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diff --git a/22728-h/22728-h.htm b/22728-h/22728-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..891139b --- /dev/null +++ b/22728-h/22728-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11361 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Foundations of the “Origin of Species”, by Charles Darwin. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + a {text-decoration:none; color:blue;} + a:visited {color:gray;} + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center; clear: both;} + h3 {margin:0 auto 0 auto;} + hr {width:65%; margin:2em auto 2em auto; clear:both; text-align:center;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + hr.minor {width: 45%; margin:1em auto 1em auto; clear:both;} + ins.corr {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + p {margin-top:.75em; text-align:justify; margin-bottom:.75em; text-indent:1.5em;} + p.noin {text-indent:0;} + table {margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;} + ul.off {list-style-type:none;} + .b {font-weight:bold;} + .bbox {border:solid 1px; padding:1em; margin:2em 10% 2em 10%;} + .br {border-right:solid 2px;} + .c {text-align:center;} + .caption {font-weight:bold; font-size:75%;} + .figcenter {margin:auto; text-align:center;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align:super; font-size:.6em; text-decoration:none;} + .footnote {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; font-size:0.8em;} + .footnote .label {position:absolute; right:80%; text-align:right;} + .footnotes {border:dashed 1px;} + .footnotes p {text-indent:0;} + .i {font-style:italic;} + .lc {text-transform:lowercase;} + .mt2 {margin-top:2em;} + .pagenum {position:absolute; left:95%; font-style:normal; font-size:smaller; text-align:right; text-indent:0;} + .ralign {position:absolute; right:20%; text-align:right;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .sf50 {font-size:50%;} + .sf75 {font-size:75%;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of Species, by +Charles Darwin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Foundations of the Origin of Species + Two Essays written in 1842 and 1844 + +Author: Charles Darwin + +Editor: Francis Darwin + +Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22728] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOUNDATIONS ORIGIN OF SPECIES *** + + + + +Produced by Geetu Melwani, David Clarke, LN Yaddanapudi +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian +Libraries) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_i' id='Page_i'>{i}</a></p> +<h1>THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE<br />ORIGIN OF SPECIES</h1> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_ii' id='Page_ii'>{ii}</a></p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> +<span class='sf75'>London: <span class='sc'>FETTER LANE, E.C.<br /> +C. F. CLAY, Manager</span></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/illus-002.png" width="100" height="106" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class='c noin sf75'>Edinburgh: 100, <span class='sc'>PRINCES STREET</span><br /> +<span class='sc'>ALSO</span><br /> +London: <span class='sc'>H. K. LEWIS,</span> 136, <span class='sc'>GOWER STREET, W.C.</span><br /><br /> +Berlin: <span class='sc'>A. ASHER AND CO.</span><br /><br /> +Leipzig: <span class='sc'>F. A. BROCKHAUS</span><br /><br /> +New York: <span class='sc'>G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS</span><br /><br /> +Bombay and Calcutta: <span class='sc'>MACMILLAN AND Co., Ltd.</span></p> + +<p class='c i mt2 noin'>All rights reserved</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_iii' id='Page_iii'>{iii}</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;"> +<img src="images/illus-darwin.jpg" width="361" height="500" alt="From a photograph by Maull & Fox in 1854" title="" /> +<span class="caption">From a photograph by Maull & Fox in 1854</span> +</div> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_iv' id='Page_iv'>{iv}</a></p> + +<h1>THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE<br /> +ORIGIN OF SPECIES<br /> + +<span class='sf75'>TWO ESSAYS<br /> +WRITTEN IN 1842 AND 1844</span><br /> +<span class='sf50'>by</span><br /> +<span class='sf75'>CHARLES DARWIN</span></h1> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>Edited by his son<br /> +<span class='b' style='font-size:120%'>FRANCIS DARWIN</span><br /> +<span class='sf75'>Honorary Fellow of Christ's College</span></p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>Cambridge:<br /> +at the University Press<br /> +1909</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_v' id='Page_v'>{v}</a></p> + +<blockquote><p style='text-align:justify;'>Astronomers might formerly have said that God ordered each planet to +move in its particular destiny. In same manner God orders each animal +created with certain form in certain country. But how much more simple +and sublime power,—let attraction act according to certain law, such +are inevitable consequences,—let animal«<ins>s</ins>» be created, then by the +fixed laws of generation, such will be their successors.</p> + +<p style='text-align:right;'>From <span class='sc'>Darwin’s</span> <i>Note Book</i>, 1837, p. 101.</p></blockquote> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_vi' id='Page_vi'>{vi}</a></p> + +<p class='c noin'> +TO THE MASTER AND FELLOWS<br /> +OF CHRIST’S COLLEGE, THIS<br /> +BOOK IS DEDICATED BY THE<br /> +EDITOR IN TOKEN OF RESPECT<br /> +AND GRATITUDE</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_vii' id='Page_vii'>{vii}</a></p> + +<h2><a name='CONTENTS' id='CONTENTS'></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>ESSAY OF 1842</p> + +<ul class='off'> +<li><span class='ralign sf50'>PAGES</span><br /></li> +<li><a href='#INTRODUCTION'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></a> <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART I</p> + +<ul class='off'> +<li>§ i. On variation under domestication, and on the principles of +selection <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span></li> + +<li>§ ii. On variation in a state of nature and on the natural means of +selection <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></span></li> + +<li>§ iii. On variation in instincts and other mental attributes <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART II</p> + +<ul class='off'> +<li>§§ iv. and v. On the evidence from Geology. (The reasons for +combining the two sections are given in the Introduction) <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></span></li> + +<li>§ vi. Geographical distribution <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></span></li> + +<li>§ vii. Affinities and classification <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></span></li> + +<li>§ viii. Unity of type in the great classes <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></span></li> + +<li>§ ix. Abortive organs <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span></li> + +<li>§ x. Recapitulation and conclusion <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_viii' id='Page_viii'>{viii}</a></p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>ESSAY OF 1844</p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART I</p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER I<br /> +ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION; +AND ON THE PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION.</p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Variation</li> +<li>On the hereditary tendency</li> +<li>Causes of Variation</li> +<li>On Selection</li> +<li>Crossing Breeds</li> +<li>Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild stocks</li> +<li>Limits to Variation in degree and kind</li> +<li>In what consists Domestication</li> +<li>Summary <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-<a href='#Page_80'>80</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER II<br /> +ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE; +ON THE NATURAL MEANS OF SELECTION; AND ON THE +COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES.</p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Variation</li> +<li>Natural means of Selection</li> +<li>Differences between “Races” and “Species”:—first, in their trueness or variability</li> +<li>Difference between “Races” and “Species” in fertility when crossed</li> +<li>Causes of Sterility in Hybrids</li> +<li>Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation</li> +<li>Points of Resemblance between “Races” and “Species”</li> +<li>External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels</li> +<li>Summary</li> +<li>Limits of Variation <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a>-<a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER III<br /> +ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL +ATTRIBUTES UNDER DOMESTICATION AND IN A STATE OF +NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS SUBJECT; AND +ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL +STRUCTURES.</p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Variation of mental attributes under domestication</li> +<li>Hereditary habits compared with instincts</li> +<li>Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals</li> +<li>Principles of Selection applicable to instincts</li> +<li>Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection</li> +<li>Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal structures <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a>-<a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_ix' id='Page_ix'>{ix}</a></p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART II<br /> +ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW +THAT SPECIES ARE NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED +FROM COMMON STOCKS.</p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER IV<br /> +ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE +THEORY OF COMMON DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE +IN A FOSSIL STATE <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a>-<a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span></p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER V<br /> +GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES. <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_144'>144</a>-<a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span></p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Gradual appearance of species</li> +<li>Extinction of species</li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER VI<br /> +ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS +IN PAST AND PRESENT TIMES.</p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>SECTION FIRST <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a>-<a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span></p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents</li> +<li>Relation of range in genera and species</li> +<li>Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent</li> +<li>Insular Faunas</li> +<li>Alpine Floras</li> +<li>Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains</li> +<li>Whether the same species has been created more than once</li> +<li>On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong in different regions</li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>SECOND SECTION <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a>-<a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span></p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Geographical distribution of extinct organisms</li> +<li>Changes in geographical distribution</li> +<li>Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings</li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>SECTION THIRD <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a>-<a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span></p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution, on the theory of allied species having a common descent</li> +<li>Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing species</li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER VII<br /> +ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION<br /> +OF ORGANIC BEINGS. <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>-<a href='#Page_213'>213</a></span></p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups</li> +<li>What is the Natural System?</li> +<li>On the kind of relation between distinct groups</li> +<li>Classification of Races or Varieties</li> +<li>Classification of Races and Species similar</li> +<li>Origin of genera and families</li></ul> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_x' id='Page_x'>{x}</a></p> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER VIII<br /> +UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND +MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES.</p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Unity of Type</li> +<li>Morphology</li> +<li>Embryology</li> +<li>Attempt to explain the facts of embryology</li> +<li>On the graduated complexity in each great class</li> +<li>Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals</li> +<li>Importance of embryology in classification</li> +<li>Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_214'>214</a>-<a href='#Page_230'>230</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER IX<br /> +ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.</p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>The abortive organs of Naturalists</li> +<li>The abortive organs of Physiologists</li> +<li>Abortion from gradual disuse <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a>-<a href='#Page_238'>238</a></span></li></ul> + +<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER X<br /> +RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION.</p> +<ul class='off'> +<li>Recapitulation</li> +<li>Why do we wish to reject the Theory of Common Descent?</li> +<li>Conclusion <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a>-<a href='#Page_255'>255</a></span><br /></li> +<li><span class='sc'>Index</span> <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></span><br /></li> +<li>Portrait <span class='i ralign'><i>frontispiece</i></span></li> +<li>Facsimile <span class='ralign'><i>to face</i> p. 50</span></li></ul> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xi' id='Page_xi'>{xi}</a></p> +<h2><a name='INTRODUCTION' id='INTRODUCTION'></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p>We know from the contents of Charles Darwin’s Note Book of 1837 that he +was at that time a convinced Evolutionist<a name='FNanchor_1_1' id='FNanchor_1_1'></a><a href='#Footnote_1_1' class='fnanchor'>{1}</a>. +Nor can there be any doubt that, when he started on board the <i>Beagle</i>, +such opinions as he had were on the side of immutability. When therefore +did the current of his thoughts begin to set in the direction of +Evolution?</p> + +<p>We have first to consider the factors that made for such a change. On +his departure in 1831, Henslow gave him vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> of Lyell's <i>Principles</i>, +then just published, with the warning that he was not to believe what he +read<a name='FNanchor_2_2' id='FNanchor_2_2'></a><a href='#Footnote_2_2' class='fnanchor'>{2}</a>. +But believe he did, and it is certain (as Huxley has forcibly pointed +out<a name='FNanchor_3_3' id='FNanchor_3_3'></a><a href='#Footnote_3_3' class='fnanchor'>{3}</a>) +that the doctrine of uniformitarianism when applied to Biology leads of +necessity to Evolution. If the extermination of a species is no more +catastrophic than the natural death of an individual, why should the +birth of a species be any more miraculous than the birth of an +individual? It is quite clear that this thought was vividly present to +Darwin when he was writing out his early thoughts in the 1837 Note +Book<a name='FNanchor_4_4' id='FNanchor_4_4'></a><a href='#Footnote_4_4' class='fnanchor'>{4}</a>:—</p> + +<p>“Propagation explains why modern animals same type as extinct, which is +law almost proved.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xii' id='Page_xii'>{xii}</a></span> +They die, without they change, like golden pippins; it is a <i>generation +of species</i> like generation <i>of individuals</i>.”</p> + +<p>“If <i>species</i> generate other <i>species</i> their race is not utterly cut +off.”</p> + +<p>These quotations show that he was struggling to see in the origin of +species a process just as scientifically comprehensible as the birth of +individuals. They show, I think, that he recognised the two things not +merely as similar but as identical.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to know how soon the ferment of uniformitarianism began +to work, but it is fair to suspect that in 1832 he had already begun to +see that mutability was the logical conclusion of Lyell’s doctrine, +though this was not acknowledged by Lyell himself.</p> + +<p>There were however other factors of change. In his Autobiography +<a name='FNanchor_5_5' id='FNanchor_5_5'></a><a href='#Footnote_5_5' class='fnanchor'>{5}</a> +he wrote:—“During the voyage of the <i>Beagle</i> I had been deeply +impressed by discovering in the Pampean formation great fossil animals +covered with armour like that on the existing armadillos; secondly, by +the manner in which closely allied animals replace one another in +proceeding southward over the Continent; and thirdly, by the South +American character of most of the productions of the Galapagos +archipelago, and more especially by the manner in which they differ +slightly on each island of the group; none of the islands appearing to +be very ancient in a geological sense. It was evident that such facts as +these, as well as many others, could only be explained on the +supposition that species gradually become modified; and the subject +haunted me.”</p> + +<p>Again we have to ask: how soon did any of these influences produce an +effect on Darwin’s mind? Different answers have been attempted. +Huxley<a name='FNanchor_6_6' id='FNanchor_6_6'></a><a href='#Footnote_6_6' class='fnanchor'>{6}</a> +held that these facts could not have produced their essential effect +until the voyage had <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xiii' id='Page_xiii'>{xiii}</a></span> +come to an end, and the “relations of the existing with the extinct +species and of the species of the different geographical areas with one +another were determined with some exactness.” He does not therefore +allow that any appreciable advance towards evolution was made during the +actual voyage of the <i>Beagle</i>.</p> + +<p>Professor Judd<a name='FNanchor_7_7' id='FNanchor_7_7'></a><a href='#Footnote_7_7' class='fnanchor'>{7}</a> +takes a very different view. He holds that November 1832 may be given +with some confidence as the “date at which Darwin commenced that long +series of observations and reasonings which eventually culminated in the +preparation of the <i>Origin of Species</i>.”</p> + +<p>Though I think these words suggest a more direct and continuous march +than really existed between fossil-collecting in 1832 and writing the +<i>Origin of Species</i> in 1859, yet I hold that it was during the voyage +that Darwin's mind began to be turned in the direction of Evolution, and +I am therefore in essential agreement with Prof. Judd, although I lay +more stress than he does on the latter part of the voyage.</p> + +<p>Let us for a moment confine our attention to the passage, above quoted, +from the Autobiography and to what is said in the Introduction to the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., viz. “When on board H.M.S. ‘Beagle,’ +as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution +of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of +the present to the past inhabitants of that continent.” These +words, occurring where they do, can only mean one thing,—namely +that the facts suggested an evolutionary interpretation. And this being +so it must be true that his thoughts <i>began to flow in the direction of +Descent</i> at this early date.</p> + +<p>I am inclined to think that the “new light which was rising in his +mind<a name='FNanchor_8_8' id='FNanchor_8_8'></a><a href='#Footnote_8_8' class='fnanchor'>{8}</a>” +had not yet attained any <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xiv' id='Page_xiv'>{xiv}</a></span> +effective degree of steadiness or brightness. I think so because in his +Pocket Book under the date 1837 he wrote, “In July opened first +note-book on ‘transmutation of species.’ Had been greatly +struck <i>from about month of previous March</i><a name='FNanchor_9_9' id='FNanchor_9_9'></a><a href='#Footnote_9_9' class='fnanchor'>{9}</a> +on character of South American fossils, and species on Galapagos +Archipelago. These facts origin (<i>especially latter</i>), of all my +views.” But he did not visit the Galapagos till 1835 and I +therefore find it hard to believe that his evolutionary views attained +any strength or permanence until at any rate quite late in the voyage. +The Galapagos facts are strongly against Huxley’s view, for +Darwin’s attention was “thoroughly aroused<a name='FNanchor_10_10' id='FNanchor_10_10'></a><a href='#Footnote_10_10' class='fnanchor'>{10}</a>” +by comparing the birds shot by himself and by others on board. The case +must have struck him at once,—without waiting for accurate +determinations,—as a microcosm of evolution.</p> + +<p>It is also to be noted, in regard to the remains of extinct animals, +that, in the above quotation from his Pocket Book, he speaks of March +1837 as the time at which he began to be “greatly struck on +character of South American fossils,” which suggests at least that +the impression made in 1832 required reinforcement before a really +powerful effect was produced.</p> + +<p>We may therefore conclude, I think, that the evolutionary current in my +father's thoughts had continued to increase in force from 1832 onwards, +being especially reinforced at the Galapagos in 1835 and again in 1837 +when he was overhauling the results, mental and material, of his +travels. And that when the above record in the Pocket Book was made he +unconsciously minimised the earlier beginnings of his theorisings, and +laid more stress on the recent thoughts which were <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xv' id='Page_xv'>{xv}</a></span> +naturally more vivid to him. In his letter<a name='FNanchor_11_11' id='FNanchor_11_11'></a><a href='#Footnote_11_11' class='fnanchor'>{11}</a> +to Otto Zacharias (1877) he wrote, “On my return home in the +autumn of 1836, I immediately began to prepare my Journal for +publication, and then saw how many facts indicated the common descent of +species.” This again is evidence in favour of the view that the +later growths of his theory were the essentially important parts of its +development.</p> + +<p>In the same letter to Zacharias he says, “When I was on board the +<i>Beagle</i> I believed in the permanence of species, but as far as I can +remember vague doubts occasionally flitted across my mind.” Unless +Prof. Judd and I are altogether wrong in believing that late or early in +the voyage (it matters little which) a definite approach was made to the +evolutionary standpoint, we must suppose that in 40 years such advance +had shrunk in his recollection to the dimensions of “vague +doubts.” The letter to Zacharias shows I think some forgetting of +the past where the author says, “But I did not become convinced +that species were mutable until, I think, two or three years had +elapsed.” It is impossible to reconcile this with the contents of +the evolutionary Note Book of 1837. I have no doubt that in his +retrospect he felt that he had not been “convinced that species +were mutable” until he had gained a clear conception of the +mechanism of natural selection, <i>i.e.</i> in 1838-9.</p> + +<p>But even on this last date there is some room, not for doubt, but for +surprise. The passage in the Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_12_12' id='FNanchor_12_12'></a><a href='#Footnote_12_12' class='fnanchor'>{12}</a> +is quite clear, namely that in October 1838 he read Malthus’s +<i>Essay on the principle of Population</i> and “being well prepared to +appreciate the struggle for existence ..., it at once struck me that +under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be +preserved, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xvi' id='Page_xvi'>{xvi}</a></span> +and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the +formation of new species. Here then I had at last got a theory by which +to work.”</p> + +<p>It is surprising that Malthus should have been needed to give him the +clue, when in the Note Book of 1837 there should occur—however +obscurely expressed—the following forecast<a name='FNanchor_13_13' id='FNanchor_13_13'></a><a href='#Footnote_13_13' class='fnanchor'>{13}</a> +of the importance of the survival of the fittest. “With respect to +extinction, we can easily see that a variety of the ostrich (Petise <a name='FNanchor_14_14' id='FNanchor_14_14'></a><a href='#Footnote_14_14' class='fnanchor'>{14}</a>), +may not be well adapted, and thus perish out; or on the other hand, like +Orpheus<a name='FNanchor_15_15' id='FNanchor_15_15'></a><a href='#Footnote_15_15' class='fnanchor'>{15}</a>, +being favourable, many might be produced. This requires the principle +that the permanent variations produced by confined breeding and changing +circumstances are continued and produce«<ins>d</ins>» according to the adaptation of +such circumstances, and therefore that death of species is a consequence +(contrary to what would appear in America) of non-adaptation of +circumstances.”</p> + +<p>I can hardly doubt, that with his knowledge of the interdependence of +organisms and the tyranny of conditions, his experience would have +crystallized out into “a theory by which to work” even +without the aid of Malthus.</p> + +<p>In my father's Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_16_16' id='FNanchor_16_16'></a><a href='#Footnote_16_16' class='fnanchor'>{16}</a> +he writes, “In June 1842 I first allowed myself the satisfaction +of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil in 35 pages; and +this was enlarged during the summer of 1844 into one of 230 pages<a name='FNanchor_17_17' id='FNanchor_17_17'></a><a href='#Footnote_17_17' class='fnanchor'>{17}</a>, +which I had fairly copied out and still possess.” These two +Essays, of 1842 and 1844, are now printed under the title <i>The +Foundations of the Origin of Species</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xvii' id='Page_xvii'>{xvii}</a></span> +It will be noted that in the above passage he does not mention the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> +of 1842 as being in existence, and when I was at work on <i>Life and +Letters</i> I had not seen it. It only came to light after my mother's +death in 1896 when the house at Down was vacated. The <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> was hidden in +a cupboard under the stairs which was not used for papers of any value, +but rather as an overflow for matter which he did not wish to destroy.</p> + +<p>The statement in the Autobiography that the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> was written in 1842 +agrees with an entry in my fathers Diary:—</p> + +<p>“1842. May 18th went to Maer. June 15th to Shrewsbury, and on 18th +to Capel Curig.... During my stay at Maer and Shrewsbury (five years +after commencement) wrote pencil sketch of my species theory.” +Again in a letter to Lyell (June 18, 1858) he speaks of his “<span +class='sc lc'>MS.</span> sketch written out in 1842<a name='FNanchor_18_18' id='FNanchor_18_18'></a><a href='#Footnote_18_18' class='fnanchor'>{18}</a>.” +In the <i>Origin of Species</i>, Ed. i. p. 1, he speaks of beginning his +speculations in 1837 and of allowing himself to draw up some +“short notes” after “five years' work,” <i>i.e.</i> +in 1842. So far there seems no doubt as to 1842 being the date of the +first sketch; but there is evidence in favour of an earlier date<a name='FNanchor_19_19' id='FNanchor_19_19'></a><a href='#Footnote_19_19' class='fnanchor'>{19}</a>. +Thus across the Table of Contents of the bound copy of the 1844 <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> +is written in my father's hand “This was sketched in 1839.” +Again in a letter to Mr Wallace<a name='FNanchor_20_20' id='FNanchor_20_20'></a><a href='#Footnote_20_20' class='fnanchor'>{20}</a> +(Jan. 25, 1859) he speaks of his own contributions to the Linnean +paper<a name='FNanchor_21_21' id='FNanchor_21_21'></a><a href='#Footnote_21_21' class='fnanchor'>{21}</a> +of July 1, 1858, as “written in 1839, now just twenty years +ago.” This statement as it stands is undoubtedly incorrect, since +the extracts are from the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844, about the date of which no doubt +exists; but even if it could be supposed to refer to the 1842 Essay, it +must, I think, be rejected. I can only account for his mistake by the +supposition that my father had in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xviii' id='Page_xviii'>{xviii}</a></span> +mind the date (1839) at which the framework of his theory was laid +down. It is worth noting that in his Autobiography (p. 88) he speaks of +the time “about 1839, when the theory was clearly +conceived.” However this may be there can be no doubt that 1842 is +the correct date. Since the publication of <i>Life and Letters</i> I have +gained fresh evidence on this head. A small packet containing 13 pp. of +<span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> came to light in 1896. On the outside is written “First Pencil +Sketch of Species Theory. Written at Maer and Shrewsbury during May and +June 1842.” It is not however written in pencil, and it consists +of a single chapter on <i>The Principles of Variation in Domestic +Organisms</i>. A single unnumbered page is written in pencil, and is headed +“Maer, May 1842, useless”; it also bears the words +“This page was thought of as introduction.” It consists of +the briefest sketch of the geological evidence for evolution, together +with words intended as headings for discussion,—such as +“Affinity,—unity of type,—fœtal +state,—abortive organs.”</p> + +<p>The back of this “useless” page is of some interest, +although it does not bear on the question of date,—the matter +immediately before us.</p> + +<p>It seems to be an outline of the Essay or sketch of 1842, consisting of +the titles of the three chapters of which it was to have consisted.</p> + +<p>“I. The Principles of Var. in domestic organisms.</p> + +<p>“II. The possible and probable application of these same +principles to wild animals and consequently the possible and probable +production of wild races, analogous to the domestic ones of plants and +animals.</p> + +<p>“III. The reasons for and against believing that such races have +really been produced, forming what are called species.”</p> + +<p>It will be seen that Chapter III as originally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xix' id='Page_xix'>{xix}</a></span> +designed corresponds to Part II (p. 22) of the Essay of 1842, which is +(p. 7) defined by the author as discussing “whether the characters +and relations of animated things are such as favour the idea of wild +species being races descended from a common stock.” Again at p. 23 +the author asks “What then is the evidence in favour of it (the +theory of descent) and what the evidence against it.” The +generalised section of his Essay having been originally Chapter III<a name='FNanchor_22_22' id='FNanchor_22_22'></a><a href='#Footnote_22_22' class='fnanchor'>{22}</a> +accounts for the curious error which occurs in pp. 18 and 22 where the +second Part of the Essay is called Part III.</p> + +<p>The division of the Essay into two parts is maintained in the enlarged +Essay of 1844, in which he writes: “The Second Part of this work +is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general economy +of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species and +genera are descended from common stocks.” The <i>Origin of Species</i> +however is not so divided.</p> + +<p>We may now return to the question of the date of the Essay. I have found +additional evidence in favour of 1842 in a sentence written on the back +of the Table of Contents of the 1844 <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>—not the copied version +but the original in my father's writing: “This was written and +enlarged from a sketch in 37 pages<a name='FNanchor_23_23' id='FNanchor_23_23'></a><a href='#Footnote_23_23' class='fnanchor'>{23}</a> +in Pencil (the latter written in summer of 1842 at Maer and Shrewsbury) +in beginning of 1844, and finished it «<ins><i>sic</i></ins>» in July; and +finally corrected the copy by Mr Fletcher in the last week in +September.” On the whole it is impossible to doubt that 1842 is +the date of the earlier of the two Essays.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xx' id='Page_xx'>{xx}</a></span> +The sketch of 1842 is written on bad paper with a soft pencil, and is in +many parts extremely difficult to read, many of the words ending in mere +scrawls and being illegible without context. It is evidently written +rapidly, and is in his most elliptical style, the articles being +frequently omitted, and the sentences being loosely composed and often +illogical in structure. There is much erasure and correction, apparently +made at the moment of writing, and the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> does not give the impression +of having been re-read with any care. The whole is more like hasty +memoranda of what was clear to himself, than material for the convincing +of others.</p> + +<p>Many of the pages are covered with writing on the back, an instance of +his parsimony in the matter of paper<a name='FNanchor_24_24' id='FNanchor_24_24'></a><a href='#Footnote_24_24' class='fnanchor'>{24}</a>. +This matter consists partly of passages marked for insertion in the +text, and these can generally (though by no means always) be placed +where he intended. But he also used the back of one page for a +preliminary sketch to be rewritten on a clean sheet. These parts of the +work have been printed as footnotes, so as to allow what was written on +the front of the pages to form a continuous text. A certain amount of +repetition is unavoidable, but much of what is written on the backs of +the pages is of too much interest to be omitted. Some of the matter here +given in footnotes may, moreover, have been intended as the final text +and not as the preliminary sketch.</p> + +<p>When a word cannot be deciphered, it is replaced by:—«<ins>illegible</ins>», the angular +brackets being, as already explained, a symbol for an insertion by the +editor. More commonly, however, the context makes the interpretation of +a word reasonably sure although the word is not strictly legible. Such +words are followed by an inserted mark of interrogation «<ins>?</ins>». +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxi' id='Page_xxi'>{xxi}</a></span> +Lastly, words inserted by the editor, of which the appropriateness is +doubtful, are printed thus «<ins>variation?</ins>».</p> + +<p>Two kinds of erasure occur in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1842. One by vertical lines +which seem to have been made when the 35 pp. <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> was being expanded into +that of 1844, and merely imply that such a page is done with: and +secondly the ordinary erasures by horizontal lines. I have not been +quite consistent in regard to these: I began with the intention of +printing (in square brackets) all such erasures. But I ultimately found +that the confusion introduced into the already obscure sentences was +greater than any possible gain; and many such erasures are altogether +omitted. In the same way I have occasionally omitted hopelessly obscure +and incomprehensible fragments, which if printed would only have +burthened the text with a string of «<ins>illegible</ins>»s and queried +words. Nor have I printed the whole of what is written on the backs of +the pages, where it seemed to me that nothing but unnecessary repetition +would have been the result.</p> + +<p>In the matter of punctuation I have given myself a free hand. I may no +doubt have misinterpreted the author's meaning in so doing, but without +such punctuation, the number of repellantly crabbed sentences would have +been even greater than at present. In dealing with the Essay of 1844, I +have corrected some obvious slips without indicating such alterations, +because the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> being legible, there is no danger of changing the +author's meaning.</p> + +<p>The sections into which the Essay of 1842 is divided are in the original +merely indicated by a gap in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> or by a line +drawn across the page. No titles are given except in the case of § +<span class='sc lc'>VIII</span>.; and § <span class='sc lc'>II</span>. +is the only section which has a number in the original. I might equally +well have made sections of what are now subsections, <i>e.g. Natural +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxii' id='Page_xxii'>{xxii}</a></span> +Selection</i> p. 7, or <i>Extermination</i> p. 28. But since the present sketch +is the germ of the Essay of 1844, it seemed best to preserve the +identity between the two works, by using such of the author's divisions +as correspond to the chapters of the enlarged version of 1844. The +geological discussion with which Part II begins corresponds to two +chapters (IV and V) of the 1844 Essay. I have therefore described it as +§§ <span class='sc lc'>IV.</span> and <span class='sc lc'>V.</span>, +although I cannot make sure of its having originally consisted of two +sections. With this exception the ten sections of the Essay of 1842 +correspond to the ten chapters of that of 1844.</p> + +<p>The <i>Origin of Species</i> differs from the sketch of 1842 in not being +divided into two parts. But the two volumes resemble each other in +general structure. Both begin with a statement of what may be called the +mechanism of evolution,—variation and selection: in both the argument +proceeds from the study of domestic organisms to that of animals and +plants in a state of nature. This is followed in both by a discussion of +the <i>Difficulties on Theory</i> and this by a section <i>Instinct</i> which in +both cases is treated as a special case of difficulty.</p> + +<p>If I had to divide the <i>Origin</i> (first edition) into two parts without +any knowledge of earlier <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>, I should, I think, make Part II begin with +Ch. VI, <i>Difficulties on Theory</i>. A possible reason why this part of the +argument is given in Part I of the Essay of 1842 may be found in the +Essay of 1844, where it is clear that the chapter on instinct is placed +in Part I because the author thought it of importance to show that +heredity and variation occur in mental attributes. The whole question is +perhaps an instance of the sort of difficulty which made the author give +up the division of his argument into two Parts when he wrote the +<i>Origin</i>. As matters stand §§ <span class='sc lc'>IV.</span> +and <span class='sc lc'>V.</span> of the 1842 Essay correspond to +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxiii' id='Page_xxiii'>{xxiii}</a></span> +the geological chapters, IX and X, in the <i>Origin</i>. From this point +onwards the material is grouped in the same order in both works: +geographical distribution; affinities and classification; unity of type +and morphology; abortive or rudimentary organs; recapitulation and +conclusion.</p> + +<p>In enlarging the Essay of 1842 into that of 1844, the author retained +the sections of the sketch as chapters in the completer presentment. It +follows that what has been said of the relation of the earlier Essay to +the <i>Origin</i> is generally true of the 1844 Essay. In the latter, +however, the geological discussion is, clearly instead of obscurely, +divided into two chapters, which correspond roughly with Chapters IX and +X of the <i>Origin</i>. But part of the contents of Chapter X (<i>Origin</i>) +occurs in Chapter VI (1844) on Geographical Distribution. The treatment +of distribution is particularly full and interesting in the 1844 Essay, +but the arrangement of the material, especially the introduction of +§ <span class='sc lc'>III.</span> p. 183, leads to some repetition which is avoided in the +<i>Origin</i>. It should be noted that Hybridism, which has a separate +chapter (VIII) in the <i>Origin</i>, is treated in Chapter II of the Essay. +Finally that Chapter XIII (<i>Origin</i>) corresponds to Chapters VII, VIII +and IX of the work of 1844.</p> + +<p>The fact that in 1842, seventeen years before the publication of the +<i>Origin</i>, my father should have been able to write out so full an +outline of his future work, is very remarkable. In his Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_25_25' id='FNanchor_25_25'></a><a href='#Footnote_25_25' class='fnanchor'>{25}</a> +he writes of the 1844 Essay, “But at that time I overlooked one +problem of great importance.... This problem is the tendency in organic +beings descended from the same stock to diverge in character as they +become modified.” The absence of the principle of divergence is of +course also a characteristic of the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxiv' id='Page_xxiv'>{xxiv}</a></span> +sketch of 1842. But at p. 37, the author is not far from this point of +view. The passage referred to is: “If any species, <i>A</i>, in +changing gets an advantage and that advantage ... is inherited, <i>A</i> will +be the progenitor of several genera or even families in the hard +struggle of nature. <i>A</i> will go on beating out other forms, it might +come that <i>A</i> would people «<ins>the</ins>» earth,—we may now not +have one descendant on our globe of the one or several original +creations<a name='FNanchor_26_26' id='FNanchor_26_26'></a><a href='#Footnote_26_26' class='fnanchor'>{26}</a>.” +But if the descendants of <i>A</i> have peopled the earth by beating out +other forms, they must have diverged in occupying the innumerable +diverse modes of life from which they expelled their predecessors. What +I wrote<a name='FNanchor_27_27' id='FNanchor_27_27'></a><a href='#Footnote_27_27' class='fnanchor'>{27}</a> +on this subject in 1887 is I think true: “Descent with +modification implies divergence, and we become so habituated to a belief +in descent, and therefore in divergence, that we do not notice the +absence of proof that divergence is in itself an advantage.”</p> + +<p>The fact that there is no set discussion on the principle of divergence +in the 1844 Essay, makes it clear why the joint paper read before the +Linnean Society on July 1, 1858, included a letter<a name='FNanchor_28_28' id='FNanchor_28_28'></a><a href='#Footnote_28_28' class='fnanchor'>{28}</a> +to Asa Gray, as well as an extract<a name='FNanchor_29_29' id='FNanchor_29_29'></a><a href='#Footnote_29_29' class='fnanchor'>{29}</a> +from the Essay of 1844. It is clearly because the letter to Gray +includes a discussion on divergence, and was thus, probably, the only +document, including this subject, which could be appropriately made use +of. It shows once more how great was the importance attached by its +author to the principle of divergence.</p> + +<p>I have spoken of the hurried and condensed manner in which the sketch of +1842 is written; the style of the later Essay (1844) is more finished. +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxv' id='Page_xxv'>{xxv}</a></span> +It has, however, the air of an uncorrected <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> rather than of a book +which has gone through the ordeal of proof sheets. It has not all the +force and conciseness of the <i>Origin</i>, but it has a certain freshness +which gives it a character of its own. It must be remembered that the +<i>Origin</i> was an abstract or condensation of a much bigger book, whereas +the Essay of 1844 was an expansion of the sketch of 1842. It is not +therefore surprising that in the <i>Origin</i> there is occasionally evident +a chafing against the author's self-imposed limitation. Whereas in the +1844 Essay there is an air of freedom, as if the author were letting +himself go, rather than applying the curb. This quality of freshness and +the fact that some questions were more fully discussed in 1844 than in +1859, makes the earlier work good reading even to those who are familiar +with the <i>Origin</i>.</p> + +<p>The writing of this Essay “during the summer of 1844,” as +stated in the Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_30_30' id='FNanchor_30_30'></a><a href='#Footnote_30_30' class='fnanchor'>{30}</a>, +and “from memory,” as Darwin says elsewhere<a name='FNanchor_31_31' id='FNanchor_31_31'></a><a href='#Footnote_31_31' class='fnanchor'>{31}</a>, +was a remarkable achievement, and possibly renders more conceivable the +still greater feat of the writing of the <i>Origin</i> between July 1858 and +September 1859.</p> + +<p>It is an interesting subject for speculation: what influence on the +world the Essay of 1844 would have exercised, had it been published in +place of the Origin. The author evidently thought of its publication in +its present state as an undesirable expedient, as appears clearly from +the following extracts from the <i>Life and Letters</i>, vol. ii. pp. +16—18:</p> + +<p class='i c mt2 noin'>C. Darwin to Mrs Darwin.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxvi' id='Page_xxvi'>{xxvi}</a></span></p> + +<p><span class='ralign'><span class='sc'>Down,</span> <i>July 5, 1844</i>.</span><br /></p> + +<p>“... I have just finished my sketch of my species theory. If, as I +believe, my theory in time be accepted even by one competent judge, it +will be a considerable step in science.</p> + +<p>“I therefore write this in case of my sudden death, as my most +solemn and last request, which I am sure you will consider the same as +if legally entered in my will, that you will devote £400 to its +publication, and further will yourself, or through Hensleigh<a name='FNanchor_32_32' id='FNanchor_32_32'></a><a href='#Footnote_32_32' class='fnanchor'>{32}</a>, +take trouble in promoting it. I wish that my sketch be given to some +competent person, with this sum to induce him to take trouble in its +improvement and enlargement. I give to him all my books on Natural +History, which are either scored or have references at the end to the +pages, begging him carefully to look over and consider such passages as +actually bearing, or by possibility bearing, on this subject. I wish you +to make a list of all such books as some temptation to an editor. I also +request that you will hand over «<ins>to</ins>» him all those scraps roughly divided +into eight or ten brown paper portfolios. The scraps, with copied +quotations from various works, are those which may aid my editor. I also +request that you, or some amanuensis, will aid in deciphering any of the +scraps which the editor may think possibly of use. I leave to the +editor's judgment whether to interpolate these facts in the text, or as +notes, or under appendices. As the looking over the references and +scraps will be a long labour, and as the <i>correcting</i> and enlarging and +altering my sketch will also take considerable time, I leave this sum of +£400 as some remuneration, and any profits from <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxvii' id='Page_xxvii'>{xxvii}</a></span> +the work. I consider that for this the editor is bound to get the +sketch published either at a publisher's or his own risk. Many of the +scraps in the portfolios contain mere rude suggestions and early views, +now useless, and many of the facts will probably turn out as having no +bearing on my theory.</p> + +<p>“With respect to editors, Mr Lyell would be the best if he would +undertake it; I believe he would find the work pleasant, and he would +learn some facts new to him. As the editor must be a geologist as well +as a naturalist, the next best editor would be Professor Forbes of +London. The next best (and quite best in many respects) would be +Professor Henslow. Dr Hooker would be <i>very</i> good. The next, Mr +Strickland<a name='FNanchor_33_33' id='FNanchor_33_33'></a><a href='#Footnote_33_33' class='fnanchor'>{33}</a>. +If none of these would undertake it, I would request you to consult with +Mr Lyell, or some other capable man, for some editor, a geologist and +naturalist. Should one other hundred pounds make the difference of +procuring a good editor, I request earnestly that you will raise +£500.</p> + +<p>“My remaining collections in Natural History may be given to any +one or any museum where «<ins>they</ins>» would be accepted....”</p> + +<p>«<ins>The following note seems to have formed part of the original +letter, but may have been of later date:</ins>»</p> + +<p>“Lyell, especially with the aid of Hooker (and of any good +zoological aid), would be best of all. Without an editor will pledge +himself to give up time to it, it would be of no use paying such a sum.</p> + +<p>“If there should be any difficulty in getting an editor who would +go thoroughly into the subject, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxviii' id='Page_xxviii'>{xxviii}</a></span> +and think of the bearing of the passages marked in the books and copied +out of scraps of paper, then let my sketch be published as it is, +stating that it was done several years ago<a name='FNanchor_34_34' id='FNanchor_34_34'></a><a href='#Footnote_34_34' class='fnanchor'>{34}</a>, +and from memory without consulting any works, and with no intention of +publication in its present form.”</p> + +<p>The idea that the sketch of 1844 might remain, in the event of his +death, as the only record of his work, seems to have been long in his +mind, for in August, 1854, when he had finished with the Cirripedes, and +was thinking of beginning his “species work,” he added on +the back of the above letter, “Hooker by far best man to edit my +species volume. August 1854.”</p> + +<p>I have called attention in footnotes to many points in which the +<i>Origin</i> agrees with the <i>Foundations</i>. One of the most interesting is +the final sentence, practically the same in the Essays of 1842 and 1844, +and almost identical with the concluding words of the <i>Origin</i>. I have +elsewhere pointed out<a name='FNanchor_35_35' id='FNanchor_35_35'></a><a href='#Footnote_35_35' class='fnanchor'>{35}</a> +that the ancestry of this eloquent passage may be traced one stage +further back,—to the Note Book of 1837. I have given this sentence +as an appropriate motto for the <i>Foundations</i> in its character of a +study of general laws. It will be remembered that a corresponding motto +from Whewell's <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i> is printed opposite the title-page +of the <i>Origin of Species</i>.</p> + +<p>Mr Huxley who, about the year 1887, read the Essay of 1844, remarked +that “much more weight is attached to the influence of external +conditions in producing variation and to the inheritance of acquired +habits than in the <i>Origin</i>.” In the <i>Foundations</i> the effect of +conditions is frequently mentioned, and Darwin seems to have had +constantly <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxix' id='Page_xxix'>{xxix}</a></span> +in mind the need of referring each variation to a cause. But I gain the +impression that the slighter prominence given to this view in the +<i>Origin</i> was not due to change of opinion, but rather because he had +gradually come to take this view for granted; so that in the scheme of +that book, it was overshadowed by considerations which then seemed to +him more pressing. With regard to the inheritance of acquired characters +I am not inclined to agree with Huxley. It is certain that the +<i>Foundations</i> contains strong recognition of the importance of germinal +variation, that is of external conditions acting indirectly through the +“reproductive functions.” He evidently considered this as +more important than the inheritance of habit or other acquired +peculiarities.</p> + +<p>Another point of interest is the weight he attached in 1842-4 to +“sports” or what are now called “mutations.” +This is I think more prominent in the <i>Foundations</i> than in the first +edition of the <i>Origin</i>, and certainly than in the fifth and sixth +editions.</p> + +<p>Among other interesting points may be mentioned the “good effects +of crossing” being “possibly analogous to good effects of +change in condition,”—a principle which he upheld on +experimental grounds in his <i>Cross and Self-Fertilisation</i> in 1876.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I desire to express my thanks to Mr Wallace for a +footnote he was good enough to supply: and to Professor Bateson, Sir W. +Thiselton-Dyer, Dr Gadow, Professor Judd, Dr Marr, Col. Prain and Dr +Stapf for information on various points. I am also indebted to Mr +Rutherford, of the University Library, for his careful copy of the +manuscript of 1842.</p> + +<p style='margin-left:3em; text-indent:-1.5em;'><span class='sc'>Cambridge,</span><br /> +<i>June 9, 1909.</i></p> + +<hr class='minor' /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxx' id='Page_xxx'>{xxx}</a></p> +<p class='c noin'>EXPLANATION OF SIGNS, &c.</p> + +<p>[ ] Means that the words so enclosed are erased in the original <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></p> + +<p>« » Indicates an insertion by the Editor.</p> + +<p><i>Origin</i>, Ed. vi. refers to the Popular Edition.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_1' id='Page_1'>{1}</a></p> +<h2><a name='PART_I' id='PART_I'></a>PART I.</h2> + +<h3>§ <span class='sc'>I. «<ins>On Variation under Domestication, and on the Principles of Selection.</ins>»</span></h3> + +<p>An individual organism placed under new conditions [<del>often</del>] sometimes +varies in a small degree and in very trifling respects such as stature, +fatness, sometimes colour, health, habits in animals and probably +disposition. Also habits of life develope certain parts. Disuse +atrophies. [<del>Most of these slight variations tend to become hereditary.</del>]</p> + +<p>When the individual is multiplied for long periods by buds the variation +is yet small, though greater and occasionally a single bud or individual +departs widely from its type (example)<a name='FNanchor_36_36' id='FNanchor_36_36'></a><a href='#Footnote_36_36' class='fnanchor'>{36}</a> +and continues steadily to propagate, by buds, such new kind.</p> + +<p>When the organism is bred for several generations under new or varying +conditions, the variation is greater in amount and endless in kind +[especially<a name='FNanchor_37_37' id='FNanchor_37_37'></a><a href='#Footnote_37_37' class='fnanchor'>{37}</a> +holds good when individuals have long been exposed to new conditions]. +The nature of the external conditions tends to effect some definite +change in all or greater part of offspring,—little food, small +size—certain foods harmless &c. &c. organs affected and +diseases—extent unknown. A certain degree of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_2' id='Page_2'>{2}</a></span> +variation (Müller's twins)<a name='FNanchor_38_38' id='FNanchor_38_38'></a><a href='#Footnote_38_38' class='fnanchor'>{38}</a> +seems inevitable effect of process of reproduction. But more important +is that simple «<ins>?</ins>» generation, especially under new +conditions [<del>when no crossing</del>] «<ins>causes</ins>» infinite variation +and not direct effect of external conditions, but only in as much as it +affects the reproductive functions<a name='FNanchor_39_39' id='FNanchor_39_39'></a><a href='#Footnote_39_39' class='fnanchor'>{39}</a>. +There seems to be no part (<i>beau ideal</i> of liver)<a name='FNanchor_40_40' id='FNanchor_40_40'></a><a href='#Footnote_40_40' class='fnanchor'>{40}</a> +of body, internal or external, or mind or habits, or instincts which +does not vary in some small degree and [<del>often</del>] some «<ins>?</ins>» to a +great amount.</p> + +<p>[<del>All such</del>] variations [<del>being congenital</del>] or those very slowly acquired +of all kinds [<del>decidedly evince a tendency to become hereditary</del>], when +not so become simple variety, when it does a race. Each<a name='FNanchor_41_41' id='FNanchor_41_41'></a><a href='#Footnote_41_41' class='fnanchor'>{41}</a> +parent transmits its peculiarities, therefore if varieties allowed +freely to cross, except by the <i>chance</i> of two characterized by same +peculiarity happening to marry, such varieties will be constantly +demolished<a name='FNanchor_42_42' id='FNanchor_42_42'></a><a href='#Footnote_42_42' class='fnanchor'>{42}</a>. +All bisexual animals must cross, hermaphrodite plants do cross, it seems +very possible that hermaphrodite <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_3' id='Page_3'>{3}</a></span> +animals do cross,—conclusion strengthened: ill effects of +breeding in and in, good effects of crossing possibly analogous to good +effects of change in condition «<ins>?</ins>»<a name='FNanchor_43_43' id='FNanchor_43_43'></a><a href='#Footnote_43_43' class='fnanchor'>{43}</a>.</p> + +<p>Therefore if in any country or district all animals of one species be +allowed freely to cross, any small tendency in them to vary will be +constantly counteracted. Secondly reversion to parent +form—analogue of <i>vis medicatrix</i><a name='FNanchor_44_44' id='FNanchor_44_44'></a><a href='#Footnote_44_44' class='fnanchor'>{44}</a>. +But if man selects, then new races rapidly formed,—of late years +systematically followed,—in most ancient times often practically +followed<a name='FNanchor_45_45' id='FNanchor_45_45'></a><a href='#Footnote_45_45' class='fnanchor'>{45}</a>. +By such selection make race-horse, dray-horse—one cow good for +tallow, another for eating &c.—one plant's good lay +«<ins>illegible</ins>» in leaves another in fruit &c. &c.: the +same plant to supply his wants at different times of year. By former +means animals become adapted, as a direct effect to a cause, to external +conditions, as size of body to amount of food. By this latter means they +may also be so adapted, but further they may be adapted to ends and +pursuits, which by no possibility can affect growth, as existence of +tallow-chandler cannot tend to make fat. In such selected races, if not +removed to new conditions, and «<ins>if</ins>» preserved from all +cross, after several generations become very true, like each other and +not varying. But man<a name='FNanchor_46_46' id='FNanchor_46_46'></a><a href='#Footnote_46_46' class='fnanchor'>{46}</a> +selects only «<ins>?</ins>» what is useful and curious—has bad +judgment, is capricious,—grudges to destroy those that do not come +up to his pattern,—has no<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_4' id='Page_4'>{4}</a></span> +[<del>knowledge</del>] power of selecting according to internal +variations,—can hardly keep his conditions uniform,—[<del>cannot</del>] +does not select those best adapted to the conditions under which +«<ins>the</ins>» form «<ins>?</ins>» lives, but those most useful to +him. This might all be otherwise.</p> + +<h3>§ <span class='sc'>II. «<ins>On Variation in a State of Nature and on the Natural Means of Selection.</ins>»</span></h3> + +<p>Let us see how far above principles of variation apply to wild animals. +Wild animals vary exceedingly little—yet they are known as +individuals<a name='FNanchor_47_47' id='FNanchor_47_47'></a><a href='#Footnote_47_47' class='fnanchor'>{47}</a>. +British Plants, in many genera number quite uncertain of varieties and +species: in shells chiefly external conditions<a name='FNanchor_48_48' id='FNanchor_48_48'></a><a href='#Footnote_48_48' class='fnanchor'>{48}</a>. +Primrose and cowslip. Wild animals from different [<del>countries can be +recognized</del>]. Specific character gives some organs as varying. Variations +analogous in kind, but less in degree with domesticated +animals—chiefly external and less important parts.</p> + +<p>Our experience would lead us to expect that any and every one of these +organisms would vary if «<ins>the organism were</ins>» taken away +«<ins>?</ins>» and placed under new conditions. Geology proclaims a +constant round of change, bringing into play, by every possible +«<ins>?</ins>» change of climate and the death of pre-existing +inhabitants, endless variations of new conditions. These «<ins>?</ins>» +generally very slow, doubtful though «<ins>illegible</ins>» how far the +slowness «<ins>?</ins>» would produce tendency to vary. But +Geolog«<ins>ists</ins>» show change in configuration which, together +with the accidents of air and water and the means of transportal which +every being possesses, must occasionally bring, rather suddenly, +organism to new conditions and «<ins>?</ins>» expose it for several +generations.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_5' id='Page_5'>{5}</a></span> +Hence «<ins>?</ins>» we should expect every now and then a wild form +to vary<a name='FNanchor_49_49' id='FNanchor_49_49'></a><a href='#Footnote_49_49' class='fnanchor'>{49}</a>; +possibly this may be cause of some species varying more than others.</p> + +<p>According to nature of new conditions, so we might expect all or +majority of organisms born under them to vary in some definite way. +Further we might expect that the mould in which they are cast would +likewise vary in some small degree. But is there any means of selecting +those offspring which vary in the same manner, crossing them and keeping +their offspring separate and thus producing selected races: otherwise as +the wild animals freely cross, so must such small heterogeneous +varieties be constantly counter-balanced and lost, and a uniformity of +character [<del>kept up</del>] preserved. The former variation as the direct and +necessary effects of causes, which we can see can act on them, as size +of body from amount of food, effect of certain kinds of food on certain +parts of bodies &c. &c.; such new varieties may then become +adapted to those external [<del>natural</del>] agencies which act on them. But can +varieties be produced adapted to end, which cannot possibly influence +their structure and which it is absurd to look «<ins>at</ins>» as +effects of chance. Can varieties like some vars of domesticated animals, +like almost all wild species be produced adapted by exquisite means to +prey on one animal or to escape from another,—or rather, as it +puts out of question effects of intelligence and habits, can a plant +become adapted to animals, as a plant which cannot be impregnated +without agency of insect; or hooked seeds depending on animal“s +existence: woolly animals cannot have any direct effect on seeds of +plant. This point which all theories about <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_6' id='Page_6'>{6}</a></span> +climate adapting woodpecker<a name='FNanchor_50_50' id='FNanchor_50_50'></a><a href='#Footnote_50_50' class='fnanchor'>{50}</a> +to crawl «<ins>?</ins>» up trees, «<ins>illegible</ins>» miseltoe, +«<ins>sentence incomplete</ins>». But if every part of a plant or +animal was to vary «<ins>illegible</ins>», and if a being infinitely +more sagacious than man (not an omniscient creator) during thousands and +thousands of years were to select all the variations which tended +towards certain ends ([or were to produce causes «<ins>?</ins>» which +tended to the same end]), for instance, if he foresaw a canine animal +would be better off, owing to the country producing more hares, if he +were longer legged and keener sight,—greyhound produced<a +name='FNanchor_51_51' id='FNanchor_51_51'></a><a href='#Footnote_51_51' class='fnanchor'>{51}</a>. +If he saw that aquatic «<ins>animal would need</ins>» skinned toes. If +for some unknown cause he found it would advantage a plant, which +«<ins>?</ins>» like most plants is occasionally visited by bees +&c.: if that plant’s seed were occasionally eaten by birds and +were then carried on to rotten trees, he might select trees with fruit +more agreeable to such birds as perched, to ensure their being carried +to trees; if he perceived those birds more often dropped the seeds, he +might well have selected a bird who would «<ins>illegible</ins>» rotten +trees or [gradually select plants which «<ins>he</ins>» had proved to +live on less and less rotten trees]. Who, seeing how plants vary in +garden, what blind foolish man has done<a name='FNanchor_52_52' id='FNanchor_52_52'></a><a href='#Footnote_52_52' class='fnanchor'>{52}</a> +in a few years, will deny an all-seeing being in thousands of years +could effect (if the Creator chose to do so), either by his own direct +foresight or by intermediate means,—which will represent +«<ins>?</ins>» the creator of this universe. Seems usual means. Be it +remembered I have nothing to say about life and mind and <i>all</i> <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_7' id='Page_7'>{7}</a></span> +forms descending from one common type<a name='FNanchor_53_53' id='FNanchor_53_53'></a><a href='#Footnote_53_53' class='fnanchor'>{53}</a>. +I speak of the variation of the existing great divisions of the +organised kingdom, how far I would go, hereafter to be seen.</p> + +<p>Before considering whether «<ins>there</ins>» be any natural means of +selection, and secondly (which forms the 2nd Part of this sketch) the +far more important point whether the characters and relations of +animated «<ins>things</ins>» are such as favour the idea of wild +species being races «<ins>?</ins>» descended from a common stock, as +the varieties of potato or dahlia or cattle having so descended, let us +consider probable character of [<del>selected races</del>] wild varieties.</p> + +<p><i>Natural Selection.</i> De Candolle’s war of nature,—seeing +contented face of nature,—may be well at first doubted; we see it +on borders of perpetual cold<a name='FNanchor_54_54' id='FNanchor_54_54'></a><a href='#Footnote_54_54' class='fnanchor'>{54}</a>. +But considering the enormous geometrical power of increase in every +organism and as «<ins>?</ins>» every country, in ordinary cases +«<ins>countries</ins>» must be stocked to full extent, reflection will +show that this is the case. Malthus on man,—in animals no moral +[<del>check</del>] restraint «<ins>?</ins>»—they breed in time of year when +provision most abundant, or season most favourable, every country has +its seasons,—calculate robins,—oscillating from years of +destruction<a name='FNanchor_55_55' id='FNanchor_55_55'></a><a href='#Footnote_55_55' class='fnanchor'>{55}</a>. +If proof were wanted let any singular change of climate +«<ins>occur</ins>» here «<ins>?</ins>», how astoundingly some tribes +«<ins>?</ins>» increase, also introduced animals<a name='FNanchor_56_56' id='FNanchor_56_56'></a><a href='#Footnote_56_56' class='fnanchor'>{56}</a>, +the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_8' id='Page_8'>{8}</a></span> +pressure is always ready,—capacity of alpine plants to endure +other climates,—think of endless seeds scattered +abroad,—forests regaining their percentage<a name='FNanchor_57_57' id='FNanchor_57_57'></a><a href='#Footnote_57_57' class='fnanchor'>{57}</a>,—a +thousand wedges<a name='FNanchor_58_58' id='FNanchor_58_58'></a><a href='#Footnote_58_58' class='fnanchor'>{58}</a> +are being forced into the œconomy of nature. This requires much +reflection; study Malthus and calculate rates of increase and remember +the resistance,—only periodical.</p> + +<p>The unavoidable effect of this «<ins>is</ins>» that many of every +species are destroyed either in egg or [<del>young or mature (the former +state the more common)</del>]. In the course of a thousand generations +infinitesimally small differences must inevitably tell<a name='FNanchor_59_59' id='FNanchor_59_59'></a><a href='#Footnote_59_59' class='fnanchor'>{59}</a>; +when unusually cold winter, or hot or dry summer comes, then out of the +whole body of individuals of any species, if there be the smallest +differences in their structure, habits, instincts [<del>senses</del>], health +&c., «<ins>it</ins>» will on an average tell; as conditions change +a rather larger proportion will be preserved: so if the chief check to +increase falls on seeds or eggs, so will, in the course of 1000 +generations or ten thousand, those seeds (like one with down to fly<a +name='FNanchor_60_60' id='FNanchor_60_60'></a><a href='#Footnote_60_60' class='fnanchor'>{60}</a>) +which fly furthest and get scattered most ultimately rear most plants, +and such small differences tend to be hereditary like shades of +expression in human countenance. So if one parent «<ins>?</ins>» fish +deposits its egg in infinitesimally different circumstances, as in +rather shallower or deeper water &c., it will then «<ins>?</ins>» +tell.</p> + +<p>Let hares<a name='FNanchor_61_61' id='FNanchor_61_61'></a><a href='#Footnote_61_61' class='fnanchor'>{61}</a> +increase very slowly from change of climate affecting peculiar plants, +and some other «<ins>illegible</ins>» rabbit decrease in same +proportion [<del>let this unsettle organisation of</del>], a canine animal, who +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_9' id='Page_9'>{9}</a></span> +formerly derived its chief sustenance by springing on rabbits or +running them by scent, must decrease too and might thus readily become +exterminated. But if its form varied very slightly, the long legged +fleet ones, during a thousand years being selected, and the less fleet +rigidly destroyed must, if no law of nature be opposed to it, alter +forms.</p> + +<p>Remember how soon Bakewell on the same principle altered cattle and +Western, sheep,—carefully avoiding a cross (pigeons) with any breed. We +cannot suppose that one plant tends to vary in fruit and another in +flower, and another in flower and foliage,—some have been selected for +both fruit and flower: that one animal varies in its covering and +another not,—another in its milk. Take any organism and ask what is it +useful for and on that point it will be found to vary,—cabbages in +their leaf,—corn in size «<ins>and</ins>» quality of grain, both in times of +year,—kidney beans for young pod and cotton for envelope of seeds &c. +&c.: dogs in intellect, courage, fleetness and smell «<ins>?</ins>»: pigeons in +peculiarities approaching to monsters. This requires +consideration,—should be introduced in first chapter if it holds, I +believe it does. It is hypothetical at best<a name='FNanchor_62_62' id='FNanchor_62_62'></a><a href='#Footnote_62_62' class='fnanchor'>{62}</a>.</p> + +<p>Nature’s variation far less, but such selection far more rigid and +scrutinising. Man’s races not [<del>even so well</del>] only not better +adapted to conditions than other races, but often not «<ins>?</ins>» +one race adapted to its conditions, as man keeps and propagates some +alpine plants in garden. Nature lets «<ins>an</ins>» animal live, till +on actual proof it is found less able to do the required work to serve +the desired end, man judges solely by his eye, and knows not whether +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_10' id='Page_10'>{10}</a></span> +nerves, muscles, arteries, are developed in proportion to the change of +external form.</p> + +<p>Besides selection by death, in bisexual animals «<ins>illegible</ins>» +the selection in time of fullest vigour, namely struggle of males; even +in animals which pair there seems a surplus «<ins>?</ins>» and a +battle, possibly as in man more males produced than females, struggle of +war or charms<a name='FNanchor_63_63' id='FNanchor_63_63'></a><a href='#Footnote_63_63' class='fnanchor'>{63}</a>. +Hence that male which at that time is in fullest vigour, or best armed +with arms or ornaments of its species, will gain in hundreds of +generations some small advantage and transmit such characters to its +offspring. So in female rearing its young, the most vigorous and skilful +and industrious, «<ins>whose</ins>» instincts «<ins>are</ins>» +best developed, will rear more young, probably possessing her good +qualities, and a greater number will thus «<ins>be</ins>» prepared for +the struggle of nature. Compared to man using a male alone of good +breed. This latter section only of limited application, applies to +variation of [<del>specific</del>] sexual characters. Introduce here contrast with +Lamarck,—absurdity of habit, or chance?? or external conditions, +making a woodpecker adapted to tree<a name='FNanchor_64_64' id='FNanchor_64_64'></a><a href='#Footnote_64_64' class='fnanchor'>{64}</a>.</p> + +<p>Before considering difficulties of theory of selection let us consider +character of the races produced, as now explained, by nature. Conditions +have varied slowly and the organisms best adapted in their whole course +of life to the changed conditions have always been selected,—man +selects small dog and afterwards gives it profusion of food,—selects a +long-backed and short-legged breed and gives it no particular exercise +to suit this function &c. &c. In ordinary cases nature has not allowed +her race to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_11' id='Page_11'>{11}</a></span> +be contaminated with a cross of another race, and agriculturists know +how difficult they find always to prevent this,—effect would be +trueness. This character and sterility when crossed, and generally a +greater amount of difference, are two main features, which distinguish +domestic races from species.</p> + +<p>[<del>Sterility not universal admitted by all<a name='FNanchor_65_65' id='FNanchor_65_65'></a><a href='#Footnote_65_65' class='fnanchor'>{65}</a>. +<i>Gladiolus</i>, <i>Crinum</i>, <i>Calceolaria</i><a name='FNanchor_66_66' id='FNanchor_66_66'></a><a href='#Footnote_66_66' class='fnanchor'>{66}</a> +must be species if there be such a thing. Races of dogs and oxen: but +certainly very general; indeed a gradation of sterility most perfect<a name='FNanchor_67_67' id='FNanchor_67_67'></a><a href='#Footnote_67_67' class='fnanchor'>{67}</a> +very general. Some nearest species will not cross (crocus, some heath +«<ins>?</ins>»), some genera cross readily (fowls<a name='FNanchor_68_68' id='FNanchor_68_68'></a><a href='#Footnote_68_68' class='fnanchor'>{68}</a> +and grouse, peacock &c.). Hybrids no ways monstrous quite perfect +except secretions<a name='FNanchor_69_69' id='FNanchor_69_69'></a><a href='#Footnote_69_69' class='fnanchor'>{69}</a> +hence even the mule has bred,—character of sterility, especially a +few years ago «<ins>?</ins>» thought very much more universal than it +now is, has been thought the distinguishing character; indeed it is +obvious if all forms freely crossed, nature would be a chaos. But the +very gradation of the character, even if it always existed in some +degree which it does not, renders it impossible as marks «<ins>?</ins>» +those «<ins>?</ins>» suppose distinct as species<a name='FNanchor_70_70' id='FNanchor_70_70'></a><a href='#Footnote_70_70' class='fnanchor'>{70}</a></del>]. +Will analogy throw any light <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_12' id='Page_12'>{12}</a></span> +on the fact of the supposed races of nature being sterile, though none +of the domestic ones are? Mr Herbert «<ins>and</ins>» Koelreuter have +shown external differences will not guide one in knowing whether hybrids +will be fertile or not, but the chief circumstance is constitutional +differences<a name='FNanchor_71_71' id='FNanchor_71_71'></a><a href='#Footnote_71_71' class='fnanchor'>{71}</a>, +such as being adapted to different climate or soil, differences which +[<del>must</del>] probably affect the whole body of the organism and not any one +part. Now wild animals, taken out of their natural conditions, seldom +breed. I do not refer to shows or to Zoological Societies where many +animals unite, but «<ins>do not?</ins>» breed, and others will never +unite, but to wild animals caught and kept <i>quite tame</i> left loose and +well fed about houses and living many years. Hybrids produced almost as +readily as pure breds. St Hilaire great distinction of tame and +domestic,—elephants,—ferrets<a name='FNanchor_72_72' id='FNanchor_72_72'></a><a href='#Footnote_72_72' class='fnanchor'>{72}</a>. +Reproductive organs not subject to disease in Zoological Garden. +Dissection and microscope show that hybrid is in exactly same condition +as another animal in the intervals of breeding season, or those animals +which taken wild and <i>not bred</i> in domesticity, remain without breeding +their whole lives. It should be observed that so far from domesticity +being unfavourable in itself «<ins>it</ins>» makes more fertile: [<del>when +animal is domesticated and breeds, productive power increased from more +food and selection of fertile races</del>]. As far as animals go might be +thought «<ins>an</ins>» effect on their mind and a special case.</p> + +<p>But turning to plants we find same class of facts. I do not refer to +seeds not ripening, perhaps the commonest <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_13' id='Page_13'>{13}</a></span> +cause, but to plants not setting, which either is owing to some +imperfection of ovule or pollen. Lindley says sterility is the [<del>curse</del>] +bane of all propagators,—Linnæus about alpine plants. +American bog plants,—pollen in exactly same state as in +hybrids,—same in geraniums. Persian and Chinese<a name='FNanchor_73_73' id='FNanchor_73_73'></a><a href='#Footnote_73_73' class='fnanchor'>{73}</a> +lilac will not seed in Italy and England. Probably double plants and all +fruits owe their developed parts primarily «<ins>?</ins>» to sterility +and extra food thus «<ins>?</ins>» applied<a name='FNanchor_74_74' id='FNanchor_74_74'></a><a href='#Footnote_74_74' class='fnanchor'>{74}</a>. +There is here gradation «<ins>in</ins>» sterility and then parts, like +diseases, are transmitted hereditarily. We cannot assign any cause why +the Pontic Azalea produces plenty of pollen and not American<a name='FNanchor_75_75' id='FNanchor_75_75'></a><a href='#Footnote_75_75' class='fnanchor'>{75}</a>, +why common lilac seeds and not Persian, we see no difference in +healthiness. We know not on what circumstances these facts depend, why +ferret breeds, and cheetah<a name='FNanchor_76_76' id='FNanchor_76_76'></a><a href='#Footnote_76_76' class='fnanchor'>{76}</a>, +elephant and pig in India will not.</p> + +<p>Now in crossing it is certain every peculiarity in form and constitution +is transmitted: an alpine plant transmits its alpine tendency to its +offspring, an American plant its American-bog constitution, and +«<ins>with</ins>» animals, those peculiarities, on which<a name='FNanchor_77_77' id='FNanchor_77_77'></a><a href='#Footnote_77_77' class='fnanchor'>{77}</a> +when placed out of their natural conditions they are incapable of +breeding; and moreover they transmit every part of their constitution, +their <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_14' id='Page_14'>{14}</a></span> +respiration, their pulse, their instinct, which are all suddenly +modified, can it be wondered at that they are incapable of breeding? I +think it may be truly said it would be more wonderful if they did. But +it may be asked why have not the recognised varieties, supposed to have +been produced through the means of man, [<del>not refused to breed</del>] have all +bred<a name='FNanchor_78_78' id='FNanchor_78_78'></a><a href='#Footnote_78_78' class='fnanchor'>{78}</a>. +Variation depends on change of condition and selection<a +name='FNanchor_79_79' id='FNanchor_79_79'></a><a href='#Footnote_79_79' class='fnanchor'>{79}</a>, +as far as man’s systematic or unsystematic selection +«<ins>has</ins>» gone; he takes external form, has little power from +ignorance over internal invisible constitutional differences. Races +which have long been domesticated, and have much varied, are precisely +those which were capable of bearing great changes, whose constitutions +were adapted to a diversity of climates. Nature changes slowly and by +degrees. According to many authors probably breeds of dogs are another +case of modified species freely crossing. There is no variety which +«<ins>illegible</ins>» has been «<ins>illegible</ins>» adapted to +peculiar soil or situation for a thousand years and another rigorously +adapted to another, till such can be produced, the question is not +tried<a name='FNanchor_80_80' id='FNanchor_80_80'></a><a href='#Footnote_80_80' class='fnanchor'>{80}</a>. +Man in past ages, could transport into different climates, animals and +plants which would freely propagate in such new climates. Nature could +effect, with selection, such changes slowly, so that precisely those +animals which are adapted to submit to great changes have given rise to +diverse races,—and indeed great doubt on this head<a name='FNanchor_81_81' id='FNanchor_81_81'></a><a href='#Footnote_81_81' class='fnanchor'>{81}</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_15' id='Page_15'>{15}</a></span> +Before leaving this subject well to observe that it was shown that a +certain amount of variation is consequent on mere act of reproduction, +both by buds and sexually,—is vastly increased when parents +exposed for some generations to new conditions<a name='FNanchor_82_82' id='FNanchor_82_82'></a><a href='#Footnote_82_82' class='fnanchor'>{82}</a>, +and we now find that many animals when exposed for first time to very +new conditions, are «<ins>as</ins>» incapable of breeding as hybrids. +It [<del>probably</del>] bears also on supposed fact of crossed animals when not +infertile, as in mongrels, tending to vary much, as likewise seems to be +the case, when true hybrids possess just sufficient fertility to +propagate with the parent breeds and <i>inter se</i> for some generations. +This is Koelreuter’s belief. These facts throw light on each other +and support the truth of each other, we see throughout a connection +between the reproductive faculties and exposure to changed conditions of +life whether by crossing or exposure of the individuals<a name='FNanchor_83_83' id='FNanchor_83_83'></a><a href='#Footnote_83_83' class='fnanchor'>{83}</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Difficulties on theory of selection</i><a name='FNanchor_84_84' id='FNanchor_84_84'></a><a href='#Footnote_84_84' class='fnanchor'>{84}</a>. +It may be objected such perfect organs as eye and ear, could never be +formed, in latter less difficulty as gradations more perfect; at first +appears monstrous and to «<ins>the</ins>» end appears difficulty. But +think of gradation, even now manifest, (Tibia and Fibula). Everyone will +allow if every fossil preserved, gradation <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_16' id='Page_16'>{16}</a></span> +infinitely more perfect; for possibility of selection a perfect +«<ins>?</ins>» gradation is required. Different groups of structure, +slight gradation in each group,—every analogy renders it probable +that intermediate forms have existed. Be it remembered what strange +metamorphoses; part of eye, not directly connected with vision, might +come to be [<del>thus used</del>] gradually worked in for this end,—swimming +bladder by gradation of structure is admitted to belong to the ear +system,—rattlesnake. [<del>Woodpecker best adapted to climb.</del>] In some +cases gradation not possible,—as vertebræ,—actually +vary in domestic animals,—less difficult if growth followed. +Looking to whole animals, a bat formed not for flight<a name='FNanchor_85_85' id='FNanchor_85_85'></a><a href='#Footnote_85_85' class='fnanchor'>{85}</a>. +Suppose we had flying fish<a name='FNanchor_86_86' id='FNanchor_86_86'></a><a href='#Footnote_86_86' class='fnanchor'>{86}</a> +and not one of our now called flying fish preserved, who would have +guessed intermediate habits. Woodpeckers and tree-frogs both live in +countries where no trees<a name='FNanchor_87_87' id='FNanchor_87_87'></a><a href='#Footnote_87_87' class='fnanchor'>{87}</a>.</p> + +<p>The gradations by which each individual organ has arrived at its present +state, and each individual animal with its aggregate of organs has +arrived, probably never could be known, and all present great +difficulties. I merely wish to show that the proposition is not so +monstrous as it at first appears, and that if good reason can be +advanced for believing the species have descended from common parents, +the difficulty of imagining intermediate forms of structure not +sufficient to make one at once reject the theory.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_17' id='Page_17'>{17}</a></span></p> + +<h3>§ <span class='sc'>III. «<ins>On Variation in instincts and other mental attributes.</ins>»</span></h3> + +<p>The mental powers of different animals in wild and tame state [<del>present +still greater difficulties</del>] require a separate section. Be it remembered +I have nothing to do with origin of memory, attention, and the different +faculties of the mind<a name='FNanchor_88_88' id='FNanchor_88_88'></a><a href='#Footnote_88_88' class='fnanchor'>{88}</a>, +but merely with their differences in each of the great divisions of +nature. Disposition, courage, pertinacity «<ins>?</ins>», suspicion, +restlessness, ill-temper, sagacity and «<ins>the</ins>» reverse +unquestionably vary in animals and are inherited (Cuba wildness dogs, +rabbits, fear against particular object as man Galapagos<a name='FNanchor_89_89' id='FNanchor_89_89'></a><a href='#Footnote_89_89' class='fnanchor'>{89}</a>). +Habits purely corporeal, breeding season &c., time of going to rest +&c., vary and are hereditary, like the analogous habits of plants +which vary and are inherited. Habits of body, as manner of movement d<sup>o</sup>. +and d<sup>o</sup>. Habits, as pointing and setting on certain occasions d<sup>o</sup>. Taste +for hunting certain objects and manner of doing so,—sheep-dog. +These are shown clearly by crossing and their analogy with true instinct +thus shown,—retriever. Do not know objects for which they do it. +Lord Brougham’s definition<a name='FNanchor_90_90' id='FNanchor_90_90'></a><a href='#Footnote_90_90' class='fnanchor'>{90}</a>. +Origin partly habit, but the amount necessarily unknown, partly +selection. Young pointers pointing stones and sheep—tumbling +pigeons—sheep<a name='FNanchor_91_91' id='FNanchor_91_91'></a><a href='#Footnote_91_91' class='fnanchor'>{91}</a> +going back to place where born.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_18' id='Page_18'>{18}</a></span> +Instinct aided by reason, as in the taylor-bird<a name='FNanchor_92_92' id='FNanchor_92_92'></a><a href='#Footnote_92_92' class='fnanchor'>{92}</a>. +Taught by parents, cows choosing food, birds singing. Instincts vary in +wild state (birds get wilder) often lost<a name='FNanchor_93_93' id='FNanchor_93_93'></a><a href='#Footnote_93_93' class='fnanchor'>{93}</a>; +more perfect,—nest without roof. These facts [<del>only clear way</del>] show +how incomprehensibly brain has power of transmitting intellectual +operations.</p> + +<p>Faculties<a name='FNanchor_94_94' id='FNanchor_94_94'></a><a href='#Footnote_94_94' class='fnanchor'>{94}</a> +distinct from true instincts,—finding [<del>way</del>]. It must I think be +admitted that habits whether congenital or acquired by practice +[<del>sometimes</del>] often become inherited<a name='FNanchor_95_95' id='FNanchor_95_95'></a><a href='#Footnote_95_95' class='fnanchor'>{95}</a>; +instincts, influence, equally with structure, the preservation of +animals; therefore selection must, with changing conditions tend to +modify the inherited habits of animals. If this be admitted it will be +found <i>possible</i> that many of the strangest instincts may be thus +acquired. I may observe, without attempting definition, that an +inherited habit or trick (trick because may be born) fulfils closely +what we mean by instinct. A habit is often performed unconsciously, the +strangest habits become associated, d<sup>o</sup>. tricks, going in certain spots +&c. &c., even against will, is excited by external agencies, and +looks not to the end,—a person playing a pianoforte. If such a +habit were transmitted it would make a marvellous instinct. Let us +consider some of the most difficult cases of instincts, whether they +could be <i>possibly</i> acquired. I do not say <i>probably</i>, for that belongs +to our 3rd Part<a name='FNanchor_96_96' id='FNanchor_96_96'></a><a href='#Footnote_96_96' class='fnanchor'>{96}</a>, +I beg this may be remembered, nor do I mean to attempt to show exact +method. I want only to show that <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_19' id='Page_19'>{19}</a></span> +whole theory ought not at once to be rejected on this score.</p> + +<p>Every instinct must, by my theory, have been acquired gradually by +slight changes «<ins>illegible</ins>» of former instinct, each change +being useful to its then species. Shamming death struck me at first as +remarkable objection. I found none really sham death<a name='FNanchor_97_97' id='FNanchor_97_97'></a><a href='#Footnote_97_97' class='fnanchor'>{97}</a>, +and that there is gradation; now no one doubts that those insects which +do it either more or less, do it for some good, if then any species was +led to do it more, and then «<ins>?</ins>» escaped &c. &c.</p> + +<p>Take migratory instincts, faculty distinct from instinct, animals have +notion of time,—like savages. Ordinary finding way by memory, but +how does savage find way across country,—as incomprehensible to +us, as animal to them,—geological changes,—fishes in +river,—case of sheep in Spain<a name='FNanchor_98_98' id='FNanchor_98_98'></a><a href='#Footnote_98_98' class='fnanchor'>{98}</a>. +Architectural instincts,—a manufacturer’s employee in making +single articles extraordinary skill,—often said seem to make it +almost «<ins>illegible</ins>», child born with such a notion of +playing<a name='FNanchor_99_99' id='FNanchor_99_99'></a><a href='#Footnote_99_99' class='fnanchor'>{99}</a>,—we +can fancy tailoring acquired in same perfection,—mixture of +reason,—water-ouzel,—taylor-bird,—gradation of simple +nest to most complicated.</p> + +<p>Bees again, distinction of faculty,—how they make a +hexagon,—Waterhouse’s theory<a name='FNanchor_100_100' id='FNanchor_100_100'></a><a href='#Footnote_100_100' class='fnanchor'>{100}</a>,—the +impulse to use whatever faculty they possess,—the taylor-bird has +the faculty of sewing with beak, instinct impels him to do it.</p> + +<p>Last case of parent feeding young with different food (take case of +Galapagos birds, gradation from<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_20' id='Page_20'>{20}</a></span> +Hawfinch to Sylvia) selection and habit might lead old birds to vary +taste «<ins>?</ins>» and form, leaving their instinct of feeding their +young with same food<a name='FNanchor_101_101' id='FNanchor_101_101'></a><a href='#Footnote_101_101' class='fnanchor'>{101}</a>,—or +I see no difficulty in parents being forced or induced to vary the food +brought, and selection adapting the young ones to it, and thus by degree +any amount of diversity might be arrived at. Although we can never hope +to see the course revealed by which different instincts have been +acquired, for we have only present animals (not well known) to judge of +the course of gradation, yet once grant the principle of habits, whether +congenital or acquired by experience, being inherited and I can see no +limit to the [<del>amount of variation</del>] extraordinariness «<ins>?</ins>» +of the habits thus acquired.</p> + +<p><i>Summing up this Division.</i> If variation be admitted to occur +occasionally in some wild animals, and how can we doubt it, when we see +[<del>all</del>] thousands «<ins>of</ins>» organisms, for whatever use taken by +man, do vary. If we admit such variations tend to be hereditary, and how +can we doubt it when we «<ins>remember</ins>» resemblances of features +and character,—disease and monstrosities inherited and endless +races produced (1200 cabbages). If we admit selection is steadily at +work, and who will doubt it, when he considers amount of food on an +average fixed and reproductive powers act in geometrical ratio. If we +admit that external conditions vary, as all geology proclaims, they have +done and are now doing,—then, if no law of nature be opposed, +there must occasionally be formed races, [<del>slightly</del>] differing from the +parent races. So then any such law<a name='FNanchor_102_102' id='FNanchor_102_102'></a><a href='#Footnote_102_102' class='fnanchor'>{102}</a>, +none is <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_21' id='Page_21'>{21}</a></span> +known, but in all works it is assumed, in «<ins>?</ins>» flat +contradiction to all known facts, that the amount of possible variation +is soon acquired. Are not all the most varied species, the oldest +domesticated: who «<ins>would</ins>» think that horses or corn could be +produced? Take dahlia and potato, who will pretend in 5000 years<a name='FNanchor_103_103' id='FNanchor_103_103'></a><a href='#Footnote_103_103' class='fnanchor'>{103}</a> +«<ins>that great changes might not be effected</ins>»: perfectly +adapted to conditions and then again brought into varying conditions. +Think what has been done in few last years, look at pigeons, and cattle. +With the amount of food man can produce he may have arrived at limit of +fatness or size, or thickness of wool «<ins>?</ins>», but these are the +most trivial points, but even in these I conclude it is impossible to +say we know the limit of variation. And therefore with the [<del>adapting</del>] +selecting power of nature, infinitely wise compared to those of man, +«<ins>I conclude</ins>» that it is impossible to say we know the limit +of races, which would be true «<ins>to their</ins>» kind; if of +different constitutions would probably be infertile one with another, +and which might be adapted in the most singular and admirable manner, +according to their wants, to external nature and to other surrounding +organisms,—such races would be species. But is there any evidence +«<ins>that</ins>» species «<ins>have</ins>» been thus produced, this +is a question wholly independent of all previous points, and which on +examination of the kingdom of nature «<ins>we</ins>» ought to answer +one way or another.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_22' id='Page_22'>{22}</a></p> +<h2><a name='PART_II104' id='PART_II104'></a>PART II<a name='FNanchor_104_104' id='FNanchor_104_104'></a><a href='#Footnote_104_104' class='fnanchor'>{104}</a>.</h2> + +<h3>§§ <span class='sc'>IV. & V. «<ins>On the evidence from Geology.