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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of Species, by 
+Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Foundations of the Origin of Species
+       Two Essays written in 1842 and 1844
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Editor: Francis Darwin
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22728]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOUNDATIONS ORIGIN OF SPECIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Geetu Melwani, David Clarke, LN Yaddanapudi
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
+
+CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+London: FETTER LANE, E.C.
+
+C. F. CLAY, MANAGER
+
+{Illustration}
+
+Edinburgh: 100, PRINCES STREET
+
+ALSO
+
+London: H. K. LEWIS, 136, GOWER STREET, W.C.
+
+Berlin: A. ASHER AND CO.
+
+Leipzig: F. A. BROCKHAUS
+
+New York: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+Bombay and Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND Co., LTD.
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+{Illustration: Charles Darwin from a photograph by Maull & Fox in 1854}
+
+
+
+
+THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
+
+TWO ESSAYS WRITTEN IN 1842 AND 1844
+
+by
+
+CHARLES DARWIN
+
+
+Edited by his son
+
+FRANCIS DARWIN
+
+Honorary Fellow of Christ's College
+
+
+Cambridge:
+
+at the University Press
+
+1909
+
+
+     Astronomers might formerly have said that God ordered each planet
+     to move in its particular destiny. In same manner God orders each
+     animal created with certain form in certain country. But how much
+     more simple and sublime power,--let attraction act according to
+     certain law, such are inevitable consequences,--let animal(s) be
+     created, then by the fixed laws of generation, such will be their
+     successors.
+
+     From DARWIN'S _Note Book_, 1837, p. 101.
+
+
+     TO THE MASTER AND FELLOWS
+     OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, THIS
+     BOOK IS DEDICATED BY THE
+     EDITOR IN TOKEN OF RESPECT
+     AND GRATITUDE
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ESSAY OF 1842
+                                                                   PAGES
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                          xi
+
+
+PART I
+
+  § i. On variation under domestication, and on the principles
+        of selection                                                   1
+
+  § ii. On variation in a state of nature and on the natural
+        means of selection                                             4
+
+  § iii. On variation in instincts and other mental attributes        17
+
+
+PART II
+
+  §§ iv. and v. On the evidence from Geology. (The reasons for
+        combining the two sections are given in the Introduction)     22
+
+  § vi. Geographical distribution                                     29
+
+  § vii. Affinities and classification                                35
+
+  § viii. Unity of type in the great classes                          38
+
+  § ix. Abortive organs                                               45
+
+  § x. Recapitulation and conclusion                                  48
+
+
+ESSAY OF 1844
+
+
+PART I
+
+
+CHAPTER I                                                          57-80
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION;
+AND ON THE PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION.
+
+  Variation
+  On the hereditary tendency
+  Causes of Variation
+  On Selection
+  Crossing Breeds
+  Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild stocks
+  Limits to Variation in degree and kind
+  In what consists Domestication--Summary
+
+
+CHAPTER II                                                        81-111
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE;
+ON THE NATURAL MEANS OF SELECTION; AND ON THE
+COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES.
+
+  Variation
+  Natural means of Selection
+  Differences between "Races" and "Species":-first, in their trueness
+    or variability
+  Difference between "Races" and "Species" in fertility when crossed
+  Causes of Sterility in Hybrids
+  Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation
+  Points of Resemblance between "Races" and "Species"
+  External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels
+  Summary
+  Limits of Variation
+
+
+CHAPTER III                                                      112-132
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL
+ATTRIBUTES UNDER DOMESTICATION AND IN A STATE OF
+NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS SUBJECT; AND
+ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL
+STRUCTURES.
+
+  Variation of mental attributes under domestication
+  Hereditary habits compared with instincts
+  Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals
+  Principles of Selection applicable to instincts
+  Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection
+  Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal
+    structures
+
+
+PART II
+
+ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW
+THAT SPECIES ARE NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED
+FROM COMMON STOCKS.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV                                                       133-143
+
+ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE
+THEORY OF COMMON DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE
+IN A FOSSIL STATE
+
+
+CHAPTER V                                                        144-150
+
+GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES.
+
+  Gradual appearance of species
+  Extinction of species
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS
+IN PAST AND PRESENT TIMES.
+
+
+SECTION FIRST                                                    151-174
+
+  Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents
+  Relation of range in genera and species
+  Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent
+  Insular Faunas
+  Alpine Floras
+  Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains
+  Whether the same species has been created more than once
+  On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong
+    in different regions
+
+
+SECOND SECTION                                                   174-182
+
+  Geographical distribution of extinct organisms
+  Changes in geographical distribution
+  Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings
+
+
+SECTION THIRD                                                    183-197
+
+  An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical
+    distribution, on the theory of allied species having a
+    common descent
+  Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between
+    existing species
+
+
+CHAPTER VII                                                      198-213
+
+ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION
+OF ORGANIC BEINGS.
+
+  Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups
+  What is the Natural System?
+  On the kind of relation between distinct groups
+  Classification of Races or Varieties
+  Classification of Races and Species similar
+  Origin of genera and families
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII                                                     214-230
+
+UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND
+MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES.
+
+  Unity of Type
+  Morphology
+  Embryology
+  Attempt to explain the facts of embryology
+  On the graduated complexity in each great class
+  Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals
+  Importance of embryology in classification
+  Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared
+
+
+CHAPTER IX                                                       231-238
+
+ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.
+
+  The abortive organs of Naturalists
+  The abortive organs of Physiologists
+  Abortion from gradual disuse
+
+
+CHAPTER X                                                        239-255
+
+RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION.
+
+  Recapitulation
+  Why do we wish to reject the Theory of Common Descent?
+  Conclusion
+
+
+INDEX                                                                257
+
+  Portrait    _frontispiece_
+  Facsimile   _to face_ p. 50
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+We know from the contents of Charles Darwin's Note Book of 1837 that he
+was at that time a convinced Evolutionist{1}. Nor can there be any doubt
+that, when he started on board the _Beagle_, such opinions as he had
+were on the side of immutability. When therefore did the current of his
+thoughts begin to set in the direction of Evolution?
+
+     {1} See the extracts in _Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_, ii.
+     p. 5.
+
+We have first to consider the factors that made for such a change. On
+his departure in 1831, Henslow gave him vol. I. of Lyell's _Principles_,
+then just published, with the warning that he was not to believe what he
+read{2}. But believe he did, and it is certain (as Huxley has forcibly
+pointed out{3}) that the doctrine of uniformitarianism when applied to
+Biology leads of necessity to Evolution. If the extermination of a
+species is no more catastrophic than the natural death of an individual,
+why should the birth of a species be any more miraculous than the birth
+of an individual? It is quite clear that this thought was vividly
+present to Darwin when he was writing out his early thoughts in the 1837
+Note Book{4}:--
+
+"Propagation explains why modern animals same type as extinct, which is
+law almost proved. They die, without they change, like golden pippins;
+it is a _generation of species_ like generation _of individuals_."
+
+"If _species_ generate other _species_ their race is not utterly cut
+off."
+
+     {2} The second volume,--especially important in regard to
+     Evolution,--reached him in the autumn of 1832, as Prof. Judd has
+     pointed out in his most interesting paper in _Darwin and Modern
+     Science_. Cambridge, 1909.
+
+     {3} Obituary Notice of C. Darwin, _Proc. R. Soc._ vol. 44.
+     Reprinted in Huxley's _Collected Essays_. See also _Life and
+     Letters of C. Darwin_, ii. p. 179.
+
+     {4} See the extracts in the _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 5.
+
+These quotations show that he was struggling to see in the origin of
+species a process just as scientifically comprehensible as the birth of
+individuals. They show, I think, that he recognised the two things not
+merely as similar but as identical.
+
+It is impossible to know how soon the ferment of uniformitarianism began
+to work, but it is fair to suspect that in 1832 he had already begun to
+see that mutability was the logical conclusion of Lyell's doctrine,
+though this was not acknowledged by Lyell himself.
+
+There were however other factors of change. In his Autobiography{5} he
+wrote:--"During the voyage of the _Beagle_ I had been deeply impressed
+by discovering in the Pampean formation great fossil animals covered
+with armour like that on the existing armadillos; secondly, by the
+manner in which closely allied animals replace one another in proceeding
+southward over the Continent; and thirdly, by the South American
+character of most of the productions of the Galapagos archipelago, and
+more especially by the manner in which they differ slightly on each
+island of the group; none of the islands appearing to be very ancient in
+a geological sense. It was evident that such facts as these, as well as
+many others, could only be explained on the supposition that species
+gradually become modified; and the subject haunted me."
+
+     {5} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 82.
+
+Again we have to ask: how soon did any of these influences produce an
+effect on Darwin's mind? Different answers have been attempted.
+Huxley{6} held that these facts could not have produced their essential
+effect until the voyage had come to an end, and the "relations of the
+existing with the extinct species and of the species of the different
+geographical areas with one another were determined with some
+exactness." He does not therefore allow that any appreciable advance
+towards evolution was made during the actual voyage of the _Beagle_.
+
+     {6} _Obituary Notice_, _loc. cit._
+
+Professor Judd{7} takes a very different view. He holds that November
+1832 may be given with some confidence as the "date at which Darwin
+commenced that long series of observations and reasonings which
+eventually culminated in the preparation of the _Origin of Species_."
+
+     {7} _Darwin and Modern Science._
+
+Though I think these words suggest a more direct and continuous march
+than really existed between fossil-collecting in 1832 and writing the
+_Origin of Species_ in 1859, yet I hold that it was during the voyage
+that Darwin's mind began to be turned in the direction of Evolution, and
+I am therefore in essential agreement with Prof. Judd, although I lay
+more stress than he does on the latter part of the voyage.
+
+Let us for a moment confine our attention to the passage, above quoted,
+from the Autobiography and to what is said in the Introduction to the
+_Origin_, Ed. i., viz. "When on board H.M.S. 'Beagle,' as naturalist, I
+was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the
+inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the
+present to the past inhabitants of that continent." These words,
+occurring where they do, can only mean one thing,--namely that the facts
+suggested an evolutionary interpretation. And this being so it must be
+true that his thoughts _began to flow in the direction of Descent_ at
+this early date.
+
+I am inclined to think that the "new light which was rising in his
+mind{8}" had not yet attained any effective degree of steadiness or
+brightness. I think so because in his Pocket Book under the date 1837 he
+wrote, "In July opened first note-book on 'transmutation of species.'
+Had been greatly struck _from about month of previous March_{9} on
+character of South American fossils, and species on Galapagos
+Archipelago. These facts origin (_especially latter_), of all my views."
+But he did not visit the Galapagos till 1835 and I therefore find it
+hard to believe that his evolutionary views attained any strength or
+permanence until at any rate quite late in the voyage. The Galapagos
+facts are strongly against Huxley's view, for Darwin's attention was
+"thoroughly aroused{10}" by comparing the birds shot by himself and by
+others on board. The case must have struck him at once,--without waiting
+for accurate determinations,--as a microcosm of evolution.
+
+     {8} Huxley, _Obituary_, p. xi.
+
+     {9} In this citation the italics are mine.
+
+     {10} _Journal of Researches_, Ed. 1860, p. 394.
+
+It is also to be noted, in regard to the remains of extinct animals,
+that, in the above quotation from his Pocket Book, he speaks of March
+1837 as the time at which he began to be "greatly struck on character of
+South American fossils," which suggests at least that the impression
+made in 1832 required reinforcement before a really powerful effect was
+produced.
+
+We may therefore conclude, I think, that the evolutionary current in my
+father's thoughts had continued to increase in force from 1832 onwards,
+being especially reinforced at the Galapagos in 1835 and again in 1837
+when he was overhauling the results, mental and material, of his
+travels. And that when the above record in the Pocket Book was made he
+unconsciously minimised the earlier beginnings of his theorisings, and
+laid more stress on the recent thoughts which were naturally more vivid
+to him. In his letter{11} to Otto Zacharias (1877) he wrote, "On my
+return home in the autumn of 1836, I immediately began to prepare my
+Journal for publication, and then saw how many facts indicated the
+common descent of species." This again is evidence in favour of the view
+that the later growths of his theory were the essentially important
+parts of its development.
+
+     {11} F. Darwin's _Life of Charles Darwin_ (in one volume), 1892, p.
+     166.
+
+In the same letter to Zacharias he says, "When I was on board the
+_Beagle_ I believed in the permanence of species, but as far as I can
+remember vague doubts occasionally flitted across my mind." Unless Prof.
+Judd and I are altogether wrong in believing that late or early in the
+voyage (it matters little which) a definite approach was made to the
+evolutionary standpoint, we must suppose that in 40 years such advance
+had shrunk in his recollection to the dimensions of "vague doubts." The
+letter to Zacharias shows I think some forgetting of the past where the
+author says, "But I did not become convinced that species were mutable
+until, I think, two or three years had elapsed." It is impossible to
+reconcile this with the contents of the evolutionary Note Book of 1837.
+I have no doubt that in his retrospect he felt that he had not been
+"convinced that species were mutable" until he had gained a clear
+conception of the mechanism of natural selection, _i.e._ in 1838-9.
+
+But even on this last date there is some room, not for doubt, but for
+surprise. The passage in the Autobiography{12} is quite clear, namely
+that in October 1838 he read Malthus's _Essay on the principle of
+Population_ and "being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for
+existence ..., it at once struck me that under these circumstances
+favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones
+to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new
+species. Here then I had at last got a theory by which to work."
+
+     {12} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 83.
+
+It is surprising that Malthus should have been needed to give him the
+clue, when in the Note Book of 1837 there should occur--however
+obscurely expressed--the following forecast{13} of the importance of the
+survival of the fittest. "With respect to extinction, we can easily see
+that a variety of the ostrich (Petise{14}), may not be well adapted, and
+thus perish out; or on the other hand, like Orpheus{15}, being
+favourable, many might be produced. This requires the principle that the
+permanent variations produced by confined breeding and changing
+circumstances are continued and produce<d> according to the adaptation of
+such circumstances, and therefore that death of species is a consequence
+(contrary to what would appear in America) of non-adaptation of
+circumstances."
+
+     {13} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 8.
+
+     {14} Avestruz Petise, _i.e. Rhea Darwini_.
+
+     {15} A bird.
+
+I can hardly doubt, that with his knowledge of the interdependence of
+organisms and the tyranny of conditions, his experience would have
+crystallized out into "a theory by which to work" even without the aid
+of Malthus.
+
+In my father's Autobiography{16} he writes, "In June 1842 I first
+allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my
+theory in pencil in 35 pages; and this was enlarged during the summer of
+1844 into one of 230 pages{17}, which I had fairly copied out and still
+possess." These two Essays, of 1842 and 1844, are now printed under the
+title _The Foundations of the Origin of Species_.
+
+     {16} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 84.
+
+     {17} It contains as a fact 231 pp. It is a strongly bound folio,
+     interleaved with blank pages, as though for notes and additions.
+     His own MS. from which it was copied contains 189 pp.
+
+It will be noted that in the above passage he does not mention the MS.
+of 1842 as being in existence, and when I was at work on _Life and
+Letters_ I had not seen it. It only came to light after my mother's
+death in 1896 when the house at Down was vacated. The MS. was hidden in
+a cupboard under the stairs which was not used for papers of any value,
+but rather as an overflow for matter which he did not wish to destroy.
+
+The statement in the Autobiography that the MS. was written in 1842
+agrees with an entry in my fathers Diary:--
+
+"1842. May 18th went to Maer. June 15th to Shrewsbury, and on 18th to
+Capel Curig.... During my stay at Maer and Shrewsbury (five years after
+commencement) wrote pencil sketch of my species theory." Again in a
+letter to Lyell (June 18, 1858) he speaks of his "MS. sketch written out
+in 1842{18}." In the _Origin of Species_, Ed. i. p. 1, he speaks of
+beginning his speculations in 1837 and of allowing himself to draw up
+some "short notes" after "five years' work," _i.e._ in 1842. So far
+there seems no doubt as to 1842 being the date of the first sketch; but
+there is evidence in favour of an earlier date{19}. Thus across the
+Table of Contents of the bound copy of the 1844 MS. is written in my
+father's hand "This was sketched in 1839." Again in a letter to Mr
+Wallace{20} (Jan. 25, 1859) he speaks of his own contributions to the
+Linnean paper{21} of July 1, 1858, as "written in 1839, now just twenty
+years ago." This statement as it stands is undoubtedly incorrect, since
+the extracts are from the MS. of 1844, about the date of which no doubt
+exists; but even if it could be supposed to refer to the 1842 Essay, it
+must, I think, be rejected. I can only account for his mistake by the
+supposition that my father had in mind the date (1839) at which the
+framework of his theory was laid down. It is worth noting that in his
+Autobiography (p. 88) he speaks of the time "about 1839, when the theory
+was clearly conceived." However this may be there can be no doubt that
+1842 is the correct date. Since the publication of _Life and Letters_ I
+have gained fresh evidence on this head. A small packet containing 13
+pp. of MS. came to light in 1896. On the outside is written "First
+Pencil Sketch of Species Theory. Written at Maer and Shrewsbury during
+May and June 1842." It is not however written in pencil, and it consists
+of a single chapter on _The Principles of Variation in Domestic
+Organisms_. A single unnumbered page is written in pencil, and is headed
+"Maer, May 1842, useless"; it also bears the words "This page was
+thought of as introduction." It consists of the briefest sketch of the
+geological evidence for evolution, together with words intended as
+headings for discussion,--such as "Affinity,--unity of type,--foetal
+state,--abortive organs."
+
+     {18} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 116.
+
+     {19} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 10.
+
+     {20} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 146.
+
+     {21} _J. Linn. Soc. Zool._ iii. p. 45.
+
+The back of this "useless" page is of some interest, although it does
+not bear on the question of date,--the matter immediately before us.
+
+It seems to be an outline of the Essay or sketch of 1842, consisting of
+the titles of the three chapters of which it was to have consisted.
+
+"I. The Principles of Var. in domestic organisms.
+
+"II. The possible and probable application of these same principles to
+wild animals and consequently the possible and probable production of
+wild races, analogous to the domestic ones of plants and animals.
+
+"III. The reasons for and against believing that such races have really
+been produced, forming what are called species."
+
+It will be seen that Chapter III as originally designed corresponds to
+Part II (p. 22) of the Essay of 1842, which is (p. 7) defined by the
+author as discussing "whether the characters and relations of animated
+things are such as favour the idea of wild species being races descended
+from a common stock." Again at p. 23 the author asks "What then is the
+evidence in favour of it (the theory of descent) and what the evidence
+against it." The generalised section of his Essay having been originally
+Chapter III{22} accounts for the curious error which occurs in pp. 18
+and 22 where the second Part of the Essay is called Part III.
+
+     {22} It is evident that _Parts_ and _Chapters_ were to some extent
+     interchangeable in the author's mind, for p. 1 (of the MS. we have
+     been discussing) is headed in ink Chapter I, and afterwards altered
+     in pencil to Part I.
+
+The division of the Essay into two parts is maintained in the enlarged
+Essay of 1844, in which he writes: "The Second Part of this work is
+devoted to the general consideration of how far the general economy of
+nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species and genera
+are descended from common stocks." The _Origin of Species_ however is
+not so divided.
+
+We may now return to the question of the date of the Essay. I have found
+additional evidence in favour of 1842 in a sentence written on the back
+of the Table of Contents of the 1844 MS.--not the copied version but the
+original in my father's writing: "This was written and enlarged from a
+sketch in 37 pages{23} in Pencil (the latter written in summer of 1842
+at Maer and Shrewsbury) in beginning of 1844, and finished it <_sic_> in
+July; and finally corrected the copy by Mr Fletcher in the last week in
+September." On the whole it is impossible to doubt that 1842 is the date
+of the earlier of the two Essays.
+
+     {23} On p. 23 of the MS. of the _Foundations_ is a reference to the
+     "back of p. 21 bis": this suggests that additional pages had been
+     interpolated in the MS. and that it may once have had 37 in place
+     of 35 pp.
+
+The sketch of 1842 is written on bad paper with a soft pencil, and is in
+many parts extremely difficult to read, many of the words ending in mere
+scrawls and being illegible without context. It is evidently written
+rapidly, and is in his most elliptical style, the articles being
+frequently omitted, and the sentences being loosely composed and often
+illogical in structure. There is much erasure and correction, apparently
+made at the moment of writing, and the MS. does not give the impression
+of having been re-read with any care. The whole is more like hasty
+memoranda of what was clear to himself, than material for the convincing
+of others.
+
+Many of the pages are covered with writing on the back, an instance of
+his parsimony in the matter of paper{24}. This matter consists partly of
+passages marked for insertion in the text, and these can generally
+(though by no means always) be placed where he intended. But he also
+used the back of one page for a preliminary sketch to be rewritten on a
+clean sheet. These parts of the work have been printed as footnotes, so
+as to allow what was written on the front of the pages to form a
+continuous text. A certain amount of repetition is unavoidable, but much
+of what is written on the backs of the pages is of too much interest to
+be omitted. Some of the matter here given in footnotes may, moreover,
+have been intended as the final text and not as the preliminary sketch.
+
+     {24} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 153.
+
+When a word cannot be deciphered, it is replaced by:--<illegible>, the
+angular brackets being, as already explained, a symbol for an insertion
+by the editor. More commonly, however, the context makes the
+interpretation of a word reasonably sure although the word is not
+strictly legible. Such words are followed by an inserted mark of
+interrogation <?>. Lastly, words inserted by the editor, of which the
+appropriateness is doubtful, are printed thus <variation?>.
+
+Two kinds of erasure occur in the MS. of 1842. One by vertical lines
+which seem to have been made when the 35 pp. MS. was being expanded into
+that of 1844, and merely imply that such a page is done with: and
+secondly the ordinary erasures by horizontal lines. I have not been
+quite consistent in regard to these: I began with the intention of
+printing (in square brackets) all such erasures. But I ultimately found
+that the confusion introduced into the already obscure sentences was
+greater than any possible gain; and many such erasures are altogether
+omitted. In the same way I have occasionally omitted hopelessly obscure
+and incomprehensible fragments, which if printed would only have
+burthened the text with a string of <illegible>s and queried words. Nor have I
+printed the whole of what is written on the backs of the pages, where it
+seemed to me that nothing but unnecessary repetition would have been the
+result.
+
+In the matter of punctuation I have given myself a free hand. I may no
+doubt have misinterpreted the author's meaning in so doing, but without
+such punctuation, the number of repellantly crabbed sentences would have
+been even greater than at present. In dealing with the Essay of 1844, I
+have corrected some obvious slips without indicating such alterations,
+because the MS. being legible, there is no danger of changing the
+author's meaning.
+
+The sections into which the Essay of 1842 is divided are in the original
+merely indicated by a gap in the MS. or by a line drawn across the page.
+No titles are given except in the case of § VIII.; and § II. is the only
+section which has a number in the original. I might equally well have
+made sections of what are now subsections, _e.g. Natural Selection_ p.
+7, or _Extermination_ p. 28. But since the present sketch is the germ of
+the Essay of 1844, it seemed best to preserve the identity between the
+two works, by using such of the author's divisions as correspond to the
+chapters of the enlarged version of 1844. The geological discussion with
+which Part II begins corresponds to two chapters (IV and V) of the 1844
+Essay. I have therefore described it as §§ IV. and V., although I cannot
+make sure of its having originally consisted of two sections. With this
+exception the ten sections of the Essay of 1842 correspond to the ten
+chapters of that of 1844.
+
+The _Origin of Species_ differs from the sketch of 1842 in not being
+divided into two parts. But the two volumes resemble each other in
+general structure. Both begin with a statement of what may be called the
+mechanism of evolution,--variation and selection: in both the argument
+proceeds from the study of domestic organisms to that of animals and
+plants in a state of nature. This is followed in both by a discussion of
+the _Difficulties on Theory_ and this by a section _Instinct_ which in
+both cases is treated as a special case of difficulty.
+
+If I had to divide the _Origin_ (first edition) into two parts without
+any knowledge of earlier MS., I should, I think, make Part II begin with
+Ch. VI, _Difficulties on Theory_. A possible reason why this part of the
+argument is given in Part I of the Essay of 1842 may be found in the
+Essay of 1844, where it is clear that the chapter on instinct is placed
+in Part I because the author thought it of importance to show that
+heredity and variation occur in mental attributes. The whole question is
+perhaps an instance of the sort of difficulty which made the author give
+up the division of his argument into two Parts when he wrote the
+_Origin_. As matters stand §§ IV. and V. of the 1842 Essay correspond to
+the geological chapters, IX and X, in the _Origin_. From this point
+onwards the material is grouped in the same order in both works:
+geographical distribution; affinities and classification; unity of type
+and morphology; abortive or rudimentary organs; recapitulation and
+conclusion.
+
+In enlarging the Essay of 1842 into that of 1844, the author retained
+the sections of the sketch as chapters in the completer presentment. It
+follows that what has been said of the relation of the earlier Essay to
+the _Origin_ is generally true of the 1844 Essay. In the latter,
+however, the geological discussion is, clearly instead of obscurely,
+divided into two chapters, which correspond roughly with Chapters IX and
+X of the _Origin_. But part of the contents of Chapter X (_Origin_)
+occurs in Chapter VI (1844) on Geographical Distribution. The treatment
+of distribution is particularly full and interesting in the 1844 Essay,
+but the arrangement of the material, especially the introduction of §
+III. p. 183, leads to some repetition which is avoided in the _Origin_.
+It should be noted that Hybridism, which has a separate chapter (VIII)
+in the _Origin_, is treated in Chapter II of the Essay. Finally that
+Chapter XIII (_Origin_) corresponds to Chapters VII, VIII and IX of the
+work of 1844.
+
+The fact that in 1842, seventeen years before the publication of the
+_Origin_, my father should have been able to write out so full an
+outline of his future work, is very remarkable. In his Autobiography{25}
+he writes of the 1844 Essay, "But at that time I overlooked one problem
+of great importance.... This problem is the tendency in organic beings
+descended from the same stock to diverge in character as they become
+modified." The absence of the principle of divergence is of course also
+a characteristic of the sketch of 1842. But at p. 37, the author is not
+far from this point of view. The passage referred to is: "If any
+species, _A_, in changing gets an advantage and that advantage ... is
+inherited, _A_ will be the progenitor of several genera or even families
+in the hard struggle of nature. _A_ will go on beating out other forms,
+it might come that _A_ would people <the> earth,--we may now not have one
+descendant on our globe of the one or several original creations{26}."
+But if the descendants of _A_ have peopled the earth by beating out
+other forms, they must have diverged in occupying the innumerable
+diverse modes of life from which they expelled their predecessors. What
+I wrote{27} on this subject in 1887 is I think true: "Descent with
+modification implies divergence, and we become so habituated to a belief
+in descent, and therefore in divergence, that we do not notice the
+absence of proof that divergence is in itself an advantage."
+
+     {25} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 84.
+
+     {26} In the footnotes to the Essay of 1844 attention is called to
+     similar passages.
+
+     {27} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 15.
+
+The fact that there is no set discussion on the principle of divergence
+in the 1844 Essay, makes it clear why the joint paper read before the
+Linnean Society on July 1, 1858, included a letter{28} to Asa Gray, as
+well as an extract{29} from the Essay of 1844. It is clearly because the
+letter to Gray includes a discussion on divergence, and was thus,
+probably, the only document, including this subject, which could be
+appropriately made use of. It shows once more how great was the
+importance attached by its author to the principle of divergence.
+
+     {28} The passage is given in the _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 124.
+
+     {29} The extract consists of the section on _Natural Means of
+     Selection_, p. 87.
+
+I have spoken of the hurried and condensed manner in which the sketch of
+1842 is written; the style of the later Essay (1844) is more finished.
+It has, however, the air of an uncorrected MS. rather than of a book
+which has gone through the ordeal of proof sheets. It has not all the
+force and conciseness of the _Origin_, but it has a certain freshness
+which gives it a character of its own. It must be remembered that the
+_Origin_ was an abstract or condensation of a much bigger book, whereas
+the Essay of 1844 was an expansion of the sketch of 1842. It is not
+therefore surprising that in the _Origin_ there is occasionally evident
+a chafing against the author's self-imposed limitation. Whereas in the
+1844 Essay there is an air of freedom, as if the author were letting
+himself go, rather than applying the curb. This quality of freshness and
+the fact that some questions were more fully discussed in 1844 than in
+1859, makes the earlier work good reading even to those who are familiar
+with the _Origin_.
+
+The writing of this Essay "during the summer of 1844," as stated in the
+Autobiography{30}, and "from memory," as Darwin says elsewhere{31}, was
+a remarkable achievement, and possibly renders more conceivable the
+still greater feat of the writing of the _Origin_ between July 1858 and
+September 1859.
+
+     {30} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 84.
+
+     {31} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 18.
+
+It is an interesting subject for speculation: what influence on the
+world the Essay of 1844 would have exercised, had it been published in
+place of the Origin. The author evidently thought of its publication in
+its present state as an undesirable expedient, as appears clearly from
+the following extracts from the _Life and Letters_, vol. ii. pp.
+16--18:
+
+_C. Darwin to Mrs Darwin._
+
+DOWN, _July 5, 1844_.
+
+"... I have just finished my sketch of my species theory. If, as I
+believe, my theory in time be accepted even by one competent judge, it
+will be a considerable step in science.
+
+"I therefore write this in case of my sudden death, as my most solemn
+and last request, which I am sure you will consider the same as if
+legally entered in my will, that you will devote £400 to its
+publication, and further will yourself, or through Hensleigh{32}, take
+trouble in promoting it. I wish that my sketch be given to some
+competent person, with this sum to induce him to take trouble in its
+improvement and enlargement. I give to him all my books on Natural
+History, which are either scored or have references at the end to the
+pages, begging him carefully to look over and consider such passages as
+actually bearing, or by possibility bearing, on this subject. I wish you
+to make a list of all such books as some temptation to an editor. I also
+request that you will hand over <to> him all those scraps roughly divided
+into eight or ten brown paper portfolios. The scraps, with copied
+quotations from various works, are those which may aid my editor. I also
+request that you, or some amanuensis, will aid in deciphering any of the
+scraps which the editor may think possibly of use. I leave to the
+editor's judgment whether to interpolate these facts in the text, or as
+notes, or under appendices. As the looking over the references and
+scraps will be a long labour, and as the _correcting_ and enlarging and
+altering my sketch will also take considerable time, I leave this sum of
+£400 as some remuneration, and any profits from the work. I consider
+that for this the editor is bound to get the sketch published either at
+a publisher's or his own risk. Many of the scraps in the portfolios
+contain mere rude suggestions and early views, now useless, and many of
+the facts will probably turn out as having no bearing on my theory.
+
+     {32} Mrs Darwin's brother.
+
+"With respect to editors, Mr Lyell would be the best if he would
+undertake it; I believe he would find the work pleasant, and he would
+learn some facts new to him. As the editor must be a geologist as well
+as a naturalist, the next best editor would be Professor Forbes of
+London. The next best (and quite best in many respects) would be
+Professor Henslow. Dr Hooker would be _very_ good. The next, Mr
+Strickland{33}. If none of these would undertake it, I would request you
+to consult with Mr Lyell, or some other capable man, for some editor, a
+geologist and naturalist. Should one other hundred pounds make the
+difference of procuring a good editor, I request earnestly that you will
+raise £500.
+
+     {33} After Mr Strickland's name comes the following sentence, which
+     has been erased, but remains legible. "Professor Owen would be very
+     good; but I presume he would not undertake such a work."
+
+"My remaining collections in Natural History may be given to any one or
+any museum where <they> would be accepted...."
+
+<The following note seems to have formed part of the original letter,
+but may have been of later date:>
+
+"Lyell, especially with the aid of Hooker (and of any good zoological
+aid), would be best of all. Without an editor will pledge himself to
+give up time to it, it would be of no use paying such a sum.
+
+"If there should be any difficulty in getting an editor who would go
+thoroughly into the subject, and think of the bearing of the passages
+marked in the books and copied out of scraps of paper, then let my
+sketch be published as it is, stating that it was done several years
+ago{34}, and from memory without consulting any works, and with no
+intention of publication in its present form."
+
+     {34} The words "several years ago, and" seem to have been added at
+     a later date.
+
+The idea that the sketch of 1844 might remain, in the event of his
+death, as the only record of his work, seems to have been long in his
+mind, for in August, 1854, when he had finished with the Cirripedes, and
+was thinking of beginning his "species work," he added on the back of
+the above letter, "Hooker by far best man to edit my species volume.
+August 1854."
+
+I have called attention in footnotes to many points in which the
+_Origin_ agrees with the _Foundations_. One of the most interesting is
+the final sentence, practically the same in the Essays of 1842 and 1844,
+and almost identical with the concluding words of the _Origin_. I have
+elsewhere pointed out{35} that the ancestry of this eloquent passage may
+be traced one stage further back,--to the Note Book of 1837. I have
+given this sentence as an appropriate motto for the _Foundations_ in its
+character of a study of general laws. It will be remembered that a
+corresponding motto from Whewell's _Bridgewater Treatise_ is printed
+opposite the title-page of the _Origin of Species_.
+
+     {35} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 9.
+
+Mr Huxley who, about the year 1887, read the Essay of 1844, remarked
+that "much more weight is attached to the influence of external
+conditions in producing variation and to the inheritance of acquired
+habits than in the _Origin_." In the _Foundations_ the effect of
+conditions is frequently mentioned, and Darwin seems to have had
+constantly in mind the need of referring each variation to a cause. But
+I gain the impression that the slighter prominence given to this view in
+the _Origin_ was not due to change of opinion, but rather because he had
+gradually come to take this view for granted; so that in the scheme of
+that book, it was overshadowed by considerations which then seemed to
+him more pressing. With regard to the inheritance of acquired characters
+I am not inclined to agree with Huxley. It is certain that the
+_Foundations_ contains strong recognition of the importance of germinal
+variation, that is of external conditions acting indirectly through the
+"reproductive functions." He evidently considered this as more important
+than the inheritance of habit or other acquired peculiarities.
+
+Another point of interest is the weight he attached in 1842-4 to
+"sports" or what are now called "mutations." This is I think more
+prominent in the _Foundations_ than in the first edition of the
+_Origin_, and certainly than in the fifth and sixth editions.
+
+Among other interesting points may be mentioned the "good effects of
+crossing" being "possibly analogous to good effects of change in
+condition,"--a principle which he upheld on experimental grounds in his
+_Cross and Self-Fertilisation_ in 1876.
+
+In conclusion, I desire to express my thanks to Mr Wallace for a
+footnote he was good enough to supply: and to Professor Bateson, Sir W.
+Thiselton-Dyer, Dr Gadow, Professor Judd, Dr Marr, Col. Prain and Dr
+Stapf for information on various points. I am also indebted to Mr
+Rutherford, of the University Library, for his careful copy of the
+manuscript of 1842.
+
+CAMBRIDGE,
+
+_June 9, 1909._
+
+
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF SIGNS, &c.
+
+
+[] Means that the words so enclosed are erased in the original MS.
+
+<> Indicates an insertion by the Editor.
+
+_Origin_, Ed. vi. refers to the Popular Edition.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+
+§ I. <ON VARIATION UNDER DOMESTICATION, AND ON THE PRINCIPLES OF
+SELECTION.>
+
+An individual organism placed under new conditions [often] sometimes
+varies in a small degree and in very trifling respects such as stature,
+fatness, sometimes colour, health, habits in animals and probably
+disposition. Also habits of life develope certain parts. Disuse
+atrophies. [Most of these slight variations tend to become hereditary.]
+
+When the individual is multiplied for long periods by buds the variation
+is yet small, though greater and occasionally a single bud or individual
+departs widely from its type (example){36} and continues steadily to
+propagate, by buds, such new kind.
+
+     {36} Evidently a memorandum that an example should be given.
+
+When the organism is bred for several generations under new or varying
+conditions, the variation is greater in amount and endless in kind
+[especially{37} holds good when individuals have long been exposed to
+new conditions]. The nature of the external conditions tends to effect
+some definite change in all or greater part of offspring,--little food,
+small size--certain foods harmless &c. &c. organs affected and
+diseases--extent unknown. A certain degree of variation (Müller's
+twins){38} seems inevitable effect of process of reproduction. But more
+important is that simple <?> generation, especially under new conditions
+[when no crossing] <causes> infinite variation and not direct effect of
+external conditions, but only in as much as it affects the reproductive
+functions{39}. There seems to be no part (_beau ideal_ of liver){40} of
+body, internal or external, or mind or habits, or instincts which does
+not vary in some small degree and [often] some <?> to a great amount.
+
+     {37} The importance of exposure to new conditions for several
+     generations is insisted on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 7, also p.
+     131. In the latter passage the author guards himself against the
+     assumption that variations are "due to chance," and speaks of "our
+     ignorance of the cause of each particular variation." These
+     statements are not always remembered by his critics.
+
+     {38} Cf. _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9, "Young of the same
+     litter, sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both
+     the young and the parents, as Müller has remarked, have apparently
+     been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life."
+
+     {39} This is paralleled by the conclusion in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 8, that "the most frequent cause of variability may be
+     attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been
+     affected prior to the act of conception."
+
+     {40} The meaning seems to be that there must be some variability in
+     the liver otherwise anatomists would not speak of the 'beau ideal'
+     of that organ.
+
+[All such] variations [being congenital] or those very slowly acquired
+of all kinds [decidedly evince a tendency to become hereditary], when
+not so become simple variety, when it does a race. Each{41} parent
+transmits its peculiarities, therefore if varieties allowed freely to
+cross, except by the _chance_ of two characterized by same peculiarity
+happening to marry, such varieties will be constantly demolished{42}.
+All bisexual animals must cross, hermaphrodite plants do cross, it seems
+very possible that hermaphrodite animals do cross,--conclusion
+strengthened: ill effects of breeding in and in, good effects of
+crossing possibly analogous to good effects of change in condition <?>{43}.
+
+     {41} The position of the following passage is uncertain. "If
+     individuals of two widely different varieties be allowed to cross,
+     a third race will be formed--a most fertile source of the variation
+     in domesticated animals. <In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 20 the author
+     says that "the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has
+     been greatly exaggerated."> If freely allowed, the characters of
+     pure parents will be lost, number of races thus <illegible> but
+     differences <?> besides the <illegible>. But if varieties differing
+     in very slight respects be allowed to cross, such small variation
+     will be destroyed, at least to our senses,--a variation [clearly]
+     just to be distinguished by long legs will have offspring not to be
+     so distinguished. Free crossing great agent in producing uniformity
+     in any breed. Introduce tendency to revert to parent form."
+
+     {42} The swamping effect of intercrossing is referred to in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 103, vi. p. 126.
+
+     {43} A discussion on the intercrossing of hermaphrodites in
+     relation to Knight's views occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 96,
+     vi. p. 119. The parallelism between crossing and changed conditions
+     is briefly given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 391, and
+     was finally investigated in _The Effects of Cross and
+     Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom_, 1876.
+
+Therefore if in any country or district all animals of one species be
+allowed freely to cross, any small tendency in them to vary will be
+constantly counteracted. Secondly reversion to parent form--analogue of
+_vis medicatrix_{44}. But if man selects, then new races rapidly
+formed,--of late years systematically followed,--in most ancient times
+often practically followed{45}. By such selection make race-horse,
+dray-horse--one cow good for tallow, another for eating &c.--one plant's
+good lay <illegible> in leaves another in fruit &c. &c.: the same plant
+to supply his wants at different times of year. By former means animals
+become adapted, as a direct effect to a cause, to external conditions,
+as size of body to amount of food. By this latter means they may also be
+so adapted, but further they may be adapted to ends and pursuits, which
+by no possibility can affect growth, as existence of tallow-chandler
+cannot tend to make fat. In such selected races, if not removed to new
+conditions, and <if> preserved from all cross, after several generations
+become very true, like each other and not varying. But man{46} selects
+only <?> what is useful and curious--has bad judgment, is
+capricious,--grudges to destroy those that do not come up to his
+pattern,--has no [knowledge] power of selecting according to internal
+variations,--can hardly keep his conditions uniform,--[cannot] does not
+select those best adapted to the conditions under which <the> form <?> lives,
+but those most useful to him. This might all be otherwise.
+
+     {44} There is an article on the _vis medicatrix_ in Brougham's
+     _Dissertations_, 1839, a copy of which is in the author's library.
+
+     {45} This is the classification of selection into methodical and
+     unconscious given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38.
+
+     {46} This passage, and a similar discussion on the power of the
+     Creator (p. 6), correspond to the comparison between the selective
+     capacities of man and nature, in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p.
+     102.
+
+
+§ II. <ON VARIATION IN A STATE OF NATURE AND ON THE NATURAL MEANS OF
+SELECTION.>
+
+Let us see how far above principles of variation apply to wild animals.
+Wild animals vary exceedingly little--yet they are known as
+individuals{47}. British Plants, in many genera number quite uncertain
+of varieties and species: in shells chiefly external conditions{48}.
+Primrose and cowslip. Wild animals from different [countries can be
+recognized]. Specific character gives some organs as varying. Variations
+analogous in kind, but less in degree with domesticated animals--chiefly
+external and less important parts.
+
+     {47} i.e. they are individually distinguishable.
+
+     {48} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 133, vi. p. 165.
+
+Our experience would lead us to expect that any and every one of these
+organisms would vary if <the organism were> taken away <?> and placed
+under new conditions. Geology proclaims a constant round of change,
+bringing into play, by every possible <?> change of climate and the death
+of pre-existing inhabitants, endless variations of new conditions. These
+<?> generally very slow, doubtful though <illegible> how far the
+slowness <?> would produce tendency to vary. But Geolog<ists> show
+change in configuration which, together with the accidents of air and
+water and the means of transportal which every being possesses, must
+occasionally bring, rather suddenly, organism to new conditions and <?>
+expose it for several generations. Hence <?> we should expect every now
+and then a wild form to vary{49}; possibly this may be cause of some
+species varying more than others.
+
+     {49} When the author wrote this sketch he seems not to have been so
+     fully convinced of the general occurrence of variation in nature as
+     he afterwards became. The above passage in the text possibly
+     suggests that at this time he laid more stress on _sports_ or
+     _mutations_ than was afterwards the case.
+
+According to nature of new conditions, so we might expect all or
+majority of organisms born under them to vary in some definite way.
+Further we might expect that the mould in which they are cast would
+likewise vary in some small degree. But is there any means of selecting
+those offspring which vary in the same manner, crossing them and keeping
+their offspring separate and thus producing selected races: otherwise as
+the wild animals freely cross, so must such small heterogeneous
+varieties be constantly counter-balanced and lost, and a uniformity of
+character [kept up] preserved. The former variation as the direct and
+necessary effects of causes, which we can see can act on them, as size
+of body from amount of food, effect of certain kinds of food on certain
+parts of bodies &c. &c.; such new varieties may then become adapted to
+those external [natural] agencies which act on them. But can varieties
+be produced adapted to end, which cannot possibly influence their
+structure and which it is absurd to look <at> as effects of chance. Can
+varieties like some vars of domesticated animals, like almost all wild
+species be produced adapted by exquisite means to prey on one animal or
+to escape from another,--or rather, as it puts out of question effects
+of intelligence and habits, can a plant become adapted to animals, as a
+plant which cannot be impregnated without agency of insect; or hooked
+seeds depending on animal's existence: woolly animals cannot have any
+direct effect on seeds of plant. This point which all theories about
+climate adapting woodpecker{50} to crawl <?> up trees, <illegible>
+miseltoe, <sentence incomplete>. But if every part of a plant or animal
+was to vary <illegible>, and if a being infinitely more sagacious than
+man (not an omniscient creator) during thousands and thousands of years
+were to select all the variations which tended towards certain ends ([or
+were to produce causes <?> which tended to the same end]), for instance,
+if he foresaw a canine animal would be better off, owing to the country
+producing more hares, if he were longer legged and keener
+sight,--greyhound produced{51}. If he saw that aquatic <animal would
+need> skinned toes. If for some unknown cause he found it would
+advantage a plant, which <?> like most plants is occasionally visited by
+bees &c.: if that plant's seed were occasionally eaten by birds and were
+then carried on to rotten trees, he might select trees with fruit more
+agreeable to such birds as perched, to ensure their being carried to
+trees; if he perceived those birds more often dropped the seeds, he
+might well have selected a bird who would <illegible> rotten trees or
+[gradually select plants which <he> had proved to live on less and less
+rotten trees]. Who, seeing how plants vary in garden, what blind foolish
+man has done{52} in a few years, will deny an all-seeing being in
+thousands of years could effect (if the Creator chose to do so), either
+by his own direct foresight or by intermediate means,--which will
+represent <?> the creator of this universe. Seems usual means. Be it
+remembered I have nothing to say about life and mind and _all_ forms
+descending from one common type{53}. I speak of the variation of the
+existing great divisions of the organised kingdom, how far I would go,
+hereafter to be seen.
+
+     {50} The author may possibly have taken the case of the woodpecker
+     from Buffon, _Histoire Nat. des Oiseaux_, T. vii. p. 3, 1780, where
+     however it is treated from a different point of view. He uses it
+     more than once, see for instance _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 3, 60, 184,
+     vi. pp. 3, 76, 220. The passage in the text corresponds with a
+     discussion on the woodpecker and the mistletoe in _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 3, vi. p. 3.
+
+     {51} This illustration occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 90, 91,
+     vi. pp. 110, 111.
+
+     {52} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102, where the word
+     _Creator_ is replaced by _Nature_.
+
+     {53} Note in the original. "Good place to introduce, saying reasons
+     hereafter to be given, how far I extend theory, say to all
+     mammalia--reasons growing weaker and weaker."
+
+Before considering whether <there> be any natural means of selection, and
+secondly (which forms the 2nd Part of this sketch) the far more
+important point whether the characters and relations of animated
+<things> are such as favour the idea of wild species being races <?>
+descended from a common stock, as the varieties of potato or dahlia or
+cattle having so descended, let us consider probable character of
+[selected races] wild varieties.
+
+_Natural Selection._ De Candolle's war of nature,--seeing contented face
+of nature,--may be well at first doubted; we see it on borders of
+perpetual cold{54}. But considering the enormous geometrical power of
+increase in every organism and as <?> every country, in ordinary cases
+<countries> must be stocked to full extent, reflection will show that
+this is the case. Malthus on man,--in animals no moral [check] restraint
+<?>--they breed in time of year when provision most abundant, or season
+most favourable, every country has its seasons,--calculate
+robins,--oscillating from years of destruction{55}. If proof were wanted
+let any singular change of climate <occur> here <?>, how astoundingly
+some tribes <?> increase, also introduced animals{56}, the pressure is
+always ready,--capacity of alpine plants to endure other
+climates,--think of endless seeds scattered abroad,--forests regaining
+their percentage{57},--a thousand wedges{58} are being forced into the
+oeconomy of nature. This requires much reflection; study Malthus and
+calculate rates of increase and remember the resistance,--only
+periodical.
+
+     {54} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 62, 63, vi. p. 77, where similar
+     reference is made to De Candolle; for Malthus see _Origin_, p. 5.
+
+     {55} This may possibly refer to the amount of destruction going on.
+     See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 68, vi. p. 84, where there is an estimate
+     of a later date as to death-rate of birds in winter. "Calculate
+     robins" probably refers to a calculation of the rate of increase of
+     birds under favourable conditions.
+
+     {56} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 64, 65, vi. p. 80, he instances
+     cattle and horses and certain plants in S. America and American
+     species of plants in India, and further on, as unexpected effects
+     of changed conditions, the enclosure of a heath, and the relation
+     between the fertilisation of clover and the presence of cats
+     (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91).
+
+     {57} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91. "It has been observed that
+     the trees now growing on ... ancient Indian mounds ... display the
+     same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the
+     surrounding virgin forests."
+
+     {58} The simile of the wedge occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 67;
+     it is deleted in Darwin's copy of the first edition: it does not
+     occur in Ed. vi.
+
+The unavoidable effect of this <is> that many of every species are
+destroyed either in egg or [young or mature (the former state the more
+common)]. In the course of a thousand generations infinitesimally small
+differences must inevitably tell{59}; when unusually cold winter, or hot
+or dry summer comes, then out of the whole body of individuals of any
+species, if there be the smallest differences in their structure,
+habits, instincts [senses], health &c, <it> will on an average tell; as
+conditions change a rather larger proportion will be preserved: so if
+the chief check to increase falls on seeds or eggs, so will, in the
+course of 1000 generations or ten thousand, those seeds (like one with
+down to fly{60}) which fly furthest and get scattered most ultimately
+rear most plants, and such small differences tend to be hereditary like
+shades of expression in human countenance. So if one parent <?> fish
+deposits its egg in infinitesimally different circumstances, as in
+rather shallower or deeper water &c., it will then <?> tell.
+
+     {59} In a rough summary at the close of the Essay, occur the
+     words:--"Every creature lives by a struggle, smallest grain in
+     balance must tell."
+
+     {60} Cf. _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 77, vi. p. 94.
+
+Let hares{61} increase very slowly from change of climate affecting
+peculiar plants, and some other <illegible> rabbit decrease in same
+proportion [let this unsettle organisation of], a canine animal, who
+formerly derived its chief sustenance by springing on rabbits or
+running them by scent, must decrease too and might thus readily become
+exterminated. But if its form varied very slightly, the long legged
+fleet ones, during a thousand years being selected, and the less fleet
+rigidly destroyed must, if no law of nature be opposed to it, alter
+forms.
+
+     {61} This is a repetition of what is given at p. 6.
+
+Remember how soon Bakewell on the same principle altered cattle and
+Western, sheep,--carefully avoiding a cross (pigeons) with any breed.
+We cannot suppose that one plant tends to vary in fruit and another
+in flower, and another in flower and foliage,--some have been selected
+for both fruit and flower: that one animal varies in its covering and
+another not,--another in its milk. Take any organism and ask what is
+it useful for and on that point it will be found to vary,--cabbages
+in their leaf,--corn in size <and> quality of grain, both in times
+of year,--kidney beans for young pod and cotton for envelope of seeds
+&c. &c.: dogs in intellect, courage, fleetness and smell <?>: pigeons
+in peculiarities approaching to monsters. This requires
+consideration,--should be introduced in first chapter if it holds, I
+believe it does. It is hypothetical at best{62}.
+
+     {62} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 47. "I have seen it
+     gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry
+     began to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this
+     plant. No doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was
+     cultivated, but the slight varieties had been neglected."
+
+Nature's variation far less, but such selection far more rigid and
+scrutinising. Man's races not [even so well] only not better adapted to
+conditions than other races, but often not <?> one race adapted to its
+conditions, as man keeps and propagates some alpine plants in garden.
+Nature lets <an> animal live, till on actual proof it is found less able
+to do the required work to serve the desired end, man judges solely by
+his eye, and knows not whether nerves, muscles, arteries, are developed
+in proportion to the change of external form.
+
+Besides selection by death, in bisexual animals <illegible> the
+selection in time of fullest vigour, namely struggle of males; even in
+animals which pair there seems a surplus <?> and a battle, possibly as in
+man more males produced than females, struggle of war or charms{63}.
