. The
+practice seems to have developed from the reasoning that the saints
+who helped men while in the imperfections of the flesh, could be of
+even more benefit when they were with God in the perfections of the
+spiritual life. St. Augustine (426), for example, speaks of comparing
+the wonders performed by pagan "deities with our dead men," and that
+the miracles wrought by idols "are in no way comparable to the
+wonders wrought by our martyrs." Some might agree with this, and yet
+find no warrant for using relics. There was, however, the remembrance
+of the dead man who was restored to life by contact with the bones of
+Elisha, and of the handkerchiefs and aprons which touched Paul's body
+and were thereby filled with healing efficacy. Even to-day we do not
+fail to recognize the value of the association of places and objects,
+and one finds it difficult to enter Westminster Abbey, for instance,
+without feeling a thrill on account of the sacred clay reposing there.
+When we remember the beginning of the use of relics in the catacombs
+we can better understand the development of the practice.
+
+[21] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 201.
+
+[22] _Ibid._, pp. 142 and 156.
+
+[23] G. P. Fisher, _History of the Christian Church_, p. 117.
+
+[24] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I, pp. 378 f.
+
+[25] _Ibid._, I, p. 379.
+
+[26] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 268 f.
+
+[27] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, p. 133.
+
+[28] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, pp. 303 f.
+
+[29] J. W. Draper, _History of the Conflict Between Religion and
+Science_, p. 270.
+
+[30] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, pp. 132 f.
+
+[31] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, ed. J. A. Giles, bk. IV, chap.
+XXXI.
+
+[32] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the History and
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 55-57.
+
+[33] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+pp. 224 f., 273-277, 457.
+
+[34] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_,
+II, pp. 40 f.
+
+[35] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 273.
+
+[36] E. Salverte, _The Philosophy of Magic_ (trans. Thompson), II, p.
+93.
+
+[37] _Tour of Wales_, I, p. 405.
+
+[38] Hasted, _Kent_, III, p. 176.
+
+[39] _History of His Life and Times_, p. 32.
+
+[40] _Statistical Account of Scotland_, VII, p. 213, and XII, p. 464.
+
+[41] _Ibid._, XVIII, p. 487.
+
+[42] C. S. Macaulay, _History of St. Kilda_, p. 95.
+
+[43] _Somersetshire_, III, p. 104.
+
+[44] I am much indebted to J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, pp. 1-17,
+for some of the quotations used in the discussion of this subject.
+
+[45] _Superstitions Connected with ... Medicine and Surgery_, pp.
+57-61.
+
+[46] I am indebted to P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 278-281,
+314-318, for the material on incubation. For fuller study, see L.
+Deubner, _De Incubatione_, and M. Hamilton, _Incubation_.
+
+[47] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the Middle Ages_,
+p. 227.
+
+[48] _Ibid._, pp. 210-214, 226 f., 278.
+
+[49] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_,
+II, p. 30.
+
+[50] _Ibid._, II, pp. 21, 29, 43.
+
+[51] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 374 f.
+
+[52] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, p. 304.
+
+[53] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 105 f.
+
+[54] R. F. Clarke, _The Holy Coat of Treves_.
+
+[55] A. T. Myers and F. W. H. Myers, "Mind Cure, Faith Cure, and the
+Miracles at Lourdes," _Proceedings Society Psychical Research_, IX,
+pp. 160-409; E. Berdoe, "A Medical View of the Miracles at Lourdes,"
+_Nineteenth Century_, October, 1895; J. B. Estrade, _Les apparitions
+de Lourdes, Souvenirs intimes d'un témoin_; H. Bernheim, _Suggestive
+Therapeutics_, pp. 200-202; A. Imbert-Gourbyzee, _La Stigmatisation,
+l'extase divine, et les miracles de Lourdes_, II, chaps. XXI and
+XXVII; E. Zola, _Lourdes_.
+
+[56] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, II, p. 306.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HEALERS
+
+
+         "This is an art
+  Which doth mend nature--but
+  The art itself is nature."--_Winter's Tale._
+
+  "Some are molested by Phantasie; so some, again, by
+  Fancy alone and a good conceit, are as easily
+  recovered.... All the world knows there is no virtue in
+  charms, &c., but a strong conceit and opinion alone, as
+  Pomponatius holds, which forceth a motion of the
+  humours, spirits, and blood, which takes away the cause
+  of the malady from the parts affected. The like we may
+  say of the magical effects, superstitious cures, and
+  such as are done by montebanks and wizards. As by wicked
+  incredulity many are hurt (so saith Wierus), we find, in
+  our experience, by the same means, many are relieved."
+
+In discussing the subject of healers one must keep in mind the fact
+that the healers of the first millennium of our era were almost wholly
+exorcists, on account of the prevailing theory, and even after that
+time exorcism, on the one hand, and the faith in relics and shrines on
+the other, formed the principal means of cure. It is therefore
+difficult to differentiate the other healers from the exorcists, and
+to decide whether certain cures were performed by healers or by
+relics.
+
+Another difficulty confronts us. Many authentic cures have probably
+been wrought by saints, but unfortunately most of those performed by
+them have little contemporary evidence to support them, but rest on
+the very shaky testimony of tradition. White,[57] in a keen analysis,
+shows how the legends of miraculous cures have grown around great
+benefactors of humanity, taking Francis Xavier as a pertinent example.
+
+We must also remember, however, that what are called miracles formed
+part of the evidence which led to the canonization of a saint, and a
+large number of healing miracles was usually included in the list. The
+procedure of the court connected with the canonization was conducted
+with the greatest rigor. Sitting as examiners were learned and upright
+men from all nations, and the witness must be irreproachable as far as
+character was concerned. The two witnesses required for each miracle
+must testify concerning the nature of the disease and the cure, and
+sign the deposition after it had been read to them. Following that,
+the examiners sifted the evidence in a hypercritical way and
+emphasized the weak places. Benedict XIV justly said: "The degree of
+proof required is the same as that required for a criminal case, since
+the cause of religion and piety is that of the commonweal." Some
+consideration must be thus given to this testimony, but the value of
+it depends on the number of years elapsing after the cures were
+performed and the direct connection of the witnesses with the cure in
+question.
+
+The craving for the miraculous in bodily cures prejudiced many
+historians, especially when the desire to emphasize the importance of
+the church was uppermost in the minds of the writers. We can consider,
+though, the material at hand, always recognizing that marvellous cures
+can be performed when the authority of the physician has all the
+weight of an infallible church behind it and the patient is credulous.
+We must notice in this connection that the healers up to the time of
+the magnetizers depended on religious ceremonies for their efficiency,
+with the exception of those who endorsed and propagated "sympathetic
+cures."
+
+As we well know, the first healing among Christians was done by Jesus
+himself and the apostles; after this for two centuries the exorcists
+performed most of the cures. We have accounts of one non-Christian
+healer whose cures have probably been handed down to us on account of
+his exalted position. Tacitus and Suetonius describe how Vespasian
+(9-79) healed in at least two cases. The first was a blind man well
+known in Alexandria. In the second case the historians disagree; one
+says it was a leg and the other a hand which was diseased and cured.
+According to the story, the god Serapis revealed to the patients that
+they would be cured by the emperor. Tacitus says that Vespasian did
+not believe in his own power and it was only after much persuasion
+that he was induced to try the experiment.[58]
+
+The Christians, however, were not to be outdone as healers. Irenćus
+(130-202) gives a long list of infirmities which were cured by the
+representatives of the church, and in writing, about the year 180,
+draws a comparison between them and the heretics. "For they [the
+heretics] can neither confer sight on the blind nor hearing on the
+deaf, nor chase away all sorts of demons (except those which are sent
+into others by themselves--if they can ever do as much as this): nor
+can they cure the weak, or the lame, or the paralytic; or those who
+are distressed in any other part of the body, as has often been done
+in regard to bodily infirmity. Nor can they furnish effective remedies
+for those external accidents which may occur. And so far are they from
+being able to raise the dead, as the Lord raised them (and the
+Apostles did by means of prayer, as has been frequently done in the
+brotherhood on account of some necessity--the entire church in that
+particular locality entreating with much fasting and prayer, the
+spirit of the dead man has returned, and he has been bestowed in
+answer to the prayers of the saints--) that they do not even believe
+that this could possibly be done." He further says: "Others again heal
+the sick by laying their hands upon them, and they are made whole.
+Yea, moreover, as I have said, the dead even have been raised up, and
+remained among us for many years."
+
+The great Origen (185-254), writing when he would be certain to have
+his words most severely criticised, says, after referring to the
+miracles of the apostles: "And there are still preserved among
+Christians traces of that Holy Spirit which appeared in the form of a
+dove. They expel evil spirits, and perform many cures, and foresee
+certain events, according to the will of the Logos." In another of his
+works we find the following: "For they [the Jews] have no longer
+prophets or miracles, traces of which to a considerable extent are
+still found among Christians, and some of them more remarkable than
+ever have existed among the Jews; and these we ourselves have
+witnessed."
+
+As has already been seen, different methods were used by various
+healers, and we must not omit a brief account of healing by unction.
+The very definite instructions laid down in the Epistle of James were
+evidently strictly carried out in the early church, but the first
+definite mention of anointing after that made by Mark and James is
+found in the writings of Tertullian (160-220). He speaks of the pagan
+emperor Severus being graciously mindful of Christians: "For he sought
+out the Christian Proculus, surnamed Torpacion, the steward of
+Euhodias, and in gratitude for his having once cured him by
+anointing, he kept him in his palace till the day of his death."[59]
+
+If the Christians anointed pagans it is legitimate to suppose that
+they also anointed fellow-Christians, and that if this was performed
+without special mention about the end of the second century, it must
+have been common from the time of James to that period. It is probable
+that during the first seven centuries of our era the practice of
+praying with the sick and anointing them with oil never ceased. There
+may be some objection to our considering the subject of anointing with
+oil as purely mental healing, but according to the instructions given
+for its use there was scarcely enough oil employed to be of benefit
+otherwise, and especially as food. Mental healing, then, is the
+rationale of the cures.
+
+Puller[60] gives us three of the earliest incidents of healing by
+unction, the original accounts all being written by contemporaries and
+friends. Some time between the years 335 and 355, St. Parthenius,
+Bishop of Lampsacus, anointed a man who was described as "altogether
+withered." The account says: "Then getting up, he gently and gradually
+softened the man's body with the holy oil, and straightway made him to
+rise up healed." Refinus, a well-known writer and an eye-witness to
+this healing, tells of St. Macarius of Alexandria and four monks
+restoring, about the year 375, "a man, withered in all his limbs and
+especially in his feet." He says: "But when he had been anointed all
+over by them with oil in the Name of the Lord, immediately the soles
+of his feet were strengthened. And when they said to him, 'In the name
+of Jesus Christ ... arise, and stand on thy feet, and return to thy
+house,' immediately arising and leaping, he blessed God." Some years
+later, Palladius, the friend of St. Chrysostom, writes of another of
+St. Macarius's cures which he witnessed: "But at the time that we were
+there, there was brought to him from Thessalonica a noble and wealthy
+virgin, who during many years had been suffering from paralysis. And
+when she had been presented to him, and had been thrown down before
+the cell of the blessed man, he, being moved with compassion for her,
+with his own hands anointed her during twenty days with holy oil,
+pouring out prayers for her to the Lord, and so sent her back cured to
+her own city."
+
+The Sacramentary of Serapion, Bishop of Thmuis, Egypt, written about
+350, provides for the consecration of bread and water, as well as oil,
+for healing; and in a prayer concerning oil and water there contained,
+the following words are used: "Grant healing power upon these
+creatures, that every fever and every demon and every sickness may
+depart through the drinking and the anointing, and that the partaking
+of these creatures may be a healing medicine and a medicine of
+complete soundness in the Name of the Only begotten, Jesus Christ,"
+etc. The Apostolic Constitutions of about 375 contain a prayer of
+consecration used over oil and water brought by members of the
+congregation, as follows: "Do thou now sanctify this water and this
+oil, through Christ, in the name of him that offered or of her that
+offered, and give to these things a power of producing health and of
+driving away diseases, of putting to flight demons, of dispersing
+every snare through Christ our Hope," etc.
+
+About 390, St. Jerome wrote a life of St. Hilarion (291-371) in which
+the latter is thus set forth as a healer: "But lo! that parched and
+sandy district, after the rain had fallen, unexpectedly produced such
+vast numbers of serpents and poisonous animals that many, who were
+bitten, would have died at once if they had not run to Hilarion. He
+therefore blessed some oil, with which all the husbandmen and
+shepherds touched their wounds and found an infallible cure."
+
+Oil was not always employed for anointing, but might be drunk by the
+sick, and this use of it was made in healing a girl, by St. Martin of
+Tours, about 395. St. Germain, Bishop of Auxerre (418-448), when the
+physicians were powerless during a plague, blessed some oil and
+anointed the swollen jaws of those who were sick, whereupon they
+recovered; and St. Genevieve of Paris, who died about 502, used to
+heal the sick with oil.
+
+In Bede's biography of St. Cuthbert we find an instance of this saint
+healing a girl about the year 687. A young woman was troubled for a
+whole year with an intolerable pain in her head and side which the
+physicians were unable to relieve. Cuthbert "in pity anointed the
+wretched woman with oil. From that time she began to get better, and
+was well in a few days."
+
+At the beginning of the eighth century the anointing of the sick began
+to decline, largely on account of the changed attitude of the church.
+At this time this ceremony began to be used for spiritual ills rather
+than for bodily diseases. Before long, anointing was monopolized by
+the church for spiritual advantage, and is still so used by the Roman
+Catholic Church in the ceremony of Extreme Unction.
+
+In returning to the more direct methods of healing, we find that St.
+Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) confirmed the reports of the marvellous
+cures wrought by the martyrs, Cosmo and Damian, who were beheaded in
+303. During the life of Gregory of Tours (538-594), the healing
+efficacy of the saints' relics was rivalled by the miraculous aid
+rendered to the sick by St. Julian. The solitude of the holy anchorite
+was interrupted by the persistent and despairing clamor of the sick to
+whom he gave health. The great Turonese pontiff also tells us that
+one day Aredius, traversing Paris, found Chilperic prostrate with a
+grievous fever. The royal sufferer sought the saint's prayers as an
+irresistible curative.
+
+The daughter of a Teutonic nobleman was brought to St. Gall (556-640)
+seriously ill with an incurable disorder, presenting the livid
+appearance of an animated cadaver. The saint approached the
+unconscious invalid as she reclined on her mother's knee, and assuming
+the bended attitude of invocation by her side, made a fervent prayer
+and evoked the demon producing the sickness to instantly depart. The
+effort was all that was desired. Shortly after this, about the year
+648, St. Vardrille, the founder of Fontanelle, exercised his remedial
+potency in healing the palsied arm of a forester whose indiscreet zeal
+had induced him to transfix the sainted abbot with a lance.
+
+We have rather a strange case from the beginning of the seventh
+century, where the moral and mental element seems to have been strong.
+Abbe Eustasius returning from Rome, whither a mission of Clothair II
+had called him, was urgently summoned by the sorrowful parent of a
+Burgundian maiden, in the last agonies of a frightful malady, to
+appear and cure the moribund daughter. On answering the call he found
+that the child had in her youth been consecrated by the vows of
+chastity, and on account of this shrunk from a marriage sanctioned by
+her parents. Eustasius reproached the father for his efforts to
+violate the solemn obligations of the virgin, and upon obtaining a
+formal renunciation of further attempts to coerce her into matrimony,
+the saint, by personal intercession, obtained a complete cure.
+
+It was found that certain remedies in the hands of certain saints were
+efficacious, but they did not have the same power if administered by
+others. For instance, Franciscus de Paula succored an anchylosed joint
+by the energetic surgery of three dried figs which he gave the
+suffering patient to eat. Similarly, a maiden grieving under a
+cancerous disease which surgical skill had frankly admitted was
+incurable, was restored to robust vigor by the administering of some
+mild herbs. This savored rather too much of medicine, and other holy
+healers used more orthodox means. Hugo the Holy abstracted a serpent
+from the infirm body of a woman by the use of holy water, and Coleta,
+the saintess, awakened from the dreamless slumber of death more than
+one hundred slain infants by the efficacy of a cross.
+
+Even such a serious disorder as leprosy was said to have been healed
+by saintly care. St. Martin, who gave special attention to sufferers
+with this disease, cured a leper by kissing him, we are told. Toward
+the middle of the sixth century, St. Radegonde displayed her faith by
+first washing the repulsive sores and afterward applying her pure lips
+to them. On one occasion an insolent leper asserted that unless his
+putrefying limbs were kissed by this candidate for canonical honors he
+could not be cured.[61]
+
+Bede (673-735), the great English historian, in his careful way tells
+us of cures performed by St. John of Beverly during the first part of
+the eighth century. According to this record, St. John cured a dumb
+youth, who had never spoken a word, by the sign of the cross on his
+tongue, and he afterward had "ready utterance." He used holy water on
+a woman so that, like Peter's wife's mother, she arose and ministered
+to them, healed a friend who was injured by being thrown from a horse,
+cured a nun of a grievous complaint, and restored a servant, an
+account of which I shall give in Bede's words:
+
+  "The bishop went in and saw him in a dying condition,
+  and the coffin by his side, whilst all present were in
+  tears. He said a prayer, blessed him, and on going out,
+  as is the usual expression of comforters, said, 'May you
+  soon recover.' Afterwards when they were sitting at
+  table, the lad sent to his lord, to desire he would let
+  him have a cup of wine, because he was thirsty. The
+  earl, rejoicing that he could drink, sent him a cup of
+  wine, blessed by the bishop; which, as soon as he had
+  drunk, he immediately got up, and shaking off his late
+  infirmity, dressed himself, and going in to the bishop,
+  saluted him and the other guests, saying, 'He would also
+  eat and be merry with them.' They ordered him to sit
+  down with them at the entertainment, rejoicing at his
+  recovery. He sat down, ate and drank merrily, and
+  behaved himself like the rest of the company; and living
+  many years after, continued in the same state of
+  health."[62]
+
+Skipping a few centuries, we find that Bernard of Clairvaux
+(1091-1153), the most prominent figure of the twelfth century,
+performed an abundance of cures, as his biographers testify. "The
+cures were so many that the witnesses themselves were unable to detail
+them all. At Doningen, near Rheinfeld, where the first Sunday of
+Advent was spent, Bernard cured, in one day, nine blind persons, ten
+who were deaf or dumb, and eighteen lame or paralytic. On the
+following Wednesday, at Schaffhausen, the number of miracles
+increased."[63] Concerning these cures Morison says: "Thirty-six
+miraculous cures in one day would seem to have been the largest
+stretch of supernatural power which Bernard permitted to himself. The
+halt, the blind, the deaf, and the dumb were brought from all parts to
+be touched by Bernard. The patient was presented to him, whereupon he
+made the sign of the cross over the part affected, and the cure was
+perfect."[64]
+
+The following case in which details are more fully given is of much
+interest: "At Toulouse, in the church of St. Saturninus, in which we
+were lodged, was a certain regular canon, named John. John had kept
+his bed for seven months, and was so reduced that his death was
+expected daily. His legs were so shrunken that they were scarcely
+larger than a child's arms. He was quite unable to rise to satisfy the
+wants of nature. At last his brother canons refused to tolerate his
+presence any longer among them, and thrust him out into the
+neighbouring village. When the poor creature heard of Bernard's
+proximity, he implored to be taken to him. Six men, therefore,
+carrying him as he lay in bed, brought him into a room close to that
+in which he was lodged. The abbot heard him confess his sins, and
+listened to his entreaties to be restored to health. Bernard mentally
+prayed to God: 'Behold, O Lord, they seek for a sign, and our words
+avail nothing, unless they be confirmed with signs following.' He then
+blessed him and left the chamber, and so did we all. In that very hour
+the sick man arose from his couch, and running after Bernard, kissed
+his feet with a devotion which cannot be imagined by any one who did
+not see it. One of the canons, meeting him, nearly fainted with
+fright, thinking he saw his ghost."
+
+St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), the great founder of the Franciscan
+Order, was not less famed for his miracles of healing than for his
+Christ-like life and his stigmata. Among those cured were epileptics,
+paralytics, and the blind. A typical case of cure by this humble saint
+is given to show his method and its results: "Once when Francis the
+Saint of God was making a long circuit through various regions to
+preach the gospel of God's kingdom he came to a city called
+Toscanella. Here ... he was entertained by a knight of that same city
+whose only son was a cripple and weak in all his body. Though the
+child was of tender years he had passed the age of weaning; but he
+still remained in a cradle. The boy's father, seeing the man of God to
+be endued with such holiness, humbly fell at his feet and besought him
+to heal his son. Francis, deeming himself to be unprofitable and
+unworthy of such power and grace, for a long time refused to do it. At
+last, conquered by the urgency of the knight's entreaties, after
+offering up prayer, he laid his hand on the boy, blessed him, and
+lifted him up. And in the sight of all, the boy straightway arose
+whole in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, and began to walk hither
+and thither about the house."[65]
+
+St. Thomas of Hereford (1222-1282) was the last Englishman to be
+officially canonized. The extant documents of his canonization record
+no less than four hundred and twenty-nine miracles alleged to have
+been performed by him. The following case of resurrection from the
+dead occurred, however, twenty-one years after his death. I quote the
+account in full:
+
+  "On the 6th of September, 1303, Roger, aged two years
+  and three months, the son of Gervase, one of the warders
+  of Conway Castle, managed to crawl out of bed in the
+  night and tumble off a bridge, a distance of
+  twenty-eight feet; he was not discovered till the next
+  morning, when his mother found him half naked and quite
+  dead upon a hard stone at the bottom of the ditch, where
+  there was no water or earth, but simply the rock, which
+  had been quarried to build the castle. Simon Waterford,
+  the vicar, who had christened the child, John de Bois,
+  John Guffe, all sworn witnesses, took their oaths on the
+  Gospel that they saw and handled the child dead. The
+  King's Crowners (Stephen Ganny and William Nottingham)
+  were presently called and went down into the moat. They
+  found the child's body cold and stiff, and white with
+  hoar-frost, stark dead, indeed. While the Crowners, as
+  their office requires, began to write what they had
+  seen, one John Syward, a near neighbour, came down and
+  gently handled the child's body all over, and finding it
+  as dead as ever any, made the sign of the cross upon its
+  forehead, and earnestly prayed after this manner:
+  'Blessed St. Thomas Cantelope, you by whom God has
+  wrought innumerable miracles, show mercy unto this
+  little infant, and obtain he may return to life again.
+  If this grace be granted he shall visit your holy
+  sepulchre and render humble thanks to God and you for
+  the favor.' No sooner had Syward spoken these words,
+  than the child began to move his head and right arm a
+  little, and forthwith life and vigor came back again
+  into every part of his body. The Crowners, and many
+  others who were standing by, saw the miracle, and in
+  that very place, with great admiration, returned humble
+  thanks to God and St. Thomas for what they had seen. The
+  mother, now overjoyed, took the child in her arms, and
+  went that day to hear mass in a church not far off,
+  where, upon her knees, she recognized with a grateful
+  heart that she owed the life of her infant to God and
+  St. Thomas. Her devotion ended, she returned home, and
+  the child, feeling no pain at all, walked as he was wont
+  to do up and down the house, though a little scar still
+  continued in one cheek, which after a few days, quite
+  vanished away."[66]
+
+St. Catharine of Siena (1347-1380) obtained considerable reputation as
+a healer, principally, however, in the line of exorcism; this, though,
+meant the cure of any disease. Like St. Paul, she was one of a large
+number of saints who healed others but did not cure herself; she died
+at the age of thirty-three. A woman was presented to the immaculate
+saintess for prompt remedy; by the virtue of divine magic a demon was
+forced from each part of her body where he had taken refuge, but
+resisting absolute ejectment from this carnal abode, made a desperate
+conflict in the throat, where by uninterrupted scratches he reproduced
+himself in the form of an abscess.
+
+On another occasion the saint was more successful. Laurentia, a maiden
+of youthful years, placed by her father within the sheltering walls of
+a cloister, to assume ultimately monastic vows, was quickly captured
+by an errant demon. As an irrefutable demonstration of the impure
+origin of her infirmity, an annalist asserts, this spirit promptly
+answered in elegant Latinity all questions propounded; but the
+strongest confirmation of this belief was the miraculous ability which
+enabled her to disclose the most secret thoughts of others, and
+divulge the mysterious affairs of her associates. St. Catharine at
+length liberated the suffering female from her diabolical tenant. More
+extraordinary claims are made for her. It is said that she stayed a
+plague at Varazze, and healed a throng at Pisa.[67]
+
+Raimondo da Capua, her faithful friend and constant companion, wrote
+her biography and gives us different instances of remarkable cures
+performed by her. For example, he tells us that Father Matthew of
+Cenni, the director of the Hospital of la Misericordia, was stricken
+when the plague was raging in Siena in 1373, and of his marvellous
+cure.
+
+Perhaps we had better allow him to tell of Catharine's power in his
+own words:
+
+  "One day on entering, I saw some of the brothers carrying Father
+  Matthew like a corpse from the chapel to his room; his face was
+  livid, and his strength was so far gone that he could not answer me
+  when I spoke to him. 'Last night,' the brothers said, 'about seven
+  o'clock, while ministering to a dying person, he perceived himself
+  stricken, and fell at once into extreme weakness.' I helped to put
+  him on his bed; ... he spoke afterwards, and said that he felt as if
+  his head was separated into four parts. I sent for Dr. Senso, his
+  physician; Dr. Senso declared to me that my friend had the plague,
+  and  that every symptom announced the approach of death. 'I fear,'
+  he said, 'that the House of Mercy (Misericordia) is about to be
+  deprived of its good director.' I asked if medical art could not
+  save him. 'We shall see,' replied Senso, 'but I have only a very
+  faint hope; his blood is too much poisoned.' I withdrew, praying God
+  to save the life of this good man. Catharine, however, had heard of
+  the illness of Father Matthew, whom she loved sincerely, and she
+  lost no time in repairing to him. The moment she entered the room,
+  she cried, with a cheerful voice, 'Get up, Father Matthew, get up!
+  This is not a time to be lying idly in bed.' Father Matthew roused
+  himself, sat up on his bed, and finally stood on his feet. Catharine
+  retired; and the moment she was leaving the house, I entered it, and
+  ignorant of what had happened, and believing my friend to be still
+  at the point of death, my grief urged me to say, 'Will you allow a
+  person so dear to us, and so useful to others, to die?' She appeared
+  annoyed at my words, and replied, 'In what terms do you address me?
+  Am I like God, to deliver a man from death?' But I, beside myself
+  with sorrow, pleaded, 'Speak in that way to others if you will, but
+  not to me; for I know your secrets; and I know you obtain from God
+  whatever you ask in faith.' Then Catharine bowed her head, and
+  smiled just a little; after a few minutes she lifted up her head and
+  looked at me full in the face, her countenance radiant with joy, and
+  said, 'Well, let us take courage; he will not die this time,' and
+  she passed on. At these words I banished all fear, for I understood
+  that she had obtained some favor from heaven. I went straight to my
+  sick friend, whom I found sitting on the side of his bed. 'Do you
+  know,' he cried, 'what she has done for me?' He then stood up and
+  narrated joyfully what I have here written. To make the matter more
+  sure, the table was laid, and Father Matthew seated himself at it
+  with us; they served him with vegetables and other light food, and
+  he, who an hour before could not open his mouth, ate with us,
+  chatting and laughing gaily."
+
+None of Catharine's biographers fail to relate wonderful instances of
+her healing power.[68]
+
+Martin Luther (1483-1546), the great leader of the Reformation, and
+St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552), the leader of the Counter-Reformation,
+were both healers, so it is said. Luther's cure of his friend and
+helper, Melanchthon, by prayer for and encouragement of the patient,
+is well known. Xavier's miracles were legion, but have been somewhat
+discredited by a recent author.[69] I add but one example. "A certain
+Tomé Paninguem, a fencing-master, says, I knew Antonio de Miranda, who
+was a servant of the Father Francis, and assisted him when saying
+Mass. He told me that when going one night on business to Combature,
+he was bitten by a venomous serpent. He immediately fell down as
+though paralyzed and became speechless. He was found thus lying
+unconscious. Informed of the fact, Father Francis ordered Antonio to
+be carried to him: and when he was laid down speechless and senseless,
+the Father prayed with all those present. The prayer finished, he put
+a little saliva with his finger on the bitten place on Antonio's foot,
+and at the same moment, Antonio recovered his senses, his memory and
+his speech, and felt himself healed. I have since heard details of
+this occurrence from the mouths of several eye-witnesses."[70]
+
+If we accept Görres's account,[71] the most remarkable instance of
+curative power possessed by a saint is that afforded by St. Sauveur of
+Horta (1520-1567). Outside of this one work I have been unable to find
+any reference to this saint, so I will give a sketch of his apparently
+remarkable life. He was born in Catalonia, and received the first part
+of his name from a presentiment of his sponsors that he was to be a
+savior of men, and the second part because he entered the monastery at
+Horta. A short time after he finished his novitiate, people in some
+way got the idea that he had a wonderful gift of healing, and soon
+patients came to him in crowds from all parts of the country. He
+continued healing for several years. At one time during the feast of
+the Annunciation he cured six thousand persons, and at another time he
+found ten thousand patients, from viceroy to laborer, waiting for him
+at Valencia before the convent of St. Marie de Jesus. Notwithstanding
+his apparently great success, his brother monks complained to the
+bishop concerning the dirt and disorder caused by the crowds, and
+after a reprimand he was sent at midnight to the monastery at Reus,
+where he was known as Alphonse and assigned to the kitchen. In spite
+of this, crowds continued to come and he was transferred from
+monastery to monastery, but always with the same result--the crowd
+sought him to be healed. He was known as simple, open, and obedient in
+his relations with men, and austere toward himself. He was patient and
+resigned, compassionate toward the poor and sick, and full of zeal for
+their conversion. The number of patients he is said to have cured is
+incredible, and it is even said that he resuscitated three dead
+persons. After his death miracles were performed at his tomb. Why he
+was not in favor with his superiors and his brother monks is unknown;
+his friends say they were jealous; his enemies, that his cures were
+not genuine.
+
+St. Philip Neri (1551-1595), the founder of the Oratorians, was
+renowned as a healer. He cured Clement VIII of gout by touching and
+prayer, a woman of cancer of the breast by the mere touch and
+assurance, a man of grievous symptoms such as loss of speech and
+internal pain by simply laying on of hands, and many similar and
+equally serious cases. The following case was counted nearly equal to
+a resurrection: "In 1560 Pietro Vittrici of Parma, being in the
+service of Cardinal Boncompagni, afterward Pope Gregory XIII, fell
+dangerously ill. He was given up by the physicians, and was supposed
+to be as good as dead. In this extremity he was visited by Philip who,
+as soon as he entered the sick man's room, began, as was his wont, to
+pray for him. He then put his hand on Pietro's forehead, and at the
+touch he instantly revived. In two days' time he was out of the house
+perfectly well and strong and went about telling people how he had
+been cured by Father Philip."[72]
+
+George Fox (1624-1691), the founder of the Quakers, performed some
+simple cures of which he himself tells us. The most famous case was
+that of the cure of a lame arm by command, the account of which we
+take from his pen. He thus records it: "After some time I went to the
+meeting at Arnside where Richard Meyer was. Now he had been long lame
+of one of his arms; and I was moved by the Lord to say unto him, among
+all the people, 'Prophet Meyer stand up upon thy legs' (for he was
+sitting down) and he stood up and stretched out his arm that had been
+lame a long time, and said: 'Be it known unto all you people that this
+day I am healed.' But his parents could hardly believe it, but after
+the meeting was done, had him aside and took off his doublet; and then
+they saw it was true. He soon after came to Swarthmore meeting, and
+there declared how the Lord had healed him. But after this the Lord
+commanded him to go to York with a message from him; and he disobeyed
+the Lord; and the Lord struck him again, so that he died about
+three-quarters of a year after."[73] The cure evidently was not
+permanent.
+
+Valentine Greatrakes (1628-1683) was born in Affane, Ireland. He was
+the son of an Irish gentleman, had a good education, and was a
+Protestant. In 1641, at the outbreak of the Irish rebellion, he fled
+to England, and from 1649-1656 he served under Cromwell. In 1661,
+after a period of melancholy derangement, he believed that God had
+given him power of curing "king's evil" by touching or stroking and
+prayer. After some success with this disease, he added to his list
+ague, epilepsy, convulsions, paralysis, deafness, ulcers, aches, and
+lameness, and for a number of years he devoted three days in every
+week, from 6 A. M. to 6 P. M., to the exercise of his healing gifts.
+The crowds which thronged around him were so great that the
+neighboring towns were not able to accommodate them. He thereupon left
+his house in the country and went to Youghal, where sick people, not
+only from all parts of Ireland but from England, continued to
+congregate in such great numbers that the magistrates were afraid they
+would infect the place with their diseases.
+
+In some instances he exorcised demons; in fact, he claimed that all
+diseases were caused by evil spirits, and every infirmity was, with
+him, a case of diabolic possession. The church endeavored to prohibit
+his operations but without avail. He was invited to London, and,
+notwithstanding that an exhibition before the nobility failed,
+thousands flocked to his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields. In the
+"Miscellanies" of St. Evremond a graphic sketch is given of his work.
+The results of his healing are there summed up as follows:
+
+  "So great was the confidence in him, that the blind
+  fancied they saw the light which they did not see--the
+  deaf imagined that they heard--the lame that they
+  walked straight, and the paralytic that they had
+  recovered the use of their limbs. An idea of health
+  made the sick forget for a while their maladies; and
+  imagination, which was not less active in those merely
+  drawn by curiosity than in the sick, gave a false view
+  to the one class, from the desire of seeing, as it
+  operated a false cure on the other from the strong
+  desire of being healed. Such was the power of the
+  Irishman over the mind, and such was the influence of
+  the mind over the body. Nothing was spoken of in London
+  but his prodigies; and these prodigies were supported
+  by such great authorities that the bewildered multitude
+  believed them almost without examination, while more
+  enlightened people did not dare to reject them from
+  their own knowledge."