</ins>»</span></h3> + +<p>I may premise, that according to the view ordinarily received, the +myriads of organisms peopling this world have been created by so many +distinct acts of creation. As we know nothing of the +«<ins>illegible</ins>» will of a Creator,—we can see no reason +why there should exist any relation between the organisms thus created; +or again, they might be created according to any scheme. But it would be +marvellous if this scheme should be the same as would result from the +descent of groups of organisms from [<del>certain</del>] the same parents, +according to the circumstances, just attempted to be developed.</p> + +<p>With equal probability did old cosmogonists say fossils were created, as +we now see them, with a false resemblance to living beings<a +name='FNanchor_105_105' id='FNanchor_105_105'></a><a href='#Footnote_105_105' class='fnanchor'>{105}</a>; +what would the Astronomer say to the doctrine that the planets moved +«<ins>not</ins>» according to the law of gravitation, but from the +Creator having willed each separate planet to move in its particular +orbit? I believe such a proposition (if we remove all prejudices) would +be as legitimate as to admit that certain groups of living and extinct +organisms, in their distribution, in their structure and in their +relations one to another and to external conditions, agreed with the +theory <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_23' id='Page_23'>{23}</a></span> +and showed signs of common descent, and yet were created distinct. As +long as it was thought impossible that organisms should vary, or should +anyhow become adapted to other organisms in a complicated manner, and +yet be separated from them by an impassable barrier of sterility<a +name='FNanchor_106_106' id='FNanchor_106_106'></a><a href='#Footnote_106_106' class='fnanchor'>{106}</a>, +it was justifiable, even with some appearance in favour of a common +descent, to admit distinct creation according to the will of an +Omniscient Creator; or, for it is the same thing, to say with Whewell +that the beginnings of all things surpass the comprehension of man. In +the former sections I have endeavoured to show that such variation or +specification is not impossible, nay, in many points of view is +absolutely probable. What then is the evidence in favour of it and what +the evidence against it. With our imperfect knowledge of past ages +[<del>surely there will be some</del>] it would be strange if the imperfection did +not create some unfavourable evidence.</p> + +<p>Give sketch of the Past,—beginning with facts appearing hostile under +present knowledge,—then proceed to geograph. distribution,—order of +appearance,—affinities,—morphology &c., &c.</p> + +<p>Our theory requires a very gradual introduction of new forms<a name='FNanchor_107_107' id='FNanchor_107_107'></a><a href='#Footnote_107_107' class='fnanchor'>{107}</a>, +and extermination of the old (to which we shall revert). The +extermination of old may sometimes be rapid, but never the introduction. +In the groups descended from common parent, our theory requires a +perfect gradation not differing more than breed«<ins>s</ins>» of +cattle, or potatoes, or cabbages in forms. I do not mean that a +graduated series of animals must have existed, intermediate between +horse, mouse, tapir<a name='FNanchor_108_108' id='FNanchor_108_108'></a><a href='#Footnote_108_108' class='fnanchor'>{108}</a>, +elephant [<del>or fowl and peacock</del>], <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_24' id='Page_24'>{24}</a></span> +but that these must have had a common parent, and between horse and +this «<ins>?</ins>» parent &c., &c., but the common parent may +possibly have differed more from either than the two do now from each +other. Now what evidence of this is there? So perfect gradation in some +departments, that some naturalists have thought that in some large +divisions, if all existing forms were collected, a near approach to +perfect gradation would be made. But such a notion is preposterous with +respect to all, but evidently so with mammals. Other naturalists have +thought this would be so if all the specimens entombed in the strata +were collected<a name='FNanchor_109_109' id='FNanchor_109_109'></a><a href='#Footnote_109_109' class='fnanchor'>{109}</a>. +I conceive there is no probability whatever of this; nevertheless it is +certain all the numerous fossil forms fall in«<ins>to</ins>», as +Buckland remarks, <i>not</i> present classes, families and genera, they fall +between them: so is it with new discoveries of existing forms. Most +ancient fossils, that is most separated «<ins>by</ins>» space of time, +are most apt to fall between the classes—(but organisms from those +countries most separated by space also fall between the classes +«<ins><i>e.g.</i></ins>» Ornithorhyncus?). As far as geological discoveries +«<ins>go</ins>» they tend towards such gradation<a name='FNanchor_110_110' id='FNanchor_110_110'></a><a href='#Footnote_110_110' class='fnanchor'>{110}</a>. +Illustrate it with net. Toxodon,—tibia and fibula,—dog and +otter,—but so utterly improbable is «<ins>it</ins>», in <i>ex. gr.</i> +Pachydermata, to compose series as perfect as cattle, that if, as many +geologists seem to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_25' id='Page_25'>{25}</a></span> +infer, each separate formation presents even an approach to a +consecutive history, my theory must be given up. Even if it were +consecutive, it would only collect series of one district in our present +state of knowledge; but what probability is there that any one formation +during the <i>immense</i> period which has elapsed during each period will +<i>generally</i> present a consecutive history. [<del>Compare number living at one +period to fossils preserved—look at enormous periods of time.</del>]</p> + +<p>Referring only to marine animals, which are obviously most likely to be +preserved, they must live where «<ins>?</ins>» sediment (of a kind +favourable for preservation, not sand and pebble)<a name='FNanchor_111_111' id='FNanchor_111_111'></a><a href='#Footnote_111_111' class='fnanchor'>{111}</a> +is depositing quickly and over large area and must be thickly capped, +«<ins>illegible</ins>» littoral deposits: for otherwise denudation +«<ins>will destroy them</ins>»,—they must live in a shallow space +which sediment will tend to fill up,—as movement is +«<ins>in?</ins>» progress if soon brought «<ins>?</ins>» up +«<ins>?</ins>» subject to denudation,—[<del>if</del>] as during subsidence +favourable, accords with facts of European deposits<a name='FNanchor_112_112' id='FNanchor_112_112'></a><a href='#Footnote_112_112' class='fnanchor'>{112}</a>, +but subsidence apt to destroy agents which produce sediment<a name='FNanchor_113_113' id='FNanchor_113_113'></a><a href='#Footnote_113_113' class='fnanchor'>{113}</a>.</p> + +<p>I believe safely inferred «<ins>that</ins>» groups of marine +«<ins>?</ins>» fossils only preserved for future ages where sediment +goes on long «<ins>and</ins>» continuous«<ins>ly</ins>» +and with rapid but not too rapid deposition in «<ins>an</ins>» area of +subsidence. In how few places in any one region like Europe will +«<ins>?</ins>» these contingencies be going on? Hence «<ins>?</ins>» +in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_26' id='Page_26'>{26}</a></span> +past ages mere [<del>gaps</del>] pages preserved<a name='FNanchor_114_114' id='FNanchor_114_114'></a><a href='#Footnote_114_114' class='fnanchor'>{114}</a>. +Lyell's doctrine carried to extreme,—we shall understand +difficulty if it be asked:—what chance of series of gradation +between cattle by «<ins>illegible</ins>» at age «<ins>illegible</ins>» +as far back as Miocene<a name='FNanchor_115_115' id='FNanchor_115_115'></a><a href='#Footnote_115_115' class='fnanchor'>{115}</a>? +We know then cattle existed. Compare number of living,—immense +duration of each period,—fewness of fossils.</p> + +<p>This only refers to consecutiveness of history of organisms of each +formation.</p> + +<p>The foregoing argument will show firstly, that formations are distinct +merely from want of fossils «<ins>of intermediate beds</ins>», and +secondly, that each formation is full of gaps, has been advanced to +account for <i>fewness</i> of <i>preserved</i> organisms compared to what have +lived on the world. The very same argument explains why in older +formations the organisms appear to come on and disappear +suddenly,—but in [<del>later</del>] tertiary not quite suddenly<a name='FNanchor_116_116' id='FNanchor_116_116'></a><a href='#Footnote_116_116' class='fnanchor'>{116}</a>, +in later tertiary gradually,—becoming rare and +disappearing,—some have disappeared within man’s time. It is +obvious that our theory requires gradual and nearly uniform +introduction, possibly more sudden extermination,—subsidence of +continent of Australia &c., &c.</p> + +<p>Our theory requires that the first form which existed of each of the +great divisions would present points intermediate between existing ones, +but immensely different. Most geologists believe Silurian<a name='FNanchor_117_117' id='FNanchor_117_117'></a><a href='#Footnote_117_117' class='fnanchor'>{117}</a> fossils +are those which first existed in the whole world, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_27' id='Page_27'>{27}</a></span>not those which have +chanced to be the oldest not destroyed,—or the first which existed in +profoundly deep seas in progress of conversion from sea to land: if they +are first they «<ins>? we</ins>» give up. Not so Hutton or Lyell: if first reptile<a name='FNanchor_118_118' id='FNanchor_118_118'></a><a href='#Footnote_118_118' class='fnanchor'>{118}</a> +of Red Sandstone «<ins>?</ins>» really was first which existed: if Pachyderm<a name='FNanchor_119_119' id='FNanchor_119_119'></a><a href='#Footnote_119_119' class='fnanchor'>{119}</a> of +Paris was first which existed: fish of Devonian: dragon fly of Lias: for +we cannot suppose them the progenitors: they agree too closely with +existing divisions. But geologists consider Europe as «<ins>?</ins>» a passage from +sea to island «<ins>?</ins>» to continent (except Wealden, see Lyell). These animals +therefore, I consider then mere introduction «<ins>?</ins>» from continents long since +submerged.</p> + +<p>Finally, if views of some geologists be correct, my theory must be given +up. [<del>Lyell’s views, as far as they go, are in <i>favour</i>, but they +go so little in favour, and so much more is required, that it may +«<ins>be</ins>» viewed as objection.</del>] If geology present us with mere +pages in chapters, towards end of «<ins>a</ins>» history, formed by +tearing out bundles of leaves, and each page illustrating merely a small +portion of the organisms of that time, the facts accord perfectly with +my theory<a name='FNanchor_120_120' id='FNanchor_120_120'></a><a href='#Footnote_120_120' class='fnanchor'>{120}</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_28' id='Page_28'>{28}</a></span> +<i>Extermination.</i> We have seen that in later periods the organisms have +disappeared by degrees and [<del>perhaps</del>] probably by degrees in earlier, and +I have said our theory requires it. As many naturalists seem to think +extermination a most mysterious circumstance<a name='FNanchor_121_121' id='FNanchor_121_121'></a><a href='#Footnote_121_121' class='fnanchor'>{121}</a> +and call in astonishing agencies, it is well to recall what we have +shown concerning the struggle of nature. An exterminating agency is at +work with every organism: we scarcely see it: if robins would increase +to thousands in ten years how severe must the process be. How +imperceptible a small increase: fossils become rare: possibly sudden +extermination as Australia, but as present means very slow and many +means of escape, I shall doubt very sudden exterminations. Who can +explain why some species abound more,—why does marsh titmouse, or +ring-ouzel, now little change,—why is one sea-slug rare and +another common on our coasts,—why one species of Rhinoceros more +than another,—why is «<ins>illegible</ins>» tiger of India so +rare? Curious and general sources of error, the place of an organism is +instantly filled up.</p> + +<p>We know state of earth has changed, and as earthquakes and tides go on, +the state must change,—many geologists believe a slow gradual +cooling. Now let us see in accordance with principles of [<del>variation</del>] +specification explained in Sect. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> how species would probably be +introduced and how such results accord with what is known.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_29' id='Page_29'>{29}</a></span> +The first fact geology proclaims is immense number of extinct forms, and +new appearances. Tertiary strata leads to belief, that forms gradually +become rare and disappear and are gradually supplied by others. We see +some forms now becoming rare and disappearing, we know of no sudden +creation: in older periods the forms <i>appear</i> to come in suddenly, scene +shifts: but even here Devonian, Permian &c. [<del>keep on supplying new +links in chain</del>]—Genera and higher forms come on and disappear, in +same way leaving a species on one or more stages below that in which the +form abounded.</p> + +<h3 class='sc'>«<ins>Geographical Distribution.</ins>»</h3> + +<h3>§ <span class='sc lc'>VI.</span> Let us consider the absolute state of distribution of organisms of +earth's face.</h3> + +<p>Referring chiefly, but not exclusively (from difficulty of transport, +fewness, and the distinct characteristics of groups) to Mammalia; and +first considering the three or four main [<del>regions</del>] divisions; North +America, Europe, Asia, including greater part of E. Indian Archipelago +and Africa are intimately allied. Africa most distinct, especially most +southern parts. And the Arctic regions, which unite N. America, Asia and +Europe, only separated (if we travel one way by Behring’s St.) by +a narrow strait, is most intimately allied, indeed forms but one +restricted group. Next comes S. America,—then Australia, +Madagascar (and some small islands which stand very remote from the +land). Looking at these main divisions separately, the organisms vary +according to changes in condition<a name='FNanchor_122_122' id='FNanchor_122_122'></a><a href='#Footnote_122_122' class='fnanchor'>{122}</a> +of different parts. But besides this, barriers of every kind seem to +separate <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_30' id='Page_30'>{30}</a></span> +regions in a greater degree than proportionally to the difference of +climates on each side. Thus great chains of mountains, spaces of sea +between islands and continents, even great rivers and deserts. In fact +the amount «<ins>of</ins>» difference in the organisms bears a certain, +but not invariable relation to the amount of physical difficulties to +transit<a name='FNanchor_123_123' id='FNanchor_123_123'></a><a href='#Footnote_123_123' class='fnanchor'>{123}</a>.</p> + +<p>There are some curious exceptions, namely, similarity of fauna of +mountains of Europe and N. America and Lapland. Other cases just +«<ins>the</ins>» reverse, mountains of eastern S. America, Altai +«<ins>?</ins>», S. India «<ins>?</ins>»<a name='FNanchor_124_124' id='FNanchor_124_124'></a><a href='#Footnote_124_124' class='fnanchor'>{124}</a>: +mountain summits of islands often eminently peculiar. Fauna generally of +some islands, even when close, very dissimilar, in others very similar. +[<del>I am here led to observe one or more centres of creation<a name='FNanchor_125_125' id='FNanchor_125_125'></a><a href='#Footnote_125_125' class='fnanchor'>{125}</a>.</del>]</p> + +<p>The simple geologist can explain many of the foregoing cases of +distribution. Subsidence of a continent in which free means of +dispersal, would drive the lowland plants up to the mountains, now +converted into islands, and the semi-alpine plants would take place of +alpine, and alpine be destroyed, if mountains originally were not of +great height. So we may see, during gradual changes<a name='FNanchor_126_126' id='FNanchor_126_126'></a><a href='#Footnote_126_126' class='fnanchor'>{126}</a> +of climate on a continent, the propagation of species would vary and +adapt themselves to small changes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_31' id='Page_31'>{31}</a></span> +causing much extermination<a name='FNanchor_127_127' id='FNanchor_127_127'></a><a href='#Footnote_127_127' class='fnanchor'>{127}</a>. +The mountains of Europe were quite lately covered with ice, and the +lowlands probably partaking of the Arctic climate and Fauna. Then as +climate changed, arctic fauna would take place of ice, and an inundation +of plants from different temperate countries «<ins>would</ins>» seize +the lowlands, leaving islands of arctic forms. But if this had happened +on an island, whence could the new forms have come,—here the +geologist calls in creationists. If island formed, the geologist will +suggest «<ins>that</ins>» many of the forms might have been borne from +nearest land, but if peculiar, he calls in creationist,—as such +island rises in height &c., he still more calls in creation. The +creationist tells one, on a «<ins>illegible</ins>» spot the American +spirit of creation makes <i>Orpheus</i> and <i>Tyrannus</i> and American doves, +and in accordance with past and extinct forms, but no persistent +relation between areas and distribution, Geologico-Geograph.-Distribution.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_32' id='Page_32'>{32}</a></span> +Now according to analogy of domesticated animals let us see what would +result. Let us take case of farmer on Pampas, where everything +approaches nearer to state of nature. He works on organisms having +strong tendency to vary: and he knows «<ins>that the</ins>» only way to make a distinct breed +is to select and separate. It would be useless to separate the best +bulls and pair with best cows if their offspring run loose and bred with +the other herds, and tendency to reversion not counteracted; he would +endeavour therefore to get his cows on islands and then commence his +work of selection. If several farmers in different <i>rincons</i><a +name='FNanchor_128_128' id='FNanchor_128_128'></a><a +href='#Footnote_128_128' class='fnanchor'>{128}</a> were to set to work, +especially if with different objects, several breeds would soon be +produced. So would it be with horticulturist and so history of every +plant shows; the number of varieties<a name='FNanchor_129_129' id='FNanchor_129_129'></a><a href='#Footnote_129_129' class='fnanchor'>{129}</a> +increase in proportion to care bestowed on their selection and, with +crossing plants, separation. Now, according to this analogy, change of +external conditions, and isolation either by chance landing +«<ins>of</ins>» a form on an island, or subsidence dividing a +continent, or great chain of mountains, and the number of individuals +not being numerous will best favour variation and selection<a name='FNanchor_130_130' id='FNanchor_130_130'></a><a href='#Footnote_130_130' class='fnanchor'>{130}</a>. +No doubt change could be effected in same country without any barrier by +long continued selection on one species: even in case of a plant not +capable of crossing would easier get possession and solely +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_33' id='Page_33'>{33}</a></span> +occupy an island<a name='FNanchor_131_131' id='FNanchor_131_131'></a><a href='#Footnote_131_131' class='fnanchor'>{131}</a>. +Now we can at once see that «<ins>if</ins>» two parts of a continent +isolated, new species thus generated in them, would have closest +affinities, like cattle in counties of England: if barrier afterwards +destroyed one species might destroy the other or both keep their ground. +So if island formed near continent, let it be ever so different, that +continent would supply inhabitants, and new species (like the old) would +be allied with that continent. An island generally very different soil +and climate, and number and order of inhabitants supplied by chance, no +point so favourable for generation of new species<a name='FNanchor_132_132' id='FNanchor_132_132'></a><a href='#Footnote_132_132' class='fnanchor'>{132}</a>,—especially +the mountains, hence, so it is. As isolated mountains formed in a plain +country (if such happens) is an island. As other islands formed, the old +species would spread and thus extend and the fauna of distant island +might ultimately meet and a continent formed between them. No one doubts +continents formed by repeated elevations and depressions<a name='FNanchor_133_133' id='FNanchor_133_133'></a><a href='#Footnote_133_133' class='fnanchor'>{133}</a>. +In looking backwards, but not so far that all geographical boundaries +are destroyed, we can thus at once see why existing forms are related to +the extinct in the same manner as existing ones are in some part of +existing continent. By chance we might even have one or two absolute +parent fossils.</p> + +<p>The detection of transitional forms would be rendered more difficult on +rising point of land.</p> + +<p>The distribution therefore in the above enumerated +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_34' id='Page_34'>{34}</a></span> +points, even the trivial ones, which on any other «<ins>theory?</ins>» +can be viewed as so many ultimate facts, all follow «<ins>in</ins>» +a simple manner on the theory of the occurrence of species by «<ins>illegible</ins>» +and being adapted by selection to «<ins>illegible</ins>», +conjoined with their power of dispersal, and the steady geographico-geological +changes which are now in progress and which undoubtedly have taken place. +Ought to state the opinion of the immutability of species and the creation +by so many separate acts of will of the Creator<a name='FNanchor_134_134' id='FNanchor_134_134'></a><a href='#Footnote_134_134' class='fnanchor'>{134}</a>.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_35' id='Page_35'>{35}</a></p> + +<h3 class='sc'>§ VII. «<ins>Affinities and Classification.</ins>»</h3> + +<p>Looking now to the affinities of organisms, without relation to their +distribution, and taking all fossil and recent, we see the degrees of +relationship are of different degrees and +arbitrary,—sub-genera,—genera,—sub-families, families, +orders and classes and kingdoms. The kind of classification which +everyone feels is most correct is called the natural system, but no can +define this. If we say with Whewell «<ins>that we have an</ins>» +undefined instinct of the importance of organs<a name='FNanchor_135_135' id='FNanchor_135_135'></a><a href='#Footnote_135_135' class='fnanchor'>{135}</a>, +we have no means in lower <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_36' id='Page_36'>{36}</a></span> +animals of saying which is most important, and yet everyone feels that +some one system alone deserves to be called natural. The true +relationship of organisms is brought before one by considering relations +of analogy, an otter-like animal amongst mammalia and an otter amongst +marsupials. In such cases external resemblance and habit of life and +<i>the final end of whole organization</i> very strong, yet no relation<a name='FNanchor_136_136' id='FNanchor_136_136'></a><a href='#Footnote_136_136' class='fnanchor'>{136}</a>. +Naturalists cannot avoid these terms of relation and affinity though +they use them metaphorically. If used in simple earnestness the natural +system ought to be a genealogical «<ins>one</ins>»; and our knowledge +of the points which are most easily affected in transmission are those +which we least value in considering the natural system, and practically +when we find they do vary we regard them of less value<a name='FNanchor_137_137' id='FNanchor_137_137'></a><a href='#Footnote_137_137' class='fnanchor'>{137}</a>. +In classifying varieties the same language is used and the same kind of +division: here also (in pine-apple)<a name='FNanchor_138_138' id='FNanchor_138_138'></a><a href='#Footnote_138_138' class='fnanchor'>{138}</a> +we talk of the natural classification, overlooking similarity of the +fruits, because whole plant differs. The origin of sub-genera, genera, +&c., &c., is not difficult on notion of genealogical succession, +and accords with what we know of similar gradations of affinity in +domesticated organisms. In the same region the organic beings are +«<ins>illegible</ins>» related to each other and the external +conditions in many physical respects are allied<a name='FNanchor_139_139' id='FNanchor_139_139'></a><a href='#Footnote_139_139' class='fnanchor'>{139}</a> +and their differences of same kind, and therefore when a new species has +been selected and has obtained a place in the economy of nature, we +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_37' id='Page_37'>{37}</a></span> +may suppose that generally it will tend to extend its range during +geographical changes, and thus, becoming isolated and exposed to new +conditions, will slightly alter and its structure by selection become +slightly remodified, thus we should get species of a sub-genus and +genus,—as varieties of merino-sheep,—varieties of British +and Indian cattle. Fresh species might go on forming and others become +extinct and all might become extinct, and then we should have +«<ins>an</ins>» extinct genus; a case formerly mentioned, of which +numerous cases occur in Palæontology. But more often the same +advantages which caused the new species to spread and become modified +into several species would favour some of the species being preserved: +and if two of the species, considerably different, each gave rise to +group of new species, you would have two genera; the same thing will go +on. We may look at case in other way, looking to future. According to +mere chance every existing species may generate another, but if any +species, A, in changing gets an advantage and that advantage (whatever +it may be, intellect, &c., &c., or some particular structure or +constitution) is inherited<a name='FNanchor_140_140' id='FNanchor_140_140'></a><a href='#Footnote_140_140' class='fnanchor'>{140}</a>, +A will be the progenitor of several genera or even families in the hard +struggle of nature. A will go on beating out other forms, it might come +that A would people earth,—we may now not have one descendant on +our globe of the one or several original creations<a name='FNanchor_141_141' id='FNanchor_141_141'></a><a href='#Footnote_141_141' class='fnanchor'>{141}</a>. +External conditions air, earth, water being same<a name='FNanchor_142_142' id='FNanchor_142_142'></a><a href='#Footnote_142_142' class='fnanchor'>{142}</a> +on globe, and the communication not being perfect, organisms of widely +different descent might become adapted to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_38' id='Page_38'>{38}</a></span> +the same end and then we should have cases of analogy<a name='FNanchor_143_143' id='FNanchor_143_143'></a><a href='#Footnote_143_143' class='fnanchor'>{143}</a>, +[<del>they might even tend to become numerically representative</del>]. From this +often happening each of the great divisions of nature would have their +representative eminently adapted to earth, to «<ins>air</ins>»<a name='FNanchor_144_144' id='FNanchor_144_144'></a><a href='#Footnote_144_144' class='fnanchor'>{144}</a>, +to water, and to these in «<ins>illegible</ins>» and then these great +divisions would show numerical relations in their classification.</p> + +<h3 class='sc'>§ VIII. Unity [<del>or similarity</del>] of type in the great classes.</h3> + +<p>Nothing more wonderful in Nat. Hist. than looking at the vast number of +organisms, recent and fossil, exposed to the most diverse conditions, +living in the most distant climes, and at immensely remote periods, +fitted to wholely different ends, yet to find large groups united by a +similar type of structure. When we for instance see bat, horse, +porpoise-fin, hand, all built on same structure<a name='FNanchor_145_145' id='FNanchor_145_145'></a><a href='#Footnote_145_145' class='fnanchor'>{145}</a>, +having bones<a name='FNanchor_146_146' id='FNanchor_146_146'></a><a href='#Footnote_146_146' class='fnanchor'>{146}</a> +with same name, we see there is some deep bond of union between them<a name='FNanchor_147_147' id='FNanchor_147_147'></a><a href='#Footnote_147_147' class='fnanchor'>{147}</a>, +to illustrate this is the foundation and objects «<ins>?</ins>» +«<ins>of</ins>» what is called the Natural System; and which is +foundation of distinction «<ins>?</ins>» of true and adaptive +characters<a name='FNanchor_148_148' id='FNanchor_148_148'></a><a href='#Footnote_148_148' class='fnanchor'>{148}</a>. +Now this wonderful fact of hand, hoof, wing, paddle and claw being the +same, is at once explicable on the principle of some parent-forms, which +might either be «<ins>illegible</ins>» or walking animals, becoming +through infinite number of small <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_39' id='Page_39'>{39}</a></span> +selections adapted to various conditions. We know that proportion, +size, shape of bones and their accompanying soft parts vary, and hence +constant selection would alter, to almost any purpose «<ins>?</ins>» +the framework of an organism, but yet would leave a general, even +closest similarity in it.</p> + +<p>[<del>We know the number of similar parts, as vertebræ and ribs can +vary, hence this also we might expect.</del>] Also «<ins>if</ins>» the +changes carried on to a certain point, doubtless type will be lost, and +this is case with Plesiosaurus<a name='FNanchor_149_149' id='FNanchor_149_149'></a><a href='#Footnote_149_149' class='fnanchor'>{149}</a>. +The unity of type in past and present ages of certain great divisions +thus undoubtedly receives the simplest explanation.</p> + +<p>There is another class of allied and almost identical facts, admitted by +the soberest physiologists, [<del>from the study of a certain set of organs +in a group of organisms</del>] and refers «<ins>? referring</ins>» +to a unity of type of different organs in the same individual, +denominated the science of “Morphology.” The «<ins>? +this</ins>» discovered by beautiful and regular series, and in the case +of plants from monstrous changes, that certain organs in an individual +are other organs metamorphosed. Thus every botanist considers petals, +nectaries, stamens, pistils, germen as metamorphosed leaf. They thus +explain, in the most lucid manner, the position and number of all parts +of the flower, and the curious conversion under cultivation of one part +into another. The complicated double set of jaws and palpi of +crustaceans<a name='FNanchor_150_150' id='FNanchor_150_150'></a><a href='#Footnote_150_150' class='fnanchor'>{150}</a>, +and all insects are considered as metamorphosed «<ins>limbs</ins>» and +to see the series is to admit this phraseology. The skulls of the +vertebrates are undoubtedly composed of three metamorphosed +vertebræ; thus we can understand the strange form of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_40' id='Page_40'>{40}</a></span> +the separate bones which compose the casket holding man’s brain. +These<a name='FNanchor_151_151' id='FNanchor_151_151'></a><a href='#Footnote_151_151' class='fnanchor'>{151}</a> +facts differ but slightly from those of last section, if with wing, +paddle, hand and hoof, some common structure was yet visible, or could +be made out by a series of occasional monstrous conversions, and if +traces could be discovered of «<ins>the</ins>» whole having once +existed as walking or swimming instruments, these organs would be said +to be metamorphosed, as it is they are only said to exhibit a common +type.</p> + +<p>This distinction is not drawn by physiologists, and is only implied by +some by their general manner of writing. These facts, though affecting +every organic being on the face of the globe, which has existed, or does +exist, can only be viewed by the Creationist as ultimate and +inexplicable facts. But this unity of type through the individuals of a +group, and this metamorphosis of the same organ into other organs, +adapted to diverse use, necessarily follows on the theory of descent<a name='FNanchor_152_152' id='FNanchor_152_152'></a><a href='#Footnote_152_152' class='fnanchor'>{152}</a>. +For let us take case of Vertebrata, which if<a name='FNanchor_153_153' id='FNanchor_153_153'></a><a href='#Footnote_153_153' class='fnanchor'>{153}</a> +they descended from one parent and by this theory all the Vertebrata +have been altered by slow degrees, such as we see in domestic animals. +We know that proportions alter, and even that occasionally numbers of +vertebræ alter, that parts become soldered, that parts are lost, +as tail and toes, but we know «<ins>that?</ins>» here we can see that +possibly a walking organ might «<ins>?</ins>» be converted into +swimming or into a gliding organ and so on to a flying organ. But such +gradual changes would not alter the unity of type in their descendants, +as parts lost and soldered and vertebræ.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_41' id='Page_41'>{41}</a></span> +But we can see that if this carried to extreme, unity +lost,—Plesiosaurus. Here we have seen the same organ is formed +«<ins>?</ins>» «<ins>for</ins>» different purposes «<ins>ten words +illegible</ins>»: and if, in several orders of vertebrata, we could +trace origin «<ins>of</ins>» spinous processes and monstrosities +&c. we should say, instead of there existing a unity of type, +morphology<a name='FNanchor_154_154' id='FNanchor_154_154'></a><a href='#Footnote_154_154' class='fnanchor'>{154}</a>, +as we do when we trace the head as being the vertebræ +metamorphosed. Be it observed that Naturalists, as they use terms of +affinity without attaching real meaning, here also they are obliged to +use metamorphosis, without meaning that any parent of crustacean was +really an animal with as many legs as crustacean has jaws. The theory of +descent at once explains these wonderful facts.</p> + +<p>Now few of the physiologists who use this language really suppose that +the parent of insect with the metamorphosed jaw, was an insect with +[<del>more</del>] so many legs, or that the parent of flowering plants, originally +had no stamens, or pistils or petals, but some other means of +propagation,—and so in other cases. Now according to our theory +during the infinite number of changes, we might expect that an organ +used for a purpose might be used for a different one by his descendant, +as must have been the case by our theory with the bat, porpoise, horse, +&c., which are descended from one parent. And if it so chanced that +traces of the former use and structure of the part should be retained, +which is manifestly possible if not probable, then we should have the +organs, on which morphology is founded and which instead of being +metaphorical becomes plain and «<ins>and instead of being</ins>» +utterly unintelligible becomes simple matter of fact<a name='FNanchor_155_155' id='FNanchor_155_155'></a><a href='#Footnote_155_155' class='fnanchor'>{155}</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_42' id='Page_42'>{42}</a></span> +«<ins><i>Embryology.</i></ins>» This general unity of type in great groups +of organisms (including of course these morphological cases) displays +itself in a most striking manner in the stages through which the +fœtus passes<a name='FNanchor_156_156' id='FNanchor_156_156'></a><a href='#Footnote_156_156' class='fnanchor'>{156}</a>. +In early stage, the wing of bat, hoof, hand, paddle are not to be +distinguished. At a still earlier «<ins>stage</ins>» there is no +difference between fish, bird, &c. &c. and mammal. It is not +that they cannot be distinguished, but the arteries<a +name='FNanchor_157_157' id='FNanchor_157_157'></a><a href='#Footnote_157_157' class='fnanchor'>{157}</a> +«<ins>illegible</ins>». It is not true that one passes through the form +of a lower group, though no doubt fish more nearly related to +fœtal state<a name='FNanchor_158_158' id='FNanchor_158_158'></a><a href='#Footnote_158_158' class='fnanchor'>{158}</a>.</p> + +<p>This similarity at the earliest stage is remarkably shown in the course +of the arteries which become greatly altered, as fœtus advances in +life and assumes the widely different course and number which +characterize full-grown fish and mammals. How wonderful that in egg, in +water or air, or in womb of mother, artery<a name='FNanchor_159_159' id='FNanchor_159_159'></a><a href='#Footnote_159_159' class='fnanchor'>{159}</a> +should run in same course.</p> + +<p>Light can be thrown on this by our theory. The structure of each +organism is chiefly adapted to the sustension of its life, when +full-grown, when it has to feed itself and propagate<a name='FNanchor_160_160' id='FNanchor_160_160'></a><a href='#Footnote_160_160' class='fnanchor'>{160}</a>. +The structure of a kitten is quite in secondary degree adapted to its +habits, whilst fed by its mother’s milk and prey. Hence variation +in the structure of the full-grown species will <i>chiefly</i> determine the +preservation of a <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_43' id='Page_43'>{43}</a></span> +species now become ill-suited to its habitat, or rather with a better +place opened to it in the economy of Nature. It would not matter to the +full-grown cat whether in its young state it was more or less eminently +feline, so that it become so when full-grown. No doubt most variation, +(not depending on habits of life of individual) depends on early +change<a name='FNanchor_161_161' id='FNanchor_161_161'></a><a href='#Footnote_161_161' class='fnanchor'>{161}</a> +and we must suspect that at whatever time of life the alteration of +fœtus is effected, it tends to appear at same period. When we +«<ins>see</ins>» a tendency to particular disease in old age +transmitted by the male, we know some effect is produced during +conception, on the simple cell of ovule, which will not produce its +effect till half a century afterwards and that effect is not visible<a name='FNanchor_162_162' id='FNanchor_162_162'></a><a href='#Footnote_162_162' class='fnanchor'>{162}</a>. +So we see in grey-hound, bull-dog, in race-horse and cart-horse, which +have been selected for their form in full-life, there is much less +«<ins>?</ins>» difference in the few first days after birth<a name='FNanchor_163_163' id='FNanchor_163_163'></a><a href='#Footnote_163_163' class='fnanchor'>{163}</a>, +than when full-grown: so in cattle, we see it clearly in cases of +cattle, which differ obviously in shape and length of horns. If man were +during 10,000 years to be able to select, far more diverse animals from +horse or cow, I should expect there would be far less differences in the +very young and fœtal state: and this, I think, throws light on +above marvellous fact. In larvæ, which have long life selection, +perhaps, does much,—in the pupa not so much<a name='FNanchor_164_164' id='FNanchor_164_164'></a><a href='#Footnote_164_164' class='fnanchor'>{164}</a> +There is no <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_44' id='Page_44'>{44}</a></span> +object gained in varying form &c. of fœtus (beyond certain +adaptations to mother’s womb) and therefore selection will not +further act on it, than in giving to its changing tissues a tendency to +certain parts afterwards to assume certain forms.</p> + +<p>Thus there is no power to change the course of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_45' id='Page_45'>{45}</a></span> +the arteries, as long as they nourish the fœtus; it is the +selection of slight changes which supervene at any time during +«<ins>illegible</ins>» of life.</p> + +<p>The less differences of fœtus,—this has obvious meaning on this +view: otherwise how strange that a [<del>monkey</del>] horse, a man, a bat should +at one time of life have arteries, running in a manner, which is only +intelligibly useful in a fish! The natural system being on theory +genealogical, we can at once see, why fœtus, retaining traces of the +ancestral form, is of the highest value in classification.</p> + +<h3 class='sc'>§ IX. «<ins>Abortive organs.</ins>»</h3> + +<p>There is another grand class of facts relating to what are called +abortive organs. These consist of organs which the same reasoning power +that shows us how beautifully these organs in some cases are adapted to +certain end, declares in other cases are absolutely useless. Thus teeth +in Rhinoceros<a name='FNanchor_165_165' id='FNanchor_165_165'></a><a href='#Footnote_165_165' class='fnanchor'>{165}</a>, +whale, narwhal,—bone on tibia, muscles which do not +move,—little bone of wing of Apteryx,—bone representing +extremities in some snake,—little wings within «<ins>?</ins>» +soldered cover of beetles,—men and bulls, mammæ: filaments +without anthers in plants, mere scales representing petals in others, in +feather-hyacinth whole flower. Almost infinitely numerous. No one can +reflect on these without astonishment, can anything be clearer than that +wings are to fly and teeth «<ins>to bite</ins>», and yet we find these +organs perfect in every detail in situations where they cannot possibly +be of their normal use<a name='FNanchor_166_166' id='FNanchor_166_166'></a><a href='#Footnote_166_166' class='fnanchor'>{166}</a>.</p> + +<p>The term abortive organ has been thus applied<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_46' id='Page_46'>{46}</a></span> +to above structure (as <i>invariable</i> as all other parts<a name='FNanchor_167_167' id='FNanchor_167_167'></a><a href='#Footnote_167_167' class='fnanchor'>{167}</a>) +from their absolute similarity to monstrous cases, where from +<i>accident</i>, certain organs are not developed; as infant without arms or +fingers with mere stump representing them: teeth represented by mere +points of ossification: headless children with mere +button,—viscera represented by small amorphous masses, +&c.,—the tail by mere stump,—a solid horn by minute +hanging one<a name='FNanchor_168_168' id='FNanchor_168_168'></a><a href='#Footnote_168_168' class='fnanchor'>{168}</a>. +There is a tendency in all these cases, when life is preserved, for such +structures to become hereditary. We see it in tailless dogs and cats. In +plants we see this strikingly,—in Thyme, in <i>Linum +flavum</i>,—stamen in <i>Geranium pyrenaicum</i><a name='FNanchor_169_169' id='FNanchor_169_169'></a><a href='#Footnote_169_169' class='fnanchor'>{169}</a>. +Nectaries abort into petals in Columbine «<ins><i>Aquilegia</i></ins>», +produced from some accident and then become hereditary, in some cases +only when propagated by buds, in other cases by seed. These cases have +been produced suddenly by accident in early growth, but it is part of +law of growth that when any organ is not used it tends to diminish +(duck’s wing<a name='FNanchor_170_170' id='FNanchor_170_170'></a><a href='#Footnote_170_170' class='fnanchor'>{170}</a>?) +muscles of dog’s ears, «<ins>and of</ins>» rabbits, muscles +wither, arteries grow up. When eye born defective, optic nerve (Tuco +Tuco) is atrophied. As every part whether useful or not (diseases, +double flowers) tends to be transmitted to offspring, the origin of +abortive organs whether produced at the birth or slowly acquired is +easily understood in domestic races of organisms: [<del>a struggle between +the atrophy and hereditariness. Abortive organs in domestic races.</del>] +There will always be a struggle between atrophy of an organ rendered +useless, and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_47' id='Page_47'>{47}</a></span> +hereditariness<a name='FNanchor_171_171' id='FNanchor_171_171'></a><a href='#Footnote_171_171' class='fnanchor'>{171}</a>. +Because we can understand the origin of abortive organs in certain +cases, it would be wrong to conclude absolutely that all must have had +same origin, but the strongest analogy is in favour of it. And we can by +our theory, for during infinite changes some organ, we might have +anticipated, would have become useless. «<ins>We can</ins>» readily +explain the fact, so astounding on any other view, namely that organs +possibly useless have been formed often with the same exquisite care as +when of vital importance.</p> + +<p>Our theory, I may remark would permit an organ «<ins>to</ins>» become +abortive with respect to its primary use, to be turned to any other +purpose, (as the buds in a cauliflower) thus we can see no difficulty in +bones of male marsupials being used as fulcrum of muscles, or style of +marygold<a name='FNanchor_172_172' id='FNanchor_172_172'></a><a href='#Footnote_172_172' class='fnanchor'>{172}</a>,—indeed +in one point of view, the heads of [<del>vertebrated</del>] animal may be said to +be abortive vertebræ turned into other use: legs of some crustacea +abortive jaws, &c., &c. De Candolle's analogy of table covered +with dishes<a name='FNanchor_173_173' id='FNanchor_173_173'></a><a href='#Footnote_173_173' class='fnanchor'>{173}</a>.</p> + +<p>«<ins>The following passage was possibly intended to be inserted +here.</ins>» Degradation and complication see Lamarck: no tendency to +perfection: if room, [<del>even</del>] high organism would have greater power in +beating lower one, thought «<ins>?</ins>» to be selected for a degraded +end.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_48' id='Page_48'>{48}</a></p> +<h3 class='sc'>§ X. Recapitulation and conclusion.</h3> + +<p>Let us recapitulate the whole «<ins>?</ins>» +«<ins>of</ins>» these latter sections by taking case of the three +species of Rhinoceros, which inhabit Java, Sumatra, and mainland of +Malacca or India. We find these three close neighbours, occupants of +distinct but neighbouring districts, as a group having a different +aspect from the Rhinoceros of Africa, though some of these latter +inhabit very similar countries, but others most diverse stations. We +find them intimately related [scarcely «<ins>?</ins>» +differences more than some breeds of cattle] in structure to the +Rhinoceros, which for immense periods have inhabited this one, out of +three main zoological divisions of the world. Yet some of these ancient +animals were fitted to very different stations: we find all three +«<ins>illegible</ins>» of the generic character of the Rhinoceros, +which form a [<del>piece of net</del>]<a name='FNanchor_174_174' id='FNanchor_174_174'></a><a href='#Footnote_174_174' class='fnanchor'>{174}</a> +set of links in the broken chain representing the Pachydermata, as the +chain likewise forms a portion in other and longer chains. We see this +wonderfully in dissecting the coarse leg of all three and finding nearly +the same bones as in bat’s wings or man’s hand, but we see +the clear mark in solid tibia of the fusion into it of the fibula. In +all three we find their heads composed of three altered vertebræ, +short neck, same bones as giraffe. In the upper jaws of all three we +find small teeth like rabbit’s. In dissecting them in fœtal +state we find at a not very early stage their form exactly alike the +most different animals, and even with arteries running as in a fish: and +this similarity holds when the young one is produced in womb, pond, egg +or spawn. Now these three undoubted species scarcely differ more than +breeds of cattle, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_49' id='Page_49'>{49}</a></span> +are probably subject to many the same contagious diseases; if +domesticated these forms would vary, and they might possibly breed +together, and fuse into something<a name='FNanchor_175_175' id='FNanchor_175_175'></a><a href='#Footnote_175_175' class='fnanchor'>{175}</a> +different «<ins>from</ins>» their aboriginal forms; might be selected +to serve different ends.</p> + +<p>Now the Creationist believes these three Rhinoceroses were created<a name='FNanchor_176_176' id='FNanchor_176_176'></a><a href='#Footnote_176_176' class='fnanchor'>{176}</a> +with their deceptive appearance of true, not «<ins>illegible</ins>» +relationship; as well can I believe the planets revolve in their present +courses not from one law of gravity but from distinct volition of +Creator.</p> + +<p>If real species, sterile one with another, differently adapted, now +inhabiting different countries, with different structures and instincts, +are admitted to have common descent, we can only legitimately stop where +our facts stop. Look how far in some case a chain of species will lead +us. «<ins>This probably refers to the Crustacea, where the two ends of +the series have “hardly a character in common.” <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. p. 419.</ins>» May we not jump (considering how much +extermination, and how imperfect geological records) from one sub-genus +to another sub-genus. Can genera restrain us; many of the same +arguments, which made us give up species, inexorably demand genera and +families and orders to fall, and classes tottering. We ought to stop +only when clear unity of type, independent of use and adaptation, +ceases.</p> + +<p>Be it remembered no naturalist pretends to give test from external +characters of species; in many genera the distinction is quite +arbitrary<a name='FNanchor_177_177' id='FNanchor_177_177'></a><a href='#Footnote_177_177' class='fnanchor'>{177}</a>. +But there remains one other way of comparing species <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_50' id='Page_50'>{50}</a></span> +with races; it is to compare the effects of crossing them. Would it not +be wonderful, if the union of two organisms, produced by two separate +acts of Creation, blended their characters together when crossed +according to the same rules, as two races which have undoubtedly +descended from same parent stock; yet this can be shown to be the case. +For sterility, though a usual «<ins>?</ins>», is not an invariable +concomitant, it varies much in degree and has been shown to be probably +dependent on causes closely analogous with those which make domesticated +organisms sterile. Independent of sterility there is no difference +between mongrels and hybrids, as can be shown in a long series of facts. +It is strikingly seen in cases of instincts, when the minds of the two +species or races become blended together<a name='FNanchor_178_178' id='FNanchor_178_178'></a><a href='#Footnote_178_178' class='fnanchor'>{178}</a>. +In both cases if the half-breed be crossed with either parent for a few +generations, all traces of the one parent form is lost (as +Kölreuter in two tobacco species almost sterile together), so that +the Creationist in the case of a species, must believe that one act of +creation is absorbed into another!</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/illus-manuscript.jpg" width="600" height="297" alt="Facsimile of the original manuscript of the paragraph on p. 50." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Facsimile of the original manuscript of the paragraph on p. 50.</span> +</div> + +<h3 class='sc'>Conclusion.</h3> + +<p>Such are my reasons for believing that specific forms are not immutable. +The affinity of different groups, the unity of types of structure, the +representative forms through which fœtus passes, the metamorphosis +of organs, the abortion of others cease to be metaphorical expressions +and become intelligible facts. We no longer look «<ins>an</ins>» +on animal as a savage does at a ship<a name='FNanchor_179_179' id='FNanchor_179_179'></a><a href='#Footnote_179_179' class='fnanchor'>{179}</a>, +or other great work of art, as a thing wholly beyond comprehension, but +we <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_51' id='Page_51'>{51}</a></span> +feel far more interest in examining it. How interesting is every +instinct, when we speculate on their origin as an hereditary or +congenital habit or produced by the selection of individuals differing +slightly from their parents. We must look at every complicated mechanism +and instinct, as the summary of a long history, «<ins>as the summing +up</ins>» of<a name='FNanchor_180_180' id='FNanchor_180_180'></a><a href='#Footnote_180_180' class='fnanchor'>{180}</a> +useful contrivances, much like a work of art. How interesting does the +distribution of all animals become, as throwing light on ancient +geography. [<del>We see some seas bridged over.</del>] Geology loses in its glory +from the imperfection of its archives<a name='FNanchor_181_181' id='FNanchor_181_181'></a><a href='#Footnote_181_181' class='fnanchor'>{181}</a>, +but how does it gain in the immensity of the periods of its formations +and of the gaps separating these formations. There is much grandeur in +looking at the existing animals either as the lineal descendants of the +forms buried under thousand feet of matter, or as the coheirs of some +still more ancient ancestor. It accords with what we know of the law +impressed on matter by the Creator, that the creation and extinction of +forms, like the birth and death of individuals should be the effect of +secondary [<del>laws</del>] means<a name='FNanchor_182_182' id='FNanchor_182_182'></a><a href='#Footnote_182_182' class='fnanchor'>{182}</a>. +It is derogatory that the Creator of countless systems of worlds should +have created each of the myriads of creeping parasites and [<del>slimy</del>] worms +which have swarmed each day of life on land and water «<ins>on</ins>» +[<del>this</del>] one globe. We cease being astonished, however much we may +deplore, that a group of animals should have been directly created to +lay their eggs in bowels and flesh of other,—that some organisms +should delight in cruelty,—that animals should be led away by +false instincts,—that annually there should be an <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_52' id='Page_52'>{52}</a></span> +incalculable waste of eggs and pollen. From death, famine, rapine, and +the concealed war of nature we can see that the highest good, which we +can conceive, the creation of the higher animals has directly come. +Doubtless it at first transcends our humble powers, to conceive laws +capable of creating individual organisms, each characterised by the most +exquisite workmanship and widely-extended adaptations. It accords better +with [<del>our modesty</del>] the lowness of our faculties to suppose each must +require the fiat of a creator, but in the same proportion the existence +of such laws should exalt our notion of the power of the omniscient +Creator<a name='FNanchor_183_183' id='FNanchor_183_183'></a><a href='#Footnote_183_183' class='fnanchor'>{183}</a>. +There is a simple grandeur in the view of life with its powers of +growth, assimilation and reproduction, being originally breathed into +matter under one or a few forms, and that whilst this our planet has +gone circling on according to fixed laws, and land and water, in a cycle +of change, have gone on replacing each other, that from so simple an +origin, through the process of gradual selection of infinitesimal +changes, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been +evolved<a name='FNanchor_184_184' id='FNanchor_184_184'></a><a href='#Footnote_184_184' class='fnanchor'>{184}</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_53' id='Page_53'>{53}</a></span> +N.B.—There ought somewhere to be a discussion from Lyell to show that +external conditions do vary, or a note to Lyell's works «<ins>work?</ins>».</p> + +<p>Besides other difficulties in ii. Part, non-acclimatisation of plants. +Difficulty when asked <i>how</i> did white and negro become altered from +common intermediate stock: no facts. We do <span class='sc lc'>NOT</span> know that species are +immutable, on the contrary. What arguments against this theory, except +our not perceiving every step, like the erosion of valleys<a name='FNanchor_185_185' id='FNanchor_185_185'></a><a href='#Footnote_185_185' class='fnanchor'>{185}</a>.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_55' id='Page_55'>{55}</a></p> +<h1><a name='THE_ESSAY_OF_1844' id='THE_ESSAY_OF_1844'></a>THE ESSAY OF 1844</h1> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_57' id='Page_57'>{57}</a></p> + +<h2>PART I</h2> + +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_I' id='CHAPTER_I'></a>CHAPTER I<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION; AND ON THE +PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION</span></h2> + +<p>The most favourable conditions for variation seem to be when organic +beings are bred for many generations under domestication<a name='FNanchor_186_186' id='FNanchor_186_186'></a><a href='#Footnote_186_186' class='fnanchor'>{186}</a>: +one may infer this from the simple fact of the vast number of races and +breeds of almost every plant and animal, which has long been +domesticated. Under certain conditions organic beings even during their +individual lives become slightly altered from their usual form, size, or +other characters: and many of the peculiarities thus acquired are +transmitted to their offspring. Thus in animals, the size and vigour of +body, fatness, period of maturity, habits of body or consensual +movements, habits of mind and temper, are modified or acquired during +the life of the individual<a name='FNanchor_187_187' id='FNanchor_187_187'></a><a href='#Footnote_187_187' class='fnanchor'>{187}</a>, +and become inherited. There is reason to believe that when long exercise +has given to certain muscles great development, or disuse has lessened +them, that such development is also inherited.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_58' id='Page_58'>{58}</a></span> +Food and climate will occasionally produce changes in the colour and +texture of the external coverings of animals; and certain unknown +conditions affect the horns of cattle in parts of Abyssinia; but whether +these peculiarities, thus acquired during individual lives, have been +inherited, I do not know. It appears certain that malconformation and +lameness in horses, produced by too much work on hard roads,—that +affections of the eyes in this animal probably caused by bad +ventilation,—that tendencies towards many diseases in man, such as +gout, caused by the course of life and ultimately producing changes of +structure, and that many other diseases produced by unknown agencies, +such as goitre, and the idiotcy resulting from it, all become +hereditary.</p> + +<p>It is very doubtful whether the flowers and leaf-buds, annually produced +from the same bulb, root, or tree, can properly be considered as parts +of the same individual, though in some respects they certainly seem to +be so. If they are parts of an individual, plants also are subject to +considerable changes during their <i>individual</i> lives. Most +florist-flowers if neglected degenerate, that is, they lose some of +their characters; so common is this, that trueness is often stated, as +greatly enhancing the value of a variety<a name='FNanchor_188_188' id='FNanchor_188_188'></a><a href='#Footnote_188_188' class='fnanchor'>{188}</a>: +tulips break their colours only after some years’ culture; some +plants become double and others single, by neglect or care: these +characters can be transmitted by cuttings or grafts, and in some cases +by true or seminal propagation. Occasionally a single bud on a plant +assumes at once a new and widely different character: thus it is certain +that nectarines have been produced on <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_59' id='Page_59'>{59}</a></span> +peach trees and moss roses on provence roses; white currants on red +currant bushes; flowers of a different colour from that of the stock, in +Chrysanthemums, Dahlias, sweet-williams, Azaleas, &c., &c.; +variegated leaf-buds on many trees, and other similar cases. These new +characters appearing in single buds, can, like those lesser changes +affecting the whole plant, be multiplied not only by cuttings and such +means, but often likewise by true seminal generation.</p> + +<p>The changes thus appearing during the lives of individual animals and +plants are extremely rare compared with those which are congenital or +which appear soon after birth. Slight differences thus arising are +infinitely numerous: the proportions and form of every part of the +frame, inside and outside, appear to vary in very slight degrees: +anatomists dispute what is the “beau ideal” of the bones, +the liver and kidneys, like painters do of the proportions of the face: +the proverbial expression that no two animals or plants are born +absolutely alike, is much truer when applied to those under +domestication, than to those in a state of nature<a name='FNanchor_189_189' id='FNanchor_189_189'></a><a href='#Footnote_189_189' class='fnanchor'>{189}</a>. +Besides these slight differences, single individuals are occasionally +born considerably unlike in certain parts or in their whole structure to +their parents: these are called by horticulturists and breeders +“sports”; and are not uncommon except when very strongly +marked. Such sports are known in some cases to have been parents of some +of our domestic races; and such probably have been the parents of many +other races, especially of those which in some senses may be called +hereditary monsters; for instance where there is an additional limb, or +where all the limbs are stunted (as in the Ancon sheep), or where a part +is wanting, as in rumpless fowls and tailless <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_60' id='Page_60'>{60}</a></span> +dogs or cats<a name='FNanchor_190_190' id='FNanchor_190_190'></a><a href='#Footnote_190_190' class='fnanchor'>{190}</a>. +The effects of external conditions on the size, colour and form, which +can rarely and obscurely be detected during one individual life, become +apparent after several generations: the slight differences, often hardly +describable, which characterize the stock of different countries, and +even of districts in the same country, seem to be due to such continued +action.</p> + +<h3><i>On the hereditary tendency.</i></h3> + +<p>A volume might be filled with facts showing what a strong tendency there +is to inheritance, in almost every case of the most trifling, as well as +of the most remarkable congenital peculiarities<a name='FNanchor_191_191' id='FNanchor_191_191'></a><a href='#Footnote_191_191' class='fnanchor'>{191}</a>. +The term congenital peculiarity, I may remark, is a loose expression and +can only mean a peculiarity apparent when the part affected is nearly or +fully developed: in the Second Part, I shall have to discuss at what +period of the embryonic life connatal peculiarities probably first +appear; and I shall then be able to show from some evidence, that at +whatever period of life a new peculiarity first appears, it tends +hereditarily to appear at a corresponding period<a name='FNanchor_192_192' id='FNanchor_192_192'></a><a href='#Footnote_192_192' class='fnanchor'>{192}</a>. +Numerous though slight changes, slowly supervening in animals during +mature life (often, though by no means always, taking the form of +disease), are, as stated in the first paragraphs, very often hereditary. +In plants, again, the buds which assume a different character from their +stock likewise tend to transmit their new peculiarities. There is not +sufficient reason to believe that either mutilations<a name='FNanchor_193_193' id='FNanchor_193_193'></a><a href='#Footnote_193_193' class='fnanchor'>{193}</a> +or changes of form produced by <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_61' id='Page_61'>{61}</a></span> +mechanical pressure, even if continued for hundreds of generations, or +that any changes of structure quickly produced by disease, are +inherited; it would appear as if the tissue of the part affected must +slowly and freely grow into the new form, in order to be inheritable. +There is a very great difference in the hereditary tendency of different +peculiarities, and of the same peculiarity, in different individuals and +species; thus twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash have been sown +and not one come up true;—out of seventeen seeds of the weeping +yew, nearly all came up true. The ill-formed and almost monstrous +“Niata” cattle of S. America and Ancon sheep, both when bred +together and when crossed with other breeds, seem to transmit their +peculiarities to their offspring as truly as the ordinary breeds. I can +throw no light on these differences in the power of hereditary +transmission. Breeders believe, and apparently with good cause, that a +peculiarity generally becomes more firmly implanted after having passed +through several generations; that is if one offspring out of twenty +inherits a peculiarity from its parents, then its descendants will tend +to transmit this peculiarity to a larger proportion than one in twenty; +and so on in succeeding generations. I have said nothing about mental +peculiarities being inheritable for I reserve this subject for a +separate chapter.</p> + +<h3><i>Causes of Variation.</i></h3> + +<p>Attention must here be drawn to an important distinction in the first +origin or appearance of varieties: when we see an animal highly kept +producing offspring with an hereditary tendency to early maturity and +fatness; when we see the wild-duck and Australian dog always becoming, +when bred for one or a few generations in confinement, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_62' id='Page_62'>{62}</a></span> +mottled in their colours; when we see people living in certain +districts or circumstances becoming subject to an hereditary taint to +certain organic diseases, as consumption or plica polonica,—we +naturally attribute such changes to the direct effect of known or +unknown agencies acting for one or more generations on the parents. It +is probable that a multitude of peculiarities may be thus directly +caused by unknown external agencies. But in breeds, characterized by an +extra limb or claw, as in certain fowls and dogs; by an extra joint in +the vertebræ; by the loss of a part, as the tail; by the +substitution of a tuft of feathers for a comb in certain poultry; and in +a multitude of other cases, we can hardly attribute these peculiarities +directly to external influences, but indirectly to the laws of embryonic +growth and of reproduction. When we see a multitude of varieties (as has +often been the case, where a cross has been carefully guarded against) +produced from seeds matured in the very same capsule<a name='FNanchor_194_194' id='FNanchor_194_194'></a><a href='#Footnote_194_194' class='fnanchor'>{194}</a>, +with the male and female principle nourished from the same roots and +necessarily exposed to the same external influences; we cannot believe +that the endless slight differences between seedling varieties thus +produced, can be the effect of any corresponding difference in their +exposure. We are led (as Müller has remarked) to the same +conclusion, when we see in the same litter, produced by the same act of +conception, animals considerably different.</p> + +<p>As variation to the degree here alluded to has been observed only in +organic beings under domestication, and in plants amongst those most +highly and long cultivated, we must attribute, in such cases, the +varieties (although the difference between each variety cannot possibly +be attributed to any corresponding difference of exposure in the +parents) to the indirect effects of domestication on the action of +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_63' id='Page_63'>{63}</a></span> +the reproductive system<a name='FNanchor_195_195' id='FNanchor_195_195'></a><a href='#Footnote_195_195' class='fnanchor'>{195}</a>. +It would appear as if the reproductive powers failed in their ordinary +function of producing new organic beings closely like their parents; and +as if the entire organization of the embryo, under domestication, became +in a slight degree plastic<a name='FNanchor_196_196' id='FNanchor_196_196'></a><a href='#Footnote_196_196' class='fnanchor'>{196}</a>. +We shall hereafter have occasion to show, that in organic beings, a +considerable change from the natural conditions of life, affects, +independently of their general state of health, in another and +remarkable manner the reproductive system. I may add, judging from the +vast number of new varieties of plants which have been produced in the +same districts and under nearly the same routine of culture, that +probably the indirect effects of domestication in making the +organization plastic, is a much more efficient source of variation than +any direct effect which external causes may have on the colour, texture, +or form of each part. In the few instances in which, as in the Dahlia<a name='FNanchor_197_197' id='FNanchor_197_197'></a><a href='#Footnote_197_197' class='fnanchor'>{197}</a>, +the course of variation has been recorded, it appears that domestication +produces little effect for several generations in rendering the +organization plastic; but afterwards, as if by an accumulated effect, +the original character of the species suddenly gives way or breaks.</p> + +<h3><i>On Selection.</i></h3> + +<p>We have hitherto only referred to the first appearance in individuals of +new peculiarities; but to make a race or breed, something more is +generally<a name='FNanchor_198_198' id='FNanchor_198_198'></a><a href='#Footnote_198_198' class='fnanchor'>{198}</a> +requisite than such peculiarities (except <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_64' id='Page_64'>{64}</a></span> +in the case of the peculiarities being the direct effect of constantly +surrounding conditions) should be inheritable,—namely the +principle of selection, implying separation. Even in the rare instances +of sports, with the hereditary tendency very strongly implanted, +crossing must be prevented with other breeds, or if not prevented the +best characterized of the half-bred offspring must be carefully +selected. Where the external conditions are constantly tending to give +some character, a race possessing this character will be formed with far +greater ease by selecting and breeding together the individuals most +affected. In the case of the endless slight variations produced by the +indirect effects of domestication on the action of the reproductive +system, selection is indispensable to form races; and when carefully +applied, wonderfully numerous and diverse races can be formed. +Selection, though so simple in theory, is and has been important to a +degree which can hardly be overrated. It requires extreme skill, the +results of long practice, in detecting the slightest difference in the +forms of animals, and it implies some distinct object in view; with +these requisites and patience, the breeder has simply to watch for every +the smallest approach to the desired end, to select such individuals and +pair them with the most suitable forms, and so continue with succeeding +generations. In most cases careful selection and the prevention of +accidental crosses will be necessary for several generations, for in new +breeds there is a strong tendency to vary and especially to revert to +ancestral forms: but in every succeeding generation less care will be +requisite for the breed will become <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_65' id='Page_65'>{65}</a></span> +truer; until ultimately only an occasional individual will require to +be separated or destroyed. Horticulturalists in raising seeds regularly +practise this, and call it “roguing,” or destroying the +“rogues” or false varieties. There is another and less +efficient means of selection amongst animals: namely repeatedly +procuring males with some desirable qualities, and allowing them and +their offspring to breed freely together; and this in the course of time +will affect the whole lot. These principles of selection have been +<i>methodically</i> followed for scarcely a century; but their high +importance is shown by the practical results, and is admitted in the +writings of the most celebrated agriculturalists and +horticulturalists;—I need only name Anderson, Marshall, Bakewell, +Coke, Western, Sebright and Knight.</p> + +<p>Even in well-established breeds the individuals of which to an +unpractised eye would appear absolutely similar, which would give, it +might have been thought, no scope to selection, the whole appearance of +the animal has been changed in a few years (as in the case of Lord +Western’s sheep), so that practised agriculturalists could +scarcely credit that a change had not been effected by a cross with +other breeds. Breeders both of plants and animals frequently give their +means of selection greater scope, by crossing different breeds and +selecting the offspring; but we shall have to recur to this subject +again.</p> + +<p>The external conditions will doubtless influence and modify the results +of the most careful selection; it has been found impossible to prevent +certain breeds of cattle from degenerating on mountain pastures; it +would probably be impossible to keep the plumage of the wild-duck in the +domesticated race; in certain soils, no care has been sufficient to +raise cauliflower seed true to its character; and so <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_66' id='Page_66'>{66}</a></span> +in many other cases. But with patience it is wonderful what man has +effected. He has selected and therefore in one sense made one breed of +horses to race and another to pull; he has made sheep with fleeces good +for carpets and other sheep good for broadcloth; he has, in the same +sense, made one dog to find game and give him notice when found, and +another dog to fetch him the game when killed; he has made by selection +the fat to lie mixed with the meat in one breed and in another to +accumulate in the bowels for the tallow-chandler<a name='FNanchor_199_199' id='FNanchor_199_199'></a><a href='#Footnote_199_199' class='fnanchor'>{199}</a>; +he has made the legs of one breed of pigeons long, and the beak of +another so short, that it can hardly feed itself; he has previously +determined how the feathers on a bird’s body shall be coloured, +and how the petals of many flowers shall be streaked or fringed, and has +given prizes for complete success;—by selection, he has made the +leaves of one variety and the flower-buds of another variety of the +cabbage good to eat, at different seasons of the year; and thus has he +acted on endless varieties. I do not wish to affirm that the long-and +short-wooled sheep, or that the pointer and retriever, or that the +cabbage and cauliflower have certainly descended from one and the same +aboriginal wild stock; if they have not so descended, though it lessens +what man has effected, a large result must be left unquestioned.</p> + +<p>In saying as I have done that man makes a breed, let it not be +confounded with saying that man makes the individuals, which are given +by nature with certain desirable qualities; man only adds together and +makes a permanent gift of nature’s bounties. In several cases, +indeed, for instance in the “Ancon” sheep, valuable from not +getting over fences, and in the turnspit dog, man has probably only +prevented crossing; but in many cases we positively <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_67' id='Page_67'>{67}</a></span> +know that he has gone on selecting, and taking advantage of successive +small variations.</p> + +<p>Selection<a name='FNanchor_200_200' id='FNanchor_200_200'></a><a href='#Footnote_200_200' class='fnanchor'>{200}</a> +has been <i>methodically</i> followed, as I have said, for barely a century; +but it cannot be doubted that occasionally it has been practised from +the remotest ages, in those animals completely under the dominion of +man. In the earliest chapters of the Bible there are rules given for +influencing the colours of breeds, and black and white sheep are spoken +of as separated. In the time of Pliny the barbarians of Europe and Asia +endeavoured by cross-breeding with a wild stock to improve the races of +their dogs and horses. The savages of Guyana now do so with their dogs: +such care shows at least that the characters of individual animals were +attended to. In the rudest times of English history, there were laws to +prevent the exportation of fine animals of established breeds, and in +the case of horses, in Henry VIII’s time, laws for the destruction +of all horses under a certain size. In one of the oldest numbers of the +<i>Phil. Transactions</i>, there are rules for selecting and improving the +breeds of sheep. Sir H. Bunbury, in 1660, has given rules for selecting +the finest seedling plants, with as much precision as the best recent +horticulturalist could. Even in the most savage and rude nations, in the +wars and famines which so frequently occur, the most useful of their +animals would be preserved: the value set upon animals by savages is +shown by the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego devouring their old women +before their dogs, which as they asserted are useful in otter-hunting<a name='FNanchor_201_201' id='FNanchor_201_201'></a><a href='#Footnote_201_201' class='fnanchor'>{201}</a>: +who can doubt but that in every case of famine and war, the best +otter-hunters would be preserved, and therefore in fact selected for +breeding. As the offspring so obviously <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_68' id='Page_68'>{68}</a></span> +take after their parents, and as we have seen that savages take pains +in crossing their dogs and horses with wild stocks, we may even conclude +as probable that they would sometimes pair the most useful of their +animals and keep their offspring separate. As different races of men +require and admire different qualities in their domesticated animals, +each would thus slowly, though unconsciously, be selecting a different +breed. As Pallas has remarked, who can doubt but that the ancient +Russian would esteem and endeavour to preserve those sheep in his flocks +which had the thickest coats. This kind of insensible selection by which +new breeds are not selected and kept separate, but a peculiar character +is slowly given to the whole mass of the breed, by often saving the life +of animals with certain characteristics, we may feel nearly sure, from +what we see has been done by the more direct method of separate +selection within the last 50 years in England, would in the course of +some thousand years produce a marked effect.</p> + +<h3><i>Crossing Breeds.</i></h3> + +<p>When once two or more races are formed, or if more than one race, or +species fertile <i>inter se</i>, originally existed in a wild state, their +crossing becomes a most copious source of new races<a name='FNanchor_202_202' id='FNanchor_202_202'></a><a href='#Footnote_202_202' class='fnanchor'>{202}</a>. +When two well-marked races are crossed the offspring in the first +generation take more or less after either parent or are quite +intermediate between them, or rarely assume characters in some degree +new. In the second and several succeeding generations, the offspring are +generally found to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_69' id='Page_69'>{69}</a></span> +vary exceedingly, one compared with another, and many revert nearly to +their ancestral forms. This greater variability in succeeding +generations seems analogous to the breaking or variability of organic +beings after having been bred for some generations under domestication<a name='FNanchor_203_203' id='FNanchor_203_203'></a><a href='#Footnote_203_203' class='fnanchor'>{203}</a>. +So marked is this variability in cross-bred descendants, that Pallas and +some other naturalists have supposed that all variation is due to an +original cross; but I conceive that the history of the potato, Dahlia, +Scotch Rose, the guinea-pig, and of many trees in this country, where +only one species of the genus exists, clearly shows that a species may +vary where there can have been no crossing. Owing to this variability +and tendency to reversion in cross-bred beings, much careful selection +is requisite to make intermediate or new permanent races: nevertheless +crossing has been a most powerful engine, especially with plants, where +means of propagation exist by which the cross-bred varieties can be +secured without incurring the risk of fresh variation from seminal +propagation: with animals the most skilful agriculturalists now greatly +prefer careful selection from a well-established breed, rather than from +uncertain cross-bred stocks.</p> + +<p>Although intermediate and new races may be formed by the mingling of +others, yet if the two races are allowed to mingle quite freely, so that +none of either parent race remain pure, then, especially if the parent +races are not widely different, they will slowly blend together, and the +two races will be destroyed, and one mongrel race left in its place. +This will of course happen in a shorter time, if one <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_70' id='Page_70'>{70}</a></span> +of the parent races exists in greater number than the other. We see the +effect of this mingling, in the manner in which the aboriginal breeds of +dogs and pigs in the Oceanic Islands and the many breeds of our domestic +animals introduced into S. America, have all been lost and absorbed in a +mongrel race. It is probably owing to the freedom of crossing, that, in +uncivilised countries, where inclosures do not exist, we seldom meet +with more than one race of a species: it is only in enclosed countries, +where the inhabitants do not migrate, and have conveniences for +separating the several kinds of domestic animals, that we meet with a +multitude of races. Even in civilised countries, want of care for a few +years has been found to destroy the good results of far longer periods +of selection and separation.</p> + +<p>This power of crossing will affect the races of all <i>terrestrial</i> +animals; for all terrestrial animals require for their reproduction the +union of two individuals. Amongst plants, races will not cross and blend +together with so much freedom as in terrestrial animals; but this +crossing takes place through various curious contrivances to a +surprising extent. In fact such contrivances exist in so very many +hermaphrodite flowers by which an occasional cross may take place, that +I cannot avoid suspecting (with Mr Knight) that the reproductive action +requires, at <i>intervals</i>, the concurrence of distinct individuals<a name='FNanchor_204_204' id='FNanchor_204_204'></a><a href='#Footnote_204_204' class='fnanchor'>{204}</a>. +Most breeders of plants and animals are firmly convinced that benefit is +derived from an occasional cross, not with another race, but with +another family of the same race; and that, on the other hand, injurious +consequences follow from long-continued close interbreeding in the same +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_71' id='Page_71'>{71}</a></span> +family. Of marine animals, many more, than was till lately believed, +have their sexes on separate individuals; and where they are +hermaphrodite, there seems very generally to be means through the water +of one individual occasionally impregnating another: if individual +animals can singly propagate themselves for perpetuity, it is +unaccountable that no terrestrial animal, where the means of observation +are more obvious, should be in this predicament of singly perpetuating +its kind. I conclude, then, that races of most animals and plants, when +unconfined in the same country, would tend to blend together.</p> + +<h3><i>Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild +stocks.</i></h3> + +<p>Several naturalists, of whom Pallas<a name='FNanchor_205_205' id='FNanchor_205_205'></a><a href='#Footnote_205_205' class='fnanchor'>{205}</a> +regarding animals, and Humboldt regarding certain plants, were the +first, believe that the breeds of many of our domestic animals such as +of the horse, pig, dog, sheep, pigeon, and poultry, and of our plants +have descended from more than one aboriginal form. They leave it +doubtful, whether such forms are to be considered wild races, or true +species, whose offspring are fertile when crossed <i>inter se</i>. The main +arguments for this view consist, firstly, of the great difference +between such breeds, as the Race-and Cart-Horse, or the Greyhound and +Bull-dog, and of our ignorance of the steps or stages through which +these could have passed from a common parent; and secondly that in the +most ancient historical periods, breeds resembling some of those at +present most different, existed in different countries. The wolves of N. +America and of Siberia are thought to be different species; and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_72' id='Page_72'>{72}</a></span> +it has been remarked that the dogs belonging to the savages in these +two countries resemble the wolves of the same country; and therefore +that they have probably descended from two different wild stocks. In the +same manner, these naturalists believe that the horse of Arabia and of +Europe have probably descended from two wild stocks both apparently now +extinct. I do not think the assumed fertility of these wild stocks any +very great difficulty on this view; for although in animals the +offspring of most cross-bred species are infertile, it is not always +remembered that the experiment is very seldom fairly tried, except when +two near species <i>both</i> breed freely (which does not readily happen, as +we shall hereafter see) when under the dominion of man. Moreover in the +case of the China<a name='FNanchor_206_206' id='FNanchor_206_206'></a><a href='#Footnote_206_206' class='fnanchor'>{206}</a> +and common goose, the canary and siskin, the hybrids breed freely; in +other cases the offspring from hybrids crossed with either pure parent +are fertile, as is practically taken advantage of with the yak and cow; +as far as the analogy of plants serves, it is impossible to deny that +some species are quite fertile <i>inter se</i>; but to this subject we shall +recur.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the upholders of the view that the several breeds of +dogs, horses, &c., &c., have descended each from one stock, may +aver that their view removes all <i>difficulty about fertility</i>, and that +the main argument from the high antiquity of different breeds, somewhat +similar to the present breeds, is worth little without knowing the date +of the domestication of such animals, which is far from being the case. +They may also with more weight aver that, knowing that organic beings +under domestication do vary in some degree, the argument from the great +difference between certain breeds is <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_73' id='Page_73'>{73}</a></span> +worth nothing, without we know the limits of variation during a long +course of time, which is far from the case. They may argue that almost +every county in England, and in many districts of other countries, for +instance in India, there are slightly different breeds of the domestic +animals; and that it is opposed to all that we know of the distribution +of wild animals to suppose that these have descended from so many +different wild races or species: if so, they may argue, is it not +probable that countries quite separate and exposed to different climates +would have breeds not slightly, but considerably, different? Taking the +most favourable case, on both sides, namely that of the dog; they might +urge that such breeds as the bull-dog and turnspit have been reared by +man, from the ascertained fact that strictly analogous breeds (namely +the Niata ox and Ancon sheep) in other quadrupeds have thus originated. +Again they may say, seeing what training and careful selection has +effected for the greyhound, and seeing how absolutely unfit the Italian +greyhound is to maintain itself in a state of nature, is it not probable +that at least all greyhounds,—from the rough deerhound, the smooth +Persian, the common English, to the Italian,—have descended from +one stock<a name='FNanchor_207_207' id='FNanchor_207_207'></a><a href='#Footnote_207_207' class='fnanchor'>{207}</a>? +If so, is it so improbable that the deerhound and long-legged shepherd +dog have so descended? If we admit this, and give up the bull-dog, we +can hardly dispute the probable common descent of the other breeds.</p> + +<p>The evidence is so conjectural and balanced on both sides that at +present I conceive that no one can decide: for my own part, I lean to +the probability of most of our domestic animals having descended from +more than one wild stock; though from the arguments last advanced and +from reflecting on the slow though inevitable effect of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_74' id='Page_74'>{74}</a></span> +different races of mankind, under different circumstances, saving the +lives of and therefore selecting the individuals most useful to them, I +cannot doubt but that one class of naturalists have much overrated the +probable number of the aboriginal wild stocks. As far as we admit the +difference of our races «<ins>to be</ins>» due to the differences of +their original stocks, so much must we give up of the amount of +variation produced under domestication. But this appears to me +unimportant, for we certainly know in some few cases, for instance in +the Dahlia, and potato, and rabbit, that a great number of varieties +have proceeded from one stock; and, in many of our domestic races, we +know that man, by slowly selecting and by taking advantage of sudden +sports, has considerably modified old races and produced new ones. +Whether we consider our races as the descendants of one or several wild +stocks, we are in far the greater number of cases equally ignorant what +these stocks were.</p> + +<h3><i>Limits to Variation in degree and kind.</i></h3> + +<p>Man’s power in making races deends, in the first instance, on the +stock on which he works being variable; but his labours are modified and +limited, as we have seen, by the direct effects of the external +conditions,—by the deficient or imperfect hereditariness of new +peculiarities,—and by the tendency to continual variation and +especially to reversion to ancestral forms. If the stock is not variable +under domestication, of course he can do nothing; and it appears that +species differ considerably in this tendency to variation, in the same +way as even sub-varieties from the same variety differ greatly in this +respect, and transmit to their offspring this difference in tendency. +Whether the absence of a tendency to vary is an unalterable quality in +certain <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_75' id='Page_75'>{75}</a></span> +species, or depends on some deficient condition of the particular state +of domestication to which they are exposed, there is no evidence. When +the organization is rendered variable, or plastic, as I have expressed +it, under domestication, different parts of the frame vary more or less +in different species: thus in the breeds of cattle it has been remarked +that the horns are the most constant or least variable character, for +these often remain constant, whilst the colour, size, proportions of the +body, tendency to fatten &c., vary; in sheep, I believe, the horns +are much more variable. As a general rule the less important parts of +the organization seem to vary most, but I think there is sufficient +evidence that every part occasionally varies in a slight degree. Even +when man has the primary requisite variability he is necessarily checked +by the health and life of the stock he is working on: thus he has +already made pigeons with such small beaks that they can hardly eat and +will not rear their own young; he has made families of sheep with so +strong a tendency to early maturity and to fatten, that in certain +pastures they cannot live from their extreme liability to inflammation; +he has made (<i>i.e.</i> selected) sub-varieties of plants with a tendency to +such early growth that they are frequently killed by the spring frosts; +he has made a breed of cows having calves with such large hinder +quarters that they are born with great difficulty, often to the death of +their mothers<a name='FNanchor_208_208' id='FNanchor_208_208'></a><a href='#Footnote_208_208' class='fnanchor'>{208}</a>; +the breeders were compelled to remedy this by the selection of a +breeding stock with smaller hinder quarters; in such a case, however, it +is possible by long patience and great loss, a remedy might have been +found in selecting cows capable of giving birth to calves with large +hinder quarters, for in human kind there «<ins>are</ins>» no doubt +hereditary bad and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_76' id='Page_76'>{76}</a></span> +good confinements. Besides the limits already specified, there can be +little doubt that the variation of different parts of the frame are +connected together by many laws<a name='FNanchor_209_209' id='FNanchor_209_209'></a><a href='#Footnote_209_209' class='fnanchor'>{209}</a>: +thus the two sides of the body, in health and disease, seem almost +always to vary together: it has been asserted by breeders that if the +head is much elongated, the bones of the extremities will likewise be +so; in seedling-apples large leaves and fruit generally go together, and +serve the horticulturalist as some guide in his selection; we can here +see the reason, as the fruit is only a metamorphosed leaf. In animals +the teeth and hair seem connected, for the hairless Chinese dog is +almost toothless. Breeders believe that one part of the frame or +function being increased causes other parts to decrease: they dislike +great horns and great bones as so much flesh lost; in hornless breeds of +cattle certain bones of the head become more developed: it is said that +fat accumulating in one part checks its accumulation in another, and +likewise checks the action of the udder. The whole organization is so +connected that it is probable there are many conditions determining the +variation of each part, and causing other parts to vary with it; and man +in making new races must be limited and ruled by all such laws.</p> + +<h3><i>In what consists Domestication.