+Hence that male which at that time is in fullest vigour, or best armed
+with arms or ornaments of its species, will gain in hundreds of
+generations some small advantage and transmit such characters to its
+offspring. So in female rearing its young, the most vigorous and skilful
+and industrious, <whose> instincts <are> best developed, will rear more
+young, probably possessing her good qualities, and a greater number will
+thus <be> prepared for the struggle of nature. Compared to man using a
+male alone of good breed. This latter section only of limited
+application, applies to variation of [specific] sexual characters.
+Introduce here contrast with Lamarck,--absurdity of habit, or chance??
+or external conditions, making a woodpecker adapted to tree{64}.
+
+     {63} Here we have the two types of sexual selection discussed in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 88 et seq., vi. pp. 108 et seq.
+
+     {64} It is not obvious why the author objects to "chance" or
+     "external conditions making a woodpecker." He allows that variation
+     is ultimately referable to conditions and that the nature of the
+     connexion is unknown, i.e. that the result is fortuitous. It is not
+     clear in the original to how much of the passage the two ? refer.
+
+Before considering difficulties of theory of selection let us consider
+character of the races produced, as now explained, by nature. Conditions
+have varied slowly and the organisms best adapted in their whole course
+of life to the changed conditions have always been selected,--man
+selects small dog and afterwards gives it profusion of food,--selects a
+long-backed and short-legged breed and gives it no particular exercise
+to suit this function &c. &c. In ordinary cases nature has not allowed
+her race to be contaminated with a cross of another race, and
+agriculturists know how difficult they find always to prevent
+this,--effect would be trueness. This character and sterility when
+crossed, and generally a greater amount of difference, are two main
+features, which distinguish domestic races from species.
+
+[Sterility not universal admitted by all{65}. _Gladiolus_, _Crinum_,
+_Calceolaria_{66} must be species if there be such a thing. Races of
+dogs and oxen: but certainly very general; indeed a gradation of
+sterility most perfect{67} very general. Some nearest species will not
+cross (crocus, some heath <?>), some genera cross readily (fowls{68} and
+grouse, peacock &c.). Hybrids no ways monstrous quite perfect except
+secretions{69} hence even the mule has bred,--character of sterility,
+especially a few years ago <?> thought very much more universal than it now
+is, has been thought the distinguishing character; indeed it is obvious
+if all forms freely crossed, nature would be a chaos. But the very
+gradation of the character, even if it always existed in some degree
+which it does not, renders it impossible as marks <?> those <?> suppose
+distinct as species{70}]. Will analogy throw any light on the fact of
+the supposed races of nature being sterile, though none of the domestic
+ones are? Mr Herbert <and> Koelreuter have shown external differences will
+not guide one in knowing whether hybrids will be fertile or not, but the
+chief circumstance is constitutional differences{71}, such as being
+adapted to different climate or soil, differences which [must] probably
+affect the whole body of the organism and not any one part. Now wild
+animals, taken out of their natural conditions, seldom breed. I do not
+refer to shows or to Zoological Societies where many animals unite, but
+<do not?> breed, and others will never unite, but to wild animals caught
+and kept _quite tame_ left loose and well fed about houses and living
+many years. Hybrids produced almost as readily as pure breds. St Hilaire
+great distinction of tame and domestic,--elephants,--ferrets{72}.
+Reproductive organs not subject to disease in Zoological Garden.
+Dissection and microscope show that hybrid is in exactly same condition
+as another animal in the intervals of breeding season, or those animals
+which taken wild and _not bred_ in domesticity, remain without breeding
+their whole lives. It should be observed that so far from domesticity
+being unfavourable in itself <it> makes more fertile: [when animal is
+domesticated and breeds, productive power increased from more food and
+selection of fertile races]. As far as animals go might be thought <an>
+effect on their mind and a special case.
+
+     {65} The meaning is "That sterility is not universal is admitted by
+     all."
+
+     {66} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, i. p. 388, where the garden
+     forms of _Gladiolus_ and _Calceolaria_ are said to be derived from
+     crosses between distinct species. Herbert's hybrid _Crinums_ are
+     discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370. It is well
+     known that the author believed in a multiple origin of domestic
+     dogs.
+
+     {67} The argument from gradation in sterility is given in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 248, 255, vi. pp. 368, 375. In the _Origin_, I
+     have not come across the cases mentioned, viz. crocus, heath, or
+     grouse and fowl or peacock. For sterility between closely allied
+     species, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 257, vi. p. 377. In the present
+     essay the author does not distinguish between fertility between
+     species and the fertility of the hybrid offspring, a point on which
+     he insists in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 245, vi. p. 365.
+
+     {68} Ackermann (_Ber. d. Vereins f. Naturkunde zu Kassel_, 1898, p.
+     23) quotes from Gloger that a cross has been effected between a
+     domestic hen and a _Tetrao tetrix_; the offspring died when three
+     days old.
+
+     {69} No doubt the sexual cells are meant. I do not know on what
+     evidence it is stated that the mule has bred.
+
+     {70} The sentence is all but illegible. I think that the author
+     refers to forms usually ranked as varieties having been marked as
+     species when it was found that they were sterile together. See the
+     case of the red and blue _Anagallis_ given from Gärtner in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 247, vi. p. 368.
+
+     {71} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 258, where the author speaks of
+     constitutional differences in this connexion, he specifies that
+     they are confined to the reproductive system.
+
+     {72} The sensitiveness of the reproductive system to changed
+     conditions is insisted on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.
+
+     The ferret is mentioned, as being prolific in captivity, in _Var.
+     under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p. 90.
+
+But turning to plants we find same class of facts. I do not refer to
+seeds not ripening, perhaps the commonest cause, but to plants not
+setting, which either is owing to some imperfection of ovule or pollen.
+Lindley says sterility is the [curse] bane of all propagators,--Linnæus
+about alpine plants. American bog plants,--pollen in exactly same state
+as in hybrids,--same in geraniums. Persian and Chinese{73} lilac will
+not seed in Italy and England. Probably double plants and all fruits owe
+their developed parts primarily <?> to sterility and extra food thus <?>
+applied{74}. There is here gradation <in> sterility and then parts, like
+diseases, are transmitted hereditarily. We cannot assign any cause why
+the Pontic Azalea produces plenty of pollen and not American{75}, why
+common lilac seeds and not Persian, we see no difference in healthiness.
+We know not on what circumstances these facts depend, why ferret breeds,
+and cheetah{76}, elephant and pig in India will not.
+
+     {73} Lindley's remark is quoted in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 9.
+     Linnæus' remark is to the effect that Alpine plants tend to be
+     sterile under cultivation (see _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p.
+     147). In the same place the author speaks of peat-loving plants
+     being sterile in our gardens,--no doubt the American bog-plants
+     referred to above. On the following page (p. 148) the sterility of
+     the lilac (_Syringa persica_ and _chinensis_) is referred to.
+
+     {74} The author probably means that the increase in the petals is
+     due to a greater food supply being available for them owing to
+     sterility. See the discussion in _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p.
+     151. It must be noted that doubleness of the flower may exist
+     without noticeable sterility.
+
+     {75} I have not come across this case in the author's works.
+
+     {76} For the somewhat doubtful case of the cheetah (_Felis jubata_)
+     see _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p. 133. I do not know to what
+     fact "pig in India" refers.
+
+Now in crossing it is certain every peculiarity in form and constitution
+is transmitted: an alpine plant transmits its alpine tendency to its
+offspring, an American plant its American-bog constitution, and <with>
+animals, those peculiarities, on which{77} when placed out of their
+natural conditions they are incapable of breeding; and moreover they
+transmit every part of their constitution, their respiration, their
+pulse, their instinct, which are all suddenly modified, can it be
+wondered at that they are incapable of breeding? I think it may be truly
+said it would be more wonderful if they did. But it may be asked why
+have not the recognised varieties, supposed to have been produced
+through the means of man, [not refused to breed] have all bred{78}.
+Variation depends on change of condition and selection{79}, as far as
+man's systematic or unsystematic selection <has> gone; he takes external
+form, has little power from ignorance over internal invisible
+constitutional differences. Races which have long been domesticated, and
+have much varied, are precisely those which were capable of bearing
+great changes, whose constitutions were adapted to a diversity of
+climates. Nature changes slowly and by degrees. According to many
+authors probably breeds of dogs are another case of modified species
+freely crossing. There is no variety which <illegible> has been <illegible>
+adapted to peculiar soil or situation for a thousand years and another
+rigorously adapted to another, till such can be produced, the question
+is not tried{80}. Man in past ages, could transport into different
+climates, animals and plants which would freely propagate in such new
+climates. Nature could effect, with selection, such changes slowly, so
+that precisely those animals which are adapted to submit to great
+changes have given rise to diverse races,--and indeed great doubt on
+this head{81}.
+
+     {77} This sentence should run "on which depends their incapacity to
+     breed in unnatural conditions."
+
+     {78} This sentence ends in confusion: it should clearly close with
+     the words "refused to breed" in place of the bracket and the
+     present concluding phrase.
+
+     {79} The author doubtless refers to the change produced by the
+     _summation_ of variation by means of selection.
+
+     {80} The meaning of this sentence is made clear by a passage in the
+     MS. of 1844:--"Until man selects two varieties from the same stock,
+     adapted to two climates or to other different external conditions,
+     and confines each rigidly for one or several thousand years to such
+     conditions, always selecting the individuals best adapted to them,
+     he cannot be said to have even commenced the experiment." That is,
+     the attempt to produce mutually sterile domestic breeds.
+
+     {81} This passage is to some extent a repetition of a previous one
+     and may have been intended to replace an earlier sentence. I have
+     thought it best to give both. In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 141, vi.
+     p. 176, the author gives his opinion that the power of resisting
+     diverse conditions, seen in man and his domestic animals, is an
+     example "of a very common flexibility of constitution."
+
+Before leaving this subject well to observe that it was shown that a
+certain amount of variation is consequent on mere act of reproduction,
+both by buds and sexually,--is vastly increased when parents exposed for
+some generations to new conditions{82}, and we now find that many
+animals when exposed for first time to very new conditions, are <as>
+incapable of breeding as hybrids. It [probably] bears also on supposed
+fact of crossed animals when not infertile, as in mongrels, tending to
+vary much, as likewise seems to be the case, when true hybrids possess
+just sufficient fertility to propagate with the parent breeds and _inter
+se_ for some generations. This is Koelreuter's belief. These facts throw
+light on each other and support the truth of each other, we see
+throughout a connection between the reproductive faculties and exposure
+to changed conditions of life whether by crossing or exposure of the
+individuals{83}.
+
+     {82} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. Chs. I. and V., the author does not
+     admit reproduction, apart from environment, as being a cause of
+     variation. With regard to the cumulative effect of new conditions
+     there are many passages in the _Origin_, Ed. i. e.g. pp. 7, 12, vi.
+     pp. 8, 14.
+
+     {83} As already pointed out, this is the important principle
+     investigated in the author's _Cross and Self-Fertilisation_.
+     Professor Bateson has suggested to me that the experiments should
+     be repeated with gametically pure individuals.
+
+_Difficulties on theory of selection_{84}. It may be objected such
+perfect organs as eye and ear, could never be formed, in latter less
+difficulty as gradations more perfect; at first appears monstrous and to
+<the> end appears difficulty. But think of gradation, even now manifest,
+(Tibia and Fibula). Everyone will allow if every fossil preserved,
+gradation infinitely more perfect; for possibility of selection a
+perfect <?> gradation is required. Different groups of structure, slight
+gradation in each group,--every analogy renders it probable that
+intermediate forms have existed. Be it remembered what strange
+metamorphoses; part of eye, not directly connected with vision, might
+come to be [thus used] gradually worked in for this end,--swimming
+bladder by gradation of structure is admitted to belong to the ear
+system,--rattlesnake. [Woodpecker best adapted to climb.] In some cases
+gradation not possible,--as vertebræ,--actually vary in domestic
+animals,--less difficult if growth followed. Looking to whole animals, a
+bat formed not for flight{85}. Suppose we had flying fish{86} and not
+one of our now called flying fish preserved, who would have guessed
+intermediate habits. Woodpeckers and tree-frogs both live in countries
+where no trees{87}.
+
+     {84} In the _Origin_ a chapter is given up to "difficulties on
+     theory": the discussion in the present essay seems slight even when
+     it is remembered how small a space is here available. For _Tibia_
+     &c. see p. 48.
+
+     {85} This may be interpreted "The general structure of a bat is the
+     same as that of non-flying mammals."
+
+     {86} That is truly winged fish.
+
+     {87} The terrestrial woodpecker of S. America formed the subject of
+     a paper by Darwin, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1870. See _Life and
+     Letters_, vol. iii. p. 153.
+
+The gradations by which each individual organ has arrived at its present
+state, and each individual animal with its aggregate of organs has
+arrived, probably never could be known, and all present great
+difficulties. I merely wish to show that the proposition is not so
+monstrous as it at first appears, and that if good reason can be
+advanced for believing the species have descended from common parents,
+the difficulty of imagining intermediate forms of structure not
+sufficient to make one at once reject the theory.
+
+
+§ III. <ON VARIATION IN INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL ATTRIBUTES.>
+
+The mental powers of different animals in wild and tame state [present
+still greater difficulties] require a separate section. Be it remembered
+I have nothing to do with origin of memory, attention, and the different
+faculties of the mind{88}, but merely with their differences in each of
+the great divisions of nature. Disposition, courage, pertinacity <?>,
+suspicion, restlessness, ill-temper, sagacity and <the> reverse
+unquestionably vary in animals and are inherited (Cuba wildness dogs,
+rabbits, fear against particular object as man Galapagos{89}). Habits
+purely corporeal, breeding season &c., time of going to rest &c., vary
+and are hereditary, like the analogous habits of plants which vary and
+are inherited. Habits of body, as manner of movement d^o. and d^o.
+Habits, as pointing and setting on certain occasions d^o. Taste for
+hunting certain objects and manner of doing so,--sheep-dog. These are
+shown clearly by crossing and their analogy with true instinct thus
+shown,--retriever. Do not know objects for which they do it. Lord
+Brougham's definition{90}. Origin partly habit, but the amount
+necessarily unknown, partly selection. Young pointers pointing stones
+and sheep--tumbling pigeons--sheep{91} going back to place where born.
+Instinct aided by reason, as in the taylor-bird{92}. Taught by parents,
+cows choosing food, birds singing. Instincts vary in wild state (birds
+get wilder) often lost{93}; more perfect,--nest without roof. These
+facts [only clear way] show how incomprehensibly brain has power of
+transmitting intellectual operations.
+
+     {88} The same proviso occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p.
+     319.
+
+     {89} The tameness of the birds in the Galapagos is described in the
+     _Journal of Researches_ (1860), p. 398. Dogs and rabbits are
+     probably mentioned as cases in which the hereditary fear of man has
+     been lost. In the 1844 MS. the author states that the Cuban feral
+     dog shows great natural wildness, even when caught quite young.
+
+     {90} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319, he refuses to
+     define instinct. For Lord Brougham's definition see his
+     _Dissertations on Subjects of Science etc._, 1839, p. 27.
+
+     {91} See James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Works, 1865, _Tales and
+     Sketches_, p. 403.
+
+     {92} This refers to the tailor-bird making use of manufactured
+     thread supplied to it, instead of thread twisted by itself.
+
+     {93} _Often lost_ applies to _instinct_: _birds get wilder_ is
+     printed in a parenthesis because it was apparently added as an
+     after-thought. _Nest without roof_ refers to the water-ousel
+     omitting to vault its nest when building in a protected situation.
+
+Faculties{94} distinct from true instincts,--finding [way]. It must I
+think be admitted that habits whether congenital or acquired by practice
+[sometimes] often become inherited{95}; instincts, influence, equally
+with structure, the preservation of animals; therefore selection must,
+with changing conditions tend to modify the inherited habits of animals.
+If this be admitted it will be found _possible_ that many of the
+strangest instincts may be thus acquired. I may observe, without
+attempting definition, that an inherited habit or trick (trick because
+may be born) fulfils closely what we mean by instinct. A habit is often
+performed unconsciously, the strangest habits become associated, d^o.
+tricks, going in certain spots &c. &c., even against will, is excited by
+external agencies, and looks not to the end,--a person playing a
+pianoforte. If such a habit were transmitted it would make a marvellous
+instinct. Let us consider some of the most difficult cases of instincts,
+whether they could be _possibly_ acquired. I do not say _probably_, for
+that belongs to our 3rd Part{96}, I beg this may be remembered, nor do I
+mean to attempt to show exact method. I want only to show that whole
+theory ought not at once to be rejected on this score.
+
+     {94} In the MS. of 1844 is an interesting discussion on _faculty_
+     as distinct from _instinct_.
+
+     {95} At this date and for long afterwards the inheritance of
+     acquired characters was assumed to occur.
+
+     {96} Part II. is here intended: see the Introduction.
+
+Every instinct must, by my theory, have been acquired gradually by
+slight changes <illegible> of former instinct, each change being useful
+to its then species. Shamming death struck me at first as remarkable
+objection. I found none really sham death{97}, and that there is
+gradation; now no one doubts that those insects which do it either more
+or less, do it for some good, if then any species was led to do it more,
+and then <?> escaped &c. &c.
+
+     {97} The meaning is that the attitude assumed in _shamming_ is not
+     accurately like that of death.
+
+Take migratory instincts, faculty distinct from instinct, animals have
+notion of time,--like savages. Ordinary finding way by memory, but how
+does savage find way across country,--as incomprehensible to us, as
+animal to them,--geological changes,--fishes in river,--case of sheep in
+Spain{98}. Architectural instincts,--a manufacturer's employee in making
+single articles extraordinary skill,--often said seem to make it almost
+<illegible>, child born with such a notion of playing{99},--we can
+fancy tailoring acquired in same perfection,--mixture of
+reason,--water-ouzel,--taylor-bird,--gradation of simple nest to most
+complicated.
+
+     {98} This refers to the _transandantes_ sheep mentioned in the MS.
+     of 1844, as having acquired a migratory instinct.
+
+     {99} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 209, vi. p. 321, Mozart's
+     pseudo-instinctive skill in piano-playing is mentioned. See _Phil.
+     Trans._, 1770, p. 54.
+
+Bees again, distinction of faculty,--how they make a
+hexagon,--Waterhouse's theory{100},--the impulse to use whatever faculty
+they possess,--the taylor-bird has the faculty of sewing with beak,
+instinct impels him to do it.
+
+     {100} In the discussion on bees' cells, _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 225,
+     vi. p. 343, the author acknowledges that his theory originated in
+     Waterhouse's observations.
+
+Last case of parent feeding young with different food (take case of
+Galapagos birds, gradation from Hawfinch to Sylvia) selection and habit
+might lead old birds to vary taste <?> and form, leaving their instinct of
+feeding their young with same food{101},--or I see no difficulty in
+parents being forced or induced to vary the food brought, and selection
+adapting the young ones to it, and thus by degree any amount of
+diversity might be arrived at. Although we can never hope to see the
+course revealed by which different instincts have been acquired, for we
+have only present animals (not well known) to judge of the course of
+gradation, yet once grant the principle of habits, whether congenital or
+acquired by experience, being inherited and I can see no limit to the
+[amount of variation] extraordinariness <?> of the habits thus acquired.
+
+     {101} The hawfinch-and _Sylvia-_types are figured in the _Journal
+     of Researches_, p. 379. The discussion of change of form in
+     relation to change of instinct is not clear, and I find it
+     impossible to suggest a paraphrase.
+
+_Summing up this Division._ If variation be admitted to occur
+occasionally in some wild animals, and how can we doubt it, when we see
+[all] thousands <of> organisms, for whatever use taken by man, do vary.
+If we admit such variations tend to be hereditary, and how can we doubt
+it when we <remember> resemblances of features and character,--disease
+and monstrosities inherited and endless races produced (1200 cabbages).
+If we admit selection is steadily at work, and who will doubt it, when
+he considers amount of food on an average fixed and reproductive powers
+act in geometrical ratio. If we admit that external conditions vary, as
+all geology proclaims, they have done and are now doing,--then, if no
+law of nature be opposed, there must occasionally be formed races,
+[slightly] differing from the parent races. So then any such law{102},
+none is known, but in all works it is assumed, in <?> flat contradiction
+to all known facts, that the amount of possible variation is soon
+acquired. Are not all the most varied species, the oldest domesticated:
+who <would> think that horses or corn could be produced? Take dahlia and
+potato, who will pretend in 5000 years{103} <that great changes might
+not be effected>: perfectly adapted to conditions and then again brought
+into varying conditions. Think what has been done in few last years,
+look at pigeons, and cattle. With the amount of food man can produce he
+may have arrived at limit of fatness or size, or thickness of wool <?>,
+but these are the most trivial points, but even in these I conclude it
+is impossible to say we know the limit of variation. And therefore with
+the [adapting] selecting power of nature, infinitely wise compared to
+those of man, <I conclude> that it is impossible to say we know the limit
+of races, which would be true <to their> kind; if of different
+constitutions would probably be infertile one with another, and which
+might be adapted in the most singular and admirable manner, according to
+their wants, to external nature and to other surrounding
+organisms,--such races would be species. But is there any evidence <that>
+species <have> been thus produced, this is a question wholly independent
+of all previous points, and which on examination of the kingdom of
+nature <we> ought to answer one way or another.
+
+     {102} I should interpret this obscure sentence as follows, "No such
+     opposing law is known, but in all works on the subject a law is (in
+     flat contradiction to all known facts) assumed to limit the
+     possible amount of variation." In the _Origin_, the author never
+     limits the power of variation, as far as I know.
+
+     {103} In _Var. under Dom._ Ed. 2, ii. p. 263, the _Dahlia_ is
+     described as showing sensitiveness to conditions in 1841. All the
+     varieties of the _Dahlia_ are said to have arisen since 1804
+     (_ibid._ i. p. 393).
+
+
+
+
+PART II{104}.
+
+     {104} In the original MS. the heading is: Part III.; but Part II.
+     is clearly intended; for details see the Introduction. I have not
+     been able to discover where § IV. ends and § V. begins.
+
+
+§§ IV. & V. <ON THE EVIDENCE FROM GEOLOGY.>
+
+I may premise, that according to the view ordinarily received, the
+myriads of organisms peopling this world have been created by so many
+distinct acts of creation. As we know nothing of the <illegible> will of a
+Creator,--we can see no reason why there should exist any relation
+between the organisms thus created; or again, they might be created
+according to any scheme. But it would be marvellous if this scheme
+should be the same as would result from the descent of groups of
+organisms from [certain] the same parents, according to the
+circumstances, just attempted to be developed.
+
+With equal probability did old cosmogonists say fossils were created, as
+we now see them, with a false resemblance to living beings{105}; what
+would the Astronomer say to the doctrine that the planets moved <not>
+according to the law of gravitation, but from the Creator having willed
+each separate planet to move in its particular orbit? I believe such a
+proposition (if we remove all prejudices) would be as legitimate as to
+admit that certain groups of living and extinct organisms, in their
+distribution, in their structure and in their relations one to another
+and to external conditions, agreed with the theory and showed signs of
+common descent, and yet were created distinct. As long as it was thought
+impossible that organisms should vary, or should anyhow become adapted
+to other organisms in a complicated manner, and yet be separated from
+them by an impassable barrier of sterility{106}, it was justifiable,
+even with some appearance in favour of a common descent, to admit
+distinct creation according to the will of an Omniscient Creator; or,
+for it is the same thing, to say with Whewell that the beginnings of all
+things surpass the comprehension of man. In the former sections I have
+endeavoured to show that such variation or specification is not
+impossible, nay, in many points of view is absolutely probable. What
+then is the evidence in favour of it and what the evidence against it.
+With our imperfect knowledge of past ages [surely there will be some] it
+would be strange if the imperfection did not create some unfavourable
+evidence.
+
+     {105} This passage corresponds roughly to the conclusion of the
+     _Origin_, see Ed. i. p. 482, vi. p. 661.
+
+     {106} A similar passage occurs in the conclusion of the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.
+
+Give sketch of the Past,--beginning with facts appearing hostile under
+present knowledge,--then proceed to geograph. distribution,--order of
+appearance,--affinities,--morphology &c., &c.
+
+Our theory requires a very gradual introduction of new forms{107}, and
+extermination of the old (to which we shall revert). The extermination
+of old may sometimes be rapid, but never the introduction. In the groups
+descended from common parent, our theory requires a perfect gradation
+not differing more than breed<s> of cattle, or potatoes, or cabbages in
+forms. I do not mean that a graduated series of animals must have
+existed, intermediate between horse, mouse, tapir{108}, elephant [or
+fowl and peacock], but that these must have had a common parent, and
+between horse and this <?> parent &c., &c., but the common parent may
+possibly have differed more from either than the two do now from each
+other. Now what evidence of this is there? So perfect gradation in some
+departments, that some naturalists have thought that in some large
+divisions, if all existing forms were collected, a near approach to
+perfect gradation would be made. But such a notion is preposterous with
+respect to all, but evidently so with mammals. Other naturalists have
+thought this would be so if all the specimens entombed in the strata
+were collected{109}. I conceive there is no probability whatever of
+this; nevertheless it is certain all the numerous fossil forms fall
+in<to>, as Buckland remarks, _not_ present classes, families and genera,
+they fall between them: so is it with new discoveries of existing forms.
+Most ancient fossils, that is most separated <by> space of time, are most
+apt to fall between the classes--(but organisms from those countries
+most separated by space also fall between the classes <_e.g._>
+Ornithorhyncus?). As far as geological discoveries <go> they tend towards
+such gradation{110}. Illustrate it with net. Toxodon,--tibia and
+fibula,--dog and otter,--but so utterly improbable is <it>, in _ex. gr._
+Pachydermata, to compose series as perfect as cattle, that if, as many
+geologists seem to infer, each separate formation presents even an
+approach to a consecutive history, my theory must be given up. Even if
+it were consecutive, it would only collect series of one district in our
+present state of knowledge; but what probability is there that any one
+formation during the _immense_ period which has elapsed during each
+period will _generally_ present a consecutive history. [Compare number
+living at one period to fossils preserved--look at enormous periods of
+time.]
+
+     {107} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.
+
+     {108} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 280, 281, vi. p. 414. The author
+     uses his experience of pigeons for examples for what he means by
+     _intermediate_; the instance of the horse and tapir also occurs.
+
+     {109} The absence of intermediate forms between living organisms
+     (and also as regards fossils) is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     pp. 279, 280, vi. p. 413. In the above discussion there is no
+     evidence that the author felt this difficulty so strongly as it is
+     expressed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299,--as perhaps "the most
+     obvious and gravest objection that can be urged against my theory."
+     But in a rough summary written on the back of the penultimate page
+     of the MS. he refers to the geological evidence:--"Evidence, as far
+     as it does go, is favourable, exceedingly incomplete,--greatest
+     difficulty on this theory. I am convinced not insuperable."
+     Buckland's remarks are given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p.
+     471.
+
+     {110} That the evidence of geology, as far as it goes, is
+     favourable to the theory of descent is claimed in the _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. pp. 343-345, vi. pp. 490-492. For the reference to _net_ in the
+     following sentence, see Note 1, p. 48, {Note 161} of this Essay.
+
+Referring only to marine animals, which are obviously most likely to be
+preserved, they must live where <?> sediment (of a kind favourable for
+preservation, not sand and pebble){111} is depositing quickly and over
+large area and must be thickly capped, <illegible> littoral deposits:
+for otherwise denudation <will destroy them>,--they must live in a
+shallow space which sediment will tend to fill up,--as movement is <in?>
+progress if soon brought <?> up <?> subject to denudation,--[if] as
+during subsidence favourable, accords with facts of European
+deposits{112}, but subsidence apt to destroy agents which produce
+sediment{113}.
+
+     {111} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422. "The remains that do
+     become embedded, if in sand and gravel, will, when the beds are
+     upraised, generally be dissolved by the percolation of rain-water."
+
+     {112} The position of the following is not clear:--"Think of
+     immense differences in nature of European deposits,--without
+     interposing new causes,--think of time required by present slow
+     changes, to cause, on very same area, such diverse deposits,
+     iron-sand, chalk, sand, coral, clay!"
+
+     {113} The paragraph which ends here is difficult to interpret. In
+     spite of obscurity it is easy to recognize the general resemblance
+     to the discussion on the importance of subsidence given in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 290 et seq., vi. pp. 422 et seq.
+
+I believe safely inferred <that> groups of marine <?> fossils only
+preserved for future ages where sediment goes on long <and>
+continuous<ly> and with rapid but not too rapid deposition in <an> area
+of subsidence. In how few places in any one region like Europe will <?>
+these contingencies be going on? Hence <?> in past ages mere [gaps]
+pages preserved{114}. Lyell's doctrine carried to extreme,--we shall
+understand difficulty if it be asked:--what chance of series of
+gradation between cattle by <illegible> at age <illegible> as far back
+as Miocene{115}? We know then cattle existed. Compare number of
+living,--immense duration of each period,--fewness of fossils.
+
+     {114} See Note 3, p. 27.
+
+     {115} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 298, vi. p. 437. "We shall,
+     perhaps, best perceive the improbability of our being enabled to
+     connect species by numerous, fine, intermediate, fossil links, by
+     asking ourselves whether, for instance, geologists at some future
+     period will be able to prove that our different breeds of cattle,
+     sheep, horses, and dogs have descended from a single stock or from
+     several aboriginal stocks."
+
+This only refers to consecutiveness of history of organisms of each
+formation.
+
+The foregoing argument will show firstly, that formations are distinct
+merely from want of fossils <of intermediate beds>, and secondly, that
+each formation is full of gaps, has been advanced to account for
+_fewness_ of _preserved_ organisms compared to what have lived on the
+world. The very same argument explains why in older formations the
+organisms appear to come on and disappear suddenly,--but in [later]
+tertiary not quite suddenly{116}, in later tertiary gradually,--becoming
+rare and disappearing,--some have disappeared within man's time. It is
+obvious that our theory requires gradual and nearly uniform
+introduction, possibly more sudden extermination,--subsidence of
+continent of Australia &c., &c.
+
+     {116} The sudden appearance of groups of allied species in the
+     lowest known fossiliferous strata is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 306, vi. p. 446. The gradual appearance in the later strata
+     occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.
+
+Our theory requires that the first form which existed of each of the
+great divisions would present points intermediate between existing ones,
+but immensely different. Most geologists believe Silurian{117} fossils
+are those which first existed in the whole world, not those which have
+chanced to be the oldest not destroyed,--or the first which existed in
+profoundly deep seas in progress of conversion from sea to land: if they
+are first they <? we> give up. Not so Hutton or Lyell: if first
+reptile{118} of Red Sandstone <?> really was first which existed: if
+Pachyderm{119} of Paris was first which existed: fish of Devonian:
+dragon fly of Lias: for we cannot suppose them the progenitors: they
+agree too closely with existing divisions. But geologists consider
+Europe as <?> a passage from sea to island <?> to continent (except
+Wealden, see Lyell). These animals therefore, I consider then mere
+introduction <?> from continents long since submerged.
+
+     {117} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.
+
+     {118} I have interpreted as _Sandstone_ a scrawl which I first read
+     as _Sea_; I have done so at the suggestion of Professor Judd, who
+     points out that "footprints in the red sandstone were known at that
+     time, and geologists were not then particular to distinguish
+     between Amphibians and Reptiles."
+
+     {119} This refers to Cuvier's discovery of _Palæotherium_ &c. at
+     Montmartre.
+
+Finally, if views of some geologists be correct, my theory must be given
+up. [Lyell's views, as far as they go, are in _favour_, but they go so
+little in favour, and so much more is required, that it may <be> viewed as
+objection.] If geology present us with mere pages in chapters, towards
+end of <a> history, formed by tearing out bundles of leaves, and each page
+illustrating merely a small portion of the organisms of that time, the
+facts accord perfectly with my theory{120}.
+
+     {120} This simile is more fully given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     310, vi. p. 452. "For my part, following out Lyell's metaphor, I
+     look at the natural geological record, as a history of the world
+     imperfectly kept, and written in a changing dialect; of this
+     history we possess the last volume alone, relating only to two or
+     three countries. Of this volume, only here and there a short
+     chapter has been preserved; and of each page, only here and there a
+     few lines. Each word of the slowly-changing language, in which the
+     history is supposed to be written, being more or less different in
+     the interrupted succession of chapters, may represent the
+     apparently abruptly changed forms of life, entombed in our
+     consecutive, but widely separated formations." Professor Judd has
+     been good enough to point out to me, that Darwin's metaphor is
+     founded on the comparison of geology to history in Ch. i. of the
+     _Principles of Geology_, Ed. i. 1830, vol. i. pp. 1-4. Professor
+     Judd has also called my attention to another
+     passage,--_Principles_, Ed. i. 1833, vol. iii. p. 33, when Lyell
+     imagines an historian examining "two buried cities at the foot of
+     Vesuvius, immediately superimposed upon each other." The historian
+     would discover that the inhabitants of the lower town were Greeks
+     while those of the upper one were Italians. But he would be wrong
+     in supposing that there had been a sudden change from the Greek to
+     the Italian language in Campania. I think it is clear that Darwin's
+     metaphor is partly taken from this passage. See for instance (in
+     the above passage from the _Origin_) such phrases as "history ...
+     written in a changing dialect"--"apparently abruptly changed forms
+     of life." The passage within [] in the above paragraph:--"Lyell's
+     views as far as they go &c.," no doubt refers, as Professor Judd
+     points out, to Lyell not going so far as Darwin on the question of
+     the imperfection of the geological record.
+
+_Extermination._ We have seen that in later periods the organisms have
+disappeared by degrees and [perhaps] probably by degrees in earlier, and
+I have said our theory requires it. As many naturalists seem to think
+extermination a most mysterious circumstance{121} and call in
+astonishing agencies, it is well to recall what we have shown concerning
+the struggle of nature. An exterminating agency is at work with every
+organism: we scarcely see it: if robins would increase to thousands in
+ten years how severe must the process be. How imperceptible a small
+increase: fossils become rare: possibly sudden extermination as
+Australia, but as present means very slow and many means of escape, I
+shall doubt very sudden exterminations. Who can explain why some species
+abound more,--why does marsh titmouse, or ring-ouzel, now little
+change,--why is one sea-slug rare and another common on our coasts,--why
+one species of Rhinoceros more than another,--why is <illegible> tiger of
+India so rare? Curious and general sources of error, the place of an
+organism is instantly filled up.
+
+     {121} On rarity and extinction see _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 109, 319,
+     vi. pp. 133, 461.
+
+We know state of earth has changed, and as earthquakes and tides go on,
+the state must change,--many geologists believe a slow gradual cooling.
+Now let us see in accordance with principles of [variation]
+specification explained in Sect. II. how species would probably be
+introduced and how such results accord with what is known.
+
+The first fact geology proclaims is immense number of extinct forms, and
+new appearances. Tertiary strata leads to belief, that forms gradually
+become rare and disappear and are gradually supplied by others. We see
+some forms now becoming rare and disappearing, we know of no sudden
+creation: in older periods the forms _appear_ to come in suddenly, scene
+shifts: but even here Devonian, Permian &c. [keep on supplying new links
+in chain]--Genera and higher forms come on and disappear, in same way
+leaving a species on one or more stages below that in which the form
+abounded.
+
+
+<GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.>
+
+§ VI. Let us consider the absolute state of distribution of organisms of
+earth's face.
+
+Referring chiefly, but not exclusively (from difficulty of transport,
+fewness, and the distinct characteristics of groups) to Mammalia; and
+first considering the three or four main [regions] divisions; North
+America, Europe, Asia, including greater part of E. Indian Archipelago
+and Africa are intimately allied. Africa most distinct, especially most
+southern parts. And the Arctic regions, which unite N. America, Asia and
+Europe, only separated (if we travel one way by Behring's St.) by a
+narrow strait, is most intimately allied, indeed forms but one
+restricted group. Next comes S. America,--then Australia, Madagascar
+(and some small islands which stand very remote from the land). Looking
+at these main divisions separately, the organisms vary according to
+changes in condition{122} of different parts. But besides this, barriers
+of every kind seem to separate regions in a greater degree than
+proportionally to the difference of climates on each side. Thus great
+chains of mountains, spaces of sea between islands and continents, even
+great rivers and deserts. In fact the amount <of> difference in the
+organisms bears a certain, but not invariable relation to the amount of
+physical difficulties to transit{123}.
+
+     {122} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493, the author begins
+     his discussion on geographical distribution by minimising the
+     effect of physical conditions. He lays great stress on the effect
+     of _barriers_, as in the present Essay.
+
+     {123} Note in the original, "Would it be more striking if we took
+     animals, take Rhinoceros, and study their habitats?"
+
+There are some curious exceptions, namely, similarity of fauna of
+mountains of Europe and N. America and Lapland. Other cases just <the>
+reverse, mountains of eastern S. America, Altai <?>, S. India <?>{124}:
+mountain summits of islands often eminently peculiar. Fauna generally of
+some islands, even when close, very dissimilar, in others very similar.
+[I am here led to observe one or more centres of creation{125}.]
+
+     {124} Note by Mr A. R. Wallace. "The want of similarity referred
+     to, is, between the mountains of Brazil and Guiana and those of the
+     Andes. Also those of the Indian peninsula as compared with the
+     Himalayas. In both cases there is continuous intervening land.
+
+     "The islands referred to were, no doubt, the Galapagos for
+     dissimilarity from S. America; our own Islands as compared with
+     Europe, and perhaps Java, for similarity with continental Asia."
+
+     {125} The arguments against multiple centres of creation are given
+     in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 499.
+
+The simple geologist can explain many of the foregoing cases of
+distribution. Subsidence of a continent in which free means of
+dispersal, would drive the lowland plants up to the mountains, now
+converted into islands, and the semi-alpine plants would take place of
+alpine, and alpine be destroyed, if mountains originally were not of
+great height. So we may see, during gradual changes{126} of climate on a
+continent, the propagation of species would vary and adapt themselves to
+small changes causing much extermination{127}. The mountains of Europe
+were quite lately covered with ice, and the lowlands probably partaking
+of the Arctic climate and Fauna. Then as climate changed, arctic fauna
+would take place of ice, and an inundation of plants from different
+temperate countries <would> seize the lowlands, leaving islands of arctic
+forms. But if this had happened on an island, whence could the new forms
+have come,--here the geologist calls in creationists. If island formed,
+the geologist will suggest <that> many of the forms might have been
+borne from nearest land, but if peculiar, he calls in creationist,--as
+such island rises in height &c., he still more calls in creation. The
+creationist tells one, on a <illegible> spot the American spirit of
+creation makes _Orpheus_ and _Tyrannus_ and American doves, and in
+accordance with past and extinct forms, but no persistent relation
+between areas and distribution, Geologico-Geograph.-Distribution.
+
+     {126} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 366, vi. p. 516, the author does
+     not give his views on the distribution of alpine plants as original
+     but refers to Edward Forbes' work (_Geolog. Survey Memoirs_, 1846).
+     In his autobiography, Darwin refers to this. "I was forestalled" he
+     says, "in only one important point, which my vanity has always made
+     me regret." (_Life and Letters_, i. p. 88.)
+
+     {127} <The following is written on the back of a page of the MS.>
+     Discuss one or more centres of creation: allude strongly to
+     facilities of dispersal and amount of geological change: allude to
+     mountain-summits afterwards to be referred to. The distribution
+     varies, as everyone knows, according to adaptation, explain going
+     from N. to S. how we come to fresh groups of species in the same
+     general region, but besides this we find difference, according to
+     greatness of barriers, in greater proportion than can be well
+     accounted for by adaptation. <On representive species see _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.> This very striking when we think of
+     cattle of Pampas, plants <?> &c. &c. Then go into discussion; this
+     holds with 3 or 4 main divisions as well as the endless minor ones
+     in each of these 4 great ones: in these I chiefly refer to mammalia
+     &c. &c. The similarity of type, but not in species, in same
+     continent has been much less insisted on than the dissimilarity of
+     different great regions generically: it is more striking.
+
+     <I have here omitted an incomprehensible sentence.> Galapagos
+     Islands, Tristan d'Acunha, _volcanic_ islands covered with craters
+     we know lately did not support any organisms. How unlike these
+     islands in nature to neighbouring lands. These facts perhaps more
+     striking than almost any others. [Geology apt to affect geography
+     therefore we ought to expect to find the above.]
+     Geological-geographical distribution. In looking to past times we
+     find Australia equally distinct. S. America was distinct, though
+     with more forms in common. N. America its nearest neighbour more in
+     common,--in some respects more, in some less allied to Europe.
+     Europe we find <?> equally European. For Europe is now part of Asia
+     though not <illegible>. Africa unknown,--examples, Elephant,
+     Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Hyaena. As geology destroys geography we
+     cannot be surprised in going far back we find Marsupials and
+     Edentata in Europe: but geology destroys geography.
+
+Now according to analogy of domesticated animals let us see what would
+result. Let us take case of farmer on Pampas, where everything
+approaches nearer to state of nature. He works on organisms having
+strong tendency to vary: and he knows <that the> only way to make a
+distinct breed is to select and separate. It would be useless to
+separate the best bulls and pair with best cows if their offspring run
+loose and bred with the other herds, and tendency to reversion not
+counteracted; he would endeavour therefore to get his cows on islands
+and then commence his work of selection. If several farmers in different
+_rincons_{128} were to set to work, especially if with different
+objects, several breeds would soon be produced. So would it be with
+horticulturist and so history of every plant shows; the number of
+varieties{129} increase in proportion to care bestowed on their
+selection and, with crossing plants, separation. Now, according to this
+analogy, change of external conditions, and isolation either by chance
+landing <of> a form on an island, or subsidence dividing a continent, or
+great chain of mountains, and the number of individuals not being
+numerous will best favour variation and selection{130}. No doubt change
+could be effected in same country without any barrier by long continued
+selection on one species: even in case of a plant not capable of
+crossing would easier get possession and solely occupy an island{131}.
+Now we can at once see that <if> two parts of a continent isolated, new
+species thus generated in them, would have closest affinities, like
+cattle in counties of England: if barrier afterwards destroyed one
+species might destroy the other or both keep their ground. So if island
+formed near continent, let it be ever so different, that continent would
+supply inhabitants, and new species (like the old) would be allied with
+that continent. An island generally very different soil and climate, and
+number and order of inhabitants supplied by chance, no point so
+favourable for generation of new species{132},--especially the
+mountains, hence, so it is. As isolated mountains formed in a plain
+country (if such happens) is an island. As other islands formed, the old
+species would spread and thus extend and the fauna of distant island
+might ultimately meet and a continent formed between them. No one doubts
+continents formed by repeated elevations and depressions{133}. In
+looking backwards, but not so far that all geographical boundaries are
+destroyed, we can thus at once see why existing forms are related to the
+extinct in the same manner as existing ones are in some part of existing
+continent. By chance we might even have one or two absolute parent
+fossils.
+
+     {128} _Rincon_ in Spanish means a _nook_ or _corner_, it is here
+     probably used to mean a small farm.
+
+     {129} The following is written across the page: "No one would
+     expect a set of similar varieties to be produced in the different
+     countries, so species different."
+
+     {130} <The following passage seems to have been meant to follow
+     here.> The parent of an organism, we may generally suppose to be in
+     less favourable condition than the selected offspring and therefore
+     generally in fewer numbers. (This is not borne out by horticulture,
+     mere hypothesis; as an organism in favourable conditions might by
+     selection be adapted to still more favourable conditions.)
+
+     Barrier would further act in preventing species formed in one part
+     migrating to another part.
+
+     {131} <The following notes occur on the back of the page.> Number
+     of species not related to capabilities of the country: furthermore
+     not always those best adapted, perhaps explained by creationists by
+     changes and progress. <See p. 34, note 1.{Note 134}>
+
+     Although creationists can, by help of geology, explain much, how
+     can he explain the marked relation of past and present in same
+     area, the varying relation in other cases, between past and
+     present, the relation of different parts of same great area. If
+     island, to adjoining continent, if quite different, on mountain
+     summits,--the number of individuals not being related to
+     capabilities, or how &c.--our theory, I believe, can throw much
+     light and all facts accord.
+
+     {132} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.
+
+     {133} On oscillation see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.
+
+The detection of transitional forms would be rendered more difficult on
+rising point of land.
+
+The distribution therefore in the above enumerated points, even the
+trivial ones, which on any other <theory?> can be viewed as so many
+ultimate facts, all follow <in> a simple manner on the theory of the
+occurrence of species by <illegible> and being adapted by selection to
+<illegible>, conjoined with their power of dispersal, and the steady
+geographico-geological changes which are now in progress and which
+undoubtedly have taken place. Ought to state the opinion of the
+immutability of species and the creation by so many separate acts of
+will of the Creator{134}.
+
+     {134} <From the back of MS.> Effect of climate on stationary island
+     and on continent, but continent once island. Moreover repeated
+     oscillations fresh diffusion when non-united, then isolation, when
+     rising again immigration prevented, new habitats formed, new
+     species, when united free immigration, hence uniform characters.
+     Hence more forms <on?> the island. Mountain summits. Why not true
+     species. First let us recall in Part I, conditions of variation:
+     change of conditions during several generations, and if frequently
+     altered so much better [perhaps excess of food]. Secondly, continued
+     selection [while in wild state]. Thirdly, isolation in all or nearly
+     all,--as well to recall advantages of.
+
+     [In continent, if we look to terrestrial animal, long continued
+     change might go on, which would only cause change in numerical
+     number <? proportions>: if continued long enough might ultimately
+     affect all, though to most continents <there is> chance of
+     immigration. Some few of whole body of species must be long affected
+     and entire selection working same way. But here isolation absent,
+     without barrier, cut off such <illegible>. We can see advantage of
+     isolation. But let us take case of island thrown up by volcanic
+     agency at some distances, here we should have occasional visitants,
+     only in few numbers and exposed to new conditions and <illegible>
+     more important,--a quite new grouping of organic beings, which would
+     open out new sources of subsistence, or <would> control <?> old
+     ones. The number would be few, can old have the very best opportunity.
+     <The conquest of the indigenes by introduced organisms shows that
+     the indigenes were not perfectly adapted, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     390.> Moreover as the island continued changing,--continued slow
+     changes, river, marshes, lakes, mountains &c. &c., new races as
+     successively formed and a fresh occasional visitant.
+
+     If island formed continent, some species would emerge and
+     immigrate. Everyone admits continents. We can see why Galapagos and
+     C. Verde differ <see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 398>], depressed and raised.
+     We can see from this repeated action and the time required for a
+     continent, why many more forms than in New Zealand <see _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 389 for a comparison between New Zealand and the Cape> no
+     mammals or other classes <see however, _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393 for
+     the case of the frog>. We can at once see how it comes when there
+     has been an old channel of migration,--Cordilleras; we can see why
+     Indian Asiatic Flora,--[why species] having a wide range gives
+     better chance of some arriving at new points and being selected, and
+     adapted to new ends. I need hardly remark no necessity for change.
+
+     Finally, as continent (most extinction <?> during formation of
+     continent) is formed after repeated elevation and depression, and
+     interchange of species we might foretell much extinction, and that
+     the survivor would belong to same type, as the extinct, in same
+     manner as different part of same continent, which were once
+     separated by space as they are by time <see _Origin_, Ed. i. pp.
+     339 and 349>.
+
+     As all mammals have descended from one stock, we ought to expect
+     that every continent has been at some time connected, hence
+     obliteration of present ranges. I do not mean that the fossil
+     mammifers found in S. America are the lineal successors <ancestors>
+     of the present forms of S. America: for it is highly improbable
+     that more than one or two cases (who will say how many races after
+     Plata bones) should be found. I believe this from numbers, who have
+     lived,--mere <?> chance of fewness. Moreover in every case from
+     very existence of genera and species only few at one time will
+     leave progeny, under form of new species, to distant ages; and the
+     more distant the ages the fewer the progenitors. An observation may
+     be here appended, bad chance of preservation on rising island, the
+     nurseries of new species, appeal to experience <see _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 292>. This observation may be extended, that in all cases,
+     subsiding land must be, in early stages, less favourable to
+     formation of new species; but it will isolate them, and then if
+     land recommences rising how favourable. As preoccupation is bar to
+     diffusion to species, so would it be to a selected variety. But it
+     would not be if that variety was better fitted to some not fully
+     occupied station; so during elevation or the formation of new
+     stations, is scene for new species. But during elevation not
+     favourable to preservation of fossil (except in caverns <?>); when
+     subsidence highly favourable in early stages to preservation of
+     fossils; when subsidence, less sediment. So that our strata, as
+     general rule will be the tomb of old species (not undergoing any
+     change) when rising land the nursery. But if there be vestige will
+     generally be preserved to future ages, the new ones will not be
+     entombed till fresh subsidence supervenes. In this long gap we
+     shall have no record: so that wonderful if we should get
+     transitional forms. I do not mean every stage, for we cannot expect
+     that, as before shown, until geologists will be prepared to say
+     that although under unnaturally favourable condition we can trace
+     in future ages short-horn and Herefordshire <see note 2, p. 26>.
+     {Note 115}
+
+
+§ VII. <AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION.>
+
+Looking now to the affinities of organisms, without relation to their
+distribution, and taking all fossil and recent, we see the degrees of
+relationship are of different degrees and
+arbitrary,--sub-genera,--genera,--sub-families, families, orders and
+classes and kingdoms. The kind of classification which everyone feels is
+most correct is called the natural system, but no can define this. If we
+say with Whewell <that we have an> undefined instinct of the importance
+of organs{135}, we have no means in lower animals of saying which is
+most important, and yet everyone feels that some one system alone
+deserves to be called natural. The true relationship of organisms is
+brought before one by considering relations of analogy, an otter-like
+animal amongst mammalia and an otter amongst marsupials. In such cases
+external resemblance and habit of life and _the final end of whole
+organization_ very strong, yet no relation{136}. Naturalists cannot
+avoid these terms of relation and affinity though they use them
+metaphorically. If used in simple earnestness the natural system ought
+to be a genealogical <one>; and our knowledge of the points which are
+most easily affected in transmission are those which we least value in
+considering the natural system, and practically when we find they do
+vary we regard them of less value{137}. In classifying varieties the
+same language is used and the same kind of division: here also (in
+pine-apple){138} we talk of the natural classification, overlooking
+similarity of the fruits, because whole plant differs. The origin of
+sub-genera, genera, &c., &c., is not difficult on notion of genealogical
+succession, and accords with what we know of similar gradations of
+affinity in domesticated organisms. In the same region the organic
+beings are <illegible> related to each other and the external conditions
+in many physical respects are allied{139} and their differences of same
+kind, and therefore when a new species has been selected and has
+obtained a place in the economy of nature, we may suppose that
+generally it will tend to extend its range during geographical changes,
+and thus, becoming isolated and exposed to new conditions, will slightly
+alter and its structure by selection become slightly remodified, thus we
+should get species of a sub-genus and genus,--as varieties of
+merino-sheep,--varieties of British and Indian cattle. Fresh species
+might go on forming and others become extinct and all might become
+extinct, and then we should have <an> extinct genus; a case formerly
+mentioned, of which numerous cases occur in Palæontology. But more often
+the same advantages which caused the new species to spread and become
+modified into several species would favour some of the species being
+preserved: and if two of the species, considerably different, each gave
+rise to group of new species, you would have two genera; the same thing
+will go on. We may look at case in other way, looking to future.