+
+That there were real cures, however, seems most probable. The Bishop
+of Dromore testifies thus from his own observation: "I have seen pains
+strangely fly before his hands till he had chased them out of the
+body; dimness cleared, and deafness cured by his touch. Twenty persons
+at several times, in fits of the falling sickness, were in two or
+three minutes brought to themselves.... Running sores of the 'King's
+evil' were dried up; grievous sores of many months' date in a few days
+healed, cancerous knots dissolved, etc." [74]
+
+The celebrated Flamstead, the astronomer, when a lad of nineteen,
+went into Ireland to be touched by Greatrakes, and he testifies that
+he was an eyewitness of several cures, although he himself was not
+benefited. In a letter to Lord Conway, Greatrakes says: "The King's
+doctors, this day (for the confirmation of their majesties' belief),
+sent three out of the hospital to me, who came on crutches; but,
+blessed be God! they all went home well, to the admiration of all
+people, as well as the doctors."[75]
+
+Several pamphlets were issued by medical men and others criticising
+his work, and in 1666 he published a vindication of himself entitled
+"A Brief Account." This contained numerous testimonials by Bishop
+Wilkins, Bishop Patrick, Dr. Cudworth, Dr. Whichcote, and others of
+distinction and intelligence. After the retirement of Greatrakes, John
+Leverett, a gardener, succeeded to the "manual exercise," and declared
+that after touching thirty or forty a day, he felt so much goodness go
+out of him that he was fatigued as if he had been digging eight roods
+of ground.
+
+About the same time that Greatrakes was working among the people of
+London, an Italian enthusiast, named Francisco Bagnone, was operating
+in Italy with equal success. He had only to touch the sick with his
+hands, or sometimes with a relic, to accomplish cures which astonished
+the people.
+
+Hardly less famous than Greatrakes was Johann Jacob Gassner
+(1727-1779). He was born at Bratz, near Bludenz, and became Roman
+Catholic priest at Klösterle. He believed that most diseases were
+caused by evil spirits which could be exorcised by conjuration and
+prayer. He began practising and soon attracted attention. In 1774 he
+received a call from the bishop at Ratisbon to Ellwangen, where by the
+mere word of command, "Cesset" (Give over), he cured the lame and
+blind, but especially those who were afflicted with epilepsy and
+convulsions, and who were thereby supposed to be obsessed. His cures
+were not permanent in some cases, and before he died he lost power and
+respect.
+
+
+  [57] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, pp. 5-22.
+
+  [58] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I,
+  pp. 347 f.
+
+  [59] P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, pp. 252 f. I am
+  indebted to this excellent book for my material on the
+  subject of Unction, as well as for many other quotations
+  in this chapter.
+
+  [60] F. W. Puller, _Anointing of the Sick_, pp. 155-158.
+
+  [61] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, gives this and the other incidents just
+  quoted. See pp. 155, 160, 272, 275, 327.
+
+  [62] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, bk. V, chap. V.
+
+  [63] Quoted by P. Dearmer, _Body and Soul_, p. 359.
+
+  [64] J. Cotter Morison, _Life and Times of St. Bernard_,
+  pp. 422 and 460, for this and the following incident.
+
+  [65] Thomas of Celano, _Lives of St. Francis of Assisi_
+  (trans. A. G. F. Howell).
+
+  [66] _Dublin Review_, January, 1876, pp. 8-10.
+
+  [67] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 278 f.
+
+  [68] See J. Butler, _Life of St. Catharine of Siena_,
+  for many examples.
+
+  [69] See A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, already referred to.
+
+  [70] Jos. Marie Cros, _St. François de Xavier, Sa vie et
+  ses lettres_, II, p. 392.
+
+  [71] Görres, _La mystique divine naturelle et
+  diabolique_ (trans. Sainte-foi), I, pp. 470-473.
+
+  [72] P. J. Bacci, _Life of St. Philip Neri_ (trans.
+  Antrobus), II, p. 168.
+
+  [73] G. Fox, _Journal_, I, p. 103.
+
+  [74] J. Moses, _Pathological Aspects of Religions_, p.
+  188.
+
+  [75] E. Salverte, _The Philosophy of Magic_ (trans.
+  Thompson), II, p. 81.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TALISMANS
+
+
+  "He had the ring of Gyges, the talisman of invisibility."
+                                                     --HAMERTON.
+
+  "The quack astrologer offers, for five pieces, to give
+  you home with you a Talisman against Flies; a Sigil to
+  make you fortunate at gaining; and a Spell that shall as
+  certainly preserve you from being rob'd for the future;
+  a sympathetic Powder for violent pains of the
+  Tooth-ache."--_Character of a Quack Astrologer._
+
+  "So far are they distant from the true knowledge of
+  physic which are ignorant of astrology, that they ought
+  not rightly to be called physicians, but deceivers; for
+  it hath been many times experimented and proved that
+  that which many physicians could not cure or remedy with
+  their greatest and strongest medicines, the astronomer
+  hath brought to pass with one simple herb, by observing
+  the moving of the signs."--FABIAN WITHERS.
+
+In the minds of most persons the terms talisman, amulet, and charm are
+synonymous. This may be more or less true as far as they are used
+to-day, but in the days when these terms meant something in real life
+there was a distinction. The talisman was probably at first an
+astronomical figure, but later the term became more comprehensive.
+Pope portrays this astrological import in his couplet,
+
+  "Of talismans and sigils knew the power,
+   And carefully watch'd the planetary hour."
+
+The amulet was always carried about the person, while the other two
+might be in the possession of the person in the case of the talisman,
+or, in the case of the charm, if a material object it could be placed
+entirely outside of one's care. The talisman and amulet must be a
+compound of some substance, the charm might be a gesture, a look, or a
+spoken word. Notice the example of charms according to Tennyson's
+words,
+
+  "Then, in one moment, she put forth the charm
+   Of woven paces and of waving hands."
+
+They were all used for defensive purposes, _i. e._, to keep away evil,
+in the form of demons, disease, or misfortune, but they might,
+especially the talisman, also attract good. Their power was of a
+magical character, and was exercised in a supernatural manner.
+
+The idea of the talisman probably originated from the belief that
+certain properties or virtues were impressed upon substances by
+planetary influences. "A talisman," says Pettigrew, "may in general
+terms be defined to be a substance composed of certain cabalistic
+characters engraved on stone, metal, or other material, or else
+written on slips of paper." Hyde quotes a Persian writer who defines
+the Telesm or Talismay as "a piece of art compounded of the celestial
+powers and elementary bodies, appropriated to certain figures or
+positions, and purposes and times, contrary to the usual manner."
+
+We are told by Maimonides that images or idols were called Tzelamim on
+account of the power or influence which was supposed to reside in
+them, rather than on account of their particular figure or form.
+Townley has opined that the reason for the production of astrological
+or talismanic images was probably the desire of early peoples to have
+some representation of the planets during their absence from sight, so
+that they might at all times be able to worship the planetary body
+itself or its representative. To accomplish this purpose, the
+astrologers chose certain colors, metals, stones, trees, etc., to
+represent certain planets, and constructed the talismans when the
+planets were in their exaltation and in a happy conjunction with other
+heavenly bodies. In addition to this, incantations were used in an
+endeavor to inspire the talisman with the power and influence of the
+planet for which it stood.
+
+Pettigrew says: "The Hebrew word for talisman (magan) signifies a
+paper or other material, drawn or engraved with the letters composing
+the sacred name Jehovah, or with other characters, and improperly
+applied to astrological representations, because, like the letters
+composing 'The Incomparable Name,' they were supposed to serve as a
+defence against sickness, lightning, and tempest. It was a common
+practice with magicians, whenever a plague or other great calamity
+infested a country, to make a supposed image of the destroyer, either
+in gold, silver, clay, wax, etc., under a certain configuration of the
+heavens, and to set it up in some particular place that the evil might
+be stayed."[76]
+
+The Jewish phylacteries must therefore be considered talismans and not
+amulets. The writings contained in them are portions of the law and
+are prepared in a prescribed manner. Three different kinds are used:
+one for the head, another for the arm, and the third is attached to
+the door-posts. The following is a Hebrew talisman supposed to have
+considerable power: "It overflowed--he did cast darts--Shadai is all
+sufficient--his hand is strong, and is the preserver of my life in all
+its variations."[77]
+
+Arnot gives an account of some Scottish talismans not unlike the
+phylacteries of the Jews, which were for use on the door-posts. "On
+the old houses still existing in Edinburgh," he says, "there are
+remains of talismanic or cabalistical characters, which the
+superstitious of earlier days had caused to be engraven on their
+fronts. These were generally composed of some text of Scripture, of
+the name of God, or, perhaps, of an emblematic representation of the
+resurrection."[78]
+
+The connection of astrology, or, as he calls it, "astronomy," and the
+talisman with medicine is well portrayed by Chaucer in his picture of
+a good physician of his day. He says:
+
+ "With us there was a doctor of phisike;
+  In al the world, was thar non hym lyk
+  To speke of physik and of surgerye,
+  For he wos groundit in astronomie.
+  He kept his pacient a ful gret del
+  In hourys by his magyk naturel;
+  Wel couth he fortunen the ascendent
+  Of his ymagys for his pacient."
+
+Fosbrooke has divided talismans into five classes, examples of some of
+which I have already given. They are: "1. The _astronomical_, with
+celestial signs and intelligible characters. 2. The _magical_, with
+extraordinary figures, superstitious words, and names of unknown
+angels. 3. The _mixed_, of celestial signs and barbarous words, but
+not superstitious, or with names of angels. 4. The _sigilla
+planetarum_, composed of Hebrew numeral letters, used by astrologers
+and fortune-tellers. 5. _Hebrew names and characters_. These were
+formed according to the cabalistic art."
+
+The doctrine of signatures bears a close resemblance to talismans,
+and some believe that talismans have largely grown out of this
+doctrine. Dr. Paris[79] defines the doctrine as the belief that "every
+natural substance which possesses any medical virtues indicates, by an
+obvious and well-marked external character, the disease for which it
+is a remedy or the object for which it should be employed." Southey
+says,[80] "The signatures [were] the books out of which the ancients
+first learned the virtues of herbs--Nature having stamped on divers of
+them legible characters to discover their uses." Some opined that the
+external marks were impressed by planetary influences, hence their
+connection with talismans; others simply reasoned it out that the
+Almighty must have placed a sign on the various means which he had
+provided for curing diseases.
+
+Color and shape were the two principal factors in interpreting the
+signatures. White was regarded as cold and red as hot, hence cold and
+hot qualities were attributed to different medicines of these colors
+respectively. Serious errors in practice resulted from this opinion.
+Red flowers were given for disorders of the sanguiferous system; the
+petals of the red rose, especially, bear the "signature" of the blood,
+and blood-root, on account of its red juice, was much prescribed for
+the blood. Celandine, having yellow juice, the yellow drug, turmeric,
+the roots of rhubarb, the flowers of saffron, and other yellow
+substances were given in jaundice; red flannel, looking like blood,
+cures blood taints, and therefore rheumatism, even to this day,
+although many do not know why _red_ flannel is so efficacious.
+
+Lungwort, whose leaves bear a fancied resemblance to the surface of
+the lungs, was considered good for pulmonary complaints, and
+liverwort, having a leaf like the liver, cured liver diseases.
+Eye-bright was a famous application for eye diseases, because its
+flowers somewhat resemble the pupil of the eye; bugloss, resembling a
+snake's head, was valuable for snake bite; and the peony, when in bud,
+being something like a man's head, was "very available against the
+falling sickness." Walnuts were considered to be the perfect signature
+of the head, the shell represented the bony skull, the irregularities
+of the kernel the convolutions of the two hemispheres of the brain,
+and the husk the scalp. The husk was therefore used for scalp
+wounds, the inner peel for disorders of the meninges, and the
+kernel was beneficial for the brain and tended to resist poisons.
+Lilies-of-the-valley were used for the cure of apoplexy, the signature
+reasoning being, as Coles says, "for as that disease is caused by the
+drooping of humors into the principal ventrices of the brain, so the
+flowers of this lily, hanging on the plants as if they were drops, are
+of wonderful use herein."
+
+Capillary herbs naturally announced themselves as good for diseases
+of the hair, and bear's grease, being taken from an animal thickly
+covered with hair, was recommended for the prevention of baldness.
+Nettle-tea is still a country remedy for nettle rash; prickly plants
+like thistles and holly were prescribed for pleurisy and stitch in
+the side, and the scales of the pine were used in toothache, because
+they resemble front teeth. "Kidney-beans," says Berdoe, "ought to have
+been useful for kidney diseases, but seem to have been overlooked
+except as articles of diet." Poppy-heads were used "with success" to
+relieve diseases of the head, and the root of the "mandrake," from its
+supposed resemblance to the human form, was a very ancient remedy for
+barrenness and was evidently so esteemed by Rachel, in the account
+given in Genesis 30:14 ff.
+
+In the treatment of small-pox red bed coverings were employed in
+order to bring the pustules to the surface of the body. The patient
+must be indued with red; the bed furniture and hangings should be red
+and red substances were to be looked upon by the patient; burnt
+purple, pomegranate seeds, mulberries or other red ingredients were
+dissolved in their drink. John of Gladdesden, physician to Edward II,
+prescribed the following treatment as soon as the eruption appeared:
+"Cause the whole body of your patient to be wrapped in scarlet cloth,
+or any other red cloth, and command everything about the bed to be
+made red." He further says that "when the son of the renowned King of
+England (Edward II) lay sick of the small-pox I took care that
+everything around the bed should be of a red color; which succeeded so
+completely that the Prince was restored to perfect health, without a
+vestige of a pustule remaining."
+
+The Emperor Francis I, when infected with smallpox, was rolled up in a
+scarlet cloth, by order of his physicians, as late as 1765;
+notwithstanding this treatment he died. Kampfer says that "when any of
+the Japanese emperor's children are attacked with the small-pox, not
+only the chamber and bed are covered with red hangings, but all
+persons who approach the sick prince must be clad in scarlet gowns."
+By a course of reasoning similar to that used in the treatment of
+small-pox, it was supposed that flannel dyed nine times in blue was
+efficacious in removing glandular swellings.[81]
+
+The astrological factor in talismans was most important because it
+was considered that certain stars and planets in certain relations
+produced certain diseases and contagious disorders. Astrologers, for
+example, attributed the plague to a conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter
+in Sagittarius, on the tenth of October, or to a conjunction of Saturn
+and Mars in the same constellation, on the twelfth of November. Burton
+makes the most generous melancholy, as that of Augustus, to come from
+the conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in Libra; the bad, as that of
+Catiline, from the meeting of Saturn and the moon in Scorpio. If these
+disorders were produced by planets it was reasonable to suppose that
+they could be cured by planets.
+
+The virtue of herbs depended upon the planet under which they were
+sown or gathered. For example, verbena or vervain should be gathered
+at the rising of the dog-star, when neither the sun nor the moon
+shone, but an expiatory sacrifice of fruit and honey should previously
+have been offered to the earth. If this was carried out it had power
+to render the possessor invulnerable, to cure fevers, to eradicate
+poison, and to conciliate friendship. Notice also, that black
+hellebore, to be effective, was to be plucked not cut, and this with
+the right hand, which was then to be covered with a portion of the
+robe and secretly to be conveyed to the left hand. The person
+gathering it was to be clad in white, to be barefooted, and to offer a
+sacrifice of bread and wine.
+
+Not only the planets and the stars, but the moon has had a potent
+influence on medicine. For instance, mistletoe was to be cut with a
+golden knife, and when the moon was only six days old. Brand[82]
+quotes from _The Husbandman's Practice, or Prognostication Forever_,
+published in 1664, the following curious passage, "Good to purge with
+electuaries, the moon in Cancer; with pills, the moon in Pisces; with
+potions, the moon in Virgo; good to take vomits, the moon being in
+Taurus, Virgo, or the latter part of Sagittarius; to purge the head by
+sneezing, the moon being in Cancer, Leo, or Virgo; to stop fluxes and
+rheumes, the moon being in Taurus, Virgo, or Capricorne; to bathe when
+the moon is in Cancer, Libra, Aquarius, or Pisces; to cut the hair off
+the head or beard when the moon is in Libra, Sagittarius, Aquarius, or
+Pisces."
+
+The Loseley manuscripts provide us with further examples. "Here
+begyneth ye waxingge of ye mone, and declareth in dyvers tymes to let
+blode, whiche be gode. In the furste begynynge of the mone it is
+profetable to yche man to be letten blode; ye ix of the mone, neyther
+be nyght ne by day, it is not good." They also tell of a physician
+named Simon Trippe, who wrote to a patient in excuse for not visiting
+him, as follows: "As for my comming to you upon Wensday next, verely
+my promise be past to and old pacient of mine, a very good
+gentlewoman, one Mrs. Clerk, wch now lieth in great extremity. I
+cannot possibly be with you till Thursday. On Fryday and Saterday the
+signe wilbe in the heart; on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, in the
+stomake; during wch time it wilbe no good dealing with your ordinary
+physicke untill Wensday come sevenight at the nearest, and from that
+time forwards for 15 or 16 days passing good."[83]
+
+Not unlike this is an incident of the year 686, given by Bede, where
+"a holy Bishop having been asked to bless a sick maiden, asked 'when
+she had been bled?' and being told that it was on the fourth day of
+the moon, said: 'You did very indiscreetly and unskilfully to bleed
+her on the fourth day of the moon; for I remember that Archbishop
+Theodore, of blessed memory, said that bleeding at that time was very
+dangerous, when the light of the moon and the tide of the ocean is
+increasing; and what can I do to the girl if she is like to die?'"[84]
+
+"So great, indeed," says Fort, "became the abuse of medical astrology,
+whether by the direct juxtaposition of stellar influence, or through
+apposite images, that a celebrated Church Council at Paris declared
+that images of metal, wax, or other materials fabricated under certain
+constellations or according to fixed characters--figures of peculiar
+form, either baptized, consecrated, or exorcised, or rather desecrated
+by the performance of formal rites at stated periods which it was
+asserted, thus composed, possessed miraculous virtues set forth in
+superstitious writings--were placed under the ban and interdicted as
+errors of faith."[85]
+
+We shall see that magnetism developed from astrology, and some other
+forms of mental healing from magnetism. One of these, sympathetic
+cures, was talismanic in its character, and therefore I give a brief
+account of its method of working, in this place.
+
+Sympathetic cures probably started with Paracelsus, although Von
+Helmont tells us that the secret was first put forth by Ericcius
+Wohyus, of Eburo. As a development from magnetism the former
+originated the "weapon salve" which excited so much attention about
+the middle of the seventeenth century. The following was a receipt
+given by him for the cure of any wound inflicted by a sharp weapon,
+except such as had penetrated the heart, the brain, or the arteries.
+"Take the moss growing on the head of a thief who has been hanged and
+left in the air; of real mummy; of human blood, still warm--of each,
+one ounce; of human suet, two ounces; of linseed oil, turpentine, and
+Armenian bole--of each, two drachms. Mix all well in a mortar, and
+keep the salve in an oblong, narrow urn." With the salve the weapon
+(not the wound), after being dipped in blood from the wound, was to be
+carefully anointed, and then laid by in a cool place. In the meantime,
+the wound was washed with fair, clean water, covered with a clean soft
+linen rag, and opened once a day to cleanse off purulent matter. A
+writer in the _Foreign Quarterly Review_ says there can be no doubt
+about the success of the treatment, "for surgeons at this moment
+follow exactly the same method, _except_ anointing the weapon!"
+
+[Illustration: SIR KENELM DIGBY]
+
+The weapon-salve continued to be much spoken of on the Continent, and
+Dr. Fludd, or A Fluctibus, the Rosicrucian, introduced it into
+England. He tried it with great success in several cases, but in the
+midst of his success an attack was made upon him and his favorite
+remedy, which, however, did little or nothing to diminish the belief
+in its efficacy. One "Parson Foster" wrote a pamphlet entitled
+"Hyplocrisma Spongus; or a Spunge to wipe away the Weapon-salve," in
+which he declared that it was as bad as witchcraft to use or recommend
+such an unguent; that it was invented by the devil, who, at the last
+day, would seize upon every person who had given it the least
+encouragement. "In fact," said Parson Foster, "the Devil himself gave
+it to Paracelsus; Paracelsus to the emperor; the emperor to the
+courtier; the courtier to Baptista Porta; and Baptista Porta to Dr.
+Fludd, a doctor of physic, yet living and practising in the famous
+city of London, who now stands tooth and nail for it." Dr. Fludd, thus
+assailed, took up his pen and defended the unguent in a caustic
+pamphlet.
+
+The salve changed into a powder in the hands of Sir Kenelm Digby, the
+son of Sir Edward Digby who was executed for his participation in the
+Gunpowder Plot. Sir Kenelm was an accomplished scholar and an able
+man, but at the same time a most extravagant defender of the powder of
+sympathy for the healing of wounds. This powder came into sudden and
+public notoriety through an accident to a distinguished person. Mr.
+James Howell, the well-known author of the Dendrologia, in endeavoring
+to part two friends in a duel, received a severe cut on the hand.
+Alarmed by the accident, one of the combatants bound up the cut with
+his garter and conveyed him home. The king sent his own surgeon to
+attend Mr. Howell, but in four or five days the wound was not
+recovering very rapidly and he made application to Sir Kenelm. The
+latter first inquired whether he possessed anything that had the blood
+upon it, upon which Mr. Howell produced the garter with which his hand
+had been bound. A basin of water in which some powder of vitriol had
+been dissolved was procured, and the garter immediately immersed in
+it, whereupon, to quote Sir Kenelm, Mr. Howell said, "I know not what
+ails me, but I find that I feel no more pain. Methinks that a pleasing
+kind of freshness, as it were a wet cold napkin, did spread over my
+hand, which hath taken away the inflammation that tormented me
+before." He was then advised to lay away all plasters and keep the
+wound clean and in a moderate temperature.
+
+To prove conclusively the efficacy of the powder of sympathy, after
+dinner the garter was taken out of the basin and placed to dry before
+the fire. No sooner was this done than Mr. Howell's servant came
+running to Sir Kenelm saying that his master's hand was again
+inflamed, and that it was as bad as before. The garter was again
+placed in the liquid and before the return of the servant all was well
+and easy again. In the course of five or six days the wound was
+cicatrized and a cure performed.
+
+This case excited considerable attention at court, and on inquiry Sir
+Kenelm told the king that he learned the secret from a much-travelled
+Carmelite friar who became possessed of it while journeying in the
+East. Sir Kenelm communicated it to Dr. Mayerne, the king's physician,
+and from him it was known to even the country barbers. Even King
+James, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Buckingham, and many other
+noble personages believed in its efficacy.
+
+It would be a waste of time, had we space, to present fully Sir
+Kenelm's profound and lengthy explanation of the cure. He tried to
+make the cure more reasonable and acceptable by bringing forth certain
+alleged phenomena which he thought proved sympathy, and were therefore
+analogous in character. Surgeon-General Hammond calls attention to the
+fact that these inferences were invariably false. "It is a very
+curious circumstance," says he, "that of these, there is not one which
+is true. Thus he is wrong when he says that if the hand be severely
+burnt, the pain and inflammation are relieved by holding it near a hot
+fire; that a person who has a bad breath is cured by putting his head
+over a privy and inhaling the air which comes from it; that those who
+are bitten by vipers or scorpions are cured by holding the bruised
+head of either of those animals, as the case may be, near the bitten
+part; that in times of great contagion, carrying a toad, or a spider,
+or arsenic or some other venomous substance, about the person is a
+protection; that hanging a toad about the neck of a horse affected
+with farcy dissipates the disease; that water evaporated in a close
+room will not be deposited on the walls, if a vessel of water be
+placed in the room; that venison pies smell strongly at those periods
+in which the 'beasts which are of the same nature and kind are in
+rut'; that wine in the cellar undergoes a fermentation when the vines
+in the field are in flower; that a table-cloth spotted with mulberries
+or red wine is more easily whitened at the season in which the plants
+are flowering than at any other; that washing the hands in the rays of
+moonlight which fall into a polished silver basin (without water) is a
+cure for warts; that a vessel of water put on the hearth of a smoky
+chimney is a remedy for the evil, and so on--not a single fact in all
+that he adduces. Yet these circumstances were regarded as real, and
+were spoken of at the times as irrefragable proofs of the truth of Sir
+Kenelm's views."[86]
+
+We need have no doubt concerning the operation of sympathetic cures,
+for Sir Kenelm has told us of their virtue in his own words.[87] His
+method was what was called the cure by the wet way, but the cure could
+also be effected in a dry way. Straus, in a letter to Sir Kenelm,
+gives an account of a cure performed by Lord Gilbourne, an English
+nobleman, upon a carpenter who had cut himself severely with his axe.
+"The axe, bespattered with blood, was sent for, besmeared with an
+anointment, wrapped up warmly, and carefully hung up in a closet. The
+carpenter was immediately relieved, and all went well for some time,
+when, however, the wound became exceedingly painful, and, upon
+resorting to his lordship it was ascertained that the axe had fallen
+from the nail by which it was suspended, and thereby become
+uncovered."
+
+Dryden in "The Tempest" (Act V, Sc. I) makes Ariel say, in reference
+to the wound received by Hippolito from Ferdinand:
+
+ "He must be dress'd again, as I have done it.
+  Anoint the sword which pierced him with this weapon-salve,
+     and wrap it close from air, till I have
+     time to visit him again."
+
+And in the next scene we have the following dialogue between
+Hippolito and Miranda:
+
+"_Hip._ O my wound pains me.
+
+_Mir._ I am come to ease you.
+
+                [_She unwraps the sword._
+
+_Hip._ Alas! I feel the cold air come to me;
+My wound shoots worse than ever.
+
+                [_She wipes and anoints the sword._
+
+_Mir._ Does it still grieve you?
+
+_Hip._ Now methinks, there's something
+Laid just upon it.
+
+_Mir._ Do you find ease?
+
+_Hip._ Yes, yes, upon the sudden, all the pain
+Is leaving me. Sweet heaven, how I am eased!"
+
+Werenfels says: "If the superstitious person be wounded by any chance,
+he applies the salve, not to the wound, but, what is more effectual,
+to the weapon by which he received it. By a new kind of art, he will
+transplant his disease, like a scion, and graft it into what tree he
+pleases."
+
+The practice at the time was varied and general. All sorts of
+disgusting ingredients were gathered together to form the salve. Some
+idea of the condition of the science of medicine at that time may be
+gathered when we remember that a serious discussion was long
+maintained between two factions in the sympathetic school concerning
+the question "whether it was necessary that the moss should grow
+absolutely in the skull of a thief who had hung on the gallows, and
+whether the ointment, while compounding, was to be stirred with a
+murderer's knife."
+
+There is no doubt that the sympathetic cures were really the most
+rapid and effective. The modern surgeon wonders how a wound ever
+healed prior to this treatment. There seemed to be little that could
+be imagined to prevent a wound from healing that the pre-sympathetic
+surgeon did not try. When the manipulations, doses, and treatments
+were transferred from the wound to the weapon, they did not injure the
+weapon, and did give the wound a chance to heal. In fact, leaving out
+the weapon part of the treatment, which could have none but a mental
+influence, the treatment would be recommended to-day. The wound was
+kept clean, the edges were brought in apposition, temperature was
+modified, and rest given. Under these circumstances, wounds which the
+surgeon had irritated so as to take weeks to heal, united in as many
+days. Mark this, however: the wounds treated were simple incisions,
+the ones which most readily united if cleansed, brought together, and
+left alone. Gunshot and similar wounds were not treated by this
+process.[88]
+
+  [76] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected
+  with ... Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 63 f.
+
+  [77] _Gentleman's Magazine_, LVIII, pp. 586 and 695.
+
+  [78] H. Arnot, _History of Edinburgh_.
+
+  [79] _Pharmacologia_, p. 51.
+
+  [80] _The Doctor_, p. 59.
+
+  [81] For a discussion on the doctrine of signatures see
+  T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions_, etc., pp. 33 f.; E.
+  Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_, pp. 327
+  and 416 f.; A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of
+  Science with Theology_, II, pp. 38 f.; Eccles,
+  _Evolution of Medical Science_, pp. 140 f.
+
+  [82] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 153. In
+  references to this work, the edition used was that
+  edited by W. Carew Hazlitt.
+
+  [83] _The Loseley Manuscripts_, pp. 263 f., quoted by
+  Berdoe.
+
+  [84] Bede, _Ecclesiastical History_, bk. V, chap. III.
+
+  [85] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 299.
+
+  [86] W. A. Hammond, _Spiritualism and Nervous
+  Derangement_, p. 175.
+
+  [87] Sir Kenelm Digby, _A late discovery made in solemne
+  assembly of nobles and learned men, at Montpellier, in
+  France, touching the cure of wounds, by the Powder of
+  Sympathy_, etc.
+
+  [88] I am indebted to T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions
+  Connected with the History and Practice of Surgery and
+  Medicine_, pp. 201-213; C. Mackay, _Extraordinary
+  Popular Delusions_, pp. 266-268; W. A. Hammond,
+  _Spiritualism and Nervous Derangement_, pp. 170-176; for
+  the material on the subject of sympathetic cures.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+AMULETS
+
+
+  "He loved and was beloved; what more could he desire as
+  an amulet against fear?"--BULWER-LYTTON.
+
+  "Such medicines are to be exploded that consist of
+  words, characters, spells, and charms, which can do no
+  good at all, but out of a strong conceit, as Pomponatius
+  proves; or the Devil's policy, who is the first founder
+  and teacher of them."--BURTON.
+
+  "Old wives and starres are his councellors; his
+  nightspell is his guard, and charms his physician. He
+  wears Paracelsian characters for the toothache; and a
+  little hallowed wax is his antidote for all
+  evils."--BISHOP HALL.
+
+  "Neither doth Fansie only cause, but also as easily cure
+  Diseases; as I may justly refer all magical and jugling
+  Cures thereunto, performed, as is thought, by Saints,
+  Images, Relicts, Holy-Waters, Shrines, Avemarys,
+  Crucifixes, Benedictions, Charms, Characters, Sigils of
+  the Planets and of Signs, inverted Words, &c., and
+  therefore all such Cures are rather to be ascribed to
+  the Force of the Imagination, than any virtue in them,
+  or their Rings, Amulets, Lamens, &c."--RAMESEY.
+
+Attention has already been called to the fact that the characteristic
+of the amulet is that it must be worn about the person, while the
+talisman may simply be in possession of a person wherever it may be,
+or deposited at a certain place by or for the person. The Arabic
+equivalent of the word Amulet means "that which is suspended."
+
+The derivation of the word is uncertain, but there are at least two
+Latin antecedents claimed for it. Some claim that it is derived from the
+barbarous Latin word "amuletum," from amolior, to remove; others
+consider that it comes from "amula," the name of a small vessel with
+lustral water in it, which the Romans sometimes carried in their pockets
+for purification and expiation. Pliny says that many of these amulć were
+carved out of pieces of amber and hung about children's necks. Whatever
+the derivation of the word, it is doubtless of Eastern origin.
+
+There is also little doubt concerning the early belief in the efficacy
+of an amulet to ward off diseases, and to protect against supernatural
+agencies. So powerful were they supposed to be that an oath was
+formerly administered to persons about to fight a legal duel "that
+they had ne charme ne herb of virtue." St. Chrysostom and others of
+the church fathers condemned the practice very severely, and the
+Council of Laodicea (366) wisely forbade the priesthood from studying
+and practising enchantments, mathematics, astrology, and the binding
+of the soul by amulets.[89]
+
+Burton has the following passage on the subject: "Amulets, and Things
+to be borne about, I find prescribed, taxed by some, approved by
+Renodeus, Platerus, and others; looke for them in Mizaldus, Porta,
+Albertus, &c.... A Ring made of the Hoofe of an Asse's right
+fore-foot carried about, &c. I say with Renodeus they are not
+altogether to be rejected. Piony doth help epilepsies. Pretious
+Stones, most diseases. A Wolf's dung carried about helps the Cholick.
+A spider, an Ague, &c.... Some Medicines are to be exploded, that
+consist of Words, Characters, Spells, and Charms, which can do no good
+at all, but out of a strong conceit, as Pomponatius proves; or the
+Devil's policy, who is the first founder and teacher of them."[90]
+
+"To this kind," says Bingham, "belong all Ligatures and Remedies,
+which the Schools of Physitians reject and condemn; whether in
+Inchantments or in certain marks, which they call Characters, or in
+some other things which are to be hanged and bound about the Body, and
+kept in a dancing posture. Such are Ear-rings hanged upon the tip of
+each ear, and Rings made of an Ostriche's bones for the Finger; or,
+when you are told, in a fit of Convulsions or shortness of Breath, to
+hold your left Thumb with your right hand."[91]
+
+Unfortunately the wearing of amulets did not stop with the early
+civilizations or even with the Middle Ages. People in our own
+supposedly enlightened age indulge in them. The negro carries the hind
+foot of a rabbit, and the children see great virtue in a four-leafed
+clover; men carry luck pennies, and certain stones are worn in rings
+and scarf pins; camphor is worn about the person to avert febrile
+contagion, and anodyne necklaces of "Job's tears" and other equally
+harmless and inefficacious substances are placed on babies to assist
+them in teething. The camphor and necklaces are probably not supposed
+to be endowed with magical power, but a mistaken medical virtue is
+assigned to them.
+
+There was neither rule nor reason for the composition of most amulets,
+and one would have to be well acquainted with the superstitions of the
+various ages to account for them. Sometimes the shape, rather than the
+material of which they were composed or the inscription on them, was
+the efficacious factor. Perhaps material, shape, and inscription would
+be combined in one object; or many objects, each purporting to contain
+magical properties, might be grouped for special efficacy, as when
+inscribed pieces of different stones of peculiar shape were formed
+into necklaces or bracelets.
+
+Precious stones were often employed as amulets, and some even ground
+them up and took them internally in order to be more sure of their
+magical effects. "Butler quotes from Encelius, who says that the
+Garnet, if hung about the neck or taken in drink, much assisteth
+sorrow and recreates the heart; and the chrysolite is described as the
+friend of wisdom and the enemy of folly. Renodeus admires precious
+stones because they adorn king's crowns, grace the fingers, enrich our
+household stuff, defend us from enchantments, preserve health, cure
+diseases, drive away grief, cares, and exhilarate the mind."[92]
+
+Some further quotations portray to us the efficacy of other stones:
+
+  "Heliotropius stauncheth blood, driveth away poisons,
+  preserveth health; yea, and some write that it provoketh
+  raine, and darkeneth the sunne, suffering not him that
+  beareth it to be abused."
+
+  "A topaze healeth the lunaticke person of his passion of
+  lunacie."
+
+  "Corneolus (cornelian) mitigateth the heate of the
+  minde, and qualifieth malice, it stancheth bloodie
+  fluxes."
+
+  "A sapphire preserveth the members and maketh them
+  livelie, and helpeth agues and gowts, and suffereth not
+  the bearer to be afraid; it hath virtue against venoms,
+  and staieth bleeding at the nose, being often put
+  thereto."