</i></h3> + +<p>In this chapter we have treated of variation under domestication, and it +now remains to consider in what does this power of domestication +consist<a name='FNanchor_210_210' id='FNanchor_210_210'></a><a href='#Footnote_210_210' class='fnanchor'>{210}</a>, +a subject of considerable difficulty. Observing that organic beings of +almost every class, in all climates, countries, and times, have varied +when long bred <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_77' id='Page_77'>{77}</a></span> +under domestication, we must conclude that the influence is of some +very general nature<a name='FNanchor_211_211' id='FNanchor_211_211'></a><a href='#Footnote_211_211' class='fnanchor'>{211}</a>. +Mr Knight alone, as far as I know, has tried to define it; he believes +it consists of an excess of food, together with transport to a more +genial climate, or protection from its severities. I think we cannot +admit this latter proposition, for we know how many vegetable products, +aborigines of this country, here vary, when cultivated without any +protection from the weather; and some of our variable trees, as +apricots, peaches, have undoubtedly been derived from a more genial +climate. There appears to be much more truth in the doctrine of excess +of food being the cause, though I much doubt whether this is the sole +cause, although it may well be requisite for the kind of variation +desired by man, namely increase of size and vigour. No doubt +horticulturalists, when they wish to raise new seedlings, often pluck +off all the flower-buds, except a few, or remove the whole during one +season, so that a great stock of nutriment may be thrown into the +flowers which are to seed. When plants are transported from high-lands, +forests, marshes, heaths, into our gardens and greenhouses, there must +be a considerable change of food, but it would be hard to prove that +there was in every case an excess of the kind proper to the plant. If it +be an excess of food, compared with that which the being obtained in its +natural state<a name='FNanchor_212_212' id='FNanchor_212_212'></a><a href='#Footnote_212_212' class='fnanchor'>{212}</a>, +the effects continue for an improbably long time; during how many ages +has <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_78' id='Page_78'>{78}</a></span> +wheat been cultivated, and cattle and sheep reclaimed, and we cannot +suppose their <i>amount</i> of food has gone on increasing, nevertheless +these are amongst the most variable of our domestic productions. It has +been remarked (Marshall) that some of the most highly kept breeds of +sheep and cattle are truer or less variable than the straggling animals +of the poor, which subsist on commons, and pick up a bare subsistence<a name='FNanchor_213_213' id='FNanchor_213_213'></a><a href='#Footnote_213_213' class='fnanchor'>{213}</a>. +In the case of forest-trees raised in nurseries, which vary more than +the same trees do in their aboriginal forests, the cause would seem +simply to lie in their not having to struggle against other trees and +weeds, which in their natural state doubtless would limit the conditions +of their existence. It appears to me that the power of domestication +resolves itself into the accumulated effects of a change of all or some +of the natural conditions of the life of the species, often associated +with excess of food. These conditions moreover, I may add, can seldom +remain, owing to the mutability of the affairs, habits, migrations, and +knowledge of man, for very long periods the same. I am the more inclined +to come to this conclusion from finding, as we shall hereafter show, +that changes of the natural conditions of existence seem peculiarly to +affect the action of the reproductive system<a name='FNanchor_214_214' id='FNanchor_214_214'></a><a href='#Footnote_214_214' class='fnanchor'>{214}</a>. +As we see that hybrids and mongrels, after the first generation, are apt +to vary much, we may at least conclude that variability does not +altogether depend on excess of food.</p> + +<p>After these views, it may be asked how it comes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_79' id='Page_79'>{79}</a></span> +that certain animals and plants, which have been domesticated for a +considerable length of time, and transported from very different +conditions of existence, have not varied much, or scarcely at all; for +instance, the ass, peacock, guinea-fowl, asparagus, Jerusalem +artichoke<a name='FNanchor_215_215' id='FNanchor_215_215'></a><a href='#Footnote_215_215' class='fnanchor'>{215}</a>. +I have already said that probably different species, like different +sub-varieties, possess different degrees of tendency to vary; but I am +inclined to attribute in these cases the want of numerous races less to +want of variability than to selection not having been practised on them. +No one will take the pains to select without some corresponding object, +either of use or amusement; the individuals raised must be tolerably +numerous, and not so precious, but that he may freely destroy those not +answering to his wishes. If guinea-fowls or peacocks<a name='FNanchor_216_216' id='FNanchor_216_216'></a><a href='#Footnote_216_216' class='fnanchor'>{216}</a> +became “fancy” birds, I cannot doubt that after some +generations several breeds would be raised. Asses have not been worked +on from mere neglect; but they differ in <i>some</i> degree in different +countries. The insensible selection, due to different races of mankind +preserving those individuals most useful to them in their different +circumstances, will apply only to the oldest and most widely +domesticated animals. In the case of plants, we must put entirely out of +the case those exclusively (or almost so) propagated by cuttings, layers +or tubers, such as the Jerusalem artichoke and laurel; and if we put on +one side plants of little ornament or use, and those which are used at +so early a period of their growth that no especial characters signify, +as asparagus<a name='FNanchor_217_217' id='FNanchor_217_217'></a><a href='#Footnote_217_217' class='fnanchor'>{217}</a> +and seakale, I can think of none long cultivated which have not varied. +In no case ought we to expect to find as much variation in a race when +it alone has been formed, as when several have been formed, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_80' id='Page_80'>{80}</a></span> +for their crossing and recrossing will greatly increase their +variability.</p> + +<h3><i>Summary of first Chapter.</i></h3> + +<p>To sum up this chapter. Races are made under domestication: 1st, by the +direct effects of the external conditions to which the species is +exposed: 2nd, by the indirect effects of the exposure to new conditions, +often aided by excess of food, rendering the organization plastic, and +by man’s selecting and separately breeding certain individuals, or +introducing to his stock selected males, or often preserving with care +the life of the individuals best adapted to his purposes: 3rd, by +crossing and recrossing races already made, and selecting their +offspring. After some generations man may relax his care in selection: +for the tendency to vary and to revert to ancestral forms will decrease, +so that he will have only occasionally to remove or destroy one of the +yearly offspring which departs from its type. Ultimately, with a large +stock, the effects of free crossing would keep, even without this care, +his breed true. By these means man can produce infinitely numerous +races, curiously adapted to ends, both most important and most +frivolous; at the same time that the effects of the surrounding +conditions, the laws of inheritance, of growth, and of variation, will +modify and limit his labours.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_81' id='Page_81'>{81}</a></p> +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_II' id='CHAPTER_II'></a>CHAPTER II<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE; ON THE NATURAL MEANS +OF SELECTION; AND ON THE COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES</span></h2> + +<p>Having treated of variation under domestication, we now come to it in a +<i>state of nature</i>.</p> + +<p>Most organic beings in a state of nature vary exceedingly little<a name='FNanchor_218_218' id='FNanchor_218_218'></a><a href='#Footnote_218_218' class='fnanchor'>{218}</a>: +I put out of the case variations (as stunted plants &c., and +sea-shells in brackish water<a name='FNanchor_219_219' id='FNanchor_219_219'></a><a href='#Footnote_219_219' class='fnanchor'>{219}</a>) +which are directly the effect of external agencies and which we do not +<i>know are in the breed</i><a name='FNanchor_220_220' id='FNanchor_220_220'></a><a href='#Footnote_220_220' class='fnanchor'>{220}</a>, +or are <i>hereditary</i>. The amount of hereditary variation is very +difficult to ascertain, because naturalists (partly from the want of +knowledge, and partly from the inherent difficulty of the subject) do +not all agree whether certain forms are species or races<a name='FNanchor_221_221' id='FNanchor_221_221'></a><a href='#Footnote_221_221' class='fnanchor'>{221}</a>. +Some strongly marked races of plants, comparable with the decided sports +of horticulturalists, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_82' id='Page_82'>{82}</a></span> +undoubtedly exist in a state of nature, as is actually known by +experiment, for instance in the primrose and cowslip<a name='FNanchor_222_222' id='FNanchor_222_222'></a><a href='#Footnote_222_222' class='fnanchor'>{222}</a>, +in two so-called species of dandelion, in two of foxglove<a name='FNanchor_223_223' id='FNanchor_223_223'></a><a href='#Footnote_223_223' class='fnanchor'>{223}</a>, +and I believe in some pines. Lamarck has observed that, as long as we +confine our attention to one limited country, there is seldom much +difficulty in deciding what forms to call species and what varieties; +and that it is when collections flow in from all parts of the world that +naturalists often feel at a loss to decide the limit of variation. +Undoubtedly so it is, yet amongst British plants (and I may add land +shells), which are probably better known than any in the world, the best +naturalists differ very greatly in the relative proportions of what they +call species and what varieties. In many genera of insects, and shells, +and plants, it seems almost hopeless to establish which are which. In +the higher classes there are less doubts; though we find considerable +difficulty in ascertaining what deserve to be called species amongst +foxes and wolves, and in some birds, for instance in the case of the +white barn-owl. When specimens are brought from different parts of the +world, how often do naturalists dispute this same question, as I found +with respect to the birds brought from the Galapagos islands. Yarrell +has remarked that the individuals of the same undoubted species of +birds, from Europe and N. America, usually present slight, indefinable +though perceptible differences. The recognition indeed of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_83' id='Page_83'>{83}</a></span> +one animal by another of its kind seems to imply some difference. The +disposition of wild animals undoubtedly differs. The variation, such as +it is, chiefly affects the same parts in wild organisms as in domestic +breeds; for instance, the size, colour, and the external and less +important parts. In many species the variability of certain organs or +qualities is even stated as one of the specific characters: thus, in +plants, colour, size, hairiness, the number of the stamens and pistils, +and even their presence, the form of the leaves; the size and form of +the mandibles of the males of some insects; the length and curvature of +the beak in some birds (as in Opetiorynchus) are variable characters in +some species and quite fixed in others. I do not perceive that any just +distinction can be drawn between this recognised variability of certain +parts in many species and the more general variability of the whole +frame in domestic races.</p> + +<p>Although the amount of variation be exceedingly small in most organic +beings in a state of nature, and probably quite wanting (as far as our +senses serve) in the majority of cases; yet considering how many animals +and plants, taken by mankind from different quarters of the world for +the most diverse purposes, have varied under domestication in every +country and in every age, I think we may safely conclude that all +organic beings with few exceptions, if capable of being domesticated and +bred for long periods, would vary. Domestication seems to resolve itself +into a change from the natural conditions of the species [<del>generally +perhaps including an increase of food</del>]; if this be so, organisms in a +state of nature must <i>occasionally</i>, in the course of ages, be exposed +to analogous influences; for geology clearly shows that many places +must, in the course of time, become exposed to the widest range of +climatic and other influences; and if such places be isolated, so that +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_84' id='Page_84'>{84}</a></span> +new and better adapted organic beings cannot freely emigrate, the old +inhabitants will be exposed to new influences, probably far more varied, +than man applies under the form of domestication. Although every species +no doubt will soon breed up to the full number which the country will +support, yet it is easy to conceive that, on an average, some species +may receive an increase of food; for the times of dearth may be short, +yet enough to kill, and recurrent only at long intervals. All such +changes of conditions from geological causes would be exceedingly slow; +what effect the slowness might have we are ignorant; under domestication +it appears that the effects of change of conditions accumulate, and then +break out. Whatever might be the result of these slow geological +changes, we may feel sure, from the means of dissemination common in a +lesser or greater degree to every organism taken conjointly with the +changes of geology, which are steadily (and sometimes suddenly, as when +an isthmus at last separates) in progress, that occasionally organisms +must suddenly be introduced into new regions, where, if the conditions +of existence are not so foreign as to cause its extermination, it will +often be propagated under circumstances still more closely analogous to +those of domestication; and therefore we expect will evince a tendency +to vary. It appears to me quite <i>inexplicable</i> if this has never +happened; but it can happen very rarely. Let us then suppose that an +organism by some chance (which might be hardly repeated in 1000 years) +arrives at a modern volcanic island in process of formation and not +fully stocked with the most appropriate organisms; the new organism +might readily gain a footing, although the external conditions were +considerably different from its native ones. The effect of this we might +expect would influence in some small degree the size, colour, nature of +covering &c., and from inexplicable influences <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_85' id='Page_85'>{85}</a></span> +even special parts and organs of the body. But we might further (and +«<ins>this</ins>» is far more important) expect that the reproductive +system would be affected, as under domesticity, and the structure of the +offspring rendered in some degree plastic. Hence almost every part of +the body would tend to vary from the typical form in slight degrees, and +in no determinate way, and therefore <i>without selection</i> the free +crossing of these small variations (together with the tendency to +reversion to the original form) would constantly be counteracting this +unsettling effect of the extraneous conditions on the reproductive +system. Such, I conceive, would be the unimportant result without +selection. And here I must observe that the foregoing remarks are +equally applicable to that small and admitted amount of variation which +has been observed in some organisms in a state of nature; as well as to +the above hypothetical variation consequent on changes of condition.</p> + +<p>Let us now suppose a Being<a name='FNanchor_224_224' id='FNanchor_224_224'></a><a href='#Footnote_224_224' class='fnanchor'>{224}</a> +with penetration sufficient to perceive differences in the outer and +innermost organization quite imperceptible to man, and with forethought +extending over future centuries to watch with unerring care and select +for any object the offspring of an organism produced under the foregoing +circumstances; I can see no conceivable reason why he could not form a +new race (or several were he to separate the stock of the original +organism and work on several islands) adapted to new ends. As we assume +his discrimination, and his forethought, and his steadiness of object, +to be incomparably greater that those qualities in man, so we may +suppose the beauty and complications of the adaptations of the new races +and their differences from the original stock to be greater than in the +domestic races produced by man’s agency: the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_86' id='Page_86'>{86}</a></span> +ground-work of his labours we may aid by supposing that the external +conditions of the volcanic island, from its continued emergence and the +occasional introduction of new immigrants, vary; and thus to act on the +reproductive system of the organism, on which he is at work, and so keep +its organization somewhat plastic. With time enough, such a Being might +rationally (without some unknown law opposed him) aim at almost any +result.</p> + +<p>For instance, let this imaginary Being wish, from seeing a plant growing +on the decaying matter in a forest and choked by other plants, to give +it power of growing on the rotten stems of trees, he would commence +selecting every seedling whose berries were in the smallest degree more +attractive to tree-frequenting birds, so as to cause a proper +dissemination of the seeds, and at the same time he would select those +plants which had in the slightest degree more and more power of drawing +nutriment from rotten wood; and he would destroy all other seedlings +with less of this power. He might thus, in the course of century after +century, hope to make the plant by degrees grow on rotten wood, even +high up on trees, wherever birds dropped the non-digested seeds. He +might then, if the organization of the plant was plastic, attempt by +continued selection of chance seedlings to make it grow on less and less +rotten wood, till it would grow on sound wood<a name='FNanchor_225_225' id='FNanchor_225_225'></a><a href='#Footnote_225_225' class='fnanchor'>{225}</a>. +Supposing again, during these changes the plant failed to seed quite +freely from non-impregnation, he might begin selecting seedlings with a +little sweeter «<ins>or</ins>» differently tasted honey or pollen, to +tempt insects to visit the flowers regularly: having effected this, he +might wish, if it profited the plant, to render abortive the stamens and +pistils in different flowers, which he could do by continued selection. +By such <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_87' id='Page_87'>{87}</a></span> +steps he might aim at making a plant as wonderfully related to other +organic beings as is the mistletoe, whose existence absolutely depends +on certain insects for impregnation, certain birds for transportal, and +certain trees for growth. Furthermore, if the insect which had been +induced regularly to visit this hypothetical plant profited much by it, +our same Being might wish by selection to modify by gradual selection +the insect’s structure, so as to facilitate its obtaining the +honey or pollen: in this manner he might adapt the insect (always +presupposing its organization to be in some degree plastic) to the +flower, and the impregnation of the flower to the insect; as is the case +with many bees and many plants.</p> + +<p>Seeing what blind capricious man has actually effected by selection +during the few last years, and what in a ruder state he has probably +effected without any systematic plan during the last few thousand years, +he will be a bold person who will positively put limits to what the +supposed Being could effect during whole geological periods. In +accordance with the plan by which this universe seems governed by the +Creator, let us consider whether there exists any <i>secondary</i> means in +the economy of nature by which the process of selection could go on +adapting, nicely and wonderfully, organisms, if in ever so small a +degree plastic, to diverse ends. I believe such secondary means do +exist<a name='FNanchor_226_226' id='FNanchor_226_226'></a><a href='#Footnote_226_226' class='fnanchor'>{226}</a>.</p> + +<h3><i>Natural means of Selection</i><a name='FNanchor_227_227' id='FNanchor_227_227'></a><a href='#Footnote_227_227' class='fnanchor'>{227}</a>.</h3> + +<p>De Candolle, in an eloquent passage, has declared that all nature is at +war, one organism with another, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_88' id='Page_88'>{88}</a></span> +or with external nature. Seeing the contented face of nature, this may +at first be well doubted; but reflection will inevitably prove it is too +true. The war, however, is not constant, but only recurrent in a slight +degree at short periods and more severely at occasional more distant +periods; and hence its effects are easily overlooked. It is the doctrine +of Malthus applied in most cases with ten-fold force. As in every +climate there are seasons for each of its inhabitants of greater and +less abundance, so all annually breed; and the moral restraint, which in +some small degree checks the increase of mankind, is entirely lost. Even +slow-breeding mankind has doubled in 25 years<a name='FNanchor_228_228' id='FNanchor_228_228'></a><a href='#Footnote_228_228' class='fnanchor'>{228}</a>, +and if he could increase his food with greater ease, he would double in +less time. But for animals, without artificial means, <i>on an average</i> +the amount of food for each species must be constant; whereas the +increase of all organisms tends to be geometrical, and in a vast +majority of cases at an enormous ratio. Suppose in a certain spot there +are eight pairs of [<del>robins</del>] birds, and that <i>only</i> four pairs of them +annually (including double hatches) rear only four young; and that these +go on rearing their young at the same rate: then at the end of seven +years (a short life, excluding violent deaths, for any birds) there will +be 2048 robins, instead of the original sixteen; as this increase is +quite impossible, so we must conclude either that robins do not rear +nearly half their young or that the average life of a robin when reared +is from accident not nearly seven years. Both checks probably concur. +The same kind of calculation applied to all vegetables and animals +produces results either more or less striking, but in scarcely a single +instance less striking than in man<a name='FNanchor_229_229' id='FNanchor_229_229'></a><a href='#Footnote_229_229' class='fnanchor'>{229}</a>.</p> + +<p>Many practical illustrations of this rapid tendency <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_89' id='Page_89'>{89}</a></span> +to increase are on record, namely during peculiar seasons, in the +extraordinary increase of certain animals, for instance during the years +1826 to 1828, in La Plata, when from drought, some millions of cattle +perished, the whole country <i>swarmed</i> with innumerable mice: now I think +it cannot be doubted that during the breeding season all the mice (with +the exception of a few males or females in excess) ordinarily pair; and +therefore that this astounding increase during three years must be +attributed to a greater than usual number surviving the first year, and +then breeding, and so on, till the third year, when their numbers were +brought down to their usual limits on the return of wet weather. Where +man has introduced plants and animals into a new country favourable to +them, there are many accounts in how surprisingly few years the whole +country has become stocked with them. This increase would necessarily +stop as soon as the country was fully stocked; and yet we have every +reason to believe from what is known of wild animals that <i>all</i> would +pair in the spring. In the majority of cases it is most difficult to +imagine where the check falls, generally no doubt on the seeds, eggs, +and young; but when we remember how impossible even in mankind (so much +better known than any other animal) it is to infer from repeated casual +observations what the average of life is, or to discover how different +the percentage of deaths to the births in different countries, we ought +to feel no legitimate surprise at not seeing where the check falls in +animals and plants. It should always be remembered that in most cases +the checks are yearly recurrent in a small regular degree, and in an +extreme degree during occasionally unusually cold, hot, dry, or wet +years, according to the constitution of the being in question. Lighten +any check in the smallest degree, and the geometrical <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_90' id='Page_90'>{90}</a></span> +power of increase in every organism will instantly increase the average +numbers of the favoured species. Nature may be compared to a surface, on +which rest ten thousand sharp wedges touching each other and driven +inwards by incessant blows<a name='FNanchor_230_230' id='FNanchor_230_230'></a><a href='#Footnote_230_230' class='fnanchor'>{230}</a>. +Fully to realise these views much reflection is requisite; Malthus on +man should be studied; and all such cases as those of the mice in La +Plata, of the cattle and horses when first turned out in S. America, of +the robins by our calculation, &c., should be well considered: +reflect on the enormous multiplying power <i>inherent and annually in +action</i> in all animals; reflect on the countless seeds scattered by a +hundred ingenious contrivances, year after year, over the whole face of +the land; and yet we have every reason to suppose that the average +percentage of every one of the inhabitants of a country will +<i>ordinarily</i> remain constant. Finally, let it be borne in mind that this +average number of individuals (the external conditions remaining the +same) in each country is kept up by recurrent struggles against other +species or against external nature (as on the borders of the arctic +regions<a name='FNanchor_231_231' id='FNanchor_231_231'></a><a href='#Footnote_231_231' class='fnanchor'>{231}</a>, +where the cold checks life); and that ordinarily each individual of each +species holds its place, either by its own struggle and capacity of +acquiring nourishment in some period (from the egg upwards) of its life, +or by the struggle of its parents (in short lived organisms, when the +main check occurs at long intervals) against and compared with other +individuals of the <i>same</i> or <i>different</i> species.</p> + +<p>But let the external conditions of a country change; if in a small +degree, the relative proportions of the inhabitants will in most cases +simply be <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_91' id='Page_91'>{91}</a></span> +slightly changed; but let the number of inhabitants be small, as in an +island<a name='FNanchor_232_232' id='FNanchor_232_232'></a><a href='#Footnote_232_232' class='fnanchor'>{232}</a>, +and free access to it from other countries be circumscribed; and let the +change of condition continue progressing (forming new stations); in such +case the original inhabitants must cease to be so perfectly adapted to +the changed conditions as they originally were. It has been shown that +probably such changes of external conditions would, from acting on the +reproductive system, cause the organization of the beings most affected +to become, as under domestication, plastic. Now can it be doubted from +the struggle each individual (or its parents) has to obtain subsistence +that any minute variation in structure, habits, or instincts, adapting +that individual better to the new conditions, would tell upon its vigour +and health? In the struggle it would have a better <i>chance</i> of +surviving, and those of its offspring which inherited the variation, let +it be ever so slight, would have a better <i>chance</i> to survive. Yearly +more are bred than can survive; the smallest grain in the balance, in +the long run, must tell on which death shall fall, and which shall +survive<a name='FNanchor_233_233' id='FNanchor_233_233'></a><a href='#Footnote_233_233' class='fnanchor'>{233}</a>. +Let this work of selection, on the one hand, and death on the other, go +on for a thousand generations; who would pretend to affirm that it would +produce no effect, when we remember what in a few years Bakewell +effected in cattle and Western in sheep, by this identical principle of +selection.</p> + +<p>To give an imaginary example, from changes in progress on an island, let +the organization<a name='FNanchor_234_234' id='FNanchor_234_234'></a><a href='#Footnote_234_234' class='fnanchor'>{234}</a> +of a canine animal become slightly plastic, which animal preyed chiefly +on rabbits, but sometimes on hares; let these same changes cause the +number of rabbits <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_92' id='Page_92'>{92}</a></span> +very slowly to decrease and the number of hares to increase; the effect +of this would be that the fox or dog would be driven to try to catch +more hares, and his numbers would tend to decrease; his organization, +however, being slightly plastic, those individuals with the lightest +forms, longest limbs, and best eye-sight (though perhaps with less +cunning or scent) would be slightly favoured, let the difference be ever +so small, and would tend to live longer and to survive during that time +of the year when food was shortest; they would also rear more young, +which young would tend to inherit these slight peculiarities. The less +fleet ones would be rigidly destroyed. I can see no more reason to doubt +but that these causes in a thousand generations would produce a marked +effect, and adapt the form of the fox to catching hares instead of +rabbits, than that greyhounds can be improved by selection and careful +breeding. So would it be with plants under similar circumstances; if the +number of individuals of a species with plumed seeds could be increased +by greater powers of dissemination within its own area (that is if the +check to increase fell chiefly on the seeds), those seeds which were +provided with ever so little more down, or with a plume placed so as to +be slightly more acted on by the winds, would in the long run tend to be +most disseminated; and hence a greater number of seeds thus formed would +germinate, and would tend to produce plants inheriting this slightly +better adapted down.</p> + +<p>Besides this natural means of selection, by which those individuals are +preserved, whether in their egg or seed or in their mature state, which +are best adapted to the place they fill in nature, there is a second +agency at work in most bisexual animals tending to produce the same +effect, namely the struggle of the males for the females. These +struggles are generally decided by the law of battle; <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_93' id='Page_93'>{93}</a></span> +but in the case of birds, apparently, by the charms of their song<a name='FNanchor_235_235' id='FNanchor_235_235'></a><a href='#Footnote_235_235' class='fnanchor'>{235}</a>, +by their beauty or their power of courtship, as in the dancing +rock-thrush of Guiana. Even in the animals which pair there seems to be +an excess of males which would aid in causing a struggle: in the +polygamous animals<a name='FNanchor_236_236' id='FNanchor_236_236'></a><a href='#Footnote_236_236' class='fnanchor'>{236}</a>, +however, as in deer, oxen, poultry, we might expect there would be +severest struggle: is it not in the polygamous animals that the males +are best formed for mutual war? The most vigorous males, implying +perfect adaptation, must generally gain the victory in their several +contests. This kind of selection, however, is less rigorous than the +other; it does not require the death of the less successful, but gives +to them fewer descendants. This struggle falls, moreover, at a time of +year when food is generally abundant, and perhaps the effect chiefly +produced would be the alteration of sexual characters, and the selection +of individual forms, no way related to their power of obtaining food, or +of defending themselves from their natural enemies, but of fighting one +with another. This natural struggle amongst the males may be compared in +effect, but in a less degree, to that produced by those agriculturalists +who pay less attention to the careful selection of all the young animals +which they breed and more to the occasional use of a choice male<a name='FNanchor_237_237' id='FNanchor_237_237'></a><a href='#Footnote_237_237' class='fnanchor'>{237}</a>.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_94' id='Page_94'>{94}</a></p> + +<h3><i>Differences between “Races” and “Species”:—first, in their trueness or +variability.</i></h3> + +<p>Races<a name='FNanchor_238_238' id='FNanchor_238_238'></a><a href='#Footnote_238_238' class='fnanchor'>{238}</a> +produced by these natural means of selection<a name='FNanchor_239_239' id='FNanchor_239_239'></a><a href='#Footnote_239_239' class='fnanchor'>{239}</a> +we may expect would differ in some respects from those produced by man. +Man selects chiefly by the eye, and is not able to perceive the course +of every vessel and nerve, or the form of the bones, or whether the +internal structure corresponds to the outside shape. He<a name='FNanchor_240_240' id='FNanchor_240_240'></a><a href='#Footnote_240_240' class='fnanchor'>{240}</a> +is unable to select shades of constitutional differences, and by the +protection he affords and his endeavours to keep his property alive, in +whatever country he lives, he checks, as much as lies in his power, the +selecting action of nature, which will, however, go on to a lesser +degree with all living things, even if their length of life is not +determined by their own powers of endurance. He has bad judgment, is +capricious, he does not, or his successors do not, wish to select for +the same exact end for hundreds of generations. He cannot always suit +the selected form to the properest conditions; nor does he keep those +conditions uniform: he selects that which is useful to him, not that +best adapted to those conditions in which each variety is placed by him: +he selects a small dog, but feeds it highly; he selects a long-backed +dog, but does not exercise it in any peculiar manner, at least not +during every generation. He seldom allows the most vigorous males to +struggle for themselves and propagate, but picks out such as he +possesses, or such as he prefers, and not necessarily those best adapted +to the existing conditions. Every agriculturalist and breeder knows how +difficult it is to prevent an occasional cross with another breed.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_95' id='Page_95'>{95}</a></span> +He often grudges to destroy an individual which departs considerably +from the required type. He often begins his selection by a form or sport +considerably departing from the parent form. Very differently does the +natural law of selection act; the varieties selected differ only +slightly from the parent forms<a name='FNanchor_241_241' id='FNanchor_241_241'></a><a href='#Footnote_241_241' class='fnanchor'>{241}</a>; +the conditions are constant for long periods and change slowly; rarely +can there be a cross; the selection is rigid and unfailing, and +continued through many generations; a selection can <i>never be made</i> +without the form be <i>better</i> adapted to the conditions than the parent +form; the selecting power goes on without caprice, and steadily for +thousands of years adapting the form to these conditions. The selecting +power is not deceived by external appearances, it tries the being during +its whole life; and if less well «<ins>?</ins>» adapted than its +<i>congeners</i>, without fail it is destroyed; every part of its structure +is thus scrutinised and proved good towards the place in nature which it +occupies.</p> + +<p>We have every reason to believe that in proportion to the number of +generations that a domestic race is kept free from crosses, and to the +care employed in continued steady selection with one end in view, and to +the care in not placing the variety in conditions unsuited to it; in +such proportion does the new race become “true” or subject +to little variation<a name='FNanchor_242_242' id='FNanchor_242_242'></a><a href='#Footnote_242_242' class='fnanchor'>{242}</a>. +How incomparably “truer” then would a race produced by the +above rigid, steady, natural means of selection, excellently trained and +perfectly adapted to its conditions, free from stains of blood or +crosses, and continued during thousands of years, be compared with one +produced by the feeble, capricious, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_96' id='Page_96'>{96}</a></span> +misdirected and ill-adapted selection of man. Those races of domestic +animals produced by savages, partly by the inevitable conditions of +their life, and partly unintentionally by their greater care of the +individuals most valuable to them, would probably approach closest to +the character of a species; and I believe this is the case. Now the +characteristic mark of a species, next, if not equal in importance to +its sterility when crossed with another species, and indeed almost the +only other character (without we beg the question and affirm the essence +of a species, is its not having descended from a parent common to any +other form), is the similarity of the individuals composing the species, +or in the language of agriculturalists their “trueness.”</p> + +<h3><i>Difference between “Races” and “Species” in fertility when crossed.</i></h3> + +<p>The sterility of species, or of their offspring, when crossed has, +however, received more attention than the uniformity in character of the +individuals composing the species. It is exceedingly natural that such +sterility<a name='FNanchor_243_243' id='FNanchor_243_243'></a><a href='#Footnote_243_243' class='fnanchor'>{243}</a> +should have been long thought the certain characteristic of species. For +it is obvious that if the allied different forms which we meet with in +the same country could cross together, instead of finding a number of +distinct species, we should have a confused and blending series. The +fact however of a perfect gradation in the degree of sterility between +species, and the circumstance of some species most closely allied (for +instance many species of crocus and European heaths) refusing +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_97' id='Page_97'>{97}</a></span> +to breed together, whereas other species, widely different, and even +belonging to distinct genera, as the fowl and the peacock, pheasant and +grouse<a name='FNanchor_244_244' id='FNanchor_244_244'></a><a href='#Footnote_244_244' class='fnanchor'>{244}</a>, +Azalea and Rhododendron, Thuja and Juniperus, breeding together ought to +have caused a doubt whether the sterility did not depend on other +causes, distinct from a law, coincident with their creation. I may here +remark that the fact whether one species will or will not breed with +another is far less important than the sterility of the offspring when +produced; for even some domestic races differ so greatly in size (as the +great stag-greyhound and lap-dog, or cart-horse and Burmese ponies) that +union is nearly impossible; and what is less generally known is, that in +plants Kölreuter has shown by hundreds of experiments that the +pollen of one species will fecundate the germen of another species, +whereas the pollen of this latter will never act on the germen of the +former; so that the simple fact of mutual impregnation certainly has no +relation whatever to the distinctness in creation of the two forms. When +two species are attempted to be crossed which are so distantly allied +that offspring are never produced, it has been observed in some cases +that the pollen commences its proper action by exserting its tube, and +the germen commences swelling, though soon afterwards it decays. In the +next stage in the series, hybrid offspring are produced though only +rarely and few in number, and these are absolutely sterile: then we have +hybrid offspring more numerous, and occasionally, though very rarely, +breeding with either parent, as is the case with the common mule. Again, +other hybrids, though infertile <i>inter se</i>, will breed <i>quite</i> freely +with either parent, or with a third species, and will yield <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_98' id='Page_98'>{98}</a></span> +offspring generally infertile, but sometimes fertile; and these latter +again will breed with either parent, or with a third or fourth species: +thus Kölreuter blended together many forms. Lastly it is now +admitted by those botanists who have longest contended against the +admission, that in certain families the hybrid offspring of many of the +species are sometimes perfectly fertile in the first generation when +bred together: indeed in some few cases Mr Herbert<a name='FNanchor_245_245' id='FNanchor_245_245'></a><a href='#Footnote_245_245' class='fnanchor'>{245}</a> +found that the hybrids were decidedly more fertile than either of their +pure parents. There is no way to escape from the admission that the +hybrids from some species of plants are fertile, except by declaring +that no form shall be considered as a species, if it produces with +another species fertile offspring: but this is begging the question<a name='FNanchor_246_246' id='FNanchor_246_246'></a><a href='#Footnote_246_246' class='fnanchor'>{246}</a>. +It has often been stated that different species of animals have a sexual +repugnance towards each other; I can find no evidence of this; it +appears as if they merely did not excite each others passions. I do not +believe that in this respect there is any essential distinction between +animals and plants; and in the latter there cannot be a feeling of +repugnance.</p> + +<h3><i>Causes of Sterility in Hybrids.</i></h3> + +<p>The difference in nature between species which causes the greater or +lesser degree of sterility in their offspring appears, according to +Herbert and Kölreuter, to be connected much less with external form, +size, or structure, than with constitutional peculiarities; by which is +meant their adaptation to different climates, food and situation, &c.: +these <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_99' id='Page_99'>{99}</a></span> +peculiarities of constitution probably affect the entire frame, and no +one part in particular<a name='FNanchor_247_247' id='FNanchor_247_247'></a><a href='#Footnote_247_247' class='fnanchor'>{247}</a>.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing facts I think we must admit that there exists a +perfect gradation in fertility between species which when crossed are +quite fertile (as in Rhododendron, Calceolaria, &c.), and indeed in +an extraordinary degree fertile (as in Crinum), and those species which +never produce offspring, but which by certain effects (as the exsertion +of the pollen-tube) evince their alliance. Hence, I conceive, we must +give up sterility, although undoubtedly in a lesser or greater degree of +very frequent occurrence, as an unfailing mark by which <i>species</i> can be +distinguished from <i>races</i>, <i>i.e.</i> from those forms which have descended +from a common stock.</p> + +<h3><i>Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation.</i></h3> + +<p>Let us see whether there are any analogous facts which will throw any +light on this subject, and will tend to explain why the offspring of +certain species, when crossed, should be sterile, and not others, +without requiring a distinct law connected with their creation to that +effect. Great numbers, probably a large majority of animals when caught +by man and removed from their natural conditions, although taken very +young, rendered quite tame, living to a good old age, and apparently +quite healthy, seem incapable under these circumstances of breeding<a name='FNanchor_248_248' id='FNanchor_248_248'></a><a href='#Footnote_248_248' class='fnanchor'>{248}</a>. +I do not refer to animals kept in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_100' id='Page_100'>{100}</a></span> +menageries, such as at the Zoological Gardens, many of which, however, +appear healthy and live long and unite but do not produce; but to +animals caught and left partly at liberty in their native country. +Rengger<a name='FNanchor_249_249' id='FNanchor_249_249'></a><a href='#Footnote_249_249' class='fnanchor'>{249}</a> +enumerates several caught young and rendered tame, which he kept in +Paraguay, and which would not breed: the hunting leopard or cheetah and +elephant offer other instances; as do bears in Europe, and the 25 +species of hawks, belonging to different genera, thousands of which have +been kept for hawking and have lived for long periods in perfect vigour. +When the expense and trouble of procuring a succession of young animals +in a wild state be borne in mind, one may feel sure that no trouble has +been spared in endeavours to make them breed. So clearly marked is this +difference in different kinds of animals, when captured by man, that St +Hilaire makes two great classes of animals useful to man:—the +<i>tame</i>, which will not breed, and the <i>domestic</i> which will breed in +domestication. From certain singular facts we might have supposed that +the non-breeding of animals was owing to some perversion of instinct. +But we meet with exactly the same class of facts in plants: I do not +refer to the large number of cases where the climate does not permit the +seed or fruit to ripen, but where the flowers do not “set,” +owing to some imperfection of the ovule or pollen. The latter, which +alone can be distinctly examined, is often manifestly imperfect, as any +one with a microscope can observe by comparing the pollen of the Persian +and Chinese lilacs<a name='FNanchor_250_250' id='FNanchor_250_250'></a><a href='#Footnote_250_250' class='fnanchor'>{250}</a> +with the common lilac; the two <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_101' id='Page_101'>{101}</a></span> +former species (I may add) are equally sterile in Italy as in this +country. Many of the American bog plants here produce little or no +pollen, whilst the Indian species of the same genera freely produce it. +Lindley observes that sterility is the bane of the horticulturist<a name='FNanchor_251_251' id='FNanchor_251_251'></a><a href='#Footnote_251_251' class='fnanchor'>{251}</a>: +Linnæus has remarked on the sterility of nearly all alpine flowers +when cultivated in a lowland district<a name='FNanchor_252_252' id='FNanchor_252_252'></a><a href='#Footnote_252_252' class='fnanchor'>{252}</a>. +Perhaps the immense class of double flowers chiefly owe their structure +to an excess of food acting on parts rendered slightly sterile and less +capable of performing their true function, and therefore liable to be +rendered monstrous, which monstrosity, like any other disease, is +inherited and rendered common. So far from domestication being in itself +unfavourable to fertility, it is well known that when an organism is +once capable of submission to such conditions «<ins>its</ins>» +fertility is increased<a name='FNanchor_253_253' id='FNanchor_253_253'></a><a href='#Footnote_253_253' class='fnanchor'>{253}</a> +beyond the natural limit. According to agriculturists, slight changes of +conditions, that is of food or habitation, and likewise crosses with +races slightly different, increase the vigour and probably the fertility +of their offspring. It would appear also that even a great change of +condition, for instance, transportal from temperate countries to India, +in many cases does not in the least affect fertility, although it does +health and length of life and the period of maturity. When sterility is +induced by domestication it is of the same kind, and varies in degree, +exactly as with hybrids: for be it remembered that the most sterile +hybrid is no way monstrous; its organs are perfect, but they do not act, +and minute microscopical investigations show that they are in the same +state as those of pure species in the intervals of the breeding season. +The defective pollen in the cases above alluded to precisely +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_102' id='Page_102'>{102}</a></span> +resembles that of hybrids. The occasional breeding of hybrids, as of +the common mule, may be aptly compared to the most rare but occasional +reproduction of elephants in captivity. The cause of many exotic +Geraniums producing (although in vigorous health) imperfect pollen seems +to be connected with the period when water is given them<a name='FNanchor_254_254' id='FNanchor_254_254'></a><a href='#Footnote_254_254' class='fnanchor'>{254}</a>; +but in the far greater majority of cases we cannot form any conjecture +on what exact cause the sterility of organisms taken from their natural +conditions depends. Why, for instance, the cheetah will not breed whilst +the common cat and ferret (the latter generally kept shut up in a small +box) do,—why the elephant will not whilst the pig will +abundantly—why the partridge and grouse in their own country will +not, whilst several species of pheasants, the guinea-fowl from the +deserts of Africa and the peacock from the jungles of India, will. We +must, however, feel convinced that it depends on some constitutional +peculiarities in these beings not suited to their new condition; though +not necessarily causing an ill state of health. Ought we then to wonder +much that those hybrids which have been produced by the crossing of +species with different constitutional tendencies (which tendencies we +know to be eminently inheritable) should be sterile: it does not seem +improbable that the cross from an alpine and lowland plant should have +its constitutional powers deranged, in nearly the same manner as when +the parent alpine plant is brought into a lowland district. Analogy, +however, is a deceitful guide, and it would be rash to affirm, although +it may appear probable, that the sterility of hybrids is due to the +constitutional peculiarities of one parent being disturbed by being +blended with those of the other parent in exactly the same <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_103' id='Page_103'>{103}</a></span> +manner as it is caused in some organic beings when placed by man out of +their natural conditions<a name='FNanchor_255_255' id='FNanchor_255_255'></a><a href='#Footnote_255_255' class='fnanchor'>{255}</a>. +Although this would be rash, it would, I think, be still rasher, seeing +that sterility is no more incidental to <i>all</i> cross-bred productions +than it is to all organic beings when captured by man, to assert that +the sterility of certain hybrids proved a distinct creation of their +parents.</p> + +<p>But it may be objected<a name='FNanchor_256_256' id='FNanchor_256_256'></a><a href='#Footnote_256_256' class='fnanchor'>{256}</a> +(however little the sterility of certain hybrids is connected with the +distinct creations of species), how comes it, if species are only races +produced by natural selection, that when crossed they so frequently +produce sterile offspring, whereas in the offspring of those races +confessedly produced by the arts of man there is no one instance of +sterility. There is not much difficulty in this, for the races produced +by the natural means above explained will be slowly but steadily +selected; will be adapted to various and diverse conditions, and to +these conditions they will be rigidly confined for immense periods of +time; hence we may suppose that they would acquire different +constitutional peculiarities adapted to the stations they occupy; and on +the constitutional differences between species their sterility, +according to the best authorities, depends. On the other hand man +selects by external appearance<a name='FNanchor_257_257' id='FNanchor_257_257'></a><a href='#Footnote_257_257' class='fnanchor'>{257}</a>; +from his ignorance, and from not having any test at least comparable in +delicacy to the natural struggle for food, continued at intervals +through the life of each individual, he cannot eliminate fine shades of +constitution, dependent on invisible differences in the fluids or solids +of the body; again, from the value <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_104' id='Page_104'>{104}</a></span> +which he attaches to each individual, he asserts his utmost power in +contravening the natural tendency of the most vigorous to survive. Man, +moreover, especially in the earlier ages, cannot have kept his +conditions of life constant, and in later ages his stock pure. Until man +selects two varieties from the same stock, adapted to two climates or to +other different external conditions, and confines each rigidly for one +or several thousand years to such conditions, always selecting the +individuals best adapted to them, he cannot be said to have even +commenced the experiment. Moreover, the organic beings which man has +longest had under domestication have been those which were of the +greatest use to him, and one chief element of their usefulness, +especially in the earlier ages, must have been their capacity to undergo +sudden transportals into various climates, and at the same time to +retain their fertility, which in itself implies that in such respects +their constitutional peculiarities were not closely limited. If the +opinion already mentioned be correct, that most of the domestic animals +in their present state have descended from the fertile commixture of +wild races or species, we have indeed little reason now to expect +infertility between any cross of stock thus descended.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of remark, that as many organic beings, when taken by man +out of their natural conditions, have their reproductive system +«<ins>so</ins>» affected as to be incapable of propagation, so, we saw +in the first chapter, that although organic beings when taken by man do +propagate freely, their offspring after some generations vary or sport +to a degree which can only be explained by their reproductive system +being «<ins>in</ins>» some way affected. Again, when species cross, +their offspring are generally sterile; but it was found by +Kölreuter that when hybrids are capable of breeding with either +parent, or with <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_105' id='Page_105'>{105}</a></span> +other species, that their offspring are subject after some generations +to excessive variation<a name='FNanchor_258_258' id='FNanchor_258_258'></a><a href='#Footnote_258_258' class='fnanchor'>{258}</a>. +Agriculturists, also, affirm that the offspring from mongrels, after the +first generation, vary much. Hence we see that both sterility and +variation in the succeeding generations are consequent both on the +removal of individual species from their natural states and on species +crossing. The connection between these facts may be accidental, but they +certainly appear to elucidate and support each other,—on the +principle of the reproductive system of all organic beings being +eminently sensitive to any disturbance, whether from removal or +commixture, in their constitutional relations to the conditions to which +they are exposed.</p> + +<h3><i>Points of Resemblance between “Races” and “Species</i><a name='FNanchor_259_259' id='FNanchor_259_259'></a><a href='#Footnote_259_259' class='fnanchor'>{259}</a>.<i>”</i></h3> + +<p>Races and reputed species agree in some respects, although differing +from causes which, we have seen, we can in some degree understand, in +the fertility and “trueness” of their offspring. In the +first place, there is no clear sign by which to distinguish races from +species, as is evident from the great difficulty experienced by +naturalists in attempting to discriminate them. As far as external +characters are concerned, many of the races which are descended from the +same stock differ far more than true species of the same genus; look at +the willow-wrens, some of which skilful ornithologists can hardly +distinguish from each other except by their nests; look at the wild +swans, and compare the distinct species of these genera with the races +of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_106' id='Page_106'>{106}</a></span> +domestic ducks, poultry, and pigeons; and so again with plants, compare +the cabbages, almonds, peaches and nectarines, &c. with the species +of many genera. St Hilaire has even remarked that there is a greater +difference in size between races, as in dogs (for he believes all have +descended from one stock), than between the species of any one genus; +nor is this surprising, considering that amount of food and consequently +of growth is the element of change over which man has most power. I may +refer to a former statement, that breeders believe the growth of one +part or strong action of one function causes a decrease in other parts; +for this seems in some degree analogous to the law of “organic +compensation<a name='FNanchor_260_260' id='FNanchor_260_260'></a><a href='#Footnote_260_260' class='fnanchor'>{260}</a>,” +which many naturalists believe holds good. To give an instance of this +law of compensation,—those species of Carnivora which have the +canine teeth greatly developed have certain molar teeth deficient; or +again, in that division of the Crustaceans in which the tail is much +developed, the thorax is little so, and the converse. The points of +difference between different races is often strikingly analogous to that +between species of the same genus: trifling spots or marks of colour<a name='FNanchor_261_261' id='FNanchor_261_261'></a><a href='#Footnote_261_261' class='fnanchor'>{261}</a> +(as the bars on pigeons’ wings) are often preserved in races of +plants and animals, precisely in the same manner as similar trifling +characters often pervade all the species of a genus, and even of a +family. Flowers in varying their colours often become veined and spotted +and the leaves become divided like true species: it is known that the +varieties of the same plant never have red, blue and yellow flowers, +though the hyacinth makes a very near approach to an +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_107' id='Page_107'>{107}</a></span> +exception<a name='FNanchor_262_262' id='FNanchor_262_262'></a><a href='#Footnote_262_262' class='fnanchor'>{262}</a>; +and different species of the same genus seldom, though sometimes they +have flowers of these three colours. Dun-coloured horses having a dark +stripe down their backs, and certain domestic asses having transverse +bars on their legs, afford striking examples of a variation analogous in +character to the distinctive marks of other species of the same genus.</p> + +<h3><i>External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels.</i></h3> + +<p>There is, however, as it appears to me, a more important method of +comparison between species and races, namely the character of the +offspring<a name='FNanchor_263_263' id='FNanchor_263_263'></a><a href='#Footnote_263_263' class='fnanchor'>{263}</a> +when species are crossed and when races are crossed: I believe, in no +one respect, except in sterility, is there any difference. It would, I +think, be a marvellous fact, if species have been formed by distinct +acts of creation, that they should act upon each other in uniting, like +races descended from a common stock. In the first place, by repeated +crossing one species can absorb and wholly obliterate the characters of +another, or of several other species, in the same manner as one race +will absorb by crossing another race. Marvellous, that one act of +creation should absorb another or even several acts of creation! The +offspring of species, that is hybrids, and the offspring of races, that +is mongrels, resemble each other in being either intermediate in +character (as is most frequent in hybrids) or in resembling sometimes +closely one and sometimes the other parent; in both the offspring +produced by the same act of conception sometimes differ in their +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_108' id='Page_108'>{108}</a></span> +degree of resemblance; both hybrids and mongrels sometimes retain a +certain part or organ very like that of either parent, both, as we have +seen, become in succeeding generations variable; and this tendency to +vary can be transmitted by both; in both for many generations there is a +strong tendency to reversion to their ancestral form. In the case of a +hybrid laburnum and of a supposed mongrel vine different parts of the +same plants took after each of their two parents. In the hybrids from +some species, and in the mongrel of some races, the offspring differ +according as which of the two species, or of the two races, is the +father (as in the common mule and hinny) and which the mother. Some +races will breed together, which differ so greatly in size, that the dam +often perishes in labour; so it is with some species when crossed; when +the dam of one species has borne offspring to the male of another +species, her succeeding offspring are sometimes stained (as in Lord +Morton’s mare by the quagga, wonderful as the fact<a name='FNanchor_264_264' id='FNanchor_264_264'></a><a href='#Footnote_264_264' class='fnanchor'>{264}</a> +is) by this first cross; so agriculturists positively affirm is the case +when a pig or sheep of one breed has produced offspring by the sire of +another breed.</p> + +<h3><i>Summary of second chapter</i><a name='FNanchor_265_265' id='FNanchor_265_265'></a><a href='#Footnote_265_265' class='fnanchor'>{265}</a>.</h3> + +<p>Let us sum up this second chapter. If slight variations do occur in +organic beings in a state of nature; if changes of condition from +geological causes do produce in the course of ages effects analogous to +those of domestication on any, however few, organisms; and how can we +doubt it,—from what is actually known, and from what may be +presumed, since thousands of organisms taken by man <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_109' id='Page_109'>{109}</a></span> +for sundry uses, and placed in new conditions, have varied. If such +variations tend to be hereditary; and how can we doubt it,—when we +see shades of expression, peculiar manners, monstrosities of the +strangest kinds, diseases, and a multitude of other peculiarities, which +characterise and form, being inherited, the endless races (there are +1200 kinds of cabbages<a name='FNanchor_266_266' id='FNanchor_266_266'></a><a href='#Footnote_266_266' class='fnanchor'>{266}</a>) +of our domestic plants and animals. If we admit that every organism +maintains its place by an almost periodically recurrent struggle; and +how can we doubt it,—when we know that all beings tend to increase +in a geometrical ratio (as is instantly seen when the conditions become +for a time more favourable); whereas on an average the amount of food +must remain constant, if so, there will be a natural means of selection, +tending to preserve those individuals with any slight deviations of +structure more favourable to the then existing conditions, and tending +to destroy any with deviations of an opposite nature. If the above +propositions be correct, and there be no law of nature limiting the +possible amount of variation, new races of beings will,—perhaps +only rarely, and only in some few districts,—be formed.</p> + +<h3><i>Limits of Variation.</i></h3> + +<p>That a limit to variation does exist in nature is assumed by most +authors, though I am unable to discover a single fact on which this +belief is grounded<a name='FNanchor_267_267' id='FNanchor_267_267'></a><a href='#Footnote_267_267' class='fnanchor'>{267}</a>. +One of the commonest statements is that plants do not become +acclimatised; and I have even observed that kinds not raised by seed, +but propagated by cuttings, &c., are instanced. A good instance has, +however, been advanced in the case of kidney beans, which it is believed +are now as <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_110' id='Page_110'>{110}</a></span> +tender as when first introduced. Even if we overlook the frequent +introduction of seed from warmer countries, let me observe that as long +as the seeds are gathered promiscuously from the bed, without continual +observation and <i>careful</i> selection of those plants which have stood the +climate best during their whole growth, the experiment of +acclimatisation has hardly been begun. Are not all those plants and +animals, of which we have the greatest number of races, the oldest +domesticated? Considering the quite recent progress<a +name='FNanchor_268_268' id='FNanchor_268_268'></a><a +href='#Footnote_268_268' class='fnanchor'>{268}</a> of systematic +agriculture and horticulture, is it not opposed to every fact, that we +have exhausted the capacity of variation in our cattle and in our +corn,—even if we have done so in some trivial points, as their +fatness or kind of wool? Will any one say, that if horticulture +continues to flourish during the next few centuries, that we shall not +have numerous new kinds of the potato and Dahlia? But take two varieties +of each of these plants, and adapt them to certain fixed conditions and +prevent any cross for 5000 years, and then again vary their conditions; +try many climates and situations; and who<a name='FNanchor_269_269' id='FNanchor_269_269'></a><a href='#Footnote_269_269' class='fnanchor'>{269}</a> +will predict the number and degrees of difference which might arise from +these stocks? I repeat that we know nothing of any limit to the possible +amount of variation, and therefore to the number and differences of the +races, which might be produced by the natural means of selection, so +infinitely more efficient than the agency of man. Races thus produced +would probably be very “true”; and if from having been +adapted to different conditions of existence, they possessed different +constitutions, if suddenly removed to some new station, they would +perhaps be sterile and their offspring would perhaps be infertile. +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_111' id='Page_111'>{111}</a></span> +Such races would be undistinguishable from species. But is there any +evidence that the species, which surround us on all sides, have been +thus produced? This is a question which an examination of the economy of +nature we might expect would answer either in the affirmative or +negative<a name='FNanchor_270_270' id='FNanchor_270_270'></a><a href='#Footnote_270_270' class='fnanchor'>{270}</a>.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_112' id='Page_112'>{112}</a></p> +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_III' id='CHAPTER_III'></a>CHAPTER III<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL ATTRIBUTES UNDER +DOMESTICATION AND IN STATE OF NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS +SUBJECT; AND ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL +STRUCTURES</span></h2> + +<h3><i>Variation of mental attributes under domestication.</i></h3> + +<p>I have as yet only alluded to the mental qualities which differ greatly +in different species. Let me here premise that, as will be seen in the +Second Part, there is no evidence and consequently no attempt to show +that <i>all</i> existing organisms have descended from any one common +parent-stock, but that only those have so descended which, in the +language of naturalists, are clearly related to each other. Hence the +facts and reasoning advanced in this chapter do not apply to the first +origin of the senses<a name='FNanchor_271_271' id='FNanchor_271_271'></a><a href='#Footnote_271_271' class='fnanchor'>{271}</a>, +or of the chief mental attributes, such as of memory, attention, +reasoning, &c., &c., by which most or all of the great related +groups are characterised, any more than they apply to the first origin +of life, or growth, or the power of reproduction. The application of +such facts as I have collected is merely to the differences of the +primary mental qualities and of the instincts in the species<a name='FNanchor_272_272' id='FNanchor_272_272'></a><a href='#Footnote_272_272' class='fnanchor'>{272}</a> +of the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_113' id='Page_113'>{113}</a></span> +several great groups. In domestic animals every observer has remarked +in how great a degree, in the individuals of the same species, the +dispositions, namely courage, pertinacity, suspicion, restlessness, +confidence, temper, pugnaciousness, affection, care of their young, +sagacity, &c., &c., vary. It would require a most able +metaphysician to explain how many primary qualities of the mind must be +changed to cause these diversities of complex dispositions. From these +dispositions being inherited, of which the testimony is unanimous, +families and breeds arise, varying in these respects. I may instance the +good and ill temper of different stocks of bees and of horses,—the +pugnacity and courage of game fowls,—the pertinacity of certain +dogs, as bull-dogs, and the sagacity of others,—for restlessness +and suspicion compare a wild rabbit reared with the greatest care from +its earliest age with the extreme tameness of the domestic breed of the +same animal. The offspring of the domestic dogs which have run wild in +Cuba<a name='FNanchor_273_273' id='FNanchor_273_273'></a><a href='#Footnote_273_273' class='fnanchor'>{273}</a>, +though caught quite young, are most difficult to tame, probably nearly +as much so as the original parent-stock from which the domestic dog +descended. The habitual “<i>periods</i>” of different families of +the same species differ, for instance, in the time of year of +reproduction, and the period of life when the capacity is acquired, and +the hour of roosting (in Malay fowls), &c., &c. These periodical +habits are perhaps essentially corporeal, and may be compared to nearly +similar habits in plants, which are known to vary extremely. Consensual +movements (as called by Müller) vary and are inherited,—such +as the cantering and ambling paces in horses, the tumbling of pigeons, +and perhaps the handwriting, which is sometimes so similar between +father <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_114' id='Page_114'>{114}</a></span> +and sons, may be ranked in this class. <i>Manners</i>, and even tricks which +perhaps are only <i>peculiar</i> manners, according to W. Hunter and my +father, are distinctly inherited in cases where children have lost their +parent in early infancy. The inheritance of expression, which often +reveals the finest shades of character, is familiar to everyone.</p> + +<p>Again the tastes and pleasures of different breeds vary, thus the +shepherd-dog delights in chasing the sheep, but has no wish to kill +them,—the terrier (see Knight) delights in killing vermin, and the +spaniel in finding game. But it is impossible to separate their mental +peculiarities in the way I have done: the tumbling of pigeons, which I +have instanced as a consensual movement, might be called a trick and is +associated with a taste for flying in a close flock at a great height. +Certain breeds of fowls have a taste for roosting in trees. The +different actions of pointers and setters might have been adduced in the +same class, as might the peculiar <i>manner</i> of hunting of the spaniel. +Even in the same breed of dogs, namely in fox-hounds, it is the fixed +opinion of those best able to judge that the different pups are born +with different tendencies; some are best to find their fox in the cover; +some are apt to run straggling, some are best to make casts and to +recover the lost scent, &c.; and that these peculiarities +undoubtedly are transmitted to their progeny. Or again the tendency to +point might be adduced as a distinct habit which has become +inherited,—as might the tendency of a true sheep dog (as I have +been assured is the case) to run round the flock instead of directly at +them, as is the case with other young dogs when attempted to be taught. +The "transandantes" sheep<a name='FNanchor_274_274' id='FNanchor_274_274'></a><a href='#Footnote_274_274' class='fnanchor'>{274}</a> +in Spain, which for some centuries have been yearly taken a journey of +several hundred miles from one province <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_115' id='Page_115'>{115}</a></span> +to another, know when the time comes, and show the greatest +restlessness (like migratory birds in confinement), and are prevented +with difficulty from starting by themselves, which they sometimes do, +and find their own way. There is a case on good evidence<a name='FNanchor_275_275' id='FNanchor_275_275'></a><a href='#Footnote_275_275' class='fnanchor'>{275}</a> +of a sheep which, when she lambed, would return across a mountainous +country to her own birth-place, although at other times of year not of a +rambling disposition. Her lambs inherited this same disposition, and +would go to produce their young on the farm whence their parent came; +and so troublesome was this habit that the whole family was destroyed.</p> + +<p>These facts must lead to the conviction, justly wonderful as it is, that +almost infinitely numerous shades of disposition, of tastes, of peculiar +movements, and even of individual actions, can be modified or acquired +by one individual and transmitted to its offspring. One is forced to +admit that mental phenomena (no doubt through their intimate connection +with the brain) can be inherited, like infinitely numerous and fine +differences of corporeal structure. In the same manner as peculiarities +of corporeal structure slowly acquired or lost during mature life +(especially cognisant «<ins>?</ins>» in disease), as well as congenital +peculiarities, are transmitted; so it appears to be with the mind. The +inherited paces in the horse have no doubt been acquired by compulsion +during the lives of the parents: and temper and tameness may be modified +in a breed by the treatment which the individuals receive. Knowing that +a pig has been taught to point, one would suppose that this quality in +pointer-dogs was the simple result of habit, but some facts, with +respect to the occasional appearance of a similar quality in other dogs, +would make one suspect that it originally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_116' id='Page_116'>{116}</a></span> +appeared in a less perfect degree, “<i>by chance</i>,” that is +from a congenital tendency<a name='FNanchor_276_276' id='FNanchor_276_276'></a><a href='#Footnote_276_276' class='fnanchor'>{276}</a> +in the parent of the breed of pointers. One cannot believe that the +tumbling, and high flight in a compact body, of one breed of pigeons has +been taught; and in the case of the slight differences in the manner of +hunting in young fox-hounds, they are doubtless congenital. The +inheritance of the foregoing and similar mental phenomena ought perhaps +to create less surprise, from the reflection that in no case do +individual acts of reasoning, or movements, or other phenomena connected +with consciousness, appear to be transmitted. An action, even a very +complicated one, when from long practice it is performed unconsciously +without any effort (and indeed in the case of many peculiarities of +manners opposed to the will) is said, according to a common expression, +to be performed “instinctively.” Those cases of languages, +and of songs, learnt in early childhood and <i>quite</i> forgotten, being +<i>perfectly</i> repeated during the unconsciousness of illness, appear to me +only a few degrees less wonderful than if they had been transmitted to a +second generation<a name='FNanchor_277_277' id='FNanchor_277_277'></a><a href='#Footnote_277_277' class='fnanchor'>{277}</a>.</p> + +<h3><i>Hereditary habits compared with instincts.</i></h3> + +<p>The chief characteristics of true instincts appear to be their +invariability and non-improvement during the mature age of the +individual animal: the absence of knowledge of the end, for which the +action is performed, being associated, however, sometimes with a degree +of reason; being subject to mistakes and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_117' id='Page_117'>{117}</a></span> +being associated with certain states of the body or times of the year +or day. In most of these respects there is a resemblance in the above +detailed cases of the mental qualities acquired or modified during +domestication. No doubt the instincts of wild animals are more uniform +than those habits or qualities modified or recently acquired under +domestication, in the same manner and from the same causes that the +corporeal structure in this state is less uniform than in beings in +their natural conditions. I have seen a young pointer point as fixedly, +the first day it was taken out, as any old dog; Magendie says this was +the case with a retriever which he himself reared: the tumbling of +pigeons is not probably improved by age: we have seen that in the case +above given that the young sheep inherited the migratory tendency to +their particular birth-place the first time they lambed. This last fact +offers an instance of a domestic instinct being associated with a state +of body; as do the “transandantes” sheep with a time of +year. Ordinarily the acquired instincts of domestic animals seem to +require a certain degree of education (as generally in pointers and +retrievers) to be perfectly developed: perhaps this holds good amongst +wild animals in rather a greater degree than is generally supposed; for +instance, in the singing of birds, and in the knowledge of proper herbs +in Ruminants. It seems pretty clear that bees transmit knowledge from +generation to generation. Lord Brougham<a name='FNanchor_278_278' id='FNanchor_278_278'></a><a href='#Footnote_278_278' class='fnanchor'>{278}</a> +insists strongly on ignorance of the end proposed being eminently +characteristic of true instincts; and this appears to me to apply to +many acquired hereditary habits; for instance, in the case of the young +pointer alluded to before, which pointed so steadfastly the first day +that we were obliged several times to carry <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_118' id='Page_118'>{118}</a></span> +him away<a name='FNanchor_279_279' id='FNanchor_279_279'></a><a href='#Footnote_279_279' class='fnanchor'>{279}</a>. +This puppy not only pointed at sheep, at large white stones, and at +every little bird, but likewise “backed” the other pointers: +this young dog must have been as unconscious for what end he was +pointing, namely to facilitate his master’s killing game to eat, +as is a butterfly which lays her eggs on a cabbage, that her +caterpillars would eat the leaves. So a horse that ambles instinctively, +manifestly is ignorant that he performs that peculiar pace for the ease +of man; and if man had never existed, he would never have ambled. The +young pointer pointing at white stones appears to be as much a mistake +of its acquired instinct, as in the case of flesh-flies laying their +eggs on certain flowers instead of putrifying meat. However true the +ignorance of the end may generally be, one sees that instincts are +associated with some degree of reason; for instance, in the case of the +tailor-bird, who spins threads with which to make her nest +«<ins>yet</ins>» will use artificial threads when she can procure +them<a name='FNanchor_280_280' id='FNanchor_280_280'></a><a href='#Footnote_280_280' class='fnanchor'>{280}</a>; +so it has been known that an old pointer has broken his point and gone +round a hedge to drive out a bird towards his master<a name='FNanchor_281_281' id='FNanchor_281_281'></a><a href='#Footnote_281_281' class='fnanchor'>{281}</a>.</p> + +<p>There is one other quite distinct method by which the instincts or +habits acquired under domestication may be compared with those given by +nature, by a test of a fundamental kind; I mean the comparison of the +mental powers of mongrels and hybrids. Now the instincts, or habits, +tastes, and dispositions of one <i>breed</i> of animals, when crossed with +another breed, for instance a shepherd-dog <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_119' id='Page_119'>{119}</a></span> +with a harrier, are blended and appear in the same curiously mixed +degree, both in the first and succeeding generations, exactly as happens +when one <i>species</i> is crossed with another<a name='FNanchor_282_282' id='FNanchor_282_282'></a><a href='#Footnote_282_282' class='fnanchor'>{282}</a>. +This would hardly be the case if there was any fundamental difference +between the domestic and natural instinct<a name='FNanchor_283_283' id='FNanchor_283_283'></a><a href='#Footnote_283_283' class='fnanchor'>{283}</a>; +if the former were, to use a metaphorical expression, merely +superficial.</p> + +<h3><i>Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals.</i></h3> + +<p>With respect to the variation<a name='FNanchor_284_284' id='FNanchor_284_284'></a><a href='#Footnote_284_284' class='fnanchor'>{284}</a> +of the mental powers of animals in a wild state, we know that there is a +considerable difference in the disposition of different individuals of +the same species, as is recognised by all those who have had the charge +of animals in a menagerie. With respect to the wildness of animals, that +is fear directed particularly against man, which appears to be as true +an instinct as the dread of a young mouse of a cat, we have excellent +evidence that it is slowly acquired and becomes hereditary. It is also +certain that, in a natural state, individuals of the same species lose +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_120' id='Page_120'>{120}</a></span> +or do not practice their migratory instincts—as woodcocks in +Madeira. With respect to any variation in the more complicated +instincts, it is obviously most difficult to detect, even more so than +in the case of corporeal structure, of which it has been admitted the +variation is exceedingly small, and perhaps scarcely any in the majority +of species at any one period. Yet, to take one excellent case of +instinct, namely the nests of birds, those who have paid most attention +to the subject maintain that not only certain individuals «<ins>? +species</ins>» seem to be able to build very imperfectly, but that a +difference in skill may not unfrequently be detected between +individuals<a name='FNanchor_285_285' id='FNanchor_285_285'></a><a href='#Footnote_285_285' class='fnanchor'>{285}</a>. +Certain birds, moreover, adapt their nests to circumstances; the +water-ouzel makes no vault when she builds under cover of a +rock—the sparrow builds very differently when its nest is in a +tree or in a hole, and the golden-crested wren sometimes suspends its +nest below and sometimes places it <i>on</i> the branches of trees.</p> + +<h3><i>Principles of Selection applicable to instincts.</i></h3> + +<p>As the instincts of a species are fully as important to its preservation +and multiplication as its corporeal structure, it is evident that if +there be the slightest congenital differences in the instincts and +habits, or if certain individuals during their lives are induced or +compelled to vary their habits, and if such differences are in the +smallest degree more favourable, under slightly modified external +conditions, to their preservation, such individuals must in the long run +have a better <i>chance</i> of being preserved and of multiplying<a +name='FNanchor_286_286' id='FNanchor_286_286'></a><a href='#Footnote_286_286' class='fnanchor'>{286}</a>. +If this be admitted, a series of small changes may, as in the case of +corporeal structure, work great changes in the mental powers, habits and +instincts of any species.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_121' id='Page_121'>{121}</a></p> + +<h3><i>Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection.</i></h3> + +<p>Every one will at first be inclined to explain (as I did for a long +time) that many of the more complicated and wonderful instincts could +not be acquired in the manner here supposed<a name='FNanchor_287_287' id='FNanchor_287_287'></a><a href='#Footnote_287_287' class='fnanchor'>{287}</a>. The Second Part of +this work is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general +economy of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species +and genera are descended from common stocks; but we may here consider +whether the instincts of animals offer such a <i>primâ facie</i> case of +impossibility of gradual acquirement, as to justify the rejection of any +such theory, however strongly it may be supported by other facts. I beg +to repeat that I wish here to consider not the <i>probability</i> but the +<i>possibility</i> of complicated instincts having been acquired by the slow +and long-continued selection of very slight (either congenital or +produced by habit) modifications of foregoing simpler instincts; each +modification being as useful and necessary, to the species practising +it, as the most complicated kind.</p> + +<p>First, to take the case of birds’-nests; of existing species +(almost infinitely few in comparison with the multitude which must have +existed, since the period of the new Red Sandstone of N. America, of +whose habits we must always remain ignorant) a tolerably perfect series +could be made from eggs <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_122' id='Page_122'>{122}</a></span> +laid on the bare ground, to others with a few sticks just laid round +them, to a simple nest like the wood-pigeons, to others more and more +complicated: now if, as is asserted, there occasionally exist slight +differences in the building powers of an individual, and if, which is at +least probable, that such differences would tend to be inherited, then +we can see that it is at least <i>possible</i> that the nidificatory +instincts may have been acquired by the gradual selection, during +thousands and thousands of generations, of the eggs and young of those +individuals, whose nests were in some degree better adapted to the +preservation of their young, under the then existing conditions. One of +the most surprising instincts on record is that of the Australian +bush-turkey, whose eggs are hatched by the heat generated from a huge +pile of fermenting materials, which it heaps together; but here the +habits of an allied species show how this instinct <i>might possibly</i> have +been acquired. This second species inhabits a tropical district, where +the heat of the sun is sufficient to hatch its eggs; this bird, burying +its eggs, apparently for concealment, under a lesser heap of rubbish, +but of a dry nature, so as not to ferment. Now suppose this bird to +range slowly into a climate which was cooler, and where leaves were more +abundant, in that case, those individuals, which chanced to have their +collecting instinct strongest developed, would make a somewhat larger +pile, and the eggs, aided during some colder season, under the slightly +cooler climate by the heat of incipient fermentation, would in the long +run be more freely hatched and would probably produce young ones with +the same more highly developed collecting tendencies; of these again, +those with the best developed powers would again tend to rear most +young. Thus this strange instinct might <i>possibly</i> be acquired, every +individual bird being <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_123' id='Page_123'>{123}</a></span> +as ignorant of the laws of fermentation, and the consequent development +of heat, as we know they must be.</p> + +<p>Secondly, to take the case of animals feigning death (as it is commonly +expressed) to escape danger. In the case of insects, a perfect series +can be shown, from some insects, which momentarily stand still, to +others which for a second slightly contract their legs, to others which +will remain immovably drawn together for a quarter of an hour, and may +be torn asunder or roasted at a slow fire, without evincing the smallest +sign of sensation. No one will doubt that the length of time, during +which each remains immovable, is well adapted to «<ins>favour the +insect’s</ins>» escape «<ins>from</ins>» the dangers to which it +is most exposed, and few will deny the <i>possibility</i> of the change from +one degree to another, by the means and at the rate already explained. +Thinking it, however, wonderful (though not impossible) that the +attitude of death should have been acquired by methods which imply no +imitation, I compared several species, when feigning, as is said, death, +with others of the same species really dead, and their attitudes were in +no one case the same.</p> + +<p>Thirdly, in considering many instincts it is useful to <i>endeavour</i> to +separate the faculty<a name='FNanchor_288_288' id='FNanchor_288_288'></a><a href='#Footnote_288_288' class='fnanchor'>{288}</a> +by which they perform it, and the mental power which urges to the +performance, which is more properly called an instinct. We have an +instinct to eat, we have jaws &c. to give us the faculty to do so. +These faculties are often unknown to us: bats, with their eyes +destroyed, can avoid strings suspended across a room, we know not at +present by what faculty they do this. Thus also, with migratory birds, +it is a <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_124' id='Page_124'>{124}</a></span> +wonderful instinct which urges them at certain times of the year to +direct their course in certain directions, but it is a faculty by which +they know the time and find their way. With respect to time<a name='FNanchor_289_289' id='FNanchor_289_289'></a><a href='#Footnote_289_289' class='fnanchor'>{289}</a>, +man without seeing the sun can judge to a certain extent of the hour, as +must those cattle which come down from the inland mountains to feed on +sea-weed left bare at the changing hour of low-water<a name='FNanchor_290_290' id='FNanchor_290_290'></a><a href='#Footnote_290_290' class='fnanchor'>{290}</a>. +A hawk (D’Orbigny) seems certainly to have acquired a knowledge of +a period of every 21 days. In the cases already given of the sheep which +travelled to their birth-place to cast their lambs, and the sheep in +Spain which know their time of march<a name='FNanchor_291_291' id='FNanchor_291_291'></a><a href='#Footnote_291_291' class='fnanchor'>{291}</a>, +we may conjecture that the tendency to move is associated, we may then +call it instinctively, with some corporeal sensations. With respect to +direction we can easily conceive how a tendency to travel in a certain +course may possibly have been acquired, although we must remain ignorant +how birds are able to preserve any direction whatever in a dark night +over the wide ocean. I may observe that the power of some savage races +of mankind to find their way, although perhaps wholly different from the +faculty of birds, is nearly as unintelligible to us. Bellinghausen, a +skilful navigator, describes with the utmost wonder the manner in which +some Esquimaux guided him to a certain point, by a course never +straight, through newly formed hummocks of ice, on a thick foggy day, +when he with a compass found it impossible, from having no landmarks, +and from their course being so extremely crooked, to preserve any sort +of uniform <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_125' id='Page_125'>{125}</a></span> +direction: so it is with Australian savages in thick forests. In North +and South America many birds slowly travel northward and southward, +urged on by the food they find, as the seasons change; let them continue +to do this, till, as in the case of the sheep in Spain, it has become an +urgent instinctive desire, and they will gradually accelerate their +journey. They would cross narrow rivers, and if these were converted by +subsidence into narrow estuaries, and gradually during centuries to arms +of the sea, still we may suppose their restless desire of travelling +onwards would impel them to cross such an arm, even if it had become of +great width beyond their span of vision. How they are able to preserve a +course in any direction, I have said, is a faculty unknown to us. To +give another illustration of the means by which I conceive it <i>possible</i> +that the direction of migrations have been determined. Elk and reindeer +in N. America annually cross, as if they could marvellously smell or see +at the distance of a hundred miles, a wide tract of absolute desert, to +arrive at certain islands where there is a scanty supply of food; the +changes of temperature, which geology proclaims, render it probable that +this desert tract formerly supported some vegetation, and thus these +quadrupeds might have been annually led on, till they reached the more +fertile spots, and so acquired, like the sheep of Spain, their migratory +powers.</p> + +<p>Fourthly, with respect to the combs of the hive-bee<a name='FNanchor_292_292' id='FNanchor_292_292'></a><a href='#Footnote_292_292' class='fnanchor'>{292}</a>; +here again we must look to some faculty or means by which they make +their hexagonal cells, without indeed we view these instincts as mere +machines. At present such a faculty is quite unknown: Mr Waterhouse +supposes that several bees are led by their instinct to excavate a mass +of wax to a certain thinness, and that the result of this<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_126' id='Page_126'>{126}</a></span> +is that hexagons necessarily remain. Whether this or some other theory +be true, some such means they must possess. They abound, however, with +true instincts, which are the most wonderful that are known. If we +examine the little that is known concerning the habits of other species +of bees, we find much simpler instincts: the humble bee merely fills +rude balls of wax with honey and aggregates them together with little +order in a rough nest of grass. If we knew the instinct of all the bees, +which ever had existed, it is not improbable that we should have +instincts of every degree of complexity, from actions as simple as a +bird making a nest, and rearing her young, to the wonderful architecture +and government of the hive-bee; at least such is <i>possible</i>, which is +all that I am here considering.</p> + +<p>Finally, I will briefly consider under the same point of view one other +class of instincts, which have often been advanced as truly wonderful, +namely parents bringing food to their young which they themselves +neither like nor partake of<a name='FNanchor_293_293' id='FNanchor_293_293'></a><a href='#Footnote_293_293' class='fnanchor'>{293}</a>;—for +instance, the common sparrow, a granivorous bird, feeding its young with +caterpillars. We might of course look into the case still earlier, and +seek how an instinct in the parent, of feeding its young at all, was +first derived; but it is useless to waste time in conjectures on a +series of gradations from the young feeding themselves and being +slightly and occasionally assisted in their search, to their entire food +being brought to them. With respect to the parent bringing a different +kind of food from its own kind, we may suppose either that the remote +stock, whence the sparrow and other congenerous birds have descended, +was insectivorous, and that its own habits and structure have been +changed, whilst its ancient instincts with respect to its young have +remained <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_127' id='Page_127'>{127}</a></span> +unchanged; or we may suppose that the parents have been induced to vary +slightly the food of their young, by a slight scarcity of the proper +kind (or by the instincts of some individuals not being so truly +developed), and in this case those young which were most capable of +surviving were necessarily most often preserved, and would themselves in +time become parents, and would be similarly compelled to alter their +food for their young. In the case of those animals, the young of which +feed themselves, changes in their instincts for food, and in their +structure, might be selected from slight variations, just as in mature +animals. Again, where the food of the young depends on where the mother +places her eggs, as in the case of the caterpillars of the +cabbage-butterfly, we may suppose that the parent stock of the species +deposited her eggs sometimes on one kind and sometimes on another of +congenerous plants (as some species now do), and if the cabbage suited +the caterpillars better than any other plant, the caterpillars of those +butterflies, which had chosen the cabbage, would be most plentifully +reared, and would produce butterflies more apt to lay their eggs on the +cabbage than on the other congenerous plants.