+According to mere chance every existing species may generate another,
+but if any species, A, in changing gets an advantage and that advantage
+(whatever it may be, intellect, &c., &c., or some particular structure
+or constitution) is inherited{140}, A will be the progenitor of several
+genera or even families in the hard struggle of nature. A will go on
+beating out other forms, it might come that A would people earth,--we
+may now not have one descendant on our globe of the one or several
+original creations{141}. External conditions air, earth, water being
+same{142} on globe, and the communication not being perfect, organisms
+of widely different descent might become adapted to the same end and
+then we should have cases of analogy{143}, [they might even tend to
+become numerically representative]. From this often happening each of
+the great divisions of nature would have their representative eminently
+adapted to earth, to <air>{144}, to water, and to these in <illegible>
+and then these great divisions would show numerical relations in their
+classification.
+
+     {135} After "organs" is inserted, apparently as an
+     afterthought:--"no, and instance metamorphosis, afterwards
+     explicable."
+
+     {136} For analogical resemblances see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 427, vi.
+     p. 582.
+
+     {137} "Practically when naturalists are at work, they do not
+     trouble themselves about the physiological value of the
+     characters.... If they find a character nearly uniform, ... they
+     use it as one of high value," _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 417, vi. p. 573.
+
+     {138} "We are cautioned ... not to class two varieties of the
+     pine-apple together, merely because their fruit, though the most
+     important part, happens to be nearly identical," _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 423, vi. p. 579.
+
+     {139} The whole of this passage is obscure, but the text is quite
+     clear, except for one illegible word.
+
+     {140} <The exact position of the following passage is uncertain:>
+     "just as it is not likely every present breed of fancy birds
+     and cattle will propagate, only some of the best."
+
+     {141} This suggests that the author was not far from the principle
+     of divergence on which he afterwards laid so much stress. See
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 111, vi. p. 134, also _Life and Letters_, i. p.
+     84.
+
+     {142} That is to say the same conditions occurring in different
+     parts of the globe.
+
+     {143} The position of the following is uncertain, "greyhound and
+     racehorse have an analogy to each other." The same comparison
+     occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 427, vi. p. 583.
+
+     {144} _Air_ is evidently intended; in the MS. _water_ is written
+     twice.
+
+
+§ VIII. UNITY [OR SIMILARITY] OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES.
+
+Nothing more wonderful in Nat. Hist. than looking at the vast number of
+organisms, recent and fossil, exposed to the most diverse conditions,
+living in the most distant climes, and at immensely remote periods,
+fitted to wholely different ends, yet to find large groups united by a
+similar type of structure. When we for instance see bat, horse,
+porpoise-fin, hand, all built on same structure{145}, having bones{146}
+with same name, we see there is some deep bond of union between
+them{147}, to illustrate this is the foundation and objects <?> <of>
+what is called the Natural System; and which is foundation of
+distinction <?> of true and adaptive characters{148}. Now this wonderful
+fact of hand, hoof, wing, paddle and claw being the same, is at once
+explicable on the principle of some parent-forms, which might either be
+<illegible> or walking animals, becoming through infinite number of small
+selections adapted to various conditions. We know that proportion,
+size, shape of bones and their accompanying soft parts vary, and hence
+constant selection would alter, to almost any purpose <?> the framework
+of an organism, but yet would leave a general, even closest similarity in
+it.
+
+     {145} Written between the lines occurs:--"extend to birds and other
+     classes."
+
+     {146} Written between the lines occurs:--"many bones merely
+     represented."
+
+     {147} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595, the term
+     _morphology_ is taken as including _unity of type_. The paddle of
+     the porpoise and the wing of the bat are there used as instances of
+     morphological resemblance.
+
+     {148} The sentence is difficult to decipher.
+
+[We know the number of similar parts, as vertebræ and ribs can vary,
+hence this also we might expect.] Also <if> the changes carried on to a
+certain point, doubtless type will be lost, and this is case with
+Plesiosaurus{149}. The unity of type in past and present ages of certain
+great divisions thus undoubtedly receives the simplest explanation.
+
+     {149} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 598, the author speaks
+     of the "general pattern" being obscured in the paddles of "extinct
+     gigantic sea-lizards."
+
+There is another class of allied and almost identical facts, admitted by
+the soberest physiologists, [from the study of a certain set of organs
+in a group of organisms] and refers <? referring> to a unity of type of
+different organs in the same individual, denominated the science of
+"Morphology." The <? this> discovered by beautiful and regular series,
+and in the case of plants from monstrous changes, that certain organs in
+an individual are other organs metamorphosed. Thus every botanist
+considers petals, nectaries, stamens, pistils, germen as metamorphosed
+leaf. They thus explain, in the most lucid manner, the position and
+number of all parts of the flower, and the curious conversion under
+cultivation of one part into another. The complicated double set of jaws
+and palpi of crustaceans{150}, and all insects are considered as
+metamorphosed <limbs> and to see the series is to admit this phraseology.
+The skulls of the vertebrates are undoubtedly composed of three
+metamorphosed vertebræ; thus we can understand the strange form of the
+separate bones which compose the casket holding man's brain. These{151}
+facts differ but slightly from those of last section, if with wing,
+paddle, hand and hoof, some common structure was yet visible, or could
+be made out by a series of occasional monstrous conversions, and if
+traces could be discovered of <the> whole having once existed as walking or
+swimming instruments, these organs would be said to be metamorphosed, as
+it is they are only said to exhibit a common type.
+
+     {150} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 437, vi. p. 599.
+
+     {151} The following passage seems to have been meant to precede the
+     sentence beginning "These facts":--"It is evident, that when in
+     each individual species, organs are metamorph. a unity of type
+     extends."
+
+This distinction is not drawn by physiologists, and is only implied by
+some by their general manner of writing. These facts, though affecting
+every organic being on the face of the globe, which has existed, or does
+exist, can only be viewed by the Creationist as ultimate and
+inexplicable facts. But this unity of type through the individuals of a
+group, and this metamorphosis of the same organ into other organs,
+adapted to diverse use, necessarily follows on the theory of
+descent{152}. For let us take case of Vertebrata, which if{153} they
+descended from one parent and by this theory all the Vertebrata have
+been altered by slow degrees, such as we see in domestic animals. We
+know that proportions alter, and even that occasionally numbers of
+vertebræ alter, that parts become soldered, that parts are lost, as tail
+and toes, but we know <that?> here we can see that possibly a walking organ
+might <?> be converted into swimming or into a gliding organ and so on to a
+flying organ. But such gradual changes would not alter the unity of type
+in their descendants, as parts lost and soldered and vertebræ. But we
+can see that if this carried to extreme, unity lost,--Plesiosaurus. Here
+we have seen the same organ is formed <?> <for> different purposes
+<ten words illegible>: and if, in several orders of vertebrata, we could
+trace origin <of> spinous processes and monstrosities &c. we should say,
+instead of there existing a unity of type, morphology{154}, as we do
+when we trace the head as being the vertebræ metamorphosed. Be it
+observed that Naturalists, as they use terms of affinity without
+attaching real meaning, here also they are obliged to use metamorphosis,
+without meaning that any parent of crustacean was really an animal with
+as many legs as crustacean has jaws. The theory of descent at once
+explains these wonderful facts.
+
+     {152} This is, I believe, the first place in which the author uses
+     the words "theory of descent."
+
+     {153} The sentence should probably run, "Let us take the case of
+     the vertebrata: if we assume them to be descended from one parent,
+     then by this theory they have been altered &c."
+
+     {154} That is "we should call it a morphological fact."
+
+Now few of the physiologists who use this language really suppose that
+the parent of insect with the metamorphosed jaw, was an insect with
+[more] so many legs, or that the parent of flowering plants, originally
+had no stamens, or pistils or petals, but some other means of
+propagation,--and so in other cases. Now according to our theory during
+the infinite number of changes, we might expect that an organ used for a
+purpose might be used for a different one by his descendant, as must
+have been the case by our theory with the bat, porpoise, horse, &c.,
+which are descended from one parent. And if it so chanced that traces of
+the former use and structure of the part should be retained, which is
+manifestly possible if not probable, then we should have the organs, on
+which morphology is founded and which instead of being metaphorical
+becomes plain and <and instead of being> utterly unintelligible becomes
+simple matter of fact{155}.
+
+     {155} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602, the author,
+     referring to the expressions used by naturalists in regard to
+     morphology and metamorphosis, says "On my view these terms may be
+     used literally."
+
+<_Embryology._> This general unity of type in great groups of organisms
+(including of course these morphological cases) displays itself in a
+most striking manner in the stages through which the foetus passes{156}.
+In early stage, the wing of bat, hoof, hand, paddle are not to be
+distinguished. At a still earlier <stage> there is no difference between
+fish, bird, &c. &c. and mammal. It is not that they cannot be
+distinguished, but the arteries{157} <illegible>. It is not true that
+one passes through the form of a lower group, though no doubt fish more
+nearly related to foetal state{158}.
+
+     {156} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 605.
+
+     {157} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606, the author argues
+     that the "loop-like course of the arteries" in the vertebrate
+     embryo has no direct relation to the conditions of existence.
+
+     {158} The following passages are written across the page:--"They
+     pass through the same phases, but some, generally called the higher
+     groups, are further metamorphosed.
+
+     ? Degradation and complication? no tendency to perfection.
+
+     ? Justly argued against Lamarck?"
+
+This similarity at the earliest stage is remarkably shown in the course
+of the arteries which become greatly altered, as foetus advances in life
+and assumes the widely different course and number which characterize
+full-grown fish and mammals. How wonderful that in egg, in water or air,
+or in womb of mother, artery{159} should run in same course.
+
+     {159} An almost identical passage occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     440, vi. p. 606.
+
+Light can be thrown on this by our theory. The structure of each
+organism is chiefly adapted to the sustension of its life, when
+full-grown, when it has to feed itself and propagate{160}. The structure
+of a kitten is quite in secondary degree adapted to its habits, whilst
+fed by its mother's milk and prey. Hence variation in the structure of
+the full-grown species will _chiefly_ determine the preservation of a
+species now become ill-suited to its habitat, or rather with a better
+place opened to it in the economy of Nature. It would not matter to the
+full-grown cat whether in its young state it was more or less eminently
+feline, so that it become so when full-grown. No doubt most variation,
+(not depending on habits of life of individual) depends on early
+change{161} and we must suspect that at whatever time of life the
+alteration of foetus is effected, it tends to appear at same period.
+When we <see> a tendency to particular disease in old age transmitted by
+the male, we know some effect is produced during conception, on the
+simple cell of ovule, which will not produce its effect till half a
+century afterwards and that effect is not visible{162}. So we see in
+grey-hound, bull-dog, in race-horse and cart-horse, which have been
+selected for their form in full-life, there is much less (?) difference
+in the few first days after birth{163}, than when full-grown: so in
+cattle, we see it clearly in cases of cattle, which differ obviously in
+shape and length of horns. If man were during 10,000 years to be able to
+select, far more diverse animals from horse or cow, I should expect
+there would be far less differences in the very young and foetal state:
+and this, I think, throws light on above marvellous fact. In larvæ,
+which have long life selection, perhaps, does much,--in the pupa not so
+much{164} There is no object gained in varying form &c. of foetus
+(beyond certain adaptations to mother's womb) and therefore selection
+will not further act on it, than in giving to its changing tissues a
+tendency to certain parts afterwards to assume certain forms.
+
+     {160} The following: "Deaths of brothers <when> old by same peculiar
+     disease" which is written between the lines seems to have been a
+     memorandum which is expanded a few lines lower. I believe the case
+     of the brothers came from Dr R. W. Darwin.
+
+     {161} See the discussion to this effect in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp.
+     443-4, vi. p. 610. The author there makes the distinction between a
+     cause affecting the germ-cell and the reaction occurring at a late
+     period of life.
+
+     {162} Possibly the sentence was meant to end "is not visible till
+     then."
+
+     {163} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 444-5, vi. p. 611. The query
+     appended to _much less_ is justified, since measurement was
+     necessary to prove that the greyhound and bulldog puppies had not
+     nearly acquired "their full amount of proportional difference."
+
+     {164} <The following discussion, from the back of the page, is in
+     large measure the same as the text.> I think light can be thrown on
+     these facts. From the following peculiarities being hereditary, [we
+     know that some change in the germinal vesicle is effected, which
+     will only betray itself years after] diseases--man, goitre, gout,
+     baldness, fatness, size, [longevity <illegible> time of reproduction,
+     shape of horns, case of old brothers dying of same disease]. And we
+     know that the germinal vesicle must have been affected, though no
+     effect is apparent or can be apparent till years afterwards,--no
+     more apparent than when these peculiarities appear by the exposure
+     of the full-grown individual. <That is, "the young individual is as
+     apparently free from the hereditary changes which will appear
+     later, as the young is actually free from the changes produced by
+     exposure to certain conditions in adult life."> So that when we see
+     a variety in cattle, even if the variety be due to act of
+     reproduction, we cannot feel sure at what period this change became
+     apparent. It may have been effected during early age of free life
+     <or> foetal existence, as monsters show. From arguments before used,
+     and crossing, we may generally suspect in germ; but I repeat it
+     does not follow, that the change should be apparent till life fully
+     developed; any more than fatness depending on heredity should be
+     apparent during early childhood, still less during foetal
+     existence. In case of horns of cattle, which when inherited must
+     depend on germinal vesicle, obviously no effect till cattle
+     full-grown. Practically it would appear that the [hereditary]
+     peculiarities characterising our domestic races, therefore
+     resulting from vesicle, do not appear with their full characters
+     in very early states; thus though two breeds of cows have calves
+     different, they are not so different,--grey-hound and bull-dog.
+     And this is what is <to> be expected, for man is indifferent to
+     characters of young animals and hence would select those full-grown
+     animals which possessed the desirable characteristics. So that from
+     mere chance we might expect that some of the characters would be
+     such only as became fully apparent in mature life. Furthermore we
+     may suspect it to be a law, that at whatever time a new character
+     appears, whether from vesicle, or effects of external conditions,
+     it would appear at corresponding time <see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444>.
+     Thus diseases appearing in old age produce children with d^o.,--early
+     maturity,--longevity,--old men, brothers, of same disease--young
+     children of d^o. I said men do not select for quality of
+     young,--calf with big bullocks. Silk-worms, peculiarities which,
+     appear in caterpillar state or cocoon state, are transmitted to
+     corresponding states. The effect of this would be that if some
+     peculiarity was born in a young animal, but never exercised, it
+     might be inherited in young animal; but if exercised that part of
+     structure would be increased and would be inherited in
+     corresponding time of life after such training.
+
+     I have said that man selects in full-life, so would it be in
+     Nature. In struggle of existence, it matters nothing to a feline
+     animal, whether kitten eminently feline, as long as it sucks.
+     Therefore natural selection would act equally well on character
+     which was fully <developed> only in full age. Selection could tend
+     to alter no character in foetus, (except relation to mother) it would
+     alter less in young state (putting on one side larva condition) but
+     alter every part in full-grown condition. Look to a foetus and its
+     parent, and again after ages foetus and its <i. e. the above
+     mentioned parents> descendant; the parent more variable <?> than
+     foetus, which explains all.]
+
+Thus there is no power to change the course of the arteries, as long as
+they nourish the foetus; it is the selection of slight changes which
+supervene at any time during <illegible> of life.
+
+The less differences of foetus,--this has obvious meaning on this view:
+otherwise how strange that a [monkey] horse, a man, a bat should at one
+time of life have arteries, running in a manner, which is only
+intelligibly useful in a fish! The natural system being on theory
+genealogical, we can at once see, why foetus, retaining traces of the
+ancestral form, is of the highest value in classification.
+
+
+§ IX. <ABORTIVE ORGANS.>
+
+There is another grand class of facts relating to what are called
+abortive organs. These consist of organs which the same reasoning power
+that shows us how beautifully these organs in some cases are adapted to
+certain end, declares in other cases are absolutely useless. Thus teeth
+in Rhinoceros{165}, whale, narwhal,--bone on tibia, muscles which do not
+move,--little bone of wing of Apteryx,--bone representing extremities in
+some snake,--little wings within <?> soldered cover of beetles,--men and
+bulls, mammæ: filaments without anthers in plants, mere scales
+representing petals in others, in feather-hyacinth whole flower. Almost
+infinitely numerous. No one can reflect on these without astonishment,
+can anything be clearer than that wings are to fly and teeth <to bite>,
+and yet we find these organs perfect in every detail in situations where
+they cannot possibly be of their normal use{166}.
+
+     {165} Some of these examples occur in _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 450-51,
+     vi. pp. 619-20.
+
+     {166} The two following sentences are written, one down the margin,
+     the other across the page. "Abortive organs eminently useful in
+     classification. Embryonic state of organs. Rudiments of organs."
+
+The term abortive organ has been thus applied to above structure (as
+_invariable_ as all other parts{167}) from their absolute similarity to
+monstrous cases, where from _accident_, certain organs are not
+developed; as infant without arms or fingers with mere stump
+representing them: teeth represented by mere points of ossification:
+headless children with mere button,--viscera represented by small
+amorphous masses, &c.,--the tail by mere stump,--a solid horn by minute
+hanging one{168}. There is a tendency in all these cases, when life is
+preserved, for such structures to become hereditary. We see it in
+tailless dogs and cats. In plants we see this strikingly,--in Thyme, in
+_Linum flavum_,--stamen in _Geranium pyrenaicum_{169}. Nectaries abort
+into petals in Columbine <_Aquilegia_>, produced from some accident and
+then become hereditary, in some cases only when propagated by buds, in
+other cases by seed. These cases have been produced suddenly by accident
+in early growth, but it is part of law of growth that when any organ is
+not used it tends to diminish (duck's wing{170}?) muscles of dog's ears,
+<and of> rabbits, muscles wither, arteries grow up. When eye born
+defective, optic nerve (Tuco Tuco) is atrophied. As every part whether
+useful or not (diseases, double flowers) tends to be transmitted to
+offspring, the origin of abortive organs whether produced at the birth
+or slowly acquired is easily understood in domestic races of organisms:
+[a struggle between the atrophy and hereditariness. Abortive organs in
+domestic races.] There will always be a struggle between atrophy of an
+organ rendered useless, and hereditariness{171}. Because we can
+understand the origin of abortive organs in certain cases, it would be
+wrong to conclude absolutely that all must have had same origin, but the
+strongest analogy is in favour of it. And we can by our theory, for
+during infinite changes some organ, we might have anticipated, would
+have become useless. <We can> readily explain the fact, so astounding
+on any other view, namely that organs possibly useless have been formed
+often with the same exquisite care as when of vital importance.
+
+     {167} I imagine the meaning to be that abortive organs are specific
+     characters in contrast to monstrosities.
+
+     {168} Minute hanging horns are mentioned in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     454, vi. p. 625, as occurring in hornless breeds of cattle.
+
+     {169} _Linum flavum_ is dimorphic: thyme gynodiæcious. It is not
+     clear what point is referred to under _Geranium pyrenaicum_.
+
+     {170} The author's work on duck's wings &c. is in _Var. under
+     Dom._, Ed. 2, i. p. 299.
+
+     {171} The words _vis medicatrix_ are inserted after "useless,"
+     apparently as a memorandum.
+
+Our theory, I may remark would permit an organ <to> become abortive with
+respect to its primary use, to be turned to any other purpose, (as the
+buds in a cauliflower) thus we can see no difficulty in bones of male
+marsupials being used as fulcrum of muscles, or style of
+marygold{172},--indeed in one point of view, the heads of [vertebrated]
+animal may be said to be abortive vertebræ turned into other use: legs
+of some crustacea abortive jaws, &c., &c. De Candolle's analogy of table
+covered with dishes{173}.
+
+     {172} In the male florets of certain Compositæ the style functions
+     merely as a piston for forcing out the pollen.
+
+     {173} <On the back of the page is the following.> If abortive organs
+     are a trace preserved by hereditary tendency, of organ in ancestor
+     of use, we can at once see why important in natural classification,
+     also why more plain in young animal because, as in last section, the
+     selection has altered the old animal most. I repeat, these wondrous
+     facts, of parts created for no use in past and present time, all
+     can by my theory receive simple explanation; or they receive none
+     and we must be content with some such empty metaphor, as that of De
+     Candolle, who compares creation to a well covered table, and says
+     abortive organs may be compared to the dishes (some should be empty)
+     placed symmetrically!
+
+<The following passage was possibly intended to be inserted here.>
+Degradation and complication see Lamarck: no tendency to perfection: if
+room, [even] high organism would have greater power in beating lower
+one, thought <?> to be selected for a degraded end.
+
+
+§ X. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION.
+
+Let us recapitulate the whole <?> <of> these latter sections by taking
+case of the three species of Rhinoceros, which inhabit Java, Sumatra,
+and mainland of Malacca or India. We find these three close neighbours,
+occupants of distinct but neighbouring districts, as a group having a
+different aspect from the Rhinoceros of Africa, though some of these
+latter inhabit very similar countries, but others most diverse stations.
+We find them intimately related [scarcely <?> differences more than some
+breeds of cattle] in structure to the Rhinoceros, which for immense
+periods have inhabited this one, out of three main zoological divisions
+of the world. Yet some of these ancient animals were fitted to very
+different stations: we find all three <illegible> of the generic character
+of the Rhinoceros, which form a [piece of net]{174} set of links in the
+broken chain representing the Pachydermata, as the chain likewise forms
+a portion in other and longer chains. We see this wonderfully in
+dissecting the coarse leg of all three and finding nearly the same bones
+as in bat's wings or man's hand, but we see the clear mark in solid
+tibia of the fusion into it of the fibula. In all three we find their
+heads composed of three altered vertebræ, short neck, same bones as
+giraffe. In the upper jaws of all three we find small teeth like
+rabbit's. In dissecting them in foetal state we find at a not very early
+stage their form exactly alike the most different animals, and even with
+arteries running as in a fish: and this similarity holds when the young
+one is produced in womb, pond, egg or spawn. Now these three undoubted
+species scarcely differ more than breeds of cattle, are probably
+subject to many the same contagious diseases; if domesticated these
+forms would vary, and they might possibly breed together, and fuse into
+something{175} different <from> their aboriginal forms; might be selected
+to serve different ends.
+
+     {174} The author doubtless meant that the complex relationships
+     between organisms can be roughly represented by a net in which the
+     knots stand for species.
+
+     {175} Between the lines occurs:--"one <?> form be lost."
+
+Now the Creationist believes these three Rhinoceroses were created{176}
+with their deceptive appearance of true, not <illegible> relationship;
+as well can I believe the planets revolve in their present courses not
+from one law of gravity but from distinct volition of Creator.
+
+     {176} The original sentence is here broken up by the insertion
+     of:--"out of the dust of Java, Sumatra, these <?> allied to past
+     and present age and <illegible>, with the stamp of inutility in
+     some of their organs and conversion in others."
+
+If real species, sterile one with another, differently adapted, now
+inhabiting different countries, with different structures and instincts,
+are admitted to have common descent, we can only legitimately stop where
+our facts stop. Look how far in some case a chain of species will lead
+us. <This probably refers to the Crustacea, where the two ends of the
+series have "hardly a character in common." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 419.>
+May we not jump (considering how much extermination, and how imperfect
+geological records) from one sub-genus to another sub-genus. Can genera
+restrain us; many of the same arguments, which made us give up species,
+inexorably demand genera and families and orders to fall, and classes
+tottering. We ought to stop only when clear unity of type, independent
+of use and adaptation, ceases.
+
+Be it remembered no naturalist pretends to give test from external
+characters of species; in many genera the distinction is quite
+arbitrary{177}. But there remains one other way of comparing species
+with races; it is to compare the effects of crossing them. Would it not
+be wonderful, if the union of two organisms, produced by two separate
+acts of Creation, blended their characters together when crossed
+according to the same rules, as two races which have undoubtedly
+descended from same parent stock; yet this can be shown to be the case.
+For sterility, though a usual <?>, is not an invariable concomitant, it
+varies much in degree and has been shown to be probably dependent on
+causes closely analogous with those which make domesticated organisms
+sterile. Independent of sterility there is no difference between
+mongrels and hybrids, as can be shown in a long series of facts. It is
+strikingly seen in cases of instincts, when the minds of the two species
+or races become blended together{178}. In both cases if the half-breed
+be crossed with either parent for a few generations, all traces of the
+one parent form is lost (as Kölreuter in two tobacco species almost
+sterile together), so that the Creationist in the case of a species,
+must believe that one act of creation is absorbed into another!
+
+     {177} Between the lines occur the words:--"Species vary according
+     to same general laws as varieties; they cross according to same
+     laws."
+
+     {178} "A cross with a bull-dog has affected for many generations
+     the courage and obstinacy of greyhounds," _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 214,
+     vi. p. 327.
+
+{Illustration: Facsimile of the original manuscript of the paragraph on
+p. 50.}
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+Such are my reasons for believing that specific forms are not immutable.
+The affinity of different groups, the unity of types of structure, the
+representative forms through which foetus passes, the metamorphosis of
+organs, the abortion of others cease to be metaphorical expressions and
+become intelligible facts. We no longer look <an> on animal as a savage does
+at a ship{179}, or other great work of art, as a thing wholly beyond
+comprehension, but we feel far more interest in examining it. How
+interesting is every instinct, when we speculate on their origin as an
+hereditary or congenital habit or produced by the selection of
+individuals differing slightly from their parents. We must look at every
+complicated mechanism and instinct, as the summary of a long history,
+<as the summing up> of{180} useful contrivances, much like a work of art.
+How interesting does the distribution of all animals become, as throwing
+light on ancient geography. [We see some seas bridged over.] Geology
+loses in its glory from the imperfection of its archives{181}, but how
+does it gain in the immensity of the periods of its formations and of
+the gaps separating these formations. There is much grandeur in looking
+at the existing animals either as the lineal descendants of the forms
+buried under thousand feet of matter, or as the coheirs of some still
+more ancient ancestor. It accords with what we know of the law impressed
+on matter by the Creator, that the creation and extinction of forms,
+like the birth and death of individuals should be the effect of
+secondary [laws] means{182}. It is derogatory that the Creator of
+countless systems of worlds should have created each of the myriads of
+creeping parasites and [slimy] worms which have swarmed each day of life
+on land and water <on> [this] one globe. We cease being astonished, however
+much we may deplore, that a group of animals should have been directly
+created to lay their eggs in bowels and flesh of other,--that some
+organisms should delight in cruelty,--that animals should be led away by
+false instincts,--that annually there should be an incalculable waste
+of eggs and pollen. From death, famine, rapine, and the concealed war of
+nature we can see that the highest good, which we can conceive, the
+creation of the higher animals has directly come. Doubtless it at first
+transcends our humble powers, to conceive laws capable of creating
+individual organisms, each characterised by the most exquisite
+workmanship and widely-extended adaptations. It accords better with [our
+modesty] the lowness of our faculties to suppose each must require the
+fiat of a creator, but in the same proportion the existence of such laws
+should exalt our notion of the power of the omniscient Creator{183}.
+There is a simple grandeur in the view of life with its powers of
+growth, assimilation and reproduction, being originally breathed into
+matter under one or a few forms, and that whilst this our planet has
+gone circling on according to fixed laws, and land and water, in a cycle
+of change, have gone on replacing each other, that from so simple an
+origin, through the process of gradual selection of infinitesimal
+changes, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been
+evolved{184}.
+
+     {179} The simile of the savage and the ship occurs in the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665.
+
+     {180} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 486, vi. p. 665, the author speaks
+     of the "summing up of many contrivances": I have therefore
+     introduced the above words which make the passage clearer. In the
+     _Origin_ the comparison is with "a great mechanical
+     invention,"--not with a work of art.
+
+     {181} See a similar passage in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 487, vi. p.
+     667.
+
+     {182} See the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.
+
+     {183} The following discussion, together with some memoranda are on
+     the last page of the MS. "The supposed creative spirit does not
+     create either number or kind which <are> from analogy adapted to site
+     (viz. New Zealand): it does not keep them all permanently adapted
+     to any country,--it works on spots or areas of creation,--it is not
+     persistent for great periods,--it creates forms of same groups in
+     same regions, with no physical similarity,--it creates, on islands
+     or mountain summits, species allied to the neighbouring ones, and
+     not allied to alpine nature as shown in other mountain
+     summits--even different on different island of similarly
+     constituted archipelago, not created on two points: never mammifers
+     created on small isolated island; nor number of organisms adapted
+     to locality: its power seems influenced or related to the range of
+     other species wholly distinct of the same genus,--it does not
+     equally effect, in amount of difference, all the groups of the same
+     class."
+
+     {184} This passage is the ancestor of the concluding words in the
+     first edition of the _Origin of Species_ which have remained
+     substantially unchanged throughout subsequent editions, "There is
+     grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been
+     originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that whilst
+     this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of
+     gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful
+     and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved." In the 2nd
+     edition "by the Creator" is introduced after "originally breathed."
+
+N.B.--There ought somewhere to be a discussion from Lyell to show that
+external conditions do vary, or a note to Lyell's works <work?>.
+
+Besides other difficulties in ii. Part, non-acclimatisation of plants.
+Difficulty when asked _how_ did white and negro become altered from
+common intermediate stock: no facts. We do NOT know that species are
+immutable, on the contrary. What arguments against this theory, except
+our not perceiving every step, like the erosion of valleys{185}.
+
+     {185} Compare the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659, "The
+     difficulty is the same as that felt by so many geologists, when
+     Lyell first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been
+     formed, and great valleys excavated, by the slow action of the
+     coast-waves."
+
+
+
+
+THE ESSAY OF 1844 PART I
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION; AND ON THE
+PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION
+
+
+The most favourable conditions for variation seem to be when organic
+beings are bred for many generations under domestication{186}: one may
+infer this from the simple fact of the vast number of races and breeds
+of almost every plant and animal, which has long been domesticated.
+Under certain conditions organic beings even during their individual
+lives become slightly altered from their usual form, size, or other
+characters: and many of the peculiarities thus acquired are transmitted
+to their offspring. Thus in animals, the size and vigour of body,
+fatness, period of maturity, habits of body or consensual movements,
+habits of mind and temper, are modified or acquired during the life of
+the individual{187}, and become inherited. There is reason to believe
+that when long exercise has given to certain muscles great development,
+or disuse has lessened them, that such development is also inherited.
+Food and climate will occasionally produce changes in the colour and
+texture of the external coverings of animals; and certain unknown
+conditions affect the horns of cattle in parts of Abyssinia; but whether
+these peculiarities, thus acquired during individual lives, have been
+inherited, I do not know. It appears certain that malconformation and
+lameness in horses, produced by too much work on hard roads,--that
+affections of the eyes in this animal probably caused by bad
+ventilation,--that tendencies towards many diseases in man, such as
+gout, caused by the course of life and ultimately producing changes of
+structure, and that many other diseases produced by unknown agencies,
+such as goitre, and the idiotcy resulting from it, all become
+hereditary.
+
+     {186} The cumulative effect of domestication is insisted on in the
+     _Origin_, see _e.g. Origin_, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 8.
+
+     {187} This type of variation passes into what he describes as the
+     direct effect of conditions. Since they are due to causes acting
+     during the adult life of the organism they might be called
+     individual variations, but he uses this term for congenital
+     variations, _e.g._ the differences discoverable in plants raised
+     from seeds of the same pod _(Origin_, Ed. i. p. 45, vi. p. 53).
+
+It is very doubtful whether the flowers and leaf-buds, annually produced
+from the same bulb, root, or tree, can properly be considered as parts
+of the same individual, though in some respects they certainly seem to
+be so. If they are parts of an individual, plants also are subject to
+considerable changes during their _individual_ lives. Most
+florist-flowers if neglected degenerate, that is, they lose some of
+their characters; so common is this, that trueness is often stated, as
+greatly enhancing the value of a variety{188}: tulips break their
+colours only after some years' culture; some plants become double and
+others single, by neglect or care: these characters can be transmitted
+by cuttings or grafts, and in some cases by true or seminal propagation.
+Occasionally a single bud on a plant assumes at once a new and widely
+different character: thus it is certain that nectarines have been
+produced on peach trees and moss roses on provence roses; white
+currants on red currant bushes; flowers of a different colour from that
+of the stock, in Chrysanthemums, Dahlias, sweet-williams, Azaleas, &c.,
+&c.; variegated leaf-buds on many trees, and other similar cases. These
+new characters appearing in single buds, can, like those lesser changes
+affecting the whole plant, be multiplied not only by cuttings and such
+means, but often likewise by true seminal generation.
+
+     {188} <It is not clear where the following note is meant to come>:
+     Case of Orchis,--most remarkable as not long cultivated by
+     seminal propagation. Case of varieties which soon acquire, like
+     _Ægilops_ and Carrot (and Maize) _a certain general character_ and
+     then go on varying.
+
+The changes thus appearing during the lives of individual animals and
+plants are extremely rare compared with those which are congenital or
+which appear soon after birth. Slight differences thus arising are
+infinitely numerous: the proportions and form of every part of the
+frame, inside and outside, appear to vary in very slight degrees:
+anatomists dispute what is the "beau ideal" of the bones, the liver and
+kidneys, like painters do of the proportions of the face: the proverbial
+expression that no two animals or plants are born absolutely alike, is
+much truer when applied to those under domestication, than to those in a
+state of nature{189}. Besides these slight differences, single
+individuals are occasionally born considerably unlike in certain parts
+or in their whole structure to their parents: these are called by
+horticulturists and breeders "sports"; and are not uncommon except when
+very strongly marked. Such sports are known in some cases to have been
+parents of some of our domestic races; and such probably have been the
+parents of many other races, especially of those which in some senses
+may be called hereditary monsters; for instance where there is an
+additional limb, or where all the limbs are stunted (as in the Ancon
+sheep), or where a part is wanting, as in rumpless fowls and tailless
+dogs or cats{190}. The effects of external conditions on the size,
+colour and form, which can rarely and obscurely be detected during one
+individual life, become apparent after several generations: the slight
+differences, often hardly describable, which characterize the stock of
+different countries, and even of districts in the same country, seem to
+be due to such continued action.
+
+     {189} Here, as in the MS. of 1842, the author is inclined to
+     minimise the variation occurring in nature.
+
+     {190} This is more strongly stated than in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     30.
+
+
+_On the hereditary tendency._
+
+A volume might be filled with facts showing what a strong tendency there
+is to inheritance, in almost every case of the most trifling, as well as
+of the most remarkable congenital peculiarities{191}. The term
+congenital peculiarity, I may remark, is a loose expression and can only
+mean a peculiarity apparent when the part affected is nearly or fully
+developed: in the Second Part, I shall have to discuss at what period of
+the embryonic life connatal peculiarities probably first appear; and I
+shall then be able to show from some evidence, that at whatever period
+of life a new peculiarity first appears, it tends hereditarily to appear
+at a corresponding period{192}. Numerous though slight changes, slowly
+supervening in animals during mature life (often, though by no means
+always, taking the form of disease), are, as stated in the first
+paragraphs, very often hereditary. In plants, again, the buds which
+assume a different character from their stock likewise tend to transmit
+their new peculiarities. There is not sufficient reason to believe that
+either mutilations{193} or changes of form produced by mechanical
+pressure, even if continued for hundreds of generations, or that any
+changes of structure quickly produced by disease, are inherited; it
+would appear as if the tissue of the part affected must slowly and
+freely grow into the new form, in order to be inheritable. There is a
+very great difference in the hereditary tendency of different
+peculiarities, and of the same peculiarity, in different individuals and
+species; thus twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash have been sown
+and not one come up true;--out of seventeen seeds of the weeping yew,
+nearly all came up true. The ill-formed and almost monstrous "Niata"
+cattle of S. America and Ancon sheep, both when bred together and when
+crossed with other breeds, seem to transmit their peculiarities to their
+offspring as truly as the ordinary breeds. I can throw no light on these
+differences in the power of hereditary transmission. Breeders believe,
+and apparently with good cause, that a peculiarity generally becomes
+more firmly implanted after having passed through several generations;
+that is if one offspring out of twenty inherits a peculiarity from its
+parents, then its descendants will tend to transmit this peculiarity to
+a larger proportion than one in twenty; and so on in succeeding
+generations. I have said nothing about mental peculiarities being
+inheritable for I reserve this subject for a separate chapter.
+
+     {191} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 13.
+
+     {192} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 86, vi. p. 105.
+
+     {193} It is interesting to find that though the author, like his
+     contemporaries, believed in the inheritance of acquired characters,
+     he excluded the case of mutilation.
+
+
+_Causes of Variation._
+
+Attention must here be drawn to an important distinction in the first
+origin or appearance of varieties: when we see an animal highly kept
+producing offspring with an hereditary tendency to early maturity and
+fatness; when we see the wild-duck and Australian dog always becoming,
+when bred for one or a few generations in confinement, mottled in their
+colours; when we see people living in certain districts or circumstances
+becoming subject to an hereditary taint to certain organic diseases, as
+consumption or plica polonica,--we naturally attribute such changes to
+the direct effect of known or unknown agencies acting for one or more
+generations on the parents. It is probable that a multitude of
+peculiarities may be thus directly caused by unknown external agencies.
+But in breeds, characterized by an extra limb or claw, as in certain
+fowls and dogs; by an extra joint in the vertebræ; by the loss of a
+part, as the tail; by the substitution of a tuft of feathers for a comb
+in certain poultry; and in a multitude of other cases, we can hardly
+attribute these peculiarities directly to external influences, but
+indirectly to the laws of embryonic growth and of reproduction. When we
+see a multitude of varieties (as has often been the case, where a cross
+has been carefully guarded against) produced from seeds matured in the
+very same capsule{194}, with the male and female principle nourished
+from the same roots and necessarily exposed to the same external
+influences; we cannot believe that the endless slight differences
+between seedling varieties thus produced, can be the effect of any
+corresponding difference in their exposure. We are led (as Müller has
+remarked) to the same conclusion, when we see in the same litter,
+produced by the same act of conception, animals considerably different.
+
+     {194} This corresponds to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9.
+
+As variation to the degree here alluded to has been observed only in
+organic beings under domestication, and in plants amongst those most
+highly and long cultivated, we must attribute, in such cases, the
+varieties (although the difference between each variety cannot possibly
+be attributed to any corresponding difference of exposure in the
+parents) to the indirect effects of domestication on the action of the
+reproductive system{195}. It would appear as if the reproductive powers
+failed in their ordinary function of producing new organic beings
+closely like their parents; and as if the entire organization of the
+embryo, under domestication, became in a slight degree plastic{196}. We
+shall hereafter have occasion to show, that in organic beings, a
+considerable change from the natural conditions of life, affects,
+independently of their general state of health, in another and
+remarkable manner the reproductive system. I may add, judging from the
+vast number of new varieties of plants which have been produced in the
+same districts and under nearly the same routine of culture, that
+probably the indirect effects of domestication in making the
+organization plastic, is a much more efficient source of variation than
+any direct effect which external causes may have on the colour, texture,
+or form of each part. In the few instances in which, as in the
+Dahlia{197}, the course of variation has been recorded, it appears that
+domestication produces little effect for several generations in
+rendering the organization plastic; but afterwards, as if by an
+accumulated effect, the original character of the species suddenly gives
+way or breaks.
+
+     {195} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.
+
+     {196} For _plasticity_ see _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 12, 132.
+
+     {197} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. I. p. 393.
+
+
+_On Selection._
+
+We have hitherto only referred to the first appearance in individuals of
+new peculiarities; but to make a race or breed, something more is
+generally{198} requisite than such peculiarities (except in the case of
+the peculiarities being the direct effect of constantly surrounding
+conditions) should be inheritable,--namely the principle of selection,
+implying separation. Even in the rare instances of sports, with the
+hereditary tendency very strongly implanted, crossing must be prevented
+with other breeds, or if not prevented the best characterized of the
+half-bred offspring must be carefully selected. Where the external
+conditions are constantly tending to give some character, a race
+possessing this character will be formed with far greater ease by
+selecting and breeding together the individuals most affected. In the
+case of the endless slight variations produced by the indirect effects
+of domestication on the action of the reproductive system, selection is
+indispensable to form races; and when carefully applied, wonderfully
+numerous and diverse races can be formed. Selection, though so simple in
+theory, is and has been important to a degree which can hardly be
+overrated. It requires extreme skill, the results of long practice, in
+detecting the slightest difference in the forms of animals, and it
+implies some distinct object in view; with these requisites and
+patience, the breeder has simply to watch for every the smallest
+approach to the desired end, to select such individuals and pair them
+with the most suitable forms, and so continue with succeeding
+generations. In most cases careful selection and the prevention of
+accidental crosses will be necessary for several generations, for in new
+breeds there is a strong tendency to vary and especially to revert to
+ancestral forms: but in every succeeding generation less care will be
+requisite for the breed will become truer; until ultimately only an
+occasional individual will require to be separated or destroyed.
+Horticulturalists in raising seeds regularly practise this, and call it
+"roguing," or destroying the "rogues" or false varieties. There is
+another and less efficient means of selection amongst animals: namely
+repeatedly procuring males with some desirable qualities, and allowing
+them and their offspring to breed freely together; and this in the
+course of time will affect the whole lot. These principles of selection
+have been _methodically_ followed for scarcely a century; but their
+high importance is shown by the practical results, and is admitted
+in the writings of the most celebrated agriculturalists and
+horticulturalists;--I need only name Anderson, Marshall, Bakewell, Coke,
+Western, Sebright and Knight.
+
+     {198} Selection is here used in the sense of isolation, rather than
+     as implying the summation of small differences. Professor Henslow
+     in his _Heredity of Acquired Characters in Plants_, 1908, p. 2,
+     quotes from Darwin's _Var. under Dom._, Ed. i. II. p. 271, a
+     passage in which the author, speaking of the direct action of
+     conditions, says:--"A new sub-variety would thus be produced
+     without the aid of selection." Darwin certainly did not mean to
+     imply that such varieties are freed from the action of natural
+     selection, but merely that a new form may appear without
+     _summation_ of new characters. Professor Henslow is apparently
+     unaware that the above passage is omitted in the second edition of
+     _Var. under Dom._, II. p. 260.
+
+Even in well-established breeds the individuals of which to an
+unpractised eye would appear absolutely similar, which would give, it
+might have been thought, no scope to selection, the whole appearance of
+the animal has been changed in a few years (as in the case of Lord
+Western's sheep), so that practised agriculturalists could scarcely
+credit that a change had not been effected by a cross with other breeds.
+Breeders both of plants and animals frequently give their means of
+selection greater scope, by crossing different breeds and selecting the
+offspring; but we shall have to recur to this subject again.
+
+The external conditions will doubtless influence and modify the results
+of the most careful selection; it has been found impossible to prevent
+certain breeds of cattle from degenerating on mountain pastures; it
+would probably be impossible to keep the plumage of the wild-duck in the
+domesticated race; in certain soils, no care has been sufficient to
+raise cauliflower seed true to its character; and so in many other
+cases. But with patience it is wonderful what man has effected. He has
+selected and therefore in one sense made one breed of horses to race and
+another to pull; he has made sheep with fleeces good for carpets and
+other sheep good for broadcloth; he has, in the same sense, made one dog
+to find game and give him notice when found, and another dog to fetch
+him the game when killed; he has made by selection the fat to lie mixed
+with the meat in one breed and in another to accumulate in the bowels
+for the tallow-chandler{199}; he has made the legs of one breed of
+pigeons long, and the beak of another so short, that it can hardly feed
+itself; he has previously determined how the feathers on a bird's body
+shall be coloured, and how the petals of many flowers shall be streaked
+or fringed, and has given prizes for complete success;--by selection, he
+has made the leaves of one variety and the flower-buds of another
+variety of the cabbage good to eat, at different seasons of the year;
+and thus has he acted on endless varieties. I do not wish to affirm that
+the long-and short-wooled sheep, or that the pointer and retriever, or
+that the cabbage and cauliflower have certainly descended from one and
+the same aboriginal wild stock; if they have not so descended, though it
+lessens what man has effected, a large result must be left unquestioned.
+
+     {199} See the Essay of 1842, p. 3.
+
+In saying as I have done that man makes a breed, let it not be
+confounded with saying that man makes the individuals, which are given
+by nature with certain desirable qualities; man only adds together and
+makes a permanent gift of nature's bounties. In several cases, indeed,
+for instance in the "Ancon" sheep, valuable from not getting over
+fences, and in the turnspit dog, man has probably only prevented
+crossing; but in many cases we positively know that he has gone on
+selecting, and taking advantage of successive small variations.
+
+Selection{200} has been _methodically_ followed, as I have said, for
+barely a century; but it cannot be doubted that occasionally it has been
+practised from the remotest ages, in those animals completely under the
+dominion of man. In the earliest chapters of the Bible there are rules
+given for influencing the colours of breeds, and black and white sheep
+are spoken of as separated. In the time of Pliny the barbarians of
+Europe and Asia endeavoured by cross-breeding with a wild stock to
+improve the races of their dogs and horses. The savages of Guyana now do
+so with their dogs: such care shows at least that the characters of
+individual animals were attended to. In the rudest times of English
+history, there were laws to prevent the exportation of fine animals of
+established breeds, and in the case of horses, in Henry VIII's time,
+laws for the destruction of all horses under a certain size. In one of
+the oldest numbers of the _Phil. Transactions_, there are rules for
+selecting and improving the breeds of sheep. Sir H. Bunbury, in 1660,
+has given rules for selecting the finest seedling plants, with as much
+precision as the best recent horticulturalist could. Even in the most
+savage and rude nations, in the wars and famines which so frequently
+occur, the most useful of their animals would be preserved: the value
+set upon animals by savages is shown by the inhabitants of Tierra del
+Fuego devouring their old women before their dogs, which as they
+asserted are useful in otter-hunting{201}: who can doubt but that in
+every case of famine and war, the best otter-hunters would be preserved,
+and therefore in fact selected for breeding. As the offspring so
+obviously take after their parents, and as we have seen that savages
+take pains in crossing their dogs and horses with wild stocks, we may
+even conclude as probable that they would sometimes pair the most useful
+of their animals and keep their offspring separate. As different races
+of men require and admire different qualities in their domesticated
+animals, each would thus slowly, though unconsciously, be selecting a
+different breed. As Pallas has remarked, who can doubt but that the
+ancient Russian would esteem and endeavour to preserve those sheep in
+his flocks which had the thickest coats. This kind of insensible
+selection by which new breeds are not selected and kept separate, but a
+peculiar character is slowly given to the whole mass of the breed, by
+often saving the life of animals with certain characteristics, we may
+feel nearly sure, from what we see has been done by the more direct
+method of separate selection within the last 50 years in England, would
+in the course of some thousand years produce a marked effect.
+
+     {200} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38. The evidence is given
+     in the present Essay rather more fully than in the _Origin_.
+
+     {201} _Journal of Researches_, Ed. 1860, p. 214. "Doggies catch
+     otters, old women no."
+
+
+_Crossing Breeds._
+
+When once two or more races are formed, or if more than one race, or
+species fertile _inter se_, originally existed in a wild state, their
+crossing becomes a most copious source of new races{202}. When two
+well-marked races are crossed the offspring in the first generation take
+more or less after either parent or are quite intermediate between them,
+or rarely assume characters in some degree new. In the second and
+several succeeding generations, the offspring are generally found to
+vary exceedingly, one compared with another, and many revert nearly to
+their ancestral forms. This greater variability in succeeding
+generations seems analogous to the breaking or variability of organic
+beings after having been bred for some generations under
+domestication{203}. So marked is this variability in cross-bred
+descendants, that Pallas and some other naturalists have supposed that
+all variation is due to an original cross; but I conceive that the
+history of the potato, Dahlia, Scotch Rose, the guinea-pig, and of many
+trees in this country, where only one species of the genus exists,
+clearly shows that a species may vary where there can have been no
+crossing. Owing to this variability and tendency to reversion in
+cross-bred beings, much careful selection is requisite to make
+intermediate or new permanent races: nevertheless crossing has been a
+most powerful engine, especially with plants, where means of propagation
+exist by which the cross-bred varieties can be secured without incurring
+the risk of fresh variation from seminal propagation: with animals the
+most skilful agriculturalists now greatly prefer careful selection from
+a well-established breed, rather than from uncertain cross-bred stocks.
+
+     {202} The effects of crossing is much more strongly stated here
+     than in the _Origin_. See Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23, where indeed the
+     opposite point of view is given. His change of opinion may be due
+     to his work on pigeons. The whole of the discussion on crossing
+     corresponds to Chapter VIII of the _Origin_, Ed. i. rather than to
+     anything in the earlier part of the book.
+
+     {203} The parallelism between the effects of a cross and the
+     effects of conditions is given from a different point of view in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 266, vi. p. 391. See the experimental
+     evidence for this important principle in the author's work on
+     _Cross and Self-Fertilisation_. Professor Bateson has suggested
+     that the experiments should be repeated with gametically pure
+     plants.
+
+Although intermediate and new races may be formed by the mingling of
+others, yet if the two races are allowed to mingle quite freely, so that
+none of either parent race remain pure, then, especially if the parent
+races are not widely different, they will slowly blend together, and the
+two races will be destroyed, and one mongrel race left in its place.
+This will of course happen in a shorter time, if one of the parent
+races exists in greater number than the other. We see the effect of this
+mingling, in the manner in which the aboriginal breeds of dogs and pigs
+in the Oceanic Islands and the many breeds of our domestic animals
+introduced into S. America, have all been lost and absorbed in a mongrel
+race. It is probably owing to the freedom of crossing, that, in
+uncivilised countries, where inclosures do not exist, we seldom meet
+with more than one race of a species: it is only in enclosed countries,
+where the inhabitants do not migrate, and have conveniences for
+separating the several kinds of domestic animals, that we meet with a
+multitude of races. Even in civilised countries, want of care for a few
+years has been found to destroy the good results of far longer periods
+of selection and separation.
+
+This power of crossing will affect the races of all _terrestrial_
+animals; for all terrestrial animals require for their reproduction the
+union of two individuals. Amongst plants, races will not cross and blend
+together with so much freedom as in terrestrial animals; but this
+crossing takes place through various curious contrivances to a
+surprising extent. In fact such contrivances exist in so very many
+hermaphrodite flowers by which an occasional cross may take place, that
+I cannot avoid suspecting (with Mr Knight) that the reproductive action
+requires, at _intervals_, the concurrence of distinct individuals{204}.
+Most breeders of plants and animals are firmly convinced that benefit is
+derived from an occasional cross, not with another race, but with
+another family of the same race; and that, on the other hand, injurious
+consequences follow from long-continued close interbreeding in the same
+family. Of marine animals, many more, than was till lately believed,
+have their sexes on separate individuals; and where they are
+hermaphrodite, there seems very generally to be means through the water
+of one individual occasionally impregnating another: if individual
+animals can singly propagate themselves for perpetuity, it is
+unaccountable that no terrestrial animal, where the means of observation
+are more obvious, should be in this predicament of singly perpetuating
+its kind. I conclude, then, that races of most animals and plants, when
+unconfined in the same country, would tend to blend together.
+
+     {204} The so-called Knight-Darwin Law is often misunderstood. See
+     Goebel in _Darwin and Modern Science_, 1909, p. 419; also F.