+
+  Aetius "attributed great obstetrical properties to the
+  lapis aetites, and gagates stone. The sapphire when
+  taken as a potion pulverized in milk, cured internal
+  ulcers and checked excessive perspiration. The amargdine
+  was highly recommended for strabismus...."
+
+  "Jasper, hematite and hieratite stones were strongly
+  recommended for unusual sanative virtues, but the
+  sapphire excelled as a remedy for scorpion bites."
+
+  "The Bezoar stone had a great reputation in melancholic
+  affections. Manardus says it removes sadness and makes
+  him merry that useth it."
+
+  "Noblemen wore the smargdum attached to a chain, in the
+  belief of its potential virtues against epilepsy. The
+  sard prevented terrible dreams, and the cornelian worn
+  on the finger or suspended from the neck pacified anger
+  and provoked contentment. Onyx superinduced troubled
+  sleep, but fastened to the throat, stimulated the
+  salivary glands. Saphirs cured internal ulcers and
+  excessive perspiration, when taken as a potion dissolved
+  in lacteal fluids."
+
+  "Of the stone which hight agate. It is said that it hath
+  eight virtues. One is when there is thunder, it doth not
+  scathe the man who hath this stone with him. Another
+  virtue is, on whatsoever house it is, therein a fiend
+  may not be. The third virtue is, that no venom may
+  scathe the man who hath the stone with him. The fourth
+  virtue is, that the man, who hath on him secretly the
+  loathly fiend, if he taketh in liquid any portion of the
+  shavings of the stone, then soon is exhibited manifestly
+  in him, that which before lay secretly hid. The fifth
+  virtue is, he who is afflicted with any disease, if he
+  taketh the stone in liquid, it is soon well with him.
+  The sixth virtue is, that sorcery hurteth not the man
+  who has the stone with him. The seventh virtue is, that
+  he who taketh the stone in drink, will have so much the
+  smoother body. The eighth virtue of the stone is, that
+  no bite of any kind of snake may scathe him who tasteth
+  the stone in liquid."
+
+Even as late as 1624, Sir John Harrington, writing in his "School of
+Salerne," says: "Alwaies in your hands use eyther Corall or yellow
+Amber, or a chalcedonium, or a sweet Pommander, or some like precious
+stone to be worne in a ring upon the little finger of the left hand;
+have in your rings eyther a Smaragd, a Saphire, or a Draconites, which
+you shall bear for an ornament; for in stones, as also in hearbes,
+there is great efficacie and vertue, but they are not altogether
+perceived by us; hold sometime in your mouth eyther a Hyacinth, or a
+Crystall, or a Garnat, or pure Gold, or Silver, or else sometimes pure
+Sugar-candy. For Aristotle doth affirme, and so doth Albertus Magnus,
+that a Smaragd worne about the necke, is good against the
+Falling-sickness; for surely the virtue of an hearbe is great, but
+much more the vertue of a precious stone, which is very likely that
+they are endued with occult and hidden vertues."
+
+Precious metals as well as precious stones were used in the
+manufacture of amulets. The Scandinavians carried metal effigies
+carved out of gold or silver, or incised upon tiles, perpetually as
+amulets. They were safeguards against diseases and physical
+infirmities. They were also administered internally in cases where
+powerful cures were needed. Chaucer says:
+
+ "For gold in physic is a cordial,
+  Therefore he loved gold in special."
+
+The Basilideans, and other sects developed from the Gnostic systems,
+assigned great power to stone amulets, and prepared them for their
+initiates, who used them for identification and for curative purposes.
+They quickly acquired a celebrity undiminished for ages, and were
+known under the general name of Abraxas. They were composed of various
+materials, glass, paste, sometimes metals, but principally of various
+kinds of stones. Through the irresistible might of Abrax, their
+supreme divinity, the Basilideans were protected and cured. Clement of
+Alexandria strictly interdicted the use of gems for personal
+ornamentation, with evident allusion to the Abraxas stones. These
+stones had various inscriptions carved upon them, most of which had
+some hidden meaning of great puissance. One of them, for example, is
+engraven with Armenian letters, and contains a standing invocation for
+fruitful delivery; in its medicinal property it was evidently a cure
+for sterility.[93]
+
+From the stone itself the word "Abraxas" came to be used as an amulet
+when written on paper. The numerical equivalent of the Greek letters
+when added together thus, A = 1, B = 2, R = 100, A = 1, X = 60, A = 1,
+S = 200, is 365. The significance of this was that the deity was the
+ruler of 365 heavens, or of the angels inhabiting these heavens; he
+was also ruler over the 365 days of the year. Notwithstanding the fact
+that it was referred to by the Greek fathers, the name was evidently
+Egyptian in origin, some of the figures on the stones being strictly
+Egyptian.
+
+Amulets in the form of inscriptions were called "Characts," the word
+Abraxas being an example. The very powerful word "Abracadabra" was
+derived from Abraxas, and when written in the proper way and worn
+about the person was supposed to have a magical efficacy as an
+antidote against ague, fever, flux, and toothache. Serenus Samonicus,
+a physician in the reign of Caracalla, recommends it very highly for
+ague, instructing how it should be written, and commanding it to be
+worn around the neck. It might be written in either of two ways:
+reading down the left side and up the right must spell the same word
+as at the top; or, having the left side always start the same, reading
+up the right side should be the same as the top line. Below are the
+two forms:
+
+          ABRACADABRA            ABRACADABRA
+           BRACADABR              ABRACADABR
+            RACADAB                ABRACADAB
+             ACADA                  ABRACADA
+              CAD                    ABRACAD
+               A                      ABRACA
+                                       ABRAC
+                                        ABRA
+                                         ABR
+                                          AB
+                                           A
+
+Julius Africanus says that pronouncing the word in the same manner is
+as efficacious as writing it. The Jews attributed an equal virtue to
+the word "Aracalan" employed in the same way.[94]
+
+Bishop Pilkington, writing in 1561, protests against a then current
+practice in this way: "What wicket blindenes is this than, to thinke
+that wearing Prayers written in rolles about with theym, as S. Johns
+Gospell, the length of our Lord, the measure of our Lady, or other
+like, thei shall die no sodain death, nor be hanged, or yf he be
+hanged, he shall not die. There is so manye suche, though ye laugh,
+and beleve it not, and not hard to shewe them with a wet finger." The
+same author observes that our devotion ought to "stande in depe sighes
+and groninges, wyth a full consideration of our miserable state and
+Goddes majestye, in the heart, and not in ynke or paper: not in
+hangyng writtin Scrolles about the Necke, but lamentinge unfeignedlye
+our Synnes from the hart."
+
+The following charact was found in a linen purse belonging to a
+murderer named Jackson, who died in Chichester jail in February, 1749.
+He was "struck with such horror on being measured for his chains that
+he soon after expired."
+
+ "Ye three holy Kings,
+  Gaspar, Melchior, Balthasar,
+  Pray for us now, and in the hour of our death."
+
+  "These papers have touched the three heads of the holy
+  Kings at Cologne. They are to preserve travellers from
+  accidents on the road, headaches, falling sickness,
+  fevers, witchcraft, all kinds of mischief, and sudden
+  death."
+
+Belgrave prescribes a cure of agues, by a certain writing which the
+patient wears, as follows: "When Jesus went up to the Cross to be
+crucified, the Jews asked him, saying Art thou afraid? or hast thou
+the ague? Jesus answered and said, I am not afraid, neither have I the
+ague. All those which bear the name of Jesus about them shall not be
+afraid, nor yet have the ague. Amen, sweet Jesus, Amen, sweet Jehovah,
+Amen." He adds: "I have known many who have been cured of the ague by
+this writing only worn about them; and I had the receipt from one
+whose daughter was cured thereby, who had the ague upon her two
+years."[95]
+
+Among other written amulets, the first Psalm, when written on doeskin,
+was supposed to be efficacious in childbirth. It was necessary,
+however, for the writer of such amulets to plunge into a bath as soon
+as he had written one line, and after every new line it was thought
+necessary that he should repeat the plunge.
+
+The following process for avoiding inflamed eyes is taken from
+Marcellus, 380 A. D.: "Write on a clean sheet of paper [Greek:
+oubaik], and hang this round the patient's neck, with a thread from
+the loom. In a state of purity and chastity write on a clean sheet of
+paper [Greek: phyrpharan] and hang it round the man's neck; it will
+stop the approach of inflammation. The following will stop
+inflammation coming on, written on a clean sheet of paper: [Greek:
+roubos rnoneiras ręelios ôsˇ kantephora kai pantes ęakotei]; it must
+be hung to the neck by a thread; and if both the patient and operator
+are in a state of chastity, it will stop inveterate inflammation.
+Again, write on a thin plate of gold with a needle of copper, [Greek:
+ornô ourôdę]; do this on a Monday; observe chastity; it will long and
+much avail."[96]
+
+In Africa, prayers taken from the Koran are written and worn as
+amulets at the present time.
+
+After the death of the philosopher Pascal some manuscript was found
+sewed in his doublet. This was a "profession of faith" which he always
+wore stitched in his clothing as a sort of amulet.
+
+In the East, generally, the amulet consists of certain names of the
+Deity, verses of the Koran, or particular passages compressed into a
+very small space, and is to be found concealed in the turban. The
+Christians wore amulets with verses selected from the Old and New
+Testaments, and particularly from the Gospel of John. The amulets or
+charms, called "grigris" by the African priests, are of similar
+description. These were used for preservatives against thunderbolts
+and diseases, to procure many wives and to give them easy deliveries,
+to avert shipwreck or slavery, and to secure victory in battle. One,
+to be used for the last purpose, which had belonged to a king of Brak,
+in Senegal, was found on his body after he had the misfortune to be
+killed in battle with the amulet upon him. It had the following
+sentences from the Koran: "In the name of the merciful God! Pray to
+God through our Lord Mohammed. All that exists is so only by his
+command. He gives life, and also calls sinners to an account. He
+deprives us of life by the sole power of his name: these are
+undeniable truths. He that lives owes his life to the peculiar
+clemency of his Lord, who by his providence takes care of his
+subsistence. He is a wise prince or governor."[97]
+
+The Jews used as amulets some sacred name, such as the true
+pronunciation of the name of Jehovah, written down. The Mischna
+permitted the Jews to wear amulets provided they had been found
+efficacious in at least three cases by an approved person. One of the
+most famous amulets is that known as "Solomon's Seal."
+
+Ligatures, similar to the earlier amulets, a heritage from the
+northern pagan races, were freely applied for the prevention and cure
+of maladies.
+
+After imposing invocations and the addition of mystical characters,
+these medical charms were presumed to be of the greatest efficacy, and
+ready for suspension from the neck. Their efficacy was admitted by
+Christians, but they were condemned on account of their pagan and
+consequently satanic origin.
+
+Alexander of Tralles recommended a number of amulets, some of which I
+will mention later, but admits that he had no faith in them, but
+merely ordered them as placebos for rich and fastidious patients who
+could not be persuaded to adopt a more rational treatment. Baas tells
+us that "A regular Pagan amulet was found in 1749 on the breast of the
+prince bishop Anselm Franz of Wurzburg, count of Ingolstadt, after his
+death."
+
+Amulets were also worn to protect the wearer from charms exercised by
+others. The "Leech Book" gives us one to be worn and another to be
+taken internally for this purpose. To be used "against every evil rune
+lay, and one full of elvish tricks, writ for the bewitched man, this
+writing in Greek letters: Alfa, Omega, Iesvm, BERONIKH. Again, another
+dust and drink against a rune lay; take a bramble apple, and lupins,
+and pulegium, pound them, then sift them, put them in a pouch, lay
+them under the altar, sing nine masses over them, administer this to
+drink at three hours."
+
+The powers of the mandragora, as an amulet, place it almost in a class
+by itself. Fort tells us that in addition to its power to protect
+herds of cattle and horses, to prevent misfortunes of various kinds,
+to preserve the exhilarating wine and beer against loss of their
+intoxicating property, to render successful commercial negotiations,
+and promote infallibly, rapid and enormous influence, "other virtues
+of a surprising character were awarded the omnipotent mandragora. It
+conciliated affection and maintained friendship, preserved conjugal
+fealty and developed benevolence. The immensity of worth inherent in
+this mystical medicament, its vital essence, was by no means confined
+to sustaining health and providing certain remedies for infirmities;
+its power manipulated tribunals and secured judicial favor at court;
+and when this resistless amulet was held under the arm by a suitor at
+law, however unjust his cause, the vegetable Rune controlled the forum
+and obtained the verdict."[98]
+
+It may be well at this point to enumerate at least a number of the
+most noted amulets, according to the disease for which they were
+supposed to be efficacious.
+
+_Ague._--On account of the periodic character of this disease it was
+considered to be a supernatural complaint and hence many unnatural
+cures were suggested, among which were a number of amulets. The
+Abracadabra amulet was supposed to be especially efficacious in ague.
+The chips of a gallows put into a bag and worn around the neck, or
+next the skin, have been said to have served as a cure, at least, so
+reports Brand.[99] Millefolium or yarrow, worn in a little bag on the
+pit of the stomach is reported to have cured this disease, and
+Alexander of Tralles advises, for a quartan ague, that the patient
+must carry about some hairs from a goat's chin.[100]
+
+Elias Ashmole, in his Diary, April 11, 1681, has entered the
+following: "I tooke early in the morning a good dose of Elixir, and
+hung three spiders about my neck, and they drove my Ague away. Deo
+Gratias!"[101]
+
+Wristbands, called pericarpia, were employed in the cure. Robert Boyle
+says he was cured of a violent quotidian ague, after having in vain
+resorted to medical aid, by applying to his wrists "a mixture of two
+handfuls of bay salt, the same quantity of fresh English hops, and a
+quarter of a pound of blue currants, very diligently beaten into a
+brittle mass, without the addition of anything moist, and so spread
+upon linen and applied to his wrists."[102]
+
+Burton gives us a leaf from his own experience.[103] "Being in the
+country in the vacation time, not many years since, at Lindly, in
+Leicestershire, my father's house, I first observed this amulet of a
+spider in a nut-shell, wrapped in silk, &c., so applyed for an ague by
+my mother; whom, although I knew to have excellent skill in
+chirurgery, sore eyes, aches, &c., and such experimental medicines, as
+all the country where she dwelt can witness, to have done many famous
+and good cures upon divers poor folks that were otherwise destitute of
+help, yet among all other experiments, this methought was most absurd
+and ridiculous. I could see no warrant for it. _Quid aranea cum
+Febre?_ For what antipathy? till at length rambling amongst authors
+(as I often do), I found this very medicine in Dioscorides, approved
+by Matthiolus, repeated by Aldrovandus, _cap. de Aranea, lib. de
+Insectis_, I began to have a better opinion of it, and to give more
+credit to amulets, when I saw it in some parties answer to
+experience."
+
+A narrative of not a little interest, concerning Sir John Holt, Lord
+Chief Justice of the Court of King's Bench, 1709, should be given in
+this connection. He was extremely wild in his youth, and being once
+engaged with some of his rakish friends in a trip into the country, in
+which they had spent all their money, it was agreed they should try
+their fortune separately. Holt arrived at an inn at the end of a
+straggling village, ordered his horse to be taken care of, bespoke a
+supper and a bed. He then strolled into the kitchen, where he observed
+a little girl of thirteen shaking with ague. Upon making inquiry
+respecting her, the landlady told him that she was her only child, and
+had been ill nearly a year, notwithstanding all the assistance she
+could procure for her from physic. He gravely shook his head at the
+doctors, bade her be under no further concern, for that her daughter
+should never have another fit. He then wrote a few unintelligible
+words in a court hand on a scrap of parchment, which had been the
+direction fixed to a hamper, and rolling it up, directed that it
+should be bound upon the girl's wrist and there allowed to remain
+until she was well. The ague returned no more; and Holt, having
+remained in the house a week, called for his bill. "God bless you,
+sir," said the old woman, "you're nothing in my debt, I'm sure. I
+wish, on the contrary, that I was able to pay you for the cure which
+you have made of my daughter. Oh! if I had had the happiness to see
+you ten months ago, it would have saved me forty pounds." With
+pretended reluctance he accepted his accommodation as a recompense,
+and rode away. Many years elapsed, Holt advanced in his profession of
+the law, and went a circuit, as one of the judges of the Court of
+King's Bench, into the same county, where, among other criminals
+brought before him, was an old woman under a charge of witchcraft. To
+support this accusation, several witnesses swore that the prisoner had
+a spell with which she could either cure such cattle as were sick or
+destroy those that were well, and that in the use of this spell she
+had been lately detected, and that it was now ready to be produced in
+court. Upon this statement the judge desired that it might be handed
+up to him. It was a dirty ball, wrapped round with several rags, and
+bound with packthread. These coverings he carefully removed, and
+beneath them found a piece of parchment which he immediately
+recognized as his own youthful fabrication. For a few moments he
+remained silent. At length, recollecting himself, he addressed the
+jury to the following effect: "Gentlemen, I must now relate a
+particular of my life, which very ill suits my present character and
+the station in which I sit; but to conceal it would be to aggravate
+the folly for which I ought to atone, to endanger innocence, and to
+countenance superstition. This bauble, which you suppose to have the
+power of life and death, is a senseless scroll which I wrote with my
+own hand and gave to this woman, whom for no other reason you accuse
+as a witch." He then related the particulars of the transaction, with
+such an effect upon the minds of the people that his old landlady was
+the last person tried for witchcraft in that county.[104]
+
+_Calculus._--Boyle tells us[105] that the _Lapis Nephriticus_, a
+species of jasper, when bound to the left wrist, was a cure for this
+trouble. Others have borne evidence to its efficacy.
+
+_Childbirth._--Among the ancient Britons, when a birth was difficult
+or dangerous, a girdle, made for this purpose, was put around the
+woman and afforded immediate relief. Until quite recently they were
+kept by many families in the Highlands of Scotland. They were marked
+with certain figures and were applied with certain ceremonies derived
+from the Druids. Women in labor were also supposed to be quickly
+delivered if they were girded with the skin which a snake has sloughed
+off.[106]
+
+_Cholera._--Bontius declared the _Lapis Porcinus_ to be good for
+cholera, but dangerous to pregnant women. If the females of Malaica
+held the stone in their hands an abortion was produced. When cholera
+was prevalent during the early part of the last century, it was common
+in many parts of Austria, Germany, and Italy to wear an amulet at the
+pit of the stomach, in contact with the skin. Pettigrew describes one
+of these which was sent to him from Hungary. "It consists merely of a
+circular piece of copper two inches and a half in diameter, and is
+without characters."
+
+_Colic._--Says Pliny, the extremity of the intestine of the ossifrage,
+if worn as an amulet, is well known to be an excellent remedy for
+colic. A tick from a dog's left ear, worn as an amulet, was
+recommended to allay this and all other kinds of pain, but one must be
+careful to take it from a dog that is black. Alexander of Tralles
+recommended the heart of a lark to be fastened to the left thigh as a
+remedy for colic. Mr. Cockayne, the editor of _Saxon Leechdoms_, gives
+us further remedies for colic which Alexander prescribed. "Thus for
+colic, he guarantees by his own experience, and the approval of almost
+all the best doctors, dung of a wolf, with bits of bone in it if
+possible, shut up in a pipe, and worn during the paroxysm, on the
+right arm, or thigh, or hip, taking care it touches neither the earth
+or a bath."[107]
+
+_Cramp._--The following amulets are mentioned as specifics against
+cramp:
+
+"--Wear bone Ring on thumb, or tye Strong Pack-thread below your
+thigh."
+
+The subject of cramp rings will be considered in another connection.
+
+_Demoniacal Possession._--In the sixth century exorcists frequently
+wrote the formula on parchment and suspended it from the neck of the
+patient. This was as efficacious as the uttered words.
+
+_Epilepsy._--The elder tree has been the foundation of many
+superstitions, chief among which have been some connected with
+epilepsy. Blochwick[108] tells us how to prepare an amulet from an
+elder growing on a sallow. "In the month of October, a little before
+the full moon, you pluck a twig of the elder, and cut the cane that is
+betwixt two of its knees, or knots, in nine pieces, and these pieces
+being bound in a piece of linen, be in a thread, so hung about the
+neck, that they touch the spoon of the heart, or the sword-formed
+cartilage; and that they may stay more firmly in that place, they are
+to be bound thereon with a linen or silken roller wrapt about the
+body, till the thread break of itself. The thread being broken and the
+roller removed, the amulet is not at all to be touched with bare
+hands, but it ought to be taken hold on by some instrument and buried
+in a place that nobody may touch it." Some hung a cross, made of the
+elder and the sallow entwined, about the children's neck.
+
+Rings of various kinds have always been supposed to have some
+superstitious power. Brand[109] tells us of some of their uses. A ring
+made from a piece of silver collected at the communion is a cure for
+convulsions and fits of every kind. If the silver is collected on
+Easter Sunday its efficacy is greatly increased. This was the receipt
+in Berkshire, but in Devonshire silver was not necessary. Here they
+prefer a ring made from three nails or screws dug out of a
+church-yard, which had been used to fasten a coffin. We are also
+informed that another kind of ring will cure fits. It must be made
+from five sixpences collected from five different bachelors, conveyed
+by the hand of a bachelor to a silversmith who is a bachelor. None of
+the persons who gave the sixpences, however, are to know for what
+purpose, or to whom, they gave them.[110]
+
+A silver ring contributed by twelve young women, and constantly worn
+on one of the pattens fingers, has been successfully employed in the
+cure of epilepsy after various medical means failed.[111] Lupton
+says: "A piece of a child's navel-string borne in a ring is good
+against the falling-sickness, the pains of the head, and the
+collick."[112]
+
+Alexander of Tralles recommended for epilepsy a metal cross tied to
+the arm, or, in lieu of that, bits of sail-cloth from a shipwrecked
+vessel might be tied to the right arm and worn for seven weeks; the
+latter was a preventive as well as a cure. Among the ancients,
+Serapion prescribed crocodile's dung and turtle's blood as a cure for
+this disease.[113] Lemius remarks that "Coral, Piony, Misseltoe, drive
+away the falling Sicknesse, either hung about the neck or drunk with
+wine."
+
+_Erysipelas._--The elder seems to have been efficacious in erysipelas
+as well as in epilepsy, at least so we are told in the "Anatomie of
+the Elder." The following is the method of preparing the amulet. It is
+to be made of "Elder on which the sun never shined. If the piece
+betwixt the two knots be hung about the patient's neck, it is much
+commended. Some cut it in little pieces, and sew it in a knot in a
+piece of a man's shirt, which seems superstitious."
+
+_Evil-eye._--Coral was supposed to avert the baneful consequences of
+the evil-eye, and Paracelsus recommends it to be worn about the necks
+of children. Douce has given engravings of several Roman amulets
+which were intended to be used against fascinations in general, but
+more particularly against that of the evil-eye.[114]
+
+_Eye Diseases._--Cotta relates, so says Pettigrew, "a merrie historie
+of an approved famous spell for sore eyes. By many honest testimonies
+it was a long time worne as a Jewell about many necks, written in
+paper and enclosed in silke, never failing to do sovereigne good when
+all other helpes were helplesse. No sight might dare to reade or open.
+At length a curious mind, while the patient slept, by stealth ripped
+open the mystical cover, and found the powerful characters Latin:
+'Diabolus effodiat tibi oculos impleat foramina stercoribus.'"
+
+Vivisection was practised to procure an amulet for sore eyes,
+according to the following prescription: "If a man have a white spot,
+as cataract, in his eye, catch a fox alive, cut his tongue out, let
+him go, dry his tongue and tie it up in a red rag and hang it round
+the man's neck." Pliny's way was to "take the tongue of a foxe, and
+hange the same about his necke, so long it hangeth there his sight
+shall not wax feeble."
+
+Like was also used to cure like, at least in the following directions:
+"Take the right eye of a Frogg, lap it in a piece of russet cloth and
+hang it about the neck; it cureth the right eye if it bee enflamed or
+bleared. And if the left eye be greved, do the like by the left eye of
+the said Frogg."[115]
+
+_Fevers._--Charms rather than amulets were employed in fevers, yet we
+find that among the ancients Chrysippus believed in amulets for
+quartan fevers and Pliny taught that the longest tooth of a black dog
+cured quartan fevers.
+
+_Gout._--Alexander of Tralles has preserved for us a remedy for gout
+as follows: "A remedy for the gout. Write, on a golden plate at the
+wane of the moon, what follows, rolling round it the sinews of a
+crane. Put it in a little bag, and wear it near the ankles. The words
+are meu, treu, mor, phor, teux, za, zor, phe, lou, chri, ge, ze, ou,
+as the sun is consolidated in these names, and is renewed every day;
+so consolidate this plaster as it was before, now, now, quick, quick,
+for, behold, I pronounce the great name, in which are consolidated
+things in repose, iaz, azuf, zuon, threux, bain, choog; consolidate
+this plaster as it was at first, now, now, quick, quick."
+
+_Headache._--Pliny's amulet for this disease was an herb picked from
+the head of a statue, tied with a red thread, and worn upon the body.
+
+_Hysteria._--Monardes is quoted as saying: "When hysterical persons
+feel an attack coming on, they may be relieved by a stone, which will
+prevent, if constantly worn about the person, any subsequent attack.
+From my knowledge of cases of this kind, I attach credit to this
+amulet."
+
+_Melancholy._--Burton has treated much under the name of melancholy,
+and in respect of cure mentions several "amulets and things to be
+borne about." He recommends for head melancholy such things as
+hypericon, or St. John's-wort, gathered on a Friday in the hour of
+Jupiter, "... borne or hung about the neck, it mightily helps this
+affection, and drives away all fantastical spirits."[116]
+
+_Plague._--During the visitations of the plague, the inhabitants of
+London wore, in the region of the heart, amulets composed of arsenic,
+probably on account of the theory that one poison would neutralize the
+power of the other. Concerning this, however, Herring, in writing
+concerning preservatives against the pestilence, says: "Perceiving
+many in this Citie to weare about their Necks, upon the region of the
+Heart, certaine Placents or Amulets, (as preservatives against the
+pestilence,) confected of Arsenicke, my opinion is that they are so
+farre from effecting any good in that kinde, as a preservative, that
+they are very dangerous and hurtfull, if not pernitious, to those that
+weare them." Quills of quicksilver were commonly worn about the neck
+for the same purpose, and the powder of toad was employed in a similar
+way.
+
+Pope Adrian is reported to have continually carried an amulet composed
+of dried toad, arsenic, tormental, pearl, coral, hyacinth, smarag, and
+tragacanth. Among the Harleian Manuscripts is a letter from Lord
+Chancellor Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith written at a time of an alarming
+epidemic. Among other things he writes: "I am likewise bold to
+recommend my most humble duty to our dear mistress (Queen Elizabeth)
+by this LETTER AND RING, which hath the virtue to expell infectious
+airs, and is _to be worn betwixt the sweet duggs_, the chaste nest of
+pure constancy. I trust, sir, when the virtue is known, it shall not
+be refused for the value."[117]
+
+_Safety from Wounds._--Pettigrew gives us the two following examples:
+"De Barros, the historian, says that the Portuguese in vain attempted
+to destroy a Malay so long as he wore a bracelet containing a bone set
+in gold, which rendered him proof against their swords. This amulet
+was afterward transmitted to the Viceroy Alfonso d'Alboquerque, as a
+valuable present.
+
+"In the travels of Marco Polo, we read that in an attempt by Kublai
+Khan to make a conquest of the island of Zipangu, a jealousy arose
+between the two commanders of the expedition, which led to an order
+for putting the whole of the inhabitants of the garrison to the sword;
+and that in obedience thereto, the heads of all were cut off,
+excepting of eight persons, who, by the efficacy of a diabolical
+charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet introduced into the right arm,
+between the skin and the flesh, were rendered secure from the effects
+of iron, either to kill or wound. Upon this discovery being made, they
+were beaten with a heavy wooden club, and presently died."[118]
+
+_Scrofula._--Lupton says: "The Root of Vervin hanged at the neck of
+such as have the King's Evil, it brings a marvellous and unhoped
+help." To this Brand adds: "Squire Morley of Essex used to say a
+Prayer which he hoped would do no harm when he hung a bit of vervain
+root from a scrophulous person's neck. My aunt Freeman had a very high
+opinion of a baked Toad in a silk Bag, hung round the neck."[119]
+
+_Toothache._--People in North Hampshire, England, sometimes wore a
+tooth taken from a corpse, kept in a bag and hung around the neck, as
+a remedy for toothache.
+
+_Whooping-Cough._--About the middle of the last century there appeared
+the following in the _London Athenćum_: "The popular belief as to the
+origin of the mark across the back of the ass is mentioned by Sir
+Thomas Browne, in his 'Vulgar Errors,' and from whatever cause it may
+have arisen it is certain that the hairs taken from the part of the
+animal so marked are held in high estimation as a cure for the
+hooping-cough. In this metropolis, at least so lately as 1842, an
+elderly lady advised a friend who had a child dangerously ill with
+that complaint, to procure three such hairs, and hang them round the
+neck of the sufferer in a muslin bag. It was added that the animal
+from whom the hairs are taken for this purpose is never worth anything
+afterwards, and, consequently, great difficulty would be experienced
+in procuring them; and further, that it was essential to the success
+of the charm that the sex of the animal, from whom the hairs were to
+be procured, should be the contrary to that of the party to be cured
+by them."
+
+The _Worcester Journal_ (England), in one of its issues for 1845, had
+this astounding item: "A party from the city, being on a visit to a
+friend who lived at a village about four miles distant, had occasion
+to go into the cottage of a poor woman, who had a child afflicted with
+the hooping-cough. In reply to some inquiries as to her treatment of
+the child, the mother pointed to its neck, on which was a string
+fastened, having nine knots tied in it. The poor woman stated that it
+was the stay-lace of the child's godmother which, if applied exactly
+in that manner about the neck, would be sure to charm away the most
+troublesome cough! Thus it may be seen that, with all the educational
+efforts of the present day, the monster Superstition still lurks here
+and there in his caves and secret places."[120]
+
+We find that not only human beings but animals profited by amulets. An
+amulet is used in the cure of a blind horse which could hardly have
+helped on the cure by his faith in it. "The root of cut Malowe hanged
+about the neck driveth away blemishes of the eyen, whether it be in a
+man or a horse, as I, Jerome of Brunsweig, have seene myselfe. I have
+myselfe done it to a blind horse that I bought for X crounes, and was
+sold agayn for XL crounes."[121] That was a trick worth knowing.
+
+Brockett tells us that "Holy-stones, or _holed-stones_, are hung on
+the heads of horses as a charm against Diseases--such as sweat in
+their stalls are supposed to be cured by this application." The
+efficacy of the elder also extended to animals, for a lame pig was
+formerly cured by boring a hole in his ear and putting a small peg
+into it. We are also told that "wood night-shade, or bitter-sweet,
+being hung about the neck of Cattell that have the Staggers, helpeth
+them."
+
+  [89] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 51 and 66 f.
+
+  [90] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec. V.
+
+  [91] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 281 f.
+
+  [92] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 70.
+
+  [93] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, pp. 94-100.
+
+  [94] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 74 f.
+
+  [95] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 278 f.
+
+  [96] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 262 f.
+
+  [97] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 68 f.
+
+  [98] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 182.
+
+  [99] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 242.
+
+  [100] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 252.
+
+  [101] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [102] R. Boyle, _Usefulness of Natural Philosophy_, II,
+  p. 157.
+
+  [103] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec.
+  V.
+
+  [104] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 96-98.
+
+  [105] R. Boyle, _Usefulness of Natural Philosophy_,
+  Works II, p. 156.
+
+  [106] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, pp. 257 and 259.
+
+  [107] _Ibid._, pp. 251 f and 254.
+
+  [108] _Anatomie of the Elder_, p. 52.
+
+  [109] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 231.
+
+  [110] _Gentleman's Magazine_, 1794, p. 889.
+
+  [111] _London Medical and Physical Journal_, 1815.
+
+  [112] _Book of Notable Things_, p. 92.
+
+  [113] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 253 f and 256.
+
+  [114] _Illustrations of Shakespeare_, I, p. 493.
+
+  [115] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [116] R. Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, pt. II, sec.
+  V.
+
+  [117] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Surgery and Medicine_, p. 91.
+
+  [118] _Ibid._, p. 79.
+
+  [119] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 256.
+
+  [120] _Ibid._, III, p. 238.
+
+  [121] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 148.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CHARMS
+
+
+  "With the charmes that she saide, A fire down fro' the
+  sky alight."--GOWER.
+
+  "She drew a splinter from the wound, And with a charm
+  she staunch'd the blood."--SCOTT.
+
+  "Thrice on my breast I spit to guard me safe From
+  fascinating Charms."--THEOCRITUS.
+
+  "Mennes fortunes she can tell; She can by sayenge her
+  Ave Marye, And by other Charmes of Sorcerye, Ease men of
+  the Toth ake by and bye Yea, and fatche the Devyll from
+  Hell."--BALE.
+
+  "I clawed her by the backe in way of a charme, To do me
+  not the more good, but the less harme."--HEYWOOD.
+
+Charms, as already noticed, are not unlike amulets in significance and
+similarity of power. The amulet must consist of some material
+substance so as to be suspended when employed, but the charm may be a
+word, gesture, look, or condition, as well as a material substance,
+and does not need to be attached to the body. The word "charm" is
+derived from the Latin word "carmen," signifying a verse in which the
+charms were sometimes written, examples of which will be given later.
+The medical term "carminative," a comforting medicine, really means a
+charm medicine, and has the same derivation.
+
+A charm has been defined as "a form of words or letters, repeated or
+written, whereby strange things are pretended to be done, beyond the
+ordinary power of nature." It can be seen, though, that this
+definition is not sufficiently comprehensive.
+
+For ages, people have had great faith in odd numbers. They have often
+been used as charms and for medicine. Some one says: "Some
+philosophers are of opinion that all things are composed of number,
+prefer the odd before the other, and attribute to it a great efficacy
+and perfection, especially in matters of physic: wherefore it is that
+many doctors prescribed always an odd pill, an odd draught, or drop to
+be taken by their patients. For the perfection thereof they allege
+these following numbers: as 7 Planets, 7 wonders of the World, 9
+Muses, 3 Graces, God is 3 in 1, &c." Ravenscroft, in his comedy of
+"Mammamouchi or the Citizen Turned Gentleman," makes Trickmore as a
+physician say: "Let the number of his bleedings and purgations be odd,
+_numero Deus impare gaudet_" [God delights in an odd number].
+
+Nine is the number consecrated by Buddhism; three is sacred among
+Brahminical and Christian people. Pythagoras held that the unit or
+monad is the principle and end of all. One is a good principle. Two,
+or the dyad, is the origin of contrasts and separation, and is an evil
+principle. Three, or the triad, is the image of the attributes of God.