</p> + +<p>However vague and unphilosophical these conjectures may appear, they +serve, I think, to show that one’s first impulse utterly to reject +any theory whatever, implying a gradual acquirement of these instincts, +which for ages have excited man’s admiration, may at least be +delayed. Once grant that dispositions, tastes, actions or habits can be +slightly modified, either by slight congenital differences (we must +suppose in the brain) or by the force of external circumstances, and +that such slight modifications can be rendered inheritable,—a +proposition which no one can reject,—and it will be difficult to +put any limit to the complexity and wonder of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_128' id='Page_128'>{128}</a></span> +the tastes and habits which may <i>possibly</i> be thus acquired.</p> + +<h3><i>Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal +structures.</i></h3> + +<p>After the past discussion it will perhaps be convenient here to consider +whether any particular corporeal organs, or the entire structure of any +animals, are so wonderful as to justify the rejection <i>primâ +facie</i> of our theory<a name='FNanchor_294_294' id='FNanchor_294_294'></a><a href='#Footnote_294_294' class='fnanchor'>{294}</a>. +In the case of the eye, as with the more complicated instincts, no doubt +one’s first impulse is to utterly reject every such theory. But if +the eye from its most complicated form can be shown to graduate into an +exceedingly simple state,—if selection can produce the smallest +change, and if such a series exists, then it is clear (for in this work +we have nothing to do with the first origin of organs in their simplest +forms<a name='FNanchor_295_295' id='FNanchor_295_295'></a><a href='#Footnote_295_295' class='fnanchor'>{295}</a>) +that it may <i>possibly</i> have been acquired by gradual selection of +slight, but in each case, useful deviations<a name='FNanchor_296_296' id='FNanchor_296_296'></a><a href='#Footnote_296_296' class='fnanchor'>{296}</a>. +Every naturalist, when he meets with any new and singular organ, always +expects to find, and looks for, other and simpler modifications of it in +other beings. In the case of the eye, we have a multitude of different +forms, more or less simple, not graduating <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_129' id='Page_129'>{129}</a></span> +into each other, but separated by sudden gaps or intervals; but we must +recollect how incomparably greater would the multitude of visual +structures be if we had the eyes of every fossil which ever existed. We +shall discuss the probable vast proportion of the extinct to the recent +in the succeeding Part. Notwithstanding the large series of existing +forms, it is most difficult even to conjecture by what intermediate +stages very many simple organs could possibly have graduated into +complex ones: but it should be here borne in mind, that a part having +originally a wholly different function, may on the theory of gradual +selection be slowly worked into quite another use; the gradations of +forms, from which naturalists believe in the hypothetical metamorphosis +of part of the ear into the swimming bladder in fishes<a name='FNanchor_297_297' id='FNanchor_297_297'></a><a href='#Footnote_297_297' class='fnanchor'>{297}</a>, +and in insects of legs into jaws, show the manner in which this is +possible. As under domestication, modifications of structure take place, +without any continued selection, which man finds very useful, or +valuable for curiosity (as the hooked calyx of the teazle, or the ruff +round some pigeons’ necks), so in a state of nature some small +modifications, apparently beautifully adapted to certain ends, may +perhaps be produced from the accidents of the reproductive system, and +be at once propagated without long-continued selection of small +deviations towards that structure<a name='FNanchor_298_298' id='FNanchor_298_298'></a><a href='#Footnote_298_298' class='fnanchor'>{298}</a>. +In conjecturing by what stages any complicated organ in a species may +have arrived at its present state, although we may look to the analogous +organs in other existing species, we should do this merely to aid and +guide our imaginations; for to know the real stages we <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_130' id='Page_130'>{130}</a></span> +must look only through one line of species, to one ancient stock, from +which the species in question has descended. In considering the eye of a +quadruped, for instance, though we may look at the eye of a molluscous +animal or of an insect, as a proof how simple an organ will serve some +of the ends of vision; and at the eye of a fish as a nearer guide of the +manner of <ins class='corr' title="Transcriber’s Note: The +original showed ‘simplication’.">simplification</ins>; we must +remember that it is a mere chance (assuming for a moment the truth of +our theory) if any existing organic being has preserved any one organ, +in exactly the same condition, as it existed in the ancient species at +remote geological periods.</p> + +<p>The nature or condition of certain structures has been thought by some +naturalists to be of no use to the possessor<a name='FNanchor_299_299' id='FNanchor_299_299'></a><a href='#Footnote_299_299' class='fnanchor'>{299}</a>, +but to have been formed wholly for the good of other species; thus +certain fruit and seeds have been thought to have been made nutritious +for certain animals—numbers of insects, especially in their larval +state, to exist for the same end—certain fish to be bright +coloured to aid certain birds of prey in catching them, &c. Now +could this be proved (which I am far from admitting) the theory of +natural selection would be quite overthrown; for it is evident that +selection depending on the advantage over others of one individual with +some slight deviation would never produce a structure or quality +profitable only to another species. No doubt one being takes advantage +of qualities in another, and may even cause its extermination; but this +is far from proving that this quality was produced for such an end. It +may be advantageous to a plant to have its seeds attractive to animals, +if one out of a hundred or a thousand escapes being <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_131' id='Page_131'>{131}</a></span> +digested, and thus aids dissemination: the bright colours of a fish may +be of some advantage to it, or more probably may result from exposure to +certain conditions in favourable haunts for food, <i>notwithstanding</i> it +becomes subject to be caught more easily by certain birds.</p> + +<p>If instead of looking, as above, at certain individual organs, in order +to speculate on the stages by which their parts have been matured and +selected, we consider an individual animal, we meet with the same or +greater difficulty, but which, I believe, as in the case of single +organs, rests entirely on our ignorance. It may be asked by what +intermediate forms could, for instance, a bat possibly have passed; but +the same question might have been asked with respect to the seal, if we +had not been familiar with the otter and other semi-aquatic carnivorous +quadrupeds. But in the case of the bat, who can say what might have been +the habits of some parent form with less developed wings, when we now +have insectivorous opossums and herbivorous squirrels fitted for merely +gliding through the air<a name='FNanchor_300_300' id='FNanchor_300_300'></a><a href='#Footnote_300_300' class='fnanchor'>{300}</a>. +One species of bat is at present partly aquatic in its habits<a name='FNanchor_301_301' id='FNanchor_301_301'></a><a href='#Footnote_301_301' class='fnanchor'>{301}</a>. +Woodpeckers and tree-frogs are especially adapted, as their names +express, for climbing trees; yet we have species of both inhabiting the +open plains of La Plata, where a tree does not exist<a name='FNanchor_302_302' id='FNanchor_302_302'></a><a href='#Footnote_302_302' class='fnanchor'>{302}</a>. +I might argue from this circumstance that a structure eminently fitted +for climbing trees might descend from forms inhabiting a country where a +tree <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_132' id='Page_132'>{132}</a></span> +did not exist. Notwithstanding these and a multitude of other +well-known facts, it has been maintained by several authors that one +species, for instance of the carnivorous order, could not pass into +another, for instance into an otter, because in its transitional state +its habits would not be adapted to any proper conditions of life; but +the jaguar<a name='FNanchor_303_303' id='FNanchor_303_303'></a><a href='#Footnote_303_303' class='fnanchor'>{303}</a> +is a thoroughly terrestrial quadruped in its structure, yet it takes +freely to the water and catches many fish; will it be said that it is +<i>impossible</i> that the conditions of its country might become such that +the jaguar should be driven to feed more on fish than they now do; and +in that case is it impossible, is it not probable, that any the +slightest deviation in its instincts, its form of body, in the width of +its feet, and in the extension of the skin (which already unites the +base of its toes) would give such individuals a better <i>chance</i> of +surviving and propagating young with similar, barely perceptible (though +thoroughly exercised), deviations<a name='FNanchor_304_304' id='FNanchor_304_304'></a><a href='#Footnote_304_304' class='fnanchor'>{304}</a>? +Who will say what could thus be effected in the course of ten thousand +generations? Who can answer the same question with respect to instincts? +If no one can, the <i>possibility</i> (for we are not in this chapter +considering the <i>probability</i>) of simple organs or organic beings being +modified by natural selection and the effects of external agencies into +complicated ones ought not to be absolutely rejected.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_133' id='Page_133'>{133}</a></p> +<h2><a name='PART_II305' id='PART_II305'></a>PART II<a name='FNanchor_305_305' id='FNanchor_305_305'></a><a href='#Footnote_305_305' class='fnanchor'>{305}</a><br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW THAT SPECIES ARE +NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED FROM COMMON STOCKS</span></h2> + +<h2 class='mt2'><a name='CHAPTER_IV' id='CHAPTER_IV'></a>CHAPTER IV<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE THEORY OF COMMON +DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE IN A FOSSIL STATE</span></h2> + +<p>I must here premise that, according to the view ordinarily received, the +myriads of organisms, which have during past and present times peopled +this world, have been created by so many distinct acts of creation. It +is impossible to reason concerning the will of the Creator, and +therefore, according to this view, we can see no cause why or why not +the individual organism should have been created on any fixed scheme. +That all the organisms of this world have been produced on a scheme is +certain from their general affinities; and if this scheme can be shown +to be the same with that which would result from allied organic beings +descending from common stocks, it becomes highly improbable that they +have been separately created by individual acts of the will of a +Creator. For as well might it be said that, although the planets move in +courses conformably to the law of gravity, yet we ought to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_134' id='Page_134'>{134}</a></span> +attribute the course of each planet to the individual act of the will +of the Creator<a name='FNanchor_306_306' id='FNanchor_306_306'></a><a href='#Footnote_306_306' class='fnanchor'>{306}</a>. +It is in every case more conformable with what we know of the government +of this earth, that the Creator should have imposed only general laws. +As long as no method was known by which races could become exquisitely +adapted to various ends, whilst the existence of species was thought to +be proved by the sterility<a name='FNanchor_307_307' id='FNanchor_307_307'></a><a href='#Footnote_307_307' class='fnanchor'>{307}</a> +of their offspring, it was allowable to attribute each organism to an +individual act of creation. But in the two former chapters it has (I +think) been shown that the production, under existing conditions, of +exquisitely adapted species, is at least <i>possible</i>. Is there then any +direct evidence in favour «<ins>of</ins>» or against this view? I +believe that the geographical distribution of organic beings in past and +present times, the kind of affinity linking them together, their +so-called “metamorphic” and “abortive” organs, +appear in favour of this view. On the other hand, the imperfect evidence +of the continuousness of the organic series, which, we shall immediately +see, is required on our theory, is against it; and is the most weighty +objection<a name='FNanchor_308_308' id='FNanchor_308_308'></a><a href='#Footnote_308_308' class='fnanchor'>{308}</a>. +The evidence, however, even on this point, as far as it goes, is +favourable; and considering the imperfection of our knowledge, +especially with respect to past ages, it would be surprising if evidence +drawn from such sources were not also imperfect.</p> + +<p>As I suppose that species have been formed in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_135' id='Page_135'>{135}</a></span> +an analogous manner with the varieties of the domesticated animals and +plants, so must there have existed intermediate forms between all the +species of the same group, not differing more than recognised varieties +differ. It must not be supposed necessary that there should have existed +forms exactly intermediate in character between any two species of a +genus, or even between any two varieties of a species; but it is +necessary that there should have existed every intermediate form between +the one species or variety of the common parent, and likewise between +the second species or variety, and this same common parent. Thus it does +not necessarily follow that there ever has existed «<ins>a</ins>» +series of intermediate sub-varieties (differing no more than the +occasional seedlings from the same seed-capsule,) between broccoli and +common red cabbage; but it is certain that there has existed, between +broccoli and the wild parent cabbage, a series of such intermediate +seedlings, and again between red cabbage and the wild parent cabbage: so +that the broccoli and red cabbage are linked together, but not +<i>necessarily</i> by directly intermediate forms<a name='FNanchor_309_309' id='FNanchor_309_309'></a><a href='#Footnote_309_309' class='fnanchor'>{309}</a>. +It is of course possible that there <i>may</i> have been directly +intermediate forms, for the broccoli may have long since descended from +a common red cabbage, and this from the wild cabbage. So on my theory, +it must have been with species of the same genus. Still more must the +supposition be avoided that there has necessarily ever existed (though +one <i>may</i> have descended from «<ins>the</ins>» other) directly +intermediate forms between any two genera or families—for instance +between the genus <i>Sus</i> and the Tapir<a name='FNanchor_310_310' id='FNanchor_310_310'></a><a href='#Footnote_310_310' class='fnanchor'>{310}</a>; +although it is necessary that intermediate forms (not differing more +than the varieties <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_136' id='Page_136'>{136}</a></span> +of our domestic animals) should have existed between Sus and some +unknown parent form, and Tapir with this same parent form. The latter +may have differed more from Sus and Tapir than these two genera now +differ from each other. In this sense, according to our theory, there +has been a gradual passage (the steps not being wider apart than our +domestic varieties) between the species of the same genus, between +genera of the same family, and between families of the same order, and +so on, as far as facts, hereafter to be given, lead us; and the number +of forms which must have at former periods existed, thus to make good +this passage between different species, genera, and families, must have +been almost infinitely great.</p> + +<p>What evidence<a name='FNanchor_311_311' id='FNanchor_311_311'></a><a href='#Footnote_311_311' class='fnanchor'>{311}</a> +is there of a number of intermediate forms having existed, making a +passage in the above sense, between the species of the same groups? Some +naturalists have supposed that if every fossil which now lies entombed, +together with all existing species, were collected together, a perfect +series in every great class would be formed. Considering the enormous +number of species requisite to effect this, especially in the above +sense of the forms not being <i>directly</i> intermediate between the +existing species and genera, but only intermediate by being linked +through a common but often widely different ancestor, I think this +supposition highly improbable. I am however far from underrating the +probable number of fossilised species: no one who has attended to the +wonderful progress of palæontology during the last few years will +doubt that we as yet have found only an exceedingly small fraction of +the species buried in the crust of the earth. Although the almost +infinitely numerous intermediate forms in no one <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_137' id='Page_137'>{137}</a></span> +class may have been preserved, it does not follow that they have not +existed. The fossils which have been discovered, it is important to +remark, do tend, the little way they go, to make good the series; for as +observed by Buckland they all fall into or between existing groups<a name='FNanchor_312_312' id='FNanchor_312_312'></a><a href='#Footnote_312_312' class='fnanchor'>{312}</a>. +Moreover, those that fall between our existing groups, fall in, +according to the manner required by our theory, for they do not directly +connect two existing species of different groups, but they connect the +groups themselves: thus the Pachydermata and Ruminantia are now +separated by several characters, «<ins>for instance</ins>» the +Pachydermata<a name='FNanchor_313_313' id='FNanchor_313_313'></a><a href='#Footnote_313_313' class='fnanchor'>{313}</a> +have both a tibia and fibula, whilst Ruminantia have only a tibia; now +the fossil Macrauchenia has a leg bone exactly intermediate in this +respect, and likewise has some other intermediate characters. But the +Macrauchenia does not connect any one species of Pachydermata with some +one other of Ruminantia but it shows that these two groups have at one +time been less widely divided. So have fish and reptiles been at one +time more closely connected in some points than they now are. Generally +in those groups in which there has been most change, the more ancient +the fossil, if not identical with recent, the more often it falls +between existing groups, or into small existing groups which now lie +between other large existing groups. Cases like the foregoing, of which +there are many, form steps, though few and far between, in a series of +the kind required by my theory.</p> + +<p>As I have admitted the high improbability, that if every fossil were +disinterred, they would compose in each of the Divisions of Nature a +perfect <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_138' id='Page_138'>{138}</a></span> +series of the kind required; consequently I freely admit, that if those +geologists are in the right who consider the lowest known formation as +contemporaneous with the first appearances of life<a name='FNanchor_314_314' id='FNanchor_314_314'></a><a href='#Footnote_314_314' class='fnanchor'>{314}</a>; +or the several formations as at all closely consecutive; or any one +formation as containing a nearly perfect record of the organisms which +existed during the whole period of its deposition in that quarter of the +globe;—if such propositions are to be accepted, my theory must be +abandoned.</p> + +<p>If the Palæozoic system is really contemporaneous with the first +appearance of life, my theory must be abandoned, both inasmuch as it +limits <i>from shortness of time</i> the total number of forms which can have +existed on this world, and because the organisms, as fish, mollusca<a name='FNanchor_315_315' id='FNanchor_315_315'></a><a href='#Footnote_315_315' class='fnanchor'>{315}</a> +and star-fish found in its lower beds, cannot be considered as the +parent forms of all the successive species in these classes. But no one +has yet overturned the arguments of Hutton and Lyell, that the lowest +formations known to us are only those which have escaped being +metamorphosed «<ins>illegible</ins>»; if we argued from some +considerable districts, we might have supposed that even the Cretaceous +system was that in which life first appeared. From the number of distant +points, however, in which the Silurian system has been found to be the +lowest, and not always metamorphosed, there are some objections to +Hutton’s and Lyell’s view; but we must not forget that the +now existing land forms only 1/5 part of the superficies of the globe, +and that this fraction is only imperfectly known. With respect to the +fewness of the organisms found in the Silurian and other Palæozoic +formations, there is less difficulty, inasmuch as<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_139' id='Page_139'>{139}</a></span> +(besides their gradual obliteration) we can expect formations of this +vast antiquity to escape entire denudation, only when they have been +accumulated over a wide area, and have been subsequently protected by +vast superimposed deposits: now this could generally only hold good with +deposits accumulating in a wide and deep ocean, and therefore +unfavourable to the presence of many living things. A mere narrow and +not very thick strip of matter, deposited along a coast where organisms +most abound, would have no chance of escaping denudation and being +preserved to the present time from such immensely distant ages<a name='FNanchor_316_316' id='FNanchor_316_316'></a><a href='#Footnote_316_316' class='fnanchor'>{316}</a>.</p> + +<p>If the several known formations are at all nearly consecutive in time, +and preserve a fair record of the organisms which have existed, my +theory must be abandoned. But when we consider the great changes in +mineralogical nature and texture between successive formations, what +vast and entire changes in the geography of the surrounding countries +must generally have been effected, thus wholly to have changed the +nature of the deposits on the same area. What time such changes must +have required! Moreover how often has it not been found, that between +two conformable and apparently immediately successive deposits a vast +pile of water-worn matter is interpolated in an adjoining district. We +have no means of conjecturing in many cases how long a period<a name='FNanchor_317_317' id='FNanchor_317_317'></a><a href='#Footnote_317_317' class='fnanchor'>{317}</a> +has elapsed between successive formations, for the species are often +wholly different: as remarked by Lyell, in some cases probably as long a +period has elapsed between two formations as the whole Tertiary system, +itself broken by wide gaps.</p> + +<p>Consult the writings of any one who has particularly attended to any one +stage in the Tertiary <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_140' id='Page_140'>{140}</a></span> +system (and indeed of every system) and see how deeply impressed he is +with the time required for its accumulation<a name='FNanchor_318_318' id='FNanchor_318_318'></a><a href='#Footnote_318_318' class='fnanchor'>{318}</a>. +Reflect on the years elapsed in many cases, since the latest beds +containing only living species have been formed;—see what Jordan +Smith says of the 20,000 years since the last bed, which is above the +boulder formation in Scotland, has been upraised; or of the far longer +period since the recent beds of Sweden have been upraised 400 feet, what +an enormous period the boulder formation must have required, and yet how +insignificant are the records (although there has been plenty of +elevation to bring up submarine deposits) of the shells, which we know +existed at that time. Think, then, over the entire length of the +Tertiary epoch, and think over the probable length of the intervals, +separating the Secondary deposits. Of these deposits, moreover, those +consisting of sand and pebbles have seldom been favourable, either to +the embedment or to the preservation of fossils<a name='FNanchor_319_319' id='FNanchor_319_319'></a><a href='#Footnote_319_319' class='fnanchor'>{319}</a>.</p> + +<p>Nor can it be admitted as probable that any one Secondary formation +contains a fair record even of those organisms which are most easily +preserved, namely hard marine bodies. In how many cases have we not +certain evidence that between the deposition of apparently closely +consecutive beds, the lower one existed for an unknown time as land, +covered with trees. Some of the Secondary formations which contain most +marine remains appear to have been formed in a wide and not deep sea, +and therefore only those marine animals which live in such situations +would be preserved<a name='FNanchor_320_320' id='FNanchor_320_320'></a><a href='#Footnote_320_320' class='fnanchor'>{320}</a>. +In all cases, on indented rocky coasts, or any other coast, where +sediment is not accumulating, although often highly <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_141' id='Page_141'>{141}</a></span> +favourable to marine animals, none can be embedded: where pure sand and +pebbles are accumulating few or none will be preserved. I may here +instance the great western line of the S. American coast<a name='FNanchor_321_321' id='FNanchor_321_321'></a><a href='#Footnote_321_321' class='fnanchor'>{321}</a>, +tenanted by many peculiar animals, of which none probably will be +preserved to a distant epoch. From these causes, and especially from +such deposits as are formed along a line of coast, steep above and below +water, being necessarily of little width, and therefore more likely to +be subsequently denuded and worn away, we can see why it is improbable +that our Secondary deposits contain a fair record of the Marine Fauna of +any one period. The East Indian Archipelago offers an area, as large as +most of our Secondary deposits, in which there are wide and shallow +seas, teeming with marine animals, and in which sediment is +accumulating; now supposing that all the hard marine animals, or rather +those having hard parts to preserve, were preserved to a future age, +excepting those which lived on rocky shores where no sediment or only +sand and gravel were accumulating, and excepting those embedded along +the steeper coasts, where only a narrow fringe of sediment was +accumulating, supposing all this, how poor a notion would a person at a +future age have of the Marine Fauna of the present day. Lyell<a name='FNanchor_322_322' id='FNanchor_322_322'></a><a href='#Footnote_322_322' class='fnanchor'>{322}</a> +has compared the geological series to a work of which only the few +latter but not consecutive chapters have been preserved; and out of +which, it may be added, very many leaves have been torn, the remaining +ones only illustrating a scanty portion of the Fauna of each period. On +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_142' id='Page_142'>{142}</a></span> +this view, the records of anteceding ages confirm my theory; on any +other they destroy it.</p> + +<p>Finally, if we narrow the question into, why do we not find in some +instances every intermediate form between any two species? the answer +may well be that the average duration of each specific form (as we have +good reason to believe) is immense in years, and that the transition +could, according to my theory, be effected only by numberless small +gradations; and therefore that we should require for this end a most +perfect record, which the foregoing reasoning teaches us not to expect. +It might be thought that in a vertical section of great thickness in the +same formation some of the species ought to be found to vary in the +upper and lower parts<a name='FNanchor_323_323' id='FNanchor_323_323'></a><a href='#Footnote_323_323' class='fnanchor'>{323}</a>, +but it may be doubted whether any formation has gone on accumulating +without any break for a period as long as the duration of a species; and +if it had done so, we should require a series of specimens from every +part. How rare must be the chance of sediment accumulating for some 20 +or 30 thousand years on the same spot<a name='FNanchor_324_324' id='FNanchor_324_324'></a><a href='#Footnote_324_324' class='fnanchor'>{324}</a>, +with the bottom subsiding, so that a proper depth might be preserved for +any one species to continue living: what an amount of subsidence would +be thus required, and this subsidence must not destroy the source whence +the sediment continued to be derived. In the case of terrestrial +animals, what chance is there when the present time is become a +pleistocene formation (at an earlier period than this, sufficient +elevation to expose marine beds could not be expected), what chance is +there that future geologists will make out the innumerable transitional +sub-varieties, through which the short-horned and long-horned <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_143' id='Page_143'>{143}</a></span> +cattle (so different in shape of body) have been derived from the same +parent stock<a name='FNanchor_325_325' id='FNanchor_325_325'></a><a href='#Footnote_325_325' class='fnanchor'>{325}</a>? +Yet this transition has been effected in <i>the same country</i>, and in a +far <i>shorter time</i>, than would be probable in a wild state, both +contingencies highly favourable for the future hypothetical geologists +being enabled to trace the variation.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_144' id='Page_144'>{144}</a></p> +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_V' id='CHAPTER_V'></a>CHAPTER V<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES</span><a name='FNanchor_326_326' id='FNanchor_326_326'></a><a href='#Footnote_326_326' class='fnanchor'>{326}</a></h2> + +<p>In the Tertiary system, in the last uplifted beds, we find all the +species recent and living in the immediate vicinity; in rather older +beds we find only recent species, but some not living in the immediate +vicinity<a name='FNanchor_327_327' id='FNanchor_327_327'></a><a href='#Footnote_327_327' class='fnanchor'>{327}</a>; +we then find beds with two or three or a few more extinct or very rare +species; then considerably more extinct species, but with gaps in the +regular increase; and finally we have beds with only two or three or not +one living species. Most geologists believe that the gaps in the +percentage, that is the sudden increments, in the number of the extinct +species in the stages of the Tertiary system are due to the imperfection +of the geological record. Hence we are led to believe that the species +in the Tertiary system have been gradually introduced; and from analogy +to carry on the same view to the Secondary formations. In these latter, +however, entire groups of species generally come in abruptly; but this +would naturally result, if, as argued in the foregoing chapter, these +Secondary deposits are separated by wide epochs. Moreover it is +important to observe that, with our increase of knowledge, the gaps +between the older formations become fewer and smaller; geologists of +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_145' id='Page_145'>{145}</a></span> +a few years standing remember how beautifully has the Devonian system<a name='FNanchor_328_328' id='FNanchor_328_328'></a><a href='#Footnote_328_328' class='fnanchor'>{328}</a> +come in between the Carboniferous and Silurian formations. I need hardly +observe that the slow and gradual appearance of new forms follows from +our theory, for to form a new species, an old one must not only be +plastic in its organization, becoming so probably from changes in the +conditions of its existence, but a place in the natural economy of the +district must [<del>be made,</del>] come to exist, for the selection of some new +modification of its structure, better fitted to the surrounding +conditions than are the other individuals of the same or other species<a name='FNanchor_329_329' id='FNanchor_329_329'></a><a href='#Footnote_329_329' class='fnanchor'>{329}</a>.</p> + +<p>In the Tertiary system the same facts, which make us admit as probable +that new species have slowly appeared, lead to the admission that old +ones have slowly disappeared, not several together, but one after +another; and by analogy one is induced to extend this belief to the +Secondary and Palæozoic epochs. In some cases, as the subsidence +of a flat country, or the breaking or the joining of an isthmus, and the +sudden inroad of many new and destructive species, extinction might be +locally sudden. The view entertained by many geologists, that each fauna +of each Secondary epoch has been suddenly destroyed over the whole +world, so that no succession could be left for the production of new +forms, is subversive of my theory, but I see no grounds whatever to +admit such a view. On the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_146' id='Page_146'>{146}</a></span> +contrary, the law, which has been made out, with reference to distinct +epochs, by independent observers, namely, that the wider the +geographical range of a species the longer is its duration in time, +seems entirely opposed to any universal extermination<a name='FNanchor_330_330' id='FNanchor_330_330'></a><a href='#Footnote_330_330' class='fnanchor'>{330}</a>. +The fact of species of mammiferous animals and fish being renewed at a +quicker rate than mollusca, though both aquatic; and of these the +terrestrial genera being renewed quicker than the marine; and the marine +mollusca being again renewed quicker than the Infusorial animalcula, all +seem to show that the extinction and renewal of species does not depend +on general catastrophes, but on the particular relations of the several +classes to the conditions to which they are exposed<a name='FNanchor_331_331' id='FNanchor_331_331'></a><a href='#Footnote_331_331' class='fnanchor'>{331}</a>.</p> + +<p>Some authors seem to consider the fact of a few species having +survived<a name='FNanchor_332_332' id='FNanchor_332_332'></a><a href='#Footnote_332_332' class='fnanchor'>{332}</a> +amidst a number of extinct forms (as is the case with a tortoise and a +crocodile out of the vast number of extinct sub-Himalayan fossils) as +strongly opposed to the view of species being mutable. No doubt this +would be the case, if it were presupposed with Lamarck that there was +some inherent tendency to change and development in all species, for +which supposition I see no evidence. As we see some species at present +adapted to a wide range of conditions, so we may suppose that such +species would survive unchanged and unexterminated for a long time; time +generally being from geological causes a correlative of changing +conditions. How at present one species becomes adapted to a wide range, +and another species to a restricted range of conditions, is of difficult +explanation.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_147' id='Page_147'>{147}</a></p> + +<h3><i>Extinction of species.</i></h3> + +<p>The extinction of the larger quadrupeds, of which we imagine we better +know the conditions of existence, has been thought little less wonderful +than the appearance of new species; and has, I think, chiefly led to the +belief of universal catastrophes. When considering the wonderful +disappearance within a late period, whilst recent shells were living, of +the numerous great and small mammifers of S. America, one is strongly +induced to join with the catastrophists. I believe, however, that very +erroneous views are held on this subject. As far as is historically +known, the disappearance of species from any one country has been +slow—the species becoming rarer and rarer, locally extinct, and +finally lost<a name='FNanchor_333_333' id='FNanchor_333_333'></a><a href='#Footnote_333_333' class='fnanchor'>{333}</a>. +It may be objected that this has been effected by man’s direct +agency, or by his indirect agency in altering the state of the country; +in this latter case, however, it would be difficult to draw any just +distinction between his agency and natural agencies. But we now know in +the later Tertiary deposits, that shells become rarer and rarer in the +successive beds, and finally disappear: it has happened, also, that +shells common in a fossil state, and thought to have been extinct, have +been found to be still living species, but very <i>rare</i> ones<a name='FNanchor_334_334' id='FNanchor_334_334'></a><a href='#Footnote_334_334' class='fnanchor'>{334}</a>. +If the rule is that organisms become extinct by becoming rarer and +rarer, we ought not to view their extinction, even in the case of the +larger quadrupeds, as anything wonderful and out of the common course of +events. For no naturalist thinks it wonderful that one species of a +genus should be rare and another abundant, notwithstanding he be +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_148' id='Page_148'>{148}</a></span> +quite incapable of explaining the causes of the comparative rareness<a name='FNanchor_335_335' id='FNanchor_335_335'></a><a href='#Footnote_335_335' class='fnanchor'>{335}</a>. +Why is one species of willow-wren or hawk or woodpecker common in +England, and another extremely rare: why at the Cape of Good Hope is one +species of rhinoceros or antelope far more abundant than other species? +Why again is the same species much more abundant in one district of a +country than in another district? No doubt there are in each case good +causes: but they are unknown and unperceived by us. May we not then +safely infer that as certain causes are acting <i>unperceived</i> around us, +and are making one species to be common and another exceedingly rare, +that they might equally well cause the final extinction of some species +without being perceived by us? We should always bear in mind that there +is a recurrent struggle for life in every organism, and that in every +country a destroying agency is always counteracting the geometrical +tendency to increase in every species; and yet without our being able to +tell with certainty at what period of life, or at what period of the +year, the destruction falls the heaviest. Ought we then to expect to +trace the steps by which this destroying power, always at work and +scarcely perceived by us, becomes increased, and yet if it continues to +increase ever so slowly (without the fertility of the species in +question be likewise increased) the average number of the individuals of +that species must decrease, and become finally lost. I may give a single +instance of a check causing local extermination which might long have +escaped discovery<a name='FNanchor_336_336' id='FNanchor_336_336'></a><a href='#Footnote_336_336' class='fnanchor'>{336}</a>; +the horse, though swarming in a wild state in La Plata, and likewise +under apparently the most unfavourable conditions in the scorched and +alternately flooded plains of Caraccas, will not in a wild <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_149' id='Page_149'>{149}</a></span> +state extend beyond a certain degree of latitude into the intermediate +country of Paraguay; this is owing to a certain fly depositing its eggs +on the navels of the foals: as, however, man with a <i>little</i> care can +rear horses in a tame state <i>abundantly</i> in Paraguay, the problem of its +extinction is probably complicated by the greater exposure of the wild +horse to occasional famine from the droughts, to the attacks of the +jaguar and other such evils. In the Falkland Islands the check to the +<i>increase</i> of the wild horse is said to be loss of the sucking foals<a name='FNanchor_337_337' id='FNanchor_337_337'></a><a href='#Footnote_337_337' class='fnanchor'>{337}</a>, +from the stallions compelling the mares to travel across bogs and rocks +in search of food: if the pasture on these islands decreased a little, +the horse, perhaps, would cease to exist in a wild state, not from the +absolute want of food, but from the impatience of the stallions urging +the mares to travel whilst the foals were too young.</p> + +<p>From our more intimate acquaintance with domestic animals, we cannot +conceive their extinction without some glaring agency; we forget that +they would undoubtedly in a state of nature (where other animals are +ready to fill up their place) be acted on in some part of their lives by +a destroying agency, keeping their numbers on an average constant. If +the common ox was known only as a wild S. African species, we should +feel no surprise at hearing that it was a very rare species; and this +rarity would be a stage towards its extinction. Even in man, so +infinitely better known than any other inhabitant of this world, how +impossible it has been found, without statistical calculations, to judge +of the proportions of births and deaths, of the duration of life, and of +the increase and decrease of population; and still less of the causes of +such changes: and yet, as has so often been repeated, decrease in +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_150' id='Page_150'>{150}</a></span> +numbers or rarity seems to be the high-road to extinction. To marvel at +the extermination of a species appears to me to be the same thing as to +know that illness is the road to death,—to look at illness as an +ordinary event, nevertheless to conclude, when the sick man dies, that +his death has been caused by some unknown and violent agency<a name='FNanchor_338_338' id='FNanchor_338_338'></a><a href='#Footnote_338_338' class='fnanchor'>{338}</a>.</p> + +<p>In a future part of this work we shall show that, as a general rule, +groups of allied species<a name='FNanchor_339_339' id='FNanchor_339_339'></a><a href='#Footnote_339_339' class='fnanchor'>{339}</a> +gradually appear and disappear, one after the other, on the face of the +earth, like the individuals of the same species: and we shall then +endeavour to show the probable cause of this remarkable fact.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_151' id='Page_151'>{151}</a></p> + +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_VI' id='CHAPTER_VI'></a>CHAPTER VI<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN PAST AND PRESENT +TIMES</span></h2> + +<p>For convenience sake I shall divide this chapter into three sections<a name='FNanchor_340_340' id='FNanchor_340_340'></a><a href='#Footnote_340_340' class='fnanchor'>{340}</a>. +In the first place I shall endeavour to state the laws of the +distribution of existing beings, as far as our present object is +concerned; in the second, that of extinct; and in the third section I +shall consider how far these laws accord with the theory of allied +species having a common descent.</p> + +<h3 class='sc'>Section First.</h3> + +<h3><i>Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents.</i></h3> + +<p>In the following discussion I shall chiefly refer to terrestrial +mammifers, inasmuch as they are better known; their differences in +different countries, strongly marked; and especially as the necessary +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_152' id='Page_152'>{152}</a></span> +means of their transport are more evident, and confusion, from the +accidental conveyance by man of a species from one district to another +district, is less likely to arise. It is known that all mammifers (as +well as all other organisms) are united in one great system; but that +the different species, genera, or families of the same order inhabit +different quarters of the globe. If we divide the land<a name='FNanchor_341_341' id='FNanchor_341_341'></a><a href='#Footnote_341_341' class='fnanchor'>{341}</a> +into two divisions, according to the amount of difference, and +disregarding the numbers of the terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them, +we shall have first Australia including New Guinea; and secondly the +rest of the world: if we make a three-fold division, we shall have +Australia, S. America, and the rest of the world; I must observe that +North America is in some respects neutral land, from possessing some S. +American forms, but I believe it is more closely allied (as it certainly +is in its birds, plants and shells) with Europe. If our division had +been four-fold, we should have had Australia, S. America, Madagascar +(though inhabited by few mammifers) and the remaining land: if +five-fold, Africa, especially the southern eastern parts, would have to +be separated from the remainder of the world. These differences in the +mammiferous inhabitants of the several main divisions of the globe +cannot, it is well known, be explained by corresponding differences in +their conditions<a name='FNanchor_342_342' id='FNanchor_342_342'></a><a href='#Footnote_342_342' class='fnanchor'>{342}</a>; +how similar are parts of tropical America and Africa; and accordingly we +find some <i>analogous</i> resemblances,—thus both have monkeys, both +large feline animals, both large Lepidoptera, and large dung-feeding +beetles; both have palms and epiphytes; and yet the essential difference +between their productions is as great as between those of the arid +plains of the Cape of Good Hope <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_153' id='Page_153'>{153}</a></span> +and the grass-covered savannahs of La Plata<a name='FNanchor_343_343' id='FNanchor_343_343'></a><a href='#Footnote_343_343' class='fnanchor'>{343}</a>. +Consider the distribution of the Marsupialia, which are eminently +characteristic of Australia, and in a lesser degree of S. America; when +we reflect that animals of this division, feeding both on animal and +vegetable matter, frequent the dry open or wooded plains and mountains +of Australia, the humid impenetrable forests of New Guinea and Brazil; +the dry rocky mountains of Chile, and the grassy plains of Banda +Oriental, we must look to some other cause, than the nature of the +country, for their absence in Africa and other quarters of the world.</p> + +<p>Furthermore it may be observed that <i>all</i> the organisms inhabiting any +country are not perfectly adapted to it<a name='FNanchor_344_344' id='FNanchor_344_344'></a><a href='#Footnote_344_344' class='fnanchor'>{344}</a>; +I mean by not being perfectly adapted, only that some few other +organisms can generally be found better adapted to the country than some +of the aborigines. We must admit this when we consider the enormous +number of horses and cattle which have run wild during the three last +centuries in the uninhabited parts of St Domingo, Cuba, and S. America; +for these animals must have supplanted some aboriginal ones. I might +also adduce the same fact in Australia, but perhaps it will be objected +that 30 or 40 years has not been a sufficient period to test this power +of struggling «<ins>with</ins>» and overcoming the aborigines. We know +the European mouse is driving before it that of New Zealand, like the +Norway rat has driven before it the old English species in England. +Scarcely an island can be named, where casually introduced plants have +not supplanted some of the native species: in La Plata the Cardoon +covers square leagues of country on <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_154' id='Page_154'>{154}</a></span> +which some S. American plants must once have grown: the commonest weed +over the whole of India is an introduced Mexican poppy. The geologist +who knows that slow changes are in progress, replacing land and water, +will easily perceive that even if all the organisms of any country had +originally been the best adapted to it, this could hardly continue so +during succeeding ages without either extermination, or changes, first +in the relative proportional numbers of the inhabitants of the country, +and finally in their constitutions and structure.</p> + +<p>Inspection of a map of the world at once shows that the five divisions, +separated according to the greatest amount of difference in the +mammifers inhabiting them, are likewise those most widely separated from +each other by barriers<a name='FNanchor_345_345' id='FNanchor_345_345'></a><a href='#Footnote_345_345' class='fnanchor'>{345}</a> +which mammifers cannot pass: thus Australia is separated from New Guinea +and some small adjoining islets only by a narrow and shallow strait; +whereas New Guinea and its adjoining islets are cut off from the other +East Indian islands by deep water. These latter islands, I may remark, +which fall into the great Asiatic group, are separated from each other +and the continent only by shallow water; and where this is the case we +may suppose, from geological oscillations of level, that generally there +has been recent union. South America, including the southern part of +Mexico, is cut off from North America by the West Indies, and the great +table-land of Mexico, except by a mere fringe of tropical forests along +the coast: it is owing, perhaps, to this fringe that N. America +possesses some S. American forms. Madagascar is entirely isolated. +Africa is also to a great extent isolated, although it approaches, by +many promontories and by lines of shallower sea, to Europe and Asia: +southern Africa, which is <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_155' id='Page_155'>{155}</a></span> +the most distinct in its mammiferous inhabitants, is separated from the +northern portion by the Great Sahara Desert and the table-land of +Abyssinia. That the distribution of organisms is related to barriers, +stopping their progress, we clearly see by comparing the distribution of +marine and terrestrial productions. The marine animals being different +on the two sides of land tenanted by the same terrestrial animals, thus +the shells are wholly different on the opposite sides of the temperate +parts of South America<a name='FNanchor_346_346' id='FNanchor_346_346'></a><a href='#Footnote_346_346' class='fnanchor'>{346}</a>, +as they are «<ins>?</ins>» in the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. We can +at once perceive that the destruction of a barrier would permit two +geographical groups of organisms to fuse and blend into one. But the +original cause of groups being different on opposite sides of a barrier +can only be understood on the hypothesis of each organism having been +created or produced on one spot or area, and afterwards migrating as +widely as its means of transport and subsistence permitted it.</p> + +<h3><i>Relation of range in genera and species.</i></h3> + +<p>It is generally<a name='FNanchor_347_347' id='FNanchor_347_347'></a><a href='#Footnote_347_347' class='fnanchor'>{347}</a> +found, that where a genus or group ranges over nearly the entire world, +many of the species composing the group have wide ranges: on the other +hand, where a group is restricted to any one country, the species +composing it generally have restricted ranges in that country<a name='FNanchor_348_348' id='FNanchor_348_348'></a><a href='#Footnote_348_348' class='fnanchor'>{348}</a>. +Thus among mammifers the feline and canine genera are widely +distributed, and many of the individual species have enormous ranges +[<del>the genus Mus I believe, however, is a strong exception to the +rule</del>].<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_156' id='Page_156'>{156}</a></span> +Mr Gould informs me that the rule holds with birds, as in the owl +genus, which is mundane, and many of the species range widely. The rule +holds also with land and fresh-water mollusca, with butterflies and very +generally with plants. As instances of the converse rule, I may give +that division of the monkeys which is confined to S. America, and +amongst plants, the Cacti, confined to the same continent, the species +of both of which have generally narrow ranges. On the ordinary theory of +the separate creation of each species, the cause of these relations is +not obvious; we can see no reason, because many allied species have been +created in the several main divisions of the world, that several of +these species should have wide ranges; and on the other hand, that +species of the same group should have narrow ranges if all have been +created in one main division of the world. As the result of such and +probably many other unknown relations, it is found that, even in the +same great classes of beings, the different divisions of the world are +characterised by either merely different species, or genera, or even +families: thus in cats, mice, foxes, S. America differs from Asia and +Africa only in species; in her pigs, camels and monkeys the difference +is generic or greater. Again, whilst southern Africa and Australia +differ more widely in their mammalia than do Africa and S. America, they +are more closely (though indeed very distantly) allied in their plants.</p> + +<h3><i>Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent.</i></h3> + +<p>If we now look at the distribution of the organisms in any one of the +above main divisions of the world, we shall find it split up into many +regions, with all or nearly all their species distinct, but yet<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_157' id='Page_157'>{157}</a></span> +partaking of one common character. This similarity of type in the +subdivisions of a great region is equally well-known with the +dissimilarity of the inhabitants of the several great regions; but it +has been less often insisted on, though more worthy of remark. Thus for +instance, if in Africa or S. America, we go from south to north<a name='FNanchor_349_349' id='FNanchor_349_349'></a><a href='#Footnote_349_349' class='fnanchor'>{349}</a>, +or from lowland to upland, or from a humid to a dryer part, we find +wholly different species of those genera or groups which characterise +the continent over which we are passing. In these subdivisions we may +clearly observe, as in the main divisions of the world, that +sub-barriers divide different groups of species, although the opposite +sides of such sub-barriers may possess nearly the same climate, and may +be in other respects nearly similar: thus it is on the opposite sides of +the Cordillera of Chile, and in a lesser degree on the opposite sides of +the Rocky mountains. Deserts, arms of the sea, and even rivers form the +barriers; mere preoccupied space seems sufficient in several cases: thus +Eastern and Western Australia, in the same latitude, with very similar +climate and soils, have scarcely a plant, and few animals or birds, in +common, although all belong to the peculiar genera characterising +Australia. It is in short impossible to explain the differences in the +inhabitants, either of the main divisions of the world, or of these +sub-divisions, by the differences in their physical conditions, and by +the adaptation of their inhabitants. Some other cause must intervene.</p> + +<p>We can see that the destruction of sub-barriers would cause (as before +remarked in the case of the main divisions) two sub-divisions to blend +into one; and we can only suppose that the original difference in the +species, on the opposite sides of sub-barriers, is due to the creation +or production of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_158' id='Page_158'>{158}</a></span> +species in distinct areas, from which they have wandered till arrested +by such sub-barriers. Although thus far is pretty clear, it may be +asked, why, when species in the same main division of the world were +produced on opposite sides of a sub-barrier, both when exposed to +similar conditions and when exposed to widely different influences (as +on alpine and lowland tracts, as on arid and humid soils, as in cold and +hot climates), have they invariably been formed on a similar type, and +that type confined to this one division of the world? Why when an +ostrich<a name='FNanchor_350_350' id='FNanchor_350_350'></a><a href='#Footnote_350_350' class='fnanchor'>{350}</a> +was produced in the southern parts of America, was it formed on the +American type, instead of on the African or on Australian types? Why +when hare-like and rabbit-like animals were formed to live on the +Savannahs of La Plata, were they produced on the peculiar Rodent type of +S. America, instead of on the true<a name='FNanchor_351_351' id='FNanchor_351_351'></a><a href='#Footnote_351_351' class='fnanchor'>{351}</a> +hare-type of North America, Asia and Africa? Why when borrowing Rodents, +and camel-like animals were formed to tenant the Cordillera, were they +formed on the same type<a name='FNanchor_352_352' id='FNanchor_352_352'></a><a href='#Footnote_352_352' class='fnanchor'>{352}</a> +with their representatives on the plains? Why were the mice, and many +birds of different species on the opposite sides of the Cordillera, but +exposed to a very similar climate and soil, created on the same peculiar +S. American type? Why were the plants in Eastern and Western Australia, +though wholly different as species, formed on the same peculiar +Australian types? The generality of the rule, in so many places and +under such different circumstances, makes it highly remarkable and seems +to demand some explanation.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_159' id='Page_159'>{159}</a></p> +<h3><i>Insular Faunas.</i></h3> + +<p>If we now look to the character of the inhabitants of small islands<a name='FNanchor_353_353' id='FNanchor_353_353'></a><a href='#Footnote_353_353' class='fnanchor'>{353}</a>, +we shall find that those situated close to other land have a similar +fauna with that land<a name='FNanchor_354_354' id='FNanchor_354_354'></a><a href='#Footnote_354_354' class='fnanchor'>{354}</a>, +whilst those at a considerable distance from other land often possess an +almost entirely peculiar fauna. The Galapagos Archipelago<a name='FNanchor_355_355' id='FNanchor_355_355'></a><a href='#Footnote_355_355' class='fnanchor'>{355}</a> +is a remarkable instance of this latter fact; here almost every bird, +its one mammifer, its reptiles, land and sea shells, and even fish, are +almost all peculiar and distinct species, not found in any other quarter +of the world: so are the majority of its plants. But although situated +at the distance of between 500 and 600 miles from the S. American coast, +it is impossible to even glance at a large part of its fauna, especially +at the birds, without at once seeing that they belong to the American +type<a name='FNanchor_356_356' id='FNanchor_356_356'></a><a href='#Footnote_356_356' class='fnanchor'>{356}</a>. +Hence, in fact, groups of islands thus circumstanced form merely small +but well-defined sub-divisions of the larger geographical divisions. But +the fact is in such cases far more striking: for taking the Galapagos +Archipelago as an instance; in the first place we must feel convinced, +seeing that every island is wholly volcanic and bristles with craters, +that in a geological sense the whole is of recent origin comparatively +with a continent; and as the species are nearly all peculiar, we must +conclude that they have in the same sense recently been produced on this +very spot; and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_160' id='Page_160'>{160}</a></span> +although in the nature of the soil, and in a lesser degree in the +climate, there is a wide difference with the nearer part of the S. +American coast, we see that the inhabitants have been formed on the same +closely allied type. On the other hand, these islands, as far as their +physical conditions are concerned, resemble closely the Cape de Verde +volcanic group, and yet how wholly unlike are the productions of these +two archipelagoes. The Cape de Verde<a name='FNanchor_357_357' id='FNanchor_357_357'></a><a href='#Footnote_357_357' class='fnanchor'>{357}</a> +group, to which may be added the Canary Islands, are allied in their +inhabitants (of which many are peculiar species) to the coast of Africa +and southern Europe, in precisely the same manner as the Galapagos +Archipelago is allied to America. We here clearly see that mere +geographical proximity affects, more than any relation of adaptation, +the character of species. How many islands in the Pacific exist far more +like in their physical conditions to Juan Fernandez than this island is +to the coast of Chile, distant 300 miles; why then, except from mere +proximity, should this island alone be tenanted by two very peculiar +species of humming-birds—that form of birds which is so +exclusively American? Innumerable other similar cases might be adduced.</p> + +<p>The Galapagos Archipelago offers another, even more remarkable, example +of the class of facts we are here considering. Most of its genera are, +as we have said, American, many of them are mundane, or found +everywhere, and some are quite or nearly confined to this archipelago. +The islands are of absolutely similar composition, and exposed to the +same climate; most of them are in sight of each other; and yet several +of the islands are inhabited, each by peculiar species (or in some cases +perhaps only varieties) of some of the genera characterising the +archipelago. So that the small group of the Galapagos<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_161' id='Page_161'>{161}</a></span> +Islands typifies, and follows exactly the same laws in the distribution +of its inhabitants, as a great continent. How wonderful it is that two +or three closely similar but distinct species of a mocking-thrush<a name='FNanchor_358_358' id='FNanchor_358_358'></a><a href='#Footnote_358_358' class='fnanchor'>{358}</a> +should have been produced on three neighbouring and absolutely similar +islands; and that these three species of mocking-thrush should be +closely related to the other species inhabiting wholly different +climates and different districts of America, and only in America. No +similar case so striking as this of the Galapagos Archipelago has +hitherto been observed; and this difference of the productions in the +different islands may perhaps be partly explained by the depth of the +sea between them (showing that they could not have been united within +recent geological periods), and by the currents of the sea sweeping +<i>straight</i> between them,—and by storms of wind being rare, through +which means seeds and birds could be blown, or drifted, from one island +to another. There are however some similar facts: it is said that the +different, though neighbouring islands of the East Indian Archipelago +are inhabited by some different species of the same genera; and at the +Sandwich group some of the islands have each their peculiar species of +the same genera of plants.</p> + +<p>Islands standing quite isolated within the intra-tropical oceans have +generally very peculiar floras, related, though feebly (as in the case +of St Helena<a name='FNanchor_359_359' id='FNanchor_359_359'></a><a href='#Footnote_359_359' class='fnanchor'>{359}</a> +where almost every species is distinct), with the nearest continent: +Tristan d'Acunha is feebly related, I believe, in its plants, both to +Africa and S. America, not by having species in common, but +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_162' id='Page_162'>{162}</a></span> +by the genera to which they belong<a name='FNanchor_360_360' id='FNanchor_360_360'></a><a href='#Footnote_360_360' class='fnanchor'>{360}</a>. +The floras of the numerous scattered islands of the Pacific are related +to each other and to all the surrounding continents; but it has been +said, that they have more of an Indo-Asiatic than American character<a name='FNanchor_361_361' id='FNanchor_361_361'></a><a href='#Footnote_361_361' class='fnanchor'>{361}</a>. +This is somewhat remarkable, as America is nearer to all the Eastern +islands, and lies in the direction of the trade-wind and prevailing +currents; on the other hand, all the heaviest gales come from the +Asiatic side. But even with the aid of these gales, it is not obvious on +the ordinary theory of creation how the possibility of migration +(without we suppose, with extreme improbability, that each species with +an Indo-Asiatic character has actually travelled from the Asiatic +shores, where such species do not now exist) explains this Asiatic +character in the plants of the Pacific. This is no more obvious than +that (as before remarked) there should exist a relation between the +creation of closely allied species in several regions of the world, and +the fact of many such species having wide ranges; and on the other hand, +of allied species confined to one region of the world having in that +region narrow ranges.</p> + +<h3><i>Alpine Floras.</i></h3> + +<p>We will now turn to the floras of mountain-summits which are well known +to differ from the floras of the neighbouring lowlands. In certain +characters, such as dwarfness of stature, hairiness, &c., the +species from the most distant mountains frequently resemble each +other,—a kind of analogy like that for instance of the succulency +of most desert plants. Besides this analogy, Alpine plants <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_163' id='Page_163'>{163}</a></span> +present some eminently curious facts in their distribution. In some +cases the summits of mountains, although immensely distant from each +other, are clothed by the same identical species<a name='FNanchor_362_362' id='FNanchor_362_362'></a><a href='#Footnote_362_362' class='fnanchor'>{362}</a> +which are likewise the same with those growing on the likewise very +distant Arctic shores. In other cases, although few or none of the +species may be actually identical, they are closely related; whilst the +plants of the lowland districts surrounding the two mountains in +question will be wholly dissimilar. As mountain-summits, as far as their +plants are concerned, are islands rising out of an ocean of land in +which the Alpine species cannot live, nor across which is there any +known means of transport, this fact appears directly opposed to the +conclusion which we have come to from considering the general +distribution of organisms both on continents and on +islands—namely, that the degree of relationship between the +inhabitants of two points depends on the completeness and nature of the +barriers between those points<a name='FNanchor_363_363' id='FNanchor_363_363'></a><a href='#Footnote_363_363' class='fnanchor'>{363}</a>. +I believe, however, this anomalous case admits, as we shall presently +see, of some explanation. We might have expected that the flora of a +mountain summit would have presented the same relation to the flora of +the surrounding lowland country, which any isolated part of a continent +does to the whole, or an island does to the mainland, from which it is +separated by a rather wide space of sea. This in fact is the case with +the plants clothing the summits of <i>some</i> mountains, which mountains it +may be observed are particularly isolated; for instance, all the species +are peculiar, but they belong to the forms characteristic of the +surrounding continent, on the mountains of Caraccas, of Van +Dieman's<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_164' id='Page_164'>{164}</a></span> +Land and of the Cape of Good Hope<a name='FNanchor_364_364' id='FNanchor_364_364'></a><a href='#Footnote_364_364' class='fnanchor'>{364}</a>. +On some other mountains, for instance «<ins>in</ins>» Tierra del Fuego +and in Brazil, some of the plants though distinct species are S. +American forms; whilst others are allied to or are identical with the +Alpine species of Europe. In islands of which the lowland flora is +distinct «<ins>from</ins>» but allied to that of the nearest continent, the Alpine plants +are sometimes (or perhaps mostly) eminently peculiar and distinct<a name='FNanchor_365_365' id='FNanchor_365_365'></a><a href='#Footnote_365_365' class='fnanchor'>{365}</a>; +this is the case on Teneriffe, and in a lesser degree even on some of +the Mediterranean islands.</p> + +<p>If all Alpine floras had been characterised like that of the mountain of +Caraccas, or of Van Dieman’s Land, &c., whatever explanation +is possible of the general laws of geographical distribution would have +applied to them. But the apparently anomalous case just given, namely of +the mountains of Europe, of some mountains in the United States (Dr +Boott) and of the summits of the Himalaya (Royle), having many identical +species in common conjointly with the Arctic regions, and many species, +though not identical, closely allied, require a separate explanation. +The fact likewise of several of the species on the mountains of Tierra +del Fuego (and in a lesser degree on the mountains of Brazil) not +belonging to American forms, but to those of Europe, though so immensely +remote, requires also a separate explanation.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_165' id='Page_165'>{165}</a></p> + +<h3><i>Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains.</i></h3> + +<p>Now we may with confidence affirm, from the number of the then floating +icebergs and low descent of the glaciers, that within a period so near +that species of shells have remained the same, the whole of Central +Europe and of North America (and perhaps of Eastern Asia) possessed a +very cold climate; and therefore it is probable that the floras of these +districts were the same as the present Arctic one,—as is known to +have been to some degree the case with then existing sea-shells, and +those now living on the Arctic shores. At this period the mountains must +have been covered with ice of which we have evidence in the surfaces +polished and scored by glaciers. What then would be the natural and +almost inevitable effects of the gradual change into the present more +temperate climate<a name='FNanchor_366_366' id='FNanchor_366_366'></a><a href='#Footnote_366_366' class='fnanchor'>{366}</a>? +The ice and snow would disappear from the mountains, and as new plants +from the more temperate regions of the south migrated northward, +replacing the Arctic plants, these latter would crawl<a name='FNanchor_367_367' id='FNanchor_367_367'></a><a href='#Footnote_367_367' class='fnanchor'>{367}</a> +up the now uncovered mountains, and likewise be driven northward to the +present Arctic shores. If the Arctic flora of that period was a nearly +uniform one, as the present one is, then we should have the same plants +on these mountain-summits and on the present Arctic shores. On this view +the Arctic flora of that period must have been a widely extended one, +more so than even the present one; but considering how similar the +physical conditions must always be of land bordering on perpetual frost, +this does not appear a great difficulty; and may we not venture to +suppose that <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_166' id='Page_166'>{166}</a></span> +the almost infinitely numerous icebergs, charged with great masses of +rocks, soil and <i>brushwood</i><a name='FNanchor_368_368' id='FNanchor_368_368'></a><a href='#Footnote_368_368' class='fnanchor'>{368}</a> +and often driven high up on distant beaches, might have been the means +of widely distributing the seeds of the same species?</p> + +<p>I will only hazard one other observation, namely that during the change +from an extremely cold climate to a more temperate one the conditions, +both on lowland and mountain, would be singularly favourable for the +diffusion of any existing plants, which could live on land, just freed +from the rigour of eternal winter; for it would possess no inhabitants; +and we cannot doubt that <i>preoccupation</i><a name='FNanchor_369_369' id='FNanchor_369_369'></a><a href='#Footnote_369_369' class='fnanchor'>{369}</a> +is the chief bar to the diffusion of plants. For amongst many other +facts, how otherwise can we explain the circumstance that the plants on +the opposite, though similarly constituted sides of a wide river in +Eastern Europe (as I was informed by Humboldt) should be widely +different; across which river birds, swimming quadrupeds and the wind +must often transport seeds; we can only suppose that plants already +occupying the soil and freely seeding check the germination of +occasionally transported seeds.</p> + +<p>At about the same period when icebergs were transporting boulders in N. +America as far as 36° south, where the cotton tree now grows in +South America, in latitude 42° (where the land is now clothed with +forests having an almost tropical aspect with the trees bearing +epiphytes and intertwined with canes), the same ice action was going on; +is it not then in some degree probable that at this period the whole +tropical parts of the two Americas <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_167' id='Page_167'>{167}</a></span> +possessed<a name='FNanchor_370_370' id='FNanchor_370_370'></a><a href='#Footnote_370_370' class='fnanchor'>{370}</a> +(as Falconer asserts that India did) a more temperate climate? In this +case the Alpine plants of the long chain of the Cordillera would have +descended much lower and there would have been a broad high-road<a name='FNanchor_371_371' id='FNanchor_371_371'></a><a href='#Footnote_371_371' class='fnanchor'>{371}</a> +connecting those parts of North and South America which were then +frigid. As the present climate supervened, the plants occupying the +districts which now are become in both hemispheres temperate and even +semi-tropical must have been driven to the Arctic and Antarctic<a name='FNanchor_372_372' id='FNanchor_372_372'></a><a href='#Footnote_372_372' class='fnanchor'>{372}</a> +regions; and only a few of the loftiest points of the Cordillera can +have retained their former connecting flora. The transverse chain of +Chiquitos might perhaps in a similar manner during the ice-action period +have served as a connecting road (though a broken one) for Alpine plants +to become dispersed from the Cordillera to the highlands of Brazil. It +may be observed that some (though not strong) reasons can be assigned +for believing that at about this same period the two Americas were not +so thoroughly divided as they now are by the West Indies and tableland +of Mexico. I will only further remark that the present most singularly +close similarity in the vegetation of the lowlands of Kerguelen’s +Land<a name='FNanchor_373_373' id='FNanchor_373_373'></a><a href='#Footnote_373_373' class='fnanchor'>{373}</a> +and of Tierra del Fuego (Hooker), though so far apart, may perhaps be +explained by the dissemination of seeds during this same cold period, by +means of icebergs, as before alluded to<a name='FNanchor_374_374' id='FNanchor_374_374'></a><a href='#Footnote_374_374' class='fnanchor'>{374}</a>.</p> + +<p>Finally, I think we may safely grant from the foregoing facts and +reasoning that the anomalous <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_168' id='Page_168'>{168}</a></span> +similarity in the vegetation of certain very distant mountain-summits +is not in truth opposed to the conclusion of the intimate relation +subsisting between proximity in space (in accordance with the means of +transport in each class) and the degree of affinity of the inhabitants +of any two countries. In the case of several quite isolated mountains, +we have seen that the general law holds good.</p> + +<h3><i>Whether the same species has been created more than once.</i></h3> + +<p>As the fact of the same species of plants having been found on +mountain-summits immensely remote has been one chief cause of the belief +of some species having been contemporaneously produced or created at two +different points<a name='FNanchor_375_375' id='FNanchor_375_375'></a><a href='#Footnote_375_375' class='fnanchor'>{375}</a>, +I will here briefly discuss this subject. On the ordinary theory of +creation, we can see no reason why on two similar mountain-summits two +similar species may not have been created; but the opposite view, +independently of its simplicity, has been generally received from the +analogy of the general distribution of all organisms, in which (as shown +in this chapter) we almost always find that great and continuous +barriers separate distinct series; and we are naturally led to suppose +that the two series have been separately created. When taking a more +limited view we see a river, with a quite similar country on both sides, +with one side well stocked with a certain animal and on the other side +not one (as is the case with the Bizcacha<a name='FNanchor_376_376' id='FNanchor_376_376'></a><a href='#Footnote_376_376' class='fnanchor'>{376}</a> +on the opposite sides of the Plata), we are at once led to conclude that +the Bizcacha <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_169' id='Page_169'>{169}</a></span> +was produced on some one point or area on the western side of the +river. Considering our ignorance of the many strange chances of +diffusion by birds (which occasionally wander to immense distances) and +quadrupeds swallowing seeds and ova (as in the case of the flying +water-beetle which disgorged the eggs of a fish), and of whirlwinds +carrying seeds and animals into strong upper currents (as in the case of +volcanic ashes and showers of hay, grain and fish<a name='FNanchor_377_377' id='FNanchor_377_377'></a><a href='#Footnote_377_377' class='fnanchor'>{377}</a>), +and of the possibility of species having survived for short periods at +intermediate spots and afterwards becoming extinct there<a name='FNanchor_378_378' id='FNanchor_378_378'></a><a href='#Footnote_378_378' class='fnanchor'>{378}</a>; +and considering our knowledge of the great changes which <i>have</i> taken +place from subsidence and elevation in the surface of the earth, and of +our ignorance of the greater changes which <i>may have</i> taken place, we +ought to be very slow in admitting the probability of double creations. +In the case of plants on mountain-summits, I think I have shown how +almost necessarily they would, under the past conditions of the northern +hemisphere, be as similar as are the plants on the present Arctic +shores; and this ought to teach us a lesson of caution.</p> + +<p>But the strongest argument against double creations may be drawn from +considering the case of mammifers<a name='FNanchor_379_379' id='FNanchor_379_379'></a><a href='#Footnote_379_379' class='fnanchor'>{379}</a> +in which, from their nature and from the size of their offspring, the +means of distribution are more in view. There are no cases where the +same species is found in <i>very remote</i> localities, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_170' id='Page_170'>{170}</a></span> +except where there is a continuous belt of land: the Arctic region +perhaps offers the strongest exception, and here we know that animals +are transported on icebergs<a name='FNanchor_380_380' id='FNanchor_380_380'></a><a href='#Footnote_380_380' class='fnanchor'>{380}</a>. +The cases of lesser difficulty may all receive a more or less simple +explanation; I will give only one instance; the nutria<a name='FNanchor_381_381' id='FNanchor_381_381'></a><a href='#Footnote_381_381' class='fnanchor'>{381}</a>, +I believe, on the eastern coast of S. America live exclusively in +fresh-water rivers, and I was much surprised how they could have got +into rivulets, widely apart, on the coast of Patagonia; but on the +opposite coast I found these quadrupeds living exclusively in the sea, +and hence their migration along the Patagonian coast is not surprising. +There is no case of the same mammifer being found on an island far from +the coast, and on the mainland, as happens with plants<a name='FNanchor_382_382' id='FNanchor_382_382'></a><a href='#Footnote_382_382' class='fnanchor'>{382}</a>. +On the idea of double creations it would be strange if the same species +of several plants should have been created in Australia and Europe; and +no one instance of the same species of mammifer having been created, or +aboriginally existing, in two as nearly remote and equally isolated +points. It is more philosophical, in such cases, as that of some plants +being found in Australia and Europe, to admit that we are ignorant of +the means of transport. I will allude only to one other case, namely, +that of the Mydas<a name='FNanchor_383_383' id='FNanchor_383_383'></a><a href='#Footnote_383_383' class='fnanchor'>{383}</a>, +an Alpine animal, found only on the distant peaks of the mountains of +Java: who will pretend to deny that during the ice period<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_171' id='Page_171'>{171}</a></span> +of the northern and southern hemispheres, and when India is believed to +have been colder, the climate might not have permitted this animal to +haunt a lower country, and thus to have passed along the ridges from +summit to summit? Mr Lyell has further observed that, <i>as in space, so +in time</i>, there is no reason to believe that after the extinction of a +species, the self-same form has ever reappeared<a name='FNanchor_384_384' id='FNanchor_384_384'></a><a href='#Footnote_384_384' class='fnanchor'>{384}</a>. +I think, then, we may, notwithstanding the many cases of difficulty, +conclude with some confidence that every species has been created or +produced on a single point or area.</p> + +<h3><i>On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong in +different regions.</i></h3> + +<p>The last fact in geographical distribution, which, as far as I can see, +in any way concerns the origin of species, relates to the absolute +number and nature of the organic beings inhabiting different tracts of +land. Although every species is admirably adapted (but not necessarily +better adapted than every other species, as we have seen in the great +increase of introduced species) to the country and station it frequents; +yet it has been shown that the entire difference between the species in +distant countries cannot possibly be explained by the difference of the +physical conditions of these countries. In the same manner, I believe, +neither the number of the species, nor the nature of the great classes +to which they belong, can possibly in all cases be explained by the +conditions of their country. New Zealand<a name='FNanchor_385_385' id='FNanchor_385_385'></a><a href='#Footnote_385_385' class='fnanchor'>{385}</a>, +a linear island stretching over about 700 miles of latitude, with +forests, marshes, plains and mountains reaching to the limits of eternal +snow, has far more <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_172' id='Page_172'>{172}</a></span> +diversified habitats than an equal area at the Cape of Good Hope; and +yet, I believe, at the Cape of Good Hope there are, of phanerogamic +plants, from five to ten times the number of species as in all New +Zealand. Why on the theory of absolute creations should this large and +diversified island only have from 400 to 500 (? Dieffenbach) +phanerogamic plants? and why should the Cape of Good Hope, characterised +by the uniformity of its scenery, swarm with more species of plants than +probably any other quarter of the world? Why on the ordinary theory +should the Galapagos Islands abound with terrestrial reptiles? and why +should many equal-sized islands in the Pacific be without a single one<a name='FNanchor_386_386' id='FNanchor_386_386'></a><a href='#Footnote_386_386' class='fnanchor'>{386}</a> +or with only one or two species? Why should the great island of New +Zealand be without one mammiferous quadruped except the mouse, and that +was probably introduced with the aborigines? Why should not one island +(it can be shown, I think, that the mammifers of Mauritius and St Iago +have all been introduced) in the open ocean possess a mammiferous +quadruped? Let it not be said that quadrupeds cannot live in islands, +for we know that cattle, horses and pigs during a long period have run +wild in the West Indian and Falkland Islands; pigs at St Helena; goats +at Tahiti; asses in the Canary Islands; dogs in Cuba; cats at Ascension; +rabbits at Madeira and the Falklands; monkeys at St Iago and the +Mauritius; even elephants during a long time in one of the very small +Sooloo Islands; and European mice on very many of the smallest islands +far from the habitations of man<a name='FNanchor_387_387' id='FNanchor_387_387'></a><a href='#Footnote_387_387' class='fnanchor'>{387}</a>. +Nor let it be assumed that quadrupeds are more slowly created and hence +that the oceanic islands, which generally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_173' id='Page_173'>{173}</a></span> +are of volcanic formation, are of too recent origin to possess them; +for we know (Lyell) that new forms of quadrupeds succeed each other +quicker than Mollusca or Reptilia. Nor let it be assumed (though such an +assumption would be no explanation) that quadrupeds cannot be created on +small islands; for islands not lying in mid-ocean do possess their +peculiar quadrupeds; thus many of the smaller islands of the East Indian +Archipelago possess quadrupeds; as does Fernando Po on the West Coast of +Africa; as the Falkland Islands possess a peculiar wolf-like fox<a name='FNanchor_388_388' id='FNanchor_388_388'></a><a href='#Footnote_388_388' class='fnanchor'>{388}</a>; +so do the Galapagos Islands a peculiar mouse of the S. American type. +These two last are the most remarkable cases with which I am acquainted; +inasmuch as the islands lie further from other land. It is possible that +the Galapagos mouse may have been introduced in some ship from the S. +American coast (though the species is at present unknown there), for the +aboriginal species soon haunts the goods of man, as I noticed in the +roof of a newly erected shed in a desert country south of the Plata. The +Falkland Islands, though between 200 and 300 miles from the S. American +coast, may in one sense be considered as intimately connected with it; +for it is certain that formerly many icebergs loaded with boulders were +stranded on its southern coast, and the old canoes which are +occasionally now stranded, show that the currents still set from Tierra +del Fuego. This fact, however, does not explain the presence of the +<i>Canis antarcticus</i> on the Falkland Islands, unless we suppose that it +formerly lived on the mainland and became extinct there, whilst it +survived on these islands, to which it was borne (as happens with its +northern congener, the common wolf) on an iceberg, but this fact removes +the anomaly of an island, in appearance effectually separated <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_174' id='Page_174'>{174}</a></span> +from other land, having its own species of quadruped, and makes the +case like that of Java and Sumatra, each having their own rhinoceros.</p> + +<p>Before summing up all the facts given in this section on the present +condition of organic beings, and endeavouring to see how far they admit +of explanation, it will be convenient to state all such facts in the +past geographical distribution of extinct beings as seem anyway to +concern the theory of descent.</p> + +<h3 class='sc'>Section Second.</h3> + +<h3><i>Geographical distribution of extinct organisms.</i></h3> + +<p>I have stated that if the land of the entire world be divided into (we +will say) three sections, according to the amount of difference of the +terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them, we shall have three unequal +divisions of (1st) Australia and its dependent islands, (2nd) South +America, (3rd) Europe, Asia and Africa. If we now look to the mammifers +which inhabited these three divisions during the later Tertiary periods, +we shall find them almost as distinct as at the present day, and +intimately related in each division to the existing forms in that +division<a name='FNanchor_389_389' id='FNanchor_389_389'></a><a href='#Footnote_389_389' class='fnanchor'>{389}</a>. +This is wonderfully the case with the several fossil Marsupial genera in +the caverns of New South Wales and even more wonderfully so in South +America, where we have the same peculiar group of monkeys, of a +guanaco-like animal, of many rodents, of the Marsupial Didelphys, of +Armadilloes and other Edentata. This last family is at present very +characteristic of S. America, and in a late Tertiary epoch it was even +more so, as is shown by the numerous enormous animals of the Megatheroid +family, some <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_175' id='Page_175'>{175}</a></span> +of which were protected by an osseous armour like that, but on a +gigantic scale, of the recent Armadillo. Lastly, over Europe the remains +of the several deer, oxen, bears, foxes, beavers, field-mice, show a +relation to the present inhabitants of this region; and the +contemporaneous remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, +hyæna, show a relation with the grand Africo-Asiatic division of +the world. In Asia the fossil mammifers of the Himalaya (though mingled +with forms long extinct in Europe) are equally related to the existing +forms of the Africo-Asiatic division; but especially to those of India +itself. As the gigantic and now extinct quadrupeds of Europe have +naturally excited more attention than the other and smaller remains, the +relation between the past and the present mammiferous inhabitants of +Europe has not been sufficiently attended to. But in fact the mammifers +of Europe are at present nearly as much Africo-Asiatic as they were +formerly when Europe had its elephants and rhinoceroses, etc.; Europe +neither now nor then possessed peculiar groups as does Australia and S. +America. The extinction of certain peculiar forms in one quarter does +not make the remaining mammifers of that quarter less related to its own +great division of the world: though Tierra del Fuego possesses only a +fox, three rodents, and the guanaco, no one (as these all belong to S. +American types, but not to the most characteristic forms) would doubt +for one minute «<ins>as to</ins>» classifying this district with S. America; and if fossil +Edentata, Marsupials and monkeys were to be found in Tierra del Fuego, +it would not make this district more truly S. American than it now is. +So it is with Europe<a name='FNanchor_390_390' id='FNanchor_390_390'></a><a href='#Footnote_390_390' class='fnanchor'>{390}</a>, +and so far as <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_176' id='Page_176'>{176}</a></span>is known with Asia, for the lately past and present +mammifers all belong to the Africo-Asiatic division of the world. In +every case, I may add, the forms which a country has is of more +importance in geographical arrangement than what it has not.</p> + +<p>We find some evidence of the same general fact in a relation between +the recent and the Tertiary sea-shells, in the different main divisions +of the marine world.</p> + +<p>This general and most remarkable relation between the lately past and +present mammiferous inhabitants of the three main divisions of the world +is precisely the same kind of fact as the relation between the different +species of the several sub-regions of any one of the main divisions. As +we usually associate great physical changes with the total extinction of +one series of beings, and its succession by another series, this +identity of relation between the past and the present races of beings in +the same quarters of the globe is more striking than the same relation +between existing beings in different sub-regions: but in truth we have +no reason for supposing that a change in the conditions has in any of +these cases supervened, greater than that now existing between the +temperate and tropical, or between the highlands and lowlands of the +same main divisions, now tenanted by related beings. Finally, then, we +clearly see that in each main division of the world the same relation +holds good between its inhabitants in time as over space<a name='FNanchor_391_391' id='FNanchor_391_391'></a><a href='#Footnote_391_391' class='fnanchor'>{391}</a>.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_177' id='Page_177'>{177}</a></p> +<h3><i>Changes in geographical distribution.</i></h3> + +<p>If, however, we look closer, we shall find that even Australia, in +possessing a terrestrial Pachyderm, was so far less distinct from the +rest of the world than it now is; so was S. America in possessing the +Mastodon, horse, [<del>hyæna,</del>]<a name='FNanchor_392_392' id='FNanchor_392_392'></a><a href='#Footnote_392_392' class='fnanchor'>{392}</a> +and antelope. N. America, as I have remarked, is now, in its mammifers, +in some respects neutral ground between S. America and the great +Africo-Asiatic division; formerly, in possessing the horse, Mastodon and +three Megatheroid animals, it was more nearly related to S. America; but +in the horse and Mastodon, and likewise in having the elephant, oxen, +sheep, and pigs, it was as much, if not more, related to the +Africo-Asiatic division. Again, northern India was much more closely +related (in having the giraffe, hippopotamus, and certain musk-deer) to +southern Africa than it now is; for southern and eastern Africa deserve, +if we divide the world into five parts, to make one division by itself. +Turning to the dawn of the Tertiary period, we must, from our ignorance +of other portions of the world, confine ourselves to Europe; and at that +period, in the presence of Marsupials<a name='FNanchor_393_393' id='FNanchor_393_393'></a><a href='#Footnote_393_393' class='fnanchor'>{393}</a> +and Edentata, we behold an <i>entire</i> blending of those mammiferous forms +which now eminently characterise Australia and S. America<a name='FNanchor_394_394' id='FNanchor_394_394'></a><a href='#Footnote_394_394' class='fnanchor'>{394}</a>.