+     Darwin, _Nature_, Oct. 27, 1898.
+
+
+_Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild
+stocks._
+
+Several naturalists, of whom Pallas{205} regarding animals, and Humboldt
+regarding certain plants, were the first, believe that the breeds of
+many of our domestic animals such as of the horse, pig, dog, sheep,
+pigeon, and poultry, and of our plants have descended from more than one
+aboriginal form. They leave it doubtful, whether such forms are to be
+considered wild races, or true species, whose offspring are fertile when
+crossed _inter se_. The main arguments for this view consist, firstly,
+of the great difference between such breeds, as the Race-and Cart-Horse,
+or the Greyhound and Bull-dog, and of our ignorance of the steps or
+stages through which these could have passed from a common parent; and
+secondly that in the most ancient historical periods, breeds resembling
+some of those at present most different, existed in different countries.
+The wolves of N. America and of Siberia are thought to be different
+species; and it has been remarked that the dogs belonging to the
+savages in these two countries resemble the wolves of the same country;
+and therefore that they have probably descended from two different wild
+stocks. In the same manner, these naturalists believe that the horse of
+Arabia and of Europe have probably descended from two wild stocks both
+apparently now extinct. I do not think the assumed fertility of these
+wild stocks any very great difficulty on this view; for although in
+animals the offspring of most cross-bred species are infertile, it is
+not always remembered that the experiment is very seldom fairly tried,
+except when two near species _both_ breed freely (which does not readily
+happen, as we shall hereafter see) when under the dominion of man.
+Moreover in the case of the China{206} and common goose, the canary and
+siskin, the hybrids breed freely; in other cases the offspring from
+hybrids crossed with either pure parent are fertile, as is practically
+taken advantage of with the yak and cow; as far as the analogy of plants
+serves, it is impossible to deny that some species are quite fertile
+_inter se_; but to this subject we shall recur.
+
+     {205} Pallas' theory is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 253,
+     254, vi. p. 374.
+
+     {206} See Darwin's paper on the fertility of hybrids from the
+     common and Chinese goose in _Nature_, Jan. 1, 1880.
+
+On the other hand, the upholders of the view that the several breeds of
+dogs, horses, &c., &c., have descended each from one stock, may aver
+that their view removes all _difficulty about fertility_, and that the
+main argument from the high antiquity of different breeds, somewhat
+similar to the present breeds, is worth little without knowing the date
+of the domestication of such animals, which is far from being the case.
+They may also with more weight aver that, knowing that organic beings
+under domestication do vary in some degree, the argument from the great
+difference between certain breeds is worth nothing, without we know the
+limits of variation during a long course of time, which is far from the
+case. They may argue that almost every county in England, and in many
+districts of other countries, for instance in India, there are slightly
+different breeds of the domestic animals; and that it is opposed to all
+that we know of the distribution of wild animals to suppose that these
+have descended from so many different wild races or species: if so, they
+may argue, is it not probable that countries quite separate and exposed
+to different climates would have breeds not slightly, but considerably,
+different? Taking the most favourable case, on both sides, namely that
+of the dog; they might urge that such breeds as the bull-dog and
+turnspit have been reared by man, from the ascertained fact that
+strictly analogous breeds (namely the Niata ox and Ancon sheep) in other
+quadrupeds have thus originated. Again they may say, seeing what
+training and careful selection has effected for the greyhound, and
+seeing how absolutely unfit the Italian greyhound is to maintain itself
+in a state of nature, is it not probable that at least all
+greyhounds,--from the rough deerhound, the smooth Persian, the common
+English, to the Italian,--have descended from one stock{207}? If so, is
+it so improbable that the deerhound and long-legged shepherd dog have so
+descended? If we admit this, and give up the bull-dog, we can hardly
+dispute the probable common descent of the other breeds.
+
+     {207} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 19, vi. p. 22.
+
+The evidence is so conjectural and balanced on both sides that at
+present I conceive that no one can decide: for my own part, I lean to
+the probability of most of our domestic animals having descended from
+more than one wild stock; though from the arguments last advanced and
+from reflecting on the slow though inevitable effect of different races
+of mankind, under different circumstances, saving the lives of and
+therefore selecting the individuals most useful to them, I cannot doubt
+but that one class of naturalists have much overrated the probable
+number of the aboriginal wild stocks. As far as we admit the difference
+of our races <to be> due to the differences of their original stocks, so
+much must we give up of the amount of variation produced under
+domestication. But this appears to me unimportant, for we certainly know
+in some few cases, for instance in the Dahlia, and potato, and rabbit,
+that a great number of varieties have proceeded from one stock; and, in
+many of our domestic races, we know that man, by slowly selecting and by
+taking advantage of sudden sports, has considerably modified old races
+and produced new ones. Whether we consider our races as the descendants
+of one or several wild stocks, we are in far the greater number of cases
+equally ignorant what these stocks were.
+
+
+_Limits to Variation in degree and kind._
+
+Man's power in making races deends, in the first instance, on the stock
+on which he works being variable; but his labours are modified and
+limited, as we have seen, by the direct effects of the external
+conditions,--by the deficient or imperfect hereditariness of new
+peculiarities,--and by the tendency to continual variation and
+especially to reversion to ancestral forms. If the stock is not variable
+under domestication, of course he can do nothing; and it appears that
+species differ considerably in this tendency to variation, in the same
+way as even sub-varieties from the same variety differ greatly in this
+respect, and transmit to their offspring this difference in tendency.
+Whether the absence of a tendency to vary is an unalterable quality in
+certain species, or depends on some deficient condition of the
+particular state of domestication to which they are exposed, there is no
+evidence. When the organization is rendered variable, or plastic, as I
+have expressed it, under domestication, different parts of the frame
+vary more or less in different species: thus in the breeds of cattle it
+has been remarked that the horns are the most constant or least variable
+character, for these often remain constant, whilst the colour, size,
+proportions of the body, tendency to fatten &c., vary; in sheep, I
+believe, the horns are much more variable. As a general rule the less
+important parts of the organization seem to vary most, but I think there
+is sufficient evidence that every part occasionally varies in a slight
+degree. Even when man has the primary requisite variability he is
+necessarily checked by the health and life of the stock he is working
+on: thus he has already made pigeons with such small beaks that they can
+hardly eat and will not rear their own young; he has made families of
+sheep with so strong a tendency to early maturity and to fatten, that in
+certain pastures they cannot live from their extreme liability to
+inflammation; he has made (_i.e._ selected) sub-varieties of plants with
+a tendency to such early growth that they are frequently killed by the
+spring frosts; he has made a breed of cows having calves with such large
+hinder quarters that they are born with great difficulty, often to the
+death of their mothers{208}; the breeders were compelled to remedy this
+by the selection of a breeding stock with smaller hinder quarters; in
+such a case, however, it is possible by long patience and great loss, a
+remedy might have been found in selecting cows capable of giving birth
+to calves with large hinder quarters, for in human kind there <are> no
+doubt hereditary bad and good confinements. Besides the limits already
+specified, there can be little doubt that the variation of different
+parts of the frame are connected together by many laws{209}: thus the
+two sides of the body, in health and disease, seem almost always to vary
+together: it has been asserted by breeders that if the head is much
+elongated, the bones of the extremities will likewise be so; in
+seedling-apples large leaves and fruit generally go together, and serve
+the horticulturalist as some guide in his selection; we can here see the
+reason, as the fruit is only a metamorphosed leaf. In animals the teeth
+and hair seem connected, for the hairless Chinese dog is almost
+toothless. Breeders believe that one part of the frame or function being
+increased causes other parts to decrease: they dislike great horns and
+great bones as so much flesh lost; in hornless breeds of cattle certain
+bones of the head become more developed: it is said that fat
+accumulating in one part checks its accumulation in another, and
+likewise checks the action of the udder. The whole organization is so
+connected that it is probable there are many conditions determining the
+variation of each part, and causing other parts to vary with it; and man
+in making new races must be limited and ruled by all such laws.
+
+     {208} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 211.
+
+     {209} This discussion corresponds to the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 11
+     and 143, vi. pp. 13 and 177.
+
+
+_In what consists Domestication._
+
+In this chapter we have treated of variation under domestication, and it
+now remains to consider in what does this power of domestication
+consist{210}, a subject of considerable difficulty. Observing that
+organic beings of almost every class, in all climates, countries, and
+times, have varied when long bred under domestication, we must conclude
+that the influence is of some very general nature{211}. Mr Knight alone,
+as far as I know, has tried to define it; he believes it consists of an
+excess of food, together with transport to a more genial climate, or
+protection from its severities. I think we cannot admit this latter
+proposition, for we know how many vegetable products, aborigines of this
+country, here vary, when cultivated without any protection from the
+weather; and some of our variable trees, as apricots, peaches, have
+undoubtedly been derived from a more genial climate. There appears to be
+much more truth in the doctrine of excess of food being the cause,
+though I much doubt whether this is the sole cause, although it may well
+be requisite for the kind of variation desired by man, namely increase
+of size and vigour. No doubt horticulturalists, when they wish to raise
+new seedlings, often pluck off all the flower-buds, except a few, or
+remove the whole during one season, so that a great stock of nutriment
+may be thrown into the flowers which are to seed. When plants are
+transported from high-lands, forests, marshes, heaths, into our gardens
+and greenhouses, there must be a considerable change of food, but it
+would be hard to prove that there was in every case an excess of the
+kind proper to the plant. If it be an excess of food, compared with that
+which the being obtained in its natural state{212}, the effects continue
+for an improbably long time; during how many ages has wheat been
+cultivated, and cattle and sheep reclaimed, and we cannot suppose their
+_amount_ of food has gone on increasing, nevertheless these are amongst
+the most variable of our domestic productions. It has been remarked
+(Marshall) that some of the most highly kept breeds of sheep and cattle
+are truer or less variable than the straggling animals of the poor,
+which subsist on commons, and pick up a bare subsistence{213}. In the
+case of forest-trees raised in nurseries, which vary more than the same
+trees do in their aboriginal forests, the cause would seem simply to lie
+in their not having to struggle against other trees and weeds, which in
+their natural state doubtless would limit the conditions of their
+existence. It appears to me that the power of domestication resolves
+itself into the accumulated effects of a change of all or some of the
+natural conditions of the life of the species, often associated with
+excess of food. These conditions moreover, I may add, can seldom remain,
+owing to the mutability of the affairs, habits, migrations, and
+knowledge of man, for very long periods the same. I am the more inclined
+to come to this conclusion from finding, as we shall hereafter show,
+that changes of the natural conditions of existence seem peculiarly to
+affect the action of the reproductive system{214}. As we see that
+hybrids and mongrels, after the first generation, are apt to vary much,
+we may at least conclude that variability does not altogether depend on
+excess of food.
+
+     {210} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 7.
+
+     {211} <Note in the original.> "Isidore G. St Hilaire insists that
+     breeding in captivity essential element. Schleiden on alkalies.
+     <See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 244, note 10.> What is
+     it in domestication which causes variation?"
+
+     {212} <Note in the original.> "It appears that slight changes of
+     condition <are> good for health; that more change affects the
+     generative system, so that variation results in the offspring;
+     that still more change checks or destroys fertility not of the
+     offspring." Compare the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 9, vi. p. 11. What the
+     meaning of "not of the offspring" may be is not clear.
+
+     {213} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 46 the question is
+     differently treated; it is pointed out that a large stock of
+     individuals gives a better chance of available variations
+     occurring. Darwin quotes from Marshall that sheep in small lots can
+     never be improved. This comes from Marshall's _Review of the
+     Reports to the Board of Agriculture_, 1808, p. 406. In this Essay
+     the name Marshall occurs in the margin. Probably this refers to
+     _loc. cit._ p. 200, where unshepherded sheep in many parts of
+     England are said to be similar owing to mixed breeding not being
+     avoided.
+
+     {214} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 8.
+
+After these views, it may be asked how it comes that certain animals
+and plants, which have been domesticated for a considerable length of
+time, and transported from very different conditions of existence, have
+not varied much, or scarcely at all; for instance, the ass, peacock,
+guinea-fowl, asparagus, Jerusalem artichoke{215}. I have already said
+that probably different species, like different sub-varieties, possess
+different degrees of tendency to vary; but I am inclined to attribute in
+these cases the want of numerous races less to want of variability than
+to selection not having been practised on them. No one will take the
+pains to select without some corresponding object, either of use or
+amusement; the individuals raised must be tolerably numerous, and not so
+precious, but that he may freely destroy those not answering to his
+wishes. If guinea-fowls or peacocks{216} became "fancy" birds, I cannot
+doubt that after some generations several breeds would be raised. Asses
+have not been worked on from mere neglect; but they differ in _some_
+degree in different countries. The insensible selection, due to
+different races of mankind preserving those individuals most useful to
+them in their different circumstances, will apply only to the oldest and
+most widely domesticated animals. In the case of plants, we must put
+entirely out of the case those exclusively (or almost so) propagated by
+cuttings, layers or tubers, such as the Jerusalem artichoke and laurel;
+and if we put on one side plants of little ornament or use, and those
+which are used at so early a period of their growth that no especial
+characters signify, as asparagus{217} and seakale, I can think of none
+long cultivated which have not varied. In no case ought we to expect to
+find as much variation in a race when it alone has been formed, as when
+several have been formed, for their crossing and recrossing will
+greatly increase their variability.
+
+     {215} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 42, vi. p. 48.
+
+     {216} <Note in the original.> There are white peacocks.
+
+     {217} <Note in the original.> There are varieties of asparagus.
+
+
+_Summary of first Chapter._
+
+To sum up this chapter. Races are made under domestication: 1st, by the
+direct effects of the external conditions to which the species is
+exposed: 2nd, by the indirect effects of the exposure to new conditions,
+often aided by excess of food, rendering the organization plastic, and
+by man's selecting and separately breeding certain individuals, or
+introducing to his stock selected males, or often preserving with care
+the life of the individuals best adapted to his purposes: 3rd, by
+crossing and recrossing races already made, and selecting their
+offspring. After some generations man may relax his care in selection:
+for the tendency to vary and to revert to ancestral forms will decrease,
+so that he will have only occasionally to remove or destroy one of the
+yearly offspring which departs from its type. Ultimately, with a large
+stock, the effects of free crossing would keep, even without this care,
+his breed true. By these means man can produce infinitely numerous
+races, curiously adapted to ends, both most important and most
+frivolous; at the same time that the effects of the surrounding
+conditions, the laws of inheritance, of growth, and of variation, will
+modify and limit his labours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE; ON THE NATURAL MEANS
+OF SELECTION; AND ON THE COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES
+
+
+Having treated of variation under domestication, we now come to it in a
+_state of nature_.
+
+Most organic beings in a state of nature vary exceedingly little{218}: I
+put out of the case variations (as stunted plants &c., and sea-shells in
+brackish water{219}) which are directly the effect of external agencies
+and which we do not _know are in the breed_{220}, or are _hereditary_.
+The amount of hereditary variation is very difficult to ascertain,
+because naturalists (partly from the want of knowledge, and partly from
+the inherent difficulty of the subject) do not all agree whether certain
+forms are species or races{221}. Some strongly marked races of plants,
+comparable with the decided sports of horticulturalists, undoubtedly
+exist in a state of nature, as is actually known by experiment, for
+instance in the primrose and cowslip{222}, in two so-called species of
+dandelion, in two of foxglove{223}, and I believe in some pines. Lamarck
+has observed that, as long as we confine our attention to one limited
+country, there is seldom much difficulty in deciding what forms to call
+species and what varieties; and that it is when collections flow in from
+all parts of the world that naturalists often feel at a loss to decide
+the limit of variation. Undoubtedly so it is, yet amongst British plants
+(and I may add land shells), which are probably better known than any in
+the world, the best naturalists differ very greatly in the relative
+proportions of what they call species and what varieties. In many genera
+of insects, and shells, and plants, it seems almost hopeless to
+establish which are which. In the higher classes there are less doubts;
+though we find considerable difficulty in ascertaining what deserve to
+be called species amongst foxes and wolves, and in some birds, for
+instance in the case of the white barn-owl. When specimens are brought
+from different parts of the world, how often do naturalists dispute this
+same question, as I found with respect to the birds brought from the
+Galapagos islands. Yarrell has remarked that the individuals of the same
+undoubted species of birds, from Europe and N. America, usually present
+slight, indefinable though perceptible differences. The recognition
+indeed of one animal by another of its kind seems to imply some
+difference. The disposition of wild animals undoubtedly differs. The
+variation, such as it is, chiefly affects the same parts in wild
+organisms as in domestic breeds; for instance, the size, colour, and the
+external and less important parts. In many species the variability of
+certain organs or qualities is even stated as one of the specific
+characters: thus, in plants, colour, size, hairiness, the number of the
+stamens and pistils, and even their presence, the form of the leaves;
+the size and form of the mandibles of the males of some insects; the
+length and curvature of the beak in some birds (as in Opetiorynchus) are
+variable characters in some species and quite fixed in others. I do not
+perceive that any just distinction can be drawn between this recognised
+variability of certain parts in many species and the more general
+variability of the whole frame in domestic races.
+
+     {218} In Chapter II of the first edition of the _Origin_ Darwin
+     insists rather on the presence of variability in a state of nature;
+     see, for instance, p. 45, Ed. vi. p. 53, "I am convinced that the
+     most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the
+     cases of variability ... which he could collect on good authority,
+     as I have collected, during a course of years."
+
+     {219} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 44, vi. p. 52.
+
+     {220} <Note in the original.> Here discuss _what is a species_,
+     sterility can most rarely be told when crossed.--Descent from common
+     stock.
+
+     {221} <Note in the original.> Give only rule: chain of intermediate
+     forms, and _analogy_; this important. Every Naturalist at first when
+     he gets hold of new variable type is _quite puzzled_ to know what to
+     think species and what variations.
+
+     {222} The author had not at this time the knowledge of the meaning
+     of dimorphism.
+
+     {223} <Note in original.> Compare feathered heads in very different
+     birds with spines in Echidna and Hedgehog. <In _Variation under
+     Domestication_, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 317, Darwin calls attention to
+     laced and frizzled breeds occurring in both fowls and pigeons. In
+     the same way a peculiar form of covering occurs in Echidna and the
+     hedgehog.>
+
+     Plants under very different climate not varying. Digitalis shows
+     jumps <?> in variation, like Laburnum and Orchis case--in fact hostile
+     cases. Variability of sexual characters alike in domestic and wild.
+
+Although the amount of variation be exceedingly small in most organic
+beings in a state of nature, and probably quite wanting (as far as our
+senses serve) in the majority of cases; yet considering how many animals
+and plants, taken by mankind from different quarters of the world for
+the most diverse purposes, have varied under domestication in every
+country and in every age, I think we may safely conclude that all
+organic beings with few exceptions, if capable of being domesticated and
+bred for long periods, would vary. Domestication seems to resolve itself
+into a change from the natural conditions of the species [generally
+perhaps including an increase of food]; if this be so, organisms in a
+state of nature must _occasionally_, in the course of ages, be exposed
+to analogous influences; for geology clearly shows that many places
+must, in the course of time, become exposed to the widest range of
+climatic and other influences; and if such places be isolated, so that
+new and better adapted organic beings cannot freely emigrate, the old
+inhabitants will be exposed to new influences, probably far more varied,
+than man applies under the form of domestication. Although every species
+no doubt will soon breed up to the full number which the country will
+support, yet it is easy to conceive that, on an average, some species
+may receive an increase of food; for the times of dearth may be short,
+yet enough to kill, and recurrent only at long intervals. All such
+changes of conditions from geological causes would be exceedingly slow;
+what effect the slowness might have we are ignorant; under domestication
+it appears that the effects of change of conditions accumulate, and then
+break out. Whatever might be the result of these slow geological
+changes, we may feel sure, from the means of dissemination common in a
+lesser or greater degree to every organism taken conjointly with the
+changes of geology, which are steadily (and sometimes suddenly, as when
+an isthmus at last separates) in progress, that occasionally organisms
+must suddenly be introduced into new regions, where, if the conditions
+of existence are not so foreign as to cause its extermination, it will
+often be propagated under circumstances still more closely analogous to
+those of domestication; and therefore we expect will evince a tendency
+to vary. It appears to me quite _inexplicable_ if this has never
+happened; but it can happen very rarely. Let us then suppose that an
+organism by some chance (which might be hardly repeated in 1000 years)
+arrives at a modern volcanic island in process of formation and not
+fully stocked with the most appropriate organisms; the new organism
+might readily gain a footing, although the external conditions were
+considerably different from its native ones. The effect of this we might
+expect would influence in some small degree the size, colour, nature of
+covering &c., and from inexplicable influences even special parts and
+organs of the body. But we might further (and <this> is far more important)
+expect that the reproductive system would be affected, as under
+domesticity, and the structure of the offspring rendered in some degree
+plastic. Hence almost every part of the body would tend to vary from the
+typical form in slight degrees, and in no determinate way, and therefore
+_without selection_ the free crossing of these small variations
+(together with the tendency to reversion to the original form) would
+constantly be counteracting this unsettling effect of the extraneous
+conditions on the reproductive system. Such, I conceive, would be the
+unimportant result without selection. And here I must observe that the
+foregoing remarks are equally applicable to that small and admitted
+amount of variation which has been observed in some organisms in a state
+of nature; as well as to the above hypothetical variation consequent on
+changes of condition.
+
+Let us now suppose a Being{224} with penetration sufficient to perceive
+differences in the outer and innermost organization quite imperceptible
+to man, and with forethought extending over future centuries to watch
+with unerring care and select for any object the offspring of an
+organism produced under the foregoing circumstances; I can see no
+conceivable reason why he could not form a new race (or several were he
+to separate the stock of the original organism and work on several
+islands) adapted to new ends. As we assume his discrimination, and his
+forethought, and his steadiness of object, to be incomparably greater
+that those qualities in man, so we may suppose the beauty and
+complications of the adaptations of the new races and their differences
+from the original stock to be greater than in the domestic races
+produced by man's agency: the ground-work of his labours we may aid by
+supposing that the external conditions of the volcanic island, from its
+continued emergence and the occasional introduction of new immigrants,
+vary; and thus to act on the reproductive system of the organism, on
+which he is at work, and so keep its organization somewhat plastic. With
+time enough, such a Being might rationally (without some unknown law
+opposed him) aim at almost any result.
+
+     {224} A corresponding passage occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi.
+     p. 101, where however Nature takes the place of the selecting
+     Being.
+
+For instance, let this imaginary Being wish, from seeing a plant growing
+on the decaying matter in a forest and choked by other plants, to give
+it power of growing on the rotten stems of trees, he would commence
+selecting every seedling whose berries were in the smallest degree more
+attractive to tree-frequenting birds, so as to cause a proper
+dissemination of the seeds, and at the same time he would select those
+plants which had in the slightest degree more and more power of drawing
+nutriment from rotten wood; and he would destroy all other seedlings
+with less of this power. He might thus, in the course of century after
+century, hope to make the plant by degrees grow on rotten wood, even
+high up on trees, wherever birds dropped the non-digested seeds. He
+might then, if the organization of the plant was plastic, attempt by
+continued selection of chance seedlings to make it grow on less and less
+rotten wood, till it would grow on sound wood{225}. Supposing again,
+during these changes the plant failed to seed quite freely from
+non-impregnation, he might begin selecting seedlings with a little
+sweeter <or> differently tasted honey or pollen, to tempt insects to visit
+the flowers regularly: having effected this, he might wish, if it
+profited the plant, to render abortive the stamens and pistils in
+different flowers, which he could do by continued selection. By such
+steps he might aim at making a plant as wonderfully related to other
+organic beings as is the mistletoe, whose existence absolutely depends
+on certain insects for impregnation, certain birds for transportal, and
+certain trees for growth. Furthermore, if the insect which had been
+induced regularly to visit this hypothetical plant profited much by it,
+our same Being might wish by selection to modify by gradual selection
+the insect's structure, so as to facilitate its obtaining the honey or
+pollen: in this manner he might adapt the insect (always presupposing
+its organization to be in some degree plastic) to the flower, and the
+impregnation of the flower to the insect; as is the case with many bees
+and many plants.
+
+     {225} The mistletoe is used as an illustration in _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 3, vi. p. 3, but with less detail.
+
+Seeing what blind capricious man has actually effected by selection
+during the few last years, and what in a ruder state he has probably
+effected without any systematic plan during the last few thousand years,
+he will be a bold person who will positively put limits to what the
+supposed Being could effect during whole geological periods. In
+accordance with the plan by which this universe seems governed by the
+Creator, let us consider whether there exists any _secondary_ means in
+the economy of nature by which the process of selection could go on
+adapting, nicely and wonderfully, organisms, if in ever so small a
+degree plastic, to diverse ends. I believe such secondary means do
+exist{226}.
+
+     {226} <Note in original.> The selection, in cases where adult lives
+     only few hours as Ephemera, must fall on larva--curious speculation
+     of the effect <which> changes in it would bring in parent.
+
+
+_Natural means of Selection{227}._
+
+     {227} This section forms part of the joint paper by Darwin and
+     Wallace read before the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858.
+
+De Candolle, in an eloquent passage, has declared that all nature is at
+war, one organism with another, or with external nature. Seeing the
+contented face of nature, this may at first be well doubted; but
+reflection will inevitably prove it is too true. The war, however, is
+not constant, but only recurrent in a slight degree at short periods and
+more severely at occasional more distant periods; and hence its effects
+are easily overlooked. It is the doctrine of Malthus applied in most
+cases with ten-fold force. As in every climate there are seasons for
+each of its inhabitants of greater and less abundance, so all annually
+breed; and the moral restraint, which in some small degree checks the
+increase of mankind, is entirely lost. Even slow-breeding mankind has
+doubled in 25 years{228}, and if he could increase his food with greater
+ease, he would double in less time. But for animals, without artificial
+means, _on an average_ the amount of food for each species must be
+constant; whereas the increase of all organisms tends to be geometrical,
+and in a vast majority of cases at an enormous ratio. Suppose in a
+certain spot there are eight pairs of [robins] birds, and that _only_
+four pairs of them annually (including double hatches) rear only four
+young; and that these go on rearing their young at the same rate: then
+at the end of seven years (a short life, excluding violent deaths, for
+any birds) there will be 2048 robins, instead of the original sixteen;
+as this increase is quite impossible, so we must conclude either that
+robins do not rear nearly half their young or that the average life of a
+robin when reared is from accident not nearly seven years. Both checks
+probably concur. The same kind of calculation applied to all vegetables
+and animals produces results either more or less striking, but in
+scarcely a single instance less striking than in man{229}.
+
+     {228} Occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 64, vi. p. 79.
+
+     {229} Corresponds approximately with _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 64-65,
+     vi. p. 80.
+
+Many practical illustrations of this rapid tendency to increase are on
+record, namely during peculiar seasons, in the extraordinary increase of
+certain animals, for instance during the years 1826 to 1828, in La
+Plata, when from drought, some millions of cattle perished, the whole
+country _swarmed_ with innumerable mice: now I think it cannot be
+doubted that during the breeding season all the mice (with the exception
+of a few males or females in excess) ordinarily pair; and therefore that
+this astounding increase during three years must be attributed to a
+greater than usual number surviving the first year, and then breeding,
+and so on, till the third year, when their numbers were brought down to
+their usual limits on the return of wet weather. Where man has
+introduced plants and animals into a new country favourable to them,
+there are many accounts in how surprisingly few years the whole country
+has become stocked with them. This increase would necessarily stop as
+soon as the country was fully stocked; and yet we have every reason to
+believe from what is known of wild animals that _all_ would pair in the
+spring. In the majority of cases it is most difficult to imagine where
+the check falls, generally no doubt on the seeds, eggs, and young; but
+when we remember how impossible even in mankind (so much better known
+than any other animal) it is to infer from repeated casual observations
+what the average of life is, or to discover how different the percentage
+of deaths to the births in different countries, we ought to feel no
+legitimate surprise at not seeing where the check falls in animals and
+plants. It should always be remembered that in most cases the checks are
+yearly recurrent in a small regular degree, and in an extreme degree
+during occasionally unusually cold, hot, dry, or wet years, according to
+the constitution of the being in question. Lighten any check in the
+smallest degree, and the geometrical power of increase in every
+organism will instantly increase the average numbers of the favoured
+species. Nature may be compared to a surface, on which rest ten thousand
+sharp wedges touching each other and driven inwards by incessant
+blows{230}. Fully to realise these views much reflection is requisite;
+Malthus on man should be studied; and all such cases as those of the
+mice in La Plata, of the cattle and horses when first turned out in S.
+America, of the robins by our calculation, &c., should be well
+considered: reflect on the enormous multiplying power _inherent and
+annually in action_ in all animals; reflect on the countless seeds
+scattered by a hundred ingenious contrivances, year after year, over the
+whole face of the land; and yet we have every reason to suppose that the
+average percentage of every one of the inhabitants of a country will
+_ordinarily_ remain constant. Finally, let it be borne in mind that this
+average number of individuals (the external conditions remaining the
+same) in each country is kept up by recurrent struggles against other
+species or against external nature (as on the borders of the arctic
+regions{231}, where the cold checks life); and that ordinarily each
+individual of each species holds its place, either by its own struggle
+and capacity of acquiring nourishment in some period (from the egg
+upwards) of its life, or by the struggle of its parents (in short lived
+organisms, when the main check occurs at long intervals) against and
+compared with other individuals of the _same_ or _different_ species.
+
+     {230} This simile occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 67, not in the
+     later editions.
+
+     {231} <Note in the original.> In case like mistletoe, it may be
+     asked why not more species, no other species interferes; answer
+     almost sufficient, same causes which check the multiplication of
+     individuals.
+
+But let the external conditions of a country change; if in a small
+degree, the relative proportions of the inhabitants will in most cases
+simply be slightly changed; but let the number of inhabitants be small,
+as in an island{232}, and free access to it from other countries be
+circumscribed; and let the change of condition continue progressing
+(forming new stations); in such case the original inhabitants must cease
+to be so perfectly adapted to the changed conditions as they originally
+were. It has been shown that probably such changes of external
+conditions would, from acting on the reproductive system, cause the
+organization of the beings most affected to become, as under
+domestication, plastic. Now can it be doubted from the struggle each
+individual (or its parents) has to obtain subsistence that any minute
+variation in structure, habits, or instincts, adapting that individual
+better to the new conditions, would tell upon its vigour and health? In
+the struggle it would have a better _chance_ of surviving, and those of
+its offspring which inherited the variation, let it be ever so slight,
+would have a better _chance_ to survive. Yearly more are bred than can
+survive; the smallest grain in the balance, in the long run, must tell
+on which death shall fall, and which shall survive{233}. Let this work
+of selection, on the one hand, and death on the other, go on for a
+thousand generations; who would pretend to affirm that it would produce
+no effect, when we remember what in a few years Bakewell effected in
+cattle and Western in sheep, by this identical principle of selection.
+
+     {232} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 104, 292, vi. pp. 127, 429.
+
+     {233} Recognition of the importance of minute differences in the
+     struggle occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 8 note 3.{Note 59}
+
+To give an imaginary example, from changes in progress on an island, let
+the organization{234} of a canine animal become slightly plastic, which
+animal preyed chiefly on rabbits, but sometimes on hares; let these same
+changes cause the number of rabbits very slowly to decrease and the
+number of hares to increase; the effect of this would be that the fox or
+dog would be driven to try to catch more hares, and his numbers would
+tend to decrease; his organization, however, being slightly plastic,
+those individuals with the lightest forms, longest limbs, and best
+eye-sight (though perhaps with less cunning or scent) would be slightly
+favoured, let the difference be ever so small, and would tend to live
+longer and to survive during that time of the year when food was
+shortest; they would also rear more young, which young would tend to
+inherit these slight peculiarities. The less fleet ones would be rigidly
+destroyed. I can see no more reason to doubt but that these causes in a
+thousand generations would produce a marked effect, and adapt the form
+of the fox to catching hares instead of rabbits, than that greyhounds
+can be improved by selection and careful breeding. So would it be with
+plants under similar circumstances; if the number of individuals of a
+species with plumed seeds could be increased by greater powers of
+dissemination within its own area (that is if the check to increase fell
+chiefly on the seeds), those seeds which were provided with ever so
+little more down, or with a plume placed so as to be slightly more acted
+on by the winds, would in the long run tend to be most disseminated; and
+hence a greater number of seeds thus formed would germinate, and would
+tend to produce plants inheriting this slightly better adapted down.
+
+     {234} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 90, vi. p. 110.
+
+Besides this natural means of selection, by which those individuals are
+preserved, whether in their egg or seed or in their mature state, which
+are best adapted to the place they fill in nature, there is a second
+agency at work in most bisexual animals tending to produce the same
+effect, namely the struggle of the males for the females. These
+struggles are generally decided by the law of battle; but in the case
+of birds, apparently, by the charms of their song{235}, by their beauty
+or their power of courtship, as in the dancing rock-thrush of Guiana.
+Even in the animals which pair there seems to be an excess of males
+which would aid in causing a struggle: in the polygamous animals{236},
+however, as in deer, oxen, poultry, we might expect there would be
+severest struggle: is it not in the polygamous animals that the males
+are best formed for mutual war? The most vigorous males, implying
+perfect adaptation, must generally gain the victory in their several
+contests. This kind of selection, however, is less rigorous than the
+other; it does not require the death of the less successful, but gives
+to them fewer descendants. This struggle falls, moreover, at a time of
+year when food is generally abundant, and perhaps the effect chiefly
+produced would be the alteration of sexual characters, and the selection
+of individual forms, no way related to their power of obtaining food, or
+of defending themselves from their natural enemies, but of fighting one
+with another. This natural struggle amongst the males may be compared in
+effect, but in a less degree, to that produced by those agriculturalists
+who pay less attention to the careful selection of all the young animals
+which they breed and more to the occasional use of a choice male{237}.
+
+     {235} These two forms of sexual selection are given in _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 107. The Guiana rock-thrush is given as an
+     example of bloodless competition.
+
+     {236} <Note in original.> Seals? Pennant about battles of seals.
+
+     {237} In the Linnean paper of July 1, 1858 the final word is
+     _mate_: but the context shows that it should be _male_; it is
+     moreover clearly so written in the MS.
+
+
+_Differences between "Races" and "Species":--first, in their trueness or
+variability._
+
+Races{238} produced by these natural means of selection{239} we may
+expect would differ in some respects from those produced by man. Man
+selects chiefly by the eye, and is not able to perceive the course of
+every vessel and nerve, or the form of the bones, or whether the
+internal structure corresponds to the outside shape. He{240} is unable
+to select shades of constitutional differences, and by the protection he
+affords and his endeavours to keep his property alive, in whatever
+country he lives, he checks, as much as lies in his power, the selecting
+action of nature, which will, however, go on to a lesser degree with all
+living things, even if their length of life is not determined by their
+own powers of endurance. He has bad judgment, is capricious, he does
+not, or his successors do not, wish to select for the same exact end for
+hundreds of generations. He cannot always suit the selected form to the
+properest conditions; nor does he keep those conditions uniform: he
+selects that which is useful to him, not that best adapted to those
+conditions in which each variety is placed by him: he selects a small
+dog, but feeds it highly; he selects a long-backed dog, but does not
+exercise it in any peculiar manner, at least not during every
+generation. He seldom allows the most vigorous males to struggle for
+themselves and propagate, but picks out such as he possesses, or such as
+he prefers, and not necessarily those best adapted to the existing
+conditions. Every agriculturalist and breeder knows how difficult it is
+to prevent an occasional cross with another breed. He often grudges to
+destroy an individual which departs considerably from the required type.
+He often begins his selection by a form or sport considerably departing
+from the parent form. Very differently does the natural law of selection
+act; the varieties selected differ only slightly from the parent
+forms{241}; the conditions are constant for long periods and change
+slowly; rarely can there be a cross; the selection is rigid and
+unfailing, and continued through many generations; a selection can
+_never be made_ without the form be _better_ adapted to the conditions
+than the parent form; the selecting power goes on without caprice, and
+steadily for thousands of years adapting the form to these conditions.
+The selecting power is not deceived by external appearances, it tries
+the being during its whole life; and if less well <?> adapted than its
+_congeners_, without fail it is destroyed; every part of its structure
+is thus scrutinised and proved good towards the place in nature which it
+occupies.
+
+     {238} In the _Origin_ the author would here have used the word
+     _variety_.
+
+     {239} The whole of p. 94 and 15 lines of p. 95 are, in the MS.,
+     marked through in pencil with vertical lines, beginning at "Races
+     produced, &c." and ending with "to these conditions."
+
+     {240} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102.
+
+     {241} In the present Essay there is some evidence that the author
+     attributed more to _sports_ than was afterwards the case: but the
+     above passage points the other way. It must always be remembered
+     that many of the minute differences, now considered small
+     mutations, are the small variations on which Darwin conceived
+     selection to act.
+
+We have every reason to believe that in proportion to the number of
+generations that a domestic race is kept free from crosses, and to the
+care employed in continued steady selection with one end in view, and to
+the care in not placing the variety in conditions unsuited to it; in
+such proportion does the new race become "true" or subject to little
+variation{242}. How incomparably "truer" then would a race produced by
+the above rigid, steady, natural means of selection, excellently trained
+and perfectly adapted to its conditions, free from stains of blood or
+crosses, and continued during thousands of years, be compared with one
+produced by the feeble, capricious, misdirected and ill-adapted
+selection of man. Those races of domestic animals produced by savages,
+partly by the inevitable conditions of their life, and partly
+unintentionally by their greater care of the individuals most valuable
+to them, would probably approach closest to the character of a species;
+and I believe this is the case. Now the characteristic mark of a
+species, next, if not equal in importance to its sterility when crossed
+with another species, and indeed almost the only other character
+(without we beg the question and affirm the essence of a species, is its
+not having descended from a parent common to any other form), is the
+similarity of the individuals composing the species, or in the language
+of agriculturalists their "trueness."
+
+     {242} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 230.
+
+
+_Difference between "Races" and "Species" in fertility when crossed._
+
+The sterility of species, or of their offspring, when crossed has,
+however, received more attention than the uniformity in character of the
+individuals composing the species. It is exceedingly natural that such
+sterility{243} should have been long thought the certain characteristic
+of species. For it is obvious that if the allied different forms which
+we meet with in the same country could cross together, instead of
+finding a number of distinct species, we should have a confused and
+blending series. The fact however of a perfect gradation in the degree
+of sterility between species, and the circumstance of some species most
+closely allied (for instance many species of crocus and European heaths)
+refusing to breed together, whereas other species, widely different,
+and even belonging to distinct genera, as the fowl and the peacock,
+pheasant and grouse{244}, Azalea and Rhododendron, Thuja and Juniperus,
+breeding together ought to have caused a doubt whether the sterility did
+not depend on other causes, distinct from a law, coincident with their
+creation. I may here remark that the fact whether one species will or
+will not breed with another is far less important than the sterility of
+the offspring when produced; for even some domestic races differ so
+greatly in size (as the great stag-greyhound and lap-dog, or cart-horse
+and Burmese ponies) that union is nearly impossible; and what is less
+generally known is, that in plants Kölreuter has shown by hundreds of
+experiments that the pollen of one species will fecundate the germen of
+another species, whereas the pollen of this latter will never act on the
+germen of the former; so that the simple fact of mutual impregnation
+certainly has no relation whatever to the distinctness in creation of
+the two forms. When two species are attempted to be crossed which are so
+distantly allied that offspring are never produced, it has been observed
+in some cases that the pollen commences its proper action by exserting
+its tube, and the germen commences swelling, though soon afterwards it
+decays. In the next stage in the series, hybrid offspring are produced
+though only rarely and few in number, and these are absolutely sterile:
+then we have hybrid offspring more numerous, and occasionally, though
+very rarely, breeding with either parent, as is the case with the common
+mule. Again, other hybrids, though infertile _inter se_, will breed
+_quite_ freely with either parent, or with a third species, and will
+yield offspring generally infertile, but sometimes fertile; and these
+latter again will breed with either parent, or with a third or fourth
+species: thus Kölreuter blended together many forms. Lastly it is now
+admitted by those botanists who have longest contended against the
+admission, that in certain families the hybrid offspring of many of the
+species are sometimes perfectly fertile in the first generation when
+bred together: indeed in some few cases Mr Herbert{245} found that the
+hybrids were decidedly more fertile than either of their pure parents.
+There is no way to escape from the admission that the hybrids from some
+species of plants are fertile, except by declaring that no form shall be
+considered as a species, if it produces with another species fertile
+offspring: but this is begging the question{246}. It has often been
+stated that different species of animals have a sexual repugnance
+towards each other; I can find no evidence of this; it appears as if
+they merely did not excite each others passions. I do not believe that
+in this respect there is any essential distinction between animals and
+plants; and in the latter there cannot be a feeling of repugnance.
+
+     {243} <Note in the original.> If domestic animals are descended from
+     several species and _become_ fertile _inter se_, then one can see
+     they gain fertility by becoming adapted to new conditions and
+     certainly domestic animals can withstand changes of climate without
+     loss of fertility in an astonishing manner.
+
+     {244} See Suchetet, _L'Hybridité dans la Nature_, Bruxelles, 1888,
+     p. 67. In _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. hybrids between the
+     fowl and the pheasant are mentioned. I can give no information on
+     the other cases.
+
+     {245} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370.
+
+     {246} This was the position of Gärtner and of Kölreuter: see
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 246-7, vi. pp. 367-8.
+
+
+_Causes of Sterility in Hybrids._
+
+The difference in nature between species which causes the greater or
+lesser degree of sterility in their offspring appears, according to
+Herbert and Kölreuter, to be connected much less with external form,
+size, or structure, than with constitutional peculiarities; by which is
+meant their adaptation to different climates, food and situation, &c.:
+these peculiarities of constitution probably affect the entire frame,
+and no one part in particular{247}.
+
+     {247} <Note in the original.> Yet this seems introductory to the
+     case of the heaths and crocuses above mentioned. <Herbert observed
+     that crocus does not set seed if transplanted before pollination,
+     but that such treatment after pollination has no sterilising effect.
+     (_Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 148.) On the same page is
+     a mention of the Ericaceæ being subject to contabescence of the
+     anthers. For _Crinum_ see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 250: for _Rhododenron_
+     and _Calceolaria_ see p. 251.>
+
+From the foregoing facts I think we must admit that there exists a
+perfect gradation in fertility between species which when crossed are
+quite fertile (as in Rhododendron, Calceolaria, &c.), and indeed in an
+extraordinary degree fertile (as in Crinum), and those species which
+never produce offspring, but which by certain effects (as the exsertion
+of the pollen-tube) evince their alliance. Hence, I conceive, we must
+give up sterility, although undoubtedly in a lesser or greater degree of
+very frequent occurrence, as an unfailing mark by which _species_ can be
+distinguished from _races_, _i.e._ from those forms which have descended
+from a common stock.
+
+
+_Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation._
+
+Let us see whether there are any analogous facts which will throw any
+light on this subject, and will tend to explain why the offspring of
+certain species, when crossed, should be sterile, and not others,
+without requiring a distinct law connected with their creation to that
+effect. Great numbers, probably a large majority of animals when caught
+by man and removed from their natural conditions, although taken very
+young, rendered quite tame, living to a good old age, and apparently
+quite healthy, seem incapable under these circumstances of
+breeding{248}. I do not refer to animals kept in menageries, such as at
+the Zoological Gardens, many of which, however, appear healthy and live
+long and unite but do not produce; but to animals caught and left partly
+at liberty in their native country. Rengger{249} enumerates several
+caught young and rendered tame, which he kept in Paraguay, and which
+would not breed: the hunting leopard or cheetah and elephant offer other
+instances; as do bears in Europe, and the 25 species of hawks, belonging
+to different genera, thousands of which have been kept for hawking and
+have lived for long periods in perfect vigour. When the expense and
+trouble of procuring a succession of young animals in a wild state be
+borne in mind, one may feel sure that no trouble has been spared in
+endeavours to make them breed. So clearly marked is this difference in
+different kinds of animals, when captured by man, that St Hilaire makes
+two great classes of animals useful to man:--the _tame_, which will not
+breed, and the _domestic_ which will breed in domestication. From
+certain singular facts we might have supposed that the non-breeding of
+animals was owing to some perversion of instinct. But we meet with
+exactly the same class of facts in plants: I do not refer to the large
+number of cases where the climate does not permit the seed or fruit to
+ripen, but where the flowers do not "set," owing to some imperfection of
+the ovule or pollen. The latter, which alone can be distinctly examined,
+is often manifestly imperfect, as any one with a microscope can observe
+by comparing the pollen of the Persian and Chinese lilacs{250} with the
+common lilac; the two former species (I may add) are equally sterile in
+Italy as in this country. Many of the American bog plants here produce
+little or no pollen, whilst the Indian species of the same genera freely
+produce it. Lindley observes that sterility is the bane of the
+horticulturist{251}: Linnæus has remarked on the sterility of nearly all
+alpine flowers when cultivated in a lowland district{252}. Perhaps the
+immense class of double flowers chiefly owe their structure to an excess
+of food acting on parts rendered slightly sterile and less capable of
+performing their true function, and therefore liable to be rendered
+monstrous, which monstrosity, like any other disease, is inherited and
+rendered common. So far from domestication being in itself unfavourable
+to fertility, it is well known that when an organism is once capable of
+submission to such conditions <its> fertility is increased{253} beyond the
+natural limit. According to agriculturists, slight changes of
+conditions, that is of food or habitation, and likewise crosses with
+races slightly different, increase the vigour and probably the fertility
+of their offspring. It would appear also that even a great change of
+condition, for instance, transportal from temperate countries to India,
+in many cases does not in the least affect fertility, although it does
+health and length of life and the period of maturity. When sterility is
+induced by domestication it is of the same kind, and varies in degree,
+exactly as with hybrids: for be it remembered that the most sterile
+hybrid is no way monstrous; its organs are perfect, but they do not act,
+and minute microscopical investigations show that they are in the same
+state as those of pure species in the intervals of the breeding season.
+The defective pollen in the cases above alluded to precisely resembles
+that of hybrids. The occasional breeding of hybrids, as of the common
+mule, may be aptly compared to the most rare but occasional reproduction
+of elephants in captivity. The cause of many exotic Geraniums producing
+(although in vigorous health) imperfect pollen seems to be connected
+with the period when water is given them{254}; but in the far greater
+majority of cases we cannot form any conjecture on what exact cause the
+sterility of organisms taken from their natural conditions depends. Why,
+for instance, the cheetah will not breed whilst the common cat and
+ferret (the latter generally kept shut up in a small box) do,--why the
+elephant will not whilst the pig will abundantly--why the partridge and
+grouse in their own country will not, whilst several species of
+pheasants, the guinea-fowl from the deserts of Africa and the peacock
+from the jungles of India, will. We must, however, feel convinced that
+it depends on some constitutional peculiarities in these beings not
+suited to their new condition; though not necessarily causing an ill
+state of health. Ought we then to wonder much that those hybrids which
+have been produced by the crossing of species with different
+constitutional tendencies (which tendencies we know to be eminently
+inheritable) should be sterile: it does not seem improbable that the
+cross from an alpine and lowland plant should have its constitutional
+powers deranged, in nearly the same manner as when the parent alpine
+plant is brought into a lowland district. Analogy, however, is a
+deceitful guide, and it would be rash to affirm, although it may appear
+probable, that the sterility of hybrids is due to the constitutional
+peculiarities of one parent being disturbed by being blended with those
+of the other parent in exactly the same manner as it is caused in some
+organic beings when placed by man out of their natural conditions{255}.
+Although this would be rash, it would, I think, be still rasher, seeing
+that sterility is no more incidental to _all_ cross-bred productions
+than it is to all organic beings when captured by man, to assert that
+the sterility of certain hybrids proved a distinct creation of their
+parents.
+
+     {248} <Note in original.> Animals seem more often made sterile by
+     being taken out of their native condition than plants, and so are
+     more sterile when crossed.
+
+     We have one broad fact that sterility in hybrids is not closely
+     related to external difference, and these are what man alone gets
+     by selection.
+
+     {249} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 132; for the case
+     of the cheetah see _loc cit._ p. 133.
+
+     {250} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 148.
+
+     {251} Quoted in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 9.
+
+     {252} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 147.
+
+     {253} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 89.
+
+     {254} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 147.
+
+     {255} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 392. This is the principle
+     experimentally investigated in the author's _Cross-and
+     Self-Fertilisation_.
+
+But it may be objected{256} (however little the sterility of certain
+hybrids is connected with the distinct creations of species), how comes
+it, if species are only races produced by natural selection, that when
+crossed they so frequently produce sterile offspring, whereas in the
+offspring of those races confessedly produced by the arts of man there
+is no one instance of sterility. There is not much difficulty in this,
+for the races produced by the natural means above explained will be
+slowly but steadily selected; will be adapted to various and diverse
+conditions, and to these conditions they will be rigidly confined for
+immense periods of time; hence we may suppose that they would acquire
+different constitutional peculiarities adapted to the stations they
+occupy; and on the constitutional differences between species their
+sterility, according to the best authorities, depends. On the other hand
+man selects by external appearance{257}; from his ignorance, and from
+not having any test at least comparable in delicacy to the natural
+struggle for food, continued at intervals through the life of each
+individual, he cannot eliminate fine shades of constitution, dependent
+on invisible differences in the fluids or solids of the body; again,
+from the value which he attaches to each individual, he asserts his
+utmost power in contravening the natural tendency of the most vigorous
+to survive. Man, moreover, especially in the earlier ages, cannot have
+kept his conditions of life constant, and in later ages his stock pure.
+Until man selects two varieties from the same stock, adapted to two
+climates or to other different external conditions, and confines each
+rigidly for one or several thousand years to such conditions, always
+selecting the individuals best adapted to them, he cannot be said to
+have even commenced the experiment. Moreover, the organic beings which
+man has longest had under domestication have been those which were of
+the greatest use to him, and one chief element of their usefulness,
+especially in the earlier ages, must have been their capacity to undergo
+sudden transportals into various climates, and at the same time to
+retain their fertility, which in itself implies that in such respects
+their constitutional peculiarities were not closely limited. If the
+opinion already mentioned be correct, that most of the domestic animals
+in their present state have descended from the fertile commixture of
+wild races or species, we have indeed little reason now to expect
+infertility between any cross of stock thus descended.
+
+     {256} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 268, vi. p. 398.
+
+     {257} <Notes in original.> Mere difference of structure no guide to
+     what will or will not cross. First step gained by races keeping
+     apart. <It is not clear where these notes were meant to go.>
+
+It is worthy of remark, that as many organic beings, when taken by man
+out of their natural conditions, have their reproductive system <so>
+affected as to be incapable of propagation, so, we saw in the first
+chapter, that although organic beings when taken by man do propagate
+freely, their offspring after some generations vary or sport to a degree
+which can only be explained by their reproductive system being <in> some way
+affected. Again, when species cross, their offspring are generally
+sterile; but it was found by Kölreuter that when hybrids are capable of
+breeding with either parent, or with other species, that their
+offspring are subject after some generations to excessive
+variation{258}. Agriculturists, also, affirm that the offspring from
+mongrels, after the first generation, vary much. Hence we see that both
+sterility and variation in the succeeding generations are consequent
+both on the removal of individual species from their natural states and
+on species crossing. The connection between these facts may be
+accidental, but they certainly appear to elucidate and support each
+other,--on the principle of the reproductive system of all organic
+beings being eminently sensitive to any disturbance, whether from
+removal or commixture, in their constitutional relations to the
+conditions to which they are exposed.