+Four, or the tetrad, is the most perfect of numbers and the root of
+all things. It is holy by nature. Five, or the pentad, is everything;
+it stops the power of poisons, and is dreaded by evil spirits. Six is
+a fortunate number. Seven is powerful for good or evil, and is a
+sacred number. Eight is the first cube, so is man four-square or
+perfect. Nine, as the multiple of three, is sacred. Ten, or the
+decade, is the measure of all it contains, all the numerical relations
+and harmonies.[122]
+
+Cornelius Agrippa wrote on the power of numbers, which he declares is
+asserted by nature herself; thus the herb called cinquefoil, or
+five-leafed grass, resists poison, and bans devils by virtue of the
+number five; one leaf of it taken in wine twice a day cures the
+quotidian, three the tertian, four the quartan fever.[123]
+
+The seventh son of a seventh son was supposed to be an infallible
+physician as the following quotations would indicate: "The seventh son
+of a seventh son is born a physician; having an intuitive knowledge of
+the art of curing all disorders, and sometimes the faculty of
+performing wonderful cures by touching only." "Plusieurs croyent qu'en
+France, les septičmes garçons, nez de légitimes mariages, sans que la
+suitte des sept ait esté interrompue par la naissance d'aucune fille,
+peuvent aussi guérir des fičvres tierces, des fičvres quartes, at
+mesme des écrouelles, aprčs avoir jeűné trois ou neuf jours avant que
+de toucher les malades. Mais ils font trop de fond sur le nombre
+septenaire, en attribuant au septičme garçon, préférablement ŕ tous
+autres, une puissance qu'il y a autant de raison d'attribuer au
+sixičme ou au huitičme, sur le nombre de trois, et sur celuy de neuf,
+pour ne pas s'engager dans la superstition. Joint que de trois que je
+connois de ces septičme garçons il y en a deux qui ne guérissent de
+rien, et que le troisieme m'a avoué de bonne foy, qu'il avoit eu
+autrefois la reputation de guérir de quantité des maux, quoique en
+effet il n'ait jamais guery d'aucun. C'est pourquoy Monsieur du
+Laurent a grande raison de rejetter ce prétendu pouvoir, et de la
+mettre au rang des fables, en ce qui concerne la guérison des
+écrouelles."[124]
+
+Charms were used to avert evil and counteract supposed malignant
+influences of all kinds, but it is in their connection with diseases
+of the body that we are chiefly interested. There is scarcely a
+disease for which a charm has not been given, but it will be seen that
+those which are most affected by charms are principally derangements
+of the nervous system, or those periodical in character--diseases, in
+fact, which have proved to be most easily influenced by suggestion.
+
+Charms might be of the most varied composition. The material was
+selected from the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, and might
+consist of anything to which any magical property was considered to
+belong. Rags, old clothes, pins, and needles were frequently employed
+in this way. Sir Walter Scott had in his possession a pretended charm
+taken from an old woman who was said to charm and injure her
+neighbor's cattle. It consisted of feathers, parings of nails, hair,
+and similar material, wrapped in a lump of clay.
+
+The theory of _similia similibus curantur_ seems to have entered into
+medićval medicine, and especially into the manufacture of charms. The
+following prescriptions are examples: "The skin of a Raven's heel is
+good against gout, but the right heel skin must be laid upon the right
+foot if that be gouty, and the left upon the left.... If you would
+have man become bold or impudent let him carry about with him the skin
+or eyes of a Lion or Cock, and he will be fearless of his enemies,
+nay, he will be very terrible unto them. If you would have him
+talkative, give him tongues, and seek out those of water frogs and
+ducks and such creatures notorious for their continuall noise
+making."[125]
+
+King also tells us that "Hartes fete, Does Fete, Bulles fete, or any
+ruder beastes fete should ofte be eaten; the same confort the sinewes.
+The elder these beastes be, the more they strengthen." It is
+noticeable that not age but youth is now honored, and to-day only
+calves' feet are accorded medicinal value.
+
+Fort[126] gives the following account of the origin of cabbalism:
+"Towards the close of the fourth century an unknown scholiast
+collected the exegetical elucidations, explanations and
+interpretations produced by the Gemara, and united them to the Mishna,
+as a commentary out of which arose the Talmud. The word 'cabbala,'
+whose original significance was used in the sense of reception, or
+transmission, obtained at a later period the meaning of secret lore,
+because the metaphysical and theosophic idealities which had been
+developed in the Rabbinical schools, were communicated only to a few,
+and consequently remained the undisputed property of a limited and
+close organization." From this there developed a varied and
+complicated system of words and numbers which showed their power in
+all forms of magical marvels. Not the least common or puissant of
+these was the healing of the sick.
+
+Knots were sometimes used as charms, and Cockayne gives us an example
+in the preface of _Saxon Leechdoms_: "As soon as a man gets pain in
+his eyes, tie in unwrought flax as many knots as there are letters in
+his name, pronouncing them as you go, and tie it round his neck."
+
+Long before and long after New Testament days when Jesus used spittle
+on the blind, and the time when Vespasian healed the blind by the same
+means, spittle was considered a most efficacious remedy for various
+diseases. Levinus Lemnius tells us: "Divers experiments shew what
+power and quality there is in Man's fasting Spittle, when he hath
+neither eat nor drunk before the use of it: for it cures all tetters,
+itch, scabs, pushes, and creeping sores: and if venomous little beasts
+have fastened on any part of the body, as hornets, beetles, toads,
+spiders, and such like, that by their venome cause tumours and great
+pains and inflammations, do but rub the place with fasting Spittle,
+and all those effects will be gone and dispersed. Since the qualities
+and effects of Spittle come from the humours, (for out of them is it
+drawn by the faculty of Nature, as Fire draws distilled Water from
+hearbs) the reason may be easily understood why Spittle should do such
+strange things, and destroy some creatures."[127]
+
+In _Saxon Leechdoms_ a cure for gout runs thus: "Before getting out of
+bed in the morning, spit on your hand, rub all your sinuews, and say,
+'Flee, gout, flee,' etc." Sir Thomas Browne, however, is not quite
+sure that fasting spittle really is poisonous to snakes and vipers.
+
+Alexander of Tralles tells us that even Galen did homage to
+incantations, and quotes him as saying: "Some think that incantations
+are like old wives' tales; as I did for a long while. But at last I
+was convinced that there is virtue in them by plain proofs before my
+eyes. For I had trial of their beneficial operations in the case of
+those scorpion-stung, nor less in the case of bones stuck fast in the
+throat, immediately, by an incantation thrown up. And many of them are
+excellent, severally, and they reach their mark."
+
+Even before our day, however, there were some sceptics. Andrews,
+quoting Reginald Scot, says: "The Stories which our facetious author
+relates of ridiculous Charms which, by the help of credulity, operated
+Wonders, are extremely laughable. In one of them a poor Woman is
+commemorated who cured all diseases by muttering a certain form of
+Words over the party afflicted; for which service she always received
+one penny and a loaf of bread. At length, terrified by menaces of
+flames both in this world and the next, she owned that her whole
+conjuration consisted in these potent lines, which she always repeated
+in a low voice near the head of her patient:
+
+ 'Thy loaf in my hand,
+  And thy penny in my purse,
+  Thou art never the better--
+  And I am never the worse.'"
+
+Lord Northampton quite fittingly inquires: "What godly reason can any
+Man alyve alledge why Mother Joane of Stowe, speaking these wordes,
+and neyther more nor lesse,
+
+ 'Our Lord was the fyrst Man,
+  That ever Thorne prick'd upon:
+  It never blysted nor it never belted,
+  And I pray God, nor this not may,'
+
+should cure either Beasts, or Men and Women from Diseases?"[128]
+
+Perhaps it would be well for us to treat the subject of charms as we
+have that of amulets, and present the different charms under the
+heading of the diseases which they were supposed to cure.
+
+_Ague._--Many charms were given for this disease, some of which seem
+to us to-day most ridiculous. Brand gives a quotation from the _Life
+of Nicholas Mooney_ who was a notorious highwayman, executed with
+others at Bristol, in 1752. It is as follows: "After the cart drew
+away, the hangman very deservedly had his head broke for attempting to
+pull off Mooney's shoes; and a fellow had like to have been killed in
+mounting the gallows to take away the ropes that were left after the
+malefactors were cut down. A young woman came fifteen miles for the
+sake of the rope from Mooney's neck, which was given to her, it being
+by many apprehended that the halter of an executed person will charm
+away the ague and perform many other cures."
+
+Pettigrew relates that "In Skippon's account of a 'Journey through the
+Low Countries,' he makes mention of the lectures of Ferrarius and his
+narrative of the cure of the ague of a Spanish lieutenant, by writing
+the words FEBRA FUGE, and cutting off a letter from the paper every
+day, and he observed the distemper to abate accordingly; when he cut
+the letter F last of all the ague left him. In the same year, he says,
+fifty more were reported to be cured in the same manner."
+
+Another charm for ague was only effective when said up the chimney on
+St. Agnes Eve, by the eldest female of the family. It was as follows:
+
+ "Tremble and go!
+    First day shiver and burn.
+  Tremble and quake!
+    Second day shiver and learn:
+  Tremble and die!
+    Third day never return."[129]
+
+Pliny said: "Any plant gathered from the bank of a brook or river
+before sunrise, provided that no one sees the person who gathers it,
+is considered as a remedy for tertian ague." Lodge, in glancing at the
+superstitious creed with respect to charms, says: "Bring him but a
+Table of Lead, with Crosses (and 'Adonai,' or 'Elohim,' written in
+it), and he thinks it will heal his ague."
+
+Mr. Marsden, while among the Sumatrans, accidentally met with the
+following charm for the ague: "(Sign of the cross.) When Christ saw
+the cross he trembled and shaked and they said unto him, hast thou
+ague? and he said unto them, I have neither ague nor fever; and
+whosoever bears these words, either in writing or in mind, shall never
+be troubled with ague or fever. So help thy servants, O Lord, who put
+their trust in thee!"
+
+From Douce's notes, Mr. Brand informs us that it was usual with many
+persons about Exeter who had ague "to visit at dead of night the
+nearest cross road five different times, and there bury a new-laid
+egg. The visit is paid about an hour before the cold fit is expected;
+and they are persuaded that with the Egg they shall bury the Ague. If
+the experiment fail, (and the agitation it occasions may often render
+it successful) they attribute it to some unlucky accident that may
+have befallen them on the way. In the execution of this matter they
+observe the strictest silence, taking care not to speak to anyone,
+whom they may happen to meet. I shall here note another Remedy against
+the Ague mentioned as above, viz., by breaking a salted Cake of Bran
+and giving it to a Dog, when the fit comes on, by which means they
+suppose the malady to be transferred from them to the Animal."[130]
+This and similar methods were designated transplantation.
+
+_Bites of Venomous Animals._--It is an old medical superstition that
+every animal whose bite is poisonous carries the cure within itself,
+but external charms were also used. It was thought that the poison of
+the Spanish fly existed in the body, while the head and wings
+contained the antidote. "A hair of the dog that bites you" is the cure
+for hydrophobia, the fat of the viper was the remedy for its bite, and
+"three scruples of the ashes of the witch, when she had been well and
+carefully burnt at a stake, is a sure catholicon against all the evil
+effects of witchcraft."[131]
+
+Serpents' bites, which were always considered very dangerous, were
+said to be healed by people called sauveurs, who had a mark of St.
+Catharine's wheel upon their palates. Snake stones, originally brought
+from Java, were supposed to absorb the poison by being simply placed
+over the bite. Russel mentions a charm against mosquitoes, used in
+Aleppo. It consisted of certain unintelligible characters inscribed on
+a little slip of paper, which was pasted over the windows or upon the
+lintel of the door. One family has obtained, through heredity, the
+power of making these charms, and they distribute them on a certain
+day of the year without remuneration.
+
+Navarette was told that the best remedy against scorpions was to make
+a commemoration of St. George when going to bed. This, he says, never
+failed, but he also rubbed the bed with garlic. The following is given
+as a cure for the sting of the scorpion: "The patient is to sit on an
+ass, with his face to the tail of the animal, by which the pain will
+be transmitted from the man to the beast." Or again, a person who was
+bitten by either a tarantulla or a mad dog must go nine times round
+the town on the Sabbath, calling upon and imploring the assistance of
+the saint. On the third night--the prayers being heard and granted,
+and the health restored--the madness was removed. The prayer was as
+follows:
+
+
+ "Thou who presidest over the Apulian shores,
+  Thou who curest the bites of mad dogs,
+  Thou, O Sacred One, ward off this cruel plague,
+  This dismal gnawing of dogs.
+  Get thee far hence, O madness, O fury."[132]
+
+_Burns._--The following is "A Charme for a burning":
+
+ "There came three angels out of the east;
+  The one brought fire, the two brought frost--
+  Out fire; in frost;
+  In the name of the Father, and Son, and Holy Ghost.
+  --Amen."[133]
+
+_Childbirth._--Many superstitious practices have grown up around this
+condition. In 1554, Bonner, Bishop of London, forbade "a mydwife of
+his diocese to exercise any witchecrafte, charmes, sorcerye,
+invocations, or praiers, other than such as be allowable and may stand
+with the lawes and ordinances of the Catholike Church." In 1559, the
+first year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, an inquiry was instituted
+"whether you knowe any that doe use charmes, sorcery, enchauntementes,
+invocations, circles, witchecraftes, southsayinge, or any lyke craftes
+or imaginacions invented by the devyl, and specially in the tyme of
+woman's travaylle." Two years before this, the midwives took an oath
+among themselves, so Strype tells us, not to "suffer any other bodies'
+child to be set, brought, or laid before any woman delivered of child
+in the place of her natural child, so far forth as I can know and
+understand. Also I will not use any kind of sorcerye or incantation in
+the time of the travail of any woman."
+
+The eagle stone and iris were supposed to promote an easy delivery,
+and the sardonyx was laid _inter mammas_ to procure an easy birth; a
+sardonyx formerly belonged to the monastery of St. Albans to be used
+for this purpose. In some countries, during childbirth, the men lie
+in, keep their beds, and are attended as if really sick, sometimes as
+long as six weeks.[134]
+
+_Chorea._--Of all the charms against this disease, St. Vitus' dance,
+none seemed so effectual as an application to the saint. In the
+translation of Naogeorgus, Barnabe Googe says:
+
+ "The nexte is VITUS sodde in oyle, before whose ymage faire
+  Both men and women bringing hennes for offring doe repaire:
+  The cause whereof I doe not know, I think, for some disease
+  Which he is thought to drive away from such as him doe please."
+
+_Colic._--This disorder was cured by a person drinking the water in
+which he had washed his feet; we might well consider the cure worse
+than the disease.
+
+_Consumption._--Shaw[135] speaks of a cure for consumptive diseases
+used in his time in Moray. "They pared the Nails of the Fingers and
+Toes of the Patient, put these Parings into a Rag cut from his
+clothes, then waved their Hand with the Rag thrice round his head
+crying _Deas soil_, after which they buried the Rag in some unknown
+place." Dr. Baas[136] declares that natural pills of rabbit's dung
+were in use on the Rhine as a cure for consumption.
+
+"There is a disease," says the minister of Logierait, writing in 1795,
+"called Glacach by the Highlanders, which, as it affects the chest and
+lungs, is evidently of a consumptive nature. It is called Macdonald's
+disease, 'because there are particular tribes of Macdonalds, who were
+believed to cure it with the Charms of their touch, and the use of a
+certain set of words. There must be no fee given of any kind. Their
+faith in the touch of a Macdonald is very great.'"[137]
+
+_Cramp._--Among the many charms for cramp, the following is taken from
+_Pepys' Diary_:[138]
+
+ "Cramp be thou faintless,
+  As our Lady was sinless
+  When she bare Jesus."
+
+_Demoniacal Possession._--To know when a person is possessed, try the
+following, says King: "Take the harte and liver of a fysshe called a
+Pyck, and put them into a pot wyth glowynge hot coles, and hold the
+same to the patient so that the smoke may entre into hym. If he is
+possessed he cannot abyde that smoke, but rageth and is angry." "It is
+good also to make a fyre in hys chamber of Juniper wood, and caste
+into the fire Franckincense and S. John's wort, for the evill spirits
+cannot abyde thys sent, and Waxe angry, whereby may be perceived
+whether a man be possessed or not."[139] I am afraid that possession
+would be sadly common if either of these tests were applied.
+
+_Dislocation._--Among the oldest charms we have is one given by Cato
+the Censor for the reduction of a dislocated limb, and passed on to us
+by Pettigrew.
+
+"A dislocation may be cured by this charm. Take a reed four or five
+feet long; cut it in the middle, and let two men hold the points
+towards each other for insertion. While this is doing repeat these
+words: _In Alio S. F. Motas vćta, Daries Dardaries Astataries
+Dissunapitur_. Now jerk a piece of iron upon the reeds at their
+juncture, and cut right and left. Bind them to the dislocation or
+fracture, and it will effect a cure."[140]
+
+_Dropsy._--Toads were formed into a powder called Pulvis Ćthiopicus,
+the mode of preparation being given in Bates's Pharmacopoeia. This
+powder was used externally, and also given internally in cases of
+dropsy and other diseases.
+
+_Epilepsy._--The liver of a dead athlete was a sovereign remedy
+against epilepsy in early days. In Lincolnshire a portion of a human
+skull taken from a grave was grated and given to epileptics as a cure
+for fits, and the water in which a corpse had been washed was given to
+a man in Glasgow for the same purpose.[141] Another remedy was also
+proposed: "If a man be greved wyth the fallinge sicknesse, let him
+take a he-Wolves harte and make it to pouder and use it: but if it be
+a woman, let her take a she-Wolves harte."[142]
+
+John of Gladdesden, who was court physician from 1305-1317, spoke thus
+concerning epilepsy: "Because there are many children and others
+afflicted with the epilepsy, who cannot take medicines, let the
+following experiment be tried, which I have found to be effectual,
+whether the patient was a demoniac, a lunatic, or an epileptic. When
+the patient and his parents have fasted three days, let them conduct
+him to church. If he be of a proper age, and of his right senses, let
+him confess. Then let him hear Mass on Friday, and also on Saturday.
+On Sunday let a good and religious priest read over the head of the
+patient, in the church, the gospel which is read in September, in the
+time of vintage, after the feast of the Holy Cross. After this, let
+the priest write the same gospel devoutly, and let the patient wear it
+about his neck, and he shall be cured. The gospel is, 'This kind goeth
+not out but by prayer and fasting.'"[143]
+
+Among some African tribes the foot of an elk is considered a splendid
+remedy against epilepsy. One foot only of each animal possesses
+virtue, and the way to ascertain the valuable foot is to "knock the
+beast down, when he will immediately lift up that leg which is most
+efficacious to scratch his ear. Then you must be ready with a sharp
+scymitar to lop off the medicinal limb, and you shall find an
+infallible remedy against the falling sickness treasured up in his
+claws." The American Indians and medićval Norwegians also considered
+this a sure remedy. The person afflicted, however, must apply it to
+his heart, hold it in his left hand, and rub his ear with it.[144]
+
+_Evil-eye._--Children were supposed to be most susceptible to the
+evil-eye. Charms and amulets were furnished against fascination in
+general. Certain figures in bronze, coral, ivory, etc., representing a
+closed hand with the thumb thrust out between the first and second
+fingers called the _fig_, were common. In Henry IV, Part II, Pistol
+says:
+
+ "When Pistol lies, do this; and fig me, like
+  The bragging Spaniard."
+
+_Eye Diseases._--Among the early Germans, ambulatory female medicists
+were not uncommon, and they cured largely through charms. The
+following is a charm used for eye diseases:
+
+ "Three maidens once going
+  On a verdant highway;
+  One could cure blindness,
+  Another cured cataract,
+  Third cured inflammation;
+  But all cured by one means."[145]
+
+_Fevers._--This charm was used for fever: "Wryt thys Wordys on a
+lorell lef[+]Ysmael[+]Ysmael[+] adjuro vos per Angelum ut soporetur
+iste Homo N. and ley thys lef under hys head that he wete not therof,
+and let hym ete Letuse oft and drynk Ip'e seed smal grounden in a
+morter, and temper yt with Ale."[146]
+
+"The fever," says Werenfels, "he will not drive away by medicines,
+but, what is a more certain remedy, having pared his nails and tied
+them to a crayfish, he will turn his back, and as Deucalion did the
+stones from which a new progeny of men arose, throw them behind him
+into the next river."[147]
+
+The "Leech book"[148] says that for typhus fever the patient is to
+drink of a decoction of herbs over which many masses have been sung,
+then say the names of the four "gospellers" and a charm and a prayer.
+Again, a man is to write a charm in silence, and just as silently put
+the words in his left breast and take care not to go in-doors with the
+writing upon him, the words being EMMANUEL VERONICA. The Loseley MSS.
+prescribe the following for all manner of fevers: "Take iii drops of a
+woman's mylke yt norseth a knave childe, and do it in a hennes egge
+that ys sedentere (or sitting), and let hym suppe it up when the evyl
+takes hym."
+
+_Goitre._--The dew collected from the grave of the last man buried in
+a church-yard has been used as a lotion for goitre, and a
+correspondent of _Notes and Queries_ for May 24, 1851, furnishes two
+remedies then in use at Withyam, Sussex. "A common snake, held by its
+head and tail, is slowly drawn by someone standing by nine times
+across the front part of the neck of the person affected, the reptile
+being allowed, after every third time, to crawl about for awhile.
+Afterwards the snake is put alive in a bottle, which is corked
+tightly, and then buried in the ground. The tradition is, that as the
+snake decays, the swelling vanishes. The second mode of treatment is
+just the same as the above, with the exception of the snake's doom. In
+this case it is kidded, and its skin, sewn in a piece of silk, is worn
+round the diseased neck. By degrees the swelling in this case also
+disappears."
+
+_Headache._--In Brand's day, the rope which remained after a man had
+been hanged and cut down was an object of eager competition, being
+regarded as of great virtue in attacks of headache, and Gross says:
+"Moss growing on a human skull, if dried, powdered, and taken as
+snuff, will cure the Headach." Loadstone was also recommended as a
+sovereign remedy for this malady. Pliny said that any person might be
+immediately cured of the headache by the application of any plant
+which has grown on the head of a statue, provided it be folded in the
+shred of a garment, and tied to the part affected with a red string.
+
+_Hemorrhage._--The following charm has been used to stop bleeding at
+the nose and other hemorrhages:
+
+ "In the blood of Adam Sin was taken,
+  In the blood of Christ it was all shaken,
+  And by the same blood I do the charge,
+  That the blood of (insert name) run no longer at large."
+
+Pepys in his _Diary_ gives us a Latin charm of which the following is
+a translation:
+
+ "Blood remain in Thee,
+  As Christ was in himself;
+  Blood remain in thy veins,
+  As Christ in his pains;
+  Blood remain fixed,
+  As Christ was on the crucifix."
+
+Brand, the historian of Orkney, says: "They have a charm whereby they
+stop excessive bleeding in any, whatever way they come by it, whether
+by or without external violence. The name of the Patient being sent to
+the Charmer, he saith over some words, (which I heard,) upon which the
+blood instantly stoppeth, though the bleeding Patient were at the
+greatest distance from the Charmer. Yea, upon the saying of these
+words, the blood will stop in the bleeding throats of oxen or sheep,
+to the astonishment of Spectators. Which account we had from the
+Ministers of the Country."
+
+Boyle says: "Having been one summer frequently subject to bleeding at
+the nose, and reduced to employ several remedies to check that
+distemper; that which I found the most effectual to stanch the blood
+was some moss of a dead man's skull, (sent for a present out of
+Ireland, where it is far less rare than in most other countries,)
+though it did but touch my skin, till the herb was a little warmed by
+it."[149]
+
+Brand gives "A charme to staunch blood: Jesus that was in Bethleem born,
+and baptyzed was in the flumen Jordane, as stente the water at hys
+comyng, so stente the blood of thys man N. thy servvaunt, thorw the
+virtu of thy holy Name [+] Jesu [+] & of thy Cosyn swete Sent Jon. And
+sey thys charme fyve tymes with fyve Pater Nosters, in the worschep of
+the fyve woundys."[150]
+
+"In the year 1853," says Berdoe, "I saw among the more precious drugs
+in the shop of a pharmaceutical chemist at Leamington a bottle
+labelled in the ordinary way with the words, Moss from a Dead-Man's
+Skull. This has long been used, superstitiously, dried, powdered, and
+taken as snuff, for headache and bleeding at the nose."
+
+_Herpes._--Turner[151] notices a prevalent charm among old women for
+the shingles, and which is not uncommonly heard of to-day. It was to
+smear on the affected part the blood from a black cat's tail.
+He says that in the only case when he saw it used it caused
+considerable mischief.
+
+_Incubus._--Stones with holes through them were commonly called
+hag-stones, and were often attached to the key of the stable door to
+prevent witches riding the horses. One of these suspended at the head
+of the bed was celebrated for the prevention of nightmare. In the
+"Leech book"[152] we find the following: "If a mare or hag ride a man,
+take lupins, garlic, and betony, and frankincense, bind them on a fawn
+skin, let a man have the worts on him, and let him go into his house."
+Notice the following from Lluellin's poems:
+
+ "Some the night-mare hath prest
+  With that weight on their brest,
+    No returnes of their breath can passe,
+  But to us the tale is addle,
+  We can take off her saddle,
+    And turn out the night-mare to grasse."
+
+_Insomnia._--In the Loseley MSS. we find a receipt "For hym that may
+not slepe. Take and wryte yese wordes into leves of lether: Ismael!
+Ismael! adjuro te per Angelum Michaelum ut soporetur homo iste; and
+lay this under his bed, so yt he wot not yerof and use it allway
+lytell, and lytell, as he have nede yerto."
+
+_Jaundice._--This disease was sometimes cured by transplantation, and
+Paracelsus gives us a method for carrying this out. Make seven or
+nine--it must be an odd number--cakes of the newly emitted and warm
+urine of the patient with the ashes of ash wood, and bury them for
+some days in a dunghill.
+
+In the journal of Dr. Edward Browne, transmitted to his father, Sir
+Thomas Browne, we read of a magical cure for jaundice: "Burne wood
+under a leaden vessel filled with water; take the ashes of that wood,
+and boyle it with the patient's urine; then lay nine long heaps of the
+boyled ashes upon a board in a ranke, and upon every heap lay nine
+spears of crocus: it hath greater effects than is credible to any one
+that shall barely read this receipt without experiencing."[153]
+
+_Madness._--The early inhabitants of Cornwall used "to place the
+disordered in mind on the brink of a square pool, filled with water
+from St. Nun's well. The patient, having no intimation of what was
+intended, was, by a sudden blow on the breast, tumbled into the pool,
+where he was tossed up and down by some persons of superior strength
+till, being quite debilitated, his fury forsook him; he was then
+carried to church, and certain masses were sung over him. A similar
+practice of the people of Perthshire is noticed by Sir Walter Scott in
+_Marmion_.
+
+ "Thence to St. Fillan's blessed well,
+  Whose spring can frenzied dreams dispel,
+  And the crazed brain restore."
+
+_Marasmus._--Mr. Boyle relates the case of a physician whose wan face
+betokened a marasmus, and who was induced to try a method not unlike
+the sympathetic cures. "He took an egg and boiled it hard in his own
+warm urine; he then with a bodkin perforated the shell in many
+places, and buried it in an ant-hill, where it was kept to be devoured
+by the emmets; and as they wasted the egg, he found his distemper to
+abate and his strength to increase, insomuch that his disease left
+him."[154]
+
+_Rickets._--The most common method of dealing with this disease was by
+drawing the children through a split tree. The tree was afterward
+bound up and, as it healed and grew together, the children acquired
+strength; at least, so 'twas said. Sir John Cullum saw the operation
+performed and says that the ash tree was selected as most preferable
+for the purpose. "It was split longitudinally about five feet: the
+fissure was kept open by the gardener, whilst the friend of the child,
+having first stripped him naked, passed him thrice through it, almost
+head foremost. This accomplished, the tree was bound up with
+packthread, and as the bark healed, so it was said the child would
+recover. One of the cases was of rickets, the other a rupture."
+Drawing the children through a perforated stone was also a cure for
+rickets, providing that two brass pins were carefully laid across each
+other on the top edge of this stone.[155]
+
+_Sciatica._--Sleeping on stones on a particular night was formerly
+practised in Cornwall to cure all forms of lameness. Boneshave was the
+term used for sciatica in Exmoor, where the following charm was used
+for its cure: The patient must lie on his back on the bank of a river
+or brook, having a straight staff lying by his side between him and
+the water, and must have the following words repeated over him:
+
+ "Boneshave right,
+  Boneshave straight.
+  As the water runs by the stave
+  Good for Boneshave."[156]
+
+_Scrofula._--Scrofula, or "king's-evil," was best cured by the touch
+of the sovereign, but, if this could not be accomplished, a naked
+virgin could cure it, especially if she spit three times upon it.
+Stroking the affected parts nine times with the hand of a dead man,
+particularly of one who had suffered a violent death as a penalty of
+his crime, especially if it be murder, was long practised, and was
+said to be efficacious in curing scrofula.
+
+_Sweating Sickness._--Aubrey[157] gives a selection of the favorite
+prescriptions in use against the sweating sickness. Among them was the
+following: "Another very true medicine.--For to say every day at seven
+parts of your body, seven paternosters, and seven Ave Marias, with one
+Credo at the last. Ye shall begyn at the ryght syde, under the right
+ere, saying the '_paternoster qui es in coelis, sanctificetur nomen
+tuum_,' with a cross made there with your thumb, and so say the
+paternoster full complete, and one Ave Maria, and then under the left
+ere, and then under the left armhole, and then under the left hole,
+and then the last at the heart, with one paternoster, Ave Maria with
+one Credo; and these thus said daily, with the grace of God is there
+no manner drede hym."
+
+_Thorns._--Three metrical charms have been used for troubles of this
+kind. _Pepys' Diary_ records "A charme for a thorne":
+
+ "Jesus, that was of a Virgin Born,
+  Was pricked both with nail and thorn;
+  It neither wealed, nor belled, rankled nor boned;
+  In the name of Jesus no more shall this."
+
+Another form of the same is this:
+
+ "Christ was of a Virgin born,
+  And he was pricked with a thorn;
+  It did neither bell, nor swell;
+  And I trust in Jesus this never will."
+
+Brand gives another thus:
+
+ "Unto the Virgin Mary our Saviour was born,
+  And on his head he wore the crown of thorn;
+  If you believe this true and mind it well,
+  This hurt will never fester, nor yet swell."[158]
+
+_Toothache._--King in his interesting article recites this cure:
+"Seeth as many little green frogges sitting upon trees as thou canst
+get, in water: take the fat flowynge from them, and when nede is,
+anoynt the teth therwyth. The graye worms breathing under wood or
+stone, having many fete, these perced through with a bodken and then
+put into the toth, alayeth the payne."[159] A nail driven into an oak
+tree is reported to be a cure for this pain, and bones from a
+church-yard have from ancient times been used as charms against this
+disease.
+
+An early idea was that toothache was caused by a worm and that henbane
+seed roasted would cure it. The following from "The School of Salerne"
+formulates this superstition:
+
+ "If in your teeth you hap to be tormented,
+  By meane some little wormes therein do breed,
+  Which pain (if heed be tane) may be prevented,
+  Be keeping cleane your teeth, when as you feede;
+  Burne Francomsence (a gum not evil sented),
+  Put Henbane unto this, and Onyon seed,
+  And with a tunnel to the tooth that's hollow,
+  Convey the smoke thereof, and ease shall follow."
+
+Even to-day, I suppose, druggists sell henbane seed for this purpose.
+The seed is used by sprinkling it on hot cinders and holding the open
+mouth over the rising smoke. The heat causes the seed to sprout, and
+thus there appears something similar to a maggot, which is ignorantly
+supposed by the sufferer to have dropped from the tooth.[160]
+
+_Warts._--The cures for warts are many and varied. There have been
+many charms devised for their removal. Grose gives directions to
+"Steal a piece of beef from a butcher's shop, and rub your wart with
+it, then throw it down the necessary house, or bury it, and as the
+beef rots, your warts will decay."[161] Some have great faith in
+having a vagrant count them, mark the number on the inside of his hat,
+and then when he leaves the neighborhood he takes the warts with him.
+Coffin water was also considered good for them.
+
+"For warts," says Sir Thomas Browne, "we rub our hands before the
+moon, and commit any magulated part to the touch of the dead. Old
+Women were always famous for curing warts; they were so in Lucian's
+time."[162]
+
+Sir Kenelm Digby, in a work already referred to, says: "One would
+think that it were folly that one should offer to wash his hands in a
+well-polished silver basin, wherein there is not a drop of water, yet
+this may be done by the reflection of the moonbeams only, which will
+afford it a competent humidity to do it; but they who have tried it,
+have found their hands, after they are wiped, to be much moister than
+usually; but this is an infallible way to take away warts from the
+hands, if it be often used."
+
+Black gives us several ways of charming away warts. He says:
+"Lancashire wise men tell us for warts to rub them with a cinder, and
+this tied up in paper, and dropped where four roads meet, will
+transfer the warts to whoever opens the parcel. Another mode of
+transferring warts is to touch each wart with a pebble, and place the
+pebbles in a bag, which should be lost on the way to church; whoever
+finds the bag gets the warts." A common Warwickshire custom was to rub
+the warts with a black snail, stick the snail on a thorn bush, and
+then, say the folks, as the snail dies so will the wart
+disappear.[163]
+
+Warts, on the other hand, seem in certain cases to be considered
+lucky. In "Syr Gyles Goosecappe, Knight," a play of 1606, Lord Momford
+is made to say: "The Creses here are excellent good: the proportion
+of the chin good; the little aptnes of it to sticke out; good. And the
+wart aboue it most exceeding good."
+
+_Wen._--A newspaper of 1777 reports: "After he (Doctor Dodd) had hung
+about ten minutes, a very decently dressed young woman went up to the
+gallows in order to have a wen in her face stroked by the Doctor's
+hand; it being a received opinion among the vulgar that it is a
+certain cure for such a disorder. The executioner, having untied the
+Doctor's hand, stroked the part affected several times therewith."