</p> + +<p>If we now look at the distribution of sea-shells, we find the same +changes in distribution. The Red Sea and the Mediterranean were more +nearly related in these shells than they now are. In different parts of +Europe, on the other hand, during the<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_178' id='Page_178'>{178}</a></span> +Miocene period, the sea-shells seem to have been more different than at +present. In<a name='FNanchor_395_395' id='FNanchor_395_395'></a><a href='#Footnote_395_395' class='fnanchor'>{395}</a> +the Tertiary period, according to Lyell, the shells of N. America and +Europe were less related than at present, and during the Cretaceous +still less like; whereas, during this same Cretaceous period, the shells +of India and Europe were more like than at present. But going further +back to the Carbonaceous period, in N. America and Europe, the +productions were much more like than they now are<a name='FNanchor_396_396' id='FNanchor_396_396'></a><a href='#Footnote_396_396' class='fnanchor'>{396}</a>. +These facts harmonise with the conclusions drawn from the present +distribution of organic beings, for we have seen, that from species +being created in different points or areas, the formation of a barrier +would cause or make two distinct geographical areas; and the destruction +of a barrier would permit their diffusion<a name='FNanchor_397_397' id='FNanchor_397_397'></a><a href='#Footnote_397_397' class='fnanchor'>{397}</a>. +And as long-continued geological changes must both destroy and make +barriers, we might expect, the further we looked backwards, the more +changed should we find the present distribution. This conclusion is +worthy of attention; because, finding in widely different parts of the +same main division of the world, and in volcanic islands near them, +groups of distinct, but related, species;—and finding that a +singularly analogous relation holds good with respect to the beings of +past times, when none of the present species were living, a person might +be tempted to believe in some mystical relation between certain areas of +the world, and the production of certain organic forms; but we now see +that such an assumption would have to be complicated by the admission +that such a relation, though holding good for long revolutions of years, +is not truly persistent.</p> + +<p>I will only add one more observation to this <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_179' id='Page_179'>{179}</a></span> +section. Geologists finding in the most remote period with which we are +acquainted, namely in the Silurian period, that the shells and other +marine productions<a name='FNanchor_398_398' id='FNanchor_398_398'></a><a href='#Footnote_398_398' class='fnanchor'>{398}</a> +in North and South America, in Europe, Southern Africa, and Western +Asia, are much more similar than they now are at these distant points, +appear to have imagined that in these ancient times the laws of +geographical distribution were quite different than what they now are: +but we have only to suppose that great continents were extended east and +west, and thus did not divide the inhabitants of the temperate and +tropical seas, as the continents now do; and it would then become +probable that the inhabitants of the seas would be much more similar +than they now are. In the immense space of ocean extending from the east +coast of Africa to the eastern islands of the Pacific, which space is +connected either by lines of tropical coast or by islands not very +distant from each other, we know (Cuming) that many shells, perhaps even +as many as 200, are common to the Zanzibar coast, the Philippines, and +the eastern islands of the Low or Dangerous Archipelago in the Pacific. +This space equals that from the Arctic to the Antarctic pole! Pass over +the space of quite open ocean, from the Dangerous Archipelago to the +west coast of S. America, and every shell is different: pass over the +narrow space of S. America, to its eastern shores, and again every shell +is different! Many fish, I may add, are also common to the Pacific and +Indian Oceans.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_180' id='Page_180'>{180}</a></p> +<h3><i>Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings.</i></h3> + +<p>Let us sum up the several facts now given with respect to the past and +present geographical distribution of organic beings. In a previous +chapter it was shown that species are not exterminated by universal +catastrophes, and that they are slowly produced: we have also seen that +each species is probably only once produced, on one point or area once +in time; and that each diffuses itself, as far as barriers and its +conditions of life permit. If we look at any one main division of the +land, we find in the different parts, whether exposed to different +conditions or to the same conditions, many groups of species wholly or +nearly distinct as species, nevertheless intimately related. We find the +inhabitants of islands, though distinct as species, similarly related to +the inhabitants of the nearest continent; we find in some cases, that +even the different islands of one such group are inhabited by species +distinct, though intimately related to one another and to those of the +nearest continent:—thus typifying the distribution of organic +beings over the whole world. We find the floras of distant +mountain-summits either very similar (which seems to admit, as shown, of +a simple explanation) or very distinct but related to the floras of the +surrounding region; and hence, in this latter case, the floras of two +mountain-summits, although exposed to closely similar conditions, will +be very different. On the mountain-summits of islands, characterised by +peculiar faunas and floras, the plants are often eminently peculiar. The +dissimilarity of the organic beings inhabiting nearly similar countries +is best seen by comparing the main divisions of the world; in each of +which some districts may be found very similarly <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_181' id='Page_181'>{181}</a></span> +exposed, yet the inhabitants are wholly unlike;—far more unlike +than those in very dissimilar districts in the same main division. We +see this strikingly in comparing two volcanic archipelagoes, with nearly +the same climate, but situated not very far from two different +continents; in which case their inhabitants are totally unlike. In the +different main divisions of the world, the amount of difference between +the organisms, even in the same class, is widely different, each main +division having only the species distinct in some families, in other +families having the genera distinct. The distribution of aquatic +organisms is very different from that of the terrestrial organisms; and +necessarily so, from the barriers to their progress being quite unlike. +The nature of the conditions in an isolated district will not explain +the number of species inhabiting it; nor the absence of one class or the +presence of another class. We find that terrestrial mammifers are not +present on islands far removed from other land. We see in two regions, +that the species though distinct are more or less related, according to +the greater or less <i>possibility</i> of the transportal in past and present +times of species from one to the other region; although we can hardly +admit that all the species in such cases have been transported from the +first to the second region, and since have become extinct in the first: +we see this law in the presence of the fox on the Falkland Islands; in +the European character of some of the plants of Tierra del Fuego; in the +Indo-Asiatic character of the plants of the Pacific; and in the +circumstance of those genera which range widest having many species with +wide ranges; and those genera with restricted ranges having species with +restricted ranges. Finally, we find in each of the main divisions of the +land, and probably of the sea, that the existing organisms are related +to those lately extinct.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_182' id='Page_182'>{182}</a></span> +Looking further backwards we see that the past geographical distribution +of organic beings was different from the present; and indeed, +considering that geology shows that all our land was once under water, +and that where water now extends land is forming, the reverse could +hardly have been possible.</p> + +<p>Now these several facts, though evidently all more or less connected +together, must by the creationist (though the geologist may explain some +of the anomalies) be considered as so many ultimate facts. He can only +say, that it so pleased the Creator that the organic beings of the +plains, deserts, mountains, tropical and temperature forests, of S. +America, should all have some affinity together; that the inhabitants of +the Galapagos Archipelago should be related to those of Chile; and that +some of the species on the similarly constituted islands of this +archipelago, though most closely related, should be distinct; that all +its inhabitants should be totally unlike those of the similarly volcanic +and arid Cape de Verde and Canary Islands; that the plants on the summit +of Teneriffe should be eminently peculiar; that the diversified island +of New Zealand should have not many plants, and not one, or only one, +mammifer; that the mammifers of S. America, Australia and Europe should +be clearly related to their ancient and exterminated prototypes; and so +on with other facts. But it is absolutely opposed to every analogy, +drawn from the laws imposed by the Creator on inorganic matter, that +facts, when connected, should be considered as ultimate and not the +direct consequences of more general laws.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_183' id='Page_183'>{183}</a></p> +<h3><span class='sc'>Section Third.</span></h3> +<h3><i>An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution, +on the theory of allied species having a common descent.</i></h3> + +<p>First let us recall the circumstances most favourable for variation +under domestication, as given in the first chapter—viz. 1st, a +change, or repeated changes, in the conditions to which the organism has +been exposed, continued through several seminal (<i>i.e.</i> not by buds or +divisions) generations: 2nd, steady selection of the slight varieties +thus generated with a fixed end in view: 3rd, isolation as perfect as +possible of such selected varieties; that is, the preventing their +crossing with other forms; this latter condition applies to all +terrestrial animals, to most if not all plants and perhaps even to most +(or all) aquatic organisms. It will be convenient here to show the +advantage of isolation in the formation of a new breed, by comparing the +progress of two persons (to neither of whom let time be of any +consequence) endeavouring to select and form some very peculiar new +breed. Let one of these persons work on the vast herds of cattle in the +plains of La Plata<a name='FNanchor_399_399' id='FNanchor_399_399'></a><a href='#Footnote_399_399' class='fnanchor'>{399}</a>, +and the other on a small stock of 20 or 30 animals in an island. The +latter might have to wait centuries (by the hypothesis of no +importance)<a name='FNanchor_400_400' id='FNanchor_400_400'></a><a href='#Footnote_400_400' class='fnanchor'>{400}</a> +before he obtained a “sport” approaching to what he wanted; +but when he did and saved the greater number of its offspring and their +offspring again, he might hope that his whole little stock would be in +some degree affected, so that by continued selection he might <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_184' id='Page_184'>{184}</a></span> +gain his end. But on the Pampas, though the man might get his first +approach to his desired form sooner, how hopeless would it be to +attempt, by saving its offspring amongst so many of the common kind, to +affect the whole herd: the effect of this one peculiar “sport<a name='FNanchor_401_401' id='FNanchor_401_401'></a><a href='#Footnote_401_401' class='fnanchor'>{401}</a>” +would be quite lost before he could obtain a second original sport of +the same kind. If, however, he could separate a small number of cattle, +including the offspring of the desirable “sport,” he might +hope, like the man on the island, to effect his end. If there be organic +beings of which two individuals <i>never</i> unite, then simple selection +whether on a continent or island would be equally serviceable to make a +new and desirable breed; and this new breed might be made in +surprisingly few years from the great and geometrical powers of +propagation to beat out the old breed; as has happened (notwithstanding +crossing) where good breeds of dogs and pigs have been introduced into a +limited country,—for instance, into the islands of the Pacific.</p> + +<p>Let us now take the simplest natural case of an islet upheaved by the +volcanic or subterranean forces in a deep sea, at such a distance from +other land that only a few organic beings at rare intervals were +transported to it, whether borne by the sea<a name='FNanchor_402_402' id='FNanchor_402_402'></a><a href='#Footnote_402_402' class='fnanchor'>{402}</a> +(like the seeds of plants to coral-reefs), or by hurricanes, or by +floods, or on rafts, or in roots of large trees, or the germs of one +plant or animal attached to or in the stomach of some other animal, or +by the intervention (in most cases the most probable means) of other +islands since sunk or destroyed. It may be remarked that when one part +of the earth’s crust is raised it is probably the <span class='pagenum'><a +name='Page_185' id='Page_185'>{185}</a></span>general rule that another part +sinks. Let this island go on slowly, century after century, rising foot +by foot; and in the course of time we shall have instead +«<ins>of</ins>» a small mass of rock<a name='FNanchor_403_403' id='FNanchor_403_403'></a><a href='#Footnote_403_403' class='fnanchor'>{403}</a>, +lowland and highland, moist woods and dry sandy spots, various soils, +marshes, streams and pools: under water on the sea shore, instead of a +rocky steeply shelving coast, we shall have in some parts bays with mud, +sandy beaches and rocky shoals. The formation of the island by itself +must often slightly affect the surrounding climate. It is impossible +that the first few transported organisms could be perfectly adapted to +all these stations; and it will be a chance if those successively +transported will be so adapted. The greater number would probably come +from the lowlands of the nearest country; and not even all these would +be perfectly adapted to the new islet whilst it continued low and +exposed to coast influences. Moreover, as it is certain that all +organisms are nearly as much adapted in their structure to the other +inhabitants of their country as they are to its physical conditions, so +the mere fact that a <i>few</i> beings (and these taken in great degree by +chance) were in the first case transported to the islet, would in itself +greatly modify their conditions<a name='FNanchor_404_404' id='FNanchor_404_404'></a><a href='#Footnote_404_404' class='fnanchor'>{404}</a>. +As the island continued rising we might also expect an occasional new +visitant; and I repeat that even one new being must often affect beyond +our calculation by occupying the room and taking part of the subsistence +of another (and this again from another and so on), several or many +other organisms. Now as the first transported and any occasional +successive visitants spread or tended to spread over the growing island, +they would undoubtedly be exposed through several generations to new and +varying conditions: it might also easily happen that some of +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_186' id='Page_186'>{186}</a></span> +the species <i>on an average</i> might obtain an increase of food, or food +of a more nourishing quality<a name='FNanchor_405_405' id='FNanchor_405_405'></a><a href='#Footnote_405_405' class='fnanchor'>{405}</a>. +According then to every analogy with what we have seen takes place in +every country, with nearly every organic being under domestication, we +might expect that some of the inhabitants of the island would +“sport,” or have their organization rendered in some degree +plastic. As the number of the inhabitants are supposed to be few and as +all these cannot be so well adapted to their new and varying conditions +as they were in their native country and habitat, we cannot believe that +every place or office in the economy of the island would be as well +filled as on a continent where the number of aboriginal species is far +greater and where they consequently hold a more strictly limited place. +We might therefore expect on our island that although very many slight +variations were of no use to the plastic individuals, yet that +occasionally in the course of a century an individual might be born<a name='FNanchor_406_406' id='FNanchor_406_406'></a><a href='#Footnote_406_406' class='fnanchor'>{406}</a> +of which the structure or constitution in some slight degree would allow +it better to fill up some office in the insular economy and to struggle +against other species. If such were the case the individual and its +offspring would have a better <i>chance</i> of surviving and of beating out +its parent form; and if (as is probable) it and its offspring crossed +with the unvaried parent form, yet the number of the individuals being +not very great, there would be a chance of the new and more serviceable +form being nevertheless in some slight degree preserved. The struggle +for existence would go on annually selecting such individuals until a +new race or species was formed. Either few or all the first visitants to +the island might become modified, according <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_187' id='Page_187'>{187}</a></span> +as the physical conditions of the island and those resulting from the +kind and number of other transported species were different from those +of the parent country—according to the difficulties offered to +fresh immigration—and according to the length of time since the +first inhabitants were introduced. It is obvious that whatever was the +country, generally the nearest from which the first tenants were +transported, they would show an affinity, even if all had become +modified, to the natives of that country and even if the inhabitants of +the same source «<ins>?</ins>» had been modified. On this view we can +at once understand the cause and meaning of the affinity of the fauna +and flora of the Galapagos Islands with that of the coast of S. America; +and consequently why the inhabitants of these islands show not the +smallest affinity with those inhabiting other volcanic islands, with a +very similar climate and soil, near the coast of Africa<a name='FNanchor_407_407' id='FNanchor_407_407'></a><a href='#Footnote_407_407' class='fnanchor'>{407}</a>.</p> + +<p>To return once again to our island, if by the continued action of the +subterranean forces other neighbouring islands were formed, these would +generally be stocked by the inhabitants of the first island, or by a few +immigrants from the neighbouring mainland; but if considerable obstacles +were interposed to any communication between the terrestrial productions +of these islands, and their conditions were different (perhaps only by +the number of different species on each island), a form transported from +one island to another might become altered in the same manner as one +from the continent; and we should have several of the islands tenanted +by representative races or species, as is so wonderfully the case with +the different islands of the Galapagos Archipelago. As the islands +become mountainous, if mountain-species were not introduced, as could +rarely happen, a greater amount of variation and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_188' id='Page_188'>{188}</a></span>selection would be +requisite to adapt the species, which originally came from the lowlands +of the nearest continent, to the mountain-summits than to the lower +districts of our islands. For the lowland species from the continent +would have first to struggle against other species and other conditions +on the coast-land of the island, and so probably become modified by the +selection of its best fitted varieties, then to undergo the same process +when the land had attained a moderate elevation; and then lastly when it +had become Alpine. Hence we can understand why the faunas of insular +mountain-summits are, as in the case of Teneriffe, eminently peculiar. +Putting on one side the case of a widely extended flora being driven up +the mountain-summits, during a change of climate from cold to temperate, +we can see why in other cases the floras of mountain-summits (or as I +have called them islands in a sea of land) should be tenanted by +peculiar species, but related to those of the surrounding lowlands, as +are the inhabitants of a real island in the sea to those of the nearest +continent<a name='FNanchor_408_408' id='FNanchor_408_408'></a><a href='#Footnote_408_408' class='fnanchor'>{408}</a>.</p> + +<p>Let us now consider the effect of a change of climate or of other +conditions on the inhabitants of a continent and of an isolated island +without any great change of level. On a continent the chief effects +would be changes in the numerical proportion of the individuals of the +different species; for whether the climate became warmer or colder, +drier or damper, more uniform or extreme, some species are at present +adapted to its diversified districts; if for instance it became cooler, +species would migrate from its more temperate parts and from its higher +land; if damper, from its damper <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_189' id='Page_189'>{189}</a></span> +regions, &c. On a small and isolated island, however, with few +species, and these not adapted to much diversified conditions, such +changes instead of merely increasing the number of certain species +already adapted to such conditions, and decreasing the number of other +species, would be apt to affect the constitutions of some of the insular +species: thus if the island became damper it might well happen that +there were no species living in any part of it adapted to the +consequences resulting from more moisture. In this case therefore, and +still more (as we have seen) during the production of new stations from +the elevation of the land, an island would be a far more fertile source, +as far as we can judge, of new specific forms than a continent. The new +forms thus generated on an island, we might expect, would occasionally +be transported by accident, or through long-continued geographical +changes be enabled to emigrate and thus become slowly diffused.</p> + +<p>But if we look to the origin of a continent; almost every geologist will +admit that in most cases it will have first existed as separate islands +which gradually increased in size<a name='FNanchor_409_409' id='FNanchor_409_409'></a><a href='#Footnote_409_409' class='fnanchor'>{409}</a>; +and therefore all that which has been said concerning the probable +changes of the forms tenanting a small archipelago is applicable to a +continent in its early state. Furthermore, a geologist who reflects on +the geological history of Europe (the only region well known) will admit +that it has been many times depressed, raised and left stationary. +During the sinking of a continent and the probable generally +accompanying changes of climate the effect would be little, <i>except</i> on +the numerical proportions and in the extinction (from the lessening of +rivers, the drying of marshes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_190' id='Page_190'>{190}</a></span> +and the conversion of high-lands into low &c.) of some or of many +of the species. As soon however as the continent became divided into +many isolated portions or islands, preventing free immigration from one +part to another, the effect of climatic and other changes on the species +would be greater. But let the now broken continent, forming isolated +islands, begin to rise and new stations thus to be formed, exactly as in +the first case of the upheaved volcanic islet, and we shall have equally +favourable conditions for the modification of old forms, that is the +formation of new races or species. Let the islands become reunited into +a continent; and then the new and old forms would all spread, as far as +barriers, the means of transportal, and the preoccupation of the land by +other species, would permit. Some of the new species or races would +probably become extinct, and some perhaps would cross and blend +together. We should thus have a multitude of forms, adapted to all kinds +of slightly different stations, and to diverse groups of either +antagonist or food-serving species. The oftener these oscillations of +level had taken place (and therefore generally the older the land) the +greater the number of species «<ins>which</ins>» would tend to be formed. The inhabitants +of a continent being thus derived in the first stage from the same +original parents, and subsequently from the inhabitants of one wide +area, since often broken up and reunited, all would be obviously related +together and the inhabitants of the most <i>dissimilar</i> stations on the +same continent would be more closely allied than the inhabitants of two +very <i>similar</i> stations on two of the main divisions of the world<a name='FNanchor_410_410' id='FNanchor_410_410'></a><a href='#Footnote_410_410' class='fnanchor'>{410}</a>.</p> + +<p>I need hardly point out that we now can obviously <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_191' id='Page_191'>{191}</a></span> +see why the number of species in two districts, independently of the +number of stations in such districts, should be in some cases as widely +different as in New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope<a name='FNanchor_411_411' id='FNanchor_411_411'></a><a href='#Footnote_411_411' class='fnanchor'>{411}</a>. +We can see, knowing the difficulty in the transport of terrestrial +mammals, why islands far from mainlands do not possess them<a name='FNanchor_412_412' id='FNanchor_412_412'></a><a href='#Footnote_412_412' class='fnanchor'>{412}</a>; +we see the general reason, namely accidental transport (though not the +precise reason), why certain islands should, and others should not, +possess members of the class of reptiles. We can see why an ancient +channel of communication between two distant points, as the Cordillera +probably was between southern Chile and the United States during the +former cold periods; and icebergs between the Falkland Islands and +Tierra del Fuego; and gales, at a former or present time, between the +Asiatic shores of the Pacific and eastern islands in this ocean; is +connected with (or we may now say causes) an affinity between the +species, though distinct, in two such districts. We can see how the +better chance of diffusion, from several of the species of any genus +having wide ranges in their own countries, explains the presence of +other species of the same genus in other countries<a name='FNanchor_413_413' id='FNanchor_413_413'></a><a href='#Footnote_413_413' class='fnanchor'>{413}</a>; +and on the other hand, of species of restricted powers of ranging, +forming genera with restricted ranges.</p> + +<p>As every one would be surprised if two exactly similar but peculiar +varieties<a name='FNanchor_414_414' id='FNanchor_414_414'></a><a href='#Footnote_414_414' class='fnanchor'>{414}</a> +of any species were raised by man by long continued selection, in two +different countries, or at two very different periods, so we ought not +to expect that an exactly similar form would be produced from the +modification of an old one in two distinct countries or at two distinct +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_192' id='Page_192'>{192}</a></span> +periods. For in such places and times they would probably be exposed to +somewhat different climates and almost certainly to different +associates. Hence we can see why each species appears to have been +produced singly, in space and in time. I need hardly remark that, +according to this theory of descent, there is no necessity of +modification in a species, when it reaches a new and isolated country. +If it be able to survive and if slight variations better adapted to the +new conditions are not selected, it might retain (as far as we can see) +its old form for an indefinite time. As we see that some sub-varieties +produced under domestication are more variable than others, so in +nature, perhaps, some species and genera are more variable than others. +The same precise form, however, would probably be seldom preserved +through successive geological periods, or in widely and differently +conditioned countries<a name='FNanchor_415_415' id='FNanchor_415_415'></a><a href='#Footnote_415_415' class='fnanchor'>{415}</a>.</p> + +<p>Finally, during the long periods of time and probably of oscillations of +level, necessary for the formation of a continent, we may conclude (as +above explained) that many forms would become extinct. These extinct +forms, and those surviving (whether or not modified and changed in +structure), will all be related in each continent in the same manner and +degree, as are the inhabitants of any two different sub-regions in that +same continent. I do not mean to say that, for instance, the present +Marsupials of Australia or Edentata and rodents of S. America have +descended from any one of the few fossils of the same orders which have +been discovered in these countries. It is possible that, in a very few +instances, this may be the case; but generally they must be considered +as merely codescendants of common stocks<a name='FNanchor_416_416' id='FNanchor_416_416'></a><a href='#Footnote_416_416' class='fnanchor'>{416}</a>. +I believe in this, from the improbability, considering the vast number +of species, which (as <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_193' id='Page_193'>{193}</a></span> +explained in the last chapter) must by our theory have existed, that +the <i>comparatively</i> few fossils which have been found should chance to +be the immediate and linear progenitors of those now existing. Recent as +the yet discovered fossil mammifers of S. America are, who will pretend +to say that very many intermediate forms may not have existed? Moreover, +we shall see in the ensuing chapter that the very existence of genera +and species can be explained only by a few species of each epoch leaving +modified successors or new species to a future period; and the more +distant that future period, the fewer will be the <i>linear</i> heirs of the +former epoch. As by our theory, all mammifers must have descended from +the same parent stock, so is it necessary that each land now possessing +terrestrial mammifers shall at some time have been so far united to +other land as to permit the passage of mammifers<a name='FNanchor_417_417' id='FNanchor_417_417'></a><a href='#Footnote_417_417' class='fnanchor'>{417}</a>; +and it accords with this necessity, that in looking far back into the +earth’s history we find, first changes in the geographical +distribution, and secondly a period when the mammiferous forms most +distinctive of two of the present main divisions of the world were +living together<a name='FNanchor_418_418' id='FNanchor_418_418'></a><a href='#Footnote_418_418' class='fnanchor'>{418}</a>.</p> + +<p>I think then I am justified in asserting that most of the above +enumerated and often trivial points in the geographical distribution of +past and present organisms (which points must be viewed by the +creationists as so many ultimate facts) follow as a simple consequence +of specific forms being mutable and of their being adapted by natural +selection to diverse ends, conjoined with their powers of dispersal, and +the geologico-geographical changes now in slow progress and which +undoubtedly have taken place. This large class of facts being thus +explained, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_194' id='Page_194'>{194}</a></span> +far more than counterbalances many separate difficulties and apparent +objections in convincing my mind of the truth of this theory of common +descent.</p> + +<h3><i>Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing +species.</i></h3> + +<p>There is one observation of considerable importance that may be here +introduced, with regard to the improbability of the chief transitional +forms between any two species being found fossil. With respect to the +finer shades of transition, I have before remarked that no one has any +cause to expect to trace them in a fossil state, without he be bold +enough to imagine that geologists at a future epoch will be able to +trace from fossil bones the gradations between the Short-Horns, +Herefordshire, and Alderney breeds of cattle<a name='FNanchor_419_419' id='FNanchor_419_419'></a><a href='#Footnote_419_419' class='fnanchor'>{419}</a>. +I have attempted to show that rising islands, in process of formation, +must be the best nurseries of new specific forms, and these points are +the least favourable for the embedment of fossils<a name='FNanchor_420_420' id='FNanchor_420_420'></a><a href='#Footnote_420_420' class='fnanchor'>{420}</a>: +I appeal, as evidence, to the state of the <i>numerous</i> scattered islands +in the several great oceans: how rarely do any sedimentary deposits +occur on them; and when present they are mere narrow fringes of no great +antiquity, which the sea is generally wearing away and destroying. The +cause of this lies in isolated islands being generally volcanic and +rising points; and the effects of subterranean elevation is to bring up +the surrounding newly-deposited strata within the destroying action of +the coast-waves: the strata, deposited at greater distances, and +therefore in the depths of the ocean, will be almost barren of organic +remains. These <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_195' id='Page_195'>{195}</a></span> +remarks may be generalised:—periods of subsidence will always be +most favourable to an accumulation of great thicknesses of strata, and +consequently to their long preservation; for without one formation be +protected by successive strata, it will seldom be preserved to a distant +age, owing to the enormous amount of denudation, which seems to be a +general contingent of time<a name='FNanchor_421_421' id='FNanchor_421_421'></a><a href='#Footnote_421_421' class='fnanchor'>{421}</a>. +I may refer, as evidence of this remark, to the vast amount of +subsidence evident in the great pile of the European formations, from +the Silurian epoch to the end of the Secondary, and perhaps to even a +later period. Periods of elevation on the other hand cannot be +favourable to the accumulation of strata and their preservation to +distant ages, from the circumstance just alluded to, viz. of elevation +tending to bring to the surface the circum-littoral strata (always +abounding most in fossils) and destroying them. The bottom of tracts of +deep water (little favourable, however, to life) must be excepted from +this unfavourable influence of elevation. In the quite open ocean, +probably no sediment<a name='FNanchor_422_422' id='FNanchor_422_422'></a><a href='#Footnote_422_422' class='fnanchor'>{422}</a> +is accumulating, or at a rate so slow as not to preserve fossil remains, +which will always be subject to disintegration. Caverns, no doubt, will +be equally likely to preserve terrestrial fossils in periods of +elevation and of subsidence; but whether it be owing to the enormous +amount of denudation, which all land seems to have undergone, no cavern +with fossil bones has been found belonging to the Secondary period<a name='FNanchor_423_423' id='FNanchor_423_423'></a><a href='#Footnote_423_423' class='fnanchor'>{423}</a>.</p> + +<p>Hence many more remains will be preserved to a distant age, in any +region of the world, during periods of its subsidence<a name='FNanchor_424_424' id='FNanchor_424_424'></a><a href='#Footnote_424_424' class='fnanchor'>{424}</a>, +than of its elevation.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_196' id='Page_196'>{196}</a></span> +But during the subsidence of a tract of land, its inhabitants (as before +shown) will from the decrease of space and of the diversity of its +stations, and from the land being fully preoccupied by species fitted to +diversified means of subsistence, be little liable to modification from +selection, although many may, or rather must, become extinct. With +respect to its circum-marine inhabitants, although during a change from +a continent to a <i>great</i> archipelago, the number of stations fitted for +marine beings will be increased, their means of diffusion (an important +check to change of form) will be greatly improved; for a continent +stretching north and south, or a quite open space of ocean, seems to be +to them the only barrier. On the other hand, during the elevation of a +small archipelago and its conversion into a continent, we have, whilst +the number of stations are increasing, both for aquatic and terrestrial +productions, and whilst these stations are not fully preoccupied by +perfectly adapted species, the most favourable conditions for the +selection of new specific forms; but few of them in their early +transitional states will be preserved to a distant epoch. We must wait +during an enormous lapse of time, until long-continued subsidence shall +have taken the place in this quarter of the world of the elevatory +process, for the best conditions of the embedment and the preservation +of its inhabitants. Generally the great mass of the strata in every +country, from having been chiefly accumulated during subsidence, will be +the tomb, not of transitional forms, but of those either becoming +extinct or remaining unmodified.</p> + +<p>The state of our knowledge, and the slowness of the changes of level, do +not permit us to test the truth of these remarks, by observing whether +there are more transitional or “fine” (as naturalists would +term them) species, on a rising and enlarging <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_197' id='Page_197'>{197}</a></span> +tract of land, than on an area of subsidence. Nor do I know whether +there are more “fine” species on isolated volcanic islands +in process of formation, than on a continent; but I may remark, that at +the Galapagos Archipelago the number of forms, which according to some +naturalists are true species, and according to others are mere races, is +considerable: this particularly applies to the different species or +races of the same genera inhabiting the different islands of this +archipelago. Furthermore it may be added (as bearing on the great facts +discussed in this chapter) that when naturalists confine their attention +to any one country, they have comparatively little difficulty in +determining what forms to call species and what to call varieties; that +is, those which can or cannot be traced or shown to be probably +descendants of some other form: but the difficulty increases, as species +are brought from many stations, countries and islands. It was this +increasing (but I believe in few cases insuperable) difficulty which +seems chiefly to have urged Lamarck to the conclusion that species are +mutable.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_198' id='Page_198'>{198}</a></p> +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_VII' id='CHAPTER_VII'></a>CHAPTER VII<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC +BEINGS</span><a name='FNanchor_425_425' id='FNanchor_425_425'></a><a href='#Footnote_425_425' class='fnanchor'>{425}</a></h2> + +<h3><i>Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups.</i></h3> + +<p>It has been observed from the earliest times that organic beings fall +into groups<a name='FNanchor_426_426' id='FNanchor_426_426'></a><a href='#Footnote_426_426' class='fnanchor'>{426}</a>, +and these groups into others of several values, such as species into +genera, and then into sub-families, into families, orders, &c. The +same fact holds with those beings which no longer exist. Groups of +species seem to follow the same laws in their appearance and +extinction<a name='FNanchor_427_427' id='FNanchor_427_427'></a><a href='#Footnote_427_427' class='fnanchor'>{427}</a>, +as do the individuals of any one species: we have reason to believe +that, first, a few species appear, that their numbers increase; and +that, when tending to extinction, the numbers of the species decrease, +till finally the group becomes extinct, in the same way as a species +becomes extinct, by the individuals becoming rarer and rarer. Moreover, +groups, like the individuals of a species, appear to become extinct at +different times in different countries. The Palæotherium was +extinct <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_199' id='Page_199'>{199}</a></span> +much sooner in Europe than in India: the Trigonia<a name='FNanchor_428_428' id='FNanchor_428_428'></a><a href='#Footnote_428_428' class='fnanchor'>{428}</a> +was extinct in early ages in Europe, but now lives in the seas of +Australia. As it happens that one species of a family will endure for a +much longer period than another species, so we find that some whole +groups, such as Mollusca, tend to retain their forms, or to remain +persistent, for longer periods than other groups, for instance than the +Mammalia. Groups therefore, in their appearance, extinction, and rate of +change or succession, seem to follow nearly the same laws with the +individuals of a species<a name='FNanchor_429_429' id='FNanchor_429_429'></a><a href='#Footnote_429_429' class='fnanchor'>{429}</a>.</p> + +<h3><i>What is the Natural System?</i></h3> + +<p>The proper arrangement of species into groups, according to the natural +system, is the object of all naturalists; but scarcely two naturalists +will give the same answer to the question, What is the natural system +and how are we to recognise it? The most important characters<a name='FNanchor_430_430' id='FNanchor_430_430'></a><a href='#Footnote_430_430' class='fnanchor'>{430}</a> +it might be thought (as it was by the earliest classifiers) ought to be +drawn from those parts of the structure which determine its habits and +place in the economy of nature, which we may call the final end of its +existence. But nothing is further from the truth than this; how much +external resemblance there is between the little otter (Chironectes) of +Guiana and the common otter; or again between the common swallow and the +swift; and who can doubt that the means and ends of their existence are +closely similar, yet how grossly wrong would be the classification, +which put close to each other a Marsupial and Placental animal, and two +birds with widely different skeletons. Relations, such as in the two +latter cases, or as that <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_200' id='Page_200'>{200}</a></span> +between the whale and fishes, are denominated “analogical<a name='FNanchor_431_431' id='FNanchor_431_431'></a><a href='#Footnote_431_431' class='fnanchor'>{431}</a>,” +or are sometimes described as “relations of adaption.” They +are infinitely numerous and often very singular; but are of no use in +the classification of the higher groups. How it comes, that certain +parts of the structure, by which the habits and functions of the species +are settled, are of no use in classification, whilst other parts, formed +at the same time, are of the greatest, it would be difficult to say, on +the theory of separate creations.</p> + +<p>Some authors as Lamarck, Whewell &c., believe that the degree of +affinity on the natural system depends on the degrees of resemblance in +organs more or less physiologically important for the preservation of +life. This scale of importance in the organs is admitted to be of +difficult discovery. But quite independent of this, the proposition, as +a general rule, must be rejected as false; though it may be partially +true. For it is universally admitted that the same part or organ, which +is of the highest service in classification in one group, is of very +little use in another group, though in both groups, as far as we can +see, the part or organ is of equal physiological importance: moreover, +characters quite unimportant physiologically, such as whether the +covering of the body consists of hair or feathers, whether the nostrils +communicated with the mouth<a name='FNanchor_432_432' id='FNanchor_432_432'></a><a href='#Footnote_432_432' class='fnanchor'>{432}</a> +&c., &c., are of the highest generality in classification; even +colour, which is so inconstant in many species, will sometimes well +characterise even a whole group of species. Lastly, the fact, that no +one character is of so much importance in determining to what great +group an organism belongs, as the forms through which the embryo<a name='FNanchor_433_433' id='FNanchor_433_433'></a><a href='#Footnote_433_433' class='fnanchor'>{433}</a> +passes from the germ upwards to maturity, cannot be reconciled <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_201' id='Page_201'>{201}</a></span> +with the idea that natural classification follows according to the +degrees of resemblance in the parts of most physiological importance. +The affinity of the common rock-barnacle with the Crustaceans can hardly +be perceived in more than a single character in its mature state, but +whilst young, locomotive, and furnished with eyes, its affinity cannot +be mistaken<a name='FNanchor_434_434' id='FNanchor_434_434'></a><a href='#Footnote_434_434' class='fnanchor'>{434}</a>. +The cause of the greater value of characters, drawn from the early +stages of life, can, as we shall in a succeeding chapter see, be in a +considerable degree explained, on the theory of descent, although +inexplicable on the views of the creationist.</p> + +<p>Practically, naturalists seem to classify according to the resemblance +of those parts or organs which in related groups are most uniform, or +vary least<a name='FNanchor_435_435' id='FNanchor_435_435'></a><a href='#Footnote_435_435' class='fnanchor'>{435}</a>: thus the æstivation, or manner in which the +petals etc. are folded over each other, is found to afford an unvarying +character in most families of plants, and accordingly any difference in +this respect would be sufficient to cause the rejection of a species +from many families; but in the Rubiaceæ the æstivation is a +varying character, and a botanist would not lay much stress on it, in +deciding whether or not to class a new species in this family. But this +rule is obviously so arbitrary a formula, that most naturalists seem to +be convinced that something ulterior is represented by the natural +system; they appear to think that we only discover by such similarities +what the arrangement of the system is, not that such similarities make +the system. We can only thus understand Linnæus’<a name='FNanchor_436_436' id='FNanchor_436_436'></a><a href='#Footnote_436_436' class='fnanchor'>{436}</a> +well-known saying, that the characters do not make the genus; but that +the genus gives the characters: for a classification, independent of +characters, is here presupposed.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_202' id='Page_202'>{202}</a></span> +Hence many naturalists have said that the natural system reveals the +plan of the Creator: but without it be specified whether order in time +or place, or what else is meant by the plan of the Creator, such +expressions appear to me to leave the question exactly where it was.</p> + +<p>Some naturalists consider that the geographical position<a name='FNanchor_437_437' id='FNanchor_437_437'></a><a href='#Footnote_437_437' class='fnanchor'>{437}</a> +of a species may enter into the consideration of the group into which it +should be placed; and most naturalists (either tacitly or openly) give +value to the different groups, not solely by their relative differences +in structure, but by the number of forms included in them. Thus a genus +containing a few species might be, and has often been, raised into a +family on the discovery of several other species. Many natural families +are retained, although most closely related to other families, from +including a great number of closely similar species. The more logical +naturalist would perhaps, if he could, reject these two contingents in +classification. From these circumstances, and especially from the +undefined objects and criterions of the natural system, the number of +divisions, such as genera, sub-families, families, &c., &c., has +been quite arbitrary<a name='FNanchor_438_438' id='FNanchor_438_438'></a><a href='#Footnote_438_438' class='fnanchor'>{438}</a>; +without the clearest definition, how can it be possible to decide +whether two groups of species are of equal value, and of what value? +whether they should both be called genera or families; or whether one +should be a genus, and the other a family<a name='FNanchor_439_439' id='FNanchor_439_439'></a><a href='#Footnote_439_439' class='fnanchor'>{439}</a>?</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_203' id='Page_203'>{203}</a></p> +<h3><i>On the kind of relation between distinct groups.</i></h3> + +<p>I have only one other remark on the affinities of organic beings; that +is, when two quite distinct groups approach each other, the approach is +<i>generally</i> generic<a name='FNanchor_440_440' id='FNanchor_440_440'></a><a href='#Footnote_440_440' class='fnanchor'>{440}</a> +and not special; I can explain this most easily by an example: of all +Rodents the Bizcacha, by certain peculiarities in its reproductive +system, approaches nearest to the Marsupials; of all Marsupials the +Phascolomys, on the other hand, appears to approach in the form of its +teeth and intestines nearest to the Rodents; but there is no special +relation between these two genera<a name='FNanchor_441_441' id='FNanchor_441_441'></a><a href='#Footnote_441_441' class='fnanchor'>{441}</a>; +the Bizcacha is no nearer related to the Phascolomys than to any other +Marsupial in the points in which it approaches this division; nor again +is the Phascolomys, in the points of structure in which it approaches +the Rodents, any nearer related to the Bizcacha than to any other +Rodent. Other examples might have been chosen, but I have given (from +Waterhouse) this example as it illustrates another point, namely, the +difficulty of determining what are analogical or adaptive and what real +affinities; it seems that the teeth of the Phascolomys though <i>appearing +closely</i> to resemble those of a Rodent are found to be built on the +Marsupial type; and it is thought that these teeth and consequently the +intestines may have been adapted to the peculiar life of this animal and +therefore may not show any real relation. The structure in the Bizcacha +that connects it with the Marsupials does not seem a peculiarity related +to its manner of life, and I imagine that no one would doubt that this +shows a real affinity, though not more with any one Marsupial <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_204' id='Page_204'>{204}</a></span> +species than with another. The difficulty of determining what relations +are real and what analogical is far from surprising when no one pretends +to define the meaning of the term relation or the ulterior object of all +classification. We shall immediately see on the theory of descent how it +comes that there should be “real” and +“analogical” affinities; and why the former alone should be +of value in classification—difficulties which it would be I +believe impossible to explain on the ordinary theory of separate +creations.</p> + +<h3><i>Classification of Races or Varieties.</i></h3> + +<p>Let us now for a few moments turn to the classification of the generally +acknowledged varieties and subdivisions of our domestic beings<a name='FNanchor_442_442' id='FNanchor_442_442'></a><a href='#Footnote_442_442' class='fnanchor'>{442}</a>; +we shall find them systematically arranged in groups of higher and +higher value. De Candolle has treated the varieties of the cabbage +exactly as he would have done a natural family with various divisions +and subdivisions. In dogs again we have one main division which may be +called the <i>family</i> of hounds; of these, there are several (we will call +them) <i>genera</i>, such as blood-hounds, fox-hounds, and harriers; and of +each of these we have different <i>species</i>, as the blood-hound of Cuba +and that of England; and of the latter again we have breeds truly +producing their own kind, which may be called races or varieties. Here +we see a classification practically used which typifies on a lesser +scale that which holds good in nature. But amongst true species in the +natural system and amongst domestic races the number of divisions or +groups, instituted between those most alike and those most unlike, seems +to be quite <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_205' id='Page_205'>{205}</a></span> +arbitrary. The number of the forms in both cases seems practically, +whether or not it ought theoretically, to influence the denomination of +groups including them. In both, geographical distribution has sometimes +been used as an aid to classification<a name='FNanchor_443_443' id='FNanchor_443_443'></a><a href='#Footnote_443_443' class='fnanchor'>{443}</a>; +amongst varieties, I may instance, the cattle of India or the sheep of +Siberia, which from possessing some characters in common permit a +classification of Indian and European cattle, or Siberian and European +sheep. Amongst domestic varieties we have even something very like the +relations of “analogy” or “adaptation<a name='FNanchor_444_444' id='FNanchor_444_444'></a><a href='#Footnote_444_444' class='fnanchor'>{444}</a>”; +thus the common and Swedish turnip are both artificial varieties which +strikingly resemble each other, and they fill nearly the same end in the +economy of the farm-yard; but although the swede so much more resembles +a turnip than its presumed parent the field cabbage, no one thinks of +putting it out of the cabbages into the turnips. Thus the greyhound and +racehorse, having been selected and trained for extreme fleetness for +short distances, present an analogical resemblance of the same kind, but +less striking as that between the little otter (Marsupial) of Guiana and +the common otter; though these two otters are really less related than +«<ins>are</ins>» the horse and dog. We are even cautioned by authors +treating on varieties, to follow the <i>natural</i> in contradistinction of +an artificial system and not, for instance, to class two varieties of +the pine-apple<a name='FNanchor_445_445' id='FNanchor_445_445'></a><a href='#Footnote_445_445' class='fnanchor'>{445}</a> +near each other, because their fruits accidentally resemble each other +closely (though the fruit may be called <i>the final end</i> of this plant in +the economy of its world, the hothouse), but to judge from the general +resemblance of the entire plants. Lastly, varieties often become +extinct; sometimes from unexplained causes, sometimes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_206' id='Page_206'>{206}</a></span> +from accident, but more often from the production of more useful +varieties, and the less useful ones being destroyed or bred out.</p> + +<p>I think it cannot be doubted that the main cause of all the varieties +which have descended from the aboriginal dog or dogs, or from the +aboriginal wild cabbage, not being equally like or unlike—but on +the contrary, obviously falling into groups and sub-groups—must in +chief part be attributed to different degrees of true relationship; for +instance, that the different kinds of blood-hound have descended from +one stock, whilst the harriers have descended from another stock, and +that both these have descended from a different stock from that which +has been the parent of the several kinds of greyhound. We often hear of +a florist having some choice variety and breeding from it a whole group +of sub-varieties more or less characterised by the peculiarities of the +parent. The case of the peach and nectarine, each with their many +varieties, might have been introduced. No doubt the relationship of our +different domestic breeds has been obscured in an extreme degree by +their crossing; and likewise from the slight difference between many +breeds it has probably often happened that a “sport” from +one breed has less closely resembled its parent breed than some other +breed, and has therefore been classed with the latter. Moreover the +effects of a similar climate<a name='FNanchor_446_446' id='FNanchor_446_446'></a><a href='#Footnote_446_446' class='fnanchor'>{446}</a> +may in some cases have more than counterbalanced the similarity, +consequent on a common descent, though I should think the similarity of +the breeds of cattle of India or sheep of Siberia was far more probably +due to the community of their descent than to the effects of climate on +animals descended from different stocks.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding these great sources of difficulty,<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_207' id='Page_207'>{207}</a></span> +I apprehend every one would admit, that if it were possible, a +genealogical classification of our domestic varieties would be the most +satisfactory one; and as far as varieties were concerned would be the +natural system: in some cases it has been followed. In attempting to +follow out this object a person would have to class a variety, whose +parentage he did not know, by its external characters; but he would have +a distinct ulterior object in view, namely, its descent in the same +manner as a regular systematist seems also to have an ulterior but +undefined end in all his classifications. Like the regular systematist +he would not care whether his characters were drawn from more or less +important organs as long as he found in the tribe which he was examining +that the characters from such parts were persistent; thus amongst cattle +he does value a character drawn from the form of the horns more than +from the proportions of the limbs and whole body, for he finds that the +shape of the horns is to a considerable degree persistent amongst +cattle<a name='FNanchor_447_447' id='FNanchor_447_447'></a><a href='#Footnote_447_447' class='fnanchor'>{447}</a>, +whilst the bones of the limbs and body vary. No doubt as a frequent rule +the more important the organ, as being less related to external +influences, the less liable it is to variation; but he would expect that +according to the object for which the races had been selected, parts +more or less important might differ; so that characters drawn from parts +generally most liable to vary, as colour, might in some instances be +highly serviceable—as is the case. He would admit that general +resemblances scarcely definable by language might sometimes serve to +allocate a species by its nearest relation. He would be able to assign a +clear reason why the close similarity of the fruit in two varieties of +pine-apple, and of the so-called root in the common and Swedish turnips, +and why the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_208' id='Page_208'>{208}</a></span> +similar gracefulness of form in the greyhound and racehorse, are +characters of little value in classification; namely, because they are +the result, not of community of descent, but either of selection for a +common end, or of the effects of similar external conditions.</p> + +<h3><i>Classification of "races" and species similar.</i></h3> + +<p>Thus seeing that both the classifiers of species and of varieties<a name='FNanchor_448_448' id='FNanchor_448_448'></a><a href='#Footnote_448_448' class='fnanchor'>{448}</a> +work by the same means, make similar distinctions in the value of the +characters, and meet with similar difficulties, and that both seem to +have in their classification an ulterior object in view; I cannot avoid +strongly suspecting that the same cause, which has made amongst our +domestic varieties groups and sub-groups, has made similar groups (but +of higher values) amongst species; and that this cause is the greater or +less propinquity of actual descent. The simple fact of species, both +those long since extinct and those now living, being divisible into +genera, families, orders &c.—divisions analogous to those into +which varieties are divisible—is otherwise an inexplicable fact, +and only not remarkable from its familiarity.</p> + +<h3><i>Origin of genera and families.</i></h3> + +<p>Let us suppose<a name='FNanchor_449_449' id='FNanchor_449_449'></a><a href='#Footnote_449_449' class='fnanchor'>{449}</a> +for example that a species spreads and arrives at six or more different +regions, or being already diffused over one wide area, let this area be +divided into six distinct regions, exposed to different conditions, and +with stations slightly different, not fully occupied with other species, +so <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_209' id='Page_209'>{209}</a></span> +that six different races or species were formed by selection, each best +fitted to its new habits and station. I must remark that in every case, +if a species becomes modified in any one sub-region, it is probable that +it will become modified in some other of the sub-regions over which it +is diffused, for its organization is shown to be capable of being +rendered plastic; its diffusion proves that it is able to struggle with +the other inhabitants of the several sub-regions; and as the organic +beings of every great region are in some degree allied, and as even the +physical conditions are often in some respects alike, we might expect +that a modification in structure, which gave our species some advantage +over antagonist species in one sub-region, would be followed by other +modifications in other of the sub-regions. The races or new species +supposed to be formed would be closely related to each other; and would +either form a new genus or sub-genus, or would rank (probably forming a +slightly different section) in the genus to which the parent species +belonged. In the course of ages, and during the contingent physical +changes, it is probable that some of the six new species would be +destroyed; but the same advantage, whatever it may have been (whether +mere tendency to vary, or some peculiarity of organization, power of +mind, or means of distribution), which in the parent-species and in its +six selected and changed species-offspring, caused them to prevail over +other antagonist species, would generally tend to preserve some or many +of them for a long period. If then, two or three of the six species were +preserved, they in their turn would, during continued changes, give rise +to as many small groups of species: if the parents of these small groups +were closely similar, the new species would form one great genus, barely +perhaps divisible into two or three sections: but if the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_210' id='Page_210'>{210}</a></span> +parents were considerably unlike, their species-offspring would, from +inheriting most of the peculiarities of their parent-stocks, form either +two or more sub-genera or (if the course of selection tended in +different ways) genera. And lastly species descending from different +species of the newly formed genera would form new genera, and such +genera collectively would form a family.</p> + +<p>The extermination of species follows from changes in the external +conditions, and from the increase or immigration of more favoured +species: and as those species which are undergoing modification in any +one great region (or indeed over the world) will very often be allied +ones from (as just explained) partaking of many characters, and +therefore advantages in common, so the species, whose place the new or +more favoured ones are seizing, from partaking of a common inferiority +(whether in any particular point of structure, or of general powers of +mind, of means of distribution, of capacity for variation, &c., &c.), +will be apt to be allied. Consequently species of the same genus will +slowly, one after the other, <i>tend</i> to become rarer and rarer in +numbers, and finally extinct; and as each last species of several allied +genera fails, even the family will become extinct. There may of course +be occasional exceptions to the entire destruction of any genus or +family. From what has gone before, we have seen that the slow and +successive formation of several new species from the same stock will +make a new genus, and the slow and successive formation of several other +new species from another stock will make another genus; and if these two +stocks were allied, such genera will make a new family. Now, as far as +our knowledge serves, it is in this slow and gradual manner that groups +of species appear on, and disappear from, the face of the earth.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_211' id='Page_211'>{211}</a></span> +The manner in which, according to our theory, the arrangement of species +in groups is due to partial extinction, will perhaps be rendered clearer +in the following way. Let us suppose in any one great class, for +instance in the Mammalia, that every species and every variety, during +each successive age, had sent down one unaltered descendant (either +fossil or living) to the present time; we should then have had one +enormous series, including by small gradations every known mammiferous +form; and consequently the existence of groups<a name='FNanchor_450_450' id='FNanchor_450_450'></a><a href='#Footnote_450_450' class='fnanchor'>{450}</a>, +or chasms in the series, which in some parts are in greater width, and +in some of less, is solely due to former species, and whole groups of +species, not having thus sent down descendants to the present time.</p> + +<p>With respect to the “analogical” or “adaptive” +resemblances between organic beings which are not really related<a name='FNanchor_451_451' id='FNanchor_451_451'></a><a href='#Footnote_451_451' class='fnanchor'>{451}</a>, +I will only add, that probably the isolation of different groups of +species is an important element in the production of such characters: +thus we can easily see, in a large increasing island, or even a +continent like Australia, stocked with only certain orders of the main +classes, that the conditions would be highly favourable for species from +these orders to become adapted to play parts in the economy of nature, +which in other countries were performed by tribes especially adapted to +such parts. We can understand how it might happen that an otter-like +animal might have been formed in Australia by slow selection from the +more carnivorous Marsupial types; thus we can understand that curious +case in the southern hemisphere, where there are no auks (but many +petrels), of a petrel<a name='FNanchor_452_452' id='FNanchor_452_452'></a><a href='#Footnote_452_452' class='fnanchor'>{452}</a> +having been modified into the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_212' id='Page_212'>{212}</a></span> +external general form so as to play the same office in nature with the +auks of the northern hemisphere; although the habits and form of the +petrels and auks are normally so wholly different. It follows, from our +theory, that two orders must have descended from one common stock at an +immensely remote epoch; and we can perceive when a species in either +order, or in both, shows some affinity to the other order, why the +affinity is usually generic and not particular—that is why the +Bizcacha amongst Rodents, in the points in which it is related to the +Marsupial, is related to the whole group<a name='FNanchor_453_453' id='FNanchor_453_453'></a><a href='#Footnote_453_453' class='fnanchor'>{453}</a>, +and not particularly to the Phascolomys, which of all Marsupialia is +related most to the Rodents. For the Bizcacha is related to the present +Marsupialia, only from being related to their common parent-stock; and +not to any one species in particular. And generally, it may be observed +in the writings of most naturalists, that when an organism is described +as intermediate between two <i>great</i> groups, its relations are not to +particular species of either group, but to both groups, as wholes. A +little reflection will show how exceptions (as that of the Lepidosiren, +a fish closely related to <i>particular</i> reptiles) might occur, namely +from a few descendants of those species, which at a very early period +branched out from a common parent-stock and so formed the two orders or +groups, having survived, in nearly their original state, to the present +time.</p> + +<p>Finally, then, we see that all the leading facts in the affinities and +classification of organic beings can be explained on the theory of the +natural system being simply a genealogical one. The similarity of the +principles in classifying domestic varieties and true species, both +those living and extinct, is at once <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_213' id='Page_213'>{213}</a></span> +explained; the rules followed and difficulties met with being the same. +The existence of genera, families, orders, &c., and their mutual +relations, naturally ensues from extinction going on at all periods +amongst the diverging descendants of a common stock. These terms of +affinity, relations, families, adaptive characters, &c., which +naturalists cannot avoid using, though metaphorically, cease being so, +and are full of plain signification.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_214' id='Page_214'>{214}</a></p> +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_VIII' id='CHAPTER_VIII'></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES</span></h2> + +<h3><i>Unity of Type</i><a name='FNanchor_454_454' id='FNanchor_454_454'></a><a href='#Footnote_454_454' class='fnanchor'>{454}</a>.</h3> + +<p>Scarcely anything is more wonderful or has been oftener insisted on than +that the organic beings in each great class, though living in the most +distant climes and at periods immensely remote, though fitted to widely +different ends in the economy of nature, yet all in their internal +structure evince an obvious uniformity. What, for instance, is more +wonderful than that the hand to clasp, the foot or hoof to walk, the +bat’s wing to fly, the porpoise’s fin<a name='FNanchor_455_455' id='FNanchor_455_455'></a><a href='#Footnote_455_455' class='fnanchor'>{455}</a> +to swim, should all be built on the same plan? and that the bones in +their position and number should be so similar that they can all be +classed and called by the same names. Occasionally some of the bones are +merely represented by an apparently useless, smooth style, or are +soldered closely to other bones, but the unity of type is not by this +destroyed, and hardly rendered less clear. We see in this fact some deep +bond of union between the organic beings of the same great +classes—to illustrate which is the object and foundation of the +natural <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_215' id='Page_215'>{215}</a></span> +system. The perception of this bond, I may add, is the evident cause +that naturalists make an ill-defined distinction between true and +adaptive affinities.</p> + +<h3><i>Morphology.</i></h3> + +<p>There is another allied or rather almost identical class of facts +admitted by the least visionary naturalists and included under the name +of Morphology. These facts show that in an individual organic being, +several of its organs consist of some other organ metamorphosed<a name='FNanchor_456_456' id='FNanchor_456_456'></a><a href='#Footnote_456_456' class='fnanchor'>{456}</a>: +thus the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils, &c. of every plant can be +shown to be metamorphosed leaves; and thus not only can the number, +position and transitional states of these several organs, but likewise +their monstrous changes, be most lucidly explained. It is believed that +the same laws hold good with the gemmiferous vesicles of Zoophytes. In +the same manner the number and position of the extraordinarily +complicated jaws and palpi of Crustacea and of insects, and likewise +their differences in the different groups, all become simple, on the +view of these parts, or rather legs and all metamorphosed appendages, +being metamorphosed legs. The skulls, again, of the Vertebrata are +composed of three metamorphosed vertebræ, and thus we can see a +meaning in the number and strange complication of the bony case of the +brain. In this latter instance, and in that of the jaws of the +Crustacea, it is only necessary to see a series taken from the different +groups of each class to admit the truth of these views. It is evident +that when in each species of a group its organs consist of some other +part metamorphosed, that there must also be a “unity of +type” in such a group. And <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_216' id='Page_216'>{216}</a></span> +in the cases as that above given in which the foot, hand, wing and +paddle are said to be constructed on a uniform type, if we could +perceive in such parts or organs traces of an apparent change from some +other use or function, we should strictly include such parts or organs +in the department of morphology: thus if we could trace in the limbs of +the Vertebrata, as we can in their ribs, traces of an apparent change +from being processes of the vertebræ, it would be said that in +each species of the Vertebrata the limbs were “metamorphosed +spinal processes,” and that in all the species throughout the +class the limbs displayed a “unity of type<a name='FNanchor_457_457' id='FNanchor_457_457'></a><a href='#Footnote_457_457' class='fnanchor'>{457}</a>.”</p> + +<p>These wonderful parts of the hoof, foot, hand, wing, paddle, both in +living and extinct animals, being all constructed on the same framework, +and again of the petals, stamina, germens, &c. being metamorphosed +leaves, can by the creationist be viewed only as ultimate facts and +incapable of explanation; whilst on our theory of descent these facts +all necessary follow: for by this theory all the beings of any one +class, say of the mammalia, are supposed to be descended from one +parent-stock, and to have been altered by such slight steps as man +effects by the selection of chance domestic variations. Now we can see +according to this view that a foot might be selected with longer and +longer bones, and wider connecting membranes, till it became a swimming +organ, and so on till it became an organ by which to flap along the +surface or to glide over it, and lastly to fly through the air: but in +such changes there would be no tendency to alter the framework of the +internal inherited structure. Parts might become lost (as the tail in +dogs, or horns in cattle, or the pistils in plants), others might become +united together (as in the feet of the<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_217' id='Page_217'>{217}</a></span> +Lincolnshire breed of pigs<a name='FNanchor_458_458' id='FNanchor_458_458'></a><a href='#Footnote_458_458' class='fnanchor'>{458}</a>, +and in the stamens of many garden flowers); parts of a similar nature +might become increased in number (as the vertebræ in the tails of +pigs, &c., &c. and the fingers and toes in six-fingered races of +men and in the Dorking fowls), but analogous differences are observed in +nature and are not considered by naturalists to destroy the uniformity +of the types. We can, however, conceive such changes to be carried to +such length that the unity of type might be obscured and finally be +undistinguishable, and the paddle of the Plesiosaurus has been advanced +as an instance in which the uniformity of type can hardly be +recognised<a name='FNanchor_459_459' id='FNanchor_459_459'></a><a href='#Footnote_459_459' class='fnanchor'>{459}</a>. +If after long and gradual changes in the structure of the co-descendants +from any parent stock, evidence (either from monstrosities or from a +graduated series) could be still detected of the function, which certain +parts or organs played in the parent stock, these parts or organs might +be strictly determined by their former function with the term +“metamorphosed” appended. Naturalists have used this term in +the same metaphorical manner as they have been obliged to use the terms +of affinity and relation; and when they affirm, for instance, that the +jaws of a crab are metamorphosed legs, so that one crab has more legs +and fewer jaws than another, they are far from meaning that the jaws, +either during the life of the individual crab or of its progenitors, +were really legs. By our theory this term assumes its literal meaning<a name='FNanchor_460_460' id='FNanchor_460_460'></a><a href='#Footnote_460_460' class='fnanchor'>{460}</a>; +and this wonderful fact of the complex jaws of an animal <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_218' id='Page_218'>{218}</a></span> +retaining numerous characters, which they would probably have retained +if they had really been metamorphosed during many successive generations +from true legs, is simply explained.</p> + +<h3><i>Embryology</i>.</h3> + +<p>The unity of type in the great classes is shown in another and very +striking manner, namely, in the stages through which the embryo passes +in coming to maturity<a name='FNanchor_461_461' id='FNanchor_461_461'></a><a href='#Footnote_461_461' class='fnanchor'>{461}</a>. +Thus, for instance, at one period of the embryo, the wings of the bat, +the hand, hoof or foot of the quadruped, and the fin of the porpoise do +not differ, but consist of a simple undivided bone. At a still earlier +period the embryo of the fish, bird, reptile and mammal all strikingly +resemble each other. Let it not be supposed this resemblance is only +external; for on dissection, the arteries are found to branch out and +run in a peculiar course, wholly unlike that in the full-grown mammal +and bird, but much less unlike that in the full-grown fish, for they run +as if to ærate blood by branchiæ<a name='FNanchor_462_462' id='FNanchor_462_462'></a><a href='#Footnote_462_462' class='fnanchor'>{462}</a> +on the neck, of which even the slit-like orifices can be discerned. How +wonderful it is that this structure should be present in the embryos of +animals about to be developed into such different forms, and of which +two great classes respire only in the air. Moreover, as the embryo of +the mammal is matured in the parent’s body, and that of the bird +in an egg in the air, and that of the fish in an egg in the water, we +cannot believe that this course of the arteries is related to any +external conditions. In all shell-fish (Gasteropods) the embryo passes +through a state analogous to that of the Pteropodous Mollusca:<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_219' id='Page_219'>{219}</a></span> +amongst insects again, even the most different ones, as the moth, fly +and beetle, the crawling larvæ are all closely analogous: amongst +the Radiata, the jelly-fish in its embryonic state resembles a polype, +and in a still earlier state an infusorial animalcule—as does +likewise the embryo of the polype. From the part of the embryo of a +mammal, at one period, resembling a fish more than its parent form; from +the larvæ of all orders of insects more resembling the simpler +articulate animals than their parent insects<a name='FNanchor_463_463' id='FNanchor_463_463'></a><a href='#Footnote_463_463' class='fnanchor'>{463}</a>; +and from such other cases as the embryo of the jelly-fish resembling a +polype much nearer than the perfect jelly-fish; it has often been +asserted that the higher animal in each class passes through the state +of a lower animal; for instance, that the mammal amongst the vertebrata +passes through the state of a fish<a name='FNanchor_464_464' id='FNanchor_464_464'></a><a href='#Footnote_464_464' class='fnanchor'>{464}</a>: +but Müller denies this, and affirms that the young mammal is at no +time a fish, as does Owen assert that the embryonic jelly-fish is at no +time a polype, but that mammal and fish, jelly-fish and polype pass +through the same state; the mammal and jelly-fish being only further +developed or changed.</p> + +<p>As the embryo, in most cases, possesses a less complicated structure +than that into which it is to be developed, it might have been thought +that the resemblance of the embryo to less complicated forms in the same +great class, was in some manner a necessary preparation for its higher +development; but in fact the embryo, during its growth, may become less, +as well as more, complicated<a name='FNanchor_465_465' id='FNanchor_465_465'></a><a href='#Footnote_465_465' class='fnanchor'>{465}</a>. +Thus certain female Epizoic Crustaceans in their mature <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_220' id='Page_220'>{220}</a></span> +state have neither eyes nor any organs of locomotion; they consist of a +mere sack, with a simple apparatus for digestion and procreation; and +when once attached to the body of the fish, on which they prey, they +never move again during their whole lives: in their embryonic condition, +on the other hand, they are furnished with eyes, and with well +articulated limbs, actively swim about and seek their proper object to +become attached to. The larvæ, also, of some moths are as +complicated and are more active than the wingless and limbless females, +which never leave their pupa-case, never feed and never see the +daylight.</p> + +<h3><i>Attempt to explain the facts of embryology.</i></h3> + +<p>I think considerable light can be thrown by the theory of descent on +these wonderful embryological facts which are common in a greater or +less degree to the whole animal kingdom, and in some manner to the +vegetable kingdom: on the fact, for instance, of the arteries in the +embryonic mammal, bird, reptile and fish, running and branching in the +same courses and nearly in the same manner with the arteries in the +full-grown fish; on the fact I may add of the high importance to +systematic naturalists<a name='FNanchor_466_466' id='FNanchor_466_466'></a><a href='#Footnote_466_466' class='fnanchor'>{466}</a> +of the characters and resemblances in the embryonic state, in +ascertaining the true position in the natural system of mature organic +beings. The following are the considerations which throw light on these +curious points.</p> + +<p>In the economy, we will say of a feline animal<a name='FNanchor_467_467' id='FNanchor_467_467'></a><a href='#Footnote_467_467' class='fnanchor'>{467}</a>, +the feline structure of the embryo or of the sucking kitten is of quite +secondary importance to it; hence, if a feline animal varied (assuming +for the time the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_221' id='Page_221'>{221}</a></span> +possibility of this) and if some place in the economy of nature +favoured the selection of a longer-limbed variety, it would be quite +unimportant to the production by natural selection of a long-limbed +breed, whether the limbs of the embryo and kitten were elongated if they +<i>became</i> so <i>as soon</i> as the animal had to provide food for itself. And +if it were found after continued selection and the production of several +new breeds from one parent-stock, that the successive variations had +supervened, not very early in the youth or embryonic life of each breed +(and we have just seen that it is quite unimportant whether it does so +or not), then it obviously follows that the young or embryos of the +several breeds will continue resembling each other more closely than +their adult parents<a name='FNanchor_468_468' id='FNanchor_468_468'></a><a href='#Footnote_468_468' class='fnanchor'>{468}</a>. +And again, if two of these breeds became each the parent-stock of +several other breeds, forming two genera, the young and embryos of these +would still retain a greater resemblance to the one original stock than +when in an adult state. Therefore if it could be shown that the period +of the slight successive variations does not always supervene at a very +early period of life, the greater resemblance or closer unity in type of +animals in the young than in the full-grown state would be explained. +Before practically<a name='FNanchor_469_469' id='FNanchor_469_469'></a><a href='#Footnote_469_469' class='fnanchor'>{469}</a> +endeavouring to discover in our domestic races whether the structure or +form of the young has or has not changed in an exactly corresponding +degree with the changes of full-grown animals, it will be well to show +that it is at least quite <i>possible</i> for the primary germinal vesicle to +be impressed with a tendency to produce some change on the growing +tissues which will not be fully effected till the animal is advanced in +life.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_222' id='Page_222'>{222}</a></span> +From the following peculiarities of structure being inheritable and +appearing only when the animal is full-grown—namely, general size, +tallness (not consequent on the tallness of the infant), fatness either +over the whole body, or local; change of colour in hair and its loss; +deposition of bony matter on the legs of horses; blindness and deafness, +that is changes of structure in the eye and ear; gout and consequent +deposition of chalk-stones; and many other diseases<a name='FNanchor_470_470' id='FNanchor_470_470'></a><a href='#Footnote_470_470' class='fnanchor'>{470}</a>, +as of the heart and brain, &c., &c.; from all such tendencies +being I repeat inheritable, we clearly see that the germinal vesicle is +impressed with some power which is wonderfully preserved during the +production of infinitely numerous cells in the ever changing tissues, +till the part ultimately to be affected is formed and the time of life +arrived at. We see this clearly when we select cattle with any +peculiarity of their horns, or poultry with any peculiarity of their +second plumage, for such peculiarities cannot of course reappear till +the animal is mature. Hence, it is certainly <i>possible</i> that the +germinal vesicle may be impressed with a tendency to produce a +long-limbed animal, the full proportional length of whose limbs shall +appear only when the animal is mature<a name='FNanchor_471_471' id='FNanchor_471_471'></a><a href='#Footnote_471_471' class='fnanchor'>{471}</a>.</p> + +<p>In several of the cases just enumerated we know that the first cause of +the peculiarity, when <i>not</i> inherited, lies in the conditions to which +the animal is exposed during mature life, thus to a certain extent +general size and fatness, lameness in horses and in a lesser degree +blindness, gout and some other diseases are certainly in some degree +caused <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_223' id='Page_223'>{223}</a></span> +and accelerated by the habits of life, and these peculiarities when +transmitted to the offspring of the affected person reappear at a nearly +corresponding time of life. In medical works it is asserted generally +that at whatever period an hereditary disease appears in the parent, it +tends to reappear in the offspring at the same period. Again, we find +that early maturity, the season of reproduction and longevity are +transmitted to corresponding periods of life. Dr Holland has insisted +much on children of the same family exhibiting certain diseases in +similar and peculiar manners; my father has known three brothers<a name='FNanchor_472_472' id='FNanchor_472_472'></a><a href='#Footnote_472_472' class='fnanchor'>{472}</a> +die in very old age in a <i>singular</i> comatose state; now to make these +latter cases strictly bear, the children of such families ought +similarly to suffer at corresponding times of life; this is probably not +the case, but such facts show that a tendency in a disease to appear at +particular stages of life can be transmitted through the germinal +vesicle to different individuals of the same family. It is then +certainly possible that diseases affecting widely different periods of +life can be transmitted. So little attention is paid to very young +domestic animals that I do not know whether any case is on record of +selected peculiarities in young animals, for instance, in the first +plumage of birds, being transmitted to their young. If, however, we turn +to silk-worms<a name='FNanchor_473_473' id='FNanchor_473_473'></a><a href='#Footnote_473_473' class='fnanchor'>{473}</a>, +we find that the caterpillars and coccoons (which must correspond to a +<i>very early</i> period of the embryonic life of mammalia) vary, and that +these varieties reappear in the offspring caterpillars and coccoons.</p> + +<p>I think these facts are sufficient to render it probable that at +whatever period of life any peculiarity (capable of being inherited) +appears, whether caused by the action of external influences <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_224' id='Page_224'>{224}</a></span> +during mature life, or from an affection of the primary germinal +vesicle, it <i>tends</i> to reappear in the offspring at the corresponding +period of life<a name='FNanchor_474_474' id='FNanchor_474_474'></a><a href='#Footnote_474_474' class='fnanchor'>{474}</a>. +Hence (I may add) whatever effect training, that is the full employment +or action of every newly selected slight variation, has in fully +developing and increasing such variation, would only show itself in +mature age, corresponding to the period of training; in the second +chapter I showed that there was in this respect a marked difference in +natural and artificial selection, man not regularly exercising or +adapting his varieties to new ends, whereas selection by nature +presupposes such exercise and adaptation in each selected and changed +part. The foregoing facts show and presuppose that slight variations +occur at various periods of life <i>after birth</i>; the facts of +monstrosity, on the other hand, show that many changes take place before +birth, for instance, all such cases as extra fingers, hare-lip and all +sudden and great alterations in structure; and these when inherited +reappear during the embryonic period in the offspring. I will only add +that at a period even anterior to embryonic life, namely, during the +<i>egg</i> state, varieties appear in size and colour (as with the +Hertfordshire duck with blackish eggs<a name='FNanchor_475_475' id='FNanchor_475_475'></a><a href='#Footnote_475_475' class='fnanchor'>{475}</a>) +which reappear in the egg; in plants also the capsule and membranes of +the seed are very variable and inheritable.</p> + +<p>If then the two following propositions are admitted (and I think the +first can hardly be doubted), viz. that variation of structure takes +place at all times of life, though no doubt far less in amount and +seldomer in quite mature life<a name='FNanchor_476_476' id='FNanchor_476_476'></a><a href='#Footnote_476_476' class='fnanchor'>{476}</a> +(and then generally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_225' id='Page_225'>{225}</a></span> +taking the form of disease); and secondly, that these variations tend +to reappear at a corresponding period of life, which seems at least +probable, then we might <i>a priori</i> have expected that in any selected +breed the <i>young</i> animal would not partake in a corresponding degree the +peculiarities characterising the <i>full-grown</i> parent; though it would in +a lesser degree. For during the thousand or ten thousand selections of +slight increments in the length of the limbs of individuals necessary to +produce a long-limbed breed, we might expect that such increments would +take place in different individuals (as we do not certainly know at what +period they do take place), some earlier and some later in the embryonic +state, and some during early youth; and these increments would reappear +in their offspring only at corresponding periods. Hence, the entire +length of limb in the new long-limbed breed would only be acquired at +the latest period of life, when that one which was latest of the +thousand primary increments of length supervened. Consequently, the +fœtus of the new breed during the earlier part of its existence +would remain much less changed in the proportions of its limbs; and the +earlier the period the less would the change be.</p> + +<p>Whatever may be thought of the facts on which this reasoning is +grounded, it shows how the embryos and young of different species might +come to remain less changed than their mature parents; and practically +we find that the young of our domestic animals, though differing, differ +less than their full-grown parents. Thus if we look at the young +puppies<a name='FNanchor_477_477' id='FNanchor_477_477'></a><a href='#Footnote_477_477' class='fnanchor'>{477}</a> +of the greyhound and bulldog—(the two most obviously modified of +the breeds of dog)—we find their puppies at the age of six days +with legs and noses (the latter measured from the eyes to the tip) of +the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_226' id='Page_226'>{226}</a></span> +same length; though in the proportional thicknesses and general +appearance of these parts there is a great difference. So it is with +cattle, though the young calves of different breeds are easily +recognisable, yet they do not differ so much in their proportions as the +full-grown animals. We see this clearly in the fact that it shows the +highest skill to select the best forms early in life, either in horses, +cattle or poultry; no one would attempt it only a few hours after birth; +and it requires great discrimination to judge with accuracy even during +their full youth, and the best judges are sometimes deceived. This shows +that the ultimate proportions of the body are not acquired till near +mature age. If I had collected sufficient facts to firmly establish the +proposition that in artificially selected breeds the embryonic and young +animals are not changed in a corresponding degree with their mature +parents, I might have omitted all the foregoing reasoning and the +attempts to explain how this happens; for we might safely have +transferred the proposition to the breeds or species naturally selected; +and the ultimate effect would necessarily have been that in a number of +races or species descended from a common stock and forming several +genera and families the embryos would have resembled each other more +closely than full-grown animals. Whatever may have been the form or +habits of the parent-stock of the Vertebrata, in whatever course the +arteries ran and branched, the selection of variations, supervening +after the first formation of the arteries in the embryo, would not tend +from variations supervening at corresponding periods to alter their +course at that period: hence, the similar course of the arteries in the +mammal, bird, reptile and fish, must be looked at as a most ancient +record of the embryonic structure of the common parent-stock of these +four great classes.