+
+     {258} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 272, vi. p. 404.
+
+
+_Points of Resemblance between "Races" and "Species{259}."_
+
+     {259} This section seems not to correspond closely with any in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i.; in some points it resembles pp. 15, 16, also the
+     section on analogous variation in distinct species, _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 159, vi. p. 194.
+
+Races and reputed species agree in some respects, although differing
+from causes which, we have seen, we can in some degree understand, in
+the fertility and "trueness" of their offspring. In the first place,
+there is no clear sign by which to distinguish races from species, as is
+evident from the great difficulty experienced by naturalists in
+attempting to discriminate them. As far as external characters are
+concerned, many of the races which are descended from the same stock
+differ far more than true species of the same genus; look at the
+willow-wrens, some of which skilful ornithologists can hardly
+distinguish from each other except by their nests; look at the wild
+swans, and compare the distinct species of these genera with the races
+of domestic ducks, poultry, and pigeons; and so again with plants,
+compare the cabbages, almonds, peaches and nectarines, &c. with the
+species of many genera. St Hilaire has even remarked that there is a
+greater difference in size between races, as in dogs (for he believes
+all have descended from one stock), than between the species of any one
+genus; nor is this surprising, considering that amount of food and
+consequently of growth is the element of change over which man has most
+power. I may refer to a former statement, that breeders believe the
+growth of one part or strong action of one function causes a decrease in
+other parts; for this seems in some degree analogous to the law of
+"organic compensation{260}," which many naturalists believe holds good.
+To give an instance of this law of compensation,--those species of
+Carnivora which have the canine teeth greatly developed have certain
+molar teeth deficient; or again, in that division of the Crustaceans in
+which the tail is much developed, the thorax is little so, and the
+converse. The points of difference between different races is often
+strikingly analogous to that between species of the same genus: trifling
+spots or marks of colour{261} (as the bars on pigeons' wings) are often
+preserved in races of plants and animals, precisely in the same manner
+as similar trifling characters often pervade all the species of a genus,
+and even of a family. Flowers in varying their colours often become
+veined and spotted and the leaves become divided like true species: it
+is known that the varieties of the same plant never have red, blue and
+yellow flowers, though the hyacinth makes a very near approach to an
+exception{262}; and different species of the same genus seldom, though
+sometimes they have flowers of these three colours. Dun-coloured horses
+having a dark stripe down their backs, and certain domestic asses having
+transverse bars on their legs, afford striking examples of a variation
+analogous in character to the distinctive marks of other species of the
+same genus.
+
+     {260} The law of compensation is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 147, vi. p. 182.
+
+     {261} <Note in original.> Boitard and Corbié on outer edging red in
+     tail of bird,--so bars on wing, white or black or brown, or white
+     edged with black or <illegible>: analogous to marks running through
+     genera but with different colours. Tail coloured in pigeons.
+
+     {262} <Note in original.> Oxalis and Gentian. <In Gentians blue,
+     yellow and reddish colours occur. In Oxalis yellow, purple, violet
+     and pink.>
+
+
+_External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels._
+
+There is, however, as it appears to me, a more important method of
+comparison between species and races, namely the character of the
+offspring{263} when species are crossed and when races are crossed: I
+believe, in no one respect, except in sterility, is there any
+difference. It would, I think, be a marvellous fact, if species have
+been formed by distinct acts of creation, that they should act upon each
+other in uniting, like races descended from a common stock. In the first
+place, by repeated crossing one species can absorb and wholly obliterate
+the characters of another, or of several other species, in the same
+manner as one race will absorb by crossing another race. Marvellous,
+that one act of creation should absorb another or even several acts of
+creation! The offspring of species, that is hybrids, and the offspring
+of races, that is mongrels, resemble each other in being either
+intermediate in character (as is most frequent in hybrids) or in
+resembling sometimes closely one and sometimes the other parent; in both
+the offspring produced by the same act of conception sometimes differ in
+their degree of resemblance; both hybrids and mongrels sometimes retain
+a certain part or organ very like that of either parent, both, as we
+have seen, become in succeeding generations variable; and this tendency
+to vary can be transmitted by both; in both for many generations there
+is a strong tendency to reversion to their ancestral form. In the case
+of a hybrid laburnum and of a supposed mongrel vine different parts of
+the same plants took after each of their two parents. In the hybrids
+from some species, and in the mongrel of some races, the offspring
+differ according as which of the two species, or of the two races, is
+the father (as in the common mule and hinny) and which the mother. Some
+races will breed together, which differ so greatly in size, that the dam
+often perishes in labour; so it is with some species when crossed; when
+the dam of one species has borne offspring to the male of another
+species, her succeeding offspring are sometimes stained (as in Lord
+Morton's mare by the quagga, wonderful as the fact{264} is) by this
+first cross; so agriculturists positively affirm is the case when a pig
+or sheep of one breed has produced offspring by the sire of another
+breed.
+
+     {263} This section corresponds roughly to that on _Hybrids and
+     Mongrels compared independently of their fertility_, _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 272, vi. p. 403. The discussion on Gärtner's views, given in
+     the _Origin_, is here wanting. The brief mention of prepotency is
+     common to them both.
+
+     {264} See _Animals and Plants_, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 435. The
+     phenomenon of _Telegony_, supposed to be established by this and
+     similar cases, is now generally discredited in consequence of
+     Ewart's experiments.
+
+
+_Summary of second chapter_{265}.
+
+     {265} The section on p. 109 is an appendix to the summary.
+
+Let us sum up this second chapter. If slight variations do occur in
+organic beings in a state of nature; if changes of condition from
+geological causes do produce in the course of ages effects analogous to
+those of domestication on any, however few, organisms; and how can we
+doubt it,--from what is actually known, and from what may be presumed,
+since thousands of organisms taken by man for sundry uses, and placed
+in new conditions, have varied. If such variations tend to be
+hereditary; and how can we doubt it,--when we see shades of expression,
+peculiar manners, monstrosities of the strangest kinds, diseases, and a
+multitude of other peculiarities, which characterise and form, being
+inherited, the endless races (there are 1200 kinds of cabbages{266}) of
+our domestic plants and animals. If we admit that every organism
+maintains its place by an almost periodically recurrent struggle; and
+how can we doubt it,--when we know that all beings tend to increase in a
+geometrical ratio (as is instantly seen when the conditions become for a
+time more favourable); whereas on an average the amount of food must
+remain constant, if so, there will be a natural means of selection,
+tending to preserve those individuals with any slight deviations of
+structure more favourable to the then existing conditions, and tending
+to destroy any with deviations of an opposite nature. If the above
+propositions be correct, and there be no law of nature limiting the
+possible amount of variation, new races of beings will,--perhaps only
+rarely, and only in some few districts,--be formed.
+
+     {266} I do not know the authority for this statement.
+
+
+_Limits of Variation._
+
+That a limit to variation does exist in nature is assumed by most
+authors, though I am unable to discover a single fact on which this
+belief is grounded{267}. One of the commonest statements is that plants
+do not become acclimatised; and I have even observed that kinds not
+raised by seed, but propagated by cuttings, &c., are instanced. A good
+instance has, however, been advanced in the case of kidney beans, which
+it is believed are now as tender as when first introduced. Even if we
+overlook the frequent introduction of seed from warmer countries, let me
+observe that as long as the seeds are gathered promiscuously from the
+bed, without continual observation and _careful_ selection of those
+plants which have stood the climate best during their whole growth, the
+experiment of acclimatisation has hardly been begun. Are not all those
+plants and animals, of which we have the greatest number of races, the
+oldest domesticated? Considering the quite recent progress{268} of
+systematic agriculture and horticulture, is it not opposed to every
+fact, that we have exhausted the capacity of variation in our cattle and
+in our corn,--even if we have done so in some trivial points, as their
+fatness or kind of wool? Will any one say, that if horticulture
+continues to flourish during the next few centuries, that we shall not
+have numerous new kinds of the potato and Dahlia? But take two varieties
+of each of these plants, and adapt them to certain fixed conditions and
+prevent any cross for 5000 years, and then again vary their conditions;
+try many climates and situations; and who{269} will predict the number
+and degrees of difference which might arise from these stocks? I repeat
+that we know nothing of any limit to the possible amount of variation,
+and therefore to the number and differences of the races, which might be
+produced by the natural means of selection, so infinitely more efficient
+than the agency of man. Races thus produced would probably be very
+"true"; and if from having been adapted to different conditions of
+existence, they possessed different constitutions, if suddenly removed
+to some new station, they would perhaps be sterile and their offspring
+would perhaps be infertile. Such races would be undistinguishable from
+species. But is there any evidence that the species, which surround us
+on all sides, have been thus produced? This is a question which an
+examination of the economy of nature we might expect would answer either
+in the affirmative or negative{270}.
+
+     {267} In the _Origin_ no limit is placed to variation as far as I
+     know.
+
+     {268} <Note in original.> History of pigeons shows increase of
+     peculiarities during last years.
+
+     {269} Compare an obscure passage in the Essay of 1842, p. 14.
+
+     {270} <Note in original.> Certainly <two pages in the MS.> ought to
+     be here introduced, viz., difficulty in forming such organ, as eye,
+     by selection. <In the _Origin_, Ed. i., a chapter on _Difficulties
+     on Theory_ follows that on _Laws of Variation_, and precedes that
+     on _Instinct_: this was also the arrangement in the Essay of 1842;
+     whereas in the present Essay _Instinct_ follows _Variation_ and
+     precedes _Difficulties_.>
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL ATTRIBUTES UNDER
+DOMESTICATION AND IN STATE OF NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS
+SUBJECT; AND ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL
+STRUCTURES
+
+
+_Variation of mental attributes under domestication._
+
+I have as yet only alluded to the mental qualities which differ greatly
+in different species. Let me here premise that, as will be seen in the
+Second Part, there is no evidence and consequently no attempt to show
+that _all_ existing organisms have descended from any one common
+parent-stock, but that only those have so descended which, in the
+language of naturalists, are clearly related to each other. Hence the
+facts and reasoning advanced in this chapter do not apply to the first
+origin of the senses{271}, or of the chief mental attributes, such as of
+memory, attention, reasoning, &c., &c., by which most or all of the
+great related groups are characterised, any more than they apply to the
+first origin of life, or growth, or the power of reproduction. The
+application of such facts as I have collected is merely to the
+differences of the primary mental qualities and of the instincts in the
+species{272} of the several great groups. In domestic animals every
+observer has remarked in how great a degree, in the individuals of the
+same species, the dispositions, namely courage, pertinacity, suspicion,
+restlessness, confidence, temper, pugnaciousness, affection, care of
+their young, sagacity, &c., &c., vary. It would require a most able
+metaphysician to explain how many primary qualities of the mind must be
+changed to cause these diversities of complex dispositions. From these
+dispositions being inherited, of which the testimony is unanimous,
+families and breeds arise, varying in these respects. I may instance the
+good and ill temper of different stocks of bees and of horses,--the
+pugnacity and courage of game fowls,--the pertinacity of certain dogs,
+as bull-dogs, and the sagacity of others,--for restlessness and
+suspicion compare a wild rabbit reared with the greatest care from its
+earliest age with the extreme tameness of the domestic breed of the same
+animal. The offspring of the domestic dogs which have run wild in
+Cuba{273}, though caught quite young, are most difficult to tame,
+probably nearly as much so as the original parent-stock from which the
+domestic dog descended. The habitual "_periods_" of different families
+of the same species differ, for instance, in the time of year of
+reproduction, and the period of life when the capacity is acquired, and
+the hour of roosting (in Malay fowls), &c., &c. These periodical habits
+are perhaps essentially corporeal, and may be compared to nearly similar
+habits in plants, which are known to vary extremely. Consensual
+movements (as called by Müller) vary and are inherited,--such as the
+cantering and ambling paces in horses, the tumbling of pigeons, and
+perhaps the handwriting, which is sometimes so similar between father
+and sons, may be ranked in this class. _Manners_, and even tricks which
+perhaps are only _peculiar_ manners, according to W. Hunter and my
+father, are distinctly inherited in cases where children have lost their
+parent in early infancy. The inheritance of expression, which often
+reveals the finest shades of character, is familiar to everyone.
+
+     {271} A similar proviso occurs in the chapter on instinct in
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319.
+
+     {272} The discussion occurs later in Chapter VII of the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. than in the present Essay, where moreover it is fuller in
+     some respects.
+
+     {273} In the margin occurs the name of Poeppig. In _Var. under
+     Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 28, the reference to Poeppig on the Cuban
+     dogs contains no mention of the wildness of their offspring.
+
+Again the tastes and pleasures of different breeds vary, thus the
+shepherd-dog delights in chasing the sheep, but has no wish to kill
+them,--the terrier (see Knight) delights in killing vermin, and the
+spaniel in finding game. But it is impossible to separate their mental
+peculiarities in the way I have done: the tumbling of pigeons, which I
+have instanced as a consensual movement, might be called a trick and is
+associated with a taste for flying in a close flock at a great height.
+Certain breeds of fowls have a taste for roosting in trees. The
+different actions of pointers and setters might have been adduced in the
+same class, as might the peculiar _manner_ of hunting of the spaniel.
+Even in the same breed of dogs, namely in fox-hounds, it is the fixed
+opinion of those best able to judge that the different pups are born
+with different tendencies; some are best to find their fox in the cover;
+some are apt to run straggling, some are best to make casts and to
+recover the lost scent, &c.; and that these peculiarities undoubtedly
+are transmitted to their progeny. Or again the tendency to point might
+be adduced as a distinct habit which has become inherited,--as might the
+tendency of a true sheep dog (as I have been assured is the case) to run
+round the flock instead of directly at them, as is the case with other
+young dogs when attempted to be taught. The "transandantes" sheep{274}
+in Spain, which for some centuries have been yearly taken a journey of
+several hundred miles from one province to another, know when the time
+comes, and show the greatest restlessness (like migratory birds in
+confinement), and are prevented with difficulty from starting by
+themselves, which they sometimes do, and find their own way. There is a
+case on good evidence{275} of a sheep which, when she lambed, would
+return across a mountainous country to her own birth-place, although at
+other times of year not of a rambling disposition. Her lambs inherited
+this same disposition, and would go to produce their young on the farm
+whence their parent came; and so troublesome was this habit that the
+whole family was destroyed.
+
+     {274} <Note in original.> Several authors.
+
+     {275} In the margin "Hogg" occurs as authority for this fact. For
+     the reference, see p. 17, note 4.
+
+These facts must lead to the conviction, justly wonderful as it is, that
+almost infinitely numerous shades of disposition, of tastes, of peculiar
+movements, and even of individual actions, can be modified or acquired
+by one individual and transmitted to its offspring. One is forced to
+admit that mental phenomena (no doubt through their intimate connection
+with the brain) can be inherited, like infinitely numerous and fine
+differences of corporeal structure. In the same manner as peculiarities
+of corporeal structure slowly acquired or lost during mature life
+(especially cognisant <?> in disease), as well as congenital peculiarities,
+are transmitted; so it appears to be with the mind. The inherited paces
+in the horse have no doubt been acquired by compulsion during the lives
+of the parents: and temper and tameness may be modified in a breed by
+the treatment which the individuals receive. Knowing that a pig has been
+taught to point, one would suppose that this quality in pointer-dogs was
+the simple result of habit, but some facts, with respect to the
+occasional appearance of a similar quality in other dogs, would make one
+suspect that it originally appeared in a less perfect degree, "_by
+chance_," that is from a congenital tendency{276} in the parent of the
+breed of pointers. One cannot believe that the tumbling, and high flight
+in a compact body, of one breed of pigeons has been taught; and in the
+case of the slight differences in the manner of hunting in young
+fox-hounds, they are doubtless congenital. The inheritance of the
+foregoing and similar mental phenomena ought perhaps to create less
+surprise, from the reflection that in no case do individual acts of
+reasoning, or movements, or other phenomena connected with
+consciousness, appear to be transmitted. An action, even a very
+complicated one, when from long practice it is performed unconsciously
+without any effort (and indeed in the case of many peculiarities of
+manners opposed to the will) is said, according to a common expression,
+to be performed "instinctively." Those cases of languages, and of songs,
+learnt in early childhood and _quite_ forgotten, being _perfectly_
+repeated during the unconsciousness of illness, appear to me only a few
+degrees less wonderful than if they had been transmitted to a second
+generation{277}.
+
+     {276} In the _Origin_, Ed. i., he speaks more decidedly against the
+     belief that instincts are hereditary habits, see for instance pp.
+     209, 214, Ed. vi. pp. 321, 327. He allows, however, something to
+     habit (p. 216).
+
+     {277} A suggestion of Hering's and S. Butler's views on memory and
+     inheritance. It is not, however, implied that Darwin was inclined
+     to accept these opinions.
+
+
+_Hereditary habits compared with instincts._
+
+The chief characteristics of true instincts appear to be their
+invariability and non-improvement during the mature age of the
+individual animal: the absence of knowledge of the end, for which the
+action is performed, being associated, however, sometimes with a degree
+of reason; being subject to mistakes and being associated with certain
+states of the body or times of the year or day. In most of these
+respects there is a resemblance in the above detailed cases of the
+mental qualities acquired or modified during domestication. No doubt the
+instincts of wild animals are more uniform than those habits or
+qualities modified or recently acquired under domestication, in the same
+manner and from the same causes that the corporeal structure in this
+state is less uniform than in beings in their natural conditions. I have
+seen a young pointer point as fixedly, the first day it was taken out,
+as any old dog; Magendie says this was the case with a retriever which
+he himself reared: the tumbling of pigeons is not probably improved by
+age: we have seen that in the case above given that the young sheep
+inherited the migratory tendency to their particular birth-place the
+first time they lambed. This last fact offers an instance of a domestic
+instinct being associated with a state of body; as do the
+"transandantes" sheep with a time of year. Ordinarily the acquired
+instincts of domestic animals seem to require a certain degree of
+education (as generally in pointers and retrievers) to be perfectly
+developed: perhaps this holds good amongst wild animals in rather a
+greater degree than is generally supposed; for instance, in the singing
+of birds, and in the knowledge of proper herbs in Ruminants. It seems
+pretty clear that bees transmit knowledge from generation to generation.
+Lord Brougham{278} insists strongly on ignorance of the end proposed
+being eminently characteristic of true instincts; and this appears to me
+to apply to many acquired hereditary habits; for instance, in the case
+of the young pointer alluded to before, which pointed so steadfastly the
+first day that we were obliged several times to carry him away{279}.
+This puppy not only pointed at sheep, at large white stones, and at
+every little bird, but likewise "backed" the other pointers: this young
+dog must have been as unconscious for what end he was pointing, namely
+to facilitate his master's killing game to eat, as is a butterfly which
+lays her eggs on a cabbage, that her caterpillars would eat the leaves.
+So a horse that ambles instinctively, manifestly is ignorant that he
+performs that peculiar pace for the ease of man; and if man had never
+existed, he would never have ambled. The young pointer pointing at white
+stones appears to be as much a mistake of its acquired instinct, as in
+the case of flesh-flies laying their eggs on certain flowers instead of
+putrifying meat. However true the ignorance of the end may generally be,
+one sees that instincts are associated with some degree of reason; for
+instance, in the case of the tailor-bird, who spins threads with which
+to make her nest <yet> will use artificial threads when she can procure
+them{280}; so it has been known that an old pointer has broken his point
+and gone round a hedge to drive out a bird towards his master{281}.
+
+     {278} Lord Brougham's _Dissertations on Subjects of Science_, etc.,
+     1839, p. 27.
+
+     {279} This case is more briefly given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     213, vi. p. 326. The simile of the butterfly occurs there also.
+
+     {280} "A little dose, as Pierre Huber expresses it, of judgment or
+     reason, often comes into play." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 208, vi. p.
+     320.
+
+     {281} In the margin is written "Retriever killing one bird." This
+     refers to the cases given in the _Descent of Man_, 2nd Ed. (in 1
+     vol.) p. 78, of a retriever being puzzled how to deal with a
+     wounded and a dead bird, killed the former and carried both at
+     once. This was the only known instance of her wilfully injuring
+     game.
+
+There is one other quite distinct method by which the instincts or
+habits acquired under domestication may be compared with those given by
+nature, by a test of a fundamental kind; I mean the comparison of the
+mental powers of mongrels and hybrids. Now the instincts, or habits,
+tastes, and dispositions of one _breed_ of animals, when crossed with
+another breed, for instance a shepherd-dog with a harrier, are blended
+and appear in the same curiously mixed degree, both in the first and
+succeeding generations, exactly as happens when one _species_ is crossed
+with another{282}. This would hardly be the case if there was any
+fundamental difference between the domestic and natural instinct{283};
+if the former were, to use a metaphorical expression, merely
+superficial.
+
+     {282} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 214, vi. p. 327.
+
+     {283} <Note in original.> Give some definition of instinct, or at
+     least give chief attributes. <In _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p.
+     319, Darwin refuses to define instinct.> The term instinct is often
+     used in <a> sense which implies no more than that the animal does
+     the action in question. Faculties and instincts may I think be
+     imperfectly separated. The mole has the faculty of scratching
+     burrows, and the instinct to apply it. The bird of passage has the
+     faculty of finding its way and the instinct to put it in action at
+     certain periods. It can hardly be said to have the faculty of
+     knowing the time, for it can possess no means, without indeed it be
+     some consciousness of passing sensations. Think over all habitual
+     actions and see whether faculties and instincts can be separated.
+     We have faculty of waking in the night, if an instinct prompted us
+     to do something at certain hour of night or day. Savages finding
+     their way. Wrangel's account--probably a faculty inexplicable by
+     the possessor. There are besides faculties "_means_," as conversion
+     of larvæ into neuters and queens. I think all this generally
+     implied, anyhow useful. <This discussion, which does not occur in
+     the _Origin_, is a first draft of that which follows in the text,
+     p. 123.>
+
+
+_Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals._
+
+With respect to the variation{284} of the mental powers of animals in a
+wild state, we know that there is a considerable difference in the
+disposition of different individuals of the same species, as is
+recognised by all those who have had the charge of animals in a
+menagerie. With respect to the wildness of animals, that is fear
+directed particularly against man, which appears to be as true an
+instinct as the dread of a young mouse of a cat, we have excellent
+evidence that it is slowly acquired and becomes hereditary. It is also
+certain that, in a natural state, individuals of the same species lose
+or do not practice their migratory instincts--as woodcocks in Madeira.
+With respect to any variation in the more complicated instincts, it is
+obviously most difficult to detect, even more so than in the case of
+corporeal structure, of which it has been admitted the variation is
+exceedingly small, and perhaps scarcely any in the majority of species
+at any one period. Yet, to take one excellent case of instinct, namely
+the nests of birds, those who have paid most attention to the subject
+maintain that not only certain individuals <? species> seem to be able
+to build very imperfectly, but that a difference in skill may not
+unfrequently be detected between individuals{285}. Certain birds,
+moreover, adapt their nests to circumstances; the water-ouzel makes no
+vault when she builds under cover of a rock--the sparrow builds very
+differently when its nest is in a tree or in a hole, and the
+golden-crested wren sometimes suspends its nest below and sometimes
+places it _on_ the branches of trees.
+
+     {284} A short discussion of a similar kind occurs in the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 211, vi. p. 324.
+
+     {285} This sentence agrees with the MS., but is clearly in need of
+     correction.
+
+
+_Principles of Selection applicable to instincts._
+
+As the instincts of a species are fully as important to its preservation
+and multiplication as its corporeal structure, it is evident that if
+there be the slightest congenital differences in the instincts and
+habits, or if certain individuals during their lives are induced or
+compelled to vary their habits, and if such differences are in the
+smallest degree more favourable, under slightly modified external
+conditions, to their preservation, such individuals must in the long run
+have a better _chance_ of being preserved and of multiplying{286}. If
+this be admitted, a series of small changes may, as in the case of
+corporeal structure, work great changes in the mental powers, habits and
+instincts of any species.
+
+     {286} This corresponds to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 212, vi. p. 325.
+
+
+_Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection._
+
+Every one will at first be inclined to explain (as I did for a long
+time) that many of the more complicated and wonderful instincts could
+not be acquired in the manner here supposed{287}. The Second Part of
+this work is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general
+economy of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species
+and genera are descended from common stocks; but we may here consider
+whether the instincts of animals offer such a _primâ facie_ case of
+impossibility of gradual acquirement, as to justify the rejection of any
+such theory, however strongly it may be supported by other facts. I beg
+to repeat that I wish here to consider not the _probability_ but the
+_possibility_ of complicated instincts having been acquired by the slow
+and long-continued selection of very slight (either congenital or
+produced by habit) modifications of foregoing simpler instincts; each
+modification being as useful and necessary, to the species practising
+it, as the most complicated kind.
+
+     {287} This discussion is interesting in differing from the
+     corresponding section of the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 216, vi. p. 330,
+     to the end of the chapter. In the present Essay the subjects dealt
+     with are nest-making instincts, including the egg-hatching habit of
+     the Australian bush-turkey. The power of "shamming death."
+     "Faculty" in relation to instinct. The instinct of lapse of time,
+     and of direction. Bees' cells very briefly given. Birds feeding
+     their young on food differing from their own natural food. In the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i., the cases discussed are the instinct of laying
+     eggs in other birds' nests; the slave-making instinct in ants; the
+     construction of the bee's comb, very fully discussed.
+
+First, to take the case of birds'-nests; of existing species (almost
+infinitely few in comparison with the multitude which must have existed,
+since the period of the new Red Sandstone of N. America, of whose habits
+we must always remain ignorant) a tolerably perfect series could be made
+from eggs laid on the bare ground, to others with a few sticks just
+laid round them, to a simple nest like the wood-pigeons, to others more
+and more complicated: now if, as is asserted, there occasionally exist
+slight differences in the building powers of an individual, and if,
+which is at least probable, that such differences would tend to be
+inherited, then we can see that it is at least _possible_ that the
+nidificatory instincts may have been acquired by the gradual selection,
+during thousands and thousands of generations, of the eggs and young of
+those individuals, whose nests were in some degree better adapted to the
+preservation of their young, under the then existing conditions. One of
+the most surprising instincts on record is that of the Australian
+bush-turkey, whose eggs are hatched by the heat generated from a huge
+pile of fermenting materials, which it heaps together; but here the
+habits of an allied species show how this instinct _might possibly_ have
+been acquired. This second species inhabits a tropical district, where
+the heat of the sun is sufficient to hatch its eggs; this bird, burying
+its eggs, apparently for concealment, under a lesser heap of rubbish,
+but of a dry nature, so as not to ferment. Now suppose this bird to
+range slowly into a climate which was cooler, and where leaves were more
+abundant, in that case, those individuals, which chanced to have their
+collecting instinct strongest developed, would make a somewhat larger
+pile, and the eggs, aided during some colder season, under the slightly
+cooler climate by the heat of incipient fermentation, would in the long
+run be more freely hatched and would probably produce young ones with
+the same more highly developed collecting tendencies; of these again,
+those with the best developed powers would again tend to rear most
+young. Thus this strange instinct might _possibly_ be acquired, every
+individual bird being as ignorant of the laws of fermentation, and the
+consequent development of heat, as we know they must be.
+
+Secondly, to take the case of animals feigning death (as it is commonly
+expressed) to escape danger. In the case of insects, a perfect series
+can be shown, from some insects, which momentarily stand still, to
+others which for a second slightly contract their legs, to others which
+will remain immovably drawn together for a quarter of an hour, and may
+be torn asunder or roasted at a slow fire, without evincing the smallest
+sign of sensation. No one will doubt that the length of time, during
+which each remains immovable, is well adapted to <favour the insect's>
+escape <from> the dangers to which it is most exposed, and few will deny
+the _possibility_ of the change from one degree to another, by the means
+and at the rate already explained. Thinking it, however, wonderful
+(though not impossible) that the attitude of death should have been
+acquired by methods which imply no imitation, I compared several
+species, when feigning, as is said, death, with others of the same
+species really dead, and their attitudes were in no one case the same.
+
+Thirdly, in considering many instincts it is useful to _endeavour_ to
+separate the faculty{288} by which they perform it, and the mental power
+which urges to the performance, which is more properly called an
+instinct. We have an instinct to eat, we have jaws &c. to give us the
+faculty to do so. These faculties are often unknown to us: bats, with
+their eyes destroyed, can avoid strings suspended across a room, we know
+not at present by what faculty they do this. Thus also, with migratory
+birds, it is a wonderful instinct which urges them at certain times of
+the year to direct their course in certain directions, but it is a
+faculty by which they know the time and find their way. With respect to
+time{289}, man without seeing the sun can judge to a certain extent of
+the hour, as must those cattle which come down from the inland mountains
+to feed on sea-weed left bare at the changing hour of low-water{290}. A
+hawk (D'Orbigny) seems certainly to have acquired a knowledge of a
+period of every 21 days. In the cases already given of the sheep which
+travelled to their birth-place to cast their lambs, and the sheep in
+Spain which know their time of march{291}, we may conjecture that the
+tendency to move is associated, we may then call it instinctively, with
+some corporeal sensations. With respect to direction we can easily
+conceive how a tendency to travel in a certain course may possibly have
+been acquired, although we must remain ignorant how birds are able to
+preserve any direction whatever in a dark night over the wide ocean. I
+may observe that the power of some savage races of mankind to find their
+way, although perhaps wholly different from the faculty of birds, is
+nearly as unintelligible to us. Bellinghausen, a skilful navigator,
+describes with the utmost wonder the manner in which some Esquimaux
+guided him to a certain point, by a course never straight, through newly
+formed hummocks of ice, on a thick foggy day, when he with a compass
+found it impossible, from having no landmarks, and from their course
+being so extremely crooked, to preserve any sort of uniform direction:
+so it is with Australian savages in thick forests. In North and South
+America many birds slowly travel northward and southward, urged on by
+the food they find, as the seasons change; let them continue to do this,
+till, as in the case of the sheep in Spain, it has become an urgent
+instinctive desire, and they will gradually accelerate their journey.
+They would cross narrow rivers, and if these were converted by
+subsidence into narrow estuaries, and gradually during centuries to arms
+of the sea, still we may suppose their restless desire of travelling
+onwards would impel them to cross such an arm, even if it had become of
+great width beyond their span of vision. How they are able to preserve a
+course in any direction, I have said, is a faculty unknown to us. To
+give another illustration of the means by which I conceive it _possible_
+that the direction of migrations have been determined. Elk and reindeer
+in N. America annually cross, as if they could marvellously smell or see
+at the distance of a hundred miles, a wide tract of absolute desert, to
+arrive at certain islands where there is a scanty supply of food; the
+changes of temperature, which geology proclaims, render it probable that
+this desert tract formerly supported some vegetation, and thus these
+quadrupeds might have been annually led on, till they reached the more
+fertile spots, and so acquired, like the sheep of Spain, their migratory
+powers.
+
+     {288} The distinction between _faculty_ and _instinct_ corresponds
+     in some degree to that between perception of a stimulus and a
+     specific reaction. I imagine that the author would have said that
+     the sensitiveness to light possessed by a plant is _faculty_, while
+     _instinct_ decides whether the plant curves to or from the source
+     of illumination.
+
+     {289} <Note in the original in an unknown handwriting.> At the time
+     when corn was pitched in the market instead of sold by sample, the
+     geese in the town fields of Newcastle <Staffordshire?> used to
+     know market day and come in to pick up the corn spilt.
+
+     {290} <Note in original.> Macculloch and others.
+
+     {291} I can find no reference to the _transandantes_ sheep in
+     Darwin's published work. He was possibly led to doubt the accuracy
+     of the statement on which he relied. For the case of the sheep
+     returning to their birth-place see p. 17, note 4.{Note 91}
+
+Fourthly, with respect to the combs of the hive-bee{292}; here again we
+must look to some faculty or means by which they make their hexagonal
+cells, without indeed we view these instincts as mere machines. At
+present such a faculty is quite unknown: Mr Waterhouse supposes that
+several bees are led by their instinct to excavate a mass of wax to a
+certain thinness, and that the result of this is that hexagons
+necessarily remain. Whether this or some other theory be true, some such
+means they must possess. They abound, however, with true instincts,
+which are the most wonderful that are known. If we examine the little
+that is known concerning the habits of other species of bees, we find
+much simpler instincts: the humble bee merely fills rude balls of wax
+with honey and aggregates them together with little order in a rough
+nest of grass. If we knew the instinct of all the bees, which ever had
+existed, it is not improbable that we should have instincts of every
+degree of complexity, from actions as simple as a bird making a nest,
+and rearing her young, to the wonderful architecture and government of
+the hive-bee; at least such is _possible_, which is all that I am here
+considering.
+
+     {292} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 224, vi. p. 342.
+
+Finally, I will briefly consider under the same point of view one other
+class of instincts, which have often been advanced as truly wonderful,
+namely parents bringing food to their young which they themselves
+neither like nor partake of{293};--for instance, the common sparrow, a
+granivorous bird, feeding its young with caterpillars. We might of
+course look into the case still earlier, and seek how an instinct in the
+parent, of feeding its young at all, was first derived; but it is
+useless to waste time in conjectures on a series of gradations from the
+young feeding themselves and being slightly and occasionally assisted in
+their search, to their entire food being brought to them. With respect
+to the parent bringing a different kind of food from its own kind, we
+may suppose either that the remote stock, whence the sparrow and other
+congenerous birds have descended, was insectivorous, and that its own
+habits and structure have been changed, whilst its ancient instincts
+with respect to its young have remained unchanged; or we may suppose
+that the parents have been induced to vary slightly the food of their
+young, by a slight scarcity of the proper kind (or by the instincts of
+some individuals not being so truly developed), and in this case those
+young which were most capable of surviving were necessarily most often
+preserved, and would themselves in time become parents, and would be
+similarly compelled to alter their food for their young. In the case of
+those animals, the young of which feed themselves, changes in their
+instincts for food, and in their structure, might be selected from
+slight variations, just as in mature animals. Again, where the food of
+the young depends on where the mother places her eggs, as in the case of
+the caterpillars of the cabbage-butterfly, we may suppose that the
+parent stock of the species deposited her eggs sometimes on one kind and
+sometimes on another of congenerous plants (as some species now do), and
+if the cabbage suited the caterpillars better than any other plant, the
+caterpillars of those butterflies, which had chosen the cabbage, would
+be most plentifully reared, and would produce butterflies more apt to
+lay their eggs on the cabbage than on the other congenerous plants.
+
+     {293} This is an expansion of an obscure passage in the Essay of
+     1842, p. 19.
+
+However vague and unphilosophical these conjectures may appear, they
+serve, I think, to show that one's first impulse utterly to reject any
+theory whatever, implying a gradual acquirement of these instincts,
+which for ages have excited man's admiration, may at least be delayed.
+Once grant that dispositions, tastes, actions or habits can be slightly
+modified, either by slight congenital differences (we must suppose in
+the brain) or by the force of external circumstances, and that such
+slight modifications can be rendered inheritable,--a proposition which
+no one can reject,--and it will be difficult to put any limit to the
+complexity and wonder of the tastes and habits which may _possibly_ be
+thus acquired.
+
+
+_Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal
+structures._
+
+After the past discussion it will perhaps be convenient here to consider
+whether any particular corporeal organs, or the entire structure of any
+animals, are so wonderful as to justify the rejection _primâ facie_ of
+our theory{294}. In the case of the eye, as with the more complicated
+instincts, no doubt one's first impulse is to utterly reject every such
+theory. But if the eye from its most complicated form can be shown to
+graduate into an exceedingly simple state,--if selection can produce the
+smallest change, and if such a series exists, then it is clear (for in
+this work we have nothing to do with the first origin of organs in their
+simplest forms{295}) that it may _possibly_ have been acquired by
+gradual selection of slight, but in each case, useful deviations{296}.
+Every naturalist, when he meets with any new and singular organ, always
+expects to find, and looks for, other and simpler modifications of it in
+other beings. In the case of the eye, we have a multitude of different
+forms, more or less simple, not graduating into each other, but
+separated by sudden gaps or intervals; but we must recollect how
+incomparably greater would the multitude of visual structures be if we
+had the eyes of every fossil which ever existed. We shall discuss the
+probable vast proportion of the extinct to the recent in the succeeding
+Part. Notwithstanding the large series of existing forms, it is most
+difficult even to conjecture by what intermediate stages very many
+simple organs could possibly have graduated into complex ones: but it
+should be here borne in mind, that a part having originally a wholly
+different function, may on the theory of gradual selection be slowly
+worked into quite another use; the gradations of forms, from which
+naturalists believe in the hypothetical metamorphosis of part of the ear
+into the swimming bladder in fishes{297}, and in insects of legs into
+jaws, show the manner in which this is possible. As under domestication,
+modifications of structure take place, without any continued selection,
+which man finds very useful, or valuable for curiosity (as the hooked
+calyx of the teazle, or the ruff round some pigeons' necks), so in a
+state of nature some small modifications, apparently beautifully adapted
+to certain ends, may perhaps be produced from the accidents of the
+reproductive system, and be at once propagated without long-continued
+selection of small deviations towards that structure{298}. In
+conjecturing by what stages any complicated organ in a species may have
+arrived at its present state, although we may look to the analogous
+organs in other existing species, we should do this merely to aid and
+guide our imaginations; for to know the real stages we must look only
+through one line of species, to one ancient stock, from which the
+species in question has descended. In considering the eye of a
+quadruped, for instance, though we may look at the eye of a molluscous
+animal or of an insect, as a proof how simple an organ will serve some
+of the ends of vision; and at the eye of a fish as a nearer guide of the
+manner of simplification; we must remember that it is a mere chance
+(assuming for a moment the truth of our theory) if any existing organic
+being has preserved any one organ, in exactly the same condition, as it
+existed in the ancient species at remote geological periods.
+
+     {294} The difficulties discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 171,
+     vi. p. 207, are the rarity of transitional varieties, the origin of
+     the tail of the giraffe; the otter-like polecat (_Mustela vison_);
+     the flying habit of the bat; the penguin and the logger-headed
+     duck; flying fish; the whale-like habit of the bear; the
+     woodpecker; diving petrels; the eye; the swimming bladder;
+     Cirripedes; neuter insects; electric organs.
+
+     Of these, the polecat, the bat, the woodpecker, the eye, the
+     swimming bladder are discussed in the present Essay, and in
+     addition some botanical problems.
+
+     {295} In the _Origin_, Ed. vi. p. 275, the author replies to
+     Mivart's criticisms (_Genesis of Species_, 1871), referring
+     especially to that writer's objection "that natural selection is
+     incompetent to account for the incipient stages of useful
+     structures."
+
+     {296} <The following sentence seems to have been intended for
+     insertion here> "and that each eye throughout the animal kingdom is
+     not only most useful, but _perfect_ for its possessor."
+
+     {297} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 190, vi. p. 230.
+
+     {298} This is one of the most definite statements in the present
+     Essay of the possible importance of _sports_ or what would now be
+     called _mutations_. As is well known the author afterwards doubted
+     whether species could arise in this way. See _Origin_, Ed. v. p.
+     103, vi. p. 110, also _Life and Letters_, vol. iii. p. 107.
+
+The nature or condition of certain structures has been thought by some
+naturalists to be of no use to the possessor{299}, but to have been
+formed wholly for the good of other species; thus certain fruit and
+seeds have been thought to have been made nutritious for certain
+animals--numbers of insects, especially in their larval state, to exist
+for the same end--certain fish to be bright coloured to aid certain
+birds of prey in catching them, &c. Now could this be proved (which I am
+far from admitting) the theory of natural selection would be quite
+overthrown; for it is evident that selection depending on the advantage
+over others of one individual with some slight deviation would never
+produce a structure or quality profitable only to another species. No
+doubt one being takes advantage of qualities in another, and may even
+cause its extermination; but this is far from proving that this quality
+was produced for such an end. It may be advantageous to a plant to have
+its seeds attractive to animals, if one out of a hundred or a thousand
+escapes being digested, and thus aids dissemination: the bright colours
+of a fish may be of some advantage to it, or more probably may result
+from exposure to certain conditions in favourable haunts for food,
+_notwithstanding_ it becomes subject to be caught more easily by certain
+birds.
+
+     {299} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 210, vi. p. 322, where the question
+     is discussed for the case of instincts with a proviso that the same
+     argument applies to structure. It is briefly stated in its general
+     bearing in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 106.
+
+If instead of looking, as above, at certain individual organs, in order
+to speculate on the stages by which their parts have been matured and
+selected, we consider an individual animal, we meet with the same or
+greater difficulty, but which, I believe, as in the case of single
+organs, rests entirely on our ignorance. It may be asked by what
+intermediate forms could, for instance, a bat possibly have passed; but
+the same question might have been asked with respect to the seal, if we
+had not been familiar with the otter and other semi-aquatic carnivorous
+quadrupeds. But in the case of the bat, who can say what might have been
+the habits of some parent form with less developed wings, when we now
+have insectivorous opossums and herbivorous squirrels fitted for merely
+gliding through the air{300}. One species of bat is at present partly
+aquatic in its habits{301}. Woodpeckers and tree-frogs are especially
+adapted, as their names express, for climbing trees; yet we have species
+of both inhabiting the open plains of La Plata, where a tree does not
+exist{302}. I might argue from this circumstance that a structure
+eminently fitted for climbing trees might descend from forms inhabiting
+a country where a tree did not exist. Notwithstanding these and a
+multitude of other well-known facts, it has been maintained by several
+authors that one species, for instance of the carnivorous order, could
+not pass into another, for instance into an otter, because in its
+transitional state its habits would not be adapted to any proper
+conditions of life; but the jaguar{303} is a thoroughly terrestrial
+quadruped in its structure, yet it takes freely to the water and catches
+many fish; will it be said that it is _impossible_ that the conditions
+of its country might become such that the jaguar should be driven to
+feed more on fish than they now do; and in that case is it impossible,
+is it not probable, that any the slightest deviation in its instincts,
+its form of body, in the width of its feet, and in the extension of the
+skin (which already unites the base of its toes) would give such
+individuals a better _chance_ of surviving and propagating young with
+similar, barely perceptible (though thoroughly exercised),
+deviations{304}? Who will say what could thus be effected in the course
+of ten thousand generations? Who can answer the same question with
+respect to instincts? If no one can, the _possibility_ (for we are not
+in this chapter considering the _probability_) of simple organs or
+organic beings being modified by natural selection and the effects of
+external agencies into complicated ones ought not to be absolutely
+rejected.
+
+     {300} <Note in original.> No one will dispute that the gliding is
+     most useful, probably necessary for the species in question.
+
+     {301} <Note in original.> Is this the Galeopithecus? I forget.
+     <_Galeopithecus_ "or the flying Lemur" is mentioned in the
+     corresponding discussion in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 181, vi. p. 217,
+     as formerly placed among the bats. I do not know why it is described
+      as partly aquatic in its habits.>
+
+     {302} In the _Origin_, Ed. vi. p. 221, the author modified the
+     statement that it _never_ climbs trees; he also inserted a sentence
+     quoting Mr Hudson to the effect that in other districts this
+     woodpecker climbs trees and bores holes. See Mr Darwin's paper,
+     _Zoolog. Soc. Proc._, 1870, and _Life and Letters_, iii. p. 153.
+
+     {303} Note by the late Alfred Newton. Richardson in _Fauna
+     Boreali-Americana_, i. p. 49.
+
+     {304} <Note in original.> See Richardson a far better case of a
+     polecat animal <_Mustela vison_>, which half-year is aquatic.
+     <Mentioned in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 179, vi. p. 216.>
+
+
+
+
+PART II{305}
+
+ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW THAT SPECIES ARE
+NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED FROM COMMON STOCKS
+
+     {305} In the _Origin_ the division of the work into Parts I and II
+     is omitted. In the MS. the chapters of Part II are numbered afresh,
+     the present being Ch. I of Pt. II. I have thought it best to call
+     it Ch. IV and there is evidence that Darwin had some thought of
+     doing the same. It corresponds to Ch. IX of _Origin_, Ed. i., Ch. X
+     in Ed. vi.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE THEORY OF COMMON
+DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE IN A FOSSIL STATE
+
+
+I must here premise that, according to the view ordinarily received, the
+myriads of organisms, which have during past and present times peopled
+this world, have been created by so many distinct acts of creation. It
+is impossible to reason concerning the will of the Creator, and
+therefore, according to this view, we can see no cause why or why not
+the individual organism should have been created on any fixed scheme.
+That all the organisms of this world have been produced on a scheme is
+certain from their general affinities; and if this scheme can be shown
+to be the same with that which would result from allied organic beings
+descending from common stocks, it becomes highly improbable that they
+have been separately created by individual acts of the will of a
+Creator. For as well might it be said that, although the planets move in
+courses conformably to the law of gravity, yet we ought to attribute
+the course of each planet to the individual act of the will of the
+Creator{306}. It is in every case more conformable with what we know of
+the government of this earth, that the Creator should have imposed only
+general laws. As long as no method was known by which races could become
+exquisitely adapted to various ends, whilst the existence of species was
+thought to be proved by the sterility{307} of their offspring, it was
+allowable to attribute each organism to an individual act of creation.
+But in the two former chapters it has (I think) been shown that the
+production, under existing conditions, of exquisitely adapted species,
+is at least _possible_. Is there then any direct evidence in favour <of> or
+against this view? I believe that the geographical distribution of
+organic beings in past and present times, the kind of affinity linking
+them together, their so-called "metamorphic" and "abortive" organs,
+appear in favour of this view. On the other hand, the imperfect evidence
+of the continuousness of the organic series, which, we shall immediately
+see, is required on our theory, is against it; and is the most weighty
+objection{308}. The evidence, however, even on this point, as far as it
+goes, is favourable; and considering the imperfection of our knowledge,
+especially with respect to past ages, it would be surprising if evidence
+drawn from such sources were not also imperfect.
+
+     {306} In the Essay of 1842 the author uses astronomy in the same
+     manner as an illustration. In the _Origin_ this does not occur; the
+     reference to the action of secondary causes is more general, _e.g._
+     Ed. i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.
+
+     {307} It is interesting to find the argument from sterility given
+     so prominent a place. In a corresponding passage in the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p. 659, it is more summarily treated. The author
+     gives, as the chief bar to the acceptance of evolution, the fact
+     that "we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we
+     do not see the intermediate steps"; and goes on to quote Lyell on
+     geological action. It will be remembered that the question of
+     sterility remained a difficulty for Huxley.
+
+     {308} Similar statements occur in the Essay of 1842, p. 24, note 1,
+     and in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299.
+
+As I suppose that species have been formed in an analogous manner with
+the varieties of the domesticated animals and plants, so must there have
+existed intermediate forms between all the species of the same group,
+not differing more than recognised varieties differ. It must not be
+supposed necessary that there should have existed forms exactly
+intermediate in character between any two species of a genus, or even
+between any two varieties of a species; but it is necessary that there
+should have existed every intermediate form between the one species or
+variety of the common parent, and likewise between the second species or
+variety, and this same common parent. Thus it does not necessarily
+follow that there ever has existed <a> series of intermediate sub-varieties
+(differing no more than the occasional seedlings from the same
+seed-capsule,) between broccoli and common red cabbage; but it is
+certain that there has existed, between broccoli and the wild parent
+cabbage, a series of such intermediate seedlings, and again between red
+cabbage and the wild parent cabbage: so that the broccoli and red
+cabbage are linked together, but not _necessarily_ by directly
+intermediate forms{309}. It is of course possible that there _may_ have
+been directly intermediate forms, for the broccoli may have long since
+descended from a common red cabbage, and this from the wild cabbage. So
+on my theory, it must have been with species of the same genus. Still
+more must the supposition be avoided that there has necessarily ever
+existed (though one _may_ have descended from <the> other) directly
+intermediate forms between any two genera or families--for instance
+between the genus _Sus_ and the Tapir{310}; although it is necessary
+that intermediate forms (not differing more than the varieties of our
+domestic animals) should have existed between Sus and some unknown
+parent form, and Tapir with this same parent form. The latter may have
+differed more from Sus and Tapir than these two genera now differ from
+each other. In this sense, according to our theory, there has been a
+gradual passage (the steps not being wider apart than our domestic
+varieties) between the species of the same genus, between genera of the
+same family, and between families of the same order, and so on, as far
+as facts, hereafter to be given, lead us; and the number of forms which
+must have at former periods existed, thus to make good this passage
+between different species, genera, and families, must have been almost
+infinitely great.
+
+     {309} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 280, vi. p. 414 he uses his
+     newly-acquired knowledge of pigeons to illustrate this point.
+
+     {310} Compare the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 281, vi. p. 414.
+
+What evidence{311} is there of a number of intermediate forms having
+existed, making a passage in the above sense, between the species of the
+same groups? Some naturalists have supposed that if every fossil which
+now lies entombed, together with all existing species, were collected
+together, a perfect series in every great class would be formed.
+Considering the enormous number of species requisite to effect this,
+especially in the above sense of the forms not being _directly_
+intermediate between the existing species and genera, but only
+intermediate by being linked through a common but often widely different
+ancestor, I think this supposition highly improbable. I am however far
+from underrating the probable number of fossilised species: no one who
+has attended to the wonderful progress of palæontology during the last
+few years will doubt that we as yet have found only an exceedingly small
+fraction of the species buried in the crust of the earth. Although the
+almost infinitely numerous intermediate forms in no one class may have
+been preserved, it does not follow that they have not existed. The
+fossils which have been discovered, it is important to remark, do tend,
+the little way they go, to make good the series; for as observed by
+Buckland they all fall into or between existing groups{312}. Moreover,
+those that fall between our existing groups, fall in, according to the
+manner required by our theory, for they do not directly connect two
+existing species of different groups, but they connect the groups
+themselves: thus the Pachydermata and Ruminantia are now separated by
+several characters, <for instance> the Pachydermata{313} have both a
+tibia and fibula, whilst Ruminantia have only a tibia; now the fossil
+Macrauchenia has a leg bone exactly intermediate in this respect, and
+likewise has some other intermediate characters. But the Macrauchenia
+does not connect any one species of Pachydermata with some one other of
+Ruminantia but it shows that these two groups have at one time been less
+widely divided. So have fish and reptiles been at one time more closely
+connected in some points than they now are. Generally in those groups in
+which there has been most change, the more ancient the fossil, if not
+identical with recent, the more often it falls between existing groups,
+or into small existing groups which now lie between other large existing
+groups. Cases like the foregoing, of which there are many, form steps,
+though few and far between, in a series of the kind required by my
+theory.
+
+     {311} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 301, vi. p. 440.
+
+     {312} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p. 471.
+
+     {313} The structure of the Pachyderm leg was a favourite with the
+     author. It is discussed in the Essay of 1842, p. 48. In the present
+     Essay the following sentence in the margin appears to refer to
+     Pachyderms and Ruminants: "There can be no doubt, if we banish all
+     fossils, existing groups stand more separate." The following occurs
+     between the lines "The earliest forms would be such as others could
+     radiate from."