+
+At the execution of Crowley, a murderer of Warwick, in 1845, a similar
+scene is described in the newspapers: "At least five thousand persons
+of the lowest of the low were mustered on this occasion to witness the
+dying moments of the unhappy culprit.... As is usual in such cases (to
+their shame be it spoken) a number of females were present, and
+scarcely had the soul of the deceased taken its farewell flight from
+its earthly tabernacle, than the scaffold was crowded with members of
+the 'gentler sex' afflicted with wens in the neck, with white
+swellings in the knees, &c., upon whose afflictions the cold clammy
+hand of the sufferer was passed to and fro for the benefit of his
+executioner."[164]
+
+_Whooping-Cough._--It was a common belief in Devonshire, Cornwall, and
+some other parts of England, that if one inquired of any one riding on
+a piebald horse of a remedy for this complaint, whatever he named was
+regarded as an infallible cure. In Suffolk and Norfolk, a favorite
+remedy was to put the head of a suffering child for a few minutes into
+a hole made in a meadow. It must be done in the evening with only the
+father and mother to witness it.
+
+A child in Cornwall received the following treatment: "If afflicted
+with the hooping cough, it is fed with the bread and butter of a
+family, the heads of which bear respectively the names of John and
+Joan. In the time of an epidemic, so numerous are the applications,
+that the poor couple have little reason to be grateful to their
+godfathers and godmothers for their gift of these particular names.
+Or, if a piebald horse is to be found in the neighbourhood, the child
+is taken to it, and passed thrice under the belly of the animal; the
+mere possession of such a beast confers the power of curing the
+disease."
+
+We have an account of a cure for whooping-cough in a Monmouthshire
+paper about the middle of the nineteenth century. "A few days since an
+unusual circumstance was observed at Pillgwenlly, which caused no
+small degree of astonishment to one or two enlightened beholders. A
+patient ass stood near a house, and a family of not much more rational
+animals was grouped around it. A father was passing his little son
+under the donkey, and lifting him over its back a certain number of
+times, with as much solemnity and precision as if engaged in the
+performance of a sacred duty. This done, the father took a piece of
+bread, cut from an untasted loaf, which he offered the animal to bite
+at. Nothing loath, the Jerusalem poney laid hold of the piece of bread
+with his teeth, and instantly the father severed the outer portion of
+the slice from that in the donkey's mouth. He next clipped off some
+hairs from the neck of the animal, which he cut up into minute
+particles, and then mixed them with the bread which he had crumbled.
+This very tasty food was then offered to the boy who had been passed
+round the donkey so mysteriously, and the little fellow having eaten
+thereof, the donkey was removed by his owners. The father, his son,
+and other members of his family were moving off, when a bystander
+inquired what all these 'goings on' had been adopted for? The father
+stared at the ignorance of the inquirer, and then in a half
+contemptuous, half condescending tone, informed him that 'it was to
+cure his poor son's whooping-cough, to be sure!' Extraordinary as this
+may appear, in days when the schoolmaster is so much in request, it is
+nevertheless true."
+
+There is a belief in Cheshire that, if a toad is held for a moment
+within the mouth of the patient, it is apt to catch the disease, and
+so cure the person suffering from it. A correspondent of _Notes and
+Queries_ speaks of a case in which such a phenomenon actually
+occurred; but the experiment is one which would not be very willingly
+tried. Brand informs us that "Roasted mice were formerly held in
+Norfolk a sure remedy for this complaint; nor is it certain that the
+belief is extinct even now. A poor woman's son once found himself
+greatly relieved after eating three roast mice!"[165]
+
+_Worms._--A Scotch writer in the last half of the seventeenth century
+observed: "In the Miscellaneous MSS. ... written by Baillie Dundee,
+among several medicinal receipts I find an exorcism against all kinds
+of worms in the body, in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,
+to be repeated three mornings, as a certain remedy."[166]
+
+
+  [122] S. B. Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_,
+  p. 273.
+
+  [123] H. Morley, _Life of Cornelius Agrippa_, I, p. 165.
+
+  [124] M. Thiers, _Traité des Superstitions_, p. 436.
+
+  [125] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [126] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 72.
+
+  [127] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 229 f.
+
+  [128] _Ibid._, III, pp. 228 and 237.
+
+  [129] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 94 f.
+
+  [130] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 252 f.
+
+  [131] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 416.
+
+  [132] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Surgery and Medicine_, pp. 104-106.
+
+  [133] _Pepys' Diary_, I, p. 323.
+
+  [134] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 113-115.
+
+  [135] _History of Moray_, p. 248.
+
+  [136] _History of Medicine_, p. 159.
+
+  [137] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 240 and
+  248.
+
+  [138] I, p. 324.
+
+  [139] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 149.
+
+  [140] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 77.
+
+  [141] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Medical Art_,
+  pp. 397 and 414.
+
+  [142] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 147.
+
+  [143] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 327.
+
+  [144] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 84 f.
+
+  [145] G. F. Fort, _History of Medical Economy During the
+  Middle Ages_, p. 196.
+
+  [146] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 237.
+
+  [147] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 92.
+
+  [148] II, p. 139.
+
+  [149] _Ibid._, pp. 112 f.
+
+  [150] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 237,
+  241, and 268.
+
+  [151] _Diseases of the Skin_, p. 82.
+
+  [152] II, p. 139.
+
+  [153] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 103.
+
+  [154] _Ibid._, p. 102.
+
+  [155] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, pp. 249 f.
+
+  [156] _Ibid._, p. 245.
+
+  [157] _History of England_, II, p. 296.
+
+  [158] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 264.
+
+  [159] E. A. King, "Medieval Medicine," _Nineteenth
+  Century_, XXXIV, p. 148.
+
+  [160] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 414 f.
+
+  [161] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 108.
+
+  [162] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 241.
+
+  [163] Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  pp. 415 f.
+
+  [164] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 241.
+
+  [165] _Ibid._, p. 239.
+
+  [166] _Ibid._, p. 240.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ROYAL TOUCH
+
+
+ "Men may die of imagination,
+  So depe may impression be take."--CHAUCER.
+
+  "When time shall once have laid his lenient hand on the
+  passions and pursuits of the present moment, they too
+  shall lose that imaginary value which heated fancy now
+  bestows upon them."--BLAIR.
+
+  "The king is but a man, as I am; the violet smells to
+  him as it does to me; the element shows to him as it
+  doth to me; all his senses have but human conditions;
+  his ceremonies laid by, in his nakedness he appears but
+  a man; and though his affections are higher mounted than
+  ours, yet, when they stoop, they stoop with the like
+  wing."--SHAKESPEARE.
+
+  _Malcolm._        Comes the king forth, I pray you?
+
+  _Doctor._ Ay, sir: there are a crew of wretched souls,
+  That stay his cure: their malady convinces
+  The great assay of art; but at his touch,
+  Such sanctity hath heaven given his hand,
+  They presently amend.
+
+  _Malcolm._    I thank you, doctor.  [Exit _Doctor._
+
+  _Macduff._ What's the disease he means?
+
+  _Malcolm._           'Tis call'd the evil:
+  A most miraculous work in this good king,
+  Which often, since my here remain in England,
+  I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven,
+  Himself best knows; but strangely-visited people,
+  All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye,
+  The mere despair of surgery, he cures;
+  Hanging a golden stamp about their necks,
+  Put on with holy prayers: and 'tis spoken,
+  To the succeeding royalty he leaves
+  The healing benediction.--_Macbeth_, Act iv, Sc. 3.
+
+Perhaps we have no better example of the effect of the belief in
+healers than that presented by what was known as "king's touch." It is
+typical of the cures performed by healers, and on that account I shall
+give a rather full account of the phenomenon.
+
+Touching by the sovereign for the amelioration of sundry diseases was
+a currently accepted therapeutic measure. The royal touch was
+especially efficacious in epilepsy and scrofula, the latter being
+consequently known as "king's-evil." So far as we are able to trace
+this practice in history, it began with Edward the Confessor in
+England and St. Louis in France. There has been not a little dispute
+concerning its real origin. "Laurentius, first physician to Henry IV,
+of France, who is indignant at the attempt made to derive its origin
+from Edward the Confessor, asserts the power to have commenced with
+Clovis I, A. D. 481, and says that Louis I, A. D. 814, added to the
+ceremonial of touching, the sign of the cross. Mezeray also says, that
+St. Louis, through humility, first added the sign of the cross in
+touching for the king's evil."[167]
+
+[Illustration: KING'S TOUCH-PIECES]
+
+William of Malmesbury gives the origin of the royal touch in his
+account of the miracles of Edward the Confessor. "A young woman had
+married a husband of her own age, but having no issue by the union,
+the humours collecting abundantly about her neck, she had contracted a
+sore disorder, the glands swelling in a dreadful manner. Admonished in
+a dream to have the part affected washed by the king, she entered the
+palace, and the king himself fulfilled this labour of love, by rubbing
+the woman's neck with his fingers dipped in water. Joyous health
+followed his healing hand; the lurid skin opened, so that worms flowed
+out with the purulent matter, and the tumour subsided. But as the
+orifice of the ulcers was large and unsightly, he commanded her to be
+supported at the royal expense until she should be perfectly cured.
+However, before a week had expired, a fair new skin returned, and hid
+the scars so completely, that nothing of the original wound could be
+discovered; and within a year becoming the mother of twins, she
+increased the admiration of Edward's holiness. Those who knew him more
+intimately, affirm that he often cured this complaint in Normandy;
+whence appears how false is the notion, who in our times assert, that
+the cure of this disease does not proceed from personal sanctity, but
+from hereditary virtue in the royal line."[168] The fact that Edward
+was a saint as well as a king throws some light on the subject, for
+many miracles were attributed to him. Jeremy Collier maintained that
+the scrofula miracle is hereditary upon all his successors, but we
+find that not blood but royal prestige was the secret. He said "that
+this prince cured the king's evil is beyond dispute: and since the
+credit of this miracle is unquestionable, I see no reason why we
+should scruple believing the rest.... King Edward the Confessor was
+the first that cured this distemper, and from him it has descended as
+an hereditary miracle upon all his successors. To dispute the matter
+of fact, is to go to the excesses of skepticism, to deny our senses,
+and be incredulous even to ridiculousness."[169]
+
+The quotation given above from William of Malmesbury is the earliest
+mention of the gift of healing by the royal touch. No historian at or
+near the time of Edward has alluded to the supposed power vested in
+him. Not even the bull of Pope Alexander III, by which Edward was
+canonized about two centuries after his decease, makes any allusion
+whatever to the cures effected by him through the imposition of hands.
+
+English and French writers have disagreed not only regarding the
+origin, but also regarding the real possession of the power, the
+English denying it to the French kings and the French with equal vigor
+restricting it to their own sovereigns. There seems to be little doubt
+that the sovereigns of both nations made cures, but the healing was
+confined to these two royal families; the intermarriages in the two
+families probably account for the belief in the transmission of the
+gift, regardless of the origin.
+
+The ability to heal certain diseases passed down from reign to reign
+notwithstanding the religious belief, the character, or the legitimate
+succession of the sovereign, to the time of Queen Anne. It must not be
+supposed that the practice was continuous for the seven centuries from
+Edward the Confessor to Anne: we have no record whatever of the first
+four Norman kings attempting to cure any one by the imposition of
+hands, and we know that William III refused to attempt healing. Andrew
+Boorde defines king's-evil as an "euyl sickenes or impediment," and
+advises as follows: "For this matter let euery man make frendes to the
+Kynges maiestie, for it doth pertayne to a Kynge to helpe this
+infirmitie by the grace the whiche is geuen to a Kynge anoynted." In
+his _Introduction to Knowledge_ (1547-1548) he continues: "The Kynges
+of England by the power that God hath gyuen to them, dothe make sicke
+men whole of a sickeness called the kynges euyll."[170]
+
+There is a curious passage in Aubrey in which he says: "The curing of
+the King's Evil by the touch of the king, does much puzzle our
+philosophers, for whether our kings were of the house of York or
+Lancaster, it did the cure for the most part." Sir John Fortescue, in
+defending the House of Lancaster against the House of York, claimed
+that the crown could not descend to a female because the Queen was not
+qualified by the form of anointing her to cure the disease called the
+king's-evil. It must have been very comforting to all concerned to find
+that the power to cure disease by the royal touch had not been affected
+by the change of sex of the reigning sovereign.
+
+The gift was not impaired by the Reformation, and an obdurate Roman
+Catholic was converted on finding that Elizabeth, after the Pope's
+excommunication, could cure his scrofula. Elizabeth, however, could
+not bring herself fully to accept the reality of these cures. She
+continued the practice on account of the pressure of public opinion,
+but upon one occasion she told a multitude of afflicted ones who had
+applied to her for relief, "God alone can cure your diseases." Dr.
+Tooker, the Queen's chaplain, though, certified freely to his own
+knowledge of the cures wrought by her, as did also William Cowles, the
+Queen's surgeon. Robert Laneham's letter, concerning the Queen's visit
+to Kenilworth Castle, relates how, on July 18, 1575, her Majesty
+touched for the evil, and that it was a "day of grace." "By her
+highnes accustumed mercy and charitee, nyne cured of the peynfull and
+daungerous diseaz, called the king's euill; for that Kings and Queenz
+of this Realm withoout oother medsin (saue only by handling and
+prayerz) only doo cure it."
+
+James I wished to drop it as a worn-out superstition, but was warned
+by his advisers that to do so would be to abate a prerogative of the
+crown; the practice therefore continued, and good testimony exists as
+to the cures wrought by him. The following is an extract from a letter
+from John Chamberlain to Sir Dudley Carleton, ambassador at The Hague,
+dated London, 14th November, 1618: "The Turkish Chiaus is shortly
+coming for the Hagh. On Tuesday last he took leave of the king, and
+thanked his majesty for healing his sonne of the kinges evill; which
+his majesty performed with all solemnity at Whitehall on Thursday was
+sevenight." Charles I also enjoyed the same power, notwithstanding
+the public declaration by Parliament "to inform the people of the
+superstition of being touched by the king for the evil." When a
+prisoner he cured a man by simply saying, "God bless thee and grant
+thee thy desire," the Puritans not permitting him to touch the
+patient. Whereupon it is asserted by Dr. John Nicholas on his own
+knowledge, the blotches and humors disappeared from the patient's body
+and appeared in the bottle of medicine which he held in his hand.
+Charles's blood had the same efficacy. This sovereign substituted in
+some cases the giving of a piece of silver instead of the gold, which
+was usually presented to the patient. Badger says that this king
+"excelled all his predecessors in the divine gift; for it is manifest
+beyond all contradiction, that he not only cured by his sacred touch,
+both with and without gold, but likewise perfectly effected the same
+cure by his prayer and benediction only." In his reign the gift was
+exercised at certain seasons of the year, Easter and Michaelmas being
+at first set apart for this purpose. A further regulation, which is
+quite suggestive, was that the patient must present a certificate to
+the effect that he had never before been touched for the disease.
+
+The following incident is related concerning Charles I: "A young
+gentlewoman of about sixteen years of age, Elizabeth Stevens, of
+Winchester, came (7 October, 1648) into the presence-chamber to be
+touched for the evill, which she was supposed to have; and therewith
+one of her eyes (that namely on the left side) was so much indisposed,
+that by her owne and her mother's testimony (who was then also
+present), she had not seene with that eye of above a month before.
+After prayers, read by Dr. Sanderson, the maide kneeled downe among
+others, likewise to be touched. And his majestie touched her, and put
+a ribbon, with a piece of money at it, in usuall manner, about her
+neck. Which done, his majesty turned to the lords (viz., the duke of
+Richmond, the earl of Southampton, and the earl of Lindsey) to
+discourse with them. And the said young gentlewoman of her own accord
+said openly: 'Now, God be praised! I can see of this fore eye.' And
+afterwards declared she did see more and more by it, & could, by
+degrees, endure the light of the candle. All which his majestie, in
+the presence of the said lords & many others, examined himself, &
+found to be true. And it hath since been discovered that, some months
+agone, the said young gentlewoman professed that, as soon as she was
+come of age sufficient, she would convey over to the king's use all
+her land; which to the valew of about Ł130 _per annum_, her father
+deceased had left her sole heyre unto."[171]
+
+Charles II, perhaps the most unworthy of English monarchs, was by far
+the busiest healer, and even while in exile in the Netherlands he
+retained the power to cure. In one month he touched two hundred and
+sixty at Breda, and Lower said: "It was not without success, since it
+was the experience that drew thither every day a great number of those
+diseased even from the most remote provinces of Germany." An official
+register of the persons touched was kept for every month in his reign,
+but about two and a half years appear to be wanting. The smallest
+number he touched in one year was 2,983; that was in 1669. In 1682 he
+touched 8,500 persons. In 1684 the throng was such that six or seven
+of the sick were trampled to death. The total number touched in his
+reign was 92,107.[172] It is instructive to note, however, that while
+in no other reign were so many people touched for scrofula and so many
+cures vouched for, in no other reign did so many people die of that
+disease.[173]
+
+John Browne, surgeon in ordinary to his majesty and to St. Thomas's
+Hospital, and author of many learned works on surgery and anatomy,
+published accounts of sixty cures due to this monarch. He says a
+surgeon attested the reality of the disease before the miracle was
+performed, to exclude impostors who were seeking the gold, for, in
+addition to the regular formula, the king hung about the neck of the
+person touched a ribbon to which was attached a gold coin.
+Notwithstanding these stringent measures, some were able to impose on
+the king, for the coins were often found in the shops, having been
+sold by the recipients. Says Brand: "Barrington tells us of an old man
+who was a witness in a cause, and averred that when Queen Anne was at
+Oxford, she touched him whilst a child for the evil. Barrington, when
+he had finished his evidence, 'asked him whether he was really cured?
+upon which he answered with a significant smile, that he believed
+himself never to have had a complaint that deserved to be considered
+as the Evil, but that his parents were poor, and had no objection to
+the bit of gold.'"[174]
+
+While it was not unknown before, the presentation of a piece of gold
+was first generally introduced in the reign of Henry VII. It probably
+descended from a practice common in the time of Edward III, whose
+coin, the rose-noble, is said to have been worn as an amulet to
+preserve from danger in battle. The angel-noble of Henry VII, valued
+at ten shillings, appears to have been the coin given; it was in
+common use and not made especially for this purpose. It had the figure
+of the Archangel Michael on one side and a ship in full sail on the
+other. Before hanging it on the patient's neck the monarch always
+crossed the sore with it. The outlay for gold coins presented to the
+afflicted on these occasions rose in some years as high as Ł10,000. So
+great was the expense that after the reign of Elizabeth the size of
+the coin was reduced. Touching pieces of the time of Charles II are
+not rare even now.
+
+In 1684 Surgeon John Browne published a curious work entitled
+_Adenochoiradelogia: or an Anatomick-Chirurgical Treatise on Glandules
+and Strumćs, or King's Evil Swellings_. In this the author traces the
+gift of healing from our Saviour to the apostles, and thence by a
+continuous line of Christian kings and governors, and holy men,
+commencing with Edward the Confessor, whom he regards as the first
+curer of scrofula by contact or imposition of hands. After referring
+to his majesty in most flattering terms, he continues concerning "the
+admirable effects and wonderful events of his royal cure throughout
+all nations, where not only English, Dutch, Scotch, and Irish have
+reaped ease and cure, but French, Germans, and all countreyes
+whatsoever, far and near, have abundantly seen and received the same:
+and none ever, hitherto, I am certain, mist thereof, unless their
+little faith and incredulity starved their merits, or they received
+his gracious hand for curing another disease, which was not really
+evermore allowed to be cured by him; and as bright evidences hereof, I
+have presumed to offer that some have immediately upon the very touch
+been cured; others not so easily quitted from their swellings till the
+favor of a second repetition thereof. Some also, losing their gold,
+their diseases have seized them afresh, and no sooner have these
+obtained a second touch, and new gold, but their diseases have been
+seen to vanish, as being afraid of his majesties presence; wherein
+also have been cured many without gold; and this may contradict such
+who must needs have the king give them gold as well as his touch,
+supposing one invalid without the gift of both. Others seem also as
+ready for a second change of gold as a second touch, whereas their
+first being newly strung upon white riband, may work as well (by their
+favour). The tying the Almighty to set times and particular days is
+also another great fault of those who can by no means be brought to
+believe but at Good Friday and the like seasons this healing faculty
+is of more vigour and efficacy than at any other time, although
+performed by the same hand. As to the giving of gold, this only shows
+his majesties royal well-wishes towards the recovery of those who come
+thus to be healed."[175] He refers to some "Atheists, Sadducees, and
+ill-conditioned Pharisees" who disbelieved, and he gives the letter of
+one who went, a complete sceptic, to satisfy his friends, and came
+away cured and converted.
+
+Browne includes the following case which seems to him conclusive: "A
+Nonconformist child, in Norfolk, being troubled with scrofulous
+swellings, the late deceased Sir Thomas Browne, of Norwich, being
+consulted about the same, his majesty being then at Breda or Bruges,
+he advised the parents of the child to have it carried over to the
+king (his own method being used ineffectively); the father seemed very
+strange at this advice, and utterly denied it, saying the touch of the
+king was of no greater efficacy than any other man's. The mother of
+the child, adhering to the doctor's advice, studied all imaginable
+means to have it over, and at last prevailed with her husband to let
+it change the air for three weeks or a month; this being granted, the
+friends of the child that went with it, unknown to the father, carried
+it to Breda, where the king touched it, and she returned home
+perfectly healed. The child being come to its father's house, and he
+finding so great an alteration, inquires how his daughter arrived at
+this health. The friends thereof assured him, that if he would not be
+angry with them, they would relate the whole truth; they, having his
+promise for the same, assured him they had the child to be touched at
+Breda, whereby they apparently let him see the great benefit his child
+received thereby. Hereupon the father became so amazed that he threw
+off his Nonconformity, and expressed his thanks in this manner:
+'Farewell to all dissenters, and to all nonconformists; if God
+can put so much virtue into the king's hand as to heal my child,
+I'll serve that God and that king so long as I live, with all
+thankfulness.'"[176] It is unfortunate that we have a change of air
+and food to consider in this case, else we might have a good example
+of a real miracle.
+
+Friday was usually set apart in this reign as the regular day for
+healing, but, in addition to this, special portions of the church year
+were reserved for the exercise of this gift. Very careful examinations
+were made by the surgeons, and those who were found to be suffering
+from the evil were presented with a ticket by the surgeon which
+entitled them to receive the healing touch of the king. If the king's
+touch were really efficacious, one might think that the disease should
+have been wholly exterminated during this reign, so great were the
+number touched. On the contrary, the deaths were more numerous, and on
+account of the neglect of medical and surgical means it spread very
+widely.
+
+James II, it is said by Dr. Heylin, also wrought cures upon babes in
+their mothers' arms, and the fame of these cures was so great that the
+year before James was dethroned, a pauper of Portsmouth, New
+Hampshire, petitioned the general assembly to enable him to make the
+voyage to England to be healed by the royal touch. In one of his
+progresses James touched eight hundred persons in Chester Cathedral.
+
+William III evidently thought of the matter as a superstition, and on
+one occasion he touched a patient, saying to him, "God give you better
+health and more sense"; notwithstanding the incredulity of the
+sovereign, Whiston assures us that the person was healed. With honest
+good sense, however, William refused to exercise the power which most
+of his subjects undoubtedly thought he possessed, and many protests
+were made, and much proof was adduced concerning "the balsamic virtues
+of the royal hand." This refusal to continue the practice of touching
+brought upon him the charge of cruelty from the parents of scrofulous
+children, while bigots lifted up their hands and eyes in holy horror
+at his impiety.
+
+Dr. Samuel Johnson was one of the last persons to receive the
+imposition of royal hands; when a boy of four and a half years, he was
+touched by Queen Anne, together with about two hundred others, on
+March 30, 1712. In his case at least the touch was inefficacious, for
+he was subject to scrofula all his life. Boswell says:[177] "His
+mother, yielding to the superstitious notion, which, it is wonderful
+to think, prevailed so long in this country, as to the virtue of the
+royal touch; a notion which our kings encouraged, and to which a man
+of such inquiry and such judgment as Carte could give credit, carried
+him to London, where he was actually touched by Queen Anne. Mrs.
+Johnson, indeed, as Mr. Hector informed me, acted by the advice of the
+celebrated Sir John Floyer, then a physician in Litchfield." At this
+time few persons but Jacobites believed in king's touch as a miracle.
+Dr. Daniel Turner, though, relates that several cases of scrofula
+which had been unsuccessfully treated by himself and Dr. Charles
+Bernard, sergeant-surgeon to her majesty, yielded afterwards to the
+efficacy of the queen's touch.
+
+During the reign of Anne the sceptics outnumbered the believers and at
+her death the practice was discontinued. Among the unbelievers was the
+above-mentioned Dr. Charles Bernard, an account of whose conversion is
+given by Oldmixon as follows: "Yesterday the queen was graciously
+pleased to touch for the King's evil some particular persons in
+private; and three weeks after, December 19, yesterday, about twelve
+at noon her majesty was pleased to touch, at St. James', about twenty
+persons afflicted with the King's evil. The more ludicrous sort of
+skeptics, in this case, asked why it was not called the queen's evil,
+as the chief court of justice was called the Queen's Bench. But
+Charles Bernard, the surgeon who had made this touching the subject of
+his raillery all his lifetime till he became body surgeon at court,
+and found it a good perquisite, solved all difficulties by telling his
+companions with a fleer '_Really one could not have thought it, if one
+had not seen it_.' A friend of mine heard him say it, and knew well
+his opinion of it."[178]
+
+In 1745 there was an attempted revival of the practice when Prince
+Charles Edward exercised this prerogative of royalty.
+
+Henry VII was the first monarch to establish a particular ceremony to
+be observed at the healings. He probably derived this from an old form
+of exorcism used for the dispossessing of evil spirits. This was
+altered at various times but may still be found in the prayer-book of
+the reign of Queen Anne. Indeed, it was not until some time after the
+accession of George I that the University of Oxford ceased to reprint
+the office of healing, together with the Liturgy.
+
+The routes to be travelled by royal personages and the days on which
+the miracle was to be wrought were fixed at sittings of the Privy
+Council, and the clergy of all the parish churches of the realm were
+solemnly notified. They, in turn, informed the people, and the
+sufferers along the way had many days in which to cherish the
+expectation of healing, in itself so beneficial. The ceremony was
+conducted with great solemnity and pomp. It has been vividly described
+by Macaulay as follows: "When the appointed time came, several divines
+in full canonicals stood round the canopy of state. The surgeon of the
+royal household introduced the sick. A passage of Mark 16. was read.
+When the words 'They shall lay their hands on the sick and they shall
+recover,' had been pronounced, there was a pause and one of the sick
+was brought to the king. His Majesty stroked the ulcers and swellings,
+and hung round the patient's neck a white ribbon to which was fastened
+a gold coin. The other sufferers were led up in succession; and as
+each was touched the chaplain repeated the incantation, 'They shall
+lay their hands on the sick and they shall recover.' Then came the
+epistle, prayers, antiphonies, and a benediction."
+
+Evelyn, in his _Diary_, gives us the form employed by Charles II in
+July, 1660, as follows: "His Majestie first began to touch for evil
+according to costume, thus--His majestie sitting under his state in
+the Banquetting House, the Chirurgeons cause the sick to be brought or
+led up to the throne, where they kneeling, the King strokes their
+faces or cheekes with both his hands at once, at which instant a
+Chaplaine in his formalities says: 'He put his hands on them and he
+healed them.' This is sayed to every one in particular. When they have
+all been touched they come up againe in the same order; and the other
+Chaplaine kneeling, and having angel-gold strung on white ribbon on
+his arme, delivers them one by one to his Majestie, who puts them
+about the necks of the touched as they passe, whilst the first
+Chaplaine repeats: 'That is the true light who came into the world.'
+Then follows an Epistle (as at first, a Gospel) with the Liturgy,
+prayers for the sick with some alteration, lastly the blessing: and
+the Lo. Chamberlaine and Comptroller of the Household, bring a basin,
+ewer, and towel for his Majestie to wash."[179]
+
+The belief in the efficacy of the king's touch was general, and Lecky
+tells us its genuineness "was asserted by the privy council, by the
+bishops of two religions, by the general voice of the clergy in the
+palmiest days of the English Church, by the University of Oxford, and
+by the enthusiastic assent of the people. It survived the ages of the
+Reformation, of Bacon, of Milton, and of Hobbes. It was by no means
+extinct at the age of Locke, and would probably have lasted still
+longer, had not the change of dynasty at the Revolution assisted the
+tardy scepticism."[180]
+
+In France there was the same belief in the efficacy of the royal
+touch. Philip I exercised the gift, but the French historians say that
+he was deprived of the power on account of the irregularity of his
+life. Laurentius reports that Francis I, when a prisoner in Spain,
+cured a great number of people of struma (scrofula). A paraphrase of
+the Latin verse which Lascaris wrote concerning this event is as
+follows:
+
+ "The king applies his hand, diseases fly,
+  And though a captive, still the powers on high
+  Regard his touch. This striking proof is giv'n,
+  That they who bound him are the foes of Heav'n."
+
+Concerning the touching by the kings of France, Pettigrew says: "In
+the church of St. Maclou, in St. Denys, Heylin (_Cosmograph._, p. 184)
+says the kings of France, with a fast of nine days and other penances,
+used to receive the gift of healing the king's evil with nothing but a
+touch. Philip de Comines states, that the king always confessed before
+the cure of the king's evil. Butler (_Lives of the Saints_, vol. VIII,
+p. 394) says, 'The French kings usually only perform this ceremony on
+the day they have received the holy communion.' The historians who
+write under the first two families of the French kings are altogether
+silent as to the kings' curing the evil by the touching. (_Veyrard
+Trav._, p. 109.) Philip of Valois is reported to have cured 1400 people
+afflicted with the king's evil. Of Louis XIII, it was said that he had
+assigned all his power to Cardinal Richelieu, except that of curing
+the king's evil. Carte says, some of the French writers ascribe the
+gift of healing to their king's devotion toward the relics of St.
+Marculf, in the church of Corbigny, in Champagne: to which the kings
+of France, immediately after their coronation at Rheims, used to go in
+solemn procession. A veneration was also paid to this saint in
+England, and a room in memory of him, in the palace of Westminster,
+has frequently been mentioned in the Rolls of Parliament, and which
+was called the Chamber of St. Marculf, being, as Carte conjectures,
+probably the place where the kings used to touch for the evil. This
+room was afterward called the Painted Chamber. The French kings
+practised the touch extensively. Gemelli, the traveller, states, that
+Louis XIV touched 1600 persons on Easter Sunday, 1686.[181] The words
+he used were, 'Le Roy te touche, Dieu te guérisse.' Every Frenchman
+received fifteen sous, and every foreigner thirty. The French kings
+kept up the practice to 1776."[182]
+
+"Servetus," says Hammond, "who was not of a credulous mind, says in
+the first edition of his _Ptolemy_, published in 1535, that he had
+seen the king touch many persons for the disease, but he had never
+seen any that were cured thereby. But the last clause of this sentence
+excited the ire of the censor, and in the next edition, published in
+1541, the words '_an sanati fuerint non vidi_' were changed to
+'_pluresque sanatos passim audivi_': 'I have heard of many that were
+cured.' Testimony in support of miracles has often been manufactured,
+but the natural obstinacy and truthfulness of Servetus would not admit
+of his giving his personal endorsement at the expense of his
+convictions."[183]
+
+Within the last half-century we have had an example of the value of
+the royal touch. When cholera was raging in Naples in 1865, and the
+people were rushing from the city by thousands, King Victor Emmanuel
+went the rounds of the hospitals in an endeavor to stimulate courage
+in the hearts of his people. He lingered at the bedside of the
+patients and spoke encouraging words to them. On a cot lay one man
+already marked for death. The king stepped to his side, and pressing
+his damp, icy hand, said, "Take courage, poor man, and try to recover
+soon." That evening the physicians reported a diminution of the
+disease in the course of the day, and the man marked for death out of
+danger. The king had unconsciously worked a marvellous cure.[184]
+
+It seems certain that there was not the efficacy in king's touch which
+was claimed for it, or it would not have been discontinued after
+having held sway for over seven hundred years. No doubt the
+quasi-religious character of the office of the sovereign helped much
+in the belief, and when such men as Charles II were able to heal,
+little connection between religion and healing could longer be thought
+possible, as far as the healing by king's touch was concerned.
+
+The Hallowing of Cramp Rings was not unlike the king's touch. It is
+described by Bishop Percy in his _Northumberland Household Book_,
+where we have the following account: "And then the Usher to lay a
+Carpett for the Kinge to Creepe to the Crosse upon. An that done,
+there shal be a Forme sett upon the Carpett, before the Crucifix, and
+a Cushion laid upon it for the King to kneale upon. And the Master of
+the Jewell Howse ther to be ready with the Booke concerninge the
+Hallowing of the Crampe Rings, and Amner (Almoner) muste kneele on
+the right hand of the King, holdinge the sayde booke. When that is
+done the King shall rise and goe to the Alter, wheare a Gent. Usher
+shall be redie with a Cushion for the Kinge to kneele upon; and then
+the greatest Lords that shall be ther to take the Bason with the Rings
+and beare them after the Kinge to offer."
+
+In the Harleian Manuscripts there is a letter from Lord Chancellor
+Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith, dated September 11, 158-, about a
+prevailing epidemic, and enclosing a ring for Queen Elizabeth to wear
+between her breasts, the said ring having "the virtue to expell
+infectious airs."
+
+Andrew Boorde, already quoted, says: "The Kynges of England doth
+halowe euery yere crampe rynges, the whyche rynges, worne on ones
+fynger, dothe helpe them the whyche hath the crampe."[185] Also, "The
+kynges majesty hath a great help in this matter, in hallowynge crampe
+rynges, and so given without money or petition."
+
+In the account of the ceremony given by Hospinian, he states that "it
+was performed upon Good Friday, and that it originated from a ring
+which had been brought to King Edward by some persons from Jerusalem,
+and one which he himself hath long before given privately to a poor
+petitioner who asked alms of him for the love he bore to St. John the
+Evangelist. This ring was preserved with great veneration in
+Westminster Abbey, and whoever was touched by this relic was said to
+be cured of the cramp or of the falling sickness." Burnet informs us
+that Bishop Gardiner was at Rome in 1529, and that he wrote a letter
+to Ann Boleyn, by which it appears that Henry VIII blessed the cramp
+rings before as well as after the separation from Rome, and that she
+sent them as great presents thither.
+
+"Mr. Stephens, I send you here cramp rings for you and Mr. Gregory and
+Mr. Peter, praying you to distribute them as you think best.--Ann
+Boleyn."[186]
+
+This ceremonial was practised by previous sovereigns and discontinued
+by Edward VI. Queen Mary intended to revive it, and, indeed, the
+office for it was written out, but she does not appear to have carried
+her intentions into effect.
+
+  [167] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 154
+  f.
+
+  [168] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 372.
+
+  [169] _Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain_, I, p.
+  225.
+
+  [170] Quoted by Berdoe, _ibid._, p. 371.