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_227' id='Page_227'>{227}</a></span> +A long course of selection might cause a form to become more simple, as +well as more complicated; thus the adaptation of a crustaceous<a name='FNanchor_478_478' id='FNanchor_478_478'></a><a href='#Footnote_478_478' class='fnanchor'>{478}</a> +animal to live attached during its whole life to the body of a fish, +might permit with advantage great simplification of structure, and on +this view the singular fact of an embryo being more complex than its +parent is at once explained.</p> + +<h3><i>On the graduated complexity in each great class.</i></h3> + +<p>I may take this opportunity of remarking that naturalists have observed +that in most of the great classes a series exists from very complicated +to very simple beings; thus in Fish, what a range there is between the +sand-eel and shark,—in the Articulata, between the common crab and +the Daphnia<a name='FNanchor_479_479' id='FNanchor_479_479'></a><a href='#Footnote_479_479' class='fnanchor'>{479}</a>,—between +the Aphis and butterfly, and between a mite and a spider<a name='FNanchor_480_480' id='FNanchor_480_480'></a><a href='#Footnote_480_480' class='fnanchor'>{480}</a>. +Now the observation just made, namely, that selection might tend to +simplify, as well as to complicate, explains this; for we can see that +during the endless geologico-geographical changes, and consequent +isolation of species, a station occupied in other districts by less +complicated animals might be left unfilled, and be occupied by a +degraded form of a higher or more complicated class; and it would by no +means follow that, when the two regions became united, the degraded +organism would give way to the aboriginally lower organism. According to +our theory, there is obviously no power tending constantly to exalt +species, except the mutual struggle between the different individuals +and classes; but from the strong and general hereditary tendency we +might expect to find some tendency to progressive complication in the +successive production of new organic forms.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_228' id='Page_228'>{228}</a></p> +<h3><i>Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals.</i></h3> + +<p>I have above remarked that the feline<a name='FNanchor_481_481' id='FNanchor_481_481'></a><a href='#Footnote_481_481' class='fnanchor'>{481}</a> +form is quite of secondary importance to the embryo and to the kitten. +Of course, during any great and prolonged change of structure in the +mature animal, it might, and often would be, indispensable that the form +of the embryo should be changed; and this could be effected, owing to +the hereditary tendency at corresponding ages, by selection, equally +well as in mature age: thus if the embryo tended to become, or to +remain, either over its whole body or in certain parts, too bulky, the +female parent would die or suffer more during parturition; and as in the +case of the calves with large hinder quarters<a name='FNanchor_482_482' id='FNanchor_482_482'></a><a href='#Footnote_482_482' class='fnanchor'>{482}</a>, +the peculiarity must be either eliminated or the species become extinct. +Where an embryonic form has to seek its own food, its structure and +adaptation is just as important to the species as that of the full-grown +animal; and as we have seen that a peculiarity appearing in a +caterpillar (or in a child, as shown by the hereditariness of +peculiarities in the milk-teeth) reappears in its offspring, so we can +at once see that our common principle of the selection of slight +accidental variations would modify and adapt a caterpillar to a new or +changing condition, precisely as in the full-grown butterfly. Hence +probably it is that caterpillars of different species of the Lepidoptera +differ more than those embryos, at a corresponding early period of life, +do which remain inactive in the womb of their parents. The parent during +successive ages continuing to be adapted by selection for some one +object, and the larva for quite another one, we need not wonder at <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_229' id='Page_229'>{229}</a></span> +the difference becoming wonderfully great between them; even as great +as that between the fixed rock-barnacle and its free, crab-like +offspring, which is furnished with eyes and well-articulated, locomotive +limbs<a name='FNanchor_483_483' id='FNanchor_483_483'></a><a href='#Footnote_483_483' class='fnanchor'>{483}</a>.</p> + +<h3><i>Importance of embryology in classification.</i></h3> + +<p>We are now prepared to perceive why the study of embryonic forms is of +such acknowledged importance in classification<a name='FNanchor_484_484' id='FNanchor_484_484'></a><a href='#Footnote_484_484' class='fnanchor'>{484}</a>. +For we have seen that a variation, supervening at any time, may aid in +the modification and adaptation of the full-grown being; but for the +modification of the embryo, only the variations which supervene at a +very early period can be seized on and perpetuated by selection: hence +there will be less power and less tendency (for the structure of the +embryo is mostly unimportant) to modify the young: and hence we might +expect to find at this period similarities preserved between different +groups of species which had been obscured and quite lost in the +full-grown animals. I conceive on the view of separate creations it +would be impossible to offer any explanation of the affinities of +organic beings thus being plainest and of the greatest importance at +that period of life when their structure is not adapted to the final +part they have to play in the economy of nature.</p> + +<h3><i>Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared.</i></h3> + +<p>It follows strictly from the above reasoning only that the embryos of +(for instance) existing vertebrata resemble more closely the embryo of +the parent-stock of this great class than do full-grown existing +vertebrata resemble their full-grown parent-stock.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_230' id='Page_230'>{230}</a></span> +But it may be argued with much probability that in the earliest and +simplest condition of things the parent and embryo must have resembled +each other, and that the passage of any animal through embryonic states +in its growth is entirely due to subsequent variations affecting <i>only</i> +the more mature periods of life. If so, the embryos of the existing +vertebrata will shadow forth the full-grown structure of some of those +forms of this great class which existed at the earlier periods of the +earth's history<a name='FNanchor_485_485' id='FNanchor_485_485'></a><a href='#Footnote_485_485' class='fnanchor'>{485}</a>: +and accordingly, animals with a fish-like structure ought to have +preceded birds and mammals; and of fish, that higher organized division +with the vertebræ extending into one division of the tail ought to +have preceded the equal-tailed, because the embryos of the latter have +an unequal tail; and of Crustacea, entomostraca ought to have preceded +the ordinary crabs and barnacles—polypes ought to have preceded +jelly-fish, and infusorial animalcules to have existed before both. This +order of precedence in time in some of these cases is believed to hold +good; but I think our evidence is so exceedingly incomplete regarding +the number and kinds of organisms which have existed during all, +especially the earlier, periods of the earth’s history, that I +should put no stress on this accordance, even if it held truer than it +probably does in our present state of knowledge.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_231' id='Page_231'>{231}</a></p> +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_IX' id='CHAPTER_IX'></a>CHAPTER IX<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS</span></h2> + +<h3><i>The abortive organs of naturalists.</i></h3> + +<p>Parts of structure are said to be “abortive,” or when in a +still lower state of development “rudimentary<a name='FNanchor_486_486' id='FNanchor_486_486'></a><a href='#Footnote_486_486' class='fnanchor'>{486}</a>,” +when the same reasoning power, which convinces us that in some cases +similar parts are beautifully adapted to certain ends, declares that in +others they are absolutely useless. Thus the rhinoceros, the whale<a name='FNanchor_487_487' id='FNanchor_487_487'></a><a href='#Footnote_487_487' class='fnanchor'>{487}</a>, +etc., have, when young, small but properly formed teeth, which never +protrude from the jaws; certain bones, and even the entire extremities +are represented by mere little cylinders or points of bone, often +soldered to other bones: many beetles have exceedingly minute but +regularly formed wings lying under their wing-cases<a name='FNanchor_488_488' id='FNanchor_488_488'></a><a href='#Footnote_488_488' class='fnanchor'>{488}</a>, +which latter are united never to be opened: many plants have, instead of +stamens, mere filaments or little knobs; petals are reduced to scales, +and whole flowers to buds, which (as in the feather hyacinth) never +expand. Similar instances are almost innumerable, and are justly +considered wonderful: probably not one organic being exists in which +some part does not bear the stamp of inutility; for what can be +clearer<a name='FNanchor_489_489' id='FNanchor_489_489'></a><a href='#Footnote_489_489' class='fnanchor'>{489}</a>, +as far as our reasoning powers <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_232' id='Page_232'>{232}</a></span> +can reach, than that teeth are for eating, extremities for locomotion, +wings for flight, stamens and the entire flower for reproduction; yet +for these clear ends the parts in question are manifestly unfit. +Abortive organs are often said to be mere representatives (a +metaphorical expression) of similar parts in other organic beings; but +in some cases they are more than representatives, for they seem to be +the actual organ not fully grown or developed; thus the existence of +mammæ in the male vertebrata is one of the oftenest adduced cases +of abortion; but we know that these organs in man (and in the bull) have +performed their proper function and secreted milk: the cow has normally +four mammæ and two abortive ones, but these latter in some +instances are largely developed and even (??) give milk<a name='FNanchor_490_490' id='FNanchor_490_490'></a><a href='#Footnote_490_490' class='fnanchor'>{490}</a>. +Again in flowers, the representatives of stamens and pistils can be +traced to be really these parts not developed; Kölreuter has shown +by crossing a diæcious plant (a Cucubalus) having a rudimentary +pistil<a name='FNanchor_491_491' id='FNanchor_491_491'></a><a href='#Footnote_491_491' class='fnanchor'>{491}</a> +with another species having this organ perfect, that in the hybrid +offspring the rudimentary part is more developed, though still remaining +abortive; now this shows how intimately related in nature the mere +rudiment and the fully developed pistil must be.</p> + +<p>Abortive organs, which must be considered as useless as far as their +ordinary and normal purpose is concerned, are sometimes adapted to other +ends<a name='FNanchor_492_492' id='FNanchor_492_492'></a><a href='#Footnote_492_492' class='fnanchor'>{492}</a>: +thus the marsupial bones, which properly serve to support the young in +the mother’s pouch, are present in the male and serve as the +fulcrum for muscles connected only with male functions: in the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_233' id='Page_233'>{233}</a></span> +male of the marigold flower the pistil is abortive for its proper end +of being impregnated, but serves to sweep the pollen out of the +anthers<a name='FNanchor_493_493' id='FNanchor_493_493'></a><a href='#Footnote_493_493' class='fnanchor'>{493}</a> +ready to be borne by insects to the perfect pistils in the other +florets. It is likely in many cases, yet unknown to us, that abortive +organs perform some useful function; but in other cases, for instance in +that of teeth embedded in the solid jaw-bone, or of mere knobs, the +rudiments of stamens and pistils, the boldest imagination will hardly +venture to ascribe to them any function. Abortive parts, even when +wholly useless to the individual species, are of great signification in +the system of nature; for they are often found to be of very high +importance in a natural classification<a name='FNanchor_494_494' id='FNanchor_494_494'></a><a href='#Footnote_494_494' class='fnanchor'>{494}</a>; +thus the presence and position of entire abortive flowers, in the +grasses, cannot be overlooked in attempting to arrange them according to +their true affinities. This corroborates a statement in a previous +chapter, viz. that the physiological importance of a part is no index of +its importance in classification. Finally, abortive organs often are +only developed, proportionally with other parts, in the embryonic or +young state of each species<a name='FNanchor_495_495' id='FNanchor_495_495'></a><a href='#Footnote_495_495' class='fnanchor'>{495}</a>; +this again, especially considering the classificatory importance of +abortive organs, is evidently part of the law (stated in the last +chapter) that the higher affinities of organisms are often best seen in +the stages towards maturity, through which the embryo passes. On the +ordinary view of individual creations, I think that scarcely any class +of facts in natural history are more wonderful or less capable of +receiving explanation.</p> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_234' id='Page_234'>{234}</a></p> +<h3><i>The abortive organs of physiologists.</i></h3> + +<p>Physiologists and medical men apply the term “abortive” in a +somewhat different sense from naturalists; and their application is +probably the primary one; namely, to parts, which from accident or +disease before birth are not developed or do not grow<a name='FNanchor_496_496' id='FNanchor_496_496'></a><a href='#Footnote_496_496' class='fnanchor'>{496}</a>: +thus, when a young animal is born with a little stump in the place of a +finger or of the whole extremity, or with a little button instead of a +head, or with a mere bead of bony matter instead of a tooth, or with a +stump instead of a tail, these parts are said to be aborted. Naturalists +on the other hand, as we have seen, apply this term to parts not stunted +during the growth of the embryo, but which are as regularly produced in +successive generations as any other most essential parts of the +structure of the individual: naturalists, therefore, use this term in a +metaphorical sense. These two classes of facts, however, blend into each +other<a name='FNanchor_497_497' id='FNanchor_497_497'></a><a href='#Footnote_497_497' class='fnanchor'>{497}</a>; +by parts accidentally aborted, during the embryonic life of one +individual, becoming hereditary in the succeeding generations: thus a +cat or dog, born with a stump instead of a tail, tends to transmit +stumps to their offspring; and so it is with stumps representing the +extremities; and so again with flowers, with defective and rudimentary +parts, which are annually produced in new flower-buds and even in +successive seedlings. The strong hereditary tendency to reproduce every +either congenital or slowly acquired structure, whether useful or +injurious to the individual, has been shown in the first part; so that +we need feel no surprise at these truly abortive <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_235' id='Page_235'>{235}</a></span> +parts becoming hereditary. A curious instance of the force of +hereditariness is sometimes seen in two little loose hanging horns, +quite useless as far as the function of a horn is concerned, which are +produced in hornless races of our domestic cattle<a name='FNanchor_498_498' id='FNanchor_498_498'></a><a href='#Footnote_498_498' class='fnanchor'>{498}</a>. +Now I believe no real distinction can be drawn between a stump +representing a tail or a horn or the extremities; or a short shrivelled +stamen without any pollen; or a dimple in a petal representing a +nectary, when such rudiments are regularly reproduced in a race or +family, and the true abortive organs of naturalists. And if we had +reason to believe (which I think we have not) that all abortive organs +had been at some period <i>suddenly</i> produced during the embryonic life of +an individual, and afterwards become inherited, we should at once have a +simple explanation of the origin of abortive and rudimentary organs<a name='FNanchor_499_499' id='FNanchor_499_499'></a><a href='#Footnote_499_499' class='fnanchor'>{499}</a>. +In the same manner as during changes of pronunciation certain letters in +a word may become useless<a name='FNanchor_500_500' id='FNanchor_500_500'></a><a href='#Footnote_500_500' class='fnanchor'>{500}</a> +in pronouncing it, but yet may aid us in searching for its derivation, +so we can see that rudimentary organs, no longer useful to the +individual, may be of high importance in ascertaining its descent, that +is, its true classification in the natural system.</p> + +<h3><i>Abortion from gradual disuse.</i></h3> + +<p>There seems to be some probability that continued disuse of any part or +organ, and the selection of individuals with such parts slightly less +developed, would in the course of ages produce in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_236' id='Page_236'>{236}</a></span> +organic beings under domesticity races with such parts abortive. We +have every reason to believe that every part and organ in an individual +becomes fully developed only with exercise of its functions; that it +becomes developed in a somewhat lesser degree with less exercise; and if +forcibly precluded from all action, such part will often become +atrophied. Every peculiarity, let it be remembered, tends, especially +where both parents have it, to be inherited. The less power of flight in +the common duck compared with the wild, must be partly attributed to +disuse<a name='FNanchor_501_501' id='FNanchor_501_501'></a><a href='#Footnote_501_501' class='fnanchor'>{501}</a> +during successive generations, and as the wing is properly adapted to +flight, we must consider our domestic duck in the first stage towards +the state of the Apteryx, in which the wings are so curiously abortive. +Some naturalists have attributed (and possibly with truth) the falling +ears so characteristic of most domestic dogs, some rabbits, oxen, cats, +goats, horses, &c., &c., as the effects of the lesser use of the +muscles of these flexible parts during successive generations of +inactive life; and muscles, which cannot perform their functions, must +be considered verging towards abortion. In flowers, again, we see the +gradual abortion during successive seedlings (though this is more +properly a conversion) of stamens into imperfect petals, and finally +into perfect petals. When the eye is blinded in early life the optic +nerve sometimes becomes atrophied; may we not believe that where this +organ, as is the case with the subterranean mole-like Tuco-tuco +«<ins><i>Ctenomys</i></ins>»<a name='FNanchor_502_502' id='FNanchor_502_502'></a><a href='#Footnote_502_502' class='fnanchor'>{502}</a>, +is frequently impaired and lost, that in the course of generations the +whole organ might become abortive, as it normally is in some burrowing +quadrupeds having nearly similar habits with the Tuco-tuco?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_237' id='Page_237'>{237}</a></span> +In as far then as it is admitted as probable that the effects of disuse +(together with occasional true and sudden abortions during the embryonic +period) would cause a part to be less developed, and finally to become +abortive and useless; then during the infinitely numerous changes of +habits in the many descendants from a common stock, we might fairly have +expected that cases of organs becom«<ins>ing</ins>» abortive would have been numerous. +The preservation of the stump of the tail, as usually happens when an +animal is born tailless, we can only explain by the strength of the +hereditary principle and by the period in embryo when affected<a name='FNanchor_503_503' id='FNanchor_503_503'></a><a href='#Footnote_503_503' class='fnanchor'>{503}</a>: +but on the theory of disuse gradually obliterating a part, we can see, +according to the principles explained in the last chapter (viz. of +hereditariness at corresponding periods of life<a name='FNanchor_504_504' id='FNanchor_504_504'></a><a href='#Footnote_504_504' class='fnanchor'>{504}</a>, +together with the use and disuse of the part in question not being +brought into play in early or embryonic life), that organs or parts +would tend not to be utterly obliterated, but to be reduced to that +state in which they existed in early embryonic life. Owen often speaks +of a part in a full-grown animal being in an “embryonic +condition.” Moreover we can thus see why abortive organs are most +developed at an early period of life. Again, by gradual selection, we +can see how an organ rendered abortive in its primary use might be +converted to other purposes; a duck’s wing might come to serve for +a fin, as does that of the penguin; an abortive bone might come to +serve, by the slow increment and change of place in the muscular fibres, +as a fulcrum for a new series of muscles; the pistil<a name='FNanchor_505_505' id='FNanchor_505_505'></a><a href='#Footnote_505_505' class='fnanchor'>{505}</a> +of the marigold might become abortive as a reproductive part, but be +continued in its function of sweeping the pollen out of the anthers; for +if in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_238' id='Page_238'>{238}</a></span> +this latter respect the abortion had not been checked by selection, the +species must have become extinct from the pollen remaining enclosed in +the capsules of the anthers.</p> + +<p>Finally then I must repeat that these wonderful facts of organs formed +with traces of exquisite care, but now either absolutely useless or +adapted to ends wholly different from their ordinary end, being present +and forming part of the structure of almost every inhabitant of this +world, both in long-past and present times—being best developed +and often only discoverable at a very early embryonic period, and being +full of signification in arranging the long series of organic beings in +a natural system—these wonderful facts not only receive a simple +explanation on the theory of long-continued selection of many species +from a few common parent-stocks, but necessarily follow from this +theory. If this theory be rejected, these facts remain quite +inexplicable; without indeed we rank as an explanation such loose +metaphors as that of De Candolle’s<a name='FNanchor_506_506' id='FNanchor_506_506'></a><a href='#Footnote_506_506' class='fnanchor'>{506}</a>, +in which the kingdom of nature is compared to a well-covered table, and +the abortive organs are considered as put in for the sake of symmetry!</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_239' id='Page_239'>{239}</a></p> +<h2><a name='CHAPTER_X' id='CHAPTER_X'></a>CHAPTER X<br /> +<span class='sc lc'>RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION</span></h2> + +<h3><i>Recapitulation.</i></h3> + +<p>I will now recapitulate the course of this work, more fully with respect +to the former parts, and briefly «<ins>as to</ins>» the latter. In the +first chapter we have seen that most, if not all, organic beings, when +taken by man out of their natural condition, and bred during several +generations, vary; that is variation is partly due to the direct effect +of the new external influences, and partly to the indirect effect on the +reproductive system rendering the organization of the offspring in some +degree plastic. Of the variations thus produced, man when uncivilised +naturally preserves the life, and therefore unintentionally breeds from +those individuals most useful to him in his different states: when even +semi-civilised, he intentionally separates and breeds from such +individuals. Every part of the structure seems occasionally to vary in a +very slight degree, and the extent to which all kinds of peculiarities +in mind and body, when congenital and when slowly acquired either from +external influences, from exercise, or from disuse «<ins>are +inherited</ins>», is truly wonderful. When several breeds are once +formed, then crossing is the most fertile source of new breeds<a name='FNanchor_507_507' id='FNanchor_507_507'></a><a href='#Footnote_507_507' class='fnanchor'>{507}</a>. +Variation <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_240' id='Page_240'>{240}</a></span> +must be ruled, of course, by the health of the new race, by the +tendency to return to the ancestral forms, and by unknown laws +determining the proportional increase and symmetry of the body. The +amount of variation, which has been effected under domestication, is +quite unknown in the majority of domestic beings.</p> + +<p>In the second chapter it was shown that wild organisms undoubtedly vary +in some slight degree: and that the kind of variation, though much less +in degree, is similar to that of domestic organisms. It is highly +probable that every organic being, if subjected during several +generations to new and varying conditions, would vary. It is certain +that organisms, living in an <i>isolated</i> country which is undergoing +geological changes, must in the course of time be so subjected to new +conditions; moreover an organism, when by chance transported into a new +station, for instance into an island, will often be exposed to new +conditions, and be surrounded by a new series of organic beings. If +there were no power at work selecting every slight variation, which +opened new sources of subsistence to a being thus situated, the effects +of crossing, the chance of death and the constant tendency to reversion +to the old parent-form, would prevent the production of new races. If +there were any selective agency at work, it seems impossible to assign +any limit<a name='FNanchor_508_508' id='FNanchor_508_508'></a><a href='#Footnote_508_508' class='fnanchor'>{508}</a> +to the complexity and beauty of the adaptive structures, which <i>might</i> +thus be produced: for certainly the limit of possible variation of +organic beings, either in a wild or domestic state, is not known.</p> + +<p>It was then shown, from the geometrically increasing tendency of each +species to multiply (as evidenced from what we know of mankind and +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_241' id='Page_241'>{241}</a></span> +of other animals when favoured by circumstances), and from the means of +subsistence of each species on an <i>average</i> remaining constant, that +during some part of the life of each, or during every few generations, +there must be a severe struggle for existence; and that less than a +grain<a name='FNanchor_509_509' id='FNanchor_509_509'></a><a href='#Footnote_509_509' class='fnanchor'>{509}</a> +in the balance will determine which individuals shall live and which +perish. In a country, therefore, undergoing changes, and cut off from +the free immigration of species better adapted to the new station and +conditions, it cannot be doubted that there is a most powerful means of +selection, <i>tending</i> to preserve even the slightest variation, which +aided the subsistence or defence of those organic beings, during any +part of their whole existence, whose organization had been rendered +plastic. Moreover, in animals in which the sexes are distinct, there is +a sexual struggle, by which the most vigorous, and consequently the best +adapted, will oftener procreate their kind.</p> + +<p>A new race thus formed by natural selection would be undistinguishable +from a species. For comparing, on the one hand, the several species of a +genus, and on the other hand several domestic races from a common stock, +we cannot discriminate them by the amount of external difference, but +only, first, by domestic races not remaining so constant or being so +“true” as species are; and secondly by races always +producing fertile offspring when crossed. And it was then shown that a +race naturally selected—from the variation being slower—from +the selection steadily leading towards the same ends<a name='FNanchor_510_510' id='FNanchor_510_510'></a><a href='#Footnote_510_510' class='fnanchor'>{510}</a>, +and from every new slight change in structure being adapted (as is +implied by its selection)<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_242' id='Page_242'>{242}</a></span> +to the new conditions and being fully exercised, and lastly from the +freedom from occasional crosses with other species, would almost +necessarily be “truer” than a race selected by ignorant or +capricious and short-lived man. With respect to the sterility of species +when crossed, it was shown not to be a universal character, and when +present to vary in degree: sterility also was shown probably to depend +less on external than on constitutional differences. And it was shown +that when individual animals and plants are placed under new conditions, +they become, without losing their healths, as sterile, in the same +manner and to the same degree, as hybrids; and it is therefore +conceivable that the cross-bred offspring between two species, having +different constitutions, might have its constitution affected in the +same peculiar manner as when an individual animal or plant is placed +under new conditions. Man in selecting domestic races has little wish +and still less power to adapt the whole frame to new conditions; in +nature, however, where each species survives by a struggle against other +species and external nature, the result must be very different.</p> + +<p>Races descending from the same stock were then compared with species of +the same genus, and they were found to present some striking analogies. +The offspring also of races when crossed, that is mongrels, were +compared with the cross-bred offspring of species, that is hybrids, and +they were found to resemble each other in all their characters, with the +one exception of sterility, and even this, when present, often becomes +after some generations variable in degree. The chapter was summed up, +and it was shown that no ascertained limit to the amount of variation is +known; or could be predicted with due time and changes of condition +granted. It was then admitted that although the production of new races, +undistinguishable from <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_243' id='Page_243'>{243}</a></span> +true species, is probable, we must look to the relations in the past +and present geographical distribution of the infinitely numerous beings, +by which we are surrounded—to their affinities and to their +structure—for any direct evidence.</p> + +<p>In the third chapter the inheritable variations in the mental phenomena +of domestic and of wild organic beings were considered. It was shown +that we are not concerned in this work with the first origin of the +leading mental qualities; but that tastes, passions, dispositions, +consensual movements, and habits all became, either congenitally or +during mature life, modified and were inherited. Several of these +modified habits were found to correspond in every essential character +with true instincts, and they were found to follow the same laws. +Instincts and dispositions &c. are fully as important to the +preservation and increase of a species as its corporeal structure; and +therefore the natural means of selection would act on and modify them +equally with corporeal structures. This being granted, as well as the +proposition that mental phenomena are variable, and that the +modifications are inheritable, the possibility of the several most +complicated instincts being slowly acquired was considered, and it was +shown from the very imperfect series in the instincts of the animals now +existing, that we are not justified in <i>prima facie</i> rejecting a theory +of the common descent of allied organisms from the difficulty of +imagining the transitional stages in the various now most complicated +and wonderful instincts. We were thus led on to consider the same +question with respect both to highly complicated organs, and to the +aggregate of several such organs, that is individual organic beings; and +it was shown, by the same method of taking the existing most imperfect +series, that we ought not at once to reject the theory, because we +cannot trace the transitional <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_244' id='Page_244'>{244}</a></span> +stages in such organs, or conjecture the transitional habits of such +individual species.</p> + +<p>In the Second Part<a name='FNanchor_511_511' id='FNanchor_511_511'></a><a href='#Footnote_511_511' class='fnanchor'>{511}</a> +the direct evidence of allied forms having descended from the same stock +was discussed. It was shown that this theory requires a long series of +intermediate forms between the species and groups in the same +classes—forms not directly intermediate between existing species, +but intermediate with a common parent. It was admitted that if even all +the preserved fossils and existing species were collected, such a series +would be far from being formed; but it was shown that we have not <i>good</i> +evidence that the oldest known deposits are contemporaneous with the +first appearance of living beings; or that the several subsequent +formations are nearly consecutive; or that any one formation preserves a +nearly perfect fauna of even the hard marine organisms, which lived in +that quarter of the world. Consequently, we have no reason to suppose +that more than a small fraction of the organisms which have lived at any +one period have ever been preserved; and hence that we ought not to +expect to discover the fossilised sub-varieties between any two species. +On the other hand, the evidence, though extremely imperfect, drawn from +fossil remains, as far as it does go, is in favour of such a series of +organisms having existed as that required. This want of evidence of the +past existence of almost infinitely numerous intermediate forms, is, I +conceive, much the weightiest difficulty<a name='FNanchor_512_512' id='FNanchor_512_512'></a><a href='#Footnote_512_512' class='fnanchor'>{512}</a> +on the theory of common descent; but I must think that this is due to +ignorance necessarily resulting from the imperfection of all geological +records.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_245' id='Page_245'>{245}</a></span> +In the fifth chapter it was shown that new species gradually<a name='FNanchor_513_513' id='FNanchor_513_513'></a><a href='#Footnote_513_513' class='fnanchor'>{513}</a> +appear, and that the old ones gradually disappear, from the earth; and +this strictly accords with our theory. The extinction of species seems +to be preceded by their rarity; and if this be so, no one ought to feel +more surprise at a species being exterminated than at its being rare. +Every species which is not increasing in number must have its +geometrical tendency to increase checked by some agency seldom +accurately perceived by us. Each slight increase in the power of this +unseen checking agency would cause a corresponding decrease in the +average numbers of that species, and the species would become rarer: we +feel not the least surprise at one species of a genus being rare and +another abundant; why then should we be surprised at its extinction, +when we have good reason to believe that this very rarity is its regular +precursor and cause.</p> + +<p>In the sixth chapter the leading facts in the geographical distribution +of organic beings were considered—namely, the dissimilarity in +areas widely and effectually separated, of the organic beings being +exposed to very similar conditions (as for instance, within the tropical +forests of Africa and America, or on the volcanic islands adjoining +them). Also the striking similarity and general relations of the +inhabitants of the same great continents, conjoined with a lesser degree +of dissimilarity in the inhabitants living on opposite sides of the +barriers intersecting it—whether or not these opposite sides are +exposed to similar conditions. Also the dissimilarity, though in a still +lesser degree, in the inhabitants of different islands in the same +archipelago, together with their similarity taken as a <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_246' id='Page_246'>{246}</a></span> +whole with the inhabitants of the nearest continent, whatever its +character may be. Again, the peculiar relations of Alpine floras; the +absence of mammifers on the smaller isolated islands; and the +comparative fewness of the plants and other organisms on islands with +diversified stations; the connection between the possibility of +occasional transportal from one country to another, with an affinity, +though not identity, of the organic beings inhabiting them. And lastly, +the clear and striking relations between the living and the extinct in +the same great divisions of the world; which relation, if we look very +far backward, seems to die away. These facts, if we bear in mind the +geological changes in progress, all simply follow from the proposition +of allied organic beings having lineally descended from common +parent-stocks. On the theory of independent creations they must remain, +though evidently connected together, inexplicable and disconnected.</p> + +<p>In the seventh chapter, the relationship or grouping of extinct and +recent species; the appearance and disappearance of groups; the +ill-defined objects of the natural classification, not depending on the +similarity of organs physiologically important, not being influenced by +adaptive or analogical characters, though these often govern the whole +economy of the individual, but depending on any character which varies +least, and especially on the forms through which the embryo passes, and, +as was afterwards shown, on the presence of rudimentary and useless +organs. The alliance between the nearest species in <i>distinct</i> groups +being general and not especial; the close similarity in the rules and +objects in classifying domestic races and true species. All these facts +were shown to follow on the natural system being a genealogical system.</p> + +<p>In the eighth chapter, the unity of structure throughout large groups, +in species adapted to the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_247' id='Page_247'>{247}</a></span> +most different lives, and the wonderful metamorphosis (used +metaphorically by naturalists) of one part or organ into another, were +shown to follow simply on new species being produced by the selection +and inheritance of successive <i>small</i> changes of structure. The unity of +type is wonderfully manifested by the similarity of structure, during +the embryonic period, in the species of entire classes. To explain this +it was shown that the different races of our domestic animals differ +less, during their young state, than when full grown; and consequently, +if species are produced like races, the same fact, on a greater scale, +might have been expected to hold good with them. This remarkable law of +nature was attempted to be explained through establishing, by sundry +facts, that slight variations originally appear during all periods of +life, and that when inherited they tend to appear at the corresponding +period of life; according to these principles, in several species +descended from the same parent-stock, their embryos would almost +necessarily much more closely resemble each other than they would in +their adult state. The importance of these embryonic resemblances, in +making out a natural or genealogical classification, thus becomes at +once obvious. The occasional greater simplicity of structure in the +mature animal than in the embryo; the gradation in complexity of the +species in the great classes; the adaptation of the larvæ of +animals to independent powers of existence; the immense difference in +certain animals in their larval and mature states, were all shown on the +above principles to present no difficulty.</p> + +<p>In the «<ins>ninth</ins>» chapter, the frequent and almost general +presence of organs and parts, called by naturalists abortive or +rudimentary, which, though formed with exquisite care, are generally +absolutely useless «<ins>was considered</ins>». «<ins>These +structures,</ins>» though <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_248' id='Page_248'>{248}</a></span> +sometimes applied to uses not normal,—which cannot be considered +as mere representative parts, for they are sometimes capable of +performing their proper function,—which are always best developed, +and sometimes only developed, during a very early period of +life,—and which are of admitted high importance in +classification,—were shown to be simply explicable on our theory +of common descent.</p> + +<h3><i>Why do we wish to reject the theory of common descent?</i></h3> + +<p>Thus have many general facts, or laws, been included under one +explanation; and the difficulties encountered are those which would +naturally result from our acknowledged ignorance. And why should we not +admit this theory of descent<a name='FNanchor_514_514' id='FNanchor_514_514'></a><a href='#Footnote_514_514' class='fnanchor'>{514}</a>? +Can it be shown that organic beings in a natural state are <i>all +absolutely invariable</i>? Can it be said that the <i>limit of variation</i> or +the number of varieties capable of being formed under domestication are +known? Can any distinct line be drawn <i>between a race and a species</i>? To +these three questions we may certainly answer in the negative. As long +as species were thought to be divided and defined by an impassable +barrier of <i>sterility</i>, whilst we were ignorant of geology, and imagined +that the <i>world was of short duration</i>, and the number of its past +inhabitants few, we were justified in assuming individual creations, or +in saying with Whewell that the beginnings of all things are hidden from +man. Why then do we feel so strong an inclination to reject this +theory—especially when the actual case of any two species, or even +of any two races, is adduced—and one is asked, have these two +originally descended from the same parent womb? I believe it is because +we are <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_249' id='Page_249'>{249}</a></span> +always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not see the +intermediate steps. The mind cannot grasp the full meaning of the term +of a million or hundred million years, and cannot consequently add up +and perceive the full effects of small successive variations accumulated +during almost infinitely many generations. The difficulty is the same +with that which, with most geologists, it has taken long years to +remove, as when Lyell propounded that great valleys<a name='FNanchor_515_515' id='FNanchor_515_515'></a><a href='#Footnote_515_515' class='fnanchor'>{515}</a> +were hollowed out [<del>and long lines of inland cliffs had been formed</del>] by +the slow action of the waves of the sea. A man may long view a grand +precipice without actually believing, though he may not deny it, that +thousands of feet in thickness of solid rock once extended over many +square miles where the open sea now rolls; without fully believing that +the same sea which he sees beating the rock at his feet has been the +sole removing power.</p> + +<p>Shall we then allow that the three distinct species of rhinoceros<a name='FNanchor_516_516' id='FNanchor_516_516'></a><a href='#Footnote_516_516' class='fnanchor'>{516}</a> +which separately inhabit Java and Sumatra and the neighbouring mainland +of Malacca were created, male and female, out of the inorganic materials +of these countries? Without any adequate cause, as far as our reason +serves, shall we say that they were merely, from living near each other, +created very like each other, so as to form a section of the genus +dissimilar from the African section, some of the species of which +section inhabit very similar and some very dissimilar stations? Shall we +say that without any apparent cause they were created on the same +generic type with the ancient woolly rhinoceros of Siberia and of the +other species which formerly inhabited the same main division of the +world: that they were created, less <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_250' id='Page_250'>{250}</a></span> +and less closely related, but still with interbranching affinities, +with all the other living and extinct mammalia? That without any <ins +class='corr' title="Transcriber's Note: The original showed +‘apparant’.">apparent</ins> adequate cause their short necks +should contain the same number of vertebræ with the giraffe; that +their thick legs should be built on the same plan with those of the +antelope, of the mouse, of the hand of the monkey, of the wing of the +bat, and of the fin of the porpoise. That in each of these species the +second bone of their leg should show clear traces of two bones having +been soldered and united into one; that the complicated bones of their +head should become intelligible on the supposition of their having been +formed of three expanded vertebræ; that in the jaws of each when +dissected young there should exist small teeth which never come to the +surface. That in possessing these useless abortive teeth, and in other +characters, these three rhinoceroses in their embryonic state should +much more closely resemble other mammalia than they do when mature. And +lastly, that in a still earlier period of life, their arteries should +run and branch as in a fish, to carry the blood to gills which do not +exist. Now these three species of rhinoceros closely resemble each +other; more closely than many generally acknowledged races of our +domestic animals; these three species if domesticated would almost +certainly vary, and races adapted to different ends might be selected +out of such variations. In this state they would probably breed +together, and their offspring would possibly be quite, and probably in +some degree, fertile; and in either case, by continued crossing, one of +these specific forms might be absorbed and lost in another. I repeat, +shall we then say that a pair, or a gravid female, of each of these +three species of rhinoceros, were separately created with deceptive +appearances of true relationship, with the stamp of inutility on +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_251' id='Page_251'>{251}</a></span> +some parts, and of conversion in other parts, out of the inorganic +elements of Java, Sumatra and Malacca? or have they descended, like our +domestic races, from the same parent-stock? For my own part I could no +more admit the former proposition than I could admit that the planets +move in their courses, and that a stone falls to the ground, not through +the intervention of the secondary and appointed law of gravity, but from +the direct volition of the Creator.</p> + +<p>Before concluding it will be well to show, although this has +incidentally appeared, how far the theory of common descent can +legitimately be extended<a name='FNanchor_517_517' id='FNanchor_517_517'></a><a href='#Footnote_517_517' class='fnanchor'>{517}</a>. +If we once admit that two true species of the same genus can have +descended from the same parent, it will not be possible to deny that two +species of two genera may also have descended from a common stock. For +in some families the genera approach almost as closely as species of the +same genus; and in some orders, for instance in the monocotyledonous +plants, the families run closely into each other. We do not hesitate to +assign a common origin to dogs or cabbages, because they are divided +into groups analogous to the groups in nature. Many naturalists indeed +admit that all groups are artificial; and that they depend entirely on +the extinction of intermediate species. Some naturalists, however, +affirm that though driven from considering sterility as the +characteristic of species, that an entire incapacity to propagate +together is the best evidence of the existence of natural genera. Even +if we put on one side the undoubted fact that some species of the same +genus <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_252' id='Page_252'>{252}</a></span> +will not breed together, we cannot possibly admit the above rule, +seeing that the grouse and pheasant (considered by some good +ornithologists as forming two families), the bull-finch and canary-bird +have bred together.</p> + +<p>No doubt the more remote two species are from each other, the weaker the +arguments become in favour of their common descent. In species of two +distinct families the analogy, from the variation of domestic organisms +and from the manner of their intermarrying, fails; and the arguments +from their geographical distribution quite or almost quite fails. But if +we once admit the general principles of this work, as far as a clear +unity of type can be made out in groups of species, adapted to play +diversified parts in the economy of nature, whether shown in the +structure of the embryonic or mature being, and especially if shown by a +community of abortive parts, we are legitimately led to admit their +community of descent. Naturalists dispute how widely this unity of type +extends: most, however, admit that the vertebrata are built on one type; +the articulata on another; the mollusca on a third; and the radiata on +probably more than one. Plants also appear to fall under three or four +great types. On this theory, therefore, all the organisms <i>yet +discovered</i> are descendants of probably less than ten parent-forms.</p> + +<h3><i>Conclusion.</i></h3> + +<p>My reasons have now been assigned for believing that specific forms are +not immutable creations<a name='FNanchor_518_518' id='FNanchor_518_518'></a><a href='#Footnote_518_518' class='fnanchor'>{518}</a>. +The terms used by naturalists of affinity, unity of type, adaptive +characters, the metamorphosis and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_253' id='Page_253'>{253}</a></span> +abortion of organs, cease to be metaphorical expressions and become +intelligible facts. We no longer look at an organic being as a savage +does at a ship<a name='FNanchor_519_519' id='FNanchor_519_519'></a><a href='#Footnote_519_519' class='fnanchor'>{519}</a> +or other great work of art, as at a thing wholly beyond his +comprehension, but as a production that has a history which we may +search into. How interesting do all instincts become when we speculate +on their origin as hereditary habits, or as slight congenital +modifications of former instincts perpetuated by the individuals so +characterised having been preserved. When we look at every complex +instinct and mechanism as the summing up of a long history of +contrivances, each most useful to its possessor, nearly in the same way +as when we look at a great mechanical invention as the summing up of the +labour, the experience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous +workmen. How interesting does the geographical distribution of all +organic beings, past and present, become as throwing light on the +ancient geography of the world. Geology loses glory<a name='FNanchor_520_520' id='FNanchor_520_520'></a><a href='#Footnote_520_520' class='fnanchor'>{520}</a> +from the imperfection of its archives, but it gains in the immensity of +its subject. There is much grandeur in looking at every existing organic +being either as the lineal successor of some form now buried under +thousands of feet of solid rock, or as being the co-descendant of that +buried form of some more ancient and utterly lost inhabitant of this +world. It accords with what we know of the laws impressed by the +Creator<a name='FNanchor_521_521' id='FNanchor_521_521'></a><a href='#Footnote_521_521' class='fnanchor'>{521}</a> +on matter that the production and extinction of forms should, like the +birth and death of individuals, be <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_254' id='Page_254'>{254}</a></span> +the result of secondary means. It is derogatory that the Creator of +countless Universes should have made by individual acts of His will the +myriads of creeping parasites and worms, which since the earliest dawn +of life have swarmed over the land and in the depths of the ocean. We +cease to be astonished<a name='FNanchor_522_522' id='FNanchor_522_522'></a><a href='#Footnote_522_522' class='fnanchor'>{522}</a> +that a group of animals should have been formed to lay their eggs in the +bowels and flesh of other sensitive beings; that some animals should +live by and even delight in cruelty; that animals should be led away by +false instincts; that annually there should be an incalculable waste of +the pollen, eggs and immature beings; for we see in all this the +inevitable consequences of one great law, of the multiplication of +organic beings not created immutable. From death, famine, and the +struggle for existence, we see that the most exalted end which we are +capable of conceiving, namely, the creation of the higher animals<a name='FNanchor_523_523' id='FNanchor_523_523'></a><a href='#Footnote_523_523' class='fnanchor'>{523}</a>, +has directly proceeded. Doubtless, our first impression is to disbelieve +that any secondary law could produce infinitely numerous organic beings, +each characterised by the most exquisite workmanship and widely extended +adaptations: it at first accords better with our faculties to suppose +that each required the fiat of a Creator. There<a name='FNanchor_524_524' id='FNanchor_524_524'></a><a href='#Footnote_524_524' class='fnanchor'>{524}</a> +is a [<del>simple</del>] grandeur in this view of life with its several powers of +growth, reproduction and of sensation, having been originally breathed +into matter under a few forms, perhaps into only one<a name='FNanchor_525_525' id='FNanchor_525_525'></a><a href='#Footnote_525_525' class='fnanchor'>{525}</a>, +<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_255' id='Page_255'>{255}</a></span> +and that whilst this planet has gone cycling onwards according to the +fixed laws of gravity and whilst land and water have gone on replacing +each other—that from so simple an origin, through the selection of +infinitesimal varieties, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful +have been evolved.</p> + +<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_257' id='Page_257'>{257}</a></p> +<h2><a name='INDEX' id='INDEX'></a>INDEX</h2> + +<div class='sf75'> + +<p>For the names of Authors, Birds, Mammals (including names of classes) +and Plants, see sub-indexes under <i>Authors</i>, <i>Birds</i>, <i>Mammals</i> and +<i>Plants</i>.</p> + +<ul class='off'> +<li>Acquired characters, <i>see</i> Characters</li> + +<li>Affinities and classification, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>America, fossils, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Analogy, resemblance by, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + +<li>Animals, marine, preservation of as fossils, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—marine distribution, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Australia, fossils, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> + +<li><span class='sc'>Authors, Names of</span>:— +<ul class='off'><li>Ackerman on hybrids, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> +<li>Bakewell, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>Bateson, W., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li>Bellinghausen, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li>Boitard and Corbié, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Brougham, Lord, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>Brown, R., <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li>Buckland on fossils, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Buffon on woodpecker, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li> +<li>Bunbury (<i>Sir</i> H.), rules for selection, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>Butler, S., <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>d’Archiac, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Darwin, C., origin of his evolutionary views, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>-<a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on Forbes’ theory, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li> —his <i>Journal of Researches</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li> —his <i>Cross-and Self-Fertilisation</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li> —on crossing Chinese and common goose, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Darwin, Mrs, letter to, <a href="#Page_xxvi">xxvi</a>;</li> +<li>Darwin, F., on Knight’s Law, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Darwin, R. W., fact supplied by, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> +<li>Darwin and Wallace, joint paper by, <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>De Candolle, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> +<li>D’Orbigny, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Ehrenberg, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Ewart on telegony, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Falconer, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>Forbes, E., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Gadow, Dr, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li> +<li>Gärtner, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li>Goebel on Knight’s Law, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Gould on distribution, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li>Gray, Asa, letter to, publication of in Linnean paper explained, <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>;</li> +<li>Henslow, G., on evolution without selection, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Henslow, J. S., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>;</li> +<li>Herbert on hybrids, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —sterility of crocus, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Hering, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Hogg, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Holland, Dr, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> +<li>Hooker, J. D., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>n.</i>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on Insular Floras, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Huber, P., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>Hudson on woodpecker, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Humboldt, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li>Hunter, W., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li>Hutton, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> +<li>Huxley, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>n.</i>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on Darwin, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>;</li> +<li> —on Darwin’s Essay of 1844, <a href="#Page_xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Judd, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Knight, A., <a href="#Page_3">3</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on Domestication, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Knight-Darwin Law, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Kölreuter, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>Lamarck, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —reasons for his belief in mutability, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Lindley, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li>Linnean Society, joint paper, <i>see</i> Darwin and Wallace;</li> +<li>Linnæus on sterility of Alpine plants, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on generic characters, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Lonsdale, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Lyell, <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> and <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —his doctrine carried to an extreme, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li> —his geological metaphor, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> +<li> —his uniformitarianism, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li> —his views on imperfection of geological record, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Macculloch, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Macleay, W. S., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_258' id='Page_258'>{258}</a></span></li> +<li>Magendie, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>Malthus, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>Marr, Dr, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li> +<li>Marshall, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on sheep and cattle, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li> —on horns of cattle, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Mivart, criticisms, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Mozart as a child, his skill on the piano compared to instinct, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Müller on consensual movements, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on variation under uniform conditions, (<a href="#Page_2">2</a>), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li> —on recapitulation theory, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Murchison, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Newton, Alfred, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Owen, R., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> +<li>Pallas, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>Pennant, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Pliny on selection, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>Poeppig, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Prain, Col., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li> +<li>Rengger, sterility, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> +<li>Richardson, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Rutherford, H. W., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li> +<li>St Hilaire on races of dogs, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —on sterility of tame and domestic animals, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Smith, Jordan, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> +<li>Sprengel, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li>Stapf, Dr, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li> +<li>Strickland, <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>;</li> +<li>Suchetet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>Wallace, <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Waterhouse, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> +<li>Western, Lord, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>Whewell, <a href="#Page_xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> +<li>Woodward, H. B., <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Wrangel, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Zacharias, Darwin’s letter to, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a></li></ul><br /></li> + +<li>Barriers and distribution, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + +<li>Bees, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>combs of Hive-bee, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Beetles, abortive wings of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li><span class='sc'>Birds</span>, transporting seeds, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>feeding young with food different to their own, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> +<li>migration, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li>nests, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> +<li>of Galapagos, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> +<li>rapid increase, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li>song, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='sc'>Birds, Names of</span>:— +<ul class='off'><li>Apteryx, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> +<li>Duck, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Fowl, domestic, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li>Goose, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —periodic habit, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Grouse, hybridised, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>Guinea-fowl, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>Hawk, sterility, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —periodic habit, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Opetiorynchus, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>Orpheus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> +<li>Ostrich, distribution of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> +<li>Owl, white barn, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> +<li>Partridge, infertility of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>Peacock, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>Penguin, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> +<li>Petrel, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Pheasant, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>Pigeon, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; <i>see</i> Wood-pigeon;</li> +<li>Rhea, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> +<li>Robins, increase in numbers, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li>Rock-thrush of Guiana, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> +<li>Swan, species of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>Tailor-bird, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>Turkey, Australian bush-turkey, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> +<li>Tyrannus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li> +<li>Water-ouzel, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li>Woodcock, loss of migratory instinct, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li>Woodpecker, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —in treeless lands, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Wood-pigeon, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> +<li>Wren, gold-crested, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —willow, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> + +<li>Breeds, domestic, parentage of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>Brothers, death of by same peculiar disease in old age, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li>Bud variation, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>; <i>see</i> Sports</li> + +<li>Butterfly, cabbage, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Catastrophes, geological, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> + +<li>Caterpillars, food, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + +<li>Characters, acquired, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—congenital, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li>—fixed by breeding, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li>—mental, variation in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> +<li>—running through whole groups, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>—useless for classification, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Cirripedes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> + +<li>Classification, natural system of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—by any constant character, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> +<li>—relation of, to geography, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> +<li>—a law that members of two distinct groups resemble each other not specifically but generally, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> +<li>—of domestic races, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li>—rarity and extinction in relation to, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Compensation, law of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Conditions, direct, action of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—change of, analogous to crossing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>—accumulated effects of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li>—affecting reproduction, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>—and geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Continent originating as archipelago, bearing of on distribution, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li>Cordillera, as channel of migration, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> + +<li>Correlation, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Creation, centres of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + +<li>Crocodile, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li><i>Cross-and Self-Fertilisation</i>, early statement of principles of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>n.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_259' id='Page_259'>{259}</a></span></li> + +<li>Crossing, swamping effect of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—of bisexual animals and hermaphrodite plants, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> +<li>—analogous to change in conditions, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>—in relation to breeds, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>—in plants, adaptations for, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li></ul><br /></li> + +<li>Death, feigned by insects, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Difficulties, on theory of evolution, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li>Disease, hereditary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li>Distribution, geographical, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—in space and time, subject to same laws, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> +<li>—occasional means of (seeds, eggs, &c.), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Disuse, inherited effects of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Divergence, principle of, <a href="#Page_xxv">xxv</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li>Domestication, variation under, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—accumulated effects of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li>—analysis of effects of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li></ul><br /></li> + +<li>Ears, drooping, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li>Elevation, geological, favouring birth of new species, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-<a href="#Page_189">189</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—alternating with subsidence, importance of for evolution, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li>—bad for preservation of fossils, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Embryo, branchial arches of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>—absence of special adaptation in, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> +<li>—less variable than parent, hence importance of embryology for classification, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>—alike in all vertebrates, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> +<li>—occasionally more complicated than adult, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Embryology, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>its value in classification, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> +<li>law of inheritance at corresponding ages, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> +<li>young of very distinct breeds closely similar, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Ephemera, selection falls on larva, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li>Epizoa, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> + +<li>Essay of 1842, question as to date of, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>description of <span class='sc'>ms.</span>, <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>;</li> +<li>compared with the <i>Origin</i>, <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Essay of 1844, writing of, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>compared with that of 1842 and with the <i>Origin</i>, <a href="#Page_xxii">xxii</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Evolution, theory of, why do we tend to reject it, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Expression, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Extinction, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>locally sudden, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> +<li>continuous with rarity, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Extinction and rarity, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Eye, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Faculty, in relation to instinct, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Faunas, alpine, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>of Galapagos, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> +<li>insular-alpine very peculiar, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> +<li>insular, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Fauna and flora, of islands related to nearest land, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> + +<li>Fear of man, inherited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li>Fertility, interracial, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> + +<li>Fish, colours of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>eggs of carried by water-beetle, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> +<li>flying, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>; +<ul class='off'><li> —transported by whirlwind, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> + +<li>Floras, alpine, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>of oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> +<li>alpine, related to surrounding lowlands, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> +<li>alpine, identity of on distant mountains, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>alpine resembling arctic, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> +<li>arctic relation to alpine, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Flower, morphology of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>degenerate under domestication if neglected, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li>changed by selection, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Fly, causing extinction, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Flying, evolution of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li>Food, causing variations, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Formation (geological) evidence from Tertiary system, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>(geological), groups of species appear suddenly in Secondary, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> +<li>Palæozoic, if contemporary with beginning of life, author's theory false, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Formations, most ancient escape denudation in conditions unfavourable to life, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + +<li>Forms, transitional, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>on rising land, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> +<li>indirectly intermediate, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Fossils, Silurian, not those which first existed in the world, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>falling into or between existing groups and indirectly intermediate, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_260' id='Page_260'>{260}</a></span></li> +<li>conditions favourable to preservation, not favourable to existence of much life, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Fruit, attractive to animals, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Galapagos Islands and Darwin’s views, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>physical character of in relation to fauna, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Galapagos Islands, fauna, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Gasteropods, embryology, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> + +<li>Genera, crosses between, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>wide ranging, has wide ranging species, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li> +<li>origin of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Geography, in relation to geology, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Geographical distribution, <i>see</i> Distribution</li> + +<li>Geology, as producing changed conditions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>evidence from, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li>“destroys geography,” <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i></li></ul></li> + +<li>Glacial period, effect of on distribution of alpine and arctic plants, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Habit in relation to instinct, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + +<li>Habits in animals taught by parent, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Heredity, <i>see</i> Inheritance</li> + +<li>Homology of limbs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> + +<li>Homology, serial, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li>Hybrid, fowls and grouse, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>fowl and peacock, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li>pheasant and grouse, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li>Azalea and Rhododendron, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Hybrids, gradation in sterility of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>sterility of not reciprocal, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li>variability of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li>compared and contrasted with mongrel, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li></ul><br /></li> + +<li>Individual, meaning of term, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li>Inheritance of acquired characters, <i>see</i> Character</li> + +<li>Inheritance, delayed or latent, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>of character at a time of life corresponding to that at which it first appeared, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li> +<li>germinal, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Insect, adapted to fertilise flowers, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>feigning death, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>metamorphosis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> +<li>variation in larvæ, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Instinct, variation in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>and faculty, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> +<li>guided by reason, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>migratory, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> +<li>migratory, loss of by woodcocks, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li>migratory, origin of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> +<li>due to germinal variation rather than habit, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> +<li>requiring education for perfection, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>characterised by ignorance of end: <i>e.g.</i> butterflies laying eggs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li>butterflies laying eggs on proper plant, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> +<li>instinct, natural selection applicable to, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Instinct, for finding the way, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>periodic, <i>i.e.</i> for lapse of time, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li>comb-making of bee, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> +<li>birds feeding young, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> +<li>nest-building, gradation in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li> +<li>instincts, complex, difficulty in believing in their evolution, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Intermediate forms, <i>see</i> Forms</li> + +<li>Island, <i>see</i> Elevation, Fauna, Flora</li> + +<li>Island, upheaved and gradually colonised, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + +<li>Islands, nurseries of new species, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li>Isolation, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Lepidosiren, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> + +<li>Limbs, vertebrate, of one type, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li><span class='sc'>Mammals</span>, arctic, transported by icebergs, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>distribution, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> +<li>distribution of, ruled by barriers, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> +<li>introduced by man on islands, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>not found on oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>relations in time and space, similarity of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> +<li>of Tertiary period, relation of to existing forms in same region, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='sc'>Mammals, Names of</span>:— +<ul class='off'><li>Antelope, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>Armadillo, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li>Ass, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>Bat, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>Bear, sterile in captivity, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —whale-like habit, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Bizcacha, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> +<li>Bull, mammæ of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>Carnivora, law of compensation in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>Cats, run wild at Ascension, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —tailless, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Cattle, horns of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —increase in S. America, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_261' id='Page_261'>{261}</a></span></li> +<li> —Indian, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> +<li> —Niata, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li> —suffering in parturition from too large calves, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Cheetah, sterility of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Chironectes, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> +<li>Cow, abortive mammæ, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>Ctenomys, <i>see</i> Tuco-tuco;</li> +<li>Dog, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —in Cuba, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li> —mongrel breed in oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li> —difference in size a bar to crossing, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li> —domestic, parentage of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li> —drooping ears, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> +<li> —effects of selection, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li> —inter-fertile, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li> +<li> —long-legged breed produced to catch hares, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li> —of savages, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li> —races of resembling genera, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li> —Australian, change of colour in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li> —bloodhound, Cuban, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li> —bull-dog, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li> —foxhound, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> +<li> —greyhound and bull-dog, young of resembling each other, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> +<li> —pointer, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> +<li> —retriever, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li> —setter, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li> —shepherd-dog and harrier crossed, instinct of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> +<li> —tailless, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> +<li> —turnspit, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Echidna, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Edentata, fossil and living in S. America, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li>Elephant, sterility of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> +<li>Elk, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> +<li>Ferret, fertility of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>Fox, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> +<li>Galeopithecus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Giraffe, fossil, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —tail, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Goat, run wild at Tahiti, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>Guanaco, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> +<li>Guinea-pig, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>Hare, S. American, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Hedgehog, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Horse, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —checks to increase, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> +<li> —increase in S. America, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li> —malconformations and lameness inherited, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li> —parentage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li> —stripes on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li> —young of cart-horse and racehorse resembling each other, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Hyena, fossil, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li>Jaguar, catching fish, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> +<li>Lemur, flying, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Macrauchenia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>Marsupials, fossil in Europe, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —pouch bones, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Mastodon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li>Mouse, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —enormous rate of increase, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Mule, occasionally breeding, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>Musk-deer, fossil, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li><i>Mustela vison</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Mydas, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> +<li>Mydaus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> +<li>Nutria, <i>see</i> Otter;</li> +<li>Otter, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —marsupial, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Pachydermata, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>Phascolomys, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> +<li>Pig, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —in oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li> —run wild at St Helena, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Pole-cat, aquatic, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> _n._;</li> +<li>Porpoise, paddle of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> +<li>Rabbit, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> +<li>Rat, Norway, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> +<li>Reindeer, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> +<li>Rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —abortive teeth of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> +<li> —three oriental species of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Ruminantia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Seal, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li>Sheep, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —Ancon variety, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> +<li> —inherited habit of returning home to lamb, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> +<li> —transandantes of Spain, their migratory instinct, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Squirrel, flying, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li>Tapir, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> +<li>Tuco-tuco, blindness of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> +<li>Whale, rudimentary teeth, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> +<li>Wolf, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> +<li>Yak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Metamorphosis, literal not metaphorical, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li>Metamorphosis, <i>e.g.