+
+As I have admitted the high improbability, that if every fossil were
+disinterred, they would compose in each of the Divisions of Nature a
+perfect series of the kind required; consequently I freely admit, that
+if those geologists are in the right who consider the lowest known
+formation as contemporaneous with the first appearances of life{314}; or
+the several formations as at all closely consecutive; or any one
+formation as containing a nearly perfect record of the organisms which
+existed during the whole period of its deposition in that quarter of the
+globe;--if such propositions are to be accepted, my theory must be
+abandoned.
+
+     {314} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.
+
+If the Palæozoic system is really contemporaneous with the first
+appearance of life, my theory must be abandoned, both inasmuch as it
+limits _from shortness of time_ the total number of forms which can have
+existed on this world, and because the organisms, as fish, mollusca{315}
+and star-fish found in its lower beds, cannot be considered as the
+parent forms of all the successive species in these classes. But no one
+has yet overturned the arguments of Hutton and Lyell, that the lowest
+formations known to us are only those which have escaped being
+metamorphosed <illegible>; if we argued from some considerable districts,
+we might have supposed that even the Cretaceous system was that in which
+life first appeared. From the number of distant points, however, in
+which the Silurian system has been found to be the lowest, and not
+always metamorphosed, there are some objections to Hutton's and Lyell's
+view; but we must not forget that the now existing land forms only 1/5
+part of the superficies of the globe, and that this fraction is only
+imperfectly known. With respect to the fewness of the organisms found in
+the Silurian and other Palæozoic formations, there is less difficulty,
+inasmuch as (besides their gradual obliteration) we can expect
+formations of this vast antiquity to escape entire denudation, only when
+they have been accumulated over a wide area, and have been subsequently
+protected by vast superimposed deposits: now this could generally only
+hold good with deposits accumulating in a wide and deep ocean, and
+therefore unfavourable to the presence of many living things. A mere
+narrow and not very thick strip of matter, deposited along a coast where
+organisms most abound, would have no chance of escaping denudation and
+being preserved to the present time from such immensely distant
+ages{316}.
+
+     {315} <Pencil insertion by the author.> The parent-forms of Mollusca
+     would probably differ greatly from all recent,--it is not directly
+     that any one division of Mollusca would descend from first time
+     unaltered, whilst others had become metamorphosed from it.
+
+     {316} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.
+
+If the several known formations are at all nearly consecutive in time,
+and preserve a fair record of the organisms which have existed, my
+theory must be abandoned. But when we consider the great changes in
+mineralogical nature and texture between successive formations, what
+vast and entire changes in the geography of the surrounding countries
+must generally have been effected, thus wholly to have changed the
+nature of the deposits on the same area. What time such changes must
+have required! Moreover how often has it not been found, that between
+two conformable and apparently immediately successive deposits a vast
+pile of water-worn matter is interpolated in an adjoining district. We
+have no means of conjecturing in many cases how long a period{317} has
+elapsed between successive formations, for the species are often wholly
+different: as remarked by Lyell, in some cases probably as long a period
+has elapsed between two formations as the whole Tertiary system, itself
+broken by wide gaps.
+
+     {317} <Note in original.> Reflect on coming in of the Chalk,
+     extending from Iceland to the Crimea.
+
+Consult the writings of any one who has particularly attended to any one
+stage in the Tertiary system (and indeed of every system) and see how
+deeply impressed he is with the time required for its accumulation{318}.
+Reflect on the years elapsed in many cases, since the latest beds
+containing only living species have been formed;--see what Jordan Smith
+says of the 20,000 years since the last bed, which is above the boulder
+formation in Scotland, has been upraised; or of the far longer period
+since the recent beds of Sweden have been upraised 400 feet, what an
+enormous period the boulder formation must have required, and yet how
+insignificant are the records (although there has been plenty of
+elevation to bring up submarine deposits) of the shells, which we know
+existed at that time. Think, then, over the entire length of the
+Tertiary epoch, and think over the probable length of the intervals,
+separating the Secondary deposits. Of these deposits, moreover, those
+consisting of sand and pebbles have seldom been favourable, either to
+the embedment or to the preservation of fossils{319}.
+
+     {318} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 282, vi. p. 416.
+
+     {319} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 288, 300, vi. pp. 422, 438.
+
+Nor can it be admitted as probable that any one Secondary formation
+contains a fair record even of those organisms which are most easily
+preserved, namely hard marine bodies. In how many cases have we not
+certain evidence that between the deposition of apparently closely
+consecutive beds, the lower one existed for an unknown time as land,
+covered with trees. Some of the Secondary formations which contain most
+marine remains appear to have been formed in a wide and not deep sea,
+and therefore only those marine animals which live in such situations
+would be preserved{320}. In all cases, on indented rocky coasts, or any
+other coast, where sediment is not accumulating, although often highly
+favourable to marine animals, none can be embedded: where pure sand and
+pebbles are accumulating few or none will be preserved. I may here
+instance the great western line of the S. American coast{321}, tenanted
+by many peculiar animals, of which none probably will be preserved to a
+distant epoch. From these causes, and especially from such deposits as
+are formed along a line of coast, steep above and below water, being
+necessarily of little width, and therefore more likely to be
+subsequently denuded and worn away, we can see why it is improbable that
+our Secondary deposits contain a fair record of the Marine Fauna of any
+one period. The East Indian Archipelago offers an area, as large as most
+of our Secondary deposits, in which there are wide and shallow seas,
+teeming with marine animals, and in which sediment is accumulating; now
+supposing that all the hard marine animals, or rather those having hard
+parts to preserve, were preserved to a future age, excepting those which
+lived on rocky shores where no sediment or only sand and gravel were
+accumulating, and excepting those embedded along the steeper coasts,
+where only a narrow fringe of sediment was accumulating, supposing all
+this, how poor a notion would a person at a future age have of the
+Marine Fauna of the present day. Lyell{322} has compared the geological
+series to a work of which only the few latter but not consecutive
+chapters have been preserved; and out of which, it may be added, very
+many leaves have been torn, the remaining ones only illustrating a
+scanty portion of the Fauna of each period. On this view, the records
+of anteceding ages confirm my theory; on any other they destroy it.
+
+     {320} <Note in original.> Neither highest or lowest fish (_i.e._
+     Myxina <?> or Lepidosiren) could be preserved in intelligible
+     condition in fossils.
+
+     {321} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 290, vi. p. 425.
+
+     {322} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 310, vi. p. 452 for Lyell's metaphor.
+     I am indebted to Prof. Judd for pointing out that Darwin's version
+     of the metaphor is founded on the first edition of Lyell's
+     _Principles_, vol. I. and vol. III.; see the Essay of 1842, p. 27.
+
+Finally, if we narrow the question into, why do we not find in some
+instances every intermediate form between any two species? the answer
+may well be that the average duration of each specific form (as we have
+good reason to believe) is immense in years, and that the transition
+could, according to my theory, be effected only by numberless small
+gradations; and therefore that we should require for this end a most
+perfect record, which the foregoing reasoning teaches us not to expect.
+It might be thought that in a vertical section of great thickness in the
+same formation some of the species ought to be found to vary in the
+upper and lower parts{323}, but it may be doubted whether any formation
+has gone on accumulating without any break for a period as long as the
+duration of a species; and if it had done so, we should require a series
+of specimens from every part. How rare must be the chance of sediment
+accumulating for some 20 or 30 thousand years on the same spot{324},
+with the bottom subsiding, so that a proper depth might be preserved for
+any one species to continue living: what an amount of subsidence would
+be thus required, and this subsidence must not destroy the source whence
+the sediment continued to be derived. In the case of terrestrial
+animals, what chance is there when the present time is become a
+pleistocene formation (at an earlier period than this, sufficient
+elevation to expose marine beds could not be expected), what chance is
+there that future geologists will make out the innumerable transitional
+sub-varieties, through which the short-horned and long-horned cattle
+(so different in shape of body) have been derived from the same parent
+stock{325}? Yet this transition has been effected in _the same country_,
+and in a far _shorter time_, than would be probable in a wild state,
+both contingencies highly favourable for the future hypothetical
+geologists being enabled to trace the variation.
+
+     {323} See _More Letters_, vol. I. pp. 344-7, for Darwin's interest
+     in the celebrated observations of Hilgendorf and Hyatt.
+
+     {324} This corresponds partly to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 294, vi. p.
+     431.
+
+     {325} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES{326}
+
+     {326} This chapter corresponds to ch. X of _Origin_, Ed. i., vi.
+     ch. XI, "On the geological succession of organic beings."
+
+
+In the Tertiary system, in the last uplifted beds, we find all the
+species recent and living in the immediate vicinity; in rather older
+beds we find only recent species, but some not living in the immediate
+vicinity{327}; we then find beds with two or three or a few more extinct
+or very rare species; then considerably more extinct species, but with
+gaps in the regular increase; and finally we have beds with only two or
+three or not one living species. Most geologists believe that the gaps
+in the percentage, that is the sudden increments, in the number of the
+extinct species in the stages of the Tertiary system are due to the
+imperfection of the geological record. Hence we are led to believe that
+the species in the Tertiary system have been gradually introduced; and
+from analogy to carry on the same view to the Secondary formations. In
+these latter, however, entire groups of species generally come in
+abruptly; but this would naturally result, if, as argued in the
+foregoing chapter, these Secondary deposits are separated by wide
+epochs. Moreover it is important to observe that, with our increase of
+knowledge, the gaps between the older formations become fewer and
+smaller; geologists of a few years standing remember how beautifully
+has the Devonian system{328} come in between the Carboniferous and
+Silurian formations. I need hardly observe that the slow and gradual
+appearance of new forms follows from our theory, for to form a new
+species, an old one must not only be plastic in its organization,
+becoming so probably from changes in the conditions of its existence,
+but a place in the natural economy of the district must [be made,] come
+to exist, for the selection of some new modification of its structure,
+better fitted to the surrounding conditions than are the other
+individuals of the same or other species{329}.
+
+     {327} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.
+
+     {328} In the margin the author has written "Lonsdale." This refers
+     to W. Lonsdale's paper "Notes on the age of the Limestone of South
+     Devonshire," _Geolog. Soc. Trans._, Series 2, vol. V. 1840, p. 721.
+     According to Mr H. B. Woodward (_History of the Geological Society
+     of London_, 1907, p. 107) "Lonsdale's 'important and original
+     suggestion of the existence of an intermediary type of Palæozoic
+     fossils, since called Devonian,' led to a change which was then
+     'the greatest ever made at one time in the classification of our
+     English formations'." Mr Woodward's quotations are from Murchison
+     and Buckland.
+
+     {329} <Note in original.> Better begin with this. If species really,
+     after catastrophes, created in showers over world, my theory false.
+     <In the above passage the author is obviously close to his theory of
+     divergence.>
+
+In the Tertiary system the same facts, which make us admit as probable
+that new species have slowly appeared, lead to the admission that old
+ones have slowly disappeared, not several together, but one after
+another; and by analogy one is induced to extend this belief to the
+Secondary and Palæozoic epochs. In some cases, as the subsidence of a
+flat country, or the breaking or the joining of an isthmus, and the
+sudden inroad of many new and destructive species, extinction might be
+locally sudden. The view entertained by many geologists, that each fauna
+of each Secondary epoch has been suddenly destroyed over the whole
+world, so that no succession could be left for the production of new
+forms, is subversive of my theory, but I see no grounds whatever to
+admit such a view. On the contrary, the law, which has been made out,
+with reference to distinct epochs, by independent observers, namely,
+that the wider the geographical range of a species the longer is its
+duration in time, seems entirely opposed to any universal
+extermination{330}. The fact of species of mammiferous animals and fish
+being renewed at a quicker rate than mollusca, though both aquatic; and
+of these the terrestrial genera being renewed quicker than the marine;
+and the marine mollusca being again renewed quicker than the Infusorial
+animalcula, all seem to show that the extinction and renewal of species
+does not depend on general catastrophes, but on the particular relations
+of the several classes to the conditions to which they are exposed{331}.
+
+     {330} Opposite to this passage the author has written "d'Archiac,
+     Forbes, Lyell."
+
+     {331} This passage, for which the author gives as authorities the
+     names of Lyell, Forbes and Ehrenberg, corresponds in part to the
+     discussion beginning on p. 313 of _Origin_, Ed. i., vi. p. 454.
+
+Some authors seem to consider the fact of a few species having
+survived{332} amidst a number of extinct forms (as is the case with a
+tortoise and a crocodile out of the vast number of extinct sub-Himalayan
+fossils) as strongly opposed to the view of species being mutable. No
+doubt this would be the case, if it were presupposed with Lamarck that
+there was some inherent tendency to change and development in all
+species, for which supposition I see no evidence. As we see some species
+at present adapted to a wide range of conditions, so we may suppose that
+such species would survive unchanged and unexterminated for a long time;
+time generally being from geological causes a correlative of changing
+conditions. How at present one species becomes adapted to a wide range,
+and another species to a restricted range of conditions, is of difficult
+explanation.
+
+     {332} The author gives Falconer as his authority: see _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.
+
+
+_Extinction of species._
+
+The extinction of the larger quadrupeds, of which we imagine we better
+know the conditions of existence, has been thought little less wonderful
+than the appearance of new species; and has, I think, chiefly led to the
+belief of universal catastrophes. When considering the wonderful
+disappearance within a late period, whilst recent shells were living, of
+the numerous great and small mammifers of S. America, one is strongly
+induced to join with the catastrophists. I believe, however, that very
+erroneous views are held on this subject. As far as is historically
+known, the disappearance of species from any one country has been
+slow--the species becoming rarer and rarer, locally extinct, and finally
+lost{333}. It may be objected that this has been effected by man's
+direct agency, or by his indirect agency in altering the state of the
+country; in this latter case, however, it would be difficult to draw any
+just distinction between his agency and natural agencies. But we now
+know in the later Tertiary deposits, that shells become rarer and rarer
+in the successive beds, and finally disappear: it has happened, also,
+that shells common in a fossil state, and thought to have been extinct,
+have been found to be still living species, but very _rare_ ones{334}.
+If the rule is that organisms become extinct by becoming rarer and
+rarer, we ought not to view their extinction, even in the case of the
+larger quadrupeds, as anything wonderful and out of the common course of
+events. For no naturalist thinks it wonderful that one species of a
+genus should be rare and another abundant, notwithstanding he be quite
+incapable of explaining the causes of the comparative rareness{335}. Why
+is one species of willow-wren or hawk or woodpecker common in England,
+and another extremely rare: why at the Cape of Good Hope is one species
+of rhinoceros or antelope far more abundant than other species? Why
+again is the same species much more abundant in one district of a
+country than in another district? No doubt there are in each case good
+causes: but they are unknown and unperceived by us. May we not then
+safely infer that as certain causes are acting _unperceived_ around us,
+and are making one species to be common and another exceedingly rare,
+that they might equally well cause the final extinction of some species
+without being perceived by us? We should always bear in mind that there
+is a recurrent struggle for life in every organism, and that in every
+country a destroying agency is always counteracting the geometrical
+tendency to increase in every species; and yet without our being able to
+tell with certainty at what period of life, or at what period of the
+year, the destruction falls the heaviest. Ought we then to expect to
+trace the steps by which this destroying power, always at work and
+scarcely perceived by us, becomes increased, and yet if it continues to
+increase ever so slowly (without the fertility of the species in
+question be likewise increased) the average number of the individuals of
+that species must decrease, and become finally lost. I may give a single
+instance of a check causing local extermination which might long have
+escaped discovery{336}; the horse, though swarming in a wild state in La
+Plata, and likewise under apparently the most unfavourable conditions in
+the scorched and alternately flooded plains of Caraccas, will not in a
+wild state extend beyond a certain degree of latitude into the
+intermediate country of Paraguay; this is owing to a certain fly
+depositing its eggs on the navels of the foals: as, however, man with a
+_little_ care can rear horses in a tame state _abundantly_ in Paraguay,
+the problem of its extinction is probably complicated by the greater
+exposure of the wild horse to occasional famine from the droughts, to
+the attacks of the jaguar and other such evils. In the Falkland Islands
+the check to the _increase_ of the wild horse is said to be loss of the
+sucking foals{337}, from the stallions compelling the mares to travel
+across bogs and rocks in search of food: if the pasture on these islands
+decreased a little, the horse, perhaps, would cease to exist in a wild
+state, not from the absolute want of food, but from the impatience of
+the stallions urging the mares to travel whilst the foals were too
+young.
+
+     {333} This corresponds approximately to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 317,
+     vi. p. 458.
+
+     {334} The case of _Trigonia_, a great Secondary genus of shells
+     surviving in a single species in the Australian seas, is given as
+     an example in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.
+
+     {335} This point, on which the author laid much stress, is
+     discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 319, vi. p. 461.
+
+     {336} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 72, vi. p. 89.
+
+     {337} This case does not occur in the _Origin_, Ed.
+
+From our more intimate acquaintance with domestic animals, we cannot
+conceive their extinction without some glaring agency; we forget that
+they would undoubtedly in a state of nature (where other animals are
+ready to fill up their place) be acted on in some part of their lives by
+a destroying agency, keeping their numbers on an average constant. If
+the common ox was known only as a wild S. African species, we should
+feel no surprise at hearing that it was a very rare species; and this
+rarity would be a stage towards its extinction. Even in man, so
+infinitely better known than any other inhabitant of this world, how
+impossible it has been found, without statistical calculations, to judge
+of the proportions of births and deaths, of the duration of life, and of
+the increase and decrease of population; and still less of the causes of
+such changes: and yet, as has so often been repeated, decrease in
+numbers or rarity seems to be the high-road to extinction. To marvel at
+the extermination of a species appears to me to be the same thing as to
+know that illness is the road to death,--to look at illness as an
+ordinary event, nevertheless to conclude, when the sick man dies, that
+his death has been caused by some unknown and violent agency{338}.
+
+     {338} An almost identical sentence occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 320, vi. p. 462.
+
+In a future part of this work we shall show that, as a general rule,
+groups of allied species{339} gradually appear and disappear, one after
+the other, on the face of the earth, like the individuals of the same
+species: and we shall then endeavour to show the probable cause of this
+remarkable fact.
+
+     {339} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN PAST AND PRESENT
+TIMES
+
+
+For convenience sake I shall divide this chapter into three
+sections{340}. In the first place I shall endeavour to state the laws of
+the distribution of existing beings, as far as our present object is
+concerned; in the second, that of extinct; and in the third section I
+shall consider how far these laws accord with the theory of allied
+species having a common descent.
+
+     {340} Chapters XI and XII in the _Origin_, Ed. i., vi. chs. XII and
+     XIII ("On geographical distribution") show signs of having been
+     originally one, in the fact that one summary serves for both. The
+     geological element is not separately treated there, nor is there a
+     separate section on "how far these laws accord with the theory,
+     &c."
+
+     In the MS. the author has here written in the margin "If same
+     species appear at two spot at once, fatal to my theory." See
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 499
+
+
+SECTION FIRST.
+
+
+_Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents._
+
+In the following discussion I shall chiefly refer to terrestrial
+mammifers, inasmuch as they are better known; their differences in
+different countries, strongly marked; and especially as the necessary
+means of their transport are more evident, and confusion, from the
+accidental conveyance by man of a species from one district to another
+district, is less likely to arise. It is known that all mammifers (as
+well as all other organisms) are united in one great system; but that
+the different species, genera, or families of the same order inhabit
+different quarters of the globe. If we divide the land{341} into two
+divisions, according to the amount of difference, and disregarding the
+numbers of the terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them, we shall have
+first Australia including New Guinea; and secondly the rest of the
+world: if we make a three-fold division, we shall have Australia, S.
+America, and the rest of the world; I must observe that North America is
+in some respects neutral land, from possessing some S. American forms,
+but I believe it is more closely allied (as it certainly is in its
+birds, plants and shells) with Europe. If our division had been
+four-fold, we should have had Australia, S. America, Madagascar (though
+inhabited by few mammifers) and the remaining land: if five-fold,
+Africa, especially the southern eastern parts, would have to be
+separated from the remainder of the world. These differences in the
+mammiferous inhabitants of the several main divisions of the globe
+cannot, it is well known, be explained by corresponding differences in
+their conditions{342}; how similar are parts of tropical America and
+Africa; and accordingly we find some _analogous_ resemblances,--thus
+both have monkeys, both large feline animals, both large Lepidoptera,
+and large dung-feeding beetles; both have palms and epiphytes; and yet
+the essential difference between their productions is as great as
+between those of the arid plains of the Cape of Good Hope and the
+grass-covered savannahs of La Plata{343}. Consider the distribution of
+the Marsupialia, which are eminently characteristic of Australia, and in
+a lesser degree of S. America; when we reflect that animals of this
+division, feeding both on animal and vegetable matter, frequent the dry
+open or wooded plains and mountains of Australia, the humid impenetrable
+forests of New Guinea and Brazil; the dry rocky mountains of Chile, and
+the grassy plains of Banda Oriental, we must look to some other cause,
+than the nature of the country, for their absence in Africa and other
+quarters of the world.
+
+     {341} This division of the land into regions does not occur in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+     {342} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493.
+
+     {343} Opposite this passage is written "_not botanically_," in Sir
+     J. D. Hooker's hand. The word _palms_ is underlined three times and
+     followed by three exclamation marks. An explanatory note is added
+     in the margin "singular paucity of palms and epiphytes in Trop.
+     Africa compared with Trop. America and Ind. Or." <=East Indies>.
+
+Furthermore it may be observed that _all_ the organisms inhabiting any
+country are not perfectly adapted to it{344}; I mean by not being
+perfectly adapted, only that some few other organisms can generally be
+found better adapted to the country than some of the aborigines. We must
+admit this when we consider the enormous number of horses and cattle
+which have run wild during the three last centuries in the uninhabited
+parts of St Domingo, Cuba, and S. America; for these animals must have
+supplanted some aboriginal ones. I might also adduce the same fact in
+Australia, but perhaps it will be objected that 30 or 40 years has not
+been a sufficient period to test this power of struggling <with> and
+overcoming the aborigines. We know the European mouse is driving before
+it that of New Zealand, like the Norway rat has driven before it the old
+English species in England. Scarcely an island can be named, where
+casually introduced plants have not supplanted some of the native
+species: in La Plata the Cardoon covers square leagues of country on
+which some S. American plants must once have grown: the commonest weed
+over the whole of India is an introduced Mexican poppy. The geologist
+who knows that slow changes are in progress, replacing land and water,
+will easily perceive that even if all the organisms of any country had
+originally been the best adapted to it, this could hardly continue so
+during succeeding ages without either extermination, or changes, first
+in the relative proportional numbers of the inhabitants of the country,
+and finally in their constitutions and structure.
+
+     {344} This partly corresponds to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 337, vi. p.
+     483.
+
+Inspection of a map of the world at once shows that the five divisions,
+separated according to the greatest amount of difference in the
+mammifers inhabiting them, are likewise those most widely separated from
+each other by barriers{345} which mammifers cannot pass: thus Australia
+is separated from New Guinea and some small adjoining islets only by a
+narrow and shallow strait; whereas New Guinea and its adjoining islets
+are cut off from the other East Indian islands by deep water. These
+latter islands, I may remark, which fall into the great Asiatic group,
+are separated from each other and the continent only by shallow water;
+and where this is the case we may suppose, from geological oscillations
+of level, that generally there has been recent union. South America,
+including the southern part of Mexico, is cut off from North America by
+the West Indies, and the great table-land of Mexico, except by a mere
+fringe of tropical forests along the coast: it is owing, perhaps, to
+this fringe that N. America possesses some S. American forms. Madagascar
+is entirely isolated. Africa is also to a great extent isolated,
+although it approaches, by many promontories and by lines of shallower
+sea, to Europe and Asia: southern Africa, which is the most distinct in
+its mammiferous inhabitants, is separated from the northern portion by
+the Great Sahara Desert and the table-land of Abyssinia. That the
+distribution of organisms is related to barriers, stopping their
+progress, we clearly see by comparing the distribution of marine and
+terrestrial productions. The marine animals being different on the two
+sides of land tenanted by the same terrestrial animals, thus the shells
+are wholly different on the opposite sides of the temperate parts of
+South America{346}, as they are (?) in the Red Sea and the
+Mediterranean. We can at once perceive that the destruction of a barrier
+would permit two geographical groups of organisms to fuse and blend into
+one. But the original cause of groups being different on opposite sides
+of a barrier can only be understood on the hypothesis of each organism
+having been created or produced on one spot or area, and afterwards
+migrating as widely as its means of transport and subsistence permitted
+it.
+
+     {345} On the general importance of barriers, see _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 347, vi. p. 494.
+
+     {346} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 348, vi. p. 495.
+
+
+_Relation of range in genera and species._
+
+It is generally{347} found, that where a genus or group ranges over
+nearly the entire world, many of the species composing the group have
+wide ranges: on the other hand, where a group is restricted to any one
+country, the species composing it generally have restricted ranges in
+that country{348}. Thus among mammifers the feline and canine genera are
+widely distributed, and many of the individual species have enormous
+ranges [the genus Mus I believe, however, is a strong exception to the
+rule]. Mr Gould informs me that the rule holds with birds, as in the
+owl genus, which is mundane, and many of the species range widely. The
+rule holds also with land and fresh-water mollusca, with butterflies and
+very generally with plants. As instances of the converse rule, I may
+give that division of the monkeys which is confined to S. America, and
+amongst plants, the Cacti, confined to the same continent, the species
+of both of which have generally narrow ranges. On the ordinary theory of
+the separate creation of each species, the cause of these relations is
+not obvious; we can see no reason, because many allied species have been
+created in the several main divisions of the world, that several of
+these species should have wide ranges; and on the other hand, that
+species of the same group should have narrow ranges if all have been
+created in one main division of the world. As the result of such and
+probably many other unknown relations, it is found that, even in the
+same great classes of beings, the different divisions of the world are
+characterised by either merely different species, or genera, or even
+families: thus in cats, mice, foxes, S. America differs from Asia and
+Africa only in species; in her pigs, camels and monkeys the difference
+is generic or greater. Again, whilst southern Africa and Australia
+differ more widely in their mammalia than do Africa and S. America, they
+are more closely (though indeed very distantly) allied in their plants.
+
+     {347} <Note in original.> The same laws seem to govern distribution
+     of species and genera, and individuals in time and space. <See
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 350, vi. p. 497, also a passage in the last
+     chapter, p. 146.>
+
+     {348} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 404, vi. p. 559.
+
+
+_Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent._
+
+If we now look at the distribution of the organisms in any one of the
+above main divisions of the world, we shall find it split up into many
+regions, with all or nearly all their species distinct, but yet
+partaking of one common character. This similarity of type in the
+subdivisions of a great region is equally well-known with the
+dissimilarity of the inhabitants of the several great regions; but it
+has been less often insisted on, though more worthy of remark. Thus for
+instance, if in Africa or S. America, we go from south to north{349}, or
+from lowland to upland, or from a humid to a dryer part, we find wholly
+different species of those genera or groups which characterise the
+continent over which we are passing. In these subdivisions we may
+clearly observe, as in the main divisions of the world, that
+sub-barriers divide different groups of species, although the opposite
+sides of such sub-barriers may possess nearly the same climate, and may
+be in other respects nearly similar: thus it is on the opposite sides of
+the Cordillera of Chile, and in a lesser degree on the opposite sides of
+the Rocky mountains. Deserts, arms of the sea, and even rivers form the
+barriers; mere preoccupied space seems sufficient in several cases: thus
+Eastern and Western Australia, in the same latitude, with very similar
+climate and soils, have scarcely a plant, and few animals or birds, in
+common, although all belong to the peculiar genera characterising
+Australia. It is in short impossible to explain the differences in the
+inhabitants, either of the main divisions of the world, or of these
+sub-divisions, by the differences in their physical conditions, and by
+the adaptation of their inhabitants. Some other cause must intervene.
+
+     {349} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.
+
+We can see that the destruction of sub-barriers would cause (as before
+remarked in the case of the main divisions) two sub-divisions to blend
+into one; and we can only suppose that the original difference in the
+species, on the opposite sides of sub-barriers, is due to the creation
+or production of species in distinct areas, from which they have
+wandered till arrested by such sub-barriers. Although thus far is pretty
+clear, it may be asked, why, when species in the same main division of
+the world were produced on opposite sides of a sub-barrier, both when
+exposed to similar conditions and when exposed to widely different
+influences (as on alpine and lowland tracts, as on arid and humid soils,
+as in cold and hot climates), have they invariably been formed on a
+similar type, and that type confined to this one division of the world?
+Why when an ostrich{350} was produced in the southern parts of America,
+was it formed on the American type, instead of on the African or on
+Australian types? Why when hare-like and rabbit-like animals were formed
+to live on the Savannahs of La Plata, were they produced on the peculiar
+Rodent type of S. America, instead of on the true{351} hare-type of
+North America, Asia and Africa? Why when borrowing Rodents, and
+camel-like animals were formed to tenant the Cordillera, were they
+formed on the same type{352} with their representatives on the plains?
+Why were the mice, and many birds of different species on the opposite
+sides of the Cordillera, but exposed to a very similar climate and soil,
+created on the same peculiar S. American type? Why were the plants in
+Eastern and Western Australia, though wholly different as species,
+formed on the same peculiar Australian types? The generality of the
+rule, in so many places and under such different circumstances, makes it
+highly remarkable and seems to demand some explanation.
+
+     {350} The case of the ostrich (_Rhea_) occurs in the _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.
+
+     {351} <Note in original.> There is a hare in S. America,--so bad
+     example.
+
+     {352} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 497.
+
+
+_Insular Faunas._
+
+If we now look to the character of the inhabitants of small
+islands{353}, we shall find that those situated close to other land have
+a similar fauna with that land{354}, whilst those at a considerable
+distance from other land often possess an almost entirely peculiar
+fauna. The Galapagos Archipelago{355} is a remarkable instance of this
+latter fact; here almost every bird, its one mammifer, its reptiles,
+land and sea shells, and even fish, are almost all peculiar and distinct
+species, not found in any other quarter of the world: so are the
+majority of its plants. But although situated at the distance of between
+500 and 600 miles from the S. American coast, it is impossible to even
+glance at a large part of its fauna, especially at the birds, without at
+once seeing that they belong to the American type{356}. Hence, in fact,
+groups of islands thus circumstanced form merely small but well-defined
+sub-divisions of the larger geographical divisions. But the fact is in
+such cases far more striking: for taking the Galapagos Archipelago as an
+instance; in the first place we must feel convinced, seeing that every
+island is wholly volcanic and bristles with craters, that in a
+geological sense the whole is of recent origin comparatively with a
+continent; and as the species are nearly all peculiar, we must conclude
+that they have in the same sense recently been produced on this very
+spot; and although in the nature of the soil, and in a lesser degree in
+the climate, there is a wide difference with the nearer part of the S.
+American coast, we see that the inhabitants have been formed on the same
+closely allied type. On the other hand, these islands, as far as their
+physical conditions are concerned, resemble closely the Cape de Verde
+volcanic group, and yet how wholly unlike are the productions of these
+two archipelagoes. The Cape de Verde{357} group, to which may be added
+the Canary Islands, are allied in their inhabitants (of which many are
+peculiar species) to the coast of Africa and southern Europe, in
+precisely the same manner as the Galapagos Archipelago is allied to
+America. We here clearly see that mere geographical proximity affects,
+more than any relation of adaptation, the character of species. How many
+islands in the Pacific exist far more like in their physical conditions
+to Juan Fernandez than this island is to the coast of Chile, distant 300
+miles; why then, except from mere proximity, should this island alone be
+tenanted by two very peculiar species of humming-birds--that form of
+birds which is so exclusively American? Innumerable other similar cases
+might be adduced.
+
+     {353} For the general problem of Oceanic Islands, see _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 388, vi. p. 541.
+
+     {354} This is an illustration of the general theory of barriers
+     (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 347, vi. p. 494). At i. p. 391, vi. p. 544 the
+     question is discussed from the point of view of means of transport.
+     Between the lines, above the words "with that land," the author
+     wrote "Cause, formerly joined, no one doubts after Lyell."
+
+     {355} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.
+
+     {356} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 397, vi. p. 552.
+
+     {357} The Cape de Verde and Galapagos Archipelagoes are compared in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553. See also _Journal of
+     Researches_, 1860, p. 393.
+
+The Galapagos Archipelago offers another, even more remarkable, example
+of the class of facts we are here considering. Most of its genera are,
+as we have said, American, many of them are mundane, or found
+everywhere, and some are quite or nearly confined to this archipelago.
+The islands are of absolutely similar composition, and exposed to the
+same climate; most of them are in sight of each other; and yet several
+of the islands are inhabited, each by peculiar species (or in some cases
+perhaps only varieties) of some of the genera characterising the
+archipelago. So that the small group of the Galapagos Islands typifies,
+and follows exactly the same laws in the distribution of its
+inhabitants, as a great continent. How wonderful it is that two or three
+closely similar but distinct species of a mocking-thrush{358} should
+have been produced on three neighbouring and absolutely similar islands;
+and that these three species of mocking-thrush should be closely related
+to the other species inhabiting wholly different climates and different
+districts of America, and only in America. No similar case so striking
+as this of the Galapagos Archipelago has hitherto been observed; and
+this difference of the productions in the different islands may perhaps
+be partly explained by the depth of the sea between them (showing that
+they could not have been united within recent geological periods), and
+by the currents of the sea sweeping _straight_ between them,--and by
+storms of wind being rare, through which means seeds and birds could be
+blown, or drifted, from one island to another. There are however some
+similar facts: it is said that the different, though neighbouring
+islands of the East Indian Archipelago are inhabited by some different
+species of the same genera; and at the Sandwich group some of the
+islands have each their peculiar species of the same genera of plants.
+
+     {358} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 390, a strong point is made of
+     birds which immigrated "with facility and in a body" not having
+     been modified. Thus the author accounts for the small percentage of
+     peculiar "marine birds."
+
+Islands standing quite isolated within the intra-tropical oceans have
+generally very peculiar floras, related, though feebly (as in the case
+of St Helena{359} where almost every species is distinct), with the
+nearest continent: Tristan d'Acunha is feebly related, I believe, in its
+plants, both to Africa and S. America, not by having species in common,
+but by the genera to which they belong{360}. The floras of the numerous
+scattered islands of the Pacific are related to each other and to all
+the surrounding continents; but it has been said, that they have more of
+an Indo-Asiatic than American character{361}. This is somewhat
+remarkable, as America is nearer to all the Eastern islands, and lies in
+the direction of the trade-wind and prevailing currents; on the other
+hand, all the heaviest gales come from the Asiatic side. But even with
+the aid of these gales, it is not obvious on the ordinary theory of
+creation how the possibility of migration (without we suppose, with
+extreme improbability, that each species with an Indo-Asiatic character
+has actually travelled from the Asiatic shores, where such species do
+not now exist) explains this Asiatic character in the plants of the
+Pacific. This is no more obvious than that (as before remarked) there
+should exist a relation between the creation of closely allied species
+in several regions of the world, and the fact of many such species
+having wide ranges; and on the other hand, of allied species confined to
+one region of the world having in that region narrow ranges.
+
+     {359} "The affinities of the St Helena flora are strongly South
+     African." Hooker's _Lecture on Insular Floras_ in the _Gardeners'
+     Chronicle_, Jan. 1867.
+
+     {360} It is impossible to make out the precise form which the
+     author intended to give to this sentence, but the meaning is clear.
+
+     {361} This is no doubt true, the flora of the Sandwich group
+     however has marked American affinities.
+
+
+_Alpine Floras._
+
+We will now turn to the floras of mountain-summits which are well known
+to differ from the floras of the neighbouring lowlands. In certain
+characters, such as dwarfness of stature, hairiness, &c., the species
+from the most distant mountains frequently resemble each other,--a kind
+of analogy like that for instance of the succulency of most desert
+plants. Besides this analogy, Alpine plants present some eminently
+curious facts in their distribution. In some cases the summits of
+mountains, although immensely distant from each other, are clothed by
+the same identical species{362} which are likewise the same with those
+growing on the likewise very distant Arctic shores. In other cases,
+although few or none of the species may be actually identical, they are
+closely related; whilst the plants of the lowland districts surrounding
+the two mountains in question will be wholly dissimilar. As
+mountain-summits, as far as their plants are concerned, are islands
+rising out of an ocean of land in which the Alpine species cannot live,
+nor across which is there any known means of transport, this fact
+appears directly opposed to the conclusion which we have come to from
+considering the general distribution of organisms both on continents and
+on islands--namely, that the degree of relationship between the
+inhabitants of two points depends on the completeness and nature of the
+barriers between those points{363}. I believe, however, this anomalous
+case admits, as we shall presently see, of some explanation. We might
+have expected that the flora of a mountain summit would have presented
+the same relation to the flora of the surrounding lowland country, which
+any isolated part of a continent does to the whole, or an island does to
+the mainland, from which it is separated by a rather wide space of sea.
+This in fact is the case with the plants clothing the summits of _some_
+mountains, which mountains it may be observed are particularly isolated;
+for instance, all the species are peculiar, but they belong to the forms
+characteristic of the surrounding continent, on the mountains of
+Caraccas, of Van Dieman's Land and of the Cape of Good Hope{364}. On
+some other mountains, for instance <in> Tierra del Fuego and in Brazil,
+some of the plants though distinct species are S. American forms; whilst
+others are allied to or are identical with the Alpine species of Europe.
+In islands of which the lowland flora is distinct <from> but allied to
+that of the nearest continent, the Alpine plants are sometimes (or
+perhaps mostly) eminently peculiar and distinct{365}; this is the case
+on Teneriffe, and in a lesser degree even on some of the Mediterranean
+islands.
+
+     {362} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515. The present
+     discussion was written before the publication of Forbes' celebrated
+     paper on the same subject; see _Life and Letters_, vol. I. p. 88.
+
+     {363} The apparent breakdown of the doctrine of barriers is
+     slightly touched on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515.
+
+     {364} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 375, vi. p. 526, the author points
+     out that on the mountains at the Cape of Good Hope "some few
+     representative European forms are found, which have not been
+     discovered in the inter-tropical parts of Africa."
+
+     {365} See Hooker's _Lecture on Insular Floras_ in the _Gardeners'
+     Chronicle_, Jan. 1867.
+
+If all Alpine floras had been characterised like that of the mountain of
+Caraccas, or of Van Dieman's Land, &c., whatever explanation is possible
+of the general laws of geographical distribution would have applied to
+them. But the apparently anomalous case just given, namely of the
+mountains of Europe, of some mountains in the United States (Dr Boott)
+and of the summits of the Himalaya (Royle), having many identical
+species in common conjointly with the Arctic regions, and many species,
+though not identical, closely allied, require a separate explanation.
+The fact likewise of several of the species on the mountains of Tierra
+del Fuego (and in a lesser degree on the mountains of Brazil) not
+belonging to American forms, but to those of Europe, though so immensely
+remote, requires also a separate explanation.
+
+
+_Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains._
+
+Now we may with confidence affirm, from the number of the then floating
+icebergs and low descent of the glaciers, that within a period so near
+that species of shells have remained the same, the whole of Central
+Europe and of North America (and perhaps of Eastern Asia) possessed a
+very cold climate; and therefore it is probable that the floras of these
+districts were the same as the present Arctic one,--as is known to have
+been to some degree the case with then existing sea-shells, and those
+now living on the Arctic shores. At this period the mountains must have
+been covered with ice of which we have evidence in the surfaces polished
+and scored by glaciers. What then would be the natural and almost
+inevitable effects of the gradual change into the present more temperate
+climate{366}? The ice and snow would disappear from the mountains, and
+as new plants from the more temperate regions of the south migrated
+northward, replacing the Arctic plants, these latter would crawl{367} up
+the now uncovered mountains, and likewise be driven northward to the
+present Arctic shores. If the Arctic flora of that period was a nearly
+uniform one, as the present one is, then we should have the same plants
+on these mountain-summits and on the present Arctic shores. On this view
+the Arctic flora of that period must have been a widely extended one,
+more so than even the present one; but considering how similar the
+physical conditions must always be of land bordering on perpetual frost,
+this does not appear a great difficulty; and may we not venture to
+suppose that the almost infinitely numerous icebergs, charged with
+great masses of rocks, soil and _brushwood_{368} and often driven high
+up on distant beaches, might have been the means of widely distributing
+the seeds of the same species?
+
+     {366} In the margin the author has written "(Forbes)." This may
+     have been inserted at a date later than 1844, or it may refer to a
+     work by Forbes earlier than his Alpine paper.
+
+     {367} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 367, vi. p. 517.
+
+     {368} <Note in original.> Perhaps vitality checked by cold and so
+     prevented germinating. <On the carriage of seeds by icebergs, see
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 363, vi. p. 513.>
+
+I will only hazard one other observation, namely that during the change
+from an extremely cold climate to a more temperate one the conditions,
+both on lowland and mountain, would be singularly favourable for the
+diffusion of any existing plants, which could live on land, just freed
+from the rigour of eternal winter; for it would possess no inhabitants;
+and we cannot doubt that _preoccupation_{369} is the chief bar to the
+diffusion of plants. For amongst many other facts, how otherwise can we
+explain the circumstance that the plants on the opposite, though
+similarly constituted sides of a wide river in Eastern Europe (as I was
+informed by Humboldt) should be widely different; across which river
+birds, swimming quadrupeds and the wind must often transport seeds; we
+can only suppose that plants already occupying the soil and freely
+seeding check the germination of occasionally transported seeds.
+
+     {369} A note by the author gives "many authors" apparently as
+     authority for this statement.
+
+At about the same period when icebergs were transporting boulders in N.
+America as far as 36° south, where the cotton tree now grows in South
+America, in latitude 42° (where the land is now clothed with forests
+having an almost tropical aspect with the trees bearing epiphytes and
+intertwined with canes), the same ice action was going on; is it not
+then in some degree probable that at this period the whole tropical
+parts of the two Americas possessed{370} (as Falconer asserts that
+India did) a more temperate climate? In this case the Alpine plants of
+the long chain of the Cordillera would have descended much lower and
+there would have been a broad high-road{371} connecting those parts of
+North and South America which were then frigid. As the present climate
+supervened, the plants occupying the districts which now are become in
+both hemispheres temperate and even semi-tropical must have been driven
+to the Arctic and Antarctic{372} regions; and only a few of the loftiest
+points of the Cordillera can have retained their former connecting
+flora. The transverse chain of Chiquitos might perhaps in a similar
+manner during the ice-action period have served as a connecting road
+(though a broken one) for Alpine plants to become dispersed from the
+Cordillera to the highlands of Brazil. It may be observed that some
+(though not strong) reasons can be assigned for believing that at about
+this same period the two Americas were not so thoroughly divided as they
+now are by the West Indies and tableland of Mexico. I will only further
+remark that the present most singularly close similarity in the
+vegetation of the lowlands of Kerguelen's Land{373} and of Tierra del
+Fuego (Hooker), though so far apart, may perhaps be explained by the
+dissemination of seeds during this same cold period, by means of
+icebergs, as before alluded to{374}.
+
+     {370} Opposite to this passage, in the margin, the author has
+     written:--"too hypothetical."
+
+     {371} The Cordillera is described as supplying a great line of
+     invasion in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 378.
+
+     {372} This is an approximation to the author's views on
+     trans-tropical migration (_Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 376-8). See
+     Thiselton-Dyer's interesting discussion in _Darwin and Modern
+     Science_, p. 304.
+
+     {373} See Hooker's _Lecture on Insular Floras_ in the _Gardeners'
+     Chronicle_, Jan. 1867.
+
+     {374} <Note by the author.> Similarity of flora of coral islands
+     easily explained.
+
+Finally, I think we may safely grant from the foregoing facts and
+reasoning that the anomalous similarity in the vegetation of certain
+very distant mountain-summits is not in truth opposed to the conclusion
+of the intimate relation subsisting between proximity in space (in
+accordance with the means of transport in each class) and the degree of
+affinity of the inhabitants of any two countries. In the case of several
+quite isolated mountains, we have seen that the general law holds good.
+
+
+_Whether the same species has been created more than once._
+
+As the fact of the same species of plants having been found on
+mountain-summits immensely remote has been one chief cause of the belief
+of some species having been contemporaneously produced or created at two
+different points{375}, I will here briefly discuss this subject. On the
+ordinary theory of creation, we can see no reason why on two similar
+mountain-summits two similar species may not have been created; but the
+opposite view, independently of its simplicity, has been generally
+received from the analogy of the general distribution of all organisms,
+in which (as shown in this chapter) we almost always find that great and
+continuous barriers separate distinct series; and we are naturally led
+to suppose that the two series have been separately created. When taking
+a more limited view we see a river, with a quite similar country on both
+sides, with one side well stocked with a certain animal and on the other
+side not one (as is the case with the Bizcacha{376} on the opposite
+sides of the Plata), we are at once led to conclude that the Bizcacha
+was produced on some one point or area on the western side of the
+river. Considering our ignorance of the many strange chances of
+diffusion by birds (which occasionally wander to immense distances) and
+quadrupeds swallowing seeds and ova (as in the case of the flying
+water-beetle which disgorged the eggs of a fish), and of whirlwinds
+carrying seeds and animals into strong upper currents (as in the case of
+volcanic ashes and showers of hay, grain and fish{377}), and of the
+possibility of species having survived for short periods at intermediate
+spots and afterwards becoming extinct there{378}; and considering our
+knowledge of the great changes which _have_ taken place from subsidence
+and elevation in the surface of the earth, and of our ignorance of the
+greater changes which _may have_ taken place, we ought to be very slow
+in admitting the probability of double creations. In the case of plants
+on mountain-summits, I think I have shown how almost necessarily they
+would, under the past conditions of the northern hemisphere, be as
+similar as are the plants on the present Arctic shores; and this ought
+to teach us a lesson of caution.
+
+     {375} On centres of creation see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p.
+     499.
+
+     {376} In the _Journal of Researches_, Ed. 1860, p. 124, the
+     distribution of the Bizcacha is described as limited by the river
+     Uruguay. The case is not I think given in the _Origin_.
+
+     {377} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. a special section (p. 356, vi. p.
+     504) is devoted to _Means of Dispersal_. The much greater
+     prominence given to this subject in the _Origin_ is partly
+     accounted for by the author's experiments being of later date,
+     _i.e._ 1855 (_Life and Letters_, vol. II. p. 53). The carriage of
+     fish by whirlwinds is given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 384, vi. p.
+     536.
+
+     {378} The case of islands serving as halting places is given in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 357, vi. p. 505. But here the evidence of this
+     having occurred is supposed to be lost by the subsidence of the
+     islands, not merely by the extinction of the species.
+
+But the strongest argument against double creations may be drawn from
+considering the case of mammifers{379} in which, from their nature and
+from the size of their offspring, the means of distribution are more in
+view. There are no cases where the same species is found in _very
+remote_ localities, except where there is a continuous belt of land:
+the Arctic region perhaps offers the strongest exception, and here we
+know that animals are transported on icebergs{380}. The cases of lesser
+difficulty may all receive a more or less simple explanation; I will
+give only one instance; the nutria{381}, I believe, on the eastern coast
+of S. America live exclusively in fresh-water rivers, and I was much
+surprised how they could have got into rivulets, widely apart, on the
+coast of Patagonia; but on the opposite coast I found these quadrupeds
+living exclusively in the sea, and hence their migration along the
+Patagonian coast is not surprising. There is no case of the same
+mammifer being found on an island far from the coast, and on the
+mainland, as happens with plants{382}. On the idea of double creations
+it would be strange if the same species of several plants should have
+been created in Australia and Europe; and no one instance of the same
+species of mammifer having been created, or aboriginally existing, in
+two as nearly remote and equally isolated points. It is more
+philosophical, in such cases, as that of some plants being found in
+Australia and Europe, to admit that we are ignorant of the means of
+transport. I will allude only to one other case, namely, that of the
+Mydas{383}, an Alpine animal, found only on the distant peaks of the
+mountains of Java: who will pretend to deny that during the ice period
+of the northern and southern hemispheres, and when India is believed to
+have been colder, the climate might not have permitted this animal to
+haunt a lower country, and thus to have passed along the ridges from
+summit to summit? Mr Lyell has further observed that, _as in space, so
+in time_, there is no reason to believe that after the extinction of a
+species, the self-same form has ever reappeared{384}. I think, then, we
+may, notwithstanding the many cases of difficulty, conclude with some
+confidence that every species has been created or produced on a single
+point or area.
+
+     {379} "We find no inexplicable cases of the same mammal inhabiting
+     distant points of the world." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 500.
+     See also _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.
+
+     {380} <Note by the author.> Many authors. <See _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     394, vi. p. 547.>
+
+     {381} _Nutria_ is the Spanish for otter, and is now a synonym for
+     _Lutra_. The otter on the Atlantic coast is distinguished by minute
+     differences from the Pacific species. Both forms are said to take
+     to the sea. In fact the case presents no especial difficulties.
+
+     {382} In _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 548, bats are mentioned as
+     an explicable exception to this statement.
+
+     {383} This reference is doubtless to _Mydaus_, a badger-like animal
+     from the mountains of Java and Sumatra (Wallace, _Geographical
+     Distribution_, ii. p. 199). The instance does not occur in the
+     _Origin_ but the author remarks (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 376, vi. p.
+     527) that cases, strictly analogous to the distribution of plants,
+     occur among terrestrial mammals.
+
+     {384} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.