+
+  [171] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, pp. 257 f.
+
+  [172] T. B. Macaulay, _History of England_, III, pp. 378
+  f.
+
+  [173] A. D. White, _History of the Warfare of Science
+  with Theology_, II, p. 47.
+
+  [174] J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, III, p. 256.
+
+  [175] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp.
+  182-184.
+
+  [176] Quoted by H. Tuke, _Influence of the Mind upon the
+  Body_, pp. 359 f.
+
+  [177] _Life of Johnson_, I, p. 42.
+
+  [178] _History of England_, II, p. 302.
+
+  [179] Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+  [180] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals_, I,
+  p. 364.
+
+  [181] This was at Versailles.
+
+  [182] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with the
+  History and Practice of Medicine and Surgery_, pp. 156
+  f.
+
+  [183] W. A. Hammond, _Spiritism and Nervous
+  Derangement_, p. 150.
+
+  [184] C. L. Tuckey, _Treatment by Hypnotism and
+  Suggestion_, p. 30.
+
+  [185] E. Berdoe, _The Origin and Growth of the Healing
+  Art_, p. 371.
+
+  [186] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 117.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+MESMER AND AFTER
+
+
+ "Some deemed them wondrous wise,
+  And some believed them mad."--BEATTIE.
+
+ "A perfect medicine for bodies that be sick
+  Of all infirmities to be relieved;
+  This heleth nature and prolongeth lyfe eke."
+
+Probably no one would claim that the phenomena now grouped under the
+head of hypnotism were unknown before the end of the sixteenth
+century. They are as old as man, yes, probably older, since we know
+that some of the same phenomena apply to animals. But the claim might
+well be made that while isolated facts of this kind were well known,
+especially in the East, no scientific collaboration and explanation
+were attempted until this time.
+
+As with all other departments of science, we may trace a gradual
+development. Astrology of old taught the influence of the stars upon
+men, which doctrine was accepted by the great physician Theophrastus
+Paracelsus (1490-1541). This, however, was only part of his belief:
+the human body was endowed with a double magnetism; one portion
+attracted to itself the planets and was nourished by them, the result
+of which was the mental powers; the other portion attracted and
+disintegrated the elements, from which process resulted the body. He
+also claimed that the magnetic virtue of healthy persons attracted the
+enfeebled magnetism of the sick. With this theory of animal magnetism,
+it was only natural that he should value the use of the magnet very
+highly in the cure of diseases. This dual theory of magnetic cures,
+that of the magnetic influence of men on men and of the magnet on man,
+was prevalent for over a century, and found its latest exponent in
+Mesmer.
+
+Following Paracelsus, Glocenius, Burgrave, Helinotius, Robert Fludd,
+and Kircher believed that the magnet represented the universal
+principle by which all natural phenomena might be explained. This
+principle, existing as it did in the human body, was an important
+factor in health and disease. The great chemist Von Helmont
+(1577-1644) taught more precisely that a power resided in man by which
+he could magnetically affect others, and thereby cure the sick who
+were most influenced by it. He published a work on the effects of
+magnetism on the human frame.
+
+About the same time Balthazar Gracian, a Spaniard, boldly proclaimed
+his views. "The magnet," he said, "attracts iron; iron is found
+everywhere; everything, therefore, is under the influence of
+magnetism.... It is the same agent which gives rise to sympathy,
+antipathy, and the passions." Baptista Porta (1543-1615), one of the
+originators of the weapon-salve, had also great faith in the magnet.
+So effective was his work on the imaginations of his patients that he
+was considered a magician and prohibited from practising by the court
+of Rome. Sebastian Wirdig, professor of medicine at the University of
+Rostock, in Mecklenburg, wrote a treatise on "The New Medicine of the
+Spirits" which he presented to the Royal Society of London in 1673. He
+maintained that a magnetic influence took place, not only between the
+celestial and terrestrial bodies, but between all living things. The
+whole world was under the influence of magnetism: life was preserved
+by magnetism, death was the consequence of magnetism.
+
+Maxwell (1581-1640) propagated somewhat the same doctrine. He was a
+firm believer in sympathetic cures, and assumed a vital spirit of the
+universe which related all bodies. It was probably from this that
+Mesmer got his idea of what he called the universal fluid. It would
+seem, however, that Maxwell was aware of the great influence of
+imagination and suggestion. He said: "If you wish to work prodigies,
+abstract from the materiality of beings--increase the sum of
+spirituality in bodies--rouse the spirit from its slumbers. Unless you
+do one or other of these things--unless you can bind the idea, you can
+never perform anything good or great." About the same time, in Italy,
+Santanelli propagated the theory of a universal fluid. Everything
+material possessed a radiating atmosphere which operated
+magnetically. He also recognized, however, the great influence of the
+imagination.
+
+[Illustration: F. A. MESMER]
+
+About the year 1771, Father Hell, a Jesuit, and professor of astronomy
+at the University of Vienna, became famous through his magnetic cures,
+and invented steel plates of a peculiar form which he applied to the
+naked body as a cure for several diseases. In 1774 he communicated his
+system to Mesmer, the man who, more than any one else, drew the
+world's attention to the investigation of mental healing. Various
+estimates have been made of Mesmer's character and he frequently has
+been condemned. He was fond of display, but it is doubtful if he was
+more avaricious than most persons who lived before and have lived
+since. He was evidently honest in his scientific investigations and
+opinions, and this is our main concern.
+
+Friederich Antony Mesmer (1733-1815) was born at Mersbury, in Swabia,
+and studied medicine at the University of Vienna. He read freely the
+books written by the authors already mentioned, and accepted much of
+their teaching. His originality consisted principally in applying to
+the sick this universal principle, by means of contact and passes,
+while his predecessors infused the vital spirit through the use of
+talismans and of magic boxes. He took his medical degree in 1766 and
+chose as the subject of his inaugural dissertation "The Influence of
+the Planets in the Cure of Diseases." In this dissertation he
+maintained "that the sun, moon, and fixed stars mutually affect each
+other in their orbits; that they cause and direct in our earth a flux
+and reflux not only in the sea, but in the atmosphere, and affect in a
+similar manner all organized bodies through the medium of a subtle and
+mobile fluid, which pervades the universe, and associates all things
+together in mutual intercourse and harmony." This influence, he said,
+was particularly exercised on the nervous system, and produced two
+states, which he called _intension_ and _remission_, which seemed to
+him to account for the different periodical revolutions observable in
+several maladies.
+
+Eight years later he met Father Hell, and after trying some
+experiments with his metallic plates was astonished at his success. He
+continued working with Hell for some time, but they finally
+quarrelled, and shortly afterward he stumbled upon his theory of
+animal magnetism. After this he no longer used the magnet in healing.
+The Academy of Science at Berlin examined his claims, but their report
+was far from favorable or flattering. Nevertheless, writing to a
+friend from Vienna, he said: "I have observed that the magnetic is
+almost the same as the electric fluid, and that it may be propagated
+in the same manner, by means of intermediate bodies. Steel is not the
+only substance adapted to this purpose. I have rendered paper, bread,
+wool, silk, stones, leather, glass, wood, men, and dogs--in short,
+every thing I touched--magnetic to such a degree, that these
+substances produced the same effects as the loadstone on diseased
+persons. I have charged jars with magnetic matter in the same way as
+is done with electricity." About this time he was nominated a member
+of the Academy of Bavaria.
+
+Leaving Vienna and travelling through Swabia and Switzerland, he met
+Gassner and witnessed some of his cures. Mesmer claimed that they were
+performed by his newly discovered magnetism. He arrived in Paris in
+1778 and found this city more receptive to his arts. He at first
+established himself in an humble quarter of the city and began to
+expound his theory. The following year he published a paper in which
+he summed up his claims in twenty-seven assertions to which he rigidly
+held through his life. His doctrines were well received, and acquired
+an impetus at the beginning by the conversion of one of the leading
+physicians of the faculty of medicine, Deslon, the Comte d'Artois'
+first physician.
+
+Pupils and patients now flocked to him. The crowd was so great that
+Mesmer employed a _valet toucheur_ to magnetize in his place. This was
+not sufficient; he then invented the famous _baquet_, or trough,
+around which thirty persons might simultaneously be magnetized. This
+_baquet_ is described as follows: "A circular, oaken case, about a
+foot high, was placed in the middle of a large hall, hung with thick
+curtains, through which only a soft and subdued light was allowed to
+penetrate; this was the _baquet_. At the bottom of the case, on a
+layer of powdered glass and iron filings, there lay full bottles,
+symmetrically arranged, so that the necks of all converged toward the
+centre; other bottles were arranged in the opposite direction, with
+their necks toward the circumference. All these objects were immersed
+in water, but this condition was not absolutely necessary, and the
+_baquet_ might be dry. The lid was pierced with a certain number of
+holes, whence there issued jointed and moving iron branches, which
+were to be held by the patients. Absolute silence was maintained. The
+patients were ranged in several rows round the _baquet_, connected
+with each other by cords passed round their bodies, and by a second
+chain, formed by joining hands."[187]
+
+Additional features were provided to heighten the effect of the
+magnetic charm. "Richly stained glass shed a dim religious light on
+his spacious saloons, which were almost covered with mirrors. Orange
+blossoms scented all the air of his corridors; incense of the most
+expensive kinds burned in antique vases on his chimney-pieces; ćolian
+harps sighed melodious music from distant chambers; while sometimes a
+sweet female voice, from above or below, stole softly upon the
+mysterious silence that was kept in the house and insisted upon from
+all visitors."[188]
+
+Bailly, the historian and celebrated astronomer, an eye-witness,
+describes the results. "Some patients remain calm and experience
+nothing; others cough, spit, feel slight pain, a local or general
+heat, and fall into sweats; others are agitated and tormented by
+convulsions. These convulsions are remarkable for their number,
+duration, and force, and have been known to persist for more than
+three hours. They are characterized by involuntary, jerking movements
+in all the limbs, and in the whole body, by contraction of the throat,
+by twitchings in the hypochondriac and epigastric regions, by dimness
+and rolling of the eyes, by piercing cries, tears, hiccough, and
+immoderate laughter. They are preceded or followed by a state of
+languor or dreaminess, by a species of depression, and even by stupor.
+
+"The slightest sudden noise causes the patient to start, and it has
+been observed that he is affected by a change of time or tune in the
+airs performed on the pianoforte; that his agitation is increased by a
+more lively movement, and that his convulsions then become more
+violent. Patients are seen to be absorbed in the search for one
+another, rushing together, smiling, talking affectionately, and
+endeavoring to modify their crises. They are all so submissive to the
+magnetizer that even when they appear to be in a stupor, his voice, a
+glance, or a sign will rouse them from it. It is impossible not to
+admit, from all these results, that some great force acts upon and
+masters the patients, and that this force appears to reside in the
+magnetizer. This convulsive state is termed the _crisis_. It has been
+observed that many women and few men are subject to such crises; that
+they are only established after the lapse of two or three hours, and
+that when one is established, others soon and successively begin.
+
+"When the agitation exceeds certain limits, the patients are
+transported into a padded room; the women's corsets are unlaced, and
+they may then strike their heads against the padded walls without
+doing themselves any injury." Notwithstanding these means, thousands
+were healed of their diseases.
+
+"It is impossible," says Baron Dupotet, "to conceive the sensation
+which Mesmer's experiments created in Paris. No theological
+controversy, in the earlier ages of the Catholic Church, was ever
+conducted with greater bitterness." He was called a quack, a fool, and
+a demon, while his friends were as extravagant in his praise as his
+foes in their censure. After this great excitement, his life may
+largely be summed up in his challenges to different societies, the
+appointment of commissions, their examinations, and their reports.
+
+On the advice of Deslon he challenged the Faculty of Medicine,
+proposing to select twenty-four patients, of whom twelve should be
+treated according to the old and approved methods and twelve
+magnetically, the cures to prove the efficacy of the treatment. The
+faculty declined to accept the conditions. Deslon asked his colleagues
+on the faculty to summon a general meeting to examine the matter.
+Through the influence of M. de Vauzesmes, the meeting was very hostile
+to him, and he was condemned and threatened with having his name
+removed from the list of licensed physicians if he did not reform.
+
+Mesmer now wrote to Marie Antoinette suggesting that the government
+furnish him with houses, land, and a princely fortune to enable him to
+carry on his experiments untroubled. The government finally offered
+him a pension of 20,000 francs, and the cross of the order of St.
+Michael, if he had made any discovery in medicine, and would
+communicate it to the physicians whom the king should name. Mesmer
+refused the conditions and left Paris.
+
+Deslon was then called upon to renounce animal magnetism, but instead,
+invited investigation. In 1784 the government appointed a commission
+to inquire into magnetism, consisting of members from the Faculty of
+Medicine and the Academy of Sciences. Franklin, Lavoisier, and Bailly
+were members, the last named being chosen reporter. Another
+commission, composed of members of the Royal Society of Medicine, was
+charged to make a distinct report on the same subject. After
+experimenting for five months the first commission presented two
+reports, one public and the other secret, neither of which was
+favorable. The Royal Society of Medicine presented its report a few
+days later, and agreed with the first commission with the exception of
+one member, Laurent de Jussieu, who dissented and published a separate
+report of a more favorable nature. The gist of the commissions'
+reports was that imagination, not magnetism, accounted for the
+results.
+
+Soon after the commissions started their investigations, Mesmer
+returned to Paris at the invitation of his friends, who proposed to
+open a subscription for him for 10,000 louis. Immediately it was
+over-subscribed by over 140,000 francs. He came with the
+understanding that he was to give lectures and to reveal the secret of
+animal magnetism. The lectures and secrets were not satisfactory.
+After the commission reported he left Paris and returned to his own
+country where he was little heard of during the remainder of his life
+which ended in 1815.
+
+Whatever may be said of Mesmer, there seems to be no doubt about the
+honesty of his most famous pupil, the Marquis de Puységur, and to him
+we are indebted for a forward step. When Mesmer left Paris, the
+marquis retired to his estate near Soissons, and employed his leisure
+in magnetizing peasants. He magnetized his gardener, a young man named
+Victor, and after experimenting upon him claimed that during the state
+Victor exhibited marvellous telepathic and clairvoyant phenomena.
+Unable to attend all the patients who applied to him, he followed
+Mesmer's plan of magnetizing a tree. An elm on the village green was
+chosen, and round this patients gathered on stone benches as around
+Mesmer's _baquet_.
+
+Following Mesmer's theories very closely, the contribution he made was
+in the recognition of the likeness between the magnetized state and
+that of somnambulism, so that he designated this state "artificial
+somnambulism." He also modified the conditions of inducing this
+state, and simple contact or spoken orders were substituted for the
+use of the _baquet_. The effect was therefore milder, and instead of
+hysteria and violent crises accompanied by sobs, cries, and
+contractions, there was peaceful slumber. He recognized the rapport
+between operator and subject, and amnesia on awaking, and other
+phenomena now well known, but he still held to the Mesmeric theory of
+the existence of a universal fluid which saturated all bodies,
+especially the human body. It was electric in nature, and man could
+display and diffuse this electric fluid at will.
+
+While the Marquis de Puységur was using the elm tree near Soissons,
+the Chevalier de Barbarin was successfully magnetizing people without
+paraphernalia. He sat by the bedside of the sick and prayed that they
+might be magnetized; his efforts were successful. He maintained that
+the effect of animal magnetism was produced by the mere effort of one
+human soul acting upon another; and when the connection had once been
+established the magnetizer could communicate his influence to the
+subject regardless of the distance which separated them. Numerous
+persons adopted this view, calling themselves Barbarinists after their
+leader. In Sweden and Germany they were called _spiritualists_, to
+distinguish them from the followers of de Puységur, who were called
+_experimentalists_.
+
+About the same time a doctor of Lyons, Pététin, experimented with
+magnetism. After his death a paper written by him was published
+describing catalepsy and sense transference. Numerous magnetic
+societies were founded in the principal cities of France. In
+Strasburg, the Society of Harmony, consisting of more than one hundred
+and fifty members, published for years the result of their work. The
+disturbance incident to the Revolution and the wars of the Empire
+which followed repressed the investigations of magnetism in France for
+several years.
+
+In England the advent of magnetism seems to have taken place about
+1788. In that year one Dr. Mainandus, who had been a pupil first of
+Mesmer and later of Deslon, arrived in Bristol and gave public
+lectures on the subject. People of rank and fortune soon came from
+different cities to be magnetized or to place themselves under his
+tuition. He afterward established himself in London where he was
+equally successful in attracting and curing people. So much curiosity
+was excited by the subject that, about the same time, a man named
+Holloway gave a course of lectures on animal magnetism in London.
+Large crowds gathered to hear him at the rate of five guineas for each
+pupil.
+
+Loutherbourg, the painter, and his wife entered upon a similar work.
+"Such was the infatuation of the people to be witnesses of their
+strange manipulations," says Mackay, "that at times upwards of three
+thousand persons crowded round their house at Hammersmith, unable to
+gain admission. The tickets sold at prices ranging from one to three
+guineas." Loutherbourg later became a divine healer. From 1789 to 1798
+magnetism attracted little or no attention in England. At the latter
+date a Connecticut Yankee, Benjamin Douglas Perkins, invented
+"metallic tractors." The Society of Friends built a hospital called
+the "Perkinean Institute" where all comers might be magnetized free of
+cost.
+
+About 1786 animal magnetism appeared in two different places in
+Germany--on the upper Rhine and in Bremen. At this time Lavater paid a
+visit to Bremen and exhibited the magnetizing process to several
+doctors. Bremen was for a long time a focus of the new doctrine, and
+thereby was brought into bad repute. About the same time the doctrine
+spread from Strasburg over the Rhine provinces. Among those active in
+experiments were Böckmann of Carlsruhe, Gmelin of Heilbronn, and
+Pezold of Dresden. Soon it spread all over Germany. In 1789 Selle of
+Berlin brought forward a series of experiments made at the Charité
+(Hospital), in which he confirmed some of the alleged phenomena but
+excluded the supernormal.
+
+Notwithstanding the early dislike, animal magnetism flourished in
+Germany during the first twenty years of the nineteenth century. In
+1812 the Prussian government sent Wolfart to Mesmer at Frauenfeld, to
+acquaint himself with the subject. He returned to Berlin an ardent
+adherent of Mesmer and introduced magnetism into the hospital
+treatment. From this magnetism flourished so much in Berlin that, as
+Wurm relates, the Berlin physicians placed a monument on the grave of
+Mesmer at Mörsburg, and theological candidates received instruction in
+physiology, pathology, and the treatment of sickness by vital
+magnetism. The well-known physician Koreff was interested in magnetism
+and often made use of it for healing purposes. Magnetism was
+introduced everywhere, especially in Russia and Denmark. In
+Switzerland and Italy it was at first received with less sympathy, and
+in 1815 the exercise of magnetism was forbidden in the whole of
+Austria.
+
+In 1813 the naturalist Deleuze published a book entitled _Histoire
+critique du magnétisme animal_. Like his predecessors, he was chiefly
+interested in the therapeutic value of magnetism, and insisted that
+faith was necessary for effective treatment. On account of this
+condition any demonstration was impossible. He still held to the idea
+of a pervading fluid and maintained that the depth of the magnetic
+sleep depended upon the amount of the magnetic charge. Shortly after
+the appearance of Deleuze's book, interest in animal magnetism
+increased, and several journals dealing exclusively with the subject
+were started.
+
+With the death of Mesmer in 1815 ended the first period in the history
+of the phenomena known as animal magnetism. Up to this time the
+generally accepted theory was that of a vital fluid which permeated
+every thing and person and through which one person influenced
+another. The second period extended from 1815-1841 when Braid
+discovered and formulated the method of operation. The third period
+reached from 1841-1887 during which there was careful and scientific
+study of the whole subject, and hypnotism came into repute as a
+healing measure. I am inclined to posit a fourth period, 1887 to the
+present time, for Myers' hypothesis of a subliminal self, or the
+theory of the subconsciousness, has made a great difference in the
+theory of hypnotism.
+
+The second period began when Abbe Faria in 1814-15 came from India to
+Paris and gave public exhibitions, publishing the results of some of
+his experiments. He seated his subjects in an armchair, with eyes
+closed, and then cried out in a loud commanding voice, "Sleep." He
+used no manipulations and had no _baquet_, but he boasted of having
+produced five thousand somnambulists by this method. He opined that
+the state was caused by no unknown force, but rested in the subject
+himself. He agreed with the present generally accepted theory that all
+is subjective.
+
+Following Faria, Bertrand and Noizet paved the way for the doctrine of
+suggestion notwithstanding their inclination toward animal magnetism.
+Experiments were performed at the Hôtel-Dieu in 1820 but later were
+prohibited. Through the influence of Foissac in 1826 the Academy of
+Medicine appointed a committee to examine the subject, and in 1831 a
+report acknowledging the genuineness of the phenomena was made, and
+therapeutic effects were frankly admitted. In 1837 the Academy
+appointed another commission to examine still further, for the members
+as a whole were not convinced. The report of this commission was
+largely negative.
+
+After this the younger Burdin, a member of the Academy, proposed to
+award from his own purse a prize of 3,000 francs to any person who
+could read a given writing without the aid of his eyes, and in the
+dark. The existence of animal magnetism must stand or fall on this
+test. That was the difficulty during this period: the whole dispute
+was waged about, and experiments consisted in tests of, clairvoyance,
+transposition of the sense of sight, and other mystical phenomena,
+instead of dealing with the state as such. This, of course, made the
+struggle much easier for the opponents of mesmerism, but was largely
+the fault of the magnetizers. The Burdin prize was not awarded, and in
+1840 Double proposed that the Academy should henceforth pay no further
+attention to animal magnetism, but treat the subject as definitely
+closed. This was certainly unfair and unscientific, but was the
+attitude assumed.
+
+At the beginning of this period another series of tests was being
+performed in Germany, but after 1820 the belief in magnetism declined
+more and more. It flourished longest in Bremen and in Hamburg where
+Siemers was its advocate. From 1830-1840 Hensler and Ennemoser were
+the chief exponents in Bavaria. As the scientific investigators
+withdrew from the study, the charlatans and frauds entered the field,
+and the marvellous and occult were emphasized, so that in 1840 little
+general attention was paid to the subject.
+
+Notwithstanding the efforts of the London physicians Elliotson and
+Ashburner, magnetism could obtain little footing in England during
+this period. Numerous investigations were made, however, and several
+publications were sent forth. Townshend, Scoresby, and Lee are names
+prominent in the study of the subject in England at this time. In the
+next period, though, an Englishman gives the impetus necessary for the
+successful pursuit of the study.
+
+In 1841 the French magnetizer, La Fontaine, gave some public
+exhibitions in Manchester which attracted the attention of a physician
+by the name of James Braid. Through the aid rendered by Braid, animal
+magnetism blossomed into a science. He directed the subject into its
+proper field: he eschewed the occult and mysterious, and emphasized
+observation and experiment. It was Braid who gave us the word
+"hypnotism." At first a sceptic, he began experimenting and proved
+that fixity of gaze had in some way such an influence on the nervous
+system of the subject that he went off into a sleep. He therefore
+opined that the transmission of a fluid by the operator had no part in
+the matter.
+
+He further showed that an assumed attitude changed the subject's
+sentiments in harmony with the attitude, and that the degree of sleep
+varied with different persons, and with the same person at different
+times. He also noted the acuteness of the senses during hypnosis, and
+that verbal suggestion would produce hallucinations, emotions,
+paralysis, etc. Therapeutics was a subject in which he was naturally
+interested, and his experiments on different diseases were frequent
+and valuable. Braid made some mistakes, as was natural, but his
+discoveries covered the field so well and his ideas were so sound
+that too much credit cannot be ascribed to him. At first he thought
+hypnotism (Braidism) was identical with animal magnetism, but later
+made the mistake of considering it analogous, and the two flourished
+side by side and independently.
+
+Animal magnetism was first introduced into America in 1836 by Mr.
+Charles Poyan, a French gentleman. A few years later a certain Dr.
+Collyer lectured upon it in New England. New Orleans was, however, for
+a long time its chief centre. In 1848 Grimes, working independently,
+appears to have arrived at about the same conclusions as Braid. He
+showed that most of the hypnotic phenomena could be produced in the
+waking state in some subjects, by means of verbal suggestion. The
+phenomena were known under the name of electro-biology. In 1850
+Darling went to England and introduced electro-biology, but it was
+soon identified with Braidism, and in 1853 Durand de Gros, who wrote
+under the pseudonym of Philips, exhibited the phenomena of
+electro-biology in several countries, but aroused little attention.
+
+Azam of Bordeaux and Broca of Paris made some experiments following
+Braid's method, and several times performed some painless operations
+by this means. They were followed by numerous others in all European
+countries and in America. In fact, the interest in the subject became
+general, and as more was known about it, fewer objections were heard.
+Societies were formed for the study of hypnotism, publications were
+started devoting all their space to the exposition and discussion of
+it, and as this third period advanced, its scientific value was more
+and more recognized from the stand-points of psychology, pathology,
+and therapeutics.
+
+In a brief résumé like this it would be impossible to name even the
+chief experimenters in the different countries who contributed to this
+period, but some names stand out so prominently that they should be
+emphasized, for they must be reckoned in importance with Braid's.
+Liebeault, whose book, _Du Sommeil_, _etc._, was published in 1866,
+has been called the founder of the therapeutics of suggestion. While
+suggestion in both waking and hypnotic states had been applied long
+before Liebeault's day, it was he who first fully and methodically
+recognized its value. We are also indebted to him for stimulating in
+the study of hypnosis Bernheim and other prominent investigators.
+Liebeault at the head of the School of Nancy was not less known than
+Charcot at the Salpętričre.
+
+Charcot was indefatigable in his researches, but was led away in his
+conclusions by artifacts. For example: three states were produced in
+the hypnotic subject which Charcot considered to be symptomatic and
+characteristic. They were catalepsy, lethargy, and somnambulism.
+Certain physical excitations, such as rubbing the scalp or exposing
+the eyes to a bright light, were thought to be all that was necessary
+to change the subject from one stage to another. It has since been
+shown that not only were the states of catalepsy, lethargy, and
+somnambulism produced by suggestion, but the physical stimuli were
+simply suggestions and signs by which the subject knew that a
+particular change was expected, and, in harmony with hypnotic action,
+the expected change came about. Not only did Charcot make this
+mistake, but some of his followers of the Salpętričre School continued
+to be deceived for years afterward.
+
+Hardly a conclusion of Charcot's remains to-day, and yet so earnest
+was he in his investigations and so untiring in his experiments, that
+many of his facts contributed much to our knowledge of the subject
+even if his theories have been rejected. Binet, Féré, and other
+followers of his have contributed much to the science and literature
+of the subject. The latter half of this period is not unknown to us
+to-day, and as the names connected with it are familiar, it remains
+for me to mention but one more name, that of the one who ushered in
+the fourth period, F. W. H. Myers.
+
+From its beginning Myers was prominently connected with the Society
+for Psychical Research and occupied the offices of president and
+secretary. He held the latter position at the time of his death in
+1901. In 1887 he formulated his theory of the subliminal self or
+subliminal consciousness, a theory which has come to be more and more
+accepted, and the value of which has received increasing appreciation.
+It has been known as the "subconscious self" or the "subconsciousness"
+probably more than by Myers's original title; and his theory has been
+modified by some subtractions and additions, but it is generally
+accepted to-day and its exposition has helped solve many problems in
+abnormal psychology. In no department has it contributed more than in
+that of hypnotism, for by it this state has been partially explained.
+
+For a number of years Charcot and his followers put forward a
+physiological theory of hypnotism which waged war with that of the
+Nancy School, under Liebeault, but even before Charcot's death he
+recognized the validity of the Nancy claims while still clinging to
+his own. Few if any espouse Charcot's claims to-day. The general
+psychological theory of Nancy, which bases the results on suggestion,
+is that currently accepted, while a theory not very different from
+that of animal magnetism has been held by some of those who accepted
+the spiritualistic hypothesis, notably among whom was Myers.
+
+Hypnotism to-day is recognized as the product of a long line of
+erroneous theory and zigzag development, but the wheat has largely
+been sifted and the chaff thrown to the winds of antiquity. Its
+therapeutic and psychological value is duly recognized by science
+to-day.[189]
+
+
+  [187] Binet and Féré, _Animal Magnetism_, p. 8.
+
+  [188] C. Mackay, _Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, I,
+  p. 278.
+
+  [189] Many works and encyclopedic articles on hypnotism
+  have been consulted in the preparation of this chapter,
+  all of which were valuable, and few of which stand out
+  prominently.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE HEALERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+  "Medical cannot be separated from moral science, without
+  reciprocal and essential mutilation."--REID.
+
+  "Man is a dupeable animal. Quacks in medicine, quacks in
+  religion, and quacks in politics know this, and act upon
+  that knowledge. There is scarcely anyone who may not,
+  like a trout, be taken by tickling."--SOUTHEY.
+
+ "Canst thou minister to a mind diseas'd,
+  Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow,
+  Raze out the written troubles of the brain,
+  And with some sweet oblivious antidote
+  Cleanse the stuff'd bosom of that perilous stuff
+  Which weighs upon the heart?"--SHAKESPEARE.
+
+ "Joy, temperance, and repose,
+  Slam the door on the doctor's nose."--LONGFELLOW.
+
+There seems to have been a great development of mental healing during
+the nineteenth century. The healing by shrines, relics, and charms
+diminished in the latter part of the century on account of the
+lessening of superstition and the better understanding of mental laws,
+but additional work has thereby been laid upon the healers. The
+development of hypnotism and the exposition of the laws underlying it,
+the collection and publication of cases of cures by mental means, the
+lessening of faith in noxious doses of drugs, the increase of nervous
+diseases which are most easily helped by suggestive therapeutics, the
+attempted duplication of apostolic gifts on the part of some sects and
+the general reaction against the materialism of the early part of the
+century as shown in the great revival of psychical study and research
+have all been factors in the demand for mental medicine.
+
+The healers have been of various kinds. Having already dealt with the
+mesmerizers and hypnotizers, we shall now look only at the classes of
+independent and generally less scientific investigators and
+experimenters. Some have not been regular healers but healed only
+incidentally, as, _e. g._, the revivalists; some have followed James
+5:14 f. in anointing with oil and praying--of these and others, some
+have had institutions for housing the patients; some have been
+peripatetic healers; some have simply used prayer; some have
+established their systems on metaphysical bases and been the founders
+of sects; some have combined the results of scientific investigations
+in an endeavor to help mankind. Many of these have simply followed the
+ways of their predecessors of former centuries, but a few started on
+new lines of procedure. Whatever the method, they have all,
+consciously or unconsciously, depended upon the influence of the
+patient's mind over his own body, and the now better understood laws
+of suggestion.
+
+The revivals were eighteenth and nineteenth century phenomena, and in
+discussing the part which their leaders have taken in healing we may
+well include the experience of Wesley. As a mere incident in his
+revival work, John Wesley (1703-1791), the great founder of Methodism,
+appeared in the rather unenviable role of exorcist. It is to his
+credit that he was not led away from his primary purpose by this
+experience, but returned to his preaching without any effort to add
+healing to his gifts. The account of his encounter with the demons can
+best be given by quoting his own words, as found in his Journal.
+
+"October 25 [1739]. I was sent for to one in Bristol who was taken ill
+the evening before. She lay on the ground furiously gnashing her teeth
+and after a while roared aloud. It was not easy for three or four
+persons to hold her, especially when the name of Jesus was named. We
+prayed. The violence of her symptoms ceased, though without a complete
+deliverance." Wesley was sent for later in the day. "She began
+screaming before I came into the room, then broke out into a horrid
+laughter, mixed with blasphemy, grievous to hear. One who from many
+circumstances apprehended a preternatural agent to be concerned in
+this, asking, 'How didst thou dare to enter into a Christian?' was
+answered, 'She is not a Christian, she is mine.' Then another
+question, 'Dost thou not tremble at the name of Jesus?' No words
+followed, but she shrunk back and trembled exceedingly. 'Art thou not
+increasing thy own damnation?' It was faintly answered, 'Ay! Ay!'
+which was followed by fresh cursing and blasphemy ... with spitting,
+and all the expressions of strong aversion." Two days later Wesley
+called and prayed with her again, when "All her pangs ceased in a
+moment, she was filled with peace, and knew that the son of wickedness
+was departed from her." On October 28 he exorcised two more demons
+whom he had evidently (unconsciously) been the means of producing in
+two neurotic girls. He had a few other experiences in healing, but
+always in an incidental way.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN ALEXANDER DOWIE]
+
+Charles G. Finney (1792-1875) had at least one experience as a healer.
+During revival services at Antwerp, N. Y., in 1824, two insane women
+were cured, but Finney was directly concerned in the restoration of
+only one of them. Of this he gives an account in his memoirs. "There
+were two very striking cases of instantaneous recovery from insanity
+during this revival. As I went into meeting in the afternoon of one
+Sabbath, I saw several ladies sitting in a pew, with a woman dressed
+in black who seemed to be in great distress of mind; and they were
+partly holding her, and preventing her from going out. As I came in,
+one of the ladies came to me and told me she was an insane woman.... I
+said a few words to her; but she replied that she must go; that she
+could not hear any praying, or preaching, or singing; that hell was
+her portion, and she could not endure anything that made her think of
+heaven. I cautioned the ladies, privately, to keep her in her seat, if
+they could, without her disturbing the meeting. I then went into the
+pulpit and read a hymn. As soon as the singing began, she struggled
+hard to get out. But the ladies obstructed her passage; and kindly but
+persistently prevented her escape.... As I proceeded ... all at once
+she startled the congregation by uttering a loud shriek. She then cast
+herself almost from her seat, held her head very low, and I could see
+that she 'trembled very exceedingly.' ... As I proceeded she began to
+look up again, and soon sat upright, with face wonderfully changed,
+indicating triumphant joy and peace.... She glorified God and rejoiced
+with amazing triumph. About two years after, I met with her, and found
+her still full of joy and peace."[190]
+
+The so-called "Mountain Evangelist," George O. Barnes, who was born in
+1827, added healing to his other revival efforts. After leaving the
+Presbyterian Church he did his work mostly in Kentucky as an
+independent minister, and there anointed with oil according to James
+5:14 f. In his records little is said about the cures, but the daily
+number of anointings is given, amounting to at least five thousand in
+all. He believed that the devil, not God, sends sickness: God is the
+great healer. The anointing was simply a matter of faith. His formula
+varied and was very simple, as _e. g._, "Dear daughter, in Jesus's
+precious name I anoint thee with this oil of healing for thy maladies.
+Oh, go on thy way rejoicing. Be of good cheer. He is the great healer.