</i> leaves into petals, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li>Migrants to new land, struggle among, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Migration, taking the place of variation, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Monstrosities, as starting-points of breeds, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>their relation to rudimentary organs, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Morphology, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>terminology of, no longer metaphorically used, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Mutation, <i>see</i> Sports<br /><br /></li> + +<li>Natural selection, <i>see</i> Selection</li> + +<li>Nest, bird’s, <i>see</i> Instinct<br /><br /></li> + +<li>Ocean, depth of, and fossils, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Organisms, gradual introduction of new, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>extinct related to, existing in the same manner as representative existing ones to each other, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li>introduced, beating indigenes, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> +<li>dependent on other organisms rather than on physical surroundings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>graduated complexity in the great classes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> +<li>immature, how subject to natural selection, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_262' id='Page_262'>{262}</a></span></li> +<li>all descended from a few parent-forms, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Organs, perfect, objection to their evolution, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>distinct in adult life, indistinguishable in embryo, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> +<li>rudimentary, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li>rudimentary, compared to monstrosities, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> +<li>rudimentary, caused by disuse, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> +<li>rudimentary, adapted to new ends, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Orthogenesis, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li>Oscillation of level in relation to continents, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Pallas, on parentage of domestic animals, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>Pampas, imaginary case of farmer on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + +<li>Perfection, no inherent tendency towards, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> + +<li>Plants, <i>see also</i> Flora; +<ul class='off'><li>fertilisation, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> +<li>migration of, to arctic and antarctic regions, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>alpine and arctic, migration of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li>alpine, characters common to, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> +<li>alpine, sterility of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='sc'>Plants, Names of</span>:— +<ul class='off'><li>Ægilops, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Artichoke (Jerusalem), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>Ash, weeping, seeds of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li>Asparagus, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>Azalea, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li>Cabbage, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li>Calceolaria, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>Cardoon, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> +<li>Carrot, variation of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Chrysanthemum, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li>Crinum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>Crocus, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Cucubalus, crossing, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>Dahlia, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> +<li>Foxglove, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> +<li>Gentian, colour of flower, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Geranium, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> +<li>Gladiolus, crossed, ancestry of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> +<li>Grass, abortive flowers, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li>Heath, sterility, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> +<li>Hyacinth, colours of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —feather-hyacinth, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Juniperus, hybridised, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li>Laburnum, peculiar hybrid, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> +<li>Lilac, sterility of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> +<li>Marigold, style of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> +<li>Mistletoe, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Nectarines on peach trees, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li>Oxalis, colour of flowers of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>Phaseolus, cultivated form suffers from frost, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li>Pine-apple, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li>Poppy, Mexican, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> +<li>Potato, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> +<li>Rhododendron, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li>Rose, moss, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —Scotch, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>Seakale, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> +<li>Sweet-william, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> +<li>Syringa, persica and chinensis, <i>see</i> Lilac;</li> +<li>Teazle, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> +<li>Thuja, hybridised, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li> +<li>Tulips, "breaking" of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> +<li>Turnip, Swedish and common, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> +<li>Vine, peculiar hybrid, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> +<li>Yew, weeping, seeds of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Plasticity, produced by domestication, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> + +<li>Plesiosaurus, loss of unity of type in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> + +<li>Pteropods, embryology, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Quadrupeds, extinction of large, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> + +<li>Quinary System, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Race, the word used as equivalent to variety, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li>Races, domestic, classification of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + +<li>Rarity, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>and extinction, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Recapitulation theory, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> + +<li>Record, geological, imperfection of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li>Regions, geographical, of the world, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>formerly less distinct as judged by fossils, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Resemblance, analogical, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Reversion, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> + +<li>“Roguing,” <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li>Rudimentary organs, <i>see</i> Organs<br /><br /></li> + +<li>Savages, domestic animals of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li>Selection, human, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>references to the practice of, in past times, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>great effect produced by, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li>necessary for the formation of breeds, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li> +<li>methodical, effects of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li>unconscious, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Selection, natural, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>natural compared to human, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> +<li>of instincts, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li>difficulty of believing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Selection, sexual, two types of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + +<li>Silk-worms, variation in larval state, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li>Skull, morphology of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li>Species, representative, seen in going from N. to S. in a continent, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_263' id='Page_263'>{263}</a></span> +<ul class='off'><li>representative in archipelagoes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> +<li>wide-ranging, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li>and varieties, difficulty of distinguishing, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li> +<li>sterility of crosses between, supposed to be criterion, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>gradual appearance and disappearance of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> +<li>survival of a few among many extinct, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Species, not created more than once, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>evolution of, compared to birth of individuals, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> +<li>small number in New Zealand as compared to the Cape, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> +<li>persistence of, unchanged, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Sports, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li>Sterility, due to captivity, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>of various plants, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> +<li>of species when crossed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> +<li>produced by conditions, compared to sterility due to crossing, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Struggle for life, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li>Subsidence, importance of, in relation to fossils, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>of continent leading to isolation of organisms, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li>not favourable to birth of new species, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Swimming bladder, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>System, natural, is genealogical, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Telegony, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + +<li>Tibia and fibula, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li>Time, enormous lapse of, in geological epochs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> + +<li>Tortoise, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Transitional forms, <i>see</i> Forms</li> + +<li>Trigonia, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Tree-frogs in treeless regions, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li>Type, unity of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>uniformity of, lost in Plesiosaurus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li>persistence of, in continents, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li></ul><br /></li> + +<li>Uniformitarian views of Lyell, bearing on evolution, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Use, inherited effects of, <i>see</i> Characters, acquired<br /><br /></li> + +<li>Variability, as specific character, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>produced by change and also by crossing, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Variation, by Sports, <i>see</i> Sports; +<ul class='off'><li>under domestication, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li>due to causes acting on reproductive system, <i>see</i> Variation, germinal; +<ul class='off'><li> —germinal, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>individual, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>;</li> +<li>causes of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> +<li>due to crossing, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> +<li>limits of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>small in state of nature, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>results of <i>without</i> selection, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; +<ul class='off'><li> —minute, value of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li></ul></li> +<li>analogous in species of same genus, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li>of mental attributes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> +<li>in mature life, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Varieties, minute, in birds, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; +<ul class='off'><li>resemblance of to species, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li></ul></li> + +<li>Vertebrate skull, morphology of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /><br /></li> + +<li>Wildness, hereditary, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +</ul></div> + +<div class='footnotes mt2'> + +<h2 class='mt0'>Footnotes</h2> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_1_1' id='Footnote_1_1'></a><a href='#FNanchor_1_1'><span class='label'>{1}</span></a> +See the extracts in <i>Life and Letters of Charles Darwin</i>, +ii. p. 5.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_2_2' id='Footnote_2_2'></a><a href='#FNanchor_2_2'><span class='label'>{2}</span></a> +The second volume,—especially important in regard to +Evolution,—reached him in the autumn of 1832, as Prof. Judd has pointed +out in his most interesting paper in <i>Darwin and Modern Science</i>. +Cambridge, 1909.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_3_3' id='Footnote_3_3'></a><a href='#FNanchor_3_3'><span class='label'>{3}</span></a> +Obituary Notice of C. Darwin, <i>Proc. R. Soc.</i> vol. 44. +Reprinted in Huxley's <i>Collected Essays</i>. See also <i>Life and Letters of +C. Darwin</i>, ii. p. 179.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_4_4' id='Footnote_4_4'></a><a href='#FNanchor_4_4'><span class='label'>{4}</span></a> +See the extracts in the <i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 5.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_5_5' id='Footnote_5_5'></a><a href='#FNanchor_5_5'><span class='label'>{5}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 82.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_6_6' id='Footnote_6_6'></a><a href='#FNanchor_6_6'><span class='label'>{6}</span></a> +<i>Obituary Notice</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_7_7' id='Footnote_7_7'></a><a href='#FNanchor_7_7'><span class='label'>{7}</span></a> +<i>Darwin and Modern Science.</i></p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_8_8' id='Footnote_8_8'></a><a href='#FNanchor_8_8'><span class='label'>{8}</span></a> +Huxley, <i>Obituary</i>, p. xi.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_9_9' id='Footnote_9_9'></a><a href='#FNanchor_9_9'><span class='label'>{9}</span></a> +In this citation the italics are mine.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_10_10' id='Footnote_10_10'></a><a href='#FNanchor_10_10'><span class='label'>{10}</span></a> +<i>Journal of Researches</i>, Ed. 1860, p. 394.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_11_11' id='Footnote_11_11'></a><a href='#FNanchor_11_11'><span class='label'>{11}</span></a> +F. Darwin’s <i>Life of Charles Darwin</i> (in one volume), +1892, p. 166.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_12_12' id='Footnote_12_12'></a><a href='#FNanchor_12_12'><span class='label'>{12}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 83.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_13_13' id='Footnote_13_13'></a><a href='#FNanchor_13_13'><span class='label'>{13}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_14_14' id='Footnote_14_14'></a><a href='#FNanchor_14_14'><span class='label'>{14}</span></a> +Avestruz Petise, <i>i.e. Rhea Darwini</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_15_15' id='Footnote_15_15'></a><a href='#FNanchor_15_15'><span class='label'>{15}</span></a> +A bird.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_16_16' id='Footnote_16_16'></a><a href='#FNanchor_16_16'><span class='label'>{16}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_17_17' id='Footnote_17_17'></a><a href='#FNanchor_17_17'><span class='label'>{17}</span></a> +It contains as a fact 231 pp. It is a strongly bound +folio, interleaved with blank pages, as though for notes and additions. +His own <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> from which it was copied contains 189 pp.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_18_18' id='Footnote_18_18'></a><a href='#FNanchor_18_18'><span class='label'>{18}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 116.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_19_19' id='Footnote_19_19'></a><a href='#FNanchor_19_19'><span class='label'>{19}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 10.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_20_20' id='Footnote_20_20'></a><a href='#FNanchor_20_20'><span class='label'>{20}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 146.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_21_21' id='Footnote_21_21'></a><a href='#FNanchor_21_21'><span class='label'>{21}</span></a> +<i>J. Linn. Soc. Zool.</i> iii. p. 45.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_22_22' id='Footnote_22_22'></a><a href='#FNanchor_22_22'><span class='label'>{22}</span></a> +It is evident that <i>Parts</i> and <i>Chapters</i> were to some +extent interchangeable in the author’s mind, for p. 1 (of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> we +have been discussing) is headed in ink Chapter I, and afterwards altered +in pencil to Part I.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_23_23' id='Footnote_23_23'></a><a href='#FNanchor_23_23'><span class='label'>{23}</span></a> +On p. 23 of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of the <i>Foundations</i> is a reference to +the “back of p. 21 bis”: this suggests that additional pages had been +interpolated in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> and that it may once have had 37 in place of 35 +pp.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_24_24' id='Footnote_24_24'></a><a href='#FNanchor_24_24'><span class='label'>{24}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 153.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_25_25' id='Footnote_25_25'></a><a href='#FNanchor_25_25'><span class='label'>{25}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_26_26' id='Footnote_26_26'></a><a href='#FNanchor_26_26'><span class='label'>{26}</span></a> +In the footnotes to the Essay of 1844 attention is called +to similar passages.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_27_27' id='Footnote_27_27'></a><a href='#FNanchor_27_27'><span class='label'>{27}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 15.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_28_28' id='Footnote_28_28'></a><a href='#FNanchor_28_28'><span class='label'>{28}</span></a> +The passage is given in the <i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. +124.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_29_29' id='Footnote_29_29'></a><a href='#FNanchor_29_29'><span class='label'>{29}</span></a> +The extract consists of the section on <i>Natural Means of +Selection</i>, p. 87.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_30_30' id='Footnote_30_30'></a><a href='#FNanchor_30_30'><span class='label'>{30}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_31_31' id='Footnote_31_31'></a><a href='#FNanchor_31_31'><span class='label'>{31}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 18.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_32_32' id='Footnote_32_32'></a><a href='#FNanchor_32_32'><span class='label'>{32}</span></a> +Mrs Darwin’s brother.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_33_33' id='Footnote_33_33'></a><a href='#FNanchor_33_33'><span class='label'>{33}</span></a> +After Mr Strickland’s name comes the following sentence, +which has been erased, but remains legible. “Professor Owen would be +very good; but I presume he would not undertake such a work.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_34_34' id='Footnote_34_34'></a><a href='#FNanchor_34_34'><span class='label'>{34}</span></a> +The words “several years ago, and” seem to have been added +at a later date.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_35_35' id='Footnote_35_35'></a><a href='#FNanchor_35_35'><span class='label'>{35}</span></a> +<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 9.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_36_36' id='Footnote_36_36'></a><a href='#FNanchor_36_36'><span class='label'>{36}</span></a> +Evidently a memorandum that an example should be given.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_37_37' id='Footnote_37_37'></a><a href='#FNanchor_37_37'><span class='label'>{37}</span></a> +The importance of exposure to new conditions for several +generations is insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 7, also p. 131. In +the latter passage the author guards himself against the assumption that +variations are “due to chance,” and speaks of “our ignorance of the +cause of each particular variation.” These statements are not always +remembered by his critics.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_38_38' id='Footnote_38_38'></a><a href='#FNanchor_38_38'><span class='label'>{38}</span></a> +Cf. <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9, “Young of the same +litter, sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both the +young and the parents, as Müller has remarked, have apparently been +exposed to exactly the same conditions of life.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_39_39' id='Footnote_39_39'></a><a href='#FNanchor_39_39'><span class='label'>{39}</span></a> +This is paralleled by the conclusion in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 8, that “the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed +to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior +to the act of conception.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_40_40' id='Footnote_40_40'></a><a href='#FNanchor_40_40'><span class='label'>{40}</span></a> +The meaning seems to be that there must be some +variability in the liver otherwise anatomists would not speak of the +‘beau ideal’ of that organ.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_41_41' id='Footnote_41_41'></a><a href='#FNanchor_41_41'><span class='label'>{41}</span></a> +The position of the following passage is uncertain. “If +individuals of two widely different varieties be allowed to cross, a +third race will be formed—a most fertile source of the variation in +domesticated animals. «<ins>In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 20 the author says +that “the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has been +greatly exaggerated.”</ins>» If freely allowed, the characters of pure parents +will be lost, number of races thus «<ins>illegible</ins>» but differences «<ins>?</ins>» besides the «<ins>illegible</ins>». But +if varieties differing in very slight respects be allowed to cross, such +small variation will be destroyed, at least to our senses,—a variation +[<del>clearly</del>] just to be distinguished by long legs will have offspring not +to be so distinguished. Free crossing great agent in producing +uniformity in any breed. Introduce tendency to revert to parent form.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_42_42' id='Footnote_42_42'></a><a href='#FNanchor_42_42'><span class='label'>{42}</span></a> +The swamping effect of intercrossing is referred to in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 103, vi. p. 126.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_43_43' id='Footnote_43_43'></a><a href='#FNanchor_43_43'><span class='label'>{43}</span></a> +A discussion on the intercrossing of hermaphrodites in +relation to Knight’s views occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 96, vi. p. +119. The parallelism between crossing and changed conditions is briefly +given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 391, and was finally +investigated in <i>The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the +Vegetable Kingdom</i>, 1876.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_44_44' id='Footnote_44_44'></a><a href='#FNanchor_44_44'><span class='label'>{44}</span></a> +There is an article on the <i>vis medicatrix</i> in Brougham’s +<i>Dissertations</i>, 1839, a copy of which is in the author’s library.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_45_45' id='Footnote_45_45'></a><a href='#FNanchor_45_45'><span class='label'>{45}</span></a> +This is the classification of selection into methodical +and unconscious given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_46_46' id='Footnote_46_46'></a><a href='#FNanchor_46_46'><span class='label'>{46}</span></a> +This passage, and a similar discussion on the power of the +Creator (p. 6), correspond to the comparison between the selective +capacities of man and nature, in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. +102.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_47_47' id='Footnote_47_47'></a><a href='#FNanchor_47_47'><span class='label'>{47}</span></a> +i.e. they are individually distinguishable.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_48_48' id='Footnote_48_48'></a><a href='#FNanchor_48_48'><span class='label'>{48}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 133, vi. p. 165.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_49_49' id='Footnote_49_49'></a><a href='#FNanchor_49_49'><span class='label'>{49}</span></a> +When the author wrote this sketch he seems not to have +been so fully convinced of the general occurrence of variation in nature +as he afterwards became. The above passage in the text possibly suggests +that at this time he laid more stress on <i>sports</i> or <i>mutations</i> than +was afterwards the case.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_50_50' id='Footnote_50_50'></a><a href='#FNanchor_50_50'><span class='label'>{50}</span></a> +The author may possibly have taken the case of the +woodpecker from Buffon, <i>Histoire Nat. des Oiseaux</i>, T. vii. p. 3, 1780, +where however it is treated from a different point of view. He uses it +more than once, see for instance <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 3, 60, 184, vi. +pp. 3, 76, 220. The passage in the text corresponds with a discussion on +the woodpecker and the mistletoe in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 3, vi. p. 3.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_51_51' id='Footnote_51_51'></a><a href='#FNanchor_51_51'><span class='label'>{51}</span></a> +This illustration occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 90, +91, vi. pp. 110, 111.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_52_52' id='Footnote_52_52'></a><a href='#FNanchor_52_52'><span class='label'>{52}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102, where the word +<i>Creator</i> is replaced by <i>Nature</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_53_53' id='Footnote_53_53'></a><a href='#FNanchor_53_53'><span class='label'>{53}</span></a> +Note in the original. “Good place to introduce, saying +reasons hereafter to be given, how far I extend theory, say to all +mammalia—reasons growing weaker and weaker.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_54_54' id='Footnote_54_54'></a><a href='#FNanchor_54_54'><span class='label'>{54}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 62, 63, vi. p. 77, where similar +reference is made to De Candolle; for Malthus see <i>Origin</i>, p. 5.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_55_55' id='Footnote_55_55'></a><a href='#FNanchor_55_55'><span class='label'>{55}</span></a> +This may possibly refer to the amount of destruction going +on. See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 68, vi. p. 84, where there is an estimate of +a later date as to death-rate of birds in winter. “Calculate robins” +probably refers to a calculation of the rate of increase of birds under +favourable conditions.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_56_56' id='Footnote_56_56'></a><a href='#FNanchor_56_56'><span class='label'>{56}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 64, 65, vi. p. 80, he +instances cattle and horses and certain plants in S. America and +American species of plants in India, and further on, as unexpected +effects of changed conditions, the enclosure of a heath, and the +relation between the fertilisation of clover and the presence of cats +(<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91).</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_57_57' id='Footnote_57_57'></a><a href='#FNanchor_57_57'><span class='label'>{57}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91. “It has been observed +that the trees now growing on ... ancient Indian mounds ... display the +same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the surrounding +virgin forests.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_58_58' id='Footnote_58_58'></a><a href='#FNanchor_58_58'><span class='label'>{58}</span></a> +The simile of the wedge occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +67; it is deleted in Darwin’s copy of the first edition: it does not +occur in Ed. vi.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_59_59' id='Footnote_59_59'></a><a href='#FNanchor_59_59'><span class='label'>{59}</span></a> +In a rough summary at the close of the Essay, occur the +words:—“Every creature lives by a struggle, smallest grain in balance +must tell.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_60_60' id='Footnote_60_60'></a><a href='#FNanchor_60_60'><span class='label'>{60}</span></a> +Cf. <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 77, vi. p. 94.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_61_61' id='Footnote_61_61'></a><a href='#FNanchor_61_61'><span class='label'>{61}</span></a> +This is a repetition of what is given at p. 6.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_62_62' id='Footnote_62_62'></a><a href='#FNanchor_62_62'><span class='label'>{62}</span></a> +Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 47. “I have seen it +gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry began +to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this plant. No +doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was cultivated, but the +slight varieties had been neglected.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_63_63' id='Footnote_63_63'></a><a href='#FNanchor_63_63'><span class='label'>{63}</span></a> +Here we have the two types of sexual selection discussed +in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 88 et seq., vi. pp. 108 et seq.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_64_64' id='Footnote_64_64'></a><a href='#FNanchor_64_64'><span class='label'>{64}</span></a> +It is not obvious why the author objects to “chance” or +“external conditions making a woodpecker.” He allows that variation is +ultimately referable to conditions and that the nature of the connexion +is unknown, i.e. that the result is fortuitous. It is not clear in the +original to how much of the passage the two ? refer.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_65_65' id='Footnote_65_65'></a><a href='#FNanchor_65_65'><span class='label'>{65}</span></a> +The meaning is “That sterility is not universal is +admitted by all.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_66_66' id='Footnote_66_66'></a><a href='#FNanchor_66_66'><span class='label'>{66}</span></a> +See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, i. p. 388, where the garden +forms of <i>Gladiolus</i> and <i>Calceolaria</i> are said to be derived from +crosses between distinct species. Herbert’s hybrid <i>Crinums</i> are +discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370. It is well known +that the author believed in a multiple origin of domestic dogs.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_67_67' id='Footnote_67_67'></a><a href='#FNanchor_67_67'><span class='label'>{67}</span></a> +The argument from gradation in sterility is given in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 248, 255, vi. pp. 368, 375. In the <i>Origin</i>, I have +not come across the cases mentioned, viz. crocus, heath, or grouse and +fowl or peacock. For sterility between closely allied species, see +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 257, vi. p. 377. In the present essay the author +does not distinguish between fertility between species and the fertility +of the hybrid offspring, a point on which he insists in the <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. p. 245, vi. p. 365.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_68_68' id='Footnote_68_68'></a><a href='#FNanchor_68_68'><span class='label'>{68}</span></a> +Ackermann (<i>Ber. d. Vereins f. Naturkunde zu Kassel</i>, +1898, p. 23) quotes from Gloger that a cross has been effected between a +domestic hen and a <i>Tetrao tetrix</i>; the offspring died when three days +old.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_69_69' id='Footnote_69_69'></a><a href='#FNanchor_69_69'><span class='label'>{69}</span></a> +No doubt the sexual cells are meant. I do not know on what +evidence it is stated that the mule has bred.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_70_70' id='Footnote_70_70'></a><a href='#FNanchor_70_70'><span class='label'>{70}</span></a> +The sentence is all but illegible. I think that the author +refers to forms usually ranked as varieties having been marked as +species when it was found that they were sterile together. See the case +of the red and blue <i>Anagallis</i> given from Gärtner in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 247, vi. p. 368.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_71_71' id='Footnote_71_71'></a><a href='#FNanchor_71_71'><span class='label'>{71}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 258, where the author speaks of +constitutional differences in this connexion, he specifies that they are +confined to the reproductive system.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_72_72' id='Footnote_72_72'></a><a href='#FNanchor_72_72'><span class='label'>{72}</span></a> +The sensitiveness of the reproductive system to changed +conditions is insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.</p> +<p>The ferret is mentioned, as being prolific in captivity, in <i>Var. under +Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 90.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_73_73' id='Footnote_73_73'></a><a href='#FNanchor_73_73'><span class='label'>{73}</span></a> +Lindley’s remark is quoted in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 9. +Linnæus’ remark is to the effect that Alpine plants tend to be sterile +under cultivation (see <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 147). In the +same place the author speaks of peat-loving plants being sterile in our +gardens,—no doubt the American bog-plants referred to above. On the +following page (p. 148) the sterility of the lilac (<i>Syringa persica</i> +and <i>chinensis</i>) is referred to.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_74_74' id='Footnote_74_74'></a><a href='#FNanchor_74_74'><span class='label'>{74}</span></a> +The author probably means that the increase in the petals +is due to a greater food supply being available for them owing to +sterility. See the discussion in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 151. +It must be noted that doubleness of the flower may exist without +noticeable sterility.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_75_75' id='Footnote_75_75'></a><a href='#FNanchor_75_75'><span class='label'>{75}</span></a> +I have not come across this case in the author’s works.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_76_76' id='Footnote_76_76'></a><a href='#FNanchor_76_76'><span class='label'>{76}</span></a> +For the somewhat doubtful case of the cheetah (<i>Felis +jubata</i>) see <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 133. I do not know to what +fact “pig in India” refers.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_77_77' id='Footnote_77_77'></a><a href='#FNanchor_77_77'><span class='label'>{77}</span></a> +This sentence should run “on which depends their +incapacity to breed in unnatural conditions.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_78_78' id='Footnote_78_78'></a><a href='#FNanchor_78_78'><span class='label'>{78}</span></a> +This sentence ends in confusion: it should clearly close +with the words “refused to breed” in place of the bracket and the +present concluding phrase.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_79_79' id='Footnote_79_79'></a><a href='#FNanchor_79_79'><span class='label'>{79}</span></a> +The author doubtless refers to the change produced by the +<i>summation</i> of variation by means of selection.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_80_80' id='Footnote_80_80'></a><a href='#FNanchor_80_80'><span class='label'>{80}</span></a> +The meaning of this sentence is made clear by a passage in +the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844:—“Until man selects two varieties from the same stock, +adapted to two climates or to other different external conditions, and +confines each rigidly for one or several thousand years to such +conditions, always selecting the individuals best adapted to them, he +cannot be said to have even commenced the experiment.” That is, the +attempt to produce mutually sterile domestic breeds.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_81_81' id='Footnote_81_81'></a><a href='#FNanchor_81_81'><span class='label'>{81}</span></a> +This passage is to some extent a repetition of a previous +one and may have been intended to replace an earlier sentence. I have +thought it best to give both. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 141, vi. p. +176, the author gives his opinion that the power of resisting diverse +conditions, seen in man and his domestic animals, is an example “of a +very common flexibility of constitution.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_82_82' id='Footnote_82_82'></a><a href='#FNanchor_82_82'><span class='label'>{82}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. Chs. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> and <span class='sc lc'>V.</span>, the author does +not admit reproduction, apart from environment, as being a cause of +variation. With regard to the cumulative effect of new conditions there +are many passages in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. e.g. pp. 7, 12, vi. pp. 8, +14.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_83_83' id='Footnote_83_83'></a><a href='#FNanchor_83_83'><span class='label'>{83}</span></a> +As already pointed out, this is the important principle +investigated in the author’s <i>Cross and Self-Fertilisation</i>. Professor +Bateson has suggested to me that the experiments should be repeated with +gametically pure individuals.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_84_84' id='Footnote_84_84'></a><a href='#FNanchor_84_84'><span class='label'>{84}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i> a chapter is given up to “difficulties on +theory”: the discussion in the present essay seems slight even when it +is remembered how small a space is here available. For <i>Tibia</i> &c. see +p. 48.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_85_85' id='Footnote_85_85'></a><a href='#FNanchor_85_85'><span class='label'>{85}</span></a> +This may be interpreted “The general structure of a bat is +the same as that of non-flying mammals.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_86_86' id='Footnote_86_86'></a><a href='#FNanchor_86_86'><span class='label'>{86}</span></a> +That is truly winged fish.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_87_87' id='Footnote_87_87'></a><a href='#FNanchor_87_87'><span class='label'>{87}</span></a> +The terrestrial woodpecker of S. America formed the +subject of a paper by Darwin, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1870. See <i>Life and +Letters</i>, vol. iii. p. 153.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_88_88' id='Footnote_88_88'></a><a href='#FNanchor_88_88'><span class='label'>{88}</span></a> +The same proviso occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207, +vi. p. 319.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_89_89' id='Footnote_89_89'></a><a href='#FNanchor_89_89'><span class='label'>{89}</span></a> +The tameness of the birds in the Galapagos is described in +the <i>Journal of Researches</i> (1860), p. 398. Dogs and rabbits are +probably mentioned as cases in which the hereditary fear of man has been +lost. In the 1844 <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the author states that the Cuban feral dog shows +great natural wildness, even when caught quite young.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_90_90' id='Footnote_90_90'></a><a href='#FNanchor_90_90'><span class='label'>{90}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319, he refuses to +define instinct. For Lord Brougham’s definition see his <i>Dissertations +on Subjects of Science etc.</i>, 1839, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_91_91' id='Footnote_91_91'></a><a href='#FNanchor_91_91'><span class='label'>{91}</span></a> +See James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Works, 1865, <i>Tales +and Sketches</i>, p. 403.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_92_92' id='Footnote_92_92'></a><a href='#FNanchor_92_92'><span class='label'>{92}</span></a> +This refers to the tailor-bird making use of manufactured +thread supplied to it, instead of thread twisted by itself.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_93_93' id='Footnote_93_93'></a><a href='#FNanchor_93_93'><span class='label'>{93}</span></a> +<i>Often lost</i> applies to <i>instinct</i>: <i>birds get wilder</i> is +printed in a parenthesis because it was apparently added as an +after-thought. <i>Nest without roof</i> refers to the water-ousel omitting to +vault its nest when building in a protected situation.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_94_94' id='Footnote_94_94'></a><a href='#FNanchor_94_94'><span class='label'>{94}</span></a> +In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844 is an interesting discussion on +<i>faculty</i> as distinct from <i>instinct</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_95_95' id='Footnote_95_95'></a><a href='#FNanchor_95_95'><span class='label'>{95}</span></a> +At this date and for long afterwards the inheritance of +acquired characters was assumed to occur.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_96_96' id='Footnote_96_96'></a><a href='#FNanchor_96_96'><span class='label'>{96}</span></a> +Part II. is here intended: see the Introduction.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_97_97' id='Footnote_97_97'></a><a href='#FNanchor_97_97'><span class='label'>{97}</span></a> +The meaning is that the attitude assumed in <i>shamming</i> is +not accurately like that of death.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_98_98' id='Footnote_98_98'></a><a href='#FNanchor_98_98'><span class='label'>{98}</span></a> +This refers to the <i>transandantes</i> sheep mentioned in the +<span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844, as having acquired a migratory instinct.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_99_99' id='Footnote_99_99'></a><a href='#FNanchor_99_99'><span class='label'>{99}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 209, vi. p. 321, Mozart’s +pseudo-instinctive skill in piano-playing is mentioned. See <i>Phil. +Trans.</i>, 1770, p. 54.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_100_100' id='Footnote_100_100'></a><a href='#FNanchor_100_100'><span class='label'>{100}</span></a> +In the discussion on bees’ cells, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +225, vi. p. 343, the author acknowledges that his theory originated in +Waterhouse’s observations.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_101_101' id='Footnote_101_101'></a><a href='#FNanchor_101_101'><span class='label'>{101}</span></a> +The hawfinch-and <i>Sylvia-</i>types are figured in the +<i>Journal of Researches</i>, p. 379. The discussion of change of form in +relation to change of instinct is not clear, and I find it impossible to +suggest a paraphrase.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_102_102' id='Footnote_102_102'></a><a href='#FNanchor_102_102'><span class='label'>{102}</span></a> +I should interpret this obscure sentence as follows, “No +such opposing law is known, but in all works on the subject a law is (in +flat contradiction to all known facts) assumed to limit the possible +amount of variation.” In the <i>Origin</i>, the author never limits the power +of variation, as far as I know.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_103_103' id='Footnote_103_103'></a><a href='#FNanchor_103_103'><span class='label'>{103}</span></a> +In <i>Var. under Dom.</i> Ed. 2, ii. p. 263, the <i>Dahlia</i> is +described as showing sensitiveness to conditions in 1841. All the +varieties of the <i>Dahlia</i> are said to have arisen since 1804 (<i>ibid.</i> i. +p. 393).</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_104_104' id='Footnote_104_104'></a><a href='#FNanchor_104_104'><span class='label'>{104}</span></a> +In the original <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the heading is: Part III.; but Part +II. is clearly intended; for details see the Introduction. I have not +been able to discover where § <span class='sc lc'>IV.</span> ends and § <span class='sc lc'>V.</span> begins.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_105_105' id='Footnote_105_105'></a><a href='#FNanchor_105_105'><span class='label'>{105}</span></a> +This passage corresponds roughly to the conclusion of the +<i>Origin</i>, see Ed. i. p. 482, vi. p. 661.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_106_106' id='Footnote_106_106'></a><a href='#FNanchor_106_106'><span class='label'>{106}</span></a> +A similar passage occurs in the conclusion of the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_107_107' id='Footnote_107_107'></a><a href='#FNanchor_107_107'><span class='label'>{107}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_108_108' id='Footnote_108_108'></a><a href='#FNanchor_108_108'><span class='label'>{108}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 280, 281, vi. p. 414. The author +uses his experience of pigeons for examples for what he means by +<i>intermediate</i>; the instance of the horse and tapir also occurs.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_109_109' id='Footnote_109_109'></a><a href='#FNanchor_109_109'><span class='label'>{109}</span></a> +The absence of intermediate forms between living +organisms (and also as regards fossils) is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. pp. 279, 280, vi. p. 413. In the above discussion there is no +evidence that the author felt this difficulty so strongly as it is +expressed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299,—as perhaps “the most obvious +and gravest objection that can be urged against my theory.” But in a +rough summary written on the back of the penultimate page of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> he +refers to the geological evidence:—“Evidence, as far as it does go, is +favourable, exceedingly incomplete,—greatest difficulty on this theory. +I am convinced not insuperable.” Buckland’s remarks are given in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p. 471.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_110_110' id='Footnote_110_110'></a><a href='#FNanchor_110_110'><span class='label'>{110}</span></a> +That the evidence of geology, as far as it goes, is +favourable to the theory of descent is claimed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +pp. 343-345, vi. pp. 490-492. For the reference to <i>net</i> in the +following sentence, see Note 1, p. 48, {Link:Note 161} of this Essay.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_111_111' id='Footnote_111_111'></a><a href='#FNanchor_111_111'><span class='label'>{111}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422. “The remains +that do become embedded, if in sand and gravel, will, when the beds are +upraised, generally be dissolved by the percolation of rain-water.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_112_112' id='Footnote_112_112'></a><a href='#FNanchor_112_112'><span class='label'>{112}</span></a> +The position of the following is not clear:—“Think of +immense differences in nature of European deposits,—without interposing +new causes,—think of time required by present slow changes, to cause, +on very same area, such diverse deposits, iron-sand, chalk, sand, coral, +clay!”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_113_113' id='Footnote_113_113'></a><a href='#FNanchor_113_113'><span class='label'>{113}</span></a> +The paragraph which ends here is difficult to interpret. +In spite of obscurity it is easy to recognize the general resemblance to +the discussion on the importance of subsidence given in the <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. pp. 290 et seq., vi. pp. 422 et seq.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_114_114' id='Footnote_114_114'></a><a href='#FNanchor_114_114'><span class='label'>{114}</span></a> +See Note 3, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_115_115' id='Footnote_115_115'></a><a href='#FNanchor_115_115'><span class='label'>{115}</span></a> +Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 298, vi. p. 437. “We shall, +perhaps, best perceive the improbability of our being enabled to connect +species by numerous, fine, intermediate, fossil links, by asking +ourselves whether, for instance, geologists at some future period will +be able to prove that our different breeds of cattle, sheep, horses, and +dogs have descended from a single stock or from several aboriginal +stocks.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_116_116' id='Footnote_116_116'></a><a href='#FNanchor_116_116'><span class='label'>{116}</span></a> +The sudden appearance of groups of allied species in the +lowest known fossiliferous strata is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 306, vi. p. 446. The gradual appearance in the later strata occurs in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_117_117' id='Footnote_117_117'></a><a href='#FNanchor_117_117'><span class='label'>{117}</span></a> +Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_118_118' id='Footnote_118_118'></a><a href='#FNanchor_118_118'><span class='label'>{118}</span></a> +I have interpreted as <i>Sandstone</i> a scrawl which I first +read as <i>Sea</i>; I have done so at the suggestion of Professor Judd, who +points out that “footprints in the red sandstone were known at that +time, and geologists were not then particular to distinguish between +Amphibians and Reptiles.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_119_119' id='Footnote_119_119'></a><a href='#FNanchor_119_119'><span class='label'>{119}</span></a> +This refers to Cuvier's discovery of <i>Palæotherium</i> &c. +at Montmartre.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_120_120' id='Footnote_120_120'></a><a href='#FNanchor_120_120'><span class='label'>{120}</span></a> +This simile is more fully given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 310, vi. p. 452. “For my part, following out Lyell’s metaphor, I look +at the natural geological record, as a history of the world imperfectly +kept, and written in a changing dialect; of this history we possess the +last volume alone, relating only to two or three countries. Of this +volume, only here and there a short chapter has been preserved; and of +each page, only here and there a few lines. Each word of the +slowly-changing language, in which the history is supposed to be +written, being more or less different in the interrupted succession of +chapters, may represent the apparently abruptly changed forms of life, +entombed in our consecutive, but widely separated formations.” Professor +Judd has been good enough to point out to me, that Darwin’s metaphor is +founded on the comparison of geology to history in Ch. i. of the +<i>Principles of Geology</i>, Ed. i. 1830, vol. i. pp. 1-4. Professor Judd +has also called my attention to another passage,—<i>Principles</i>, Ed. i. +1833, vol. iii. p. 33, when Lyell imagines an historian examining “two +buried cities at the foot of Vesuvius, immediately superimposed upon +each other.” The historian would discover that the inhabitants of the +lower town were Greeks while those of the upper one were Italians. But +he would be wrong in supposing that there had been a sudden change from +the Greek to the Italian language in Campania. I think it is clear that +Darwin’s metaphor is partly taken from this passage. See for instance +(in the above passage from the <i>Origin</i>) such phrases as “history ... +written in a changing dialect”—“apparently abruptly changed forms of +life.” The passage within [ ] in the above paragraph:—“Lyell’s views as +far as they go &c.,” no doubt refers, as Professor Judd points out, to +Lyell not going so far as Darwin on the question of the imperfection of +the geological record.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_121_121' id='Footnote_121_121'></a><a href='#FNanchor_121_121'><span class='label'>{121}</span></a> +On rarity and extinction see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 109, +319, vi. pp. 133, 461.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_122_122' id='Footnote_122_122'></a><a href='#FNanchor_122_122'><span class='label'>{122}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493, the author +begins his discussion on geographical distribution by minimising the +effect of physical conditions. He lays great stress on the effect of +<i>barriers</i>, as in the present Essay.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_123_123' id='Footnote_123_123'></a><a href='#FNanchor_123_123'><span class='label'>{123}</span></a> +Note in the original, “Would it be more striking if we +took animals, take Rhinoceros, and study their habitats?”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_124_124' id='Footnote_124_124'></a><a href='#FNanchor_124_124'><span class='label'>{124}</span></a> +Note by Mr A. R. Wallace. “The want of similarity +referred to, is, between the mountains of Brazil and Guiana and those of +the Andes. Also those of the Indian peninsula as compared with the +Himalayas. In both cases there is continuous intervening land.</p> + +<p>“The islands referred to were, no doubt, the Galapagos for dissimilarity +from S. America; our own Islands as compared with Europe, and perhaps +Java, for similarity with continental Asia.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_125_125' id='Footnote_125_125'></a><a href='#FNanchor_125_125'><span class='label'>{125}</span></a> +The arguments against multiple centres of creation are +given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 499.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_126_126' id='Footnote_126_126'></a><a href='#FNanchor_126_126'><span class='label'>{126}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 366, vi. p. 516, the author +does not give his views on the distribution of alpine plants as original +but refers to Edward Forbes’ work (<i>Geolog. Survey Memoirs</i>, 1846). In +his autobiography, Darwin refers to this. “I was forestalled” he says, +“in only one important point, which my vanity has always made me +regret.” (<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 88.)</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_127_127' id='Footnote_127_127'></a><a href='#FNanchor_127_127'><span class='label'>{127}</span></a> +«<ins>The following is written on the back of a page of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></ins>» Discuss one or more centres of creation: allude +strongly to facilities of dispersal and amount of geological change: +allude to mountain-summits afterwards to be referred to. The +distribution varies, as everyone knows, according to adaptation, explain +going from N. to S. how we come to fresh groups of species in the same +general region, but besides this we find difference, according to +greatness of barriers, in greater proportion than can be well accounted +for by adaptation. «<ins>On representive species see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349, +vi. p. 496.</ins>» This very striking when we think of cattle of Pampas, +plants «<ins>?</ins>» &c. &c. Then go into discussion; this holds with 3 or 4 main +divisions as well as the endless minor ones in each of these 4 great +ones: in these I chiefly refer to mammalia &c. &c. The similarity of +type, but not in species, in same continent has been much less insisted +on than the dissimilarity of different great regions generically: it is +more striking.</p> + +<p>«<ins>I have here omitted an incomprehensible sentence.</ins>» Galapagos Islands, Tristan d’Acunha, <i>volcanic</i> islands covered with +craters we know lately did not support any organisms. How unlike these +islands in nature to neighbouring lands. These facts perhaps more +striking than almost any others. [<del>Geology apt to affect geography +therefore we ought to expect to find the above.</del>] Geological-geographical +distribution. In looking to past times we find Australia equally +distinct. S. America was distinct, though with more forms in common. N. +America its nearest neighbour more in common,—in some respects more, in +some less allied to Europe. Europe we find «<ins>?</ins>» equally European. For Europe +is now part of Asia though not «<ins>illegible</ins>». Africa unknown,—examples, Elephant, +Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Hyaena. As geology destroys geography we +cannot be surprised in going far back we find Marsupials and Edentata in +Europe: but geology destroys geography.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_128_128' id='Footnote_128_128'></a><a href='#FNanchor_128_128'><span class='label'>{128}</span></a> +<i>Rincon</i> in Spanish means a <i>nook</i> or <i>corner</i>, it is +here probably used to mean a small farm.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_129_129' id='Footnote_129_129'></a><a href='#FNanchor_129_129'><span class='label'>{129}</span></a> +The following is written across the page: “No one would +expect a set of similar varieties to be produced in the different +countries, so species different.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_130_130' id='Footnote_130_130'></a><a href='#FNanchor_130_130'><span class='label'>{130}</span></a> +«<ins>The following passage seems to have been meant to follow here.</ins>» The parent of an organism, we may generally suppose to +be in less favourable condition than the selected offspring and +therefore generally in fewer numbers. (This is not borne out by +horticulture, mere hypothesis; as an organism in favourable conditions +might by selection be adapted to still more favourable conditions.)</p> + +<p>Barrier would further act in preventing species formed in one part +migrating to another part.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_131_131' id='Footnote_131_131'></a><a href='#FNanchor_131_131'><span class='label'>{131}</span></a> +«<ins>The following notes occur on the back of the page.</ins>» Number of species not related to capabilities of the +country: furthermore not always those best adapted, perhaps explained by +creationists by changes and progress. «<ins>See <a href="#Footnote_134_134">p. 34, note 1</a>.</ins>»</p> + +<p>Although creationists can, by help of geology, explain much, how can he +explain the marked relation of past and present in same area, the +varying relation in other cases, between past and present, the relation +of different parts of same great area. If island, to adjoining +continent, if quite different, on mountain summits,—the number of +individuals not being related to capabilities, or how &c.—our theory, I +believe, can throw much light and all facts accord.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_132_132' id='Footnote_132_132'></a><a href='#FNanchor_132_132'><span class='label'>{132}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_133_133' id='Footnote_133_133'></a><a href='#FNanchor_133_133'><span class='label'>{133}</span></a> +On oscillation see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_134_134' id='Footnote_134_134'></a><a href='#FNanchor_134_134'><span class='label'>{134}</span></a> +«<ins>From the back of <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></ins>» Effect of climate on stationary island and on +continent, but continent once island. Moreover repeated oscillations +fresh diffusion when non-united, then isolation, when rising again +immigration prevented, new habitats formed, new species, when united +free immigration, hence uniform characters. Hence more forms «<ins>on?</ins>» the +island. Mountain summits. Why not true species. First let us recall in +Part I, conditions of variation: change of conditions during several +generations, and if frequently altered so much better [<del>perhaps excess of +food</del>]. Secondly, continued selection [<del>while in wild state</del>]. Thirdly, +isolation in all or nearly all,—as well to recall advantages of.</p> + +<p>[<del>In continent, if we look to terrestrial animal, long continued change +might go on, which would only cause change in numerical number «<ins>? proportions</ins>»: if +continued long enough might ultimately affect all, though to most +continents «<ins>there is</ins>» chance of immigration. Some few of whole body of species +must be long affected and entire selection working same way. But here +isolation absent, without barrier, cut off such «<ins>illegible</ins>». We can see advantage +of isolation. But let us take case of island thrown up by volcanic +agency at some distances, here we should have occasional visitants, only +in few numbers and exposed to new conditions and «<ins>illegible</ins>» more important,—a +quite new grouping of organic beings, which would open out new sources +of subsistence, or «<ins>would</ins>» control «<ins>?</ins>» old ones. The number would be few, can old +have the very best opportunity. «<ins>The conquest of the indigenes by +introduced organisms shows that the indigenes were not perfectly +adapted, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390.</ins>» Moreover as the island continued +changing,—continued slow changes, river, marshes, lakes, mountains &c. +&c., new races as successively formed and a fresh occasional visitant.</del></p> + +<p><del>If island formed continent, some species would emerge and immigrate. +Everyone admits continents. We can see why Galapagos and C. Verde differ +«<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 398</ins>»</del>], depressed and raised. We can see from this repeated action and the +time required for a continent, why many more forms than in New Zealand +«<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 389 for a comparison between New Zealand and +the Cape</ins>» no mammals or other classes «<ins>see however, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +393 for the case of the frog</ins>». We can at once see how it comes when +there has been an old channel of migration,—Cordilleras; we can see why +Indian Asiatic Flora,—[<del>why species</del>] having a wide range gives better +chance of some arriving at new points and being selected, and adapted to +new ends. I need hardly remark no necessity for change.</p> + +<p>Finally, as continent (most extinction «<ins>?</ins>» during formation of continent) +is formed after repeated elevation and depression, and interchange of +species we might foretell much extinction, and that the survivor would +belong to same type, as the extinct, in same manner as different part of +same continent, which were once separated by space as they are by time +«<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 339 and 349</ins>».</p> + +<p>As all mammals have descended from one stock, we ought to expect that +every continent has been at some time connected, hence obliteration of +present ranges. I do not mean that the fossil mammifers found in S. +America are the lineal successors «<ins>ancestors</ins>» of the present forms of S. America: +for it is highly improbable that more than one or two cases (who will +say how many races after Plata bones) should be found. I believe this +from numbers, who have lived,—mere «<ins>?</ins>» chance of fewness. Moreover in +every case from very existence of genera and species only few at one +time will leave progeny, under form of new species, to distant ages; and +the more distant the ages the fewer the progenitors. An observation may +be here appended, bad chance of preservation on rising island, the +nurseries of new species, appeal to experience «<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 292</ins>». This observation may be +extended, that in all cases, subsiding land must be, in early stages, +less favourable to formation of new species; but it will isolate them, +and then if land recommences rising how favourable. As preoccupation is +bar to diffusion to species, so would it be to a selected variety. But +it would not be if that variety was better fitted to some not fully +occupied station; so during elevation or the formation of new stations, +is scene for new species. But during elevation not favourable to +preservation of fossil (except in caverns «<ins>?</ins>»); when subsidence highly +favourable in early stages to preservation of fossils; when subsidence, +less sediment. So that our strata, as general rule will be the tomb of +old species (not undergoing any change) when rising land the nursery. +But if there be vestige will generally be preserved to future ages, the +new ones will not be entombed till fresh subsidence supervenes. In this +long gap we shall have no record: so that wonderful if we should get +transitional forms. I do not mean every stage, for we cannot expect +that, as before shown, until geologists will be prepared to say that +although under unnaturally favourable condition we can trace in future +ages short-horn and Herefordshire «<ins>see <a href="#Footnote_115_115">note 2, p. 26</a></ins>».</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_135_135' id='Footnote_135_135'></a><a href='#FNanchor_135_135'><span class='label'>{135}</span></a> +After “organs” is inserted, apparently as an +afterthought:—“no, and instance metamorphosis, afterwards explicable.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_136_136' id='Footnote_136_136'></a><a href='#FNanchor_136_136'><span class='label'>{136}</span></a> +For analogical resemblances see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 427, +vi. p. 582.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_137_137' id='Footnote_137_137'></a><a href='#FNanchor_137_137'><span class='label'>{137}</span></a> +“Practically when naturalists are at work, they do not +trouble themselves about the physiological value of the characters.... +If they find a character nearly uniform,... they use it as one of high +value,” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 417, vi. p. 573.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_138_138' id='Footnote_138_138'></a><a href='#FNanchor_138_138'><span class='label'>{138}</span></a> +“We are cautioned ... not to class two varieties of the +pine-apple together, merely because their fruit, though the most +important part, happens to be nearly identical,” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +423, vi. p. 579.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_139_139' id='Footnote_139_139'></a><a href='#FNanchor_139_139'><span class='label'>{139}</span></a> +The whole of this passage is obscure, but the text is +quite clear, except for one illegible word.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_140_140' id='Footnote_140_140'></a><a href='#FNanchor_140_140'><span class='label'>{140}</span></a> +«<ins>The exact position of the following passage is uncertain:</ins>» “just as it is not likely every present breed of fancy +birds and cattle will propagate, only some of the best.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_141_141' id='Footnote_141_141'></a><a href='#FNanchor_141_141'><span class='label'>{141}</span></a> +This suggests that the author was not far from the +principle of divergence on which he afterwards laid so much stress. See +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 111, vi. p. 134, also <i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_142_142' id='Footnote_142_142'></a><a href='#FNanchor_142_142'><span class='label'>{142}</span></a> +That is to say the same conditions occurring in different +parts of the globe.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_143_143' id='Footnote_143_143'></a><a href='#FNanchor_143_143'><span class='label'>{143}</span></a> +The position of the following is uncertain, “greyhound +and racehorse have an analogy to each other.” The same comparison occurs +in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 427, vi. p. 583.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_144_144' id='Footnote_144_144'></a><a href='#FNanchor_144_144'><span class='label'>{144}</span></a> +<i>Air</i> is evidently intended; in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> <i>water</i> is +written twice.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_145_145' id='Footnote_145_145'></a><a href='#FNanchor_145_145'><span class='label'>{145}</span></a> +Written between the lines occurs:—“extend to birds and +other classes.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_146_146' id='Footnote_146_146'></a><a href='#FNanchor_146_146'><span class='label'>{146}</span></a> +Written between the lines occurs:—“many bones merely +represented.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_147_147' id='Footnote_147_147'></a><a href='#FNanchor_147_147'><span class='label'>{147}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595, the term +<i>morphology</i> is taken as including <i>unity of type</i>. The paddle of the +porpoise and the wing of the bat are there used as instances of +morphological resemblance.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_148_148' id='Footnote_148_148'></a><a href='#FNanchor_148_148'><span class='label'>{148}</span></a> +The sentence is difficult to decipher.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_149_149' id='Footnote_149_149'></a><a href='#FNanchor_149_149'><span class='label'>{149}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 598, the author +speaks of the “general pattern” being obscured in the paddles of +“extinct gigantic sea-lizards.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_150_150' id='Footnote_150_150'></a><a href='#FNanchor_150_150'><span class='label'>{150}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 437, vi. p. 599.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_151_151' id='Footnote_151_151'></a><a href='#FNanchor_151_151'><span class='label'>{151}</span></a> +The following passage seems to have been meant to precede +the sentence beginning “These facts”:—“It is evident, that when in each +individual species, organs are metamorph. a unity of type extends.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_152_152' id='Footnote_152_152'></a><a href='#FNanchor_152_152'><span class='label'>{152}</span></a> +This is, I believe, the first place in which the author +uses the words “theory of descent.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_153_153' id='Footnote_153_153'></a><a href='#FNanchor_153_153'><span class='label'>{153}</span></a> +The sentence should probably run, “Let us take the case +of the vertebrata: if we assume them to be descended from one parent, +then by this theory they have been altered &c.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_154_154' id='Footnote_154_154'></a><a href='#FNanchor_154_154'><span class='label'>{154}</span></a> +That is “we should call it a morphological fact.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_155_155' id='Footnote_155_155'></a><a href='#FNanchor_155_155'><span class='label'>{155}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602, the author, +referring to the expressions used by naturalists in regard to morphology +and metamorphosis, says “On my view these terms may be used +literally.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_156_156' id='Footnote_156_156'></a><a href='#FNanchor_156_156'><span class='label'>{156}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 605.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_157_157' id='Footnote_157_157'></a><a href='#FNanchor_157_157'><span class='label'>{157}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606, the author +argues that the “loop-like course of the arteries” in the vertebrate +embryo has no direct relation to the conditions of existence.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_158_158' id='Footnote_158_158'></a><a href='#FNanchor_158_158'><span class='label'>{158}</span></a> +The following passages are written across the +page:—“They pass through the same phases, but some, generally called +the higher groups, are further metamorphosed.</p> + +<p>? Degradation and complication? no tendency to perfection.</p> + +<p>? Justly argued against Lamarck?”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_159_159' id='Footnote_159_159'></a><a href='#FNanchor_159_159'><span class='label'>{159}</span></a> +An almost identical passage occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 440, vi. p. 606.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_160_160' id='Footnote_160_160'></a><a href='#FNanchor_160_160'><span class='label'>{160}</span></a> +The following: “Deaths of brothers «<ins>when</ins>» old by same peculiar +disease” which is written between the lines seems to have been a +memorandum which is expanded a few lines lower. I believe the case of +the brothers came from Dr R. W. Darwin.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_161_161' id='Footnote_161_161'></a><a href='#FNanchor_161_161'><span class='label'>{161}</span></a> +See the discussion to this effect in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +pp. 443-4, vi. p. 610. The author there makes the distinction between a +cause affecting the germ-cell and the reaction occurring at a late +period of life.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_162_162' id='Footnote_162_162'></a><a href='#FNanchor_162_162'><span class='label'>{162}</span></a> +Possibly the sentence was meant to end “is not visible +till then.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_163_163' id='Footnote_163_163'></a><a href='#FNanchor_163_163'><span class='label'>{163}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 444-5, vi. p. 611. The query +appended to <i>much less</i> is justified, since measurement was necessary to +prove that the greyhound and bulldog puppies had not nearly acquired +“their full amount of proportional difference.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_164_164' id='Footnote_164_164'></a><a href='#FNanchor_164_164'><span class='label'>{164}</span></a> +«<ins>The following discussion, from the back of the page, is +in large measure the same as the text.</ins>» I think light can be thrown on +these facts. From the following peculiarities being hereditary, [<del>we know +that some change in the germinal vesicle is effected, which will only +betray itself years after</del>] diseases—man, goitre, gout, baldness, +fatness, size, [<del>longevity «<ins>illegible</ins>» time of reproduction, shape of horns, case of +old brothers dying of same disease</del>]. And we know that the germinal +vesicle must have been affected, though no effect is apparent or can be +apparent till years afterwards,—no more apparent than when these +peculiarities appear by the exposure of the full-grown individual. «<ins>That +is, “the young individual is as apparently free from the hereditary +changes which will appear later, as the young is actually free from the +changes produced by exposure to certain conditions in adult life.”</ins>» So +that when we see a variety in cattle, even if the variety be due to act +of reproduction, we cannot feel sure at what period this change became +apparent. It may have been effected during early age of free life «<ins>or</ins>» +fœtal existence, as monsters show. From arguments before used, and +crossing, we may generally suspect in germ; but I repeat it does not +follow, that the change should be apparent till life fully developed; +any more than fatness depending on heredity should be apparent during +early childhood, still less during fœtal existence. In case of horns +of cattle, which when inherited must depend on germinal vesicle, +obviously no effect till cattle full-grown. Practically it would appear +that the [<del>hereditary</del>] peculiarities characterising our domestic races, +therefore resulting from vesicle, do not appear with their full +characters in very early states; thus though two breeds of cows have +calves different, they are not so different,—grey-hound and bull-dog. +And this is what is «<ins>to</ins>» be expected, for man is indifferent to characters +of young animals and hence would select those full-grown animals which +possessed the desirable characteristics. So that from mere chance we +might expect that some of the characters would be such only as became +fully apparent in mature life. Furthermore we may suspect it to be a +law, that at whatever time a new character appears, whether from +vesicle, or effects of external conditions, it would appear at +corresponding time «<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444</ins>». Thus diseases appearing in old age produce children +with d<sup>o</sup>.,—early maturity,—longevity,—old men, brothers, of same +disease—young children of d<sup>o</sup>. I said men do not select for quality +of young,—calf with big bullocks. Silk-worms, peculiarities which, +appear in caterpillar state or cocoon state, are transmitted to +corresponding states. The effect of this would be that if some +peculiarity was born in a young animal, but never exercised, it might be +inherited in young animal; but if exercised that part of structure would +be increased and would be inherited in corresponding time of life after +such training.</p> + +<p>I have said that man selects in full-life, so would it be in Nature. In +struggle of existence, it matters nothing to a feline animal, whether +kitten eminently feline, as long as it sucks. Therefore natural +selection would act equally well on character which was fully «<ins>developed</ins>» only in +full age. Selection could tend to alter no character in fœtus, +(except relation to mother) it would alter less in young state (putting +on one side larva condition) but alter every part in full-grown +condition. Look to a fœtus and its parent, and again after ages +fœtus and its «<ins>i. e. the above mentioned parents</ins>» descendant; the parent more variable «<ins>?</ins>» than fœtus, +which explains all.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_165_165' id='Footnote_165_165'></a><a href='#FNanchor_165_165'><span class='label'>{165}</span></a> +Some of these examples occur in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. +450-51, vi. pp. 619-20.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_166_166' id='Footnote_166_166'></a><a href='#FNanchor_166_166'><span class='label'>{166}</span></a> +The two following sentences are written, one down the +margin, the other across the page. “Abortive organs eminently useful in +classification. Embryonic state of organs. Rudiments of organs.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_167_167' id='Footnote_167_167'></a><a href='#FNanchor_167_167'><span class='label'>{167}</span></a> +I imagine the meaning to be that abortive organs are +specific characters in contrast to monstrosities.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_168_168' id='Footnote_168_168'></a><a href='#FNanchor_168_168'><span class='label'>{168}</span></a> +Minute hanging horns are mentioned in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 454, vi. p. 625, as occurring in hornless breeds of cattle.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_169_169' id='Footnote_169_169'></a><a href='#FNanchor_169_169'><span class='label'>{169}</span></a> +<i>Linum flavum</i> is dimorphic: thyme gynodiæcious. It is +not clear what point is referred to under <i>Geranium pyrenaicum</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_170_170' id='Footnote_170_170'></a><a href='#FNanchor_170_170'><span class='label'>{170}</span></a> +The author’s work on duck’s wings &c. is in <i>Var. under +Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, i. p. 299.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_171_171' id='Footnote_171_171'></a><a href='#FNanchor_171_171'><span class='label'>{171}</span></a> +The words <i>vis medicatrix</i> are inserted after “useless,” +apparently as a memorandum.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_172_172' id='Footnote_172_172'></a><a href='#FNanchor_172_172'><span class='label'>{172}</span></a> +In the male florets of certain Compositæ the style +functions merely as a piston for forcing out the pollen.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_173_173' id='Footnote_173_173'></a><a href='#FNanchor_173_173'><span class='label'>{173}</span></a> +«<ins>On the back of the page is the following.</ins>» If abortive organs are a trace preserved by hereditary +tendency, of organ in ancestor of use, we can at once see why important +in natural classification, also why more plain in young animal because, +as in last section, the selection has altered the old animal most. I +repeat, these wondrous facts, of parts created for no use in past and +present time, all can by my theory receive simple explanation; or they +receive none and we must be content with some such empty metaphor, as +that of De Candolle, who compares creation to a well covered table, and +says abortive organs may be compared to the dishes (some should be +empty) placed symmetrically!</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_174_174' id='Footnote_174_174'></a><a href='#FNanchor_174_174'><span class='label'>{174}</span></a> +The author doubtless meant that the complex relationships +between organisms can be roughly represented by a net in which the knots +stand for species.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_175_175' id='Footnote_175_175'></a><a href='#FNanchor_175_175'><span class='label'>{175}</span></a> +Between the lines occurs:—“one «<ins>?</ins>» form be lost.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_176_176' id='Footnote_176_176'></a><a href='#FNanchor_176_176'><span class='label'>{176}</span></a> +The original sentence is here broken up by the insertion +of:—“out of the dust of Java, Sumatra, these «<ins>?</ins>» allied to past and +present age and «<ins>illegible</ins>», with the stamp of inutility in some of their organs +and conversion in others.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_177_177' id='Footnote_177_177'></a><a href='#FNanchor_177_177'><span class='label'>{177}</span></a> +Between the lines occur the words:—“Species vary +according to same general laws as varieties; they cross according to +same laws.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_178_178' id='Footnote_178_178'></a><a href='#FNanchor_178_178'><span class='label'>{178}</span></a> +“A cross with a bull-dog has affected for many +generations the courage and obstinacy of greyhounds,” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 214, vi. p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_179_179' id='Footnote_179_179'></a><a href='#FNanchor_179_179'><span class='label'>{179}</span></a> +The simile of the savage and the ship occurs in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_180_180' id='Footnote_180_180'></a><a href='#FNanchor_180_180'><span class='label'>{180}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 486, vi. p. 665, the author +speaks of the “summing up of many contrivances”: I have therefore +introduced the above words which make the passage clearer. In the +<i>Origin</i> the comparison is with “a great mechanical invention,”—not +with a work of art.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_181_181' id='Footnote_181_181'></a><a href='#FNanchor_181_181'><span class='label'>{181}</span></a> +See a similar passage in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 487, vi. +p. 667.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_182_182' id='Footnote_182_182'></a><a href='#FNanchor_182_182'><span class='label'>{182}</span></a> +See the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_183_183' id='Footnote_183_183'></a><a href='#FNanchor_183_183'><span class='label'>{183}</span></a> +The following discussion, together with some memoranda +are on the last page of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> “The supposed creative spirit does not +create either number or kind which «<ins>are</ins>» from analogy adapted to site (viz. +New Zealand): it does not keep them all permanently adapted to any +country,—it works on spots or areas of creation,—it is not persistent +for great periods,—it creates forms of same groups in same regions, +with no physical similarity,—it creates, on islands or mountain +summits, species allied to the neighbouring ones, and not allied to +alpine nature as shown in other mountain summits—even different on +different island of similarly constituted archipelago, not created on +two points: never mammifers created on small isolated island; nor number +of organisms adapted to locality: its power seems influenced or related +to the range of other species wholly distinct of the same genus,—it +does not equally effect, in amount of difference, all the groups of the +same class.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_184_184' id='Footnote_184_184'></a><a href='#FNanchor_184_184'><span class='label'>{184}</span></a> +This passage is the ancestor of the concluding words in +the first edition of the <i>Origin of Species</i> which have remained +substantially unchanged throughout subsequent editions, “There is +grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been +originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that whilst this +planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from +so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful +have been, and are being, evolved.” In the 2nd edition “by the Creator” +is introduced after “originally breathed.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_185_185' id='Footnote_185_185'></a><a href='#FNanchor_185_185'><span class='label'>{185}</span></a> +Compare the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659, “The +difficulty is the same as that felt by so many geologists, when Lyell +first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been formed, and +great valleys excavated, by the slow action of the coast-waves.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_186_186' id='Footnote_186_186'></a><a href='#FNanchor_186_186'><span class='label'>{186}</span></a> +The cumulative effect of domestication is insisted on in +the <i>Origin</i>, see <i>e.g. Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_187_187' id='Footnote_187_187'></a><a href='#FNanchor_187_187'><span class='label'>{187}</span></a> +This type of variation passes into what he describes as +the direct effect of conditions. Since they are due to causes acting +during the adult life of the organism they might be called individual +variations, but he uses this term for congenital variations, <i>e.g.</i> the +differences discoverable in plants raised from seeds of the same pod +(<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 45, vi. p. 53).</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_188_188' id='Footnote_188_188'></a><a href='#FNanchor_188_188'><span class='label'>{188}</span></a> +«<ins>It is not clear where the following note is meant to come</ins>»: Case of Orchis,—most remarkable as not long cultivated +by seminal propagation. Case of varieties which soon acquire, like +<i>Ægilops</i> and Carrot (and Maize) <i>a certain general character</i> and then +go on varying.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_189_189' id='Footnote_189_189'></a><a href='#FNanchor_189_189'><span class='label'>{189}</span></a> +Here, as in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1842, the author is inclined to +minimise the variation occurring in nature.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_190_190' id='Footnote_190_190'></a><a href='#FNanchor_190_190'><span class='label'>{190}</span></a> +This is more strongly stated than in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 30.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_191_191' id='Footnote_191_191'></a><a href='#FNanchor_191_191'><span class='label'>{191}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 13.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_192_192' id='Footnote_192_192'></a><a href='#FNanchor_192_192'><span class='label'>{192}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 86, vi. p. 105.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_193_193' id='Footnote_193_193'></a><a href='#FNanchor_193_193'><span class='label'>{193}</span></a> +It is interesting to find that though the author, like +his contemporaries, believed in the inheritance of acquired characters, +he excluded the case of mutilation.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_194_194' id='Footnote_194_194'></a><a href='#FNanchor_194_194'><span class='label'>{194}</span></a> +This corresponds to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_195_195' id='Footnote_195_195'></a><a href='#FNanchor_195_195'><span class='label'>{195}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_196_196' id='Footnote_196_196'></a><a href='#FNanchor_196_196'><span class='label'>{196}</span></a> +For <i>plasticity</i> see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 12, 132.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_197_197' id='Footnote_197_197'></a><a href='#FNanchor_197_197'><span class='label'>{197}</span></a> +<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 393.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_198_198' id='Footnote_198_198'></a><a href='#FNanchor_198_198'><span class='label'>{198}</span></a> +Selection is here used in the sense of isolation, rather +than as implying the summation of small differences. Professor Henslow +in his <i>Heredity of Acquired Characters in Plants</i>, 1908, p. 2, quotes +from Darwin’s <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. i. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 271, a passage in which +the author, speaking of the direct action of conditions, says:—“A new +sub-variety would thus be produced without the aid of selection.” Darwin +certainly did not mean to imply that such varieties are freed from the +action of natural selection, but merely that a new form may appear +without <i>summation</i> of new characters. Professor Henslow is apparently +unaware that the above passage is omitted in the second edition of <i>Var. +under Dom.</i>, <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 260.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_199_199' id='Footnote_199_199'></a><a href='#FNanchor_199_199'><span class='label'>{199}</span></a> +See the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_200_200' id='Footnote_200_200'></a><a href='#FNanchor_200_200'><span class='label'>{200}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38. The evidence is +given in the present Essay rather more fully than in the <i>Origin</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_201_201' id='Footnote_201_201'></a><a href='#FNanchor_201_201'><span class='label'>{201}</span></a> +<i>Journal of Researches</i>, Ed. 1860, p. 214. “Doggies catch +otters, old women no.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_202_202' id='Footnote_202_202'></a><a href='#FNanchor_202_202'><span class='label'>{202}</span></a> +The effects of crossing is much more strongly stated here +than in the <i>Origin</i>. See Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23, where indeed the +opposite point of view is given. His change of opinion may be due to his +work on pigeons. The whole of the discussion on crossing corresponds to +Chapter VIII of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. rather than to anything in the +earlier part of the book.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_203_203' id='Footnote_203_203'></a><a href='#FNanchor_203_203'><span class='label'>{203}</span></a> +The parallelism between the effects of a cross and the +effects of conditions is given from a different point of view in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 266, vi. p. 391. See the experimental evidence for +this important principle in the author’s work on <i>Cross and +Self-Fertilisation</i>. Professor Bateson has suggested that the +experiments should be repeated with gametically pure plants.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_204_204' id='Footnote_204_204'></a><a href='#FNanchor_204_204'><span class='label'>{204}</span></a> +The so-called Knight-Darwin Law is often misunderstood. +See Goebel in <i>Darwin and Modern Science</i>, 1909, p. 419; also F. Darwin, +<i>Nature</i>, Oct. 27, 1898.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_205_205' id='Footnote_205_205'></a><a href='#FNanchor_205_205'><span class='label'>{205}</span></a> +Pallas’ theory is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. +253, 254, vi. p. 374.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_206_206' id='Footnote_206_206'></a><a href='#FNanchor_206_206'><span class='label'>{206}</span></a> +See Darwin’s paper on the fertility of hybrids from the +common and Chinese goose in <i>Nature</i>, Jan. 1, 1880.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_207_207' id='Footnote_207_207'></a><a href='#FNanchor_207_207'><span class='label'>{207}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 19, vi. p. 22.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_208_208' id='Footnote_208_208'></a><a href='#FNanchor_208_208'><span class='label'>{208}</span></a> +<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 211.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_209_209' id='Footnote_209_209'></a><a href='#FNanchor_209_209'><span class='label'>{209}</span></a> +This discussion corresponds to the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. +11 and 143, vi. pp. 13 and 177.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_210_210' id='Footnote_210_210'></a><a href='#FNanchor_210_210'><span class='label'>{210}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 7.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_211_211' id='Footnote_211_211'></a><a href='#FNanchor_211_211'><span class='label'>{211}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» “Isidore G. St Hilaire insists that breeding in +captivity essential element. Schleiden on alkalies. «<ins>See <i>Var. under +Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 244, note 10.</ins>» What is it in domestication +which causes variation?”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_212_212' id='Footnote_212_212'></a><a href='#FNanchor_212_212'><span class='label'>{212}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» “It appears that slight changes of condition «<ins>are</ins>» good for +health; that more change affects the generative system, so that +variation results in the offspring; that still more change checks or +destroys fertility not of the offspring.” Compare the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 9, vi. p. 11. What the meaning of “not of the offspring” may be is +not clear.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_213_213' id='Footnote_213_213'></a><a href='#FNanchor_213_213'><span class='label'>{213}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 46 the question is +differently treated; it is pointed out that a large stock of individuals +gives a better chance of available variations occurring. Darwin quotes +from Marshall that sheep in small lots can never be improved. This comes +from Marshall’s <i>Review of the Reports to the Board of Agriculture</i>, +1808, p. 406. In this Essay the name Marshall occurs in the margin. +Probably this refers to <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 200, where unshepherded sheep in +many parts of England are said to be similar owing to mixed breeding not +being avoided.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_214_214' id='Footnote_214_214'></a><a href='#FNanchor_214_214'><span class='label'>{214}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_215_215' id='Footnote_215_215'></a><a href='#FNanchor_215_215'><span class='label'>{215}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 42, vi. p. 48.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_216_216' id='Footnote_216_216'></a><a href='#FNanchor_216_216'><span class='label'>{216}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» There are white peacocks.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_217_217' id='Footnote_217_217'></a><a href='#FNanchor_217_217'><span class='label'>{217}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» There are varieties of asparagus.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_218_218' id='Footnote_218_218'></a><a href='#FNanchor_218_218'><span class='label'>{218}</span></a> +In Chapter II of the first edition of the <i>Origin</i> Darwin +insists rather on the presence of variability in a state of nature; see, +for instance, p. 45, Ed. vi. p. 53, “I am convinced that the most +experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the cases of +variability ... which he could collect on good authority, as I have +collected, during a course of years.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_219_219' id='Footnote_219_219'></a><a href='#FNanchor_219_219'><span class='label'>{219}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 44, vi. p. 52.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_220_220' id='Footnote_220_220'></a><a href='#FNanchor_220_220'><span class='label'>{220}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» Here discuss <i>what is a species</i>, sterility can most +rarely be told when crossed.—Descent from common stock.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_221_221' id='Footnote_221_221'></a><a href='#FNanchor_221_221'><span class='label'>{221}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» Give only rule: chain of intermediate forms, and +<i>analogy</i>; this important. Every Naturalist at first when he gets hold +of new variable type is <i>quite puzzled</i> to know what to think species +and what variations.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_222_222' id='Footnote_222_222'></a><a href='#FNanchor_222_222'><span class='label'>{222}</span></a> +The author had not at this time the knowledge of the +meaning of dimorphism.