+
+
+_On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong in
+different regions._
+
+The last fact in geographical distribution, which, as far as I can see,
+in any way concerns the origin of species, relates to the absolute
+number and nature of the organic beings inhabiting different tracts of
+land. Although every species is admirably adapted (but not necessarily
+better adapted than every other species, as we have seen in the great
+increase of introduced species) to the country and station it frequents;
+yet it has been shown that the entire difference between the species in
+distant countries cannot possibly be explained by the difference of the
+physical conditions of these countries. In the same manner, I believe,
+neither the number of the species, nor the nature of the great classes
+to which they belong, can possibly in all cases be explained by the
+conditions of their country. New Zealand{385}, a linear island
+stretching over about 700 miles of latitude, with forests, marshes,
+plains and mountains reaching to the limits of eternal snow, has far
+more diversified habitats than an equal area at the Cape of Good Hope;
+and yet, I believe, at the Cape of Good Hope there are, of phanerogamic
+plants, from five to ten times the number of species as in all New
+Zealand. Why on the theory of absolute creations should this large and
+diversified island only have from 400 to 500 (? Dieffenbach)
+phanerogamic plants? and why should the Cape of Good Hope, characterised
+by the uniformity of its scenery, swarm with more species of plants than
+probably any other quarter of the world? Why on the ordinary theory
+should the Galapagos Islands abound with terrestrial reptiles? and why
+should many equal-sized islands in the Pacific be without a single
+one{386} or with only one or two species? Why should the great island of
+New Zealand be without one mammiferous quadruped except the mouse, and
+that was probably introduced with the aborigines? Why should not one
+island (it can be shown, I think, that the mammifers of Mauritius and St
+Iago have all been introduced) in the open ocean possess a mammiferous
+quadruped? Let it not be said that quadrupeds cannot live in islands,
+for we know that cattle, horses and pigs during a long period have run
+wild in the West Indian and Falkland Islands; pigs at St Helena; goats
+at Tahiti; asses in the Canary Islands; dogs in Cuba; cats at Ascension;
+rabbits at Madeira and the Falklands; monkeys at St Iago and the
+Mauritius; even elephants during a long time in one of the very small
+Sooloo Islands; and European mice on very many of the smallest islands
+far from the habitations of man{387}. Nor let it be assumed that
+quadrupeds are more slowly created and hence that the oceanic islands,
+which generally are of volcanic formation, are of too recent origin to
+possess them; for we know (Lyell) that new forms of quadrupeds succeed
+each other quicker than Mollusca or Reptilia. Nor let it be assumed
+(though such an assumption would be no explanation) that quadrupeds
+cannot be created on small islands; for islands not lying in mid-ocean
+do possess their peculiar quadrupeds; thus many of the smaller islands
+of the East Indian Archipelago possess quadrupeds; as does Fernando Po
+on the West Coast of Africa; as the Falkland Islands possess a peculiar
+wolf-like fox{388}; so do the Galapagos Islands a peculiar mouse of the
+S. American type. These two last are the most remarkable cases with
+which I am acquainted; inasmuch as the islands lie further from other
+land. It is possible that the Galapagos mouse may have been introduced
+in some ship from the S. American coast (though the species is at
+present unknown there), for the aboriginal species soon haunts the goods
+of man, as I noticed in the roof of a newly erected shed in a desert
+country south of the Plata. The Falkland Islands, though between 200 and
+300 miles from the S. American coast, may in one sense be considered as
+intimately connected with it; for it is certain that formerly many
+icebergs loaded with boulders were stranded on its southern coast, and
+the old canoes which are occasionally now stranded, show that the
+currents still set from Tierra del Fuego. This fact, however, does not
+explain the presence of the _Canis antarcticus_ on the Falkland Islands,
+unless we suppose that it formerly lived on the mainland and became
+extinct there, whilst it survived on these islands, to which it was
+borne (as happens with its northern congener, the common wolf) on an
+iceberg, but this fact removes the anomaly of an island, in appearance
+effectually separated from other land, having its own species of
+quadruped, and makes the case like that of Java and Sumatra, each having
+their own rhinoceros.
+
+     {385} The comparison between New Zealand and the Cape is given in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.
+
+     {386} In a corresponding discussion in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393,
+     vi. p. 546, stress is laid on the distribution of Batrachians not
+     of reptiles.
+
+     {387} The whole argument is given--more briefly than here--in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 547.
+
+     {388} See _Origin_, Ed i. p. 393, vi. p. 547. The discussion is
+     much fuller in the present Essay.
+
+Before summing up all the facts given in this section on the present
+condition of organic beings, and endeavouring to see how far they admit
+of explanation, it will be convenient to state all such facts in the
+past geographical distribution of extinct beings as seem anyway to
+concern the theory of descent.
+
+
+SECTION SECOND.
+
+
+_Geographical distribution of extinct organisms._
+
+I have stated that if the land of the entire world be divided into (we
+will say) three sections, according to the amount of difference of the
+terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them, we shall have three unequal
+divisions of (1st) Australia and its dependent islands, (2nd) South
+America, (3rd) Europe, Asia and Africa. If we now look to the mammifers
+which inhabited these three divisions during the later Tertiary periods,
+we shall find them almost as distinct as at the present day, and
+intimately related in each division to the existing forms in that
+division{389}. This is wonderfully the case with the several fossil
+Marsupial genera in the caverns of New South Wales and even more
+wonderfully so in South America, where we have the same peculiar group
+of monkeys, of a guanaco-like animal, of many rodents, of the Marsupial
+Didelphys, of Armadilloes and other Edentata. This last family is at
+present very characteristic of S. America, and in a late Tertiary epoch
+it was even more so, as is shown by the numerous enormous animals of the
+Megatheroid family, some of which were protected by an osseous armour
+like that, but on a gigantic scale, of the recent Armadillo. Lastly,
+over Europe the remains of the several deer, oxen, bears, foxes,
+beavers, field-mice, show a relation to the present inhabitants of this
+region; and the contemporaneous remains of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+hippopotamus, hyæna, show a relation with the grand Africo-Asiatic
+division of the world. In Asia the fossil mammifers of the Himalaya
+(though mingled with forms long extinct in Europe) are equally related
+to the existing forms of the Africo-Asiatic division; but especially to
+those of India itself. As the gigantic and now extinct quadrupeds of
+Europe have naturally excited more attention than the other and smaller
+remains, the relation between the past and the present mammiferous
+inhabitants of Europe has not been sufficiently attended to. But in fact
+the mammifers of Europe are at present nearly as much Africo-Asiatic as
+they were formerly when Europe had its elephants and rhinoceroses, etc.;
+Europe neither now nor then possessed peculiar groups as does Australia
+and S. America. The extinction of certain peculiar forms in one quarter
+does not make the remaining mammifers of that quarter less related to
+its own great division of the world: though Tierra del Fuego possesses
+only a fox, three rodents, and the guanaco, no one (as these all belong
+to S. American types, but not to the most characteristic forms) would
+doubt for one minute <as to> classifying this district with S. America;
+and if fossil Edentata, Marsupials and monkeys were to be found in
+Tierra del Fuego, it would not make this district more truly S. American
+than it now is. So it is with Europe{390}, and so far as is known with
+Asia, for the lately past and present mammifers all belong to the
+Africo-Asiatic division of the world. In every case, I may add, the
+forms which a country has is of more importance in geographical
+arrangement than what it has not.
+
+     {389} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485.
+
+     {390} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485, which corresponds
+     to this part of the present Essay, the author does not make a
+     separate section for such cases as the occurrence of fossil
+     Marsupials in Europe (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486) as he
+     does in the present Essay; see the section on _Changes in
+     geographical distribution_, p. 177.
+
+We find some evidence of the same general fact in a relation between the
+recent and the Tertiary sea-shells, in the different main divisions of
+the marine world.
+
+This general and most remarkable relation between the lately past and
+present mammiferous inhabitants of the three main divisions of the world
+is precisely the same kind of fact as the relation between the different
+species of the several sub-regions of any one of the main divisions. As
+we usually associate great physical changes with the total extinction of
+one series of beings, and its succession by another series, this
+identity of relation between the past and the present races of beings in
+the same quarters of the globe is more striking than the same relation
+between existing beings in different sub-regions: but in truth we have
+no reason for supposing that a change in the conditions has in any of
+these cases supervened, greater than that now existing between the
+temperate and tropical, or between the highlands and lowlands of the
+same main divisions, now tenanted by related beings. Finally, then, we
+clearly see that in each main division of the world the same relation
+holds good between its inhabitants in time as over space{391}.
+
+     {391} "We can understand how it is that all the forms of life,
+     ancient and recent, make together one grand system; for all are
+     connected by generation." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 344, vi. p. 491.
+
+
+_Changes in geographical distribution._
+
+If, however, we look closer, we shall find that even Australia, in
+possessing a terrestrial Pachyderm, was so far less distinct from the
+rest of the world than it now is; so was S. America in possessing the
+Mastodon, horse, [hyæna,]{392} and antelope. N. America, as I have
+remarked, is now, in its mammifers, in some respects neutral ground
+between S. America and the great Africo-Asiatic division; formerly, in
+possessing the horse, Mastodon and three Megatheroid animals, it was
+more nearly related to S. America; but in the horse and Mastodon, and
+likewise in having the elephant, oxen, sheep, and pigs, it was as much,
+if not more, related to the Africo-Asiatic division. Again, northern
+India was much more closely related (in having the giraffe,
+hippopotamus, and certain musk-deer) to southern Africa than it now is;
+for southern and eastern Africa deserve, if we divide the world into
+five parts, to make one division by itself. Turning to the dawn of the
+Tertiary period, we must, from our ignorance of other portions of the
+world, confine ourselves to Europe; and at that period, in the presence
+of Marsupials{393} and Edentata, we behold an _entire_ blending of those
+mammiferous forms which now eminently characterise Australia and S.
+America{394}.
+
+     {392} The word _hyæna_ is erased. There appear to be no fossil
+     Hyænidæ in S. America.
+
+     {393} See note 1{390}, p. 175, also _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486.
+
+     {394} <Note by the author.> And see Eocene European mammals in
+     N. America.
+
+If we now look at the distribution of sea-shells, we find the same
+changes in distribution. The Red Sea and the Mediterranean were more
+nearly related in these shells than they now are. In different parts of
+Europe, on the other hand, during the Miocene period, the sea-shells
+seem to have been more different than at present. In{395} the Tertiary
+period, according to Lyell, the shells of N. America and Europe were
+less related than at present, and during the Cretaceous still less like;
+whereas, during this same Cretaceous period, the shells of India and
+Europe were more like than at present. But going further back to the
+Carbonaceous period, in N. America and Europe, the productions were much
+more like than they now are{396}. These facts harmonise with the
+conclusions drawn from the present distribution of organic beings, for
+we have seen, that from species being created in different points or
+areas, the formation of a barrier would cause or make two distinct
+geographical areas; and the destruction of a barrier would permit their
+diffusion{397}. And as long-continued geological changes must both
+destroy and make barriers, we might expect, the further we looked
+backwards, the more changed should we find the present distribution.
+This conclusion is worthy of attention; because, finding in widely
+different parts of the same main division of the world, and in volcanic
+islands near them, groups of distinct, but related, species;--and
+finding that a singularly analogous relation holds good with respect to
+the beings of past times, when none of the present species were living,
+a person might be tempted to believe in some mystical relation between
+certain areas of the world, and the production of certain organic forms;
+but we now see that such an assumption would have to be complicated by
+the admission that such a relation, though holding good for long
+revolutions of years, is not truly persistent.
+
+     {395} <Note by the author.> All this requires much verification.
+
+     {396} This point seems to be less insisted on in the _Origin_.
+
+     {397} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 356, vi. p. 504.
+
+I will only add one more observation to this section. Geologists
+finding in the most remote period with which we are acquainted, namely
+in the Silurian period, that the shells and other marine
+productions{398} in North and South America, in Europe, Southern Africa,
+and Western Asia, are much more similar than they now are at these
+distant points, appear to have imagined that in these ancient times the
+laws of geographical distribution were quite different than what they
+now are: but we have only to suppose that great continents were extended
+east and west, and thus did not divide the inhabitants of the temperate
+and tropical seas, as the continents now do; and it would then become
+probable that the inhabitants of the seas would be much more similar
+than they now are. In the immense space of ocean extending from the east
+coast of Africa to the eastern islands of the Pacific, which space is
+connected either by lines of tropical coast or by islands not very
+distant from each other, we know (Cuming) that many shells, perhaps even
+as many as 200, are common to the Zanzibar coast, the Philippines, and
+the eastern islands of the Low or Dangerous Archipelago in the Pacific.
+This space equals that from the Arctic to the Antarctic pole! Pass over
+the space of quite open ocean, from the Dangerous Archipelago to the
+west coast of S. America, and every shell is different: pass over the
+narrow space of S. America, to its eastern shores, and again every shell
+is different! Many fish, I may add, are also common to the Pacific and
+Indian Oceans.
+
+     {398} <Note by the author.> D'Orbigny shows that this is not so.
+
+
+_Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings._
+
+Let us sum up the several facts now given with respect to the past and
+present geographical distribution of organic beings. In a previous
+chapter it was shown that species are not exterminated by universal
+catastrophes, and that they are slowly produced: we have also seen that
+each species is probably only once produced, on one point or area once
+in time; and that each diffuses itself, as far as barriers and its
+conditions of life permit. If we look at any one main division of the
+land, we find in the different parts, whether exposed to different
+conditions or to the same conditions, many groups of species wholly or
+nearly distinct as species, nevertheless intimately related. We find the
+inhabitants of islands, though distinct as species, similarly related to
+the inhabitants of the nearest continent; we find in some cases, that
+even the different islands of one such group are inhabited by species
+distinct, though intimately related to one another and to those of the
+nearest continent:--thus typifying the distribution of organic beings
+over the whole world. We find the floras of distant mountain-summits
+either very similar (which seems to admit, as shown, of a simple
+explanation) or very distinct but related to the floras of the
+surrounding region; and hence, in this latter case, the floras of two
+mountain-summits, although exposed to closely similar conditions, will
+be very different. On the mountain-summits of islands, characterised by
+peculiar faunas and floras, the plants are often eminently peculiar. The
+dissimilarity of the organic beings inhabiting nearly similar countries
+is best seen by comparing the main divisions of the world; in each of
+which some districts may be found very similarly exposed, yet the
+inhabitants are wholly unlike;--far more unlike than those in very
+dissimilar districts in the same main division. We see this strikingly
+in comparing two volcanic archipelagoes, with nearly the same climate,
+but situated not very far from two different continents; in which case
+their inhabitants are totally unlike. In the different main divisions of
+the world, the amount of difference between the organisms, even in the
+same class, is widely different, each main division having only the
+species distinct in some families, in other families having the genera
+distinct. The distribution of aquatic organisms is very different from
+that of the terrestrial organisms; and necessarily so, from the barriers
+to their progress being quite unlike. The nature of the conditions in an
+isolated district will not explain the number of species inhabiting it;
+nor the absence of one class or the presence of another class. We find
+that terrestrial mammifers are not present on islands far removed from
+other land. We see in two regions, that the species though distinct are
+more or less related, according to the greater or less _possibility_ of
+the transportal in past and present times of species from one to the
+other region; although we can hardly admit that all the species in such
+cases have been transported from the first to the second region, and
+since have become extinct in the first: we see this law in the presence
+of the fox on the Falkland Islands; in the European character of some of
+the plants of Tierra del Fuego; in the Indo-Asiatic character of the
+plants of the Pacific; and in the circumstance of those genera which
+range widest having many species with wide ranges; and those genera with
+restricted ranges having species with restricted ranges. Finally, we
+find in each of the main divisions of the land, and probably of the sea,
+that the existing organisms are related to those lately extinct.
+
+Looking further backwards we see that the past geographical distribution
+of organic beings was different from the present; and indeed,
+considering that geology shows that all our land was once under water,
+and that where water now extends land is forming, the reverse could
+hardly have been possible.
+
+Now these several facts, though evidently all more or less connected
+together, must by the creationist (though the geologist may explain some
+of the anomalies) be considered as so many ultimate facts. He can only
+say, that it so pleased the Creator that the organic beings of the
+plains, deserts, mountains, tropical and temperature forests, of S.
+America, should all have some affinity together; that the inhabitants of
+the Galapagos Archipelago should be related to those of Chile; and that
+some of the species on the similarly constituted islands of this
+archipelago, though most closely related, should be distinct; that all
+its inhabitants should be totally unlike those of the similarly volcanic
+and arid Cape de Verde and Canary Islands; that the plants on the summit
+of Teneriffe should be eminently peculiar; that the diversified island
+of New Zealand should have not many plants, and not one, or only one,
+mammifer; that the mammifers of S. America, Australia and Europe should
+be clearly related to their ancient and exterminated prototypes; and so
+on with other facts. But it is absolutely opposed to every analogy,
+drawn from the laws imposed by the Creator on inorganic matter, that
+facts, when connected, should be considered as ultimate and not the
+direct consequences of more general laws.
+
+
+SECTION THIRD.
+
+
+_An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution,
+on the theory of allied species having a common descent._
+
+First let us recall the circumstances most favourable for variation
+under domestication, as given in the first chapter--viz. 1st, a change,
+or repeated changes, in the conditions to which the organism has been
+exposed, continued through several seminal (_i.e._ not by buds or
+divisions) generations: 2nd, steady selection of the slight varieties
+thus generated with a fixed end in view: 3rd, isolation as perfect as
+possible of such selected varieties; that is, the preventing their
+crossing with other forms; this latter condition applies to all
+terrestrial animals, to most if not all plants and perhaps even to most
+(or all) aquatic organisms. It will be convenient here to show the
+advantage of isolation in the formation of a new breed, by comparing the
+progress of two persons (to neither of whom let time be of any
+consequence) endeavouring to select and form some very peculiar new
+breed. Let one of these persons work on the vast herds of cattle in the
+plains of La Plata{399}, and the other on a small stock of 20 or 30
+animals in an island. The latter might have to wait centuries (by the
+hypothesis of no importance){400} before he obtained a "sport"
+approaching to what he wanted; but when he did and saved the greater
+number of its offspring and their offspring again, he might hope that
+his whole little stock would be in some degree affected, so that by
+continued selection he might gain his end. But on the Pampas, though
+the man might get his first approach to his desired form sooner, how
+hopeless would it be to attempt, by saving its offspring amongst so many
+of the common kind, to affect the whole herd: the effect of this one
+peculiar "sport{401}" would be quite lost before he could obtain a
+second original sport of the same kind. If, however, he could separate a
+small number of cattle, including the offspring of the desirable
+"sport," he might hope, like the man on the island, to effect his end.
+If there be organic beings of which two individuals _never_ unite, then
+simple selection whether on a continent or island would be equally
+serviceable to make a new and desirable breed; and this new breed might
+be made in surprisingly few years from the great and geometrical powers
+of propagation to beat out the old breed; as has happened
+(notwithstanding crossing) where good breeds of dogs and pigs have been
+introduced into a limited country,--for instance, into the islands of
+the Pacific.
+
+     {399} This instance occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 32, but not in
+     the _Origin_; though the importance of isolation is discussed
+     (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 104, vi. p. 127).
+
+     {400} The meaning of the words within parenthesis is obscure.
+
+     {401} It is unusual to find the author speaking of the selection of
+     _sports_ rather than small variations.
+
+Let us now take the simplest natural case of an islet upheaved by the
+volcanic or subterranean forces in a deep sea, at such a distance from
+other land that only a few organic beings at rare intervals were
+transported to it, whether borne by the sea{402} (like the seeds of
+plants to coral-reefs), or by hurricanes, or by floods, or on rafts, or
+in roots of large trees, or the germs of one plant or animal attached to
+or in the stomach of some other animal, or by the intervention (in most
+cases the most probable means) of other islands since sunk or destroyed.
+It may be remarked that when one part of the earth's crust is raised it
+is probably the general rule that another part sinks. Let this island
+go on slowly, century after century, rising foot by foot; and in the
+course of time we shall have instead <of> a small mass of rock{403},
+lowland and highland, moist woods and dry sandy spots, various soils,
+marshes, streams and pools: under water on the sea shore, instead of a
+rocky steeply shelving coast, we shall have in some parts bays with mud,
+sandy beaches and rocky shoals. The formation of the island by itself
+must often slightly affect the surrounding climate. It is impossible
+that the first few transported organisms could be perfectly adapted to
+all these stations; and it will be a chance if those successively
+transported will be so adapted. The greater number would probably come
+from the lowlands of the nearest country; and not even all these would
+be perfectly adapted to the new islet whilst it continued low and
+exposed to coast influences. Moreover, as it is certain that all
+organisms are nearly as much adapted in their structure to the other
+inhabitants of their country as they are to its physical conditions, so
+the mere fact that a _few_ beings (and these taken in great degree by
+chance) were in the first case transported to the islet, would in itself
+greatly modify their conditions{404}. As the island continued rising we
+might also expect an occasional new visitant; and I repeat that even one
+new being must often affect beyond our calculation by occupying the room
+and taking part of the subsistence of another (and this again from
+another and so on), several or many other organisms. Now as the first
+transported and any occasional successive visitants spread or tended to
+spread over the growing island, they would undoubtedly be exposed
+through several generations to new and varying conditions: it might also
+easily happen that some of the species _on an average_ might obtain an
+increase of food, or food of a more nourishing quality{405}. According
+then to every analogy with what we have seen takes place in every
+country, with nearly every organic being under domestication, we might
+expect that some of the inhabitants of the island would "sport," or have
+their organization rendered in some degree plastic. As the number of the
+inhabitants are supposed to be few and as all these cannot be so well
+adapted to their new and varying conditions as they were in their native
+country and habitat, we cannot believe that every place or office in the
+economy of the island would be as well filled as on a continent where
+the number of aboriginal species is far greater and where they
+consequently hold a more strictly limited place. We might therefore
+expect on our island that although very many slight variations were of
+no use to the plastic individuals, yet that occasionally in the course
+of a century an individual might be born{406} of which the structure or
+constitution in some slight degree would allow it better to fill up some
+office in the insular economy and to struggle against other species. If
+such were the case the individual and its offspring would have a better
+_chance_ of surviving and of beating out its parent form; and if (as is
+probable) it and its offspring crossed with the unvaried parent form,
+yet the number of the individuals being not very great, there would be a
+chance of the new and more serviceable form being nevertheless in some
+slight degree preserved. The struggle for existence would go on annually
+selecting such individuals until a new race or species was formed.
+Either few or all the first visitants to the island might become
+modified, according as the physical conditions of the island and those
+resulting from the kind and number of other transported species were
+different from those of the parent country--according to the
+difficulties offered to fresh immigration--and according to the length
+of time since the first inhabitants were introduced. It is obvious that
+whatever was the country, generally the nearest from which the first
+tenants were transported, they would show an affinity, even if all had
+become modified, to the natives of that country and even if the
+inhabitants of the same source (?) had been modified. On this view we
+can at once understand the cause and meaning of the affinity of the
+fauna and flora of the Galapagos Islands with that of the coast of S.
+America; and consequently why the inhabitants of these islands show not
+the smallest affinity with those inhabiting other volcanic islands, with
+a very similar climate and soil, near the coast of Africa{407}.
+
+     {402} This brief discussion is represented in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     by a much fuller one (pp. 356, 383, vi. pp. 504, 535). See,
+     however, the section in the present Essay, p. 168.
+
+     {403} On the formation of new stations, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     292, vi. p. 429.
+
+     {404} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 390, 400, vi. pp. 543, 554.
+
+     {405} In the MS. _some of the species ... nourishing quality_ is
+     doubtfully erased. It seems clear that he doubted whether such a
+     problematical supply of food would be likely to cause variation.
+
+     {406} At this time the author clearly put more faith in the
+     importance of sport-like variation than in later years.
+
+     {407} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553.
+
+To return once again to our island, if by the continued action of the
+subterranean forces other neighbouring islands were formed, these would
+generally be stocked by the inhabitants of the first island, or by a few
+immigrants from the neighbouring mainland; but if considerable obstacles
+were interposed to any communication between the terrestrial productions
+of these islands, and their conditions were different (perhaps only by
+the number of different species on each island), a form transported from
+one island to another might become altered in the same manner as one
+from the continent; and we should have several of the islands tenanted
+by representative races or species, as is so wonderfully the case with
+the different islands of the Galapagos Archipelago. As the islands
+become mountainous, if mountain-species were not introduced, as could
+rarely happen, a greater amount of variation and selection would be
+requisite to adapt the species, which originally came from the lowlands
+of the nearest continent, to the mountain-summits than to the lower
+districts of our islands. For the lowland species from the continent
+would have first to struggle against other species and other conditions
+on the coast-land of the island, and so probably become modified by the
+selection of its best fitted varieties, then to undergo the same process
+when the land had attained a moderate elevation; and then lastly when it
+had become Alpine. Hence we can understand why the faunas of insular
+mountain-summits are, as in the case of Teneriffe, eminently peculiar.
+Putting on one side the case of a widely extended flora being driven up
+the mountain-summits, during a change of climate from cold to temperate,
+we can see why in other cases the floras of mountain-summits (or as I
+have called them islands in a sea of land) should be tenanted by
+peculiar species, but related to those of the surrounding lowlands, as
+are the inhabitants of a real island in the sea to those of the nearest
+continent{408}.
+
+     {408} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 403, vi. p. 558, where the author
+     speaks of Alpine humming birds, rodents, plants, &c. in S. America,
+     all of strictly American forms. In the MS. the author has added
+     between the lines "As world has been getting hotter, there has been
+     radiation from high-lands,--old view?--curious; I presume Diluvian
+     in origin."
+
+Let us now consider the effect of a change of climate or of other
+conditions on the inhabitants of a continent and of an isolated island
+without any great change of level. On a continent the chief effects
+would be changes in the numerical proportion of the individuals of the
+different species; for whether the climate became warmer or colder,
+drier or damper, more uniform or extreme, some species are at present
+adapted to its diversified districts; if for instance it became cooler,
+species would migrate from its more temperate parts and from its higher
+land; if damper, from its damper regions, &c. On a small and isolated
+island, however, with few species, and these not adapted to much
+diversified conditions, such changes instead of merely increasing the
+number of certain species already adapted to such conditions, and
+decreasing the number of other species, would be apt to affect the
+constitutions of some of the insular species: thus if the island became
+damper it might well happen that there were no species living in any
+part of it adapted to the consequences resulting from more moisture. In
+this case therefore, and still more (as we have seen) during the
+production of new stations from the elevation of the land, an island
+would be a far more fertile source, as far as we can judge, of new
+specific forms than a continent. The new forms thus generated on an
+island, we might expect, would occasionally be transported by accident,
+or through long-continued geographical changes be enabled to emigrate
+and thus become slowly diffused.
+
+But if we look to the origin of a continent; almost every geologist will
+admit that in most cases it will have first existed as separate islands
+which gradually increased in size{409}; and therefore all that which has
+been said concerning the probable changes of the forms tenanting a small
+archipelago is applicable to a continent in its early state.
+Furthermore, a geologist who reflects on the geological history of
+Europe (the only region well known) will admit that it has been many
+times depressed, raised and left stationary. During the sinking of a
+continent and the probable generally accompanying changes of climate the
+effect would be little, _except_ on the numerical proportions and in the
+extinction (from the lessening of rivers, the drying of marshes and the
+conversion of high-lands into low &c.) of some or of many of the
+species. As soon however as the continent became divided into many
+isolated portions or islands, preventing free immigration from one part
+to another, the effect of climatic and other changes on the species
+would be greater. But let the now broken continent, forming isolated
+islands, begin to rise and new stations thus to be formed, exactly as in
+the first case of the upheaved volcanic islet, and we shall have equally
+favourable conditions for the modification of old forms, that is the
+formation of new races or species. Let the islands become reunited into
+a continent; and then the new and old forms would all spread, as far as
+barriers, the means of transportal, and the preoccupation of the land by
+other species, would permit. Some of the new species or races would
+probably become extinct, and some perhaps would cross and blend
+together. We should thus have a multitude of forms, adapted to all kinds
+of slightly different stations, and to diverse groups of either
+antagonist or food-serving species. The oftener these oscillations of
+level had taken place (and therefore generally the older the land) the
+greater the number of species <which> would tend to be formed. The
+inhabitants of a continent being thus derived in the first stage from
+the same original parents, and subsequently from the inhabitants of one
+wide area, since often broken up and reunited, all would be obviously
+related together and the inhabitants of the most _dissimilar_ stations
+on the same continent would be more closely allied than the inhabitants
+of two very _similar_ stations on two of the main divisions of the
+world{410}.
+
+     {409} See the comparison between the Malay Archipelago and the
+     probable former state of Europe, _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p.
+     438, also _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 292, vi. p. 429.
+
+     {410} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496. The arrangement of the
+     argument in the present Essay leads to repetition of statements
+     made in the earlier part of the book: in the _Origin_ this is
+     avoided.
+
+I need hardly point out that we now can obviously see why the number of
+species in two districts, independently of the number of stations in
+such districts, should be in some cases as widely different as in New
+Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope{411}. We can see, knowing the
+difficulty in the transport of terrestrial mammals, why islands far from
+mainlands do not possess them{412}; we see the general reason, namely
+accidental transport (though not the precise reason), why certain
+islands should, and others should not, possess members of the class of
+reptiles. We can see why an ancient channel of communication between two
+distant points, as the Cordillera probably was between southern Chile
+and the United States during the former cold periods; and icebergs
+between the Falkland Islands and Tierra del Fuego; and gales, at a
+former or present time, between the Asiatic shores of the Pacific and
+eastern islands in this ocean; is connected with (or we may now say
+causes) an affinity between the species, though distinct, in two such
+districts. We can see how the better chance of diffusion, from several
+of the species of any genus having wide ranges in their own countries,
+explains the presence of other species of the same genus in other
+countries{413}; and on the other hand, of species of restricted powers
+of ranging, forming genera with restricted ranges.
+
+     {411} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.
+
+     {412} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.
+
+     {413} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 350, 404, vi. pp. 498, 559.
+
+As every one would be surprised if two exactly similar but peculiar
+varieties{414} of any species were raised by man by long continued
+selection, in two different countries, or at two very different periods,
+so we ought not to expect that an exactly similar form would be produced
+from the modification of an old one in two distinct countries or at two
+distinct periods. For in such places and times they would probably be
+exposed to somewhat different climates and almost certainly to different
+associates. Hence we can see why each species appears to have been
+produced singly, in space and in time. I need hardly remark that,
+according to this theory of descent, there is no necessity of
+modification in a species, when it reaches a new and isolated country.
+If it be able to survive and if slight variations better adapted to the
+new conditions are not selected, it might retain (as far as we can see)
+its old form for an indefinite time. As we see that some sub-varieties
+produced under domestication are more variable than others, so in
+nature, perhaps, some species and genera are more variable than others.
+The same precise form, however, would probably be seldom preserved
+through successive geological periods, or in widely and differently
+conditioned countries{415}.
+
+     {414} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 500.
+
+     {415} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.
+
+Finally, during the long periods of time and probably of oscillations of
+level, necessary for the formation of a continent, we may conclude (as
+above explained) that many forms would become extinct. These extinct
+forms, and those surviving (whether or not modified and changed in
+structure), will all be related in each continent in the same manner and
+degree, as are the inhabitants of any two different sub-regions in that
+same continent. I do not mean to say that, for instance, the present
+Marsupials of Australia or Edentata and rodents of S. America have
+descended from any one of the few fossils of the same orders which have
+been discovered in these countries. It is possible that, in a very few
+instances, this may be the case; but generally they must be considered
+as merely codescendants of common stocks{416}. I believe in this, from
+the improbability, considering the vast number of species, which (as
+explained in the last chapter) must by our theory have existed, that
+the _comparatively_ few fossils which have been found should chance to
+be the immediate and linear progenitors of those now existing. Recent as
+the yet discovered fossil mammifers of S. America are, who will pretend
+to say that very many intermediate forms may not have existed? Moreover,
+we shall see in the ensuing chapter that the very existence of genera
+and species can be explained only by a few species of each epoch leaving
+modified successors or new species to a future period; and the more
+distant that future period, the fewer will be the _linear_ heirs of the
+former epoch. As by our theory, all mammifers must have descended from
+the same parent stock, so is it necessary that each land now possessing
+terrestrial mammifers shall at some time have been so far united to
+other land as to permit the passage of mammifers{417}; and it accords
+with this necessity, that in looking far back into the earth's history
+we find, first changes in the geographical distribution, and secondly a
+period when the mammiferous forms most distinctive of two of the present
+main divisions of the world were living together{418}.
+
+     {416} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 341, vi. p. 487.
+
+     {417} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 396, vi. p. 549.
+
+     {418} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486.
+
+I think then I am justified in asserting that most of the above
+enumerated and often trivial points in the geographical distribution of
+past and present organisms (which points must be viewed by the
+creationists as so many ultimate facts) follow as a simple consequence
+of specific forms being mutable and of their being adapted by natural
+selection to diverse ends, conjoined with their powers of dispersal, and
+the geologico-geographical changes now in slow progress and which
+undoubtedly have taken place. This large class of facts being thus
+explained, far more than counterbalances many separate difficulties and
+apparent objections in convincing my mind of the truth of this theory of
+common descent.
+
+
+_Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing
+species._
+
+There is one observation of considerable importance that may be here
+introduced, with regard to the improbability of the chief transitional
+forms between any two species being found fossil. With respect to the
+finer shades of transition, I have before remarked that no one has any
+cause to expect to trace them in a fossil state, without he be bold
+enough to imagine that geologists at a future epoch will be able to
+trace from fossil bones the gradations between the Short-Horns,
+Herefordshire, and Alderney breeds of cattle{419}. I have attempted to
+show that rising islands, in process of formation, must be the best
+nurseries of new specific forms, and these points are the least
+favourable for the embedment of fossils{420}: I appeal, as evidence, to
+the state of the _numerous_ scattered islands in the several great
+oceans: how rarely do any sedimentary deposits occur on them; and when
+present they are mere narrow fringes of no great antiquity, which the
+sea is generally wearing away and destroying. The cause of this lies in
+isolated islands being generally volcanic and rising points; and the
+effects of subterranean elevation is to bring up the surrounding
+newly-deposited strata within the destroying action of the coast-waves:
+the strata, deposited at greater distances, and therefore in the depths
+of the ocean, will be almost barren of organic remains. These remarks
+may be generalised:--periods of subsidence will always be most
+favourable to an accumulation of great thicknesses of strata, and
+consequently to their long preservation; for without one formation be
+protected by successive strata, it will seldom be preserved to a distant
+age, owing to the enormous amount of denudation, which seems to be a
+general contingent of time{421}. I may refer, as evidence of this
+remark, to the vast amount of subsidence evident in the great pile of
+the European formations, from the Silurian epoch to the end of the
+Secondary, and perhaps to even a later period. Periods of elevation on
+the other hand cannot be favourable to the accumulation of strata and
+their preservation to distant ages, from the circumstance just alluded
+to, viz. of elevation tending to bring to the surface the
+circum-littoral strata (always abounding most in fossils) and destroying
+them. The bottom of tracts of deep water (little favourable, however, to
+life) must be excepted from this unfavourable influence of elevation. In
+the quite open ocean, probably no sediment{422} is accumulating, or at a
+rate so slow as not to preserve fossil remains, which will always be
+subject to disintegration. Caverns, no doubt, will be equally likely to
+preserve terrestrial fossils in periods of elevation and of subsidence;
+but whether it be owing to the enormous amount of denudation, which all
+land seems to have undergone, no cavern with fossil bones has been found
+belonging to the Secondary period{423}.
+
+     {419} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.
+
+     {420} "Nature may almost be said to have guarded against the
+     frequent discovery of her transitional or linking forms," _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 292. A similar but not identical passage occurs in
+     _Origin_, Ed. vi. p. 428.
+
+     {421} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.
+
+     {422} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422.
+
+     {423} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 289, vi. p. 423.
+
+Hence many more remains will be preserved to a distant age, in any
+region of the world, during periods of its subsidence{424}, than of its
+elevation.
+
+     {424} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 300, vi. p. 439.
+
+But during the subsidence of a tract of land, its inhabitants (as before
+shown) will from the decrease of space and of the diversity of its
+stations, and from the land being fully preoccupied by species fitted to
+diversified means of subsistence, be little liable to modification from
+selection, although many may, or rather must, become extinct. With
+respect to its circum-marine inhabitants, although during a change from
+a continent to a _great_ archipelago, the number of stations fitted for
+marine beings will be increased, their means of diffusion (an important
+check to change of form) will be greatly improved; for a continent
+stretching north and south, or a quite open space of ocean, seems to be
+to them the only barrier. On the other hand, during the elevation of a
+small archipelago and its conversion into a continent, we have, whilst
+the number of stations are increasing, both for aquatic and terrestrial
+productions, and whilst these stations are not fully preoccupied by
+perfectly adapted species, the most favourable conditions for the
+selection of new specific forms; but few of them in their early
+transitional states will be preserved to a distant epoch. We must wait
+during an enormous lapse of time, until long-continued subsidence shall
+have taken the place in this quarter of the world of the elevatory
+process, for the best conditions of the embedment and the preservation
+of its inhabitants. Generally the great mass of the strata in every
+country, from having been chiefly accumulated during subsidence, will be
+the tomb, not of transitional forms, but of those either becoming
+extinct or remaining unmodified.
+
+The state of our knowledge, and the slowness of the changes of level, do
+not permit us to test the truth of these remarks, by observing whether
+there are more transitional or "fine" (as naturalists would term them)
+species, on a rising and enlarging tract of land, than on an area of
+subsidence. Nor do I know whether there are more "fine" species on
+isolated volcanic islands in process of formation, than on a continent;
+but I may remark, that at the Galapagos Archipelago the number of forms,
+which according to some naturalists are true species, and according to
+others are mere races, is considerable: this particularly applies to the
+different species or races of the same genera inhabiting the different
+islands of this archipelago. Furthermore it may be added (as bearing on
+the great facts discussed in this chapter) that when naturalists confine
+their attention to any one country, they have comparatively little
+difficulty in determining what forms to call species and what to call
+varieties; that is, those which can or cannot be traced or shown to be
+probably descendants of some other form: but the difficulty increases,
+as species are brought from many stations, countries and islands. It was
+this increasing (but I believe in few cases insuperable) difficulty
+which seems chiefly to have urged Lamarck to the conclusion that species
+are mutable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC
+BEINGS{425}
+
+     {425} Ch. XIII of the _Origin_, Ed. i., Ch. XIV Ed. vi. begins with
+     a similar statement. In the present Essay the author adds a
+     note:--"The obviousness of the fact (_i.e._ the natural grouping of
+     organisms) alone prevents it being remarkable. It is scarcely
+     explicable by creationist: groups of aquatic, of vegetable feeders
+     and carnivorous, &c., might resemble each other; but why as it is.
+     So with plants,--analogical resemblance thus accounted for. Must
+     not here enter into details." This argument is incorporated with
+     the text in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+
+_Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups._
+
+It has been observed from the earliest times that organic beings fall
+into groups{426}, and these groups into others of several values, such
+as species into genera, and then into sub-families, into families,
+orders, &c. The same fact holds with those beings which no longer exist.
+Groups of species seem to follow the same laws in their appearance and
+extinction{427}, as do the individuals of any one species: we have
+reason to believe that, first, a few species appear, that their numbers
+increase; and that, when tending to extinction, the numbers of the
+species decrease, till finally the group becomes extinct, in the same
+way as a species becomes extinct, by the individuals becoming rarer and
+rarer. Moreover, groups, like the individuals of a species, appear to
+become extinct at different times in different countries. The
+Palæotherium was extinct much sooner in Europe than in India: the
+Trigonia{428} was extinct in early ages in Europe, but now lives in the
+seas of Australia. As it happens that one species of a family will
+endure for a much longer period than another species, so we find that
+some whole groups, such as Mollusca, tend to retain their forms, or to
+remain persistent, for longer periods than other groups, for instance
+than the Mammalia. Groups therefore, in their appearance, extinction,
+and rate of change or succession, seem to follow nearly the same laws
+with the individuals of a species{429}.
+
+     {426} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 411, vi. p. 566.
+
+     {427} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.
+
+     {428} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.
+
+     {429} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. this preliminary matter is replaced
+     (pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567) by a discussion in which
+     extinction is also treated, but chiefly from the point of view of
+     the theory of divergence.
+
+
+_What is the Natural System?_
+
+The proper arrangement of species into groups, according to the natural
+system, is the object of all naturalists; but scarcely two naturalists
+will give the same answer to the question, What is the natural system
+and how are we to recognise it? The most important characters{430} it
+might be thought (as it was by the earliest classifiers) ought to be
+drawn from those parts of the structure which determine its habits and
+place in the economy of nature, which we may call the final end of its
+existence. But nothing is further from the truth than this; how much
+external resemblance there is between the little otter (Chironectes) of
+Guiana and the common otter; or again between the common swallow and the
+swift; and who can doubt that the means and ends of their existence are
+closely similar, yet how grossly wrong would be the classification,
+which put close to each other a Marsupial and Placental animal, and two
+birds with widely different skeletons. Relations, such as in the two
+latter cases, or as that between the whale and fishes, are denominated
+"analogical{431}," or are sometimes described as "relations of
+adaption." They are infinitely numerous and often very singular; but are
+of no use in the classification of the higher groups. How it comes, that
+certain parts of the structure, by which the habits and functions of the
+species are settled, are of no use in classification, whilst other
+parts, formed at the same time, are of the greatest, it would be
+difficult to say, on the theory of separate creations.
+
+     {430} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.
+
+     {431} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.
+
+Some authors as Lamarck, Whewell &c., believe that the degree of
+affinity on the natural system depends on the degrees of resemblance in
+organs more or less physiologically important for the preservation of
+life. This scale of importance in the organs is admitted to be of
+difficult discovery. But quite independent of this, the proposition, as
+a general rule, must be rejected as false; though it may be partially
+true. For it is universally admitted that the same part or organ, which
+is of the highest service in classification in one group, is of very
+little use in another group, though in both groups, as far as we can
+see, the part or organ is of equal physiological importance: moreover,
+characters quite unimportant physiologically, such as whether the
+covering of the body consists of hair or feathers, whether the nostrils
+communicated with the mouth{432} &c., &c., are of the highest generality
+in classification; even colour, which is so inconstant in many species,
+will sometimes well characterise even a whole group of species. Lastly,
+the fact, that no one character is of so much importance in determining
+to what great group an organism belongs, as the forms through which the
+embryo{433} passes from the germ upwards to maturity, cannot be
+reconciled with the idea that natural classification follows according
+to the degrees of resemblance in the parts of most physiological
+importance. The affinity of the common rock-barnacle with the
+Crustaceans can hardly be perceived in more than a single character in
+its mature state, but whilst young, locomotive, and furnished with eyes,
+its affinity cannot be mistaken{434}. The cause of the greater value of
+characters, drawn from the early stages of life, can, as we shall in a
+succeeding chapter see, be in a considerable degree explained, on the
+theory of descent, although inexplicable on the views of the
+creationist.
+
+     {432} These instances occur with others in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     416, vi. p. 572.
+
+     {433} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 418, vi. p. 574.
+
+     {434} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 419, 440, vi. pp. 575, 606.
+
+Practically, naturalists seem to classify according to the resemblance
+of those parts or organs which in related groups are most uniform, or
+vary least{435}: thus the æstivation, or manner in which the petals etc.
+are folded over each other, is found to afford an unvarying character in
+most families of plants, and accordingly any difference in this respect
+would be sufficient to cause the rejection of a species from many
+families; but in the Rubiaceæ the æstivation is a varying character, and
+a botanist would not lay much stress on it, in deciding whether or not
+to class a new species in this family. But this rule is obviously so
+arbitrary a formula, that most naturalists seem to be convinced that
+something ulterior is represented by the natural system; they appear to
+think that we only discover by such similarities what the arrangement of
+the system is, not that such similarities make the system. We can only
+thus understand Linnæus'{436} well-known saying, that the characters do
+not make the genus; but that the genus gives the characters: for a
+classification, independent of characters, is here presupposed. Hence
+many naturalists have said that the natural system reveals the plan of
+the Creator: but without it be specified whether order in time or place,
+or what else is meant by the plan of the Creator, such expressions
+appear to me to leave the question exactly where it was.
+
+     {435} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 418, 425, vi. pp. 574, 581.
+
+     {436} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 413, vi. p. 569.
+
+Some naturalists consider that the geographical position{437} of a
+species may enter into the consideration of the group into which it
+should be placed; and most naturalists (either tacitly or openly) give
+value to the different groups, not solely by their relative differences
+in structure, but by the number of forms included in them. Thus a genus
+containing a few species might be, and has often been, raised into a
+family on the discovery of several other species. Many natural families
+are retained, although most closely related to other families, from
+including a great number of closely similar species. The more logical
+naturalist would perhaps, if he could, reject these two contingents in
+classification. From these circumstances, and especially from the
+undefined objects and criterions of the natural system, the number of
+divisions, such as genera, sub-families, families, &c., &c., has been
+quite arbitrary{438}; without the clearest definition, how can it be
+possible to decide whether two groups of species are of equal value, and
+of what value? whether they should both be called genera or families; or
+whether one should be a genus, and the other a family{439}?
+
+     {437} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.
+
+     {438} This is discussed from the point of view of divergence in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 420, 421, vi. pp. 576, 577.
+
+     {439} <Footnote by the author.> I discuss this because if Quinarism
+     true, I false. <The Quinary System is set forth in W. S. Macleay's
+     _Horæ Entomologicæ_, 1821.>
+
+
+_On the kind of relation between distinct groups._
+
+I have only one other remark on the affinities of organic beings; that
+is, when two quite distinct groups approach each other, the approach is
+_generally_ generic{440} and not special; I can explain this most easily
+by an example: of all Rodents the Bizcacha, by certain peculiarities in
+its reproductive system, approaches nearest to the Marsupials; of all
+Marsupials the Phascolomys, on the other hand, appears to approach in
+the form of its teeth and intestines nearest to the Rodents; but there
+is no special relation between these two genera{441}; the Bizcacha is no
+nearer related to the Phascolomys than to any other Marsupial in the
+points in which it approaches this division; nor again is the
+Phascolomys, in the points of structure in which it approaches the
+Rodents, any nearer related to the Bizcacha than to any other Rodent.
+Other examples might have been chosen, but I have given (from
+Waterhouse) this example as it illustrates another point, namely, the
+difficulty of determining what are analogical or adaptive and what real
+affinities; it seems that the teeth of the Phascolomys though _appearing
+closely_ to resemble those of a Rodent are found to be built on the
+Marsupial type; and it is thought that these teeth and consequently the
+intestines may have been adapted to the peculiar life of this animal and
+therefore may not show any real relation. The structure in the Bizcacha
+that connects it with the Marsupials does not seem a peculiarity related
+to its manner of life, and I imagine that no one would doubt that this
+shows a real affinity, though not more with any one Marsupial species
+than with another. The difficulty of determining what relations are real
+and what analogical is far from surprising when no one pretends to
+define the meaning of the term relation or the ulterior object of all
+classification. We shall immediately see on the theory of descent how it
+comes that there should be "real" and "analogical" affinities; and why
+the former alone should be of value in classification--difficulties
+which it would be I believe impossible to explain on the ordinary theory
+of separate creations.
+
+     {440} In the corresponding passage in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 430,
+     vi. p. 591, the term _general_ is used in place of _generic_, and
+     seems a better expression. In the margin the author gives
+     Waterhouse as his authority.
+
+     {441} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.
+
+
+_Classification of Races or Varieties._
+
+Let us now for a few moments turn to the classification of the generally
+acknowledged varieties and subdivisions of our domestic beings{442}; we
+shall find them systematically arranged in groups of higher and higher
+value. De Candolle has treated the varieties of the cabbage exactly as
+he would have done a natural family with various divisions and
+subdivisions. In dogs again we have one main division which may be
+called the _family_ of hounds; of these, there are several (we will call
+them) _genera_, such as blood-hounds, fox-hounds, and harriers; and of
+each of these we have different _species_, as the blood-hound of Cuba
+and that of England; and of the latter again we have breeds truly
+producing their own kind, which may be called races or varieties. Here
+we see a classification practically used which typifies on a lesser
+scale that which holds good in nature. But amongst true species in the
+natural system and amongst domestic races the number of divisions or
+groups, instituted between those most alike and those most unlike, seems
+to be quite arbitrary. The number of the forms in both cases seems
+practically, whether or not it ought theoretically, to influence the
+denomination of groups including them. In both, geographical
+distribution has sometimes been used as an aid to classification{443};
+amongst varieties, I may instance, the cattle of India or the sheep of
+Siberia, which from possessing some characters in common permit a
+classification of Indian and European cattle, or Siberian and European
+sheep. Amongst domestic varieties we have even something very like the
+relations of "analogy" or "adaptation{444}"; thus the common and Swedish
+turnip are both artificial varieties which strikingly resemble each
+other, and they fill nearly the same end in the economy of the
+farm-yard; but although the swede so much more resembles a turnip than
+its presumed parent the field cabbage, no one thinks of putting it out
+of the cabbages into the turnips. Thus the greyhound and racehorse,
+having been selected and trained for extreme fleetness for short
+distances, present an analogical resemblance of the same kind, but less
+striking as that between the little otter (Marsupial) of Guiana and the
+common otter; though these two otters are really less related than <are>
+the horse and dog. We are even cautioned by authors treating on
+varieties, to follow the _natural_ in contradistinction of an artificial
+system and not, for instance, to class two varieties of the
+pine-apple{445} near each other, because their fruits accidentally
+resemble each other closely (though the fruit may be called _the final
+end_ of this plant in the economy of its world, the hothouse), but to
+judge from the general resemblance of the entire plants. Lastly,
+varieties often become extinct; sometimes from unexplained causes,
+sometimes from accident, but more often from the production of more
+useful varieties, and the less useful ones being destroyed or bred out.
+
+     {442} In a corresponding passage in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423,
+     vi. p. 579, the author makes use of his knowledge of pigeons. The
+     pseudo-genera among dogs are discussed in _Var. under Dom._, Ed.
+     ii. vol. I. p. 38.
+
+     {443} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.
+
+     {444} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 423, 427, vi. pp. 579, 583.
+
+     {445} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.
+
+I think it cannot be doubted that the main cause of all the varieties
+which have descended from the aboriginal dog or dogs, or from the
+aboriginal wild cabbage, not being equally like or unlike--but on the
+contrary, obviously falling into groups and sub-groups--must in chief
+part be attributed to different degrees of true relationship; for
+instance, that the different kinds of blood-hound have descended from
+one stock, whilst the harriers have descended from another stock, and
+that both these have descended from a different stock from that which
+has been the parent of the several kinds of greyhound. We often hear of
+a florist having some choice variety and breeding from it a whole group
+of sub-varieties more or less characterised by the peculiarities of the
+parent. The case of the peach and nectarine, each with their many
+varieties, might have been introduced. No doubt the relationship of our
+different domestic breeds has been obscured in an extreme degree by
+their crossing; and likewise from the slight difference between many
+breeds it has probably often happened that a "sport" from one breed has
+less closely resembled its parent breed than some other breed, and has
+therefore been classed with the latter. Moreover the effects of a
+similar climate{446} may in some cases have more than counterbalanced
+the similarity, consequent on a common descent, though I should think
+the similarity of the breeds of cattle of India or sheep of Siberia was
+far more probably due to the community of their descent than to the
+effects of climate on animals descended from different stocks.
+
+     {446} A general statement of the influence of conditions on
+     variation occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 131-3, vi. pp. 164-5.
+
+Notwithstanding these great sources of difficulty, I apprehend every
+one would admit, that if it were possible, a genealogical classification
+of our domestic varieties would be the most satisfactory one; and as far
+as varieties were concerned would be the natural system: in some cases
+it has been followed. In attempting to follow out this object a person
+would have to class a variety, whose parentage he did not know, by its
+external characters; but he would have a distinct ulterior object in
+view, namely, its descent in the same manner as a regular systematist
+seems also to have an ulterior but undefined end in all his
+classifications. Like the regular systematist he would not care whether
+his characters were drawn from more or less important organs as long as
+he found in the tribe which he was examining that the characters from
+such parts were persistent; thus amongst cattle he does value a
+character drawn from the form of the horns more than from the
+proportions of the limbs and whole body, for he finds that the shape of
+the horns is to a considerable degree persistent amongst cattle{447},
+whilst the bones of the limbs and body vary. No doubt as a frequent rule
+the more important the organ, as being less related to external
+influences, the less liable it is to variation; but he would expect that
+according to the object for which the races had been selected, parts
+more or less important might differ; so that characters drawn from parts
+generally most liable to vary, as colour, might in some instances be
+highly serviceable--as is the case. He would admit that general
+resemblances scarcely definable by language might sometimes serve to
+allocate a species by its nearest relation. He would be able to assign a
+clear reason why the close similarity of the fruit in two varieties of
+pine-apple, and of the so-called root in the common and Swedish turnips,
+and why the similar gracefulness of form in the greyhound and
+racehorse, are characters of little value in classification; namely,
+because they are the result, not of community of descent, but either of
+selection for a common end, or of the effects of similar external
+conditions.