+He will make thee whole. He hath commanded it. Lean thy whole weight
+on Him."[191] His views may be judged by the following extract from a
+sermon of his on "Our Healer": "Oh, the hospitals and drug-stores, the
+bitter doses, the pains and racks, the tortures--great God, may this
+people believe to-day that thou hast nothing to do with this, that all
+came in with sin, and the devil manages it all; and wherever we are
+afflicted God stands by wringing His hands, and saying, '... Return to
+me, O backsliding children. Come back to me, and I will keep the devil
+off of you.'"[192] I take also some extracts from his daily record.
+
+  "July 19 [1881]. John and I took a long walk.... I shall
+  not repeat the experiment, for I got many chiggers on
+  me, which are tormenting me from head to foot while I
+  write, I think because I trusted the pennyroyal to keep
+  them off me instead of the Lord. It was not wilful, but
+  a slip of forgetfulness, yet a door wide enough for
+  Satan to enter a little bit. Now, instead of trying
+  pennyroyal to get me rid of them, I will trust the Lord
+  only.
+
+  "July 20. The chiggers gave exquisite torment. I shall
+  never trust in pennyroyal again.
+
+  "July 21. Satan tried to get me wavering on the eye
+  question, but the dear Lord set me up more firmly than
+  ever.
+
+  "July 24. We have gotten into a little trouble by
+  carelessly trying to help the dear Lord take care of his
+  little organ. A key was silent, and yesterday Marie
+  tried to remedy it. There was a good deal of taking out
+  of keys, and dusting--result, two keys silent now, and
+  one that won't be silent, but goes on in a bass wail
+  through every song. So much for meddling with the dear
+  Lord's work. We trust Him, when the lesson is learned,
+  to set the little machine all right again.... The dear
+  Lord cured the little organ this afternoon while we were
+  at dinner; at least it was all right, as Marie with a
+  happy smile informed me before she began to sing the
+  first song. I gave thanks for it in the opening prayer,
+  and then told the people all about it.
+
+  "July 27. Satan is not a little busy with me, injecting
+  doubts as to the right to trust for eyes. Faith still
+  quenches all his fiery darts, although it sorely tries
+  me to be thus inactive in these long summer days,
+  without reading my beautiful edition of Young's
+  Concordance, useless at the bottom of my trunk. My
+  Revised New Testament I can only get at through
+  others."[193]
+
+Leaving now the revivalists, let us take up the cases of others not
+revivalists who used anointing for healing. In her native hamlet of
+Maennedorf, Switzerland, Dorothea Trudel (1813-1862), the descendant
+of some generations of faith healers, cured many. Soon people began to
+come to her from near and far and, finally, at the solicitation of a
+"patient" of rank, she purchased a home where the afflicted could be
+near her. In 1856 the health authorities interfered. She was fined; an
+appeal was taken and, finally, she was permitted to carry on her work
+in connection with the home under some formal restrictions. During the
+course of the trial some authenticated cases of cure were produced:
+"one stiff knee, pronounced incurable by the best surgeons of France,
+Germany, and Switzerland; a leading physician testified to the
+recovery of a hopeless patient of his own; a burned foot, which was
+about to be amputated to prevent impending death, was healed without
+means. The evidence was incontrovertible, and the cases numerous. The
+cure was often contemporaneous with the confession of Christ by the
+unbelieving patient; but duration of the sickness varied with each
+case. Lunatics were commonly sent forth cured in a brief while."
+Nothing miraculous was claimed and no war was waged against
+physicians. It was not asserted that a cure was infallibly made, but
+it was pointed out as a simpler and more direct method. The means
+employed were gentleness, discipline, Bible reading, prayer, and
+anointing. After the death of Dorothea the home continued under the
+supervision of Mr. Samuel Zeller.
+
+Charles Cullis (1833-1892), a young physician of Boston, suffered a
+crushing bereavement in the death of his wife shortly after their
+marriage, and then vowed to devote his life to charity. Inspired by
+Müller's _Life of Trust_ he established a number of charitable
+institutions, relying on prayer and faith for their support. Some of
+these institutions were for the cure of the sick, and in connection
+with these, and otherwise, Dr. Cullis anointed and prayed with all who
+came to him. Every summer a camp-meeting was held at Old Orchard
+Beach, Maine, where the large collections gathered were the subject of
+annual comment. He was followed in his work by Rev. A. B. Simpson, of
+New York, who now conducts it. The latter was formerly a Presbyterian
+minister but is now an independent. He still heals and takes
+up collections. From the efforts of Cullis and Simpson have
+come the Christian and Missionary Alliance and other similar
+organizations with Pentecost as the text and apostolic gifts as the
+much-sought-after prize. The proof of success is found in healing,
+speaking with tongues, trances, visions, and other abnormal phenomena.
+
+The "Holy Ghost and Us" movement, with headquarters at Shiloh, Maine,
+was an outgrowth of the Christian and Missionary Alliance propaganda.
+Rev. F. W. Sanford (1863- ) was born on Bowdoinham Ridge, Maine. He
+graduated at Bates College in 1886 and attended Cobb Divinity School
+for a short time. His ordination took place in 1887, after which he
+held two pastorates of three years each, presumedly in Free Baptist
+churches. In 1891, while attending meetings at Old Orchard, he was
+inspired to start "a movement on strictly apostolic lines, which was
+to sweep the entire globe." He started on this new work early in 1893
+with Shiloh, Maine, as the centre. Relying on faith alone, several
+buildings were erected and paid for, among which is Bethesda--a Home
+of Healing: "For those who believe God told the truth when He said,
+'The prayer of Faith shall save the sick.'" In an account of the
+healing we read: "We have seen ... in at least one case, the
+restoration of the dead to life." Quite a following embraced the
+doctrine at one time, but lately there has been a considerable
+decline.
+
+An institution for faith healing was established in the north of
+London by Rev. W. E. Boardman (1810-1886). He called it "Bethshan" or
+the "Nursery of Faith" and refused to permit it to be called a
+hospital. The usual method of treatment was by anointing with oil and
+prayer, but it was claimed that many also were healed by
+correspondence. The results professed were very extravagant, among the
+cases being cancer, paralysis, advanced consumption, chronic
+rheumatism, and lameness of different kinds. As a proof of the cure of
+the last named affliction, numerous canes and crutches left behind by
+the healed were on exhibition.[194]
+
+It is said that Lord Radstock practised healing through anointing in
+Australia about the same time.
+
+There have been a number of prominent healers who have used prayer,
+and perhaps the laying on of hands, as the means for healing, and have
+usually eschewed anointing. Among these was Prince Hohenlohe
+(1794-1849). His was probably the greatest name in mental healing in
+the nineteenth century. He was born in Waldenburg and educated at
+several institutions. He was ordained priest in 1815 and officiated
+at Olmütz, Munich, and other places. In 1820 he met a peasant, Martin
+Michel, who had performed some wonderful cures, and in connection with
+him effected a so-called miraculous cure on a princess of
+Schwarzenberg who had been for some years a paralytic.[195] From this
+experience he became enthusiastic in healing, and he acquired such a
+fame as a performer of miraculous cures that multitudes flocked from
+different countries to receive the benefit of his supposed
+supernatural gifts. In one year (1848-49) there were eighteen thousand
+people who obtained access to him. His name and his titles probably
+had not a little to do with his wide influence. They were Alexander
+Leopold Franz Emmerich, Prince of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst,
+Archbishop and Grand Provost of Grosswardein, Hungary, and Abbot of St.
+Michael's at Gaborjan.
+
+The testimony concerning his cures is from reliable witnesses. Notice
+the letter written by the ex-King of Bavaria to Count von Sinsheim,
+describing his own case:
+
+  My dear Count:
+
+  There are still miracles. The ten last days of the last
+  month, the people of Würzburg might believe themselves
+  in the times of the Apostles. The deaf heard, the blind
+  saw, the lame freely walked, not by the aid of art, but
+  by a few short prayers, and by the invocation of the
+  name of Jesus.... On the evening of the 28th, the number
+  of persons cured, of both sexes, and of every age,
+  amounted to more than twenty. These were of all classes
+  of the people, from the humblest to a prince of the
+  blood, who, without any exterior means, recovered, on
+  the 27th at noon, the hearing which he had lost from
+  his infancy. This cure was effected by a prayer made for
+  him during some minutes, by a priest who is scarcely
+  more than twenty-seven years of age--the Prince
+  Hohenlohe. Although I do not hear so well as the
+  majority of the persons who are about me, there is no
+  comparison between my actual state and that which it was
+  before. Besides, I perceive daily that I hear more
+  clearly.... My hearing, at present, is very sensitive.
+  Last Friday, the music of the troop which defiled in the
+  square in front of the palace, struck my tympanum so
+  strongly, that for the first time, I was obliged to
+  close the window of my cabinet.
+
+  The inhabitants of Würzburg have testified, by the most
+  lively and sincere acclamations, the pleasure which my
+  cure has given them. You are at liberty to communicate
+  my letter, and to allow any one who wishes, to take a
+  copy of it.
+
+  Bruckenau, _July 3d, 1822_. Louis, _Prince Royal_.
+
+Professor Onymus, of the University of Würzburg, reported a number of
+cases cured by Prince Hohenlohe, which he himself witnessed. He gives
+the following:
+
+  "Captain Ruthlein, an old gentleman of Thundorf, 70
+  years of age, who had long been pronounced incurable of
+  paralysis, which kept his hand clenched, and who had not
+  left his room for many years, has been perfectly cured.
+  Eight days after his cure he paid me a visit, rejoicing
+  in the happiness of being able to walk freely.
+
+  "A man, of about 50, named Bramdel, caused himself to be
+  carried by six men from Carlstadt to the Court at
+  Stauffenburg. His arms and legs were utterly paralyzed,
+  hanging like those of a dead man, and his face was of a
+  corpse-like pallor. On the prayer of the Prince he was
+  instantly cured, rose to his feet, and walked perfectly,
+  to the profound astonishment of all present.
+
+  "A student of Burglauer, near Murmerstadt, had lost for
+  two years the use of his legs; he was brought in a
+  carriage, and though he was only partially relieved by
+  the first and second prayer of the Prince, at the third
+  he found himself perfectly well.
+
+  "These cures are real and they are permanent. If any one
+  would excite doubts of the genuineness of the cases
+  operated by Prince Hohenlohe, it is only necessary to
+  come hither and consult a thousand other eye and ear
+  witnesses like myself. Every one is ready to give all
+  possible information about them."[196]
+
+The Mormons, under the leadership of Joseph Smith, Jr. (1805-1844),
+were healing the sick about the time that Prince Hohenlohe was
+performing his miracles on the other side of the water. Smith was born
+in Sharon, Vermont. The Mormon Church (The Church of Jesus Christ of
+Latter Day Saints) was founded in 1830 in Palmyra, New York, and moved
+from there to Kirkland, Ohio; Independence, Missouri; Nauvoo,
+Illinois; and thence to Utah. Smith was successively first elder,
+prophet, seer, and revelator. The year the church was founded Smith
+began his healing career as an exorcist, casting the devil out of
+Newel Knight in Colesville, New York. Following this, there was a firm
+belief in demoniacal possession, and exorcism was practised by both
+Smith and his followers, principally by means of command. This
+exorcism led up to faith healing.
+
+Smith's maternal uncle, Jason Mack, was a firm believer in healing by
+prayer and practised it; later, the Oneida Community of Perfectionists
+in western New York cured by faith; both of these facts would be known
+to the founder of Mormonism. After adopting faith healing he soon
+became proficient in the art. Numerous well-attested cures were
+performed by Smith and his followers in other places. Elder Richards
+advertised in England "Bones set through Faith in Christ," and Elder
+Phillips made the additional statement that "while commanding the
+bones, they came together, making a noise like the crushing of an old
+basket." All forms of disease were treated, but not always
+successfully, as may be inferred from Smith's own words: "The cholera
+burst forth among us, even those on guard fell to the earth with their
+guns in their hands.... At the commencement I attempted to lay on
+hands for their recovery, but I quickly learned by painful experience,
+that when the great Jehovah decrees destruction upon any people, makes
+known His determination, man must not attempt to stay his hand." The
+means employed varied, but included at different times prayer,
+command, laying on of hands, consecrated handkerchiefs and other
+cloths, baptism, and infrequently anointing.[197]
+
+Crossing the ocean again, we find Johann Christolph Blumhardt
+(1805-1880) performing wonderful acts of healing. He assumed his first
+independent charge in 1838 when he became pastor of the village church
+at Moettlinger, Wurtemberg. He was known afterward as Pastor
+Blumhardt. Among his parishioners was Gottliebin Ditters, generally
+thought to be possessed by an evil spirit. After two years prayer and
+care for this woman, he saw her restored to peace of mind. This was
+the beginning of a life of faith in the efficacy of prayer for
+healing. After the restoration of Gottliebin a spontaneous and
+entirely unexpected revival took place in Moettlinger. Multitudes came
+from afar to hear this sincere man preach his simple sermons, and in
+many cases bodily disease left those who confessed and upon whom
+Blumhardt laid his hands. It became noised about that those who
+repented, with whom the pastor prayed and upon whom he laid his hands,
+would be healed. "One morning a mother rushed to his house, saying
+that she had by an accident scalded her child with boiling soup. The
+infant was found screaming with agony. He took the child in his arms,
+prayed over it, and it grew quiet. It had no further pain, and the
+effects of the scalding were quickly gone. Another child was nearly
+blind with disease. A neighboring pastor, when consulted, said to the
+parents: 'If you believe Jesus can and will heal your child, by all
+means go to Blumhardt, but if you have not got the faith, don't do it
+on any account; let an operation be performed.' 'Well, we have faith,'
+they said, and went to Blumhardt. Three days after it was perfectly
+well." These events could not fail to attract attention, and miracles
+or healings from his prayers were of constant occurrence. In 1852
+Blumhardt moved to Boll, Wurtemberg, and until his death he continued
+his healing. He did not despise human means of healing, but he stoutly
+held that Jesus would answer the prayer of faith uttered for and by
+the sick.
+
+About the middle of the century Father Mathew (1790-1856) attracted a
+large number of persons who were in need of healing. He was best
+known as the famous apostle of temperance, and was to Ireland in the
+nineteenth century what Wesley was to England in the eighteenth. He
+also travelled over England and Scotland and spent two years in
+America. In one period of nine months he induced two hundred thousand
+persons to take the temperance pledge. Among other things he cured
+blindness, lameness, paralysis, hysteria, headache, and lunacy. After
+his death the same diseases which he had cured during his lifetime
+were just as effectively relieved by visiting the good father's tomb,
+in the firm belief that a miracle would be performed. From the
+following cure, his first one, it will be seen that the discovery of
+his healing power was rather accidental.
+
+  "A young lady, of position and intelligence, was for
+  years the victim of the most violent headaches, which
+  assumed a chronic character. Eminent advice was had but
+  in vain; the malady became more intense, the agony more
+  excruciating. Starting up one day from the sofa on which
+  she lay in a delirium of pain, she exclaimed--'I cannot
+  endure this torture any longer; I will go and see what
+  Father Mathew can do for me.' She immediately proceeded
+  to Lehanagh, where Father Mathew was then sick and
+  feeble. Flinging herself on her knees before him she
+  besought his prayers and blessing. In fact, stung by
+  intolerable suffering she asked him to cure her. 'My
+  dear child, you ask me what no mortal has power to do.
+  The power to cure rests alone with God. I have no such
+  power.' 'Then bless me, and pray for me--place your hand
+  on my head,' implored the afflicted lady. 'I cannot
+  refuse to pray for you, or to bless you,' said Father
+  Mathew, who did pray for and bless her, and place his
+  hand upon her poor throbbing brow. Was it faith?--was it
+  magnetism?--was it the force of imagination exerted
+  wonderfully? I shall not venture to pronounce what it
+  was; but that lady returned to her home perfectly cured
+  of her distressing malady. More than that--cured
+  completely, from that moment, forward."[198]
+
+About the same time, Mrs. Elizabeth Mix, a negro woman living in
+Connecticut, achieved great fame through her healing by prayer. Many
+testified to the efficacy of her prayers and bewailed her death.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE O. BARNES]
+
+Francis Schlatter (1856-1909) was a native of Alsace, France. He was
+born a Roman Catholic and, so far as he was affiliated with any
+denomination, always remained one. When a year old, he was blind and
+deaf and was cured by his mother's prayers. He came to America in
+1891, and first settled at Jamestown, Long Island. Early in 1893 he
+moved to Denver, Colorado, and in the following July he felt impelled
+by inner promptings to start out, he knew not whither. Probably
+mentally unbalanced, he wandered through the wilderness of the great
+Southwest without shoes or hat. Fasts, temptations, visions, arrests
+and imprisonments, and healings combined to furnish his experience
+during these wanderings, always, as he said, being led by the Father.
+In July, 1895, he arrived at Las Lunas, New Mexico, where he first
+attracted public attention as a healer. From here he went to
+Albuquerque, where he treated as many as six hundred persons in a day,
+many very effectively. After forty days' fast, which was broken by a
+hearty meal of solid food, he went to Denver and here reached the
+pinnacle of his fame and success. At the home of a sympathizer, daily
+from 9 A. M. to 4 P. M., he treated those who came to him, always
+without any remuneration. From two thousand to five thousand people
+would congregate in line, reaching nearly around a city block, five or
+six abreast, but he was never able to treat more than two thousand in
+a day. Crowds came from other cities, and some few from great
+distances, even the New England States. He stood inside a fence, and
+as each one came along he held the patient's hand for a short time;
+lifting up his eyes, he prayed and then assured the sufferer of
+relief within a certain time. Through the mail and in other ways he
+received handkerchiefs which he blessed and returned with assurance of
+relief through them. Not all cases handled were restored to health or
+even noticeably eased, but large numbers testified to cures, some of
+which came immediately and others by degrees. He did not preach.
+Although he never claimed it, when asked, "Are you the Christ?" he
+always replied, "I am." He wore a beard and long hair, and dressed in
+the plainest clothes. In appearance he looked not unlike the pictures
+of the traditional Christ. Afterward he appeared in different parts of
+the United States, but never with the same success in healing as in
+Denver.[199]
+
+The once famous Dr. Newton arrived in Boston in 1859 on one of his
+visits, and caused an extraordinary sensation. Astonishing results
+were reported in the way of cures. The lame, having no further need of
+crutches, left them behind; the blind were cured, and several chronic
+cases were relieved. He had many followers and disciples among whom
+was "Dr." Bryant, who settled in Detroit and healed there. Rev. J. M.
+Buckley, D.D., met Dr. Newton on a Mississippi steam-boat, when the
+latter was returning from Havana with his daughter who was very low
+with consumption, and the father doubted if she would reach home
+alive. When asked "Doctor, why could you not heal her?" he replied "It
+seems as if we cannot always affect our own kindred." At this time he
+denounced his pupil, Dr. Bryant, as an "unmitigated fraud who had no
+genuine healing power."
+
+  "If Bryant be an unmitigated fraud, how do you account
+  for the cures which he makes?" asked Dr. Buckley.
+
+  "Oh!" said the doctor, "they are caused by the faith of
+  the people and the concentration of their minds upon his
+  operations with the expectation of being cured. Now,"
+  said he, "nobody would go to see Bryant unless they had
+  some faith that he might cure them, and when he begins
+  his operations with great positiveness of manner, and
+  when they see the crutches he has there, and hear the
+  people testify that they have been cured, it produces a
+  tremendous influence on them; and then he gets them
+  started in the way of exercising, and they do a good
+  many things that they thought they could not do; their
+  appetites and spirits revive, and if toning them up can
+  possibly reduce the diseased tendency, many of them will
+  get well."
+
+  Said Dr. Buckley: "Doctor, pardon me, is not that a
+  correct account of the manner in which you perform your
+  wonderful works?"
+
+  "Oh, no," said he; "the difference between a genuine
+  healer and a quack like Bryant is as wide as the
+  poles."[200]
+
+Father John of Cronstadt (1829-1908) was a saintly man, and furnishes
+us with an example of the healers among the Orthodox Church of the
+East. He was famed in all Russia for his sanctity, and was so thronged
+by crowds for his healing power that he often had to escape by side
+doors after celebrating the communion. His cures were many, but I
+choose his own account of one as an example.
+
+  "A certain person who was sick unto death from
+  inflammation of the bowels for nine days, without having
+  obtained the slightest relief from medical aid, as soon
+  as he had communicated of the Holy Sacrament, upon the
+  morning of the ninth day, regained his health and rose
+  from his bed of sickness in the evening of the same day.
+  He received the Holy Communion with firm faith. I prayed
+  to the Lord to cure him. 'Lord,' said I, 'heal thy
+  servant of his sickness. He is worthy, therefore grant
+  him this. He loves thy priests and sends them his
+  gifts.' I also prayed for him in church before the altar
+  of the Lord, at the Liturgy, during the prayer: 'Thou
+  who hast given us grace at this time, with one accord to
+  make our common supplication unto thee,' and before the
+  Holy Mysteries themselves. I prayed in the following
+  words: 'Lord, our life! It is as easy for thee to cure
+  every malady as it is for me to think of healing. It is
+  as easy for thee to raise every man from the dead as it
+  is for me to think of the possibility of the
+  resurrection of the dead. Cure, then, thy servant Basil
+  of his cruel malady, and do not let him die; do not let
+  his wife and children be given up to weeping.' And the
+  Lord graciously heard, and had mercy upon him, although
+  he was within a hair's breadth of death. Glory to thine
+  omnipotence and mercy, that thou, Lord, hast vouchsafed
+  to hear me!"[201]
+
+For the past century and a half healing has been carried on among the
+Pennsylvania Germans by means of a superstitious practice known as
+"Pow-wow." A book called _The Sixth Book of Moses, or Black Art_ is
+said to be the basis of the practice. The practitioners are usually
+women of the most ignorant, degraded, and, not infrequently, immoral
+class, and in harmony with this, a firm belief in witchcraft is
+entertained by them. Notwithstanding this, they are employed at times
+by intelligent and respectable people, even by those whose standing in
+the community might well guarantee a disbelief in such incantations.
+The healers treat for burns, erysipelas and all skin diseases, goitre,
+tumors, rheumatism, and some other similar troubles. They have
+different formulas for the various diseases, and the belief is current
+that if a healer should reveal the formula to her own sex, she would
+lose her power, and if she told more than one of the opposite sex,
+the power would be taken from her. The following is the method of
+operating for burns:
+
+  "Take a piece of red woolen yarn and wrap it into the
+  shape of a ball. Pass it slowly around the burn and
+  while doing so, repeat three times, 'The fire burneth,
+  water quencheth, the pain ceaseth.' After which reverse
+  the movement and repeat the words again three times.
+  Then take the yarn upstairs, pull out the chimney-stop,
+  put the yarn in the chimney, and as soon as it
+  disappears the burn is healed."
+
+There have been a number of cases of local healers and I give two
+examples: "At the time of the prevalence of cholera in Canada, a man
+named Ayers, who came out of the States, and was said to be a graduate
+of the University of New Jersey, was given out to be St. Roche, the
+principal patron saint of the Canadians, and renowned for his power in
+averting pestilential diseases. He was reported to have descended from
+heaven to cure his suffering people of the cholera, and many were the
+cases in which he appeared to afford relief. Many were thus
+dispossessed of their fright in anticipation of the disease, who
+might, probably, but for his inspiriting influence, have fallen
+victims to their apprehensions. The remedy he employed was an
+admixture of maple sugar, charcoal, and lard."[202]
+
+"The _Month_ for June, 1892, published an account, by the late Earl of
+Denbigh, of a cure worked by a member of a family named Cancelli of
+Lady Denbigh in 1850. She was suffering severely from rheumatism, and
+the Pope (Pius IX) mentioned to the Earl that near Foligno there was a
+family of peasants who were credited with a miraculous power of curing
+rheumatic disorders. Lord Denbigh succeeded in getting one of the
+family, an old man, to come, and learned from him the legend of the
+cure. The belief was that in the reign of Nero, the Apostles Peter and
+Paul took refuge in the hut of an old couple named Cancelli, near
+Foligno, and, as a proof of gratitude, gave to the male descendants of
+the family living near the spot the power of curing rheumatic
+disorders to the end of time. Lord Denbigh described how the old man
+made a solemn invocation, using the sign of the cross, and, in fact,
+Lady Denbigh did recover at once. In a few days the pains returned,
+but she made an act of resignation, and they then left her, and never
+returned with any acuteness."[203]
+
+What we may designate "Metaphysical Healing" originated with Phineas
+Parkhurst Quimby (1802-1866). The movement was important, not so much
+on account of what Quimby himself was able to accomplish by it, as
+because of the work that has been carried on since by at least three
+of his pupils. He was born in Lebanon, New Hampshire, and in early
+life was a watch and clock maker. In 1840 he began experimenting with
+mesmerism, and accounts of these experiments were published in the
+Maine papers of that time. After this he developed a system of mental
+healing of his own, practising it in different towns in Maine for some
+years. About 1858 he settled as a practitioner in Portland and
+remained there until his death. I shall quote brief extracts in his
+own words, which portray his system.
+
+  "My practice is unlike all medical practice. I give no
+  medicine, and make no outward applications. I tell the
+  patient his troubles, and what he thinks is his disease;
+  and my explanation is the cure. If I succeed in
+  correcting his errors, I change the fluids of the system
+  and establish the truth, or health. The truth is the
+  cure. This mode of practice applies to all cases."
+
+  "The greatest evil that follows taking an opinion for a
+  truth is disease."
+
+  "Man is made up of truth and belief; and, if he is
+  deceived into a belief that he has, or is liable to
+  have, a disease, the belief is catching, and the effect
+  follows it."
+
+  "Disease being made by our belief, or by our parents'
+  belief, or by public opinion, there is no formula to be
+  adopted, but every one must be reached in his
+  particular case. Therefore it requires great shrewdness
+  or wisdom to get the better of the error. Disease is our
+  error and the work of the devil."[204]
+
+Quimby made many wonderful and mostly speedy cures, and although he
+wrote out his system, it has never been published. Among his patients
+was Mrs. Patterson from Hill, New Hampshire, who went to Portland in
+1862. She had been a confirmed invalid for six years. To quote her own
+words, published in the _Portland Evening Courier_ in 1862, she made a
+rapid recovery. "Three weeks since I quitted my nurse and sick room en
+route for Portland. The belief of my recovery had died out of the
+hearts of those who were most anxious for it. With this mental and
+physical depression I first visited P. P. Quimby, and in less than one
+week from that time I ascended by a stairway of one hundred and
+eighty-two steps to the dome of the City Hall, and am improving _ad
+infinitum_. To the most subtle reasoning, such a proof, coupled, too,
+as it is with numberless similar ones, demonstrates his power to
+heal." Mrs. Patterson, afterward Mrs. Eddy, proclaimed after his death
+a doctrine very similar to Quimby's. She called it "Christian
+Science," a name Quimby applied to his teaching, although usually he
+called it "Science of Health."
+
+Another patient of Quimby's was Julius A. Dresser, who visited him
+first in 1860. Of him Mr. Dresser says: "The first person in this age
+who penetrated the depths of truth so far as to discover and bring
+forth a true science of life, and publicly apply it to the healing of
+the sick, was Phineas Parkhurst Quimby of Belfast, Me."
+
+Rev. W. F. Evans was still another patient and disciple of Quimby's.
+His testimony is as follows: "Disease being in its root a wrong
+belief, change that belief and we cure the disease.... The late Dr.
+Quimby, of Portland, one of the most successful healers of this or any
+age, embraced this view of the nature of disease, and by a long
+succession of most remarkable cures ... proved the truth of the
+theory.... Had he lived in a remote age or country, the wonderful
+facts which occurred in his practice would have now been deemed either
+mythical or miraculous."
+
+These three, Messrs. Evans and Dresser and Mrs. Eddy, proved to be
+Quimby's most famous patients and disciples. Evans became a noted and
+voluminous writer on mental healing, Mr. Dresser has been identified
+with the New Thought movement of which his son H. W. Dresser is
+probably the best exponent, and Mrs. Eddy ruled the Christian
+Scientists with a rod of iron.
+
+Warren F. Evans visited Quimby twice in the year 1863, and at these
+times obtained his knowledge of Quimby's methods. Up to this time he
+had been a Swedenborgian clergyman, and his beliefs enabled him the
+better to grasp the new doctrines. On the occasion of the second visit
+he told his healer that he thought he could cure the sick in this way,
+and Quimby agreed with him. On returning home he tried it, and his
+first attempts were so successful that he became a practitioner, using
+only mental means, and continued in this work. He wrote several books
+on the subject of mental healing, the first one, _The Mental Cure_,
+appearing in 1869, six years before Mrs. Eddy's _Science and Health_.
+
+Perhaps, strictly speaking, the New Thought movement does not come
+within the scope of our subject, except as we see in it an outgrowth
+and application of the Quimby doctrine, for two reasons. In the first
+place, its purpose is mental hygiene rather than cure, and it is all
+the more valuable for that. Of course, in establishing hygienic
+practices many disorders are cured, but prevention is the main
+feature. The second reason why we might perhaps not include it in a
+résumé of the healers is that it is intended to be for the use of the
+individual to prevent his employing a healer of any kind. The same
+objection, however, would do away to some extent with a discussion of
+Christian Science. The principles of New Thought are that the mind has
+an influence on the body, and that good, sweet, pure thoughts have a
+salutary effect, but the opposite ones injure the body. Don't worry,
+don't think of disease, don't look for trouble, but fill the mind
+with the opposite positive thoughts and life will be happy and the
+body will be well. The doctrines are expounded differently by the
+various leaders, and emphasis is laid on different points, some
+emphasizing more fully the religious aspects of the movement, for
+example. The principal writers on the subject are H. W. Dresser, R. W.
+Trine, H. Wood, and H. Fletcher.
+
+Mrs. Mary A. Morse Baker Glover Patterson Eddy (1821-1910) was born at
+Bow, New Hampshire. After a precocious and neurotic childhood, she
+united with the Congregational Church when seventeen years of age. At
+the age of twenty-two she married George Washington Glover, probably
+the best of her husbands. His death, six months later, was followed by
+the birth of her only child and a ten years' widowhood. During this
+time she stayed with her relatives and had long periods of illness,
+principally of an hysterical character. She then experimented to some
+extent with mesmerism and clairvoyance. In 1853 she married Dr. Daniel
+Patterson, an itinerant dentist, from whom she got a divorce, and as
+Mrs. Patterson she went first to "Dr." Quimby in 1862. She visited
+Quimby again in 1864, at which time, with some others, she studied
+with him. After Quimby's death she began teaching what she then called
+his science. For the next few years she wandered from town to town
+about Boston in straitened circumstances, healing, teaching, and
+endeavoring to found an organized society. It was not, however, until
+1875 that the organization was formed in Lynn, and later in the same
+year appeared her _Science and Health_. The years since then have been
+filled with controversies in the law courts and newspapers, caresses
+and blows from the ruling hand of Mother Eddy, and numerous
+developments from small beginnings, until now over one hundred
+thousand are identified with the organization. These are almost
+without exception proselytes from other churches.
+
+[Illustration: MARY BAKER EDDY]
+
+Mrs. Eddy's doctrines are founded on a metaphysical theory known as
+subjective idealism, and advanced centuries before her birth. It
+posits the all-comprehensiveness of mind and the non-existence of
+matter. If bodies do not exist, diseases cannot exist, and must be
+only mental delusions. If the mind is freed of these delusions the
+disease is gone. This was Quimby's method of procedure already quoted.
+In _Science and Health_ she says that the object of treatment is "to
+destroy the patient's belief in his physical condition." She also
+advises: "Mentally contradict every complaint of the body." She
+continues: "All disease is the result of education, and can carry its
+ill effects no further than mortal mind maps out the way. Destroy
+fear," she says, "and you end the fever." However, as with other
+healers, practice and theory are two different things. Listen further:
+"It would be foolish to venture beyond our present understanding,
+foolish to stop eating, until we gain more goodness and a clearer
+comprehension of the living God." Again: "Until the advancing age
+admits the efficacy and the supremacy of Mind, it is better to leave
+the adjustment of broken bones and dislocations to the fingers of the
+surgeon, while you confine yourself chiefly to mental reconstruction,
+and the prevention of inflammation and protracted confinement."[205]
+
+With the exception of Christian Science, no modern religious movement
+has come so prominently before the public and gained so many adherents
+in a short time as the Christian Catholic Apostle Church of Zion, and
+both movements owe their popularity solely to their healing. John
+Alexander Dowie (1847-1907), the founder of this sect, was born in
+Edinburgh, Scotland, but in 1860, with his parents, he went to
+Australia, returning for two years to his native city for college
+study. In 1870 he was ordained to the Congregational ministry. He
+served three churches, and after some political activity was offered a
+portfolio in the Australian cabinet of Sir Henry Parks. In 1882 he
+went to Melbourne and established a large independent church, building
+a tabernacle for worship. About this time he became a firm believer in
+Divine Healing in direct answer to prayer. He arrived in San Francisco
+in 1888 and spent two years in organizing branches of the Divine
+Healing Association of which he was president. He went to Chicago in
+1890 and continued there holding meetings for some years. In 1895 he
+broke away from the International Divine Healing Association, which he
+had been chiefly instrumental in organizing, and insisted that his
+followers should not remain in the churches. The following year the
+Christian Catholic Church was organized. Of this organization Mr.
+Dowie was known as General Overseer, then as Prophet, and in 1904 as
+First Apostle. He also proclaimed himself in general as the messenger
+of the Covenant and Elijah the Restorer. In 1900 Mr. Dowie said:
+"About twenty-two thousand have been baptized by triune immersion up
+to the present, and this includes practically all the members." This,
+however, was a great exaggeration. In 1901 the head-quarters of the
+church was moved to Zion City, forty-two miles north of Chicago. He
+preached the threefold gospel of Salvation, Healing, and Holy Living.
+Dowie differed from Christian Science in proclaiming the reality of
+disease, the distinctive feature of his doctrine being that all bodily
+ailment is the work of the Devil, and that Christ came to destroy the
+works of the Devil. His contempt for external means may be judged from
+the title of a pamphlet, _Doctors, Drugs, and Devils_; nevertheless,
+he used physicians at least to diagnose cases at different times, a
+licensed medical doctor, Speicher, being associated with him from the
+beginning of his work in Chicago. Dentists are a factor of Zion City,
+and it is said he also used an oculist. According to his doctrine
+there are four methods of cure: "The first is the direct prayer of
+faith; the second, intercessory prayer of two or more; the third, the
+anointing of the elders, with the prayer of faith; and the fourth, the
+laying on of hands of those who believe, and whom God has prepared and
+called to that ministry." In addition to this, teaching is the basis
+of all other methods. The first ten years of his healing he is said to
+have laid hands on eighteen thousand sick, and he declared that the
+greater part of them were fully healed. In some of his later years he
+said in an issue of his paper: "I pray and lay hands on seventy
+thousand people in a year." That would make one hundred and
+seventy-five thousand in two and a half years; but in the time
+preceding the statement he reported only seven hundred cures.