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_223_223' id='Footnote_223_223'></a><a href='#FNanchor_223_223'><span class='label'>{223}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Compare feathered heads in very different birds with +spines in Echidna and Hedgehog. «<ins>In <i>Variation under Domestication</i>, Ed. +ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 317, Darwin calls attention to laced and frizzled breeds +occurring in both fowls and pigeons. In the same way a peculiar form of +covering occurs in Echidna and the hedgehog.</ins>»</p> + +<p>Plants under very different climate not varying. Digitalis shows jumps «<ins>?</ins>» +in variation, like Laburnum and Orchis case—in fact hostile cases. +Variability of sexual characters alike in domestic and wild.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_224_224' id='Footnote_224_224'></a><a href='#FNanchor_224_224'><span class='label'>{224}</span></a> +A corresponding passage occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83, +vi. p. 101, where however Nature takes the place of the selecting +Being.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_225_225' id='Footnote_225_225'></a><a href='#FNanchor_225_225'><span class='label'>{225}</span></a> +The mistletoe is used as an illustration in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 3, vi. p. 3, but with less detail.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_226_226' id='Footnote_226_226'></a><a href='#FNanchor_226_226'><span class='label'>{226}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» The selection, in cases where adult lives only few hours +as Ephemera, must fall on larva—curious speculation of the effect «<ins>which</ins>» +changes in it would bring in parent.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_227_227' id='Footnote_227_227'></a><a href='#FNanchor_227_227'><span class='label'>{227}</span></a> +This section forms part of the joint paper by Darwin and +Wallace read before the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_228_228' id='Footnote_228_228'></a><a href='#FNanchor_228_228'><span class='label'>{228}</span></a> +Occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 64, vi. p. 79.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_229_229' id='Footnote_229_229'></a><a href='#FNanchor_229_229'><span class='label'>{229}</span></a> +Corresponds approximately with <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. +64-65, vi. p. 80.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_230_230' id='Footnote_230_230'></a><a href='#FNanchor_230_230'><span class='label'>{230}</span></a> +This simile occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 67, not in the +later editions.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_231_231' id='Footnote_231_231'></a><a href='#FNanchor_231_231'><span class='label'>{231}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» In case like mistletoe, it may be asked why not more +species, no other species interferes; answer almost sufficient, same +causes which check the multiplication of individuals.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_232_232' id='Footnote_232_232'></a><a href='#FNanchor_232_232'><span class='label'>{232}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 104, 292, vi. pp. 127, 429.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_233_233' id='Footnote_233_233'></a><a href='#FNanchor_233_233'><span class='label'>{233}</span></a> +Recognition of the importance of minute differences in +the struggle occurs in the Essay of 1842, <a href="#Footnote_59_59">p. 8 note 3</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_234_234' id='Footnote_234_234'></a><a href='#FNanchor_234_234'><span class='label'>{234}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 90, vi. p. 110.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_235_235' id='Footnote_235_235'></a><a href='#FNanchor_235_235'><span class='label'>{235}</span></a> +These two forms of sexual selection are given in +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 107. The Guiana rock-thrush is given as +an example of bloodless competition.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_236_236' id='Footnote_236_236'></a><a href='#FNanchor_236_236'><span class='label'>{236}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Seals? Pennant about battles of seals.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_237_237' id='Footnote_237_237'></a><a href='#FNanchor_237_237'><span class='label'>{237}</span></a> +In the Linnean paper of July 1, 1858 the final word is +<i>mate</i>: but the context shows that it should be <i>male</i>; it is moreover +clearly so written in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_238_238' id='Footnote_238_238'></a><a href='#FNanchor_238_238'><span class='label'>{238}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i> the author would here have used the word +<i>variety</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_239_239' id='Footnote_239_239'></a><a href='#FNanchor_239_239'><span class='label'>{239}</span></a> +The whole of p. 94 and 15 lines of p. 95 are, in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>, +marked through in pencil with vertical lines, beginning at “Races +produced, &c.” and ending with “to these conditions.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_240_240' id='Footnote_240_240'></a><a href='#FNanchor_240_240'><span class='label'>{240}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_241_241' id='Footnote_241_241'></a><a href='#FNanchor_241_241'><span class='label'>{241}</span></a> +In the present Essay there is some evidence that the +author attributed more to <i>sports</i> than was afterwards the case: but the +above passage points the other way. It must always be remembered that +many of the minute differences, now considered small mutations, are the +small variations on which Darwin conceived selection to act.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_242_242' id='Footnote_242_242'></a><a href='#FNanchor_242_242'><span class='label'>{242}</span></a> +See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 230.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_243_243' id='Footnote_243_243'></a><a href='#FNanchor_243_243'><span class='label'>{243}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» If domestic animals are descended from several species +and <i>become</i> fertile <i>inter se</i>, then one can see they gain fertility by +becoming adapted to new conditions and certainly domestic animals can +withstand changes of climate without loss of fertility in an astonishing +manner.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_244_244' id='Footnote_244_244'></a><a href='#FNanchor_244_244'><span class='label'>{244}</span></a> +See Suchetet, <i>L’Hybridité dans la Nature</i>, Bruxelles, +1888, p. 67. In <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> hybrids between the +fowl and the pheasant are mentioned. I can give no information on the +other cases.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_245_245' id='Footnote_245_245'></a><a href='#FNanchor_245_245'><span class='label'>{245}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_246_246' id='Footnote_246_246'></a><a href='#FNanchor_246_246'><span class='label'>{246}</span></a> +This was the position of Gärtner and of Kölreuter: see +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 246-7, vi. pp. 367-8.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_247_247' id='Footnote_247_247'></a><a href='#FNanchor_247_247'><span class='label'>{247}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» Yet this seems introductory to the case of the heaths +and crocuses above mentioned. «<ins>Herbert observed that crocus does not set +seed if transplanted before pollination, but that such treatment after +pollination has no sterilising effect. (<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. +<span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 148.) On the same page is a mention of the Ericaceæ being subject +to contabescence of the anthers. For <i>Crinum</i> see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +250: for <i>Rhododenron</i> and <i>Calceolaria</i> see p. 251.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_248_248' id='Footnote_248_248'></a><a href='#FNanchor_248_248'><span class='label'>{248}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Animals seem more often made sterile by being taken out +of their native condition than plants, and so are more sterile when +crossed.</p> + +<p>We have one broad fact that sterility in hybrids is not closely related +to external difference, and these are what man alone gets by selection.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_249_249' id='Footnote_249_249'></a><a href='#FNanchor_249_249'><span class='label'>{249}</span></a> +See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 132; for the +case of the cheetah see <i>loc cit.</i> p. 133.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_250_250' id='Footnote_250_250'></a><a href='#FNanchor_250_250'><span class='label'>{250}</span></a> +<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 148.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_251_251' id='Footnote_251_251'></a><a href='#FNanchor_251_251'><span class='label'>{251}</span></a> +Quoted in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 9.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_252_252' id='Footnote_252_252'></a><a href='#FNanchor_252_252'><span class='label'>{252}</span></a> +See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_253_253' id='Footnote_253_253'></a><a href='#FNanchor_253_253'><span class='label'>{253}</span></a> +<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 89.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_254_254' id='Footnote_254_254'></a><a href='#FNanchor_254_254'><span class='label'>{254}</span></a> +See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_255_255' id='Footnote_255_255'></a><a href='#FNanchor_255_255'><span class='label'>{255}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 392. This is the +principle experimentally investigated in the author’s <i>Cross-and +Self-Fertilisation</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_256_256' id='Footnote_256_256'></a><a href='#FNanchor_256_256'><span class='label'>{256}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 268, vi. p. 398.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_257_257' id='Footnote_257_257'></a><a href='#FNanchor_257_257'><span class='label'>{257}</span></a> +«<ins>Notes in original.</ins>» Mere difference of structure no guide to what will or +will not cross. First step gained by races keeping apart. «<ins>It is not +clear where these notes were meant to go.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_258_258' id='Footnote_258_258'></a><a href='#FNanchor_258_258'><span class='label'>{258}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 272, vi. p. 404.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_259_259' id='Footnote_259_259'></a><a href='#FNanchor_259_259'><span class='label'>{259}</span></a> +This section seems not to correspond closely with any in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.; in some points it resembles pp. 15, 16, also the +section on analogous variation in distinct species, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +159, vi. p. 194.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_260_260' id='Footnote_260_260'></a><a href='#FNanchor_260_260'><span class='label'>{260}</span></a> +The law of compensation is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 147, vi. p. 182.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_261_261' id='Footnote_261_261'></a><a href='#FNanchor_261_261'><span class='label'>{261}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Boitard and Corbié on outer edging red in tail of +bird,—so bars on wing, white or black or brown, or white edged with +black or «<ins>illegible</ins>»: analogous to marks running through genera but with different +colours. Tail coloured in pigeons.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_262_262' id='Footnote_262_262'></a><a href='#FNanchor_262_262'><span class='label'>{262}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Oxalis and Gentian. «<ins>In Gentians blue, yellow and +reddish colours occur. In Oxalis yellow, purple, violet and pink.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_263_263' id='Footnote_263_263'></a><a href='#FNanchor_263_263'><span class='label'>{263}</span></a> +This section corresponds roughly to that on <i>Hybrids and +Mongrels compared independently of their fertility</i>, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +272, vi. p. 403. The discussion on Gärtner’s views, given in the +<i>Origin</i>, is here wanting. The brief mention of prepotency is common to +them both.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_264_264' id='Footnote_264_264'></a><a href='#FNanchor_264_264'><span class='label'>{264}</span></a> +See <i>Animals and Plants</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 435. The +phenomenon of <i>Telegony</i>, supposed to be established by this and similar +cases, is now generally discredited in consequence of Ewart’s +experiments.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_265_265' id='Footnote_265_265'></a><a href='#FNanchor_265_265'><span class='label'>{265}</span></a> +The section on p. <a href="#Page_109">109</a> is an appendix to +the summary.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_266_266' id='Footnote_266_266'></a><a href='#FNanchor_266_266'><span class='label'>{266}</span></a> +I do not know the authority for this statement.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_267_267' id='Footnote_267_267'></a><a href='#FNanchor_267_267'><span class='label'>{267}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i> no limit is placed to variation as far as +I know.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_268_268' id='Footnote_268_268'></a><a href='#FNanchor_268_268'><span class='label'>{268}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» History of pigeons shows increase of peculiarities +during last years.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_269_269' id='Footnote_269_269'></a><a href='#FNanchor_269_269'><span class='label'>{269}</span></a> +Compare an obscure passage in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_270_270' id='Footnote_270_270'></a><a href='#FNanchor_270_270'><span class='label'>{270}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Certainly «<ins>two pages in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></ins>» ought to be here introduced, viz., +difficulty in forming such organ, as eye, by selection. «<ins>In the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., a chapter on <i>Difficulties on Theory</i> follows that on +<i>Laws of Variation</i>, and precedes that on <i>Instinct</i>: this was also the +arrangement in the Essay of 1842; whereas in the present Essay +<i>Instinct</i> follows <i>Variation</i> and precedes <i>Difficulties</i>.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_271_271' id='Footnote_271_271'></a><a href='#FNanchor_271_271'><span class='label'>{271}</span></a> +A similar proviso occurs in the chapter on instinct in +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_272_272' id='Footnote_272_272'></a><a href='#FNanchor_272_272'><span class='label'>{272}</span></a> +The discussion occurs later in Chapter VII of the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. than in the present Essay, where moreover it is fuller +in some respects.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_273_273' id='Footnote_273_273'></a><a href='#FNanchor_273_273'><span class='label'>{273}</span></a> +In the margin occurs the name of Poeppig. In <i>Var. under +Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 28, the reference to Poeppig on the Cuban dogs +contains no mention of the wildness of their offspring.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_274_274' id='Footnote_274_274'></a><a href='#FNanchor_274_274'><span class='label'>{274}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Several authors.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_275_275' id='Footnote_275_275'></a><a href='#FNanchor_275_275'><span class='label'>{275}</span></a> +In the margin “Hogg” occurs as authority for this fact. +For the reference, see p. 17, note 4.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_276_276' id='Footnote_276_276'></a><a href='#FNanchor_276_276'><span class='label'>{276}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., he speaks more decidedly against +the belief that instincts are hereditary habits, see for instance pp. +209, 214, Ed. vi. pp. 321, 327. He allows, however, something to habit +(p. 216).</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_277_277' id='Footnote_277_277'></a><a href='#FNanchor_277_277'><span class='label'>{277}</span></a> +A suggestion of Hering’s and S. Butler’s views on memory +and inheritance. It is not, however, implied that Darwin was inclined to +accept these opinions.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_278_278' id='Footnote_278_278'></a><a href='#FNanchor_278_278'><span class='label'>{278}</span></a> +Lord Brougham’s <i>Dissertations on Subjects of Science</i>, +etc., 1839, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_279_279' id='Footnote_279_279'></a><a href='#FNanchor_279_279'><span class='label'>{279}</span></a> +This case is more briefly given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 213, vi. p. 326. The simile of the butterfly occurs there also.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_280_280' id='Footnote_280_280'></a><a href='#FNanchor_280_280'><span class='label'>{280}</span></a> +“A little dose, as Pierre Huber expresses it, of judgment +or reason, often comes into play.” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 208, vi. p. 320.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_281_281' id='Footnote_281_281'></a><a href='#FNanchor_281_281'><span class='label'>{281}</span></a> +In the margin is written “Retriever killing one bird.” +This refers to the cases given in the <i>Descent of Man</i>, 2nd Ed. (in 1 +vol.) p. 78, of a retriever being puzzled how to deal with a wounded and +a dead bird, killed the former and carried both at once. This was the +only known instance of her wilfully injuring game.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_282_282' id='Footnote_282_282'></a><a href='#FNanchor_282_282'><span class='label'>{282}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 214, vi. p. 327.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_283_283' id='Footnote_283_283'></a><a href='#FNanchor_283_283'><span class='label'>{283}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Give some definition of instinct, or at least give chief +attributes. «<ins>In <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319, Darwin refuses to +define instinct.</ins>» The term instinct is often used in «<ins>a</ins>» sense which +implies no more than that the animal does the action in question. +Faculties and instincts may I think be imperfectly separated. The mole +has the faculty of scratching burrows, and the instinct to apply it. The +bird of passage has the faculty of finding its way and the instinct to +put it in action at certain periods. It can hardly be said to have the +faculty of knowing the time, for it can possess no means, without indeed +it be some consciousness of passing sensations. Think over all habitual +actions and see whether faculties and instincts can be separated. We +have faculty of waking in the night, if an instinct prompted us to do +something at certain hour of night or day. Savages finding their way. +Wrangel’s account—probably a faculty inexplicable by the possessor. +There are besides faculties “<i>means</i>,” as conversion of larvæ into +neuters and queens. I think all this generally implied, anyhow useful. +«<ins>This discussion, which does not occur in the <i>Origin</i>, is a first draft +of that which follows in the text, p. 123.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_284_284' id='Footnote_284_284'></a><a href='#FNanchor_284_284'><span class='label'>{284}</span></a> +A short discussion of a similar kind occurs in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 211, vi. p. 324.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_285_285' id='Footnote_285_285'></a><a href='#FNanchor_285_285'><span class='label'>{285}</span></a> +This sentence agrees with the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>, but is clearly in need +of correction.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_286_286' id='Footnote_286_286'></a><a href='#FNanchor_286_286'><span class='label'>{286}</span></a> +This corresponds to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 212, vi. p. +325.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_287_287' id='Footnote_287_287'></a><a href='#FNanchor_287_287'><span class='label'>{287}</span></a> +This discussion is interesting in differing from the +corresponding section of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 216, vi. p. 330, to the +end of the chapter. In the present Essay the subjects dealt with are +nest-making instincts, including the egg-hatching habit of the +Australian bush-turkey. The power of “shamming death.” “Faculty” in +relation to instinct. The instinct of lapse of time, and of direction. +Bees’ cells very briefly given. Birds feeding their young on food +differing from their own natural food. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., the +cases discussed are the instinct of laying eggs in other birds’ nests; +the slave-making instinct in ants; the construction of the bee’s comb, +very fully discussed.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_288_288' id='Footnote_288_288'></a><a href='#FNanchor_288_288'><span class='label'>{288}</span></a> +The distinction between <i>faculty</i> and <i>instinct</i> +corresponds in some degree to that between perception of a stimulus and +a specific reaction. I imagine that the author would have said that the +sensitiveness to light possessed by a plant is <i>faculty</i>, while +<i>instinct</i> decides whether the plant curves to or from the source of +illumination.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_289_289' id='Footnote_289_289'></a><a href='#FNanchor_289_289'><span class='label'>{289}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in the original in an unknown handwriting.</ins>» At the time when corn was pitched in the market instead +of sold by sample, the geese in the town fields of Newcastle «<ins>Staffordshire?</ins>» used to +know market day and come in to pick up the corn spilt.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_290_290' id='Footnote_290_290'></a><a href='#FNanchor_290_290'><span class='label'>{290}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Macculloch and others.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_291_291' id='Footnote_291_291'></a><a href='#FNanchor_291_291'><span class='label'>{291}</span></a> +I can find no reference to the <i>transandantes</i> sheep in +Darwin’s published work. He was possibly led to doubt the accuracy of +the statement on which he relied. For the case of the sheep returning to +their birth-place see <a href="#Footnote_91_91">p. 17, note 4</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_292_292' id='Footnote_292_292'></a><a href='#FNanchor_292_292'><span class='label'>{292}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 224, vi. p. 342.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_293_293' id='Footnote_293_293'></a><a href='#FNanchor_293_293'><span class='label'>{293}</span></a> +This is an expansion of an obscure passage in the Essay +of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_294_294' id='Footnote_294_294'></a><a href='#FNanchor_294_294'><span class='label'>{294}</span></a> +The difficulties discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +171, vi. p. 207, are the rarity of transitional varieties, the origin of +the tail of the giraffe; the otter-like polecat (<i>Mustela vison</i>); the +flying habit of the bat; the penguin and the logger-headed duck; flying +fish; the whale-like habit of the bear; the woodpecker; diving petrels; +the eye; the swimming bladder; Cirripedes; neuter insects; electric +organs.</p> + +<p>Of these, the polecat, the bat, the woodpecker, the eye, the swimming +bladder are discussed in the present Essay, and in addition some +botanical problems.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_295_295' id='Footnote_295_295'></a><a href='#FNanchor_295_295'><span class='label'>{295}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. vi. p. 275, the author replies to +Mivart’s criticisms (<i>Genesis of Species</i>, 1871), referring especially +to that writer’s objection “that natural selection is incompetent to +account for the incipient stages of useful structures.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_296_296' id='Footnote_296_296'></a><a href='#FNanchor_296_296'><span class='label'>{296}</span></a> +«<ins>The following sentence seems to have been intended for +insertion here</ins>» “and that each eye throughout the animal kingdom is not +only most useful, but <i>perfect</i> for its possessor.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_297_297' id='Footnote_297_297'></a><a href='#FNanchor_297_297'><span class='label'>{297}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 190, vi. p. 230.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_298_298' id='Footnote_298_298'></a><a href='#FNanchor_298_298'><span class='label'>{298}</span></a> +This is one of the most definite statements in the +present Essay of the possible importance of <i>sports</i> or what would now +be called <i>mutations</i>. As is well known the author afterwards doubted +whether species could arise in this way. See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. v. p. 103, +vi. p. 110, also <i>Life and Letters</i>, vol. iii. p. 107.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_299_299' id='Footnote_299_299'></a><a href='#FNanchor_299_299'><span class='label'>{299}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 210, vi. p. 322, where the +question is discussed for the case of instincts with a proviso that the +same argument applies to structure. It is briefly stated in its general +bearing in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 106.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_300_300' id='Footnote_300_300'></a><a href='#FNanchor_300_300'><span class='label'>{300}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» No one will dispute that the gliding is most useful, +probably necessary for the species in question.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_301_301' id='Footnote_301_301'></a><a href='#FNanchor_301_301'><span class='label'>{301}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Is this the Galeopithecus? I forget. «<ins><i>Galeopithecus</i> +“or the flying Lemur” is mentioned in the corresponding discussion in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 181, vi. p. 217, as formerly placed among the +bats. I do not know why it is described as partly aquatic in its +habits.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_302_302' id='Footnote_302_302'></a><a href='#FNanchor_302_302'><span class='label'>{302}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. vi. p. 221, the author modified the +statement that it <i>never</i> climbs trees; he also inserted a sentence +quoting Mr Hudson to the effect that in other districts this woodpecker +climbs trees and bores holes. See Mr Darwin’s paper, <i>Zoolog. Soc. +Proc.</i>, 1870, and <i>Life and Letters</i>, iii. p. 153.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_303_303' id='Footnote_303_303'></a><a href='#FNanchor_303_303'><span class='label'>{303}</span></a> +Note by the late Alfred Newton. Richardson in <i>Fauna +Boreali-Americana</i>, i. p. 49.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_304_304' id='Footnote_304_304'></a><a href='#FNanchor_304_304'><span class='label'>{304}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» See Richardson a far better case of a polecat animal +«<ins><i>Mustela vison</i></ins>», which half-year is aquatic. «<ins>Mentioned in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 179, vi. +p. 216.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_305_305' id='Footnote_305_305'></a><a href='#FNanchor_305_305'><span class='label'>{305}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i> the division of the work into Parts I and +II is omitted. In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the chapters of Part II are numbered afresh, +the present being Ch. I of Pt. II. I have thought it best to call it Ch. +IV and there is evidence that Darwin had some thought of doing the same. +It corresponds to Ch. IX of <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., Ch. X in Ed. vi.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_306_306' id='Footnote_306_306'></a><a href='#FNanchor_306_306'><span class='label'>{306}</span></a> +In the Essay of 1842 the author uses astronomy in the +same manner as an illustration. In the <i>Origin</i> this does not occur; the +reference to the action of secondary causes is more general, <i>e.g.</i> Ed. +i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_307_307' id='Footnote_307_307'></a><a href='#FNanchor_307_307'><span class='label'>{307}</span></a> +It is interesting to find the argument from sterility +given so prominent a place. In a corresponding passage in the <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p. 659, it is more summarily treated. The author +gives, as the chief bar to the acceptance of evolution, the fact that +“we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not see +the intermediate steps”; and goes on to quote Lyell on geological +action. It will be remembered that the question of sterility remained a +difficulty for Huxley.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_308_308' id='Footnote_308_308'></a><a href='#FNanchor_308_308'><span class='label'>{308}</span></a> +Similar statements occur in the Essay of 1842, p. 24, +note 1, and in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_309_309' id='Footnote_309_309'></a><a href='#FNanchor_309_309'><span class='label'>{309}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 280, vi. p. 414 he uses his +newly-acquired knowledge of pigeons to illustrate this point.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_310_310' id='Footnote_310_310'></a><a href='#FNanchor_310_310'><span class='label'>{310}</span></a> +Compare the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 281, vi. p. 414.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_311_311' id='Footnote_311_311'></a><a href='#FNanchor_311_311'><span class='label'>{311}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 301, vi. p. 440.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_312_312' id='Footnote_312_312'></a><a href='#FNanchor_312_312'><span class='label'>{312}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p. 471.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_313_313' id='Footnote_313_313'></a><a href='#FNanchor_313_313'><span class='label'>{313}</span></a> +The structure of the Pachyderm leg was a favourite with +the author. It is discussed in the Essay of 1842, p. 48. In the present +Essay the following sentence in the margin appears to refer to +Pachyderms and Ruminants: “There can be no doubt, if we banish all +fossils, existing groups stand more separate.” The following occurs +between the lines “The earliest forms would be such as others could +radiate from.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_314_314' id='Footnote_314_314'></a><a href='#FNanchor_314_314'><span class='label'>{314}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_315_315' id='Footnote_315_315'></a><a href='#FNanchor_315_315'><span class='label'>{315}</span></a> +«<ins>Pencil insertion by the author.</ins>» The parent-forms of Mollusca would probably differ +greatly from all recent,—it is not directly that any one division of +Mollusca would descend from first time unaltered, whilst others had +become metamorphosed from it.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_316_316' id='Footnote_316_316'></a><a href='#FNanchor_316_316'><span class='label'>{316}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_317_317' id='Footnote_317_317'></a><a href='#FNanchor_317_317'><span class='label'>{317}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Reflect on coming in of the Chalk, extending from +Iceland to the Crimea.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_318_318' id='Footnote_318_318'></a><a href='#FNanchor_318_318'><span class='label'>{318}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 282, vi. p. 416.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_319_319' id='Footnote_319_319'></a><a href='#FNanchor_319_319'><span class='label'>{319}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 288, 300, vi. pp. 422, 438.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_320_320' id='Footnote_320_320'></a><a href='#FNanchor_320_320'><span class='label'>{320}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Neither highest or lowest fish (<i>i.e.</i> Myxina «<ins>?</ins>» or +Lepidosiren) could be preserved in intelligible condition in fossils.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_321_321' id='Footnote_321_321'></a><a href='#FNanchor_321_321'><span class='label'>{321}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 290, vi. p. 425.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_322_322' id='Footnote_322_322'></a><a href='#FNanchor_322_322'><span class='label'>{322}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 310, vi. p. 452 for Lyell's +metaphor. I am indebted to Prof. Judd for pointing out that Darwin’s +version of the metaphor is founded on the first edition of Lyell’s +<i>Principles</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> and vol. <span class='sc lc'>III.</span>; see the Essay of 1842, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_323_323' id='Footnote_323_323'></a><a href='#FNanchor_323_323'><span class='label'>{323}</span></a> +See <i>More Letters</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> pp. 344-7, for Darwin’s +interest in the celebrated observations of Hilgendorf and Hyatt.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_324_324' id='Footnote_324_324'></a><a href='#FNanchor_324_324'><span class='label'>{324}</span></a> +This corresponds partly to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 294, vi. +p. 431.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_325_325' id='Footnote_325_325'></a><a href='#FNanchor_325_325'><span class='label'>{325}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_326_326' id='Footnote_326_326'></a><a href='#FNanchor_326_326'><span class='label'>{326}</span></a> +This chapter corresponds to ch. X of <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., +vi. ch. XI, “On the geological succession of organic beings.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_327_327' id='Footnote_327_327'></a><a href='#FNanchor_327_327'><span class='label'>{327}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_328_328' id='Footnote_328_328'></a><a href='#FNanchor_328_328'><span class='label'>{328}</span></a> +In the margin the author has written “Lonsdale.” This +refers to W. Lonsdale’s paper “Notes on the age of the Limestone of +South Devonshire,” <i>Geolog. Soc. Trans.</i>, Series 2, vol. <span class='sc lc'>V.</span> 1840, p. +721. According to Mr H. B. Woodward (<i>History of the Geological Society +of London</i>, 1907, p. 107) “Lonsdale’s ‘important and original suggestion +of the existence of an intermediary type of Palæozoic fossils, since +called Devonian,’ led to a change which was then ‘the greatest ever made +at one time in the classification of our English formations’.” Mr +Woodward’s quotations are from Murchison and Buckland.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_329_329' id='Footnote_329_329'></a><a href='#FNanchor_329_329'><span class='label'>{329}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Better begin with this. If species really, after +catastrophes, created in showers over world, my theory false. «<ins>In the +above passage the author is obviously close to his theory of +divergence.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_330_330' id='Footnote_330_330'></a><a href='#FNanchor_330_330'><span class='label'>{330}</span></a> +Opposite to this passage the author has written +“d’Archiac, Forbes, Lyell.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_331_331' id='Footnote_331_331'></a><a href='#FNanchor_331_331'><span class='label'>{331}</span></a> +This passage, for which the author gives as authorities +the names of Lyell, Forbes and Ehrenberg, corresponds in part to the +discussion beginning on p. 313 of <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., vi. p. 454.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_332_332' id='Footnote_332_332'></a><a href='#FNanchor_332_332'><span class='label'>{332}</span></a> +The author gives Falconer as his authority: see <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_333_333' id='Footnote_333_333'></a><a href='#FNanchor_333_333'><span class='label'>{333}</span></a> +This corresponds approximately to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +317, vi. p. 458.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_334_334' id='Footnote_334_334'></a><a href='#FNanchor_334_334'><span class='label'>{334}</span></a> +The case of <i>Trigonia</i>, a great Secondary genus of shells +surviving in a single species in the Australian seas, is given as an +example in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_335_335' id='Footnote_335_335'></a><a href='#FNanchor_335_335'><span class='label'>{335}</span></a> +This point, on which the author laid much stress, is +discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 319, vi. p. 461.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_336_336' id='Footnote_336_336'></a><a href='#FNanchor_336_336'><span class='label'>{336}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 72, vi. p. 89.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_337_337' id='Footnote_337_337'></a><a href='#FNanchor_337_337'><span class='label'>{337}</span></a> +This case does not occur in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_338_338' id='Footnote_338_338'></a><a href='#FNanchor_338_338'><span class='label'>{338}</span></a> +An almost identical sentence occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 320, vi. p. 462.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_339_339' id='Footnote_339_339'></a><a href='#FNanchor_339_339'><span class='label'>{339}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_340_340' id='Footnote_340_340'></a><a href='#FNanchor_340_340'><span class='label'>{340}</span></a> +Chapters XI and XII in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., vi. chs. XII +and XIII (“On geographical distribution”) show signs of having been +originally one, in the fact that one summary serves for both. The +geological element is not separately treated there, nor is there a +separate section on “how far these laws accord with the theory, &c.”</p> + +<p>In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the author has here written in the margin “If same species +appear at two spot at once, fatal to my theory.” See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +352, vi. p. 499</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_341_341' id='Footnote_341_341'></a><a href='#FNanchor_341_341'><span class='label'>{341}</span></a> +This division of the land into regions does not occur in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_342_342' id='Footnote_342_342'></a><a href='#FNanchor_342_342'><span class='label'>{342}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_343_343' id='Footnote_343_343'></a><a href='#FNanchor_343_343'><span class='label'>{343}</span></a> +Opposite this passage is written “<i>not botanically</i>,” in +Sir J. D. Hooker’s hand. The word <i>palms</i> is underlined three times and +followed by three exclamation marks. An explanatory note is added in the +margin “singular paucity of palms and epiphytes in Trop. Africa compared +with Trop. America and Ind. Or.” «<ins>=East Indies</ins>».</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_344_344' id='Footnote_344_344'></a><a href='#FNanchor_344_344'><span class='label'>{344}</span></a> +This partly corresponds to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 337, vi. +p. 483.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_345_345' id='Footnote_345_345'></a><a href='#FNanchor_345_345'><span class='label'>{345}</span></a> +On the general importance of barriers, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 347, vi. p. 494.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_346_346' id='Footnote_346_346'></a><a href='#FNanchor_346_346'><span class='label'>{346}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 348, vi. p. 495.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_347_347' id='Footnote_347_347'></a><a href='#FNanchor_347_347'><span class='label'>{347}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» The same laws seem to govern distribution of species and +genera, and individuals in time and space. «<ins>See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 350, +vi. p. 497, also a passage in the last chapter, p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_348_348' id='Footnote_348_348'></a><a href='#FNanchor_348_348'><span class='label'>{348}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 404, vi. p. 559.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_349_349' id='Footnote_349_349'></a><a href='#FNanchor_349_349'><span class='label'>{349}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_350_350' id='Footnote_350_350'></a><a href='#FNanchor_350_350'><span class='label'>{350}</span></a> +The case of the ostrich (<i>Rhea</i>) occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_351_351' id='Footnote_351_351'></a><a href='#FNanchor_351_351'><span class='label'>{351}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» There is a hare in S. America,—so bad example.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_352_352' id='Footnote_352_352'></a><a href='#FNanchor_352_352'><span class='label'>{352}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 497.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_353_353' id='Footnote_353_353'></a><a href='#FNanchor_353_353'><span class='label'>{353}</span></a> +For the general problem of Oceanic Islands, see <i>Origin</i>, +Ed. i. p. 388, vi. p. 541.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_354_354' id='Footnote_354_354'></a><a href='#FNanchor_354_354'><span class='label'>{354}</span></a> +This is an illustration of the general theory of barriers +(<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 347, vi. p. 494). At i. p. 391, vi. p. 544 the +question is discussed from the point of view of means of transport. +Between the lines, above the words “with that land,” the author wrote +“Cause, formerly joined, no one doubts after Lyell.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_355_355' id='Footnote_355_355'></a><a href='#FNanchor_355_355'><span class='label'>{355}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_356_356' id='Footnote_356_356'></a><a href='#FNanchor_356_356'><span class='label'>{356}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 397, vi. p. 552.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_357_357' id='Footnote_357_357'></a><a href='#FNanchor_357_357'><span class='label'>{357}</span></a> +The Cape de Verde and Galapagos Archipelagoes are +compared in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553. See also <i>Journal +of Researches</i>, 1860, p. 393.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_358_358' id='Footnote_358_358'></a><a href='#FNanchor_358_358'><span class='label'>{358}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390, a strong point is made of +birds which immigrated “with facility and in a body” not having been +modified. Thus the author accounts for the small percentage of peculiar +“marine birds.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_359_359' id='Footnote_359_359'></a><a href='#FNanchor_359_359'><span class='label'>{359}</span></a> +“The affinities of the St Helena flora are strongly South +African.” Hooker’s <i>Lecture on Insular Floras</i> in the <i>Gardeners’ +Chronicle</i>, Jan. 1867.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_360_360' id='Footnote_360_360'></a><a href='#FNanchor_360_360'><span class='label'>{360}</span></a> +It is impossible to make out the precise form which the +author intended to give to this sentence, but the meaning is clear.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_361_361' id='Footnote_361_361'></a><a href='#FNanchor_361_361'><span class='label'>{361}</span></a> +This is no doubt true, the flora of the Sandwich group +however has marked American affinities.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_362_362' id='Footnote_362_362'></a><a href='#FNanchor_362_362'><span class='label'>{362}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515. The present +discussion was written before the publication of Forbes’ celebrated +paper on the same subject; see <i>Life and Letters</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 88.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_363_363' id='Footnote_363_363'></a><a href='#FNanchor_363_363'><span class='label'>{363}</span></a> +The apparent breakdown of the doctrine of barriers is +slightly touched on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_364_364' id='Footnote_364_364'></a><a href='#FNanchor_364_364'><span class='label'>{364}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 375, vi. p. 526, the author +points out that on the mountains at the Cape of Good Hope “some few +representative European forms are found, which have not been discovered +in the inter-tropical parts of Africa.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_365_365' id='Footnote_365_365'></a><a href='#FNanchor_365_365'><span class='label'>{365}</span></a> +See Hooker’s <i>Lecture on Insular Floras</i> in the +<i>Gardeners’ Chronicle</i>, Jan. 1867.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_366_366' id='Footnote_366_366'></a><a href='#FNanchor_366_366'><span class='label'>{366}</span></a> +In the margin the author has written “(Forbes).” This may +have been inserted at a date later than 1844, or it may refer to a work +by Forbes earlier than his Alpine paper.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_367_367' id='Footnote_367_367'></a><a href='#FNanchor_367_367'><span class='label'>{367}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 367, vi. p. 517.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_368_368' id='Footnote_368_368'></a><a href='#FNanchor_368_368'><span class='label'>{368}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Perhaps vitality checked by cold and so prevented +germinating. «<ins>On the carriage of seeds by icebergs, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 363, vi. p. 513.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_369_369' id='Footnote_369_369'></a><a href='#FNanchor_369_369'><span class='label'>{369}</span></a> +A note by the author gives “many authors” apparently as +authority for this statement.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_370_370' id='Footnote_370_370'></a><a href='#FNanchor_370_370'><span class='label'>{370}</span></a> +Opposite to this passage, in the margin, the author has +written:—“too hypothetical.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_371_371' id='Footnote_371_371'></a><a href='#FNanchor_371_371'><span class='label'>{371}</span></a> +The Cordillera is described as supplying a great line of +invasion in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 378.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_372_372' id='Footnote_372_372'></a><a href='#FNanchor_372_372'><span class='label'>{372}</span></a> +This is an approximation to the author’s views on +trans-tropical migration (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 376-8). See +Thiselton-Dyer’s interesting discussion in <i>Darwin and Modern Science</i>, +p. 304.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_373_373' id='Footnote_373_373'></a><a href='#FNanchor_373_373'><span class='label'>{373}</span></a> +See Hooker’s <i>Lecture on Insular Floras</i> in the +<i>Gardeners’ Chronicle</i>, Jan. 1867.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_374_374' id='Footnote_374_374'></a><a href='#FNanchor_374_374'><span class='label'>{374}</span></a> +«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» Similarity of flora of coral islands easily explained.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_375_375' id='Footnote_375_375'></a><a href='#FNanchor_375_375'><span class='label'>{375}</span></a> +On centres of creation see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. +p. 499.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_376_376' id='Footnote_376_376'></a><a href='#FNanchor_376_376'><span class='label'>{376}</span></a> +In the <i>Journal of Researches</i>, Ed. 1860, p. 124, the +distribution of the Bizcacha is described as limited by the river +Uruguay. The case is not I think given in the <i>Origin</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_377_377' id='Footnote_377_377'></a><a href='#FNanchor_377_377'><span class='label'>{377}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. a special section (p. 356, vi. p. +504) is devoted to <i>Means of Dispersal</i>. The much greater prominence +given to this subject in the <i>Origin</i> is partly accounted for by the +author’s experiments being of later date, <i>i.e.</i> 1855 (<i>Life and +Letters</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 53). The carriage of fish by whirlwinds is given +in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 384, vi. p. 536.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_378_378' id='Footnote_378_378'></a><a href='#FNanchor_378_378'><span class='label'>{378}</span></a> +The case of islands serving as halting places is given in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 357, vi. p. 505. But here the evidence of this +having occurred is supposed to be lost by the subsidence of the islands, +not merely by the extinction of the species.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_379_379' id='Footnote_379_379'></a><a href='#FNanchor_379_379'><span class='label'>{379}</span></a> +“We find no inexplicable cases of the same mammal +inhabiting distant points of the world.” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. +500. See also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_380_380' id='Footnote_380_380'></a><a href='#FNanchor_380_380'><span class='label'>{380}</span></a> +«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» Many authors. «<ins>See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 547.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_381_381' id='Footnote_381_381'></a><a href='#FNanchor_381_381'><span class='label'>{381}</span></a> +<i>Nutria</i> is the Spanish for otter, and is now a synonym +for <i>Lutra</i>. The otter on the Atlantic coast is distinguished by minute +differences from the Pacific species. Both forms are said to take to the +sea. In fact the case presents no especial difficulties.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_382_382' id='Footnote_382_382'></a><a href='#FNanchor_382_382'><span class='label'>{382}</span></a> +In <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 548, bats are +mentioned as an explicable exception to this statement.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_383_383' id='Footnote_383_383'></a><a href='#FNanchor_383_383'><span class='label'>{383}</span></a> +This reference is doubtless to <i>Mydaus</i>, a badger-like +animal from the mountains of Java and Sumatra (Wallace, <i>Geographical +Distribution</i>, ii. p. 199). The instance does not occur in the <i>Origin</i> +but the author remarks (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 376, vi. p. 527) that cases, +strictly analogous to the distribution of plants, occur among +terrestrial mammals.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_384_384' id='Footnote_384_384'></a><a href='#FNanchor_384_384'><span class='label'>{384}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_385_385' id='Footnote_385_385'></a><a href='#FNanchor_385_385'><span class='label'>{385}</span></a> +The comparison between New Zealand and the Cape is given +in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_386_386' id='Footnote_386_386'></a><a href='#FNanchor_386_386'><span class='label'>{386}</span></a> +In a corresponding discussion in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +393, vi. p. 546, stress is laid on the distribution of Batrachians not +of reptiles.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_387_387' id='Footnote_387_387'></a><a href='#FNanchor_387_387'><span class='label'>{387}</span></a> +The whole argument is given—more briefly than here—in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 547.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_388_388' id='Footnote_388_388'></a><a href='#FNanchor_388_388'><span class='label'>{388}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed i. p. 393, vi. p. 547. The discussion is +much fuller in the present Essay.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_389_389' id='Footnote_389_389'></a><a href='#FNanchor_389_389'><span class='label'>{389}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_390_390' id='Footnote_390_390'></a><a href='#FNanchor_390_390'><span class='label'>{390}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485, which +corresponds to this part of the present Essay, the author does not make +a separate section for such cases as the occurrence of fossil Marsupials +in Europe (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486) as he does in the +present Essay; see the section on <i>Changes in geographical +distribution</i>, p. 177.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_391_391' id='Footnote_391_391'></a><a href='#FNanchor_391_391'><span class='label'>{391}</span></a> +“We can understand how it is that all the forms of life, +ancient and recent, make together one grand system; for all are +connected by generation.” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 344, vi. p. 491.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_392_392' id='Footnote_392_392'></a><a href='#FNanchor_392_392'><span class='label'>{392}</span></a> +The word <i>hyæna</i> is erased. There appear to be no fossil +Hyænidæ in S. America.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_393_393' id='Footnote_393_393'></a><a href='#FNanchor_393_393'><span class='label'>{393}</span></a> +See <a href="#Footnote_390_390">note 1, p. 175</a>, also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. +486.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_394_394' id='Footnote_394_394'></a><a href='#FNanchor_394_394'><span class='label'>{394}</span></a> +«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» And see Eocene European mammals in N. America.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_395_395' id='Footnote_395_395'></a><a href='#FNanchor_395_395'><span class='label'>{395}</span></a> +«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» All this requires much verification.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_396_396' id='Footnote_396_396'></a><a href='#FNanchor_396_396'><span class='label'>{396}</span></a> +This point seems to be less insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_397_397' id='Footnote_397_397'></a><a href='#FNanchor_397_397'><span class='label'>{397}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 356, vi. p. 504.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_398_398' id='Footnote_398_398'></a><a href='#FNanchor_398_398'><span class='label'>{398}</span></a> +«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» D'Orbigny shows that this is not so.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_399_399' id='Footnote_399_399'></a><a href='#FNanchor_399_399'><span class='label'>{399}</span></a> +This instance occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, +but not in the <i>Origin</i>; though the importance of isolation is +discussed (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 104, vi. p. 127).</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_400_400' id='Footnote_400_400'></a><a href='#FNanchor_400_400'><span class='label'>{400}</span></a> +The meaning of the words within parenthesis is obscure.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_401_401' id='Footnote_401_401'></a><a href='#FNanchor_401_401'><span class='label'>{401}</span></a> +It is unusual to find the author speaking of the +selection of <i>sports</i> rather than small variations.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_402_402' id='Footnote_402_402'></a><a href='#FNanchor_402_402'><span class='label'>{402}</span></a> +This brief discussion is represented in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. by a much fuller one (pp. 356, 383, vi. pp. 504, 535). See, however, +the section in the present Essay, p. 168.[Link: Page 168]</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_403_403' id='Footnote_403_403'></a><a href='#FNanchor_403_403'><span class='label'>{403}</span></a> +On the formation of new stations, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +292, vi. p. 429.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_404_404' id='Footnote_404_404'></a><a href='#FNanchor_404_404'><span class='label'>{404}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 390, 400, vi. pp. 543, 554.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_405_405' id='Footnote_405_405'></a><a href='#FNanchor_405_405'><span class='label'>{405}</span></a> +In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> <i>some of the species ... nourishing quality</i> +is doubtfully erased. It seems clear that he doubted whether such a +problematical supply of food would be likely to cause variation.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_406_406' id='Footnote_406_406'></a><a href='#FNanchor_406_406'><span class='label'>{406}</span></a> +At this time the author clearly put more faith in the +importance of sport-like variation than in later years.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_407_407' id='Footnote_407_407'></a><a href='#FNanchor_407_407'><span class='label'>{407}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_408_408' id='Footnote_408_408'></a><a href='#FNanchor_408_408'><span class='label'>{408}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 403, vi. p. 558, where the author +speaks of Alpine humming birds, rodents, plants, &c. in S. America, all +of strictly American forms. In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the author has added between the +lines “As world has been getting hotter, there has been radiation from +high-lands,—old view?—curious; I presume Diluvian in origin.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_409_409' id='Footnote_409_409'></a><a href='#FNanchor_409_409'><span class='label'>{409}</span></a> +See the comparison between the Malay Archipelago and the +probable former state of Europe, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 438, +also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 292, vi. p. 429.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_410_410' id='Footnote_410_410'></a><a href='#FNanchor_410_410'><span class='label'>{410}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496. The arrangement of +the argument in the present Essay leads to repetition of statements made +in the earlier part of the book: in the <i>Origin</i> this is avoided.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_411_411' id='Footnote_411_411'></a><a href='#FNanchor_411_411'><span class='label'>{411}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_412_412' id='Footnote_412_412'></a><a href='#FNanchor_412_412'><span class='label'>{412}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_413_413' id='Footnote_413_413'></a><a href='#FNanchor_413_413'><span class='label'>{413}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 350, 404, vi. pp. 498, 559.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_414_414' id='Footnote_414_414'></a><a href='#FNanchor_414_414'><span class='label'>{414}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 500.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_415_415' id='Footnote_415_415'></a><a href='#FNanchor_415_415'><span class='label'>{415}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_416_416' id='Footnote_416_416'></a><a href='#FNanchor_416_416'><span class='label'>{416}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 341, vi. p. 487.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_417_417' id='Footnote_417_417'></a><a href='#FNanchor_417_417'><span class='label'>{417}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 396, vi. p. 549.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_418_418' id='Footnote_418_418'></a><a href='#FNanchor_418_418'><span class='label'>{418}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_419_419' id='Footnote_419_419'></a><a href='#FNanchor_419_419'><span class='label'>{419}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_420_420' id='Footnote_420_420'></a><a href='#FNanchor_420_420'><span class='label'>{420}</span></a> +“Nature may almost be said to have guarded against the +frequent discovery of her transitional or linking forms,” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 292. A similar but not identical passage occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +vi. p. 428.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_421_421' id='Footnote_421_421'></a><a href='#FNanchor_421_421'><span class='label'>{421}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_422_422' id='Footnote_422_422'></a><a href='#FNanchor_422_422'><span class='label'>{422}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_423_423' id='Footnote_423_423'></a><a href='#FNanchor_423_423'><span class='label'>{423}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 289, vi. p. 423.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_424_424' id='Footnote_424_424'></a><a href='#FNanchor_424_424'><span class='label'>{424}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 300, vi. p. 439.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_425_425' id='Footnote_425_425'></a><a href='#FNanchor_425_425'><span class='label'>{425}</span></a> +Ch. XIII of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., Ch. XIV Ed. vi. begins +with a similar statement. In the present Essay the author adds a +note:—“The obviousness of the fact (<i>i.e.</i> the natural grouping of +organisms) alone prevents it being remarkable. It is scarcely explicable +by creationist: groups of aquatic, of vegetable feeders and carnivorous, +&c., might resemble each other; but why as it is. So with +plants,—analogical resemblance thus accounted for. Must not here enter +into details.” This argument is incorporated with the text in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_426_426' id='Footnote_426_426'></a><a href='#FNanchor_426_426'><span class='label'>{426}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 411, vi. p. 566.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_427_427' id='Footnote_427_427'></a><a href='#FNanchor_427_427'><span class='label'>{427}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_428_428' id='Footnote_428_428'></a><a href='#FNanchor_428_428'><span class='label'>{428}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_429_429' id='Footnote_429_429'></a><a href='#FNanchor_429_429'><span class='label'>{429}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. this preliminary matter is +replaced (pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567) by a discussion in which +extinction is also treated, but chiefly from the point of view of the +theory of divergence.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_430_430' id='Footnote_430_430'></a><a href='#FNanchor_430_430'><span class='label'>{430}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_431_431' id='Footnote_431_431'></a><a href='#FNanchor_431_431'><span class='label'>{431}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_432_432' id='Footnote_432_432'></a><a href='#FNanchor_432_432'><span class='label'>{432}</span></a> +These instances occur with others in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 416, vi. p. 572.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_433_433' id='Footnote_433_433'></a><a href='#FNanchor_433_433'><span class='label'>{433}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 418, vi. p. 574.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_434_434' id='Footnote_434_434'></a><a href='#FNanchor_434_434'><span class='label'>{434}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 419, 440, vi. pp. 575, 606.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_435_435' id='Footnote_435_435'></a><a href='#FNanchor_435_435'><span class='label'>{435}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 418, 425, vi. pp. 574, 581.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_436_436' id='Footnote_436_436'></a><a href='#FNanchor_436_436'><span class='label'>{436}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 413, vi. p. 569.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_437_437' id='Footnote_437_437'></a><a href='#FNanchor_437_437'><span class='label'>{437}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_438_438' id='Footnote_438_438'></a><a href='#FNanchor_438_438'><span class='label'>{438}</span></a> +This is discussed from the point of view of divergence in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 420, 421, vi. pp. 576, 577.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_439_439' id='Footnote_439_439'></a><a href='#FNanchor_439_439'><span class='label'>{439}</span></a> +«<ins>Footnote by the author.</ins>» I discuss this because if Quinarism true, I false. «<ins>The +Quinary System is set forth in W. S. Macleay’s <i>Horæ Entomologicæ</i>, +1821.</ins>»</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_440_440' id='Footnote_440_440'></a><a href='#FNanchor_440_440'><span class='label'>{440}</span></a> +In the corresponding passage in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +430, vi. p. 591, the term <i>general</i> is used in place of <i>generic</i>, and +seems a better expression. In the margin the author gives Waterhouse as +his authority.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_441_441' id='Footnote_441_441'></a><a href='#FNanchor_441_441'><span class='label'>{441}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_442_442' id='Footnote_442_442'></a><a href='#FNanchor_442_442'><span class='label'>{442}</span></a> +In a corresponding passage in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +423, vi. p. 579, the author makes use of his knowledge of pigeons. The +pseudo-genera among dogs are discussed in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. +vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 38.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_443_443' id='Footnote_443_443'></a><a href='#FNanchor_443_443'><span class='label'>{443}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_444_444' id='Footnote_444_444'></a><a href='#FNanchor_444_444'><span class='label'>{444}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 423, 427, vi. pp. 579, 583.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_445_445' id='Footnote_445_445'></a><a href='#FNanchor_445_445'><span class='label'>{445}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_446_446' id='Footnote_446_446'></a><a href='#FNanchor_446_446'><span class='label'>{446}</span></a> +A general statement of the influence of conditions on +variation occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 131-3, vi. pp. 164-5.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_447_447' id='Footnote_447_447'></a><a href='#FNanchor_447_447'><span class='label'>{447}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579. In the margin +Marshall is given as the authority.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_448_448' id='Footnote_448_448'></a><a href='#FNanchor_448_448'><span class='label'>{448}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_449_449' id='Footnote_449_449'></a><a href='#FNanchor_449_449'><span class='label'>{449}</span></a> +The discussion here following corresponds more or less to +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567; although the +doctrine of divergence is not mentioned in this Essay (as it is in the +<i>Origin</i>) yet the present section seems to me a distinct approximation +to it.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_450_450' id='Footnote_450_450'></a><a href='#FNanchor_450_450'><span class='label'>{450}</span></a> +The author probably intended to write “groups separated +by chasms.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_451_451' id='Footnote_451_451'></a><a href='#FNanchor_451_451'><span class='label'>{451}</span></a> +A similar discussion occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +427, vi. p. 582.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_452_452' id='Footnote_452_452'></a><a href='#FNanchor_452_452'><span class='label'>{452}</span></a> +<i>Puffinuria berardi</i>, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 184, vi. p. +221.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_453_453' id='Footnote_453_453'></a><a href='#FNanchor_453_453'><span class='label'>{453}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_454_454' id='Footnote_454_454'></a><a href='#FNanchor_454_454'><span class='label'>{454}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595. Ch. VIII corresponds +to a section of Ch. XIII in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_455_455' id='Footnote_455_455'></a><a href='#FNanchor_455_455'><span class='label'>{455}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 596. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. these examples occur under the heading <i>Morphology</i>; the author does +not there draw much distinction between this heading and that of <i>Unity +of Type</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_456_456' id='Footnote_456_456'></a><a href='#FNanchor_456_456'><span class='label'>{456}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 599, where the parts +of the flower, the jaws and palpi of Crustaceans and the vertebrate +skull are given as examples.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_457_457' id='Footnote_457_457'></a><a href='#FNanchor_457_457'><span class='label'>{457}</span></a> +The author here brings <i>Unity of Type</i> and <i>Morphology</i> +together.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_458_458' id='Footnote_458_458'></a><a href='#FNanchor_458_458'><span class='label'>{458}</span></a> +The solid-hoofed pigs mentioned in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. +ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 424 are not <i>Lincolnshire pigs</i>. For other cases see +Bateson, <i>Materials for the Study of Variation</i>, 1894, pp. 387-90.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_459_459' id='Footnote_459_459'></a><a href='#FNanchor_459_459'><span class='label'>{459}</span></a> +In the margin C. Bell is given as authority, apparently +for the statement about Plesiosaurus. See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. +p. 598, where the author speaks of the “general pattern” being obscured +in “extinct gigantic sea lizards.” In the same place the suctorial +Entomostraca are added as examples of the difficulty of recognising the +type.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_460_460' id='Footnote_460_460'></a><a href='#FNanchor_460_460'><span class='label'>{460}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_461_461' id='Footnote_461_461'></a><a href='#FNanchor_461_461'><span class='label'>{461}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 604.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_462_462' id='Footnote_462_462'></a><a href='#FNanchor_462_462'><span class='label'>{462}</span></a> +The uselessness of the branchial arches in mammalia is +insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606. Also the +uselessness of the spots on the young blackbird and the stripes of the +lion-whelp, cases which do not occur in the present Essay.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_463_463' id='Footnote_463_463'></a><a href='#FNanchor_463_463'><span class='label'>{463}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 442, 448, vi. pp. 608, 614 it +is pointed out that in some cases the young form resembles the adult, +<i>e.g.</i> in spiders; again, that in the Aphis there is no “worm-like +stage” of development.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_464_464' id='Footnote_464_464'></a><a href='#FNanchor_464_464'><span class='label'>{464}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618, the author +speaks doubtfully about the recapitulation theory.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_465_465' id='Footnote_465_465'></a><a href='#FNanchor_465_465'><span class='label'>{465}</span></a> +This corresponds to the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. +607, where, however, the example is taken from the Cirripedes.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_466_466' id='Footnote_466_466'></a><a href='#FNanchor_466_466'><span class='label'>{466}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_467_467' id='Footnote_467_467'></a><a href='#FNanchor_467_467'><span class='label'>{467}</span></a> +This corresponds to the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 443-4, vi. +p. 610: the “feline animal” is not used to illustrate the +generalisation, but is so used in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_468_468' id='Footnote_468_468'></a><a href='#FNanchor_468_468'><span class='label'>{468}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 447, vi. p. 613.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_469_469' id='Footnote_469_469'></a><a href='#FNanchor_469_469'><span class='label'>{469}</span></a> +In the margin is written “Get young pigeons”; this was +afterwards done, and the results are given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +445, vi. p. 612.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_470_470' id='Footnote_470_470'></a><a href='#FNanchor_470_470'><span class='label'>{470}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. the corresponding passages are at +pp. 8, 13, 443, vi. pp. 8, 15, 610. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. I have not +found a passage so striking as that which occurs a few lines lower “that +the germinal vesicle is impressed with some power which is wonderfully +preserved, &c.” In the <i>Origin</i> this <i>preservation</i> is rather taken for +granted.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_471_471' id='Footnote_471_471'></a><a href='#FNanchor_471_471'><span class='label'>{471}</span></a> +«<ins>In the margin is written</ins>» Aborted organs show, perhaps, something about period «<ins>at</ins>» +which changes supervene in embryo.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_472_472' id='Footnote_472_472'></a><a href='#FNanchor_472_472'><span class='label'>{472}</span></a> +See <a href="#Footnote_160_160">p. 42, note 5</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_473_473' id='Footnote_473_473'></a><a href='#FNanchor_473_473'><span class='label'>{473}</span></a> +The evidence is given in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 316.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_474_474' id='Footnote_474_474'></a><a href='#FNanchor_474_474'><span class='label'>{474}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 610.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_475_475' id='Footnote_475_475'></a><a href='#FNanchor_475_475'><span class='label'>{475}</span></a> +In <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 295, such eggs +are said to be laid early in each season by the black Labrador duck. In +the next sentence in the text the author does not distinguish the +characters of the vegetable capsule from those of the ovum.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_476_476' id='Footnote_476_476'></a><a href='#FNanchor_476_476'><span class='label'>{476}</span></a> +This seems to me to be more strongly stated here than in +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_477_477' id='Footnote_477_477'></a><a href='#FNanchor_477_477'><span class='label'>{477}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_478_478' id='Footnote_478_478'></a><a href='#FNanchor_478_478'><span class='label'>{478}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_479_479' id='Footnote_479_479'></a><a href='#FNanchor_479_479'><span class='label'>{479}</span></a> +Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 419, vi. p. 575.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_480_480' id='Footnote_480_480'></a><a href='#FNanchor_480_480'><span class='label'>{480}</span></a> +«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Scarcely possible to distinguish between non-development +and retrograde development.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_481_481' id='Footnote_481_481'></a><a href='#FNanchor_481_481'><span class='label'>{481}</span></a> +See p. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, where the same illustration is +used.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_482_482' id='Footnote_482_482'></a><a href='#FNanchor_482_482'><span class='label'>{482}</span></a> +<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 452.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_483_483' id='Footnote_483_483'></a><a href='#FNanchor_483_483'><span class='label'>{483}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_484_484' id='Footnote_484_484'></a><a href='#FNanchor_484_484'><span class='label'>{484}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_485_485' id='Footnote_485_485'></a><a href='#FNanchor_485_485'><span class='label'>{485}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_486_486' id='Footnote_486_486'></a><a href='#FNanchor_486_486'><span class='label'>{486}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619, the author +does not lay stress on any distinction in meaning between the terms +<i>abortive</i> and <i>rudimentary</i> organs.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_487_487' id='Footnote_487_487'></a><a href='#FNanchor_487_487'><span class='label'>{487}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_488_488' id='Footnote_488_488'></a><a href='#FNanchor_488_488'><span class='label'>{488}</span></a> +<i>Ibid.</i></p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_489_489' id='Footnote_489_489'></a><a href='#FNanchor_489_489'><span class='label'>{489}</span></a> +This argument occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. +619.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_490_490' id='Footnote_490_490'></a><a href='#FNanchor_490_490'><span class='label'>{490}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 619, on male mammæ. In +the <i>Origin</i> he speaks certainly of the abortive mammæ of the cow giving +milk,—a point which is here queried.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_491_491' id='Footnote_491_491'></a><a href='#FNanchor_491_491'><span class='label'>{491}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_492_492' id='Footnote_492_492'></a><a href='#FNanchor_492_492'><span class='label'>{492}</span></a> +The <ins class='corr' title="Transcriber's Note: The +original showed ‘care’.">case</ins> of rudimentary organs adapted to new +purposes is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_493_493' id='Footnote_493_493'></a><a href='#FNanchor_493_493'><span class='label'>{493}</span></a> +This is here stated on the authority of Sprengel; see +also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 452, vi. p. 621.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_494_494' id='Footnote_494_494'></a><a href='#FNanchor_494_494'><span class='label'>{494}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627. In the margin R. +Brown's name is given apparently as the authority for the fact.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_495_495' id='Footnote_495_495'></a><a href='#FNanchor_495_495'><span class='label'>{495}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 626.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_496_496' id='Footnote_496_496'></a><a href='#FNanchor_496_496'><span class='label'>{496}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_497_497' id='Footnote_497_497'></a><a href='#FNanchor_497_497'><span class='label'>{497}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625, the author in +referring to semi-monstrous variations adds “But I doubt whether any of +these cases throw light on the origin of rudimentary organs in a state +of nature.” In 1844 he was clearly more inclined to an opposite +opinion.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_498_498' id='Footnote_498_498'></a><a href='#FNanchor_498_498'><span class='label'>{498}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_499_499' id='Footnote_499_499'></a><a href='#FNanchor_499_499'><span class='label'>{499}</span></a> +See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625. The author there +discusses monstrosities in relation to rudimentary organs, and comes to +the conclusion that disuse is of more importance, giving as a reason his +doubt “whether species under nature ever undergo abrupt changes.” It +seems to me that in the <i>Origin</i> he gives more weight to the “Lamarckian +factor” than he did in 1844. Huxley took the opposite view, see the +Introduction.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_500_500' id='Footnote_500_500'></a><a href='#FNanchor_500_500'><span class='label'>{500}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_501_501' id='Footnote_501_501'></a><a href='#FNanchor_501_501'><span class='label'>{501}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 11, vi. p. 13, where drooping-ears of +domestic animals are also given.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_502_502' id='Footnote_502_502'></a><a href='#FNanchor_502_502'><span class='label'>{502}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 137, vi. p. 170.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_503_503' id='Footnote_503_503'></a><a href='#FNanchor_503_503'><span class='label'>{503}</span></a> +These words seem to have been inserted as an +afterthought.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_504_504' id='Footnote_504_504'></a><a href='#FNanchor_504_504'><span class='label'>{504}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_505_505' id='Footnote_505_505'></a><a href='#FNanchor_505_505'><span class='label'>{505}</span></a> +This and similar cases occur in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +452, vi. p. 621.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_506_506' id='Footnote_506_506'></a><a href='#FNanchor_506_506'><span class='label'>{506}</span></a> +The metaphor of the dishes is given in the Essay of 1842, +<a href="#Footnote_173_173">p. 47, note 3</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_507_507' id='Footnote_507_507'></a><a href='#FNanchor_507_507'><span class='label'>{507}</span></a> +Compare however Darwin’s later view:—“The possibility of +making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated,” +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23. The author’s change of opinion was no +doubt partly due to his experience in breeding pigeons.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_508_508' id='Footnote_508_508'></a><a href='#FNanchor_508_508'><span class='label'>{508}</span></a> +In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 469, vi. p. 644, Darwin makes +a strong statement to this effect.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_509_509' id='Footnote_509_509'></a><a href='#FNanchor_509_509'><span class='label'>{509}</span></a> +“A grain in the balance will determine which individual +shall live and which shall die,” <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 467, vi. p. 642. A +similar statement occurs in the 1842 Essay, <a href="#Footnote_59_59">p. 8, note 3</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_510_510' id='Footnote_510_510'></a><a href='#FNanchor_510_510'><span class='label'>{510}</span></a> +Thus according to the author what is now known as +<i>orthogenesis</i> is due to selection.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_511_511' id='Footnote_511_511'></a><a href='#FNanchor_511_511'><span class='label'>{511}</span></a> +Part II begins with Ch. IV. See the <a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a>, +where the absence of division into two parts (in the <i>Origin</i>) is +discussed.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_512_512' id='Footnote_512_512'></a><a href='#FNanchor_512_512'><span class='label'>{512}</span></a> +In the recapitulation in the last chapter of the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 475, vi. p. 651, the author does not insist on this +point as the weightiest difficulty, though he does so in Ed. i. p. 299. +It is possible that he had come to think less of the difficulty in +question: this was certainly the case when he wrote the 6th edition, see +p. 438.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_513_513' id='Footnote_513_513'></a><a href='#FNanchor_513_513'><span class='label'>{513}</span></a> +«<ins>The following words:</ins>» The fauna changes singly «<ins>were inserted by the author, +apparently to replace a doubtful erasure</ins>».</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_514_514' id='Footnote_514_514'></a><a href='#FNanchor_514_514'><span class='label'>{514}</span></a> +This question forms the subject of what is practically a +section of the final chapter of the <i>Origin</i> (Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p. +657).</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_515_515' id='Footnote_515_515'></a><a href='#FNanchor_515_515'><span class='label'>{515}</span></a> +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_516_516' id='Footnote_516_516'></a><a href='#FNanchor_516_516'><span class='label'>{516}</span></a> +The discussion on the three species of <i>Rhinoceros</i> which +also occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, was omitted in +Ch. XIV of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_517_517' id='Footnote_517_517'></a><a href='#FNanchor_517_517'><span class='label'>{517}</span></a> +This corresponds to a paragraph in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. +p. 483, vi. p. 662, where it is assumed that animals have descended +“from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an equal or +lesser number.” In the <i>Origin</i>, however, the author goes on, Ed. i. p. +484, vi. p. 663: “Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the +belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one +prototype.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_518_518' id='Footnote_518_518'></a><a href='#FNanchor_518_518'><span class='label'>{518}</span></a> +This sentence corresponds, not to the final section of +the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 664, but rather to the opening words +of the section already referred to (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p. +657).</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_519_519' id='Footnote_519_519'></a><a href='#FNanchor_519_519'><span class='label'>{519}</span></a> +This simile occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, +and in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665, <i>i.e.</i> in the final +section of Ch. XIV (vi. Ch. XV). In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> there is some erasure in +pencil of which I have taken no notice.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_520_520' id='Footnote_520_520'></a><a href='#FNanchor_520_520'><span class='label'>{520}</span></a> +An almost identical sentence occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. +i. p. 487, vi. p. 667. The fine prophecy (in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. +486, vi. p. 666) on “the almost untrodden field of inquiry” is wanting +in the present Essay.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_521_521' id='Footnote_521_521'></a><a href='#FNanchor_521_521'><span class='label'>{521}</span></a> +See the last paragraph on p. 488 of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., +vi. p. 668.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_522_522' id='Footnote_522_522'></a><a href='#FNanchor_522_522'><span class='label'>{522}</span></a> +A passage corresponding to this occurs in the sketch of +1842, p. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, but not in the last chapter of the +<i>Origin</i>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_523_523' id='Footnote_523_523'></a><a href='#FNanchor_523_523'><span class='label'>{523}</span></a> +This sentence occurs in an almost identical form in the +<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 490, vi. p. 669. It will be noted that man is not +named though clearly referred to. Elsewhere (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 488) +the author is bolder and writes “Light will be thrown on the origin of +man and his history.” In Ed. vi. p. 668, he writes “Much light &c.”</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_524_524' id='Footnote_524_524'></a><a href='#FNanchor_524_524'><span class='label'>{524}</span></a> +For the history of this sentence (with which the <i>Origin +of Species</i> closes) see the Essay of 1842, <a href="#Footnote_184_184">p. 52, note 2</a>: +also the concluding pages of the <a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a>.</p></div> + +<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_525_525' id='Footnote_525_525'></a><a href='#FNanchor_525_525'><span class='label'>{525}</span></a> +These four words are added in pencil between the lines.</p></div> +</div> +<p class='b c mt2 noin sf75'>CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p> + +<div class='bbox mt2'> +<h3 class='mt0'>Transcriber’s Notes & Errata</h3> + +<p>Page numbers and footnote anchors are wrapped in curly brackets as +square brackets are used in the text.</p> + +<p>Footnotes have been renumbered consecutively. All internal links to +footnotes go to the appropriately renumbered footnotes.</p> + +<p>The following typographical errors have been corrected. The corrected +part of the text has a thin gray dotted bottom border to signify this. +If you hover your mouse over this, the original text will be displayed +in a transient pop-up box.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class='b'><td align='left'>Page</td><td align='left'>Error</td><td align='left'>Correction</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>130</td><td align='left'>simplication</td><td align='left'>simplification</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>233</td><td align='left'>care</td><td align='left'>case</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>250</td><td align='left'>apparant</td><td align='left'>apparent</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The following words were found in both hyphenated and unhyphenated +forms.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr class='b c'><td colspan='2'>Hyphenated</td><td colspan='2'>Unhyphenated</td></tr> +<tr class='i c'><td>Word</td><td>No. of instances</td><td>Word</td><td>No. of instances</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>after-thought</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>afterthought</td><td align='right'>2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>blood-hound</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>bloodhound</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bull-dog</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='left'>bulldog</td><td align='right'>2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>co-descendants</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>codescendants</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>feather-hyacinth</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>feather hyacinth</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grey-hound</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>greyhound</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>high-lands</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>highlands</td><td align='right'>2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>long-legged</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>long legged</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>race-horse</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>racehorse</td><td align='right'>4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>shepherd-dog</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>shepherd dog</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sub-divisions</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>subdivisions</td><td align='right'>4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>table-land</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>tableland</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr> +</table></div></div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of +Species, by Charles Darwin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOUNDATIONS ORIGIN OF SPECIES *** + +***** This file should be named 22728-h.htm or 22728-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/7/2/22728/ + +Produced by Geetu Melwani, David Clarke, LN Yaddanapudi +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images +generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian +Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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