+Evidently very few were helped. However, in Shiloh Tabernacle at Zion
+City are exhibited on the walls crutches, canes, surgical instruments,
+trusses, and almost every form of apparatus used by the medical
+profession, presented by people who have now no further use for them
+on account of their being healed.[206]
+
+Our study began with the mental therapeutics of over a millennium
+before the birth of Christ; let us now close with that of the
+twentieth century after, in giving some account of the so-called
+Emmanuel Movement. In 1905 there was formed in connection with
+Emmanuel Church, Boston, a tuberculosis class for the alleviation of
+unfortunates of this kind. In this experience it was found that
+certain psychic and social factors greatly aided in a cure, and in the
+following year, 1906, the work expanded into what has been called the
+"Emmanuel Movement." It is an attempt to combine the wisdom and
+efforts of the physician, the clergyman, the psychologist, and the
+sociologist, to combat conditions most frequently met in a large city.
+In the medical phase of the work mental healing has had a large place,
+and has been emphasized most in the popular presentation of the
+movement, and so far as the idea has spread, it has been almost wholly
+in connection with this aspect. What the future of this will be is
+uncertain, but it seems probable that its most valuable service will
+be in stimulating the physicians to take up the work which properly
+belongs to them--the work of therapeutics in all its branches, mental
+and physical.
+
+
+  [190] C. G. Finney, _Memoirs_, pp. 108 f.
+
+  [191] W.T. Price, _Without Scrip or Purse, or the
+  "Mountain Evangelist," George O. Barnes_, p. 451.
+
+  [192] _Ibid._, p. 610.
+
+  [193] _Ibid._, pp. 301 ff.
+
+  [194] J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred
+  Phenomena," _Century_, XXXII, pp. 221 f.
+
+  [195] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, article "Hohenlohe."
+
+  [196] D. H. Tuke, _Influence of the Mind upon the
+  Body_, pp. 355 ff.
+
+  [197] I. W. Riley, _The Founder of Mormonism_, chaps.
+  VIII and IX.
+
+  [198] J. F. Maguire, _Father Mathew_, pp. 529 f.
+
+  [199] _Biography of Francis Schlatter, The Healer_.
+
+  [200] J. M. Buckley, "Faith Healing and Kindred
+  Phenomena," _Century_, XXXII, pp. 221 f.
+
+  [201] Father John, _My Life in Christ_ (trans.
+  Goulaeff), p. 201.
+
+  [202] T. J. Pettigrew, _Superstitions Connected with ...
+  Medicine and Surgery_, p. 53.
+
+  [203] E. Berdoe, _Origin and Growth of the Healing Art_,
+  p. 482.
+
+  [204] J. A. Dresser, _The True History of Mental
+  Science_; A. G. Dresser, _The Philosophy of P. P.
+  Quimby_.
+
+  [205] G. Milmine, _Mary Baker G. Eddy_.
+
+  [206] R. Harlan, _John Alexander Dowie_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+ABRAXAS, 165 ff.
+
+Ague, 168, 172 f., 197 ff.
+
+Amulets, Chapter VII--
+  definition of, 138 f., 158 f.
+
+Astrology, 141 f., 146 ff.
+
+
+BAQUET, Mesmer's, 255 f.
+
+Bites of venomous animals, 200 f.
+
+Burns, 201.
+
+
+CABBALISM, 194.
+
+Calculus, 176 f.
+
+Cancer, 9 f.
+
+Canonization, 111.
+
+Catacombs, 66.
+
+Characts, 166 ff.
+
+Charms, Chapter VIII--
+  composition of, 193.
+  definition of, 189 f.
+
+Childbirth, 162, 168, 177, 202.
+
+Cholera, 177.
+
+Chorea, 203.
+
+Christianity, influence of, Chapter III.
+
+Christian Science, 16 f., 298 f., 302 f.
+
+Colic, 177 f., 203.
+
+Consumption, 203 f.
+
+Cramp, 178, 204, 246 ff.
+
+Cross, true, 69, 79 f.
+
+
+DEMONOLOGY--
+  and animals, 38 f.
+  and Apostolic Fathers, 40 ff.
+  and Dark Ages, 44 ff.
+  Christian, 37 ff.
+  Jewish, 36 f.
+
+Diseases, functional and organic, 9.
+
+Dislocations, 204 f.
+
+Dropsy, 205.
+
+
+EMMANUEL MOVEMENT, 306 f.
+
+Epilepsy, 178 f., 205 ff.
+
+Erysipelas, 180 f.
+
+Evil eye, 181, 207.
+
+Exorcism, 49 ff., 126 f., 134 f., 275, 286.
+  by amulets, 178.
+  by charms, 204.
+  by relics, 63.
+
+Eye disease, 168 f., 181 f., 207.
+
+
+FAITH, 14 f.
+
+Faith cure, 16, 17.
+
+Fevers, 166, 182, 208.
+
+
+GEMS, 161 ff., 176.
+
+Goitre, 209.
+
+Gout, 182 f.
+
+
+HEADACHE, 183, 209 f.
+
+Healers, Chapter V--
+  and exorcism, 110.
+  by unction, 114 ff.
+  Christian, 113 ff.
+  Mesmeric, Chapter X.
+  of nineteenth century, Chapter XI.
+
+Hemorrhage, 210 f.
+
+Herpes, 211 f.
+
+Hypnotism, Chapter X.--
+  controversy over, 257 ff.
+  historic periods of, 264 f.
+  Mesmer and, 252 ff.
+  scientific period of, 267 f.
+
+Hysteria, 183.
+
+
+INCUBATION, 26, 92 ff.
+  Greek, 93 ff.
+
+Incubus, 212.
+
+Insanity, 162, 183, 213.
+
+Insomnia, 212.
+
+
+JAUNDICE, 212 f.
+
+
+MAGNETISM, 249 ff.
+
+Mandragora, 171 f.
+
+Marasmus, 214.
+
+Medicine and church, 53 ff.
+  Babylonian, 27.
+  Chinese, 21 ff.
+  Egyptian, 24 ff.
+  Greek, 28 ff.
+  History of, 19 f.
+  Indian, 28.
+  Jewish, 27.
+  Primitive, 4, 20.
+  Roman, 34.
+
+Melancholy, 183.
+
+Mental healing, explanation of, 7 ff.
+
+Mesmerism. See Hypnotism.
+
+Metaphysical cures, 16, 297 ff.
+
+
+NUMBERS, 190 ff.
+
+
+OIL OF SAINTS, 66 f.
+
+
+PERICARPIA, 173.
+
+Phylacteries, 141.
+
+Plague, 183.
+
+Pools, 83 ff., 92.
+
+Prayer, 274 f., 280 ff., 283 f., 288, 291, 294.
+
+Psycho-analysis, 12 f.
+
+
+RE-EDUCATION, 12 f.
+
+Relics, 5, Chapter V--
+  and Church Fathers, 64 f.
+  cost of, 96 ff.
+  fraud among, 101 f.
+  from Holy Land, 69 ff.
+
+Religion and Healing, 4 ff., 21, Chapter III.
+
+Revivalists, 274 ff.
+
+Rickets, 214 f.
+
+Rings, 179 f., 184, 246 ff.
+
+Royal Touch, Chapter IX--
+  ceremony of, 240 ff.
+  origin of, 225 ff.
+
+
+SAINTS AND DISEASES, 74 ff., 81 f.
+
+Sciatica, 215.
+
+Scrofula, 185, 215, Chapter IX.
+
+Shrines, Chapter IV--
+  modern, 106 f.
+
+Sick, care of, 57 f.
+
+Signatures, 56, 142 ff.
+
+Spittle, 195.
+
+Subconsciousness, 11, 12, 14.
+
+Suggestions, 8, 251 f.
+
+Sweating sickness, 215.
+
+Sympathetic cures, 150 ff.
+
+
+TALISMANS, Chapter VI--
+  definition of, 138 ff., 142.
+
+Therapeutics. See Medicine.
+
+Thorns, 216.
+
+Toothache, 166, 186, 217 f.
+
+Touch pieces, 233 f.
+
+
+UNCTION, 144 ff., 274, 280.
+
+
+WARTS, 218 f.
+
+Weapon-salve, 151 ff.
+
+Wells, holy, 83 ff.
+
+Wen, 219 f.
+
+Whooping-cough, 186, 220 ff.
+
+Worms, 223.
+
+Wounds, 184 f.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF NAMES
+
+
+ABRAHAM, 100.
+
+Adam, 41.
+
+Adrian, Pope, 184.
+
+Ćsculapius, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 63, 83, 86.
+
+Agatha, St., 75.
+
+Agnan, St., 75.
+
+Agrippa, 59, 191.
+
+Albans, St., 202.
+
+Albertus Magnus, 159, 164.
+
+Alboquerque, A. d'. 185.
+
+Alexander III, 55, 227.
+
+Alexander of Tralles, 171, 173, 178, 180, 182, 196.
+
+Ambrose, St., 38, 64, 65, 66, 70.
+
+Andreas, St., 80.
+
+Andrews, 196.
+
+Anne, Queen, 228, 233, 239, 240.
+
+Anne, St., de Beaupré, 106, 107.
+
+Anthony, St., 75, 80.
+
+Antoinette, Marie, 258.
+
+Antoninus, 31.
+
+Apes, Valerius, 32.
+
+Apollo, 29, 31, 83.
+
+Apollonia, St., 75, 76.
+
+Aquarius, 74.
+
+Aredius, 119.
+
+Aries, 74.
+
+Aristophanes, 31.
+
+Aristotle, 19, 29, 164.
+
+Armstrong, 3.
+
+Arnot, H., 141.
+
+Ashburner, 267.
+
+Ashmole, E. 173.
+
+Athanasius, 42.
+
+Aubrey, 215, 228.
+
+Augustine, St., 43, 64, 108.
+
+Aurelian, Father, 48.
+
+Avertin, St., 75.
+
+Ayers, 296.
+
+Azam, 269.
+
+
+BAAS, 171, 203.
+
+Bacci, P. J., 132.
+
+Bacon, F., 242.
+
+Bacon, R., 59.
+
+Badger, 230.
+
+Bagnone, F., 136.
+
+Bailly, 256, 259.
+
+Balsius, St., 74.
+
+Baltus, 43.
+
+Barbarin, de, 261.
+
+Bargrave, 250.
+
+Barnabas, St., 75.
+
+Barnes, G. O., 277.
+
+Barrington, 233.
+
+Barros, de, 184.
+
+Bates, 205.
+
+Bath-Chorin, 28.
+
+Becket, 78.
+
+Bede, 72, 74, 118, 121, 122, 149.
+
+Belgrade, 168.
+
+Benedict, St., 75.
+
+Benedict XIV, 111.
+
+Berdoe, E., 32, 35, 106, 129, 145, 146, 148, 169, 174, 177, 180, 200, 205,
+  211, 218, 226, 228, 297.
+
+Berenger, 98.
+
+Bernard, Dr. C., 239, 240.
+
+Bernard of Clairvaux, 122, 123.
+
+Bernard, St., 38, 77.
+
+Bernheim, H., 106, 270.
+
+Bertrand, 265.
+
+Binet, 255, 270.
+
+Bingham, 160.
+
+Black, 219.
+
+Blair, 224.
+
+Blaise, St., 75.
+
+Blochwick, 178.
+
+Blumhardt, J. C., 287 f.
+
+Boardman, W. E., 282.
+
+Böckmann, 263.
+
+Bois, John de, 125.
+
+Boleyn, A., 247, 248.
+
+Boncompagni, Cardinal, 132.
+
+Boniface, St., 77.
+
+Bonner, Bishop, 202.
+
+Bontius, 177.
+
+Boorde, A., 228, 247.
+
+Bossuet, 47.
+
+Boswell, 239.
+
+Boyle, R., 173, 176, 211, 214.
+
+Braid, 264, 267, 268, 269.
+
+Bramdel, 285.
+
+Brand, J., 90, 147, 160, 168, 173, 179, 185, 195, 197, 199, 200, 204, 208,
+   209, 211, 215, 216, 218, 220, 232, 233.
+
+Brand the Historian, 210.
+
+Broca, 269.
+
+Brockett, 187.
+
+Brogawn, St., 91.
+
+Browne, Dr. E., 213.
+
+Browne, J., 233, 234, 236.
+
+Browne, Sir T., 35, 186, 195, 213, 218, 236.
+
+Bryant, Dr., 292 f.
+
+Buckingham, Duke of, 153.
+
+Buckland, Prof., 102.
+
+Buckle, H. T., 45.
+
+Buckley, J. M., 283, 292, 293.
+
+Bulwer-Lytton, 158.
+
+Burdin, 266.
+
+Burgarde, St., 74.
+
+Burgrave, 250.
+
+Burnet, 247.
+
+Burton, R., 158, 159, 160, 173, 183.
+
+Butler, 243.
+
+Butler, A., 161.
+
+Butler, J., 129.
+
+
+CAIUS, 31.
+
+Calama, 64.
+
+Calixtus II, 55.
+
+Cancelli, 296.
+
+Capricornus, 74.
+
+Capua, Raimondo da, 127, 128, 129.
+
+Carodoc, 9.
+
+Catharine, St., 126, 127.
+
+Cato the Censor, 204.
+
+Chalmers, 14.
+
+Chamberlain, J., 230.
+
+Charcot, 106, 270.
+
+Charles I, 230, 231.
+
+Charles II, 232, 234, 241, 246.
+
+Charles II of Spain, 45.
+
+Charles Edward, Prince, 240.
+
+Chaucer, 61, 142, 164, 224.
+
+Chesterfield, 3.
+
+Chilperic, 119.
+
+Christopher, St., 75.
+
+Chrysippus, 182.
+
+Chrysostom, St., 67, 116, 159.
+
+Churchill, 3.
+
+Cicero, 19.
+
+Clairvaux, Abbot of, 77.
+
+Clara, St., 76.
+
+Clarke, R. F., 105.
+
+Clement of Alexandria, 165.
+
+Clement VIII, Pope, 132.
+
+Cleophas, Simon, 75.
+
+Clerk, Mrs., 148.
+
+Clothair II, 119.
+
+Clovis I, 225.
+
+Cockayne, 178, 194.
+
+Coirin, la demoiselle, 105.
+
+Coles, 144.
+
+Coleta, 78, 120.
+
+Collier, J., 226.
+
+Collinson, 89.
+
+Collyer, Dr., 268.
+
+Comines, P. de, 243.
+
+Conway, Lord, 135.
+
+Cosmo, 118.
+
+Cotta, 181.
+
+Cowles, W., 229.
+
+Cromwell, O., 113.
+
+Cros, J. M., 130.
+
+Crowley, 220.
+
+Cudworth, Dr., 136.
+
+Cullis, C., 281.
+
+Cullum, Sir J., 214.
+
+Cuthbert, St., 72, 73, 74, 118.
+
+Cyprian, 43.
+
+Cyril, St., 64.
+
+Cyrus, St., 67, 159, 116.
+
+
+DAMIAN, 118.
+
+Darling, 268.
+
+Dearmer, P., 67, 68, 96, 105, 115, 121.
+
+Delenze, 264.
+
+Democritus, 33.
+
+Denbigh, Earl of, 296.
+
+Deslon, 254, 258, 262.
+
+Deubner, L., 96.
+
+Deucalion, 208.
+
+Digby, Sir E., 151.
+
+Digby, Sir K., 151 ff., 155, 218.
+
+Ditters, G., 287.
+
+Dodd, Dr., 219.
+
+Donce, 181, 199.
+
+Dowie, J. A., 304 f.
+
+Draper, J. W., 72.
+
+Dresser, A. G., 298.
+
+Dresser, H. W., 300, 301.
+
+Dresser, J. A., 298, 299.
+
+Dromore, Bishop of, 135.
+
+Dryden, 155.
+
+Dundee, B., 223.
+
+Dupotel, Baron, 257.
+
+Durham, Bishop of, 59.
+
+Dziewicki, M. H., 51.
+
+
+ECCLES, 146.
+
+Eddy, Mrs., 16, 299, 300, 301, 302.
+
+Edine, St., 76.
+
+Edward the Confessor, 225, 226, 227, 228, 234.
+
+Edward II, 145.
+
+Edward III, 234.
+
+Edward VI, 248.
+
+Eleazar, 37.
+
+Elisha, 109.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 184, 202, 229, 234, 247.
+
+Elliotson, 267.
+
+Elpideus, 59.
+
+Empedocles, 29.
+
+Encelius, 161.
+
+Ennemoser, 266.
+
+Ennodius, St., 59.
+
+Erasmus, St., 74, 76.
+
+Estrade, J. B., 106.
+
+Euhodias, 114.
+
+Eustachius, 86.
+
+Eustasius, Abbe, 119, 120.
+
+Eutrope, St., 76.
+
+Evans, W. F., 299 f.
+
+Evelyn, 241.
+
+Evremond, St., 134.
+
+
+FABIAN, POPE, 43.
+
+Faria, 265.
+
+Farnham, N. de, 59.
+
+Fecamp, 107.
+
+Felix, Minucius, 42.
+
+Felix, Mons, 104.
+
+Ferdinand, 155.
+
+Féré, 255, 270.
+
+Ferrarius, 198.
+
+Fiage, St., 76.
+
+Fillan, St., 88, 213.
+
+Finney, C. G., 276, 277.
+
+Fisher, G. P., 64.
+
+Fitz-Nigel, R., 59.
+
+Fletcher, 61.
+
+Fletcher, H., 301.
+
+Floyer, Sir J., 239.
+
+Fluctibus, A., 151.
+
+Fludd, Dr., 151, 250.
+
+Foissac, 265.
+
+Fontenelle, 19.
+
+Fort, G. F., 46, 59, 63, 77, 80, 81, 96, 97, 121, 127, 149, 165, 171, 172,
+   194, 207.
+
+Fortescue, Sir J., 228.
+
+Fosbrooke, 84, 142.
+
+Foster, Parson, 151.
+
+Fox, G., 132 f.
+
+Francis, Father, 91.
+
+Francis I, Emperor, 146.
+
+Francis I, King, 243.
+
+Francis, St., 124.
+
+Franklin, 259.
+
+Franz, A., 171.
+
+
+GALEN, 19, 196.
+
+Gall, St., 46, 77, 81, 100, 119.
+
+Gamaliel, 64.
+
+Ganny, S., 125.
+
+Gardiner, Bishop, 247.
+
+Gassner, J. J., 136, 254.
+
+Gemelli, 244.
+
+Gemini, 74.
+
+Genevieve, St., 68, 76, 118.
+
+Genow, St., 76.
+
+George I, 240.
+
+George, St., 67, 94, 97, 98.
+
+Gereon, St., 101.
+
+Germain, St., 117.
+
+Germanus, St., 76.
+
+Gervasius, St., 65.
+
+Gilbourne, Lord, 155.
+
+Giles, St., 76.
+
+Glocenius, 250.
+
+Gmelin, 263.
+
+Goldsmith, 19.
+
+Googe, B., 203.
+
+Görres, 130.
+
+Gower, 189.
+
+Gracian, B., 250.
+
+Greatrakes, V., 133 ff.
+
+Gregory, Mr., 248.
+
+Gregory, of Nazianzus, 43, 118.
+
+Gregory, of Tours, 44, 68, 69, 83, 118.
+
+Gregory, St., 98.
+
+Gregory the Great, 44, 45, 72.
+
+Gregory XIII, Pope, 132.
+
+Grimes, 268.
+
+Gros, D. de, 269.
+
+Grose, 90, 218.
+
+Gudule, St., 104.
+
+Guffe, John, 125.
+
+Guthlac, St., 77.
+
+
+HALL, BISHOP, 91, 158.
+
+Hamerton, 138.
+
+Hamilton, Miss M., 93, 94, 96.
+
+Hammond, W. A., 153, 154, 157, 244, 245.
+
+Hardy, 22.
+
+Harlan, R., 306.
+
+Harrington, Sir J., 163.
+
+Hasted, 86.
+
+Hatton, Lord Charles, 184, 247.
+
+Helen, Empress, 70.
+
+Helinotius, 250.
+
+Hell, 252, 253.
+
+Helmont, von, 150.
+
+Henry II and III, 59.
+
+Henry IV, 225.
+
+Henry VII, 85, 234, 240.
+
+Henry VIII, 247.
+
+Hensler, 266.
+
+Hercules, 33, 83.
+
+Herring, 183.
+
+Herz, Frau, 48.
+
+Heylin, Dr., 238, 243.
+
+Heywood, 189.
+
+Higden, Ranulf, 91.
+
+Hilarion, St., 38, 117.
+
+Hippo, 64.
+
+Hippocrates, 28, 32, 47.
+
+Hippolito, 155.
+
+Hobbes, 242.
+
+Hohenlohe, Prince, 283 f.
+
+Holloway, 262.
+
+Holt, Sir J., 174 f.
+
+Homer, 29, 30.
+
+Hospinian, 247.
+
+Howell, A. G., 124.
+
+Howell, J., 152 f.
+
+Hubert, St., 78, 79, 81, 82.
+
+Hugo, 120.
+
+Hyacinth, St., 76.
+
+Hyde, 139.
+
+Hygeia, Tecla, 86.
+
+
+IATRICOS, 83.
+
+Imbert-Gourbyzee, 106.
+
+Innocent II, 55.
+
+Innocent III, 55.
+
+Irenćus, 41, 113.
+
+Isaac, 100.
+
+
+JACKSON, 167.
+
+Jacob, 97, 100.
+
+James, 114, 115.
+
+James I, 229.
+
+James II, 153, 238.
+
+Jerome, of Brunsweig, 187.
+
+Jerome, St., 117.
+
+Joane, Mother, of Stowe, 197.
+
+Job, St., 76.
+
+John, 66, 123.
+
+John, Father, of Cronstadt, 294 f.
+
+John, of Gladdesden, 145, 206.
+
+John, St., 67, 74, 75, 76, 93, 97.
+
+John, St., of Beverly, 121.
+
+Johnson, Dr. S., 238 f.
+
+Johnson, Mrs., 239.
+
+Joseph, 25, 75.
+
+Josephus, 28, 37.
+
+Julian, 32, 44.
+
+Juliana, St., 76, 118.
+
+Julius Africanus, 166.
+
+Jussieu, L. de, 259.
+
+Just, St., 98.
+
+Justina, Empress, 65.
+
+
+KAMPFER, 146.
+
+King, E. A., 60, 173, 182, 187, 193, 204, 205, 217.
+
+Kircher, 250.
+
+Koreff, 263.
+
+Kublai Khan, 185.
+
+
+LACIANUS, 64.
+
+Lactantius, 42.
+
+La Fontaine, 267.
+
+Laneham, R., 229.
+
+Lascaris, 243.
+
+Laurent, du, 192.
+
+Laurentia, 127.
+
+Laurentius, 225, 243.
+
+Lavater, 263.
+
+Lavoisier, 259.
+
+Lawrence, St., 74, 76.
+
+Leatus, 75.
+
+Lecky, W. E. H., 42, 65, 113, 242, 243.
+
+Lee, 267.
+
+Lemnius, L., 195.
+
+Leo, 74.
+
+Leo, Pope, 100.
+
+Leonastes, 68.
+
+Leverett, John, 136.
+
+Liberius, St., 76.
+
+Libra, 74.
+
+Liebeault, 269, 270, 271.
+
+Lilly, 86.
+
+Lindsey, Earl of, 231.
+
+Littre M., 80.
+
+Lluellin, 212.
+
+Locke, 242.
+
+Lodge, 198.
+
+London, Bishop of, 59.
+
+Longfellow, 273.
+
+Louis I, 225.
+
+Louis XIII, 244.
+
+Louis, Prince, 285.
+
+Louis, St., 79.
+
+Loutherbourg, 262.
+
+Lucian, 218.
+
+Lucy, St., 76.
+
+Luke, 75, 97.
+
+Lupton, 180, 185.
+
+Luther, Martin, 47, 129.
+
+
+MACARIUS, St., 116.
+
+Macaulay, C. S., 89.
+
+Macaulay, Mrs., 89.
+
+Macaulay, T. B., 232, 241.
+
+Macdonald, 204.
+
+Machaon, 30.
+
+Mack, J., 286.
+
+Mackay, C., 69, 71, 100, 104, 108, 157, 256, 262.
+
+Madern, St., 91.
+
+Magnus, St., 79.
+
+Maimonides, 140.
+
+Mainadus, Dr., 262.
+
+Maine, St., 76.
+
+Marcellus, 168.
+
+Margaret, St., 76.
+
+Maria, S. dell 'Arco, 107.
+
+Mark, 75, 99, 114.
+
+Marsden, 199.
+
+Martin, St., 68, 69, 76, 78, 83, 117, 120.
+
+Martyr, Justin, 41, 42.
+
+Marus, St., 76.
+
+Mary, 71.
+
+Mary, Queen, 248.
+
+Maspéro, G., 25, 26.
+
+Massinger, 35.
+
+Matthew, Father, 127, 128, 289 f.
+
+Maur, St., 76.
+
+Maxwell, 251.
+
+Mayerne, Dr., 153.
+
+Meaux, Bishop of, 47.
+
+Melanchthon, 129.
+
+Melton, 74.
+
+Mesmer, 6, 250.
+
+Meyer, R., 133.
+
+Mezeray, 225.
+
+Michel, M., 283.
+
+Milmine, G., 304.
+
+Milner, John, Dr., 83.
+
+Milton, 242.
+
+Miranda, 155.
+
+Miranda, A., de, 130.
+
+Mix, E., 290.
+
+Mizaldus, 159.
+
+Momford, Lord, 219.
+
+Monardes, 183.
+
+Montfort, Marquis, 97.
+
+Mooney, N., 197.
+
+Morison, 122, 123.
+
+Morley, H., 191.
+
+Morley, Squire, 185.
+
+Moses, 25, 69, 72, 97.
+
+Moses, J., 135.
+
+Müller, Johannes, 11.
+
+Munger, 19.
+
+Murmerstadt, 285.
+
+Myers, A. T., 106.
+
+Myers, F. W. H., 106, 265, 271.
+
+
+NAAMAN, 83.
+
+Nabonnese, 98.
+
+Napoleon, 108.
+
+Navarette, 201.
+
+Neri, St. Philip, 132.
+
+Nevius, J.F., 60.
+
+Newton, Dr., 292.
+
+Nicetius, 67.
+
+Nicholas, Dr. J., 230.
+
+Nicodemus, 75.
+
+Noizet, 265.
+
+Northampton, Lord, 197.
+
+Nottingham, William, 125.
+
+Nun, St., 213.
+
+
+Odilo, 81.
+
+Oldmixon, 239.
+
+Onymus, Prof., 285.
+
+Origen, 26, 42, 43, 114.
+
+Oswald, St., 90.
+
+Otilia, St., 74, 76.
+
+
+PALLADIUS, 116.
+
+Paninguem, Tomé, 130.
+
+Paracelsus, 5, 150, 151, 181, 212, 249, 250.
+
+Paris, Deacon, 105.
+
+Paris, Dr., 142.
+
+Parthenius, St., 115.
+
+Pascal, 169.
+
+Pastor, St., 98.
+
+Patrick, Bishop, 136.
+
+Patterson, Mrs., 298.
+
+Paul III, Pope, 100.
+
+Paul, St., 37, 72, 75, 126.
+
+Paula, Franciscus de, 120.
+
+Peckham, Sir G., 86.
+
+Peebles, J. M., 60.
+
+Pennant, 85.
+
+Pepys, 201, 204, 210, 216.
+
+Percy, Bishop, 246.
+
+Perier, Mademoiselle, 103.
+
+Perkins, B. D., 262.
+
+Pernel, St., 76.
+
+Peter, 248.
+
+Peter, St., 5, 71, 72, 100, 121.
+
+Petétin, 261.
+
+Petronilla, St., 76.
+
+Pettigrew, T. J., 55, 75, 76, 139, 140, 141, 146, 157, 159, 162, 167, 170,
+   176, 177, 181, 184, 198, 201, 202, 204, 205, 207, 208, 213, 218, 225,
+   236, 244, 248, 296.
+
+Pezold, 263.
+
+Phaire, St., 76.
+
+Philip I, 243.
+
+Philip II of Spain, 54.
+
+Philip of Valois, 244.
+
+Phillips, Elder, 287.
+
+Philo, 37.
+
+Pilate, Pontius, 41, 97, 105.
+
+Pilkington, Bishop, 167.
+
+Pinkerton, 88.
+
+Pisces, 74.
+
+Pistol, 207.
+
+Pius IX, Pope, 296.
+
+Platerus, 159.
+
+Plato, 19, 29.
+
+Pliny, 159, 177, 182, 183, 198, 209.
+
+Podalirius, 30.
+
+Polo, Marco, 185.
+
+Pomponatius, 160.
+
+Ponponazzi, Pierre, 25.
+
+Pope, 138.
+
+Porta, B., 151, 159, 251.
+
+Posidonius, 44.
+
+Poyan, C, 268.
+
+Price, W. T., 278.
+
+Protasius, St., 65.
+
+Puller, 115.
+
+Puységur, Marquis de, 260, 261.
+
+Pythagoras, 190.
+
+
+QUAN, ST., 91.
+
+Quimby, P. P., 17, 297 ff., 302, 303.
+
+Quintan, St., 76.
+
+Quirinus, St., 74.
+
+
+RACHEL, 145.
+
+Radegonde, 121.
+
+Radstock, Lord, 283.
+
+Ramesay, 158.
+
+Raphael, 43.
+
+Ravenscroft, 190.
+
+Refinus, 115.
+
+Reid, 273.
+
+Remigius, St., 77.
+
+Renodeus, 159, 160, 161.
+
+Richards, Elder, 287.
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal, 244.
+
+Richmond, Duke of, 231.
+
+Riley, I. W., 287.
+
+Roche, St., 296.
+
+Rochus, St., 74, 76.
+
+Romanus, St., 76.
+
+Rosalia, St., 102.
+
+Ruffian, St., 76.
+
+Russel, 200.
+
+Rusticus, Elpidius, 59.
+
+Ruthlein, Captain, 285.
+
+
+SAGITTARIUS, 74.
+
+Salverte, E., 40, 41, 59, 83, 85, 136.
+
+Samonicus, S., 166.
+
+Sanderson, Dr., 231.
+
+Sanford, F. W., 281 f.
+
+Saturninus, St., 123.
+
+Sauveur, St., of Horta, 130 f.
+
+Schlatter, F., 290.
+
+Scoresby, 267.
+
+Scorpius, 74.
+
+Scott, R., 196.
+
+Scott, W., 189, 193, 213.
+
+Sebastian, St., 76, 98.
+
+Selle, 263.
+
+Senso, Dr., 128.
+
+Serapion, 180.
+
+Severin, St., 67, 81.
+
+Severus, 114.
+
+Servetus, 244.
+
+Shakespeare, 108, 224, 273.
+
+Shaw, 203.
+
+Siemers, 266.
+
+Sigismund, St., 76.
+
+Simeon, St., 97.
+
+Simpson, A. B., 281.
+
+Sinsheim, Count von, 284.
+
+Skippon, 198.
+
+Smith, Joseph, Jr., 286 f.
+
+Smith, Sir T., 184, 247.
+
+Socrates, 29, 86.
+
+Sophronius, 93.
+
+Southampton, Earl of, 231.
+
+Southey, 143, 273.
+
+Stengal, 54.
+
+Stephen, St., 64, 75.
+
+Stephens, 248.
+
+Sterne, 3.
+
+Stevens, E., 231.
+
+Stowe, 3.
+
+Straus, 155.
+
+Strype, 202.
+
+Styria, 107.
+
+Sulpicius, St., 77.
+
+Syward, John, 125, 126.
+
+
+TACITUS, 112.
+
+Tairise, St., 99.
+
+Tathiedo, 75.
+
+Tatian, 40.
+
+Taurus, 74.
+
+Tecla, St., 85.
+
+Tennyson A., 139
+
+Tenos, Madonna of, 95.
+
+Tertullian, 42, 114.
+
+Theocritus, 189.
+
+Theodelinda, 66.
+
+Theodoric, 59.
+
+Theodosius, 70.
+
+Thiers, M., 192.
+
+Thmuis, Bishop, 116.
+
+Thomas, of Celano, 124.
+
+Thomas, St., 77.
+
+Thomas St. of Hereford, 125.
+
+Tignan, St., 75.
+
+Tooker, Dr., 229.
+
+Torpacion, 114.
+
+Townley, 140.
+
+Townshend, 267.
+
+Trickmore, 190.
+
+Trine, R. W., 301.
+
+Trippe, S., 148.
+
+Trundel, D., 279 f.
+
+Tuckey, C. L., 245.
+
+Tuke, H., 11, 237, 286.
+
+Turner, 211.
+
+Turner, Dr. D., 239.
+
+
+URSULA, ST., 102.
+
+
+VALENTINE, 76.
+
+Vanzesmes, de, 258.
+
+Vardrille, St., 119.
+
+Venise, St., 76.
+
+Vespasian, 37, 112, 195.
+
+Victor, 260.
+
+Victor Emmanuel, 245.
+
+Vincent, St., 77.
+
+Vittrici, Pietro, 132.
+
+Vitus, St., 76, 203.
+
+
+WALDERSTEIN, 3.
+
+Wallery, St., 76.
+
+Wallia, St., 76.
+
+Waterford, Simon, 125.
+
+Wenefride, St., 91.
+
+Werenfels, 156, 208.
+
+Wesley, J., 275, 276.
+
+Westbury, Lord, 48, 49.
+
+Whichcote, Dr., 136.
+
+White, A. D., 39, 44, 47, 48, 52, 78, 100, 101, 110, 146, 233.
+
+Wierus, 110.
+
+Wilkins, Bishop, 136.
+
+Willabrod, 77.
+
+William III, 228, 238.
+
+William of Malmesbury, 225, 227.
+
+Wilson, Mr., 48.
+
+Winthrop, Governor, 19.
+
+Wirdig, S., 251.
+
+Withers, F., 138.
+
+Wohyus, E., 150.
+
+Wolfart, 263.
+
+Wolfgang, St., 76.
+
+Wood, H., 301.
+
+
+XAVIER, ST. FRANCIS, 111, 129, 130.
+
+
+ZACCHEUS, 75.
+
+Zeller, S., 280.
+
+Zola, E., 106.
+
+Zosimos, 93.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF MENTAL
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