+
+     {447} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579. In the margin Marshall
+     is given as the authority.
+
+
+_Classification of "races" and species similar._
+
+Thus seeing that both the classifiers of species and of varieties{448}
+work by the same means, make similar distinctions in the value of the
+characters, and meet with similar difficulties, and that both seem to
+have in their classification an ulterior object in view; I cannot avoid
+strongly suspecting that the same cause, which has made amongst our
+domestic varieties groups and sub-groups, has made similar groups (but
+of higher values) amongst species; and that this cause is the greater or
+less propinquity of actual descent. The simple fact of species, both
+those long since extinct and those now living, being divisible into
+genera, families, orders &c.--divisions analogous to those into which
+varieties are divisible--is otherwise an inexplicable fact, and only not
+remarkable from its familiarity.
+
+     {448} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.
+
+
+_Origin of genera and families._
+
+Let us suppose{449} for example that a species spreads and arrives at
+six or more different regions, or being already diffused over one wide
+area, let this area be divided into six distinct regions, exposed to
+different conditions, and with stations slightly different, not fully
+occupied with other species, so that six different races or species
+were formed by selection, each best fitted to its new habits and
+station. I must remark that in every case, if a species becomes modified
+in any one sub-region, it is probable that it will become modified in
+some other of the sub-regions over which it is diffused, for its
+organization is shown to be capable of being rendered plastic; its
+diffusion proves that it is able to struggle with the other inhabitants
+of the several sub-regions; and as the organic beings of every great
+region are in some degree allied, and as even the physical conditions
+are often in some respects alike, we might expect that a modification in
+structure, which gave our species some advantage over antagonist species
+in one sub-region, would be followed by other modifications in other of
+the sub-regions. The races or new species supposed to be formed would be
+closely related to each other; and would either form a new genus or
+sub-genus, or would rank (probably forming a slightly different section)
+in the genus to which the parent species belonged. In the course of
+ages, and during the contingent physical changes, it is probable that
+some of the six new species would be destroyed; but the same advantage,
+whatever it may have been (whether mere tendency to vary, or some
+peculiarity of organization, power of mind, or means of distribution),
+which in the parent-species and in its six selected and changed
+species-offspring, caused them to prevail over other antagonist species,
+would generally tend to preserve some or many of them for a long period.
+If then, two or three of the six species were preserved, they in their
+turn would, during continued changes, give rise to as many small groups
+of species: if the parents of these small groups were closely similar,
+the new species would form one great genus, barely perhaps divisible
+into two or three sections: but if the parents were considerably
+unlike, their species-offspring would, from inheriting most of the
+peculiarities of their parent-stocks, form either two or more sub-genera
+or (if the course of selection tended in different ways) genera. And
+lastly species descending from different species of the newly formed
+genera would form new genera, and such genera collectively would form a
+family.
+
+     {449} The discussion here following corresponds more or less to the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567; although the
+     doctrine of divergence is not mentioned in this Essay (as it is in
+     the _Origin_) yet the present section seems to me a distinct
+     approximation to it.
+
+The extermination of species follows from changes in the external
+conditions, and from the increase or immigration of more favoured
+species: and as those species which are undergoing modification in any
+one great region (or indeed over the world) will very often be allied
+ones from (as just explained) partaking of many characters, and
+therefore advantages in common, so the species, whose place the new or
+more favoured ones are seizing, from partaking of a common inferiority
+(whether in any particular point of structure, or of general powers of
+mind, of means of distribution, of capacity for variation, &c., &c.),
+will be apt to be allied. Consequently species of the same genus will
+slowly, one after the other, _tend_ to become rarer and rarer in
+numbers, and finally extinct; and as each last species of several allied
+genera fails, even the family will become extinct. There may of course
+be occasional exceptions to the entire destruction of any genus or
+family. From what has gone before, we have seen that the slow and
+successive formation of several new species from the same stock will
+make a new genus, and the slow and successive formation of several other
+new species from another stock will make another genus; and if these two
+stocks were allied, such genera will make a new family. Now, as far as
+our knowledge serves, it is in this slow and gradual manner that groups
+of species appear on, and disappear from, the face of the earth.
+
+The manner in which, according to our theory, the arrangement of species
+in groups is due to partial extinction, will perhaps be rendered clearer
+in the following way. Let us suppose in any one great class, for
+instance in the Mammalia, that every species and every variety, during
+each successive age, had sent down one unaltered descendant (either
+fossil or living) to the present time; we should then have had one
+enormous series, including by small gradations every known mammiferous
+form; and consequently the existence of groups{450}, or chasms in the
+series, which in some parts are in greater width, and in some of less,
+is solely due to former species, and whole groups of species, not having
+thus sent down descendants to the present time.
+
+     {450} The author probably intended to write "groups separated by
+     chasms."
+
+With respect to the "analogical" or "adaptive" resemblances between
+organic beings which are not really related{451}, I will only add, that
+probably the isolation of different groups of species is an important
+element in the production of such characters: thus we can easily see, in
+a large increasing island, or even a continent like Australia, stocked
+with only certain orders of the main classes, that the conditions would
+be highly favourable for species from these orders to become adapted to
+play parts in the economy of nature, which in other countries were
+performed by tribes especially adapted to such parts. We can understand
+how it might happen that an otter-like animal might have been formed in
+Australia by slow selection from the more carnivorous Marsupial types;
+thus we can understand that curious case in the southern hemisphere,
+where there are no auks (but many petrels), of a petrel{452} having been
+modified into the external general form so as to play the same office
+in nature with the auks of the northern hemisphere; although the habits
+and form of the petrels and auks are normally so wholly different. It
+follows, from our theory, that two orders must have descended from one
+common stock at an immensely remote epoch; and we can perceive when a
+species in either order, or in both, shows some affinity to the other
+order, why the affinity is usually generic and not particular--that is
+why the Bizcacha amongst Rodents, in the points in which it is related
+to the Marsupial, is related to the whole group{453}, and not
+particularly to the Phascolomys, which of all Marsupialia is related
+most to the Rodents. For the Bizcacha is related to the present
+Marsupialia, only from being related to their common parent-stock; and
+not to any one species in particular. And generally, it may be observed
+in the writings of most naturalists, that when an organism is described
+as intermediate between two _great_ groups, its relations are not to
+particular species of either group, but to both groups, as wholes. A
+little reflection will show how exceptions (as that of the Lepidosiren,
+a fish closely related to _particular_ reptiles) might occur, namely
+from a few descendants of those species, which at a very early period
+branched out from a common parent-stock and so formed the two orders or
+groups, having survived, in nearly their original state, to the present
+time.
+
+     {451} A similar discussion occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 427,
+     vi. p. 582.
+
+     {452} _Puffinuria berardi_, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 184, vi. p.
+     221.
+
+     {453} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.
+
+Finally, then, we see that all the leading facts in the affinities and
+classification of organic beings can be explained on the theory of the
+natural system being simply a genealogical one. The similarity of the
+principles in classifying domestic varieties and true species, both
+those living and extinct, is at once explained; the rules followed and
+difficulties met with being the same. The existence of genera, families,
+orders, &c., and their mutual relations, naturally ensues from
+extinction going on at all periods amongst the diverging descendants of
+a common stock. These terms of affinity, relations, families, adaptive
+characters, &c., which naturalists cannot avoid using, though
+metaphorically, cease being so, and are full of plain signification.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
+
+
+_Unity of Type_{454}.
+
+     {454} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595. Ch. VIII corresponds to
+     a section of Ch. XIII in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+Scarcely anything is more wonderful or has been oftener insisted on than
+that the organic beings in each great class, though living in the most
+distant climes and at periods immensely remote, though fitted to widely
+different ends in the economy of nature, yet all in their internal
+structure evince an obvious uniformity. What, for instance, is more
+wonderful than that the hand to clasp, the foot or hoof to walk, the
+bat's wing to fly, the porpoise's fin{455} to swim, should all be built
+on the same plan? and that the bones in their position and number should
+be so similar that they can all be classed and called by the same names.
+Occasionally some of the bones are merely represented by an apparently
+useless, smooth style, or are soldered closely to other bones, but the
+unity of type is not by this destroyed, and hardly rendered less clear.
+We see in this fact some deep bond of union between the organic beings
+of the same great classes--to illustrate which is the object and
+foundation of the natural system. The perception of this bond, I may
+add, is the evident cause that naturalists make an ill-defined
+distinction between true and adaptive affinities.
+
+     {455} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 596. In the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     these examples occur under the heading _Morphology_; the author
+     does not there draw much distinction between this heading and that
+     of _Unity of Type_.
+
+
+_Morphology._
+
+There is another allied or rather almost identical class of facts
+admitted by the least visionary naturalists and included under the name
+of Morphology. These facts show that in an individual organic being,
+several of its organs consist of some other organ metamorphosed{456}:
+thus the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils, &c. of every plant can be
+shown to be metamorphosed leaves; and thus not only can the number,
+position and transitional states of these several organs, but likewise
+their monstrous changes, be most lucidly explained. It is believed that
+the same laws hold good with the gemmiferous vesicles of Zoophytes. In
+the same manner the number and position of the extraordinarily
+complicated jaws and palpi of Crustacea and of insects, and likewise
+their differences in the different groups, all become simple, on the
+view of these parts, or rather legs and all metamorphosed appendages,
+being metamorphosed legs. The skulls, again, of the Vertebrata are
+composed of three metamorphosed vertebræ, and thus we can see a meaning
+in the number and strange complication of the bony case of the brain. In
+this latter instance, and in that of the jaws of the Crustacea, it is
+only necessary to see a series taken from the different groups of each
+class to admit the truth of these views. It is evident that when in each
+species of a group its organs consist of some other part metamorphosed,
+that there must also be a "unity of type" in such a group. And in the
+cases as that above given in which the foot, hand, wing and paddle are
+said to be constructed on a uniform type, if we could perceive in such
+parts or organs traces of an apparent change from some other use or
+function, we should strictly include such parts or organs in the
+department of morphology: thus if we could trace in the limbs of the
+Vertebrata, as we can in their ribs, traces of an apparent change from
+being processes of the vertebræ, it would be said that in each species
+of the Vertebrata the limbs were "metamorphosed spinal processes," and
+that in all the species throughout the class the limbs displayed a
+"unity of type{457}."
+
+     {456} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 599, where the parts of
+     the flower, the jaws and palpi of Crustaceans and the vertebrate
+     skull are given as examples.
+
+     {457} The author here brings _Unity of Type_ and _Morphology_
+     together.
+
+These wonderful parts of the hoof, foot, hand, wing, paddle, both in
+living and extinct animals, being all constructed on the same framework,
+and again of the petals, stamina, germens, &c. being metamorphosed
+leaves, can by the creationist be viewed only as ultimate facts and
+incapable of explanation; whilst on our theory of descent these facts
+all necessary follow: for by this theory all the beings of any one
+class, say of the mammalia, are supposed to be descended from one
+parent-stock, and to have been altered by such slight steps as man
+effects by the selection of chance domestic variations. Now we can see
+according to this view that a foot might be selected with longer and
+longer bones, and wider connecting membranes, till it became a swimming
+organ, and so on till it became an organ by which to flap along the
+surface or to glide over it, and lastly to fly through the air: but in
+such changes there would be no tendency to alter the framework of the
+internal inherited structure. Parts might become lost (as the tail in
+dogs, or horns in cattle, or the pistils in plants), others might become
+united together (as in the feet of the Lincolnshire breed of pigs{458},
+and in the stamens of many garden flowers); parts of a similar nature
+might become increased in number (as the vertebræ in the tails of pigs,
+&c., &c. and the fingers and toes in six-fingered races of men and in
+the Dorking fowls), but analogous differences are observed in nature and
+are not considered by naturalists to destroy the uniformity of the
+types. We can, however, conceive such changes to be carried to such
+length that the unity of type might be obscured and finally be
+undistinguishable, and the paddle of the Plesiosaurus has been advanced
+as an instance in which the uniformity of type can hardly be
+recognised{459}. If after long and gradual changes in the structure of
+the co-descendants from any parent stock, evidence (either from
+monstrosities or from a graduated series) could be still detected of the
+function, which certain parts or organs played in the parent stock,
+these parts or organs might be strictly determined by their former
+function with the term "metamorphosed" appended. Naturalists have used
+this term in the same metaphorical manner as they have been obliged to
+use the terms of affinity and relation; and when they affirm, for
+instance, that the jaws of a crab are metamorphosed legs, so that one
+crab has more legs and fewer jaws than another, they are far from
+meaning that the jaws, either during the life of the individual crab or
+of its progenitors, were really legs. By our theory this term assumes
+its literal meaning{460}; and this wonderful fact of the complex jaws of
+an animal retaining numerous characters, which they would probably have
+retained if they had really been metamorphosed during many successive
+generations from true legs, is simply explained.
+
+     {458} The solid-hoofed pigs mentioned in _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii.
+     vol. II. p. 424 are not _Lincolnshire pigs_. For other cases see
+     Bateson, _Materials for the Study of Variation_, 1894, pp. 387-90.
+
+     {459} In the margin C. Bell is given as authority, apparently for
+     the statement about Plesiosaurus. See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 436, vi.
+     p. 598, where the author speaks of the "general pattern" being
+     obscured in "extinct gigantic sea lizards." In the same place the
+     suctorial Entomostraca are added as examples of the difficulty of
+     recognising the type.
+
+     {460} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602.
+
+
+_Embryology_.
+
+The unity of type in the great classes is shown in another and very
+striking manner, namely, in the stages through which the embryo passes
+in coming to maturity{461}. Thus, for instance, at one period of the
+embryo, the wings of the bat, the hand, hoof or foot of the quadruped,
+and the fin of the porpoise do not differ, but consist of a simple
+undivided bone. At a still earlier period the embryo of the fish, bird,
+reptile and mammal all strikingly resemble each other. Let it not be
+supposed this resemblance is only external; for on dissection, the
+arteries are found to branch out and run in a peculiar course, wholly
+unlike that in the full-grown mammal and bird, but much less unlike that
+in the full-grown fish, for they run as if to ærate blood by
+branchiæ{462} on the neck, of which even the slit-like orifices can be
+discerned. How wonderful it is that this structure should be present in
+the embryos of animals about to be developed into such different forms,
+and of which two great classes respire only in the air. Moreover, as the
+embryo of the mammal is matured in the parent's body, and that of the
+bird in an egg in the air, and that of the fish in an egg in the water,
+we cannot believe that this course of the arteries is related to any
+external conditions. In all shell-fish (Gasteropods) the embryo passes
+through a state analogous to that of the Pteropodous Mollusca: amongst
+insects again, even the most different ones, as the moth, fly and
+beetle, the crawling larvæ are all closely analogous: amongst the
+Radiata, the jelly-fish in its embryonic state resembles a polype, and
+in a still earlier state an infusorial animalcule--as does likewise the
+embryo of the polype. From the part of the embryo of a mammal, at one
+period, resembling a fish more than its parent form; from the larvæ of
+all orders of insects more resembling the simpler articulate animals
+than their parent insects{463}; and from such other cases as the embryo
+of the jelly-fish resembling a polype much nearer than the perfect
+jelly-fish; it has often been asserted that the higher animal in each
+class passes through the state of a lower animal; for instance, that the
+mammal amongst the vertebrata passes through the state of a fish{464}:
+but Müller denies this, and affirms that the young mammal is at no time
+a fish, as does Owen assert that the embryonic jelly-fish is at no time
+a polype, but that mammal and fish, jelly-fish and polype pass through
+the same state; the mammal and jelly-fish being only further developed
+or changed.
+
+     {461} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 604.
+
+     {462} The uselessness of the branchial arches in mammalia is
+     insisted on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606. Also the
+     uselessness of the spots on the young blackbird and the stripes of
+     the lion-whelp, cases which do not occur in the present Essay.
+
+     {463} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 442, 448, vi. pp. 608, 614 it is
+     pointed out that in some cases the young form resembles the adult,
+     _e.g._ in spiders; again, that in the Aphis there is no "worm-like
+     stage" of development.
+
+     {464} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618, the author speaks
+     doubtfully about the recapitulation theory.
+
+As the embryo, in most cases, possesses a less complicated structure
+than that into which it is to be developed, it might have been thought
+that the resemblance of the embryo to less complicated forms in the same
+great class, was in some manner a necessary preparation for its higher
+development; but in fact the embryo, during its growth, may become less,
+as well as more, complicated{465}. Thus certain female Epizoic
+Crustaceans in their mature state have neither eyes nor any organs of
+locomotion; they consist of a mere sack, with a simple apparatus for
+digestion and procreation; and when once attached to the body of the
+fish, on which they prey, they never move again during their whole
+lives: in their embryonic condition, on the other hand, they are
+furnished with eyes, and with well articulated limbs, actively swim
+about and seek their proper object to become attached to. The larvæ,
+also, of some moths are as complicated and are more active than the
+wingless and limbless females, which never leave their pupa-case, never
+feed and never see the daylight.
+
+     {465} This corresponds to the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607,
+     where, however, the example is taken from the Cirripedes.
+
+
+_Attempt to explain the facts of embryology._
+
+I think considerable light can be thrown by the theory of descent on
+these wonderful embryological facts which are common in a greater or
+less degree to the whole animal kingdom, and in some manner to the
+vegetable kingdom: on the fact, for instance, of the arteries in the
+embryonic mammal, bird, reptile and fish, running and branching in the
+same courses and nearly in the same manner with the arteries in the
+full-grown fish; on the fact I may add of the high importance to
+systematic naturalists{466} of the characters and resemblances in the
+embryonic state, in ascertaining the true position in the natural system
+of mature organic beings. The following are the considerations which
+throw light on these curious points.
+
+     {466} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.
+
+In the economy, we will say of a feline animal{467}, the feline
+structure of the embryo or of the sucking kitten is of quite secondary
+importance to it; hence, if a feline animal varied (assuming for the
+time the possibility of this) and if some place in the economy of
+nature favoured the selection of a longer-limbed variety, it would be
+quite unimportant to the production by natural selection of a
+long-limbed breed, whether the limbs of the embryo and kitten were
+elongated if they _became_ so _as soon_ as the animal had to provide
+food for itself. And if it were found after continued selection and the
+production of several new breeds from one parent-stock, that the
+successive variations had supervened, not very early in the youth or
+embryonic life of each breed (and we have just seen that it is quite
+unimportant whether it does so or not), then it obviously follows that
+the young or embryos of the several breeds will continue resembling each
+other more closely than their adult parents{468}. And again, if two of
+these breeds became each the parent-stock of several other breeds,
+forming two genera, the young and embryos of these would still retain a
+greater resemblance to the one original stock than when in an adult
+state. Therefore if it could be shown that the period of the slight
+successive variations does not always supervene at a very early period
+of life, the greater resemblance or closer unity in type of animals in
+the young than in the full-grown state would be explained. Before
+practically{469} endeavouring to discover in our domestic races whether
+the structure or form of the young has or has not changed in an exactly
+corresponding degree with the changes of full-grown animals, it will be
+well to show that it is at least quite _possible_ for the primary
+germinal vesicle to be impressed with a tendency to produce some change
+on the growing tissues which will not be fully effected till the animal
+is advanced in life.
+
+     {467} This corresponds to the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 443-4, vi. p.
+     610: the "feline animal" is not used to illustrate the
+     generalisation, but is so used in the Essay of 1842, p. 42.
+
+     {468} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 447, vi. p. 613.
+
+     {469} In the margin is written "Get young pigeons"; this was
+     afterwards done, and the results are given in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 445, vi. p. 612.
+
+From the following peculiarities of structure being inheritable and
+appearing only when the animal is full-grown--namely, general size,
+tallness (not consequent on the tallness of the infant), fatness either
+over the whole body, or local; change of colour in hair and its loss;
+deposition of bony matter on the legs of horses; blindness and deafness,
+that is changes of structure in the eye and ear; gout and consequent
+deposition of chalk-stones; and many other diseases{470}, as of the
+heart and brain, &c., &c.; from all such tendencies being I repeat
+inheritable, we clearly see that the germinal vesicle is impressed with
+some power which is wonderfully preserved during the production of
+infinitely numerous cells in the ever changing tissues, till the part
+ultimately to be affected is formed and the time of life arrived at. We
+see this clearly when we select cattle with any peculiarity of their
+horns, or poultry with any peculiarity of their second plumage, for such
+peculiarities cannot of course reappear till the animal is mature.
+Hence, it is certainly _possible_ that the germinal vesicle may be
+impressed with a tendency to produce a long-limbed animal, the full
+proportional length of whose limbs shall appear only when the animal is
+mature{471}.
+
+     {470} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. the corresponding passages are at pp.
+     8, 13, 443, vi. pp. 8, 15, 610. In the _Origin_, Ed. i. I have not
+     found a passage so striking as that which occurs a few lines lower
+     "that the germinal vesicle is impressed with some power which is
+     wonderfully preserved, &c." In the _Origin_ this _preservation_ is
+     rather taken for granted.
+
+     {471} <In the margin is written> Aborted organs show, perhaps,
+     something about period <at> which changes supervene in embryo.
+
+In several of the cases just enumerated we know that the first cause of
+the peculiarity, when _not_ inherited, lies in the conditions to which
+the animal is exposed during mature life, thus to a certain extent
+general size and fatness, lameness in horses and in a lesser degree
+blindness, gout and some other diseases are certainly in some degree
+caused and accelerated by the habits of life, and these peculiarities
+when transmitted to the offspring of the affected person reappear at a
+nearly corresponding time of life. In medical works it is asserted
+generally that at whatever period an hereditary disease appears in the
+parent, it tends to reappear in the offspring at the same period. Again,
+we find that early maturity, the season of reproduction and longevity
+are transmitted to corresponding periods of life. Dr Holland has
+insisted much on children of the same family exhibiting certain diseases
+in similar and peculiar manners; my father has known three brothers{472}
+die in very old age in a _singular_ comatose state; now to make these
+latter cases strictly bear, the children of such families ought
+similarly to suffer at corresponding times of life; this is probably not
+the case, but such facts show that a tendency in a disease to appear at
+particular stages of life can be transmitted through the germinal
+vesicle to different individuals of the same family. It is then
+certainly possible that diseases affecting widely different periods of
+life can be transmitted. So little attention is paid to very young
+domestic animals that I do not know whether any case is on record of
+selected peculiarities in young animals, for instance, in the first
+plumage of birds, being transmitted to their young. If, however, we turn
+to silk-worms{473}, we find that the caterpillars and coccoons (which
+must correspond to a _very early_ period of the embryonic life of
+mammalia) vary, and that these varieties reappear in the offspring
+caterpillars and coccoons.
+
+     {472} See p. 42, note 5.{Note 160}
+
+     {473} The evidence is given in _Var. under Dom._, I. p. 316.
+
+I think these facts are sufficient to render it probable that at
+whatever period of life any peculiarity (capable of being inherited)
+appears, whether caused by the action of external influences during
+mature life, or from an affection of the primary germinal vesicle, it
+_tends_ to reappear in the offspring at the corresponding period of
+life{474}. Hence (I may add) whatever effect training, that is the full
+employment or action of every newly selected slight variation, has in
+fully developing and increasing such variation, would only show itself
+in mature age, corresponding to the period of training; in the second
+chapter I showed that there was in this respect a marked difference in
+natural and artificial selection, man not regularly exercising or
+adapting his varieties to new ends, whereas selection by nature
+presupposes such exercise and adaptation in each selected and changed
+part. The foregoing facts show and presuppose that slight variations
+occur at various periods of life _after birth_; the facts of
+monstrosity, on the other hand, show that many changes take place before
+birth, for instance, all such cases as extra fingers, hare-lip and all
+sudden and great alterations in structure; and these when inherited
+reappear during the embryonic period in the offspring. I will only add
+that at a period even anterior to embryonic life, namely, during the
+_egg_ state, varieties appear in size and colour (as with the
+Hertfordshire duck with blackish eggs{475}) which reappear in the egg;
+in plants also the capsule and membranes of the seed are very variable
+and inheritable.
+
+     {474} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 610.
+
+     {475} In _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 295, such eggs are
+     said to be laid early in each season by the black Labrador duck. In
+     the next sentence in the text the author does not distinguish the
+     characters of the vegetable capsule from those of the ovum.
+
+If then the two following propositions are admitted (and I think the
+first can hardly be doubted), viz. that variation of structure takes
+place at all times of life, though no doubt far less in amount and
+seldomer in quite mature life{476} (and then generally taking the form
+of disease); and secondly, that these variations tend to reappear at a
+corresponding period of life, which seems at least probable, then we
+might _a priori_ have expected that in any selected breed the _young_
+animal would not partake in a corresponding degree the peculiarities
+characterising the _full-grown_ parent; though it would in a lesser
+degree. For during the thousand or ten thousand selections of slight
+increments in the length of the limbs of individuals necessary to
+produce a long-limbed breed, we might expect that such increments would
+take place in different individuals (as we do not certainly know at what
+period they do take place), some earlier and some later in the embryonic
+state, and some during early youth; and these increments would reappear
+in their offspring only at corresponding periods. Hence, the entire
+length of limb in the new long-limbed breed would only be acquired at
+the latest period of life, when that one which was latest of the
+thousand primary increments of length supervened. Consequently, the
+foetus of the new breed during the earlier part of its existence would
+remain much less changed in the proportions of its limbs; and the
+earlier the period the less would the change be.
+
+     {476} This seems to me to be more strongly stated here than in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+Whatever may be thought of the facts on which this reasoning is
+grounded, it shows how the embryos and young of different species might
+come to remain less changed than their mature parents; and practically
+we find that the young of our domestic animals, though differing, differ
+less than their full-grown parents. Thus if we look at the young
+puppies{477} of the greyhound and bulldog--(the two most obviously
+modified of the breeds of dog)--we find their puppies at the age of six
+days with legs and noses (the latter measured from the eyes to the tip)
+of the same length; though in the proportional thicknesses and general
+appearance of these parts there is a great difference. So it is with
+cattle, though the young calves of different breeds are easily
+recognisable, yet they do not differ so much in their proportions as the
+full-grown animals. We see this clearly in the fact that it shows the
+highest skill to select the best forms early in life, either in horses,
+cattle or poultry; no one would attempt it only a few hours after birth;
+and it requires great discrimination to judge with accuracy even during
+their full youth, and the best judges are sometimes deceived. This shows
+that the ultimate proportions of the body are not acquired till near
+mature age. If I had collected sufficient facts to firmly establish the
+proposition that in artificially selected breeds the embryonic and young
+animals are not changed in a corresponding degree with their mature
+parents, I might have omitted all the foregoing reasoning and the
+attempts to explain how this happens; for we might safely have
+transferred the proposition to the breeds or species naturally selected;
+and the ultimate effect would necessarily have been that in a number of
+races or species descended from a common stock and forming several
+genera and families the embryos would have resembled each other more
+closely than full-grown animals. Whatever may have been the form or
+habits of the parent-stock of the Vertebrata, in whatever course the
+arteries ran and branched, the selection of variations, supervening
+after the first formation of the arteries in the embryo, would not tend
+from variations supervening at corresponding periods to alter their
+course at that period: hence, the similar course of the arteries in the
+mammal, bird, reptile and fish, must be looked at as a most ancient
+record of the embryonic structure of the common parent-stock of these
+four great classes.
+
+     {477} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.
+
+A long course of selection might cause a form to become more simple, as
+well as more complicated; thus the adaptation of a crustaceous{478}
+animal to live attached during its whole life to the body of a fish,
+might permit with advantage great simplification of structure, and on
+this view the singular fact of an embryo being more complex than its
+parent is at once explained.
+
+     {478} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.
+
+
+_On the graduated complexity in each great class._
+
+I may take this opportunity of remarking that naturalists have observed
+that in most of the great classes a series exists from very complicated
+to very simple beings; thus in Fish, what a range there is between the
+sand-eel and shark,--in the Articulata, between the common crab and the
+Daphnia{479},--between the Aphis and butterfly, and between a mite and a
+spider{480}. Now the observation just made, namely, that selection might
+tend to simplify, as well as to complicate, explains this; for we can
+see that during the endless geologico-geographical changes, and
+consequent isolation of species, a station occupied in other districts
+by less complicated animals might be left unfilled, and be occupied by a
+degraded form of a higher or more complicated class; and it would by no
+means follow that, when the two regions became united, the degraded
+organism would give way to the aboriginally lower organism. According to
+our theory, there is obviously no power tending constantly to exalt
+species, except the mutual struggle between the different individuals
+and classes; but from the strong and general hereditary tendency we
+might expect to find some tendency to progressive complication in the
+successive production of new organic forms.
+
+     {479} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 419, vi. p. 575.
+
+     {480} <Note in original.> Scarcely possible to distinguish between
+     non-development and retrograde development.
+
+
+_Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals._
+
+I have above remarked that the feline{481} form is quite of secondary
+importance to the embryo and to the kitten. Of course, during any great
+and prolonged change of structure in the mature animal, it might, and
+often would be, indispensable that the form of the embryo should be
+changed; and this could be effected, owing to the hereditary tendency at
+corresponding ages, by selection, equally well as in mature age: thus if
+the embryo tended to become, or to remain, either over its whole body or
+in certain parts, too bulky, the female parent would die or suffer more
+during parturition; and as in the case of the calves with large hinder
+quarters{482}, the peculiarity must be either eliminated or the species
+become extinct. Where an embryonic form has to seek its own food, its
+structure and adaptation is just as important to the species as that of
+the full-grown animal; and as we have seen that a peculiarity appearing
+in a caterpillar (or in a child, as shown by the hereditariness of
+peculiarities in the milk-teeth) reappears in its offspring, so we can
+at once see that our common principle of the selection of slight
+accidental variations would modify and adapt a caterpillar to a new or
+changing condition, precisely as in the full-grown butterfly. Hence
+probably it is that caterpillars of different species of the Lepidoptera
+differ more than those embryos, at a corresponding early period of life,
+do which remain inactive in the womb of their parents. The parent during
+successive ages continuing to be adapted by selection for some one
+object, and the larva for quite another one, we need not wonder at the
+difference becoming wonderfully great between them; even as great as
+that between the fixed rock-barnacle and its free, crab-like offspring,
+which is furnished with eyes and well-articulated, locomotive
+limbs{483}.
+
+     {481} See p. 42, where the same illustration is used.
+
+     {482} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 452.
+
+     {483} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.
+
+
+_Importance of embryology in classification._
+
+We are now prepared to perceive why the study of embryonic forms is of
+such acknowledged importance in classification{484}. For we have seen
+that a variation, supervening at any time, may aid in the modification
+and adaptation of the full-grown being; but for the modification of the
+embryo, only the variations which supervene at a very early period can
+be seized on and perpetuated by selection: hence there will be less
+power and less tendency (for the structure of the embryo is mostly
+unimportant) to modify the young: and hence we might expect to find at
+this period similarities preserved between different groups of species
+which had been obscured and quite lost in the full-grown animals. I
+conceive on the view of separate creations it would be impossible to
+offer any explanation of the affinities of organic beings thus being
+plainest and of the greatest importance at that period of life when
+their structure is not adapted to the final part they have to play in
+the economy of nature.
+
+     {484} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.
+
+
+_Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared._
+
+It follows strictly from the above reasoning only that the embryos of
+(for instance) existing vertebrata resemble more closely the embryo of
+the parent-stock of this great class than do full-grown existing
+vertebrata resemble their full-grown parent-stock. But it may be argued
+with much probability that in the earliest and simplest condition of
+things the parent and embryo must have resembled each other, and that
+the passage of any animal through embryonic states in its growth is
+entirely due to subsequent variations affecting _only_ the more mature
+periods of life. If so, the embryos of the existing vertebrata will
+shadow forth the full-grown structure of some of those forms of this
+great class which existed at the earlier periods of the earth's
+history{485}: and accordingly, animals with a fish-like structure ought
+to have preceded birds and mammals; and of fish, that higher organized
+division with the vertebræ extending into one division of the tail ought
+to have preceded the equal-tailed, because the embryos of the latter
+have an unequal tail; and of Crustacea, entomostraca ought to have
+preceded the ordinary crabs and barnacles--polypes ought to have
+preceded jelly-fish, and infusorial animalcules to have existed before
+both. This order of precedence in time in some of these cases is
+believed to hold good; but I think our evidence is so exceedingly
+incomplete regarding the number and kinds of organisms which have
+existed during all, especially the earlier, periods of the earth's
+history, that I should put no stress on this accordance, even if it held
+truer than it probably does in our present state of knowledge.
+
+     {485} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS
+
+
+_The abortive organs of naturalists._
+
+Parts of structure are said to be "abortive," or when in a still lower
+state of development "rudimentary{486}," when the same reasoning power,
+which convinces us that in some cases similar parts are beautifully
+adapted to certain ends, declares that in others they are absolutely
+useless. Thus the rhinoceros, the whale{487}, etc., have, when young,
+small but properly formed teeth, which never protrude from the jaws;
+certain bones, and even the entire extremities are represented by mere
+little cylinders or points of bone, often soldered to other bones: many
+beetles have exceedingly minute but regularly formed wings lying under
+their wing-cases{488}, which latter are united never to be opened: many
+plants have, instead of stamens, mere filaments or little knobs; petals
+are reduced to scales, and whole flowers to buds, which (as in the
+feather hyacinth) never expand. Similar instances are almost
+innumerable, and are justly considered wonderful: probably not one
+organic being exists in which some part does not bear the stamp of
+inutility; for what can be clearer{489}, as far as our reasoning powers
+can reach, than that teeth are for eating, extremities for locomotion,
+wings for flight, stamens and the entire flower for reproduction; yet
+for these clear ends the parts in question are manifestly unfit.
+Abortive organs are often said to be mere representatives (a
+metaphorical expression) of similar parts in other organic beings; but
+in some cases they are more than representatives, for they seem to be
+the actual organ not fully grown or developed; thus the existence of
+mammæ in the male vertebrata is one of the oftenest adduced cases of
+abortion; but we know that these organs in man (and in the bull) have
+performed their proper function and secreted milk: the cow has normally
+four mammæ and two abortive ones, but these latter in some instances are
+largely developed and even (??) give milk{490}. Again in flowers, the
+representatives of stamens and pistils can be traced to be really these
+parts not developed; Kölreuter has shown by crossing a diæcious plant (a
+Cucubalus) having a rudimentary pistil{491} with another species having
+this organ perfect, that in the hybrid offspring the rudimentary part is
+more developed, though still remaining abortive; now this shows how
+intimately related in nature the mere rudiment and the fully developed
+pistil must be.
+
+     {486} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619, the author does
+     not lay stress on any distinction in meaning between the terms
+     _abortive_ and _rudimentary_ organs.
+
+     {487} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619.
+
+     {488} _Ibid._
+
+     {489} This argument occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 619.
+
+     {490} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 619, on male mammæ. In the
+     _Origin_ he speaks certainly of the abortive mammæ of the cow
+     giving milk,--a point which is here queried.
+
+     {491} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.
+
+Abortive organs, which must be considered as useless as far as their
+ordinary and normal purpose is concerned, are sometimes adapted to other
+ends{492}: thus the marsupial bones, which properly serve to support the
+young in the mother's pouch, are present in the male and serve as the
+fulcrum for muscles connected only with male functions: in the male of
+the marigold flower the pistil is abortive for its proper end of being
+impregnated, but serves to sweep the pollen out of the anthers{493}
+ready to be borne by insects to the perfect pistils in the other
+florets. It is likely in many cases, yet unknown to us, that abortive
+organs perform some useful function; but in other cases, for instance in
+that of teeth embedded in the solid jaw-bone, or of mere knobs, the
+rudiments of stamens and pistils, the boldest imagination will hardly
+venture to ascribe to them any function. Abortive parts, even when
+wholly useless to the individual species, are of great signification in
+the system of nature; for they are often found to be of very high
+importance in a natural classification{494}; thus the presence and
+position of entire abortive flowers, in the grasses, cannot be
+overlooked in attempting to arrange them according to their true
+affinities. This corroborates a statement in a previous chapter, viz.
+that the physiological importance of a part is no index of its
+importance in classification. Finally, abortive organs often are only
+developed, proportionally with other parts, in the embryonic or young
+state of each species{495}; this again, especially considering the
+classificatory importance of abortive organs, is evidently part of the
+law (stated in the last chapter) that the higher affinities of organisms
+are often best seen in the stages towards maturity, through which the
+embryo passes. On the ordinary view of individual creations, I think
+that scarcely any class of facts in natural history are more wonderful
+or less capable of receiving explanation.
+
+     {492} The case of rudimentary organs adapted to new purposes is
+     discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.
+
+     {493} This is here stated on the authority of Sprengel; see also
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 452, vi. p. 621.
+
+     {494} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627. In the margin R. Brown's
+     name is given apparently as the authority for the fact.
+
+     {495} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 626.
+
+
+_The abortive organs of physiologists._
+
+Physiologists and medical men apply the term "abortive" in a somewhat
+different sense from naturalists; and their application is probably the
+primary one; namely, to parts, which from accident or disease before
+birth are not developed or do not grow{496}: thus, when a young animal
+is born with a little stump in the place of a finger or of the whole
+extremity, or with a little button instead of a head, or with a mere
+bead of bony matter instead of a tooth, or with a stump instead of a
+tail, these parts are said to be aborted. Naturalists on the other hand,
+as we have seen, apply this term to parts not stunted during the growth
+of the embryo, but which are as regularly produced in successive
+generations as any other most essential parts of the structure of the
+individual: naturalists, therefore, use this term in a metaphorical
+sense. These two classes of facts, however, blend into each other{497};
+by parts accidentally aborted, during the embryonic life of one
+individual, becoming hereditary in the succeeding generations: thus a
+cat or dog, born with a stump instead of a tail, tends to transmit
+stumps to their offspring; and so it is with stumps representing the
+extremities; and so again with flowers, with defective and rudimentary
+parts, which are annually produced in new flower-buds and even in
+successive seedlings. The strong hereditary tendency to reproduce every
+either congenital or slowly acquired structure, whether useful or
+injurious to the individual, has been shown in the first part; so that
+we need feel no surprise at these truly abortive parts becoming
+hereditary. A curious instance of the force of hereditariness is
+sometimes seen in two little loose hanging horns, quite useless as far
+as the function of a horn is concerned, which are produced in hornless
+races of our domestic cattle{498}. Now I believe no real distinction can
+be drawn between a stump representing a tail or a horn or the
+extremities; or a short shrivelled stamen without any pollen; or a
+dimple in a petal representing a nectary, when such rudiments are
+regularly reproduced in a race or family, and the true abortive organs
+of naturalists. And if we had reason to believe (which I think we have
+not) that all abortive organs had been at some period _suddenly_
+produced during the embryonic life of an individual, and afterwards
+become inherited, we should at once have a simple explanation of the
+origin of abortive and rudimentary organs{499}. In the same manner as
+during changes of pronunciation certain letters in a word may become
+useless{500} in pronouncing it, but yet may aid us in searching for its
+derivation, so we can see that rudimentary organs, no longer useful to
+the individual, may be of high importance in ascertaining its descent,
+that is, its true classification in the natural system.
+
+     {496} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.
+
+     {497} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625, the author in
+     referring to semi-monstrous variations adds "But I doubt whether
+     any of these cases throw light on the origin of rudimentary organs
+     in a state of nature." In 1844 he was clearly more inclined to an
+     opposite opinion.
+
+     {498} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.
+
+     {499} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625. The author there
+     discusses monstrosities in relation to rudimentary organs, and
+     comes to the conclusion that disuse is of more importance, giving
+     as a reason his doubt "whether species under nature ever undergo
+     abrupt changes." It seems to me that in the _Origin_ he gives more
+     weight to the "Lamarckian factor" than he did in 1844. Huxley took
+     the opposite view, see the Introduction.
+
+     {500} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627.
+
+
+_Abortion from gradual disuse._
+
+There seems to be some probability that continued disuse of any part or
+organ, and the selection of individuals with such parts slightly less
+developed, would in the course of ages produce in organic beings under
+domesticity races with such parts abortive. We have every reason to
+believe that every part and organ in an individual becomes fully
+developed only with exercise of its functions; that it becomes developed
+in a somewhat lesser degree with less exercise; and if forcibly
+precluded from all action, such part will often become atrophied. Every
+peculiarity, let it be remembered, tends, especially where both parents
+have it, to be inherited. The less power of flight in the common duck
+compared with the wild, must be partly attributed to disuse{501} during
+successive generations, and as the wing is properly adapted to flight,
+we must consider our domestic duck in the first stage towards the state
+of the Apteryx, in which the wings are so curiously abortive. Some
+naturalists have attributed (and possibly with truth) the falling ears
+so characteristic of most domestic dogs, some rabbits, oxen, cats,
+goats, horses, &c., &c., as the effects of the lesser use of the muscles
+of these flexible parts during successive generations of inactive life;
+and muscles, which cannot perform their functions, must be considered
+verging towards abortion. In flowers, again, we see the gradual abortion
+during successive seedlings (though this is more properly a conversion)
+of stamens into imperfect petals, and finally into perfect petals. When
+the eye is blinded in early life the optic nerve sometimes becomes
+atrophied; may we not believe that where this organ, as is the case with
+the subterranean mole-like Tuco-tuco <_Ctenomys_>{502}, is frequently
+impaired and lost, that in the course of generations the whole organ
+might become abortive, as it normally is in some burrowing quadrupeds
+having nearly similar habits with the Tuco-tuco?
+
+     {501} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 11, vi. p. 13, where drooping-ears of
+     domestic animals are also given.
+
+     {502} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 137, vi. p. 170.
+
+In as far then as it is admitted as probable that the effects of disuse
+(together with occasional true and sudden abortions during the embryonic
+period) would cause a part to be less developed, and finally to become
+abortive and useless; then during the infinitely numerous changes of
+habits in the many descendants from a common stock, we might fairly have
+expected that cases of organs becom<ing> abortive would have been numerous.
+The preservation of the stump of the tail, as usually happens when an
+animal is born tailless, we can only explain by the strength of the
+hereditary principle and by the period in embryo when affected{503}: but
+on the theory of disuse gradually obliterating a part, we can see,
+according to the principles explained in the last chapter (viz. of
+hereditariness at corresponding periods of life{504}, together with the
+use and disuse of the part in question not being brought into play in
+early or embryonic life), that organs or parts would tend not to be
+utterly obliterated, but to be reduced to that state in which they
+existed in early embryonic life. Owen often speaks of a part in a
+full-grown animal being in an "embryonic condition." Moreover we can
+thus see why abortive organs are most developed at an early period of
+life. Again, by gradual selection, we can see how an organ rendered
+abortive in its primary use might be converted to other purposes; a
+duck's wing might come to serve for a fin, as does that of the penguin;
+an abortive bone might come to serve, by the slow increment and change
+of place in the muscular fibres, as a fulcrum for a new series of
+muscles; the pistil{505} of the marigold might become abortive as a
+reproductive part, but be continued in its function of sweeping the
+pollen out of the anthers; for if in this latter respect the abortion
+had not been checked by selection, the species must have become extinct
+from the pollen remaining enclosed in the capsules of the anthers.
+
+     {503} These words seem to have been inserted as an afterthought.
+
+     {504} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.
+
+     {505} This and similar cases occur in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 452,
+     vi. p. 621.
+
+Finally then I must repeat that these wonderful facts of organs formed
+with traces of exquisite care, but now either absolutely useless or
+adapted to ends wholly different from their ordinary end, being present
+and forming part of the structure of almost every inhabitant of this
+world, both in long-past and present times--being best developed and
+often only discoverable at a very early embryonic period, and being full
+of signification in arranging the long series of organic beings in a
+natural system--these wonderful facts not only receive a simple
+explanation on the theory of long-continued selection of many species
+from a few common parent-stocks, but necessarily follow from this
+theory. If this theory be rejected, these facts remain quite
+inexplicable; without indeed we rank as an explanation such loose
+metaphors as that of De Candolle's{506}, in which the kingdom of nature
+is compared to a well-covered table, and the abortive organs are
+considered as put in for the sake of symmetry!
+
+     {506} The metaphor of the dishes is given in the Essay of 1842, p.
+     47, note 3.{Note 173}
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION
+
+
+_Recapitulation._
+
+I will now recapitulate the course of this work, more fully with respect
+to the former parts, and briefly <as to> the latter. In the first
+chapter we have seen that most, if not all, organic beings, when taken
+by man out of their natural condition, and bred during several
+generations, vary; that is variation is partly due to the direct effect
+of the new external influences, and partly to the indirect effect on the
+reproductive system rendering the organization of the offspring in some
+degree plastic. Of the variations thus produced, man when uncivilised
+naturally preserves the life, and therefore unintentionally breeds from
+those individuals most useful to him in his different states: when even
+semi-civilised, he intentionally separates and breeds from such
+individuals. Every part of the structure seems occasionally to vary in a
+very slight degree, and the extent to which all kinds of peculiarities
+in mind and body, when congenital and when slowly acquired either from
+external influences, from exercise, or from disuse <are inherited>, is
+truly wonderful. When several breeds are once formed, then crossing is
+the most fertile source of new breeds{507}. Variation must be ruled, of
+course, by the health of the new race, by the tendency to return to the
+ancestral forms, and by unknown laws determining the proportional
+increase and symmetry of the body. The amount of variation, which has
+been effected under domestication, is quite unknown in the majority of
+domestic beings.
+
+     {507} Compare however Darwin's later view:--"The possibility of
+     making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated,"
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23. The author's change of opinion
+     was no doubt partly due to his experience in breeding pigeons.
+
+In the second chapter it was shown that wild organisms undoubtedly vary
+in some slight degree: and that the kind of variation, though much less
+in degree, is similar to that of domestic organisms. It is highly
+probable that every organic being, if subjected during several
+generations to new and varying conditions, would vary. It is certain
+that organisms, living in an _isolated_ country which is undergoing
+geological changes, must in the course of time be so subjected to new
+conditions; moreover an organism, when by chance transported into a new
+station, for instance into an island, will often be exposed to new
+conditions, and be surrounded by a new series of organic beings. If
+there were no power at work selecting every slight variation, which
+opened new sources of subsistence to a being thus situated, the effects
+of crossing, the chance of death and the constant tendency to reversion
+to the old parent-form, would prevent the production of new races. If
+there were any selective agency at work, it seems impossible to assign
+any limit{508} to the complexity and beauty of the adaptive structures,
+which _might_ thus be produced: for certainly the limit of possible
+variation of organic beings, either in a wild or domestic state, is not
+known.
+
+     {508} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 469, vi. p. 644, Darwin makes a
+     strong statement to this effect.
+
+It was then shown, from the geometrically increasing tendency of each
+species to multiply (as evidenced from what we know of mankind and of
+other animals when favoured by circumstances), and from the means of
+subsistence of each species on an _average_ remaining constant, that
+during some part of the life of each, or during every few generations,
+there must be a severe struggle for existence; and that less than a
+grain{509} in the balance will determine which individuals shall live
+and which perish. In a country, therefore, undergoing changes, and cut
+off from the free immigration of species better adapted to the new
+station and conditions, it cannot be doubted that there is a most
+powerful means of selection, _tending_ to preserve even the slightest
+variation, which aided the subsistence or defence of those organic
+beings, during any part of their whole existence, whose organization had
+been rendered plastic. Moreover, in animals in which the sexes are
+distinct, there is a sexual struggle, by which the most vigorous, and
+consequently the best adapted, will oftener procreate their kind.
+
+     {509} "A grain in the balance will determine which individual shall
+     live and which shall die," _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 467, vi. p. 642. A
+     similar statement occurs in the 1842 Essay, p. 8, note 3.{Note 59}
+
+A new race thus formed by natural selection would be undistinguishable
+from a species. For comparing, on the one hand, the several species of a
+genus, and on the other hand several domestic races from a common stock,
+we cannot discriminate them by the amount of external difference, but
+only, first, by domestic races not remaining so constant or being so
+"true" as species are; and secondly by races always producing fertile
+offspring when crossed. And it was then shown that a race naturally
+selected--from the variation being slower--from the selection steadily
+leading towards the same ends{510}, and from every new slight change in
+structure being adapted (as is implied by its selection) to the new
+conditions and being fully exercised, and lastly from the freedom from
+occasional crosses with other species, would almost necessarily be
+"truer" than a race selected by ignorant or capricious and short-lived
+man. With respect to the sterility of species when crossed, it was shown
+not to be a universal character, and when present to vary in degree:
+sterility also was shown probably to depend less on external than on
+constitutional differences. And it was shown that when individual
+animals and plants are placed under new conditions, they become, without
+losing their healths, as sterile, in the same manner and to the same
+degree, as hybrids; and it is therefore conceivable that the cross-bred
+offspring between two species, having different constitutions, might
+have its constitution affected in the same peculiar manner as when an
+individual animal or plant is placed under new conditions. Man in
+selecting domestic races has little wish and still less power to adapt
+the whole frame to new conditions; in nature, however, where each
+species survives by a struggle against other species and external
+nature, the result must be very different.
+
+     {510} Thus according to the author what is now known as
+     _orthogenesis_ is due to selection.
+
+Races descending from the same stock were then compared with species of
+the same genus, and they were found to present some striking analogies.
+The offspring also of races when crossed, that is mongrels, were
+compared with the cross-bred offspring of species, that is hybrids, and
+they were found to resemble each other in all their characters, with the
+one exception of sterility, and even this, when present, often becomes
+after some generations variable in degree. The chapter was summed up,
+and it was shown that no ascertained limit to the amount of variation is
+known; or could be predicted with due time and changes of condition
+granted. It was then admitted that although the production of new races,
+undistinguishable from true species, is probable, we must look to the
+relations in the past and present geographical distribution of the
+infinitely numerous beings, by which we are surrounded--to their
+affinities and to their structure--for any direct evidence.
+
+In the third chapter the inheritable variations in the mental phenomena
+of domestic and of wild organic beings were considered. It was shown
+that we are not concerned in this work with the first origin of the
+leading mental qualities; but that tastes, passions, dispositions,
+consensual movements, and habits all became, either congenitally or
+during mature life, modified and were inherited. Several of these
+modified habits were found to correspond in every essential character
+with true instincts, and they were found to follow the same laws.
+Instincts and dispositions &c. are fully as important to the
+preservation and increase of a species as its corporeal structure; and
+therefore the natural means of selection would act on and modify them
+equally with corporeal structures. This being granted, as well as the
+proposition that mental phenomena are variable, and that the
+modifications are inheritable, the possibility of the several most
+complicated instincts being slowly acquired was considered, and it was
+shown from the very imperfect series in the instincts of the animals now
+existing, that we are not justified in _prima facie_ rejecting a theory
+of the common descent of allied organisms from the difficulty of
+imagining the transitional stages in the various now most complicated
+and wonderful instincts. We were thus led on to consider the same
+question with respect both to highly complicated organs, and to the
+aggregate of several such organs, that is individual organic beings; and
+it was shown, by the same method of taking the existing most imperfect
+series, that we ought not at once to reject the theory, because we
+cannot trace the transitional stages in such organs, or conjecture the
+transitional habits of such individual species.
+
+In the Second Part{511} the direct evidence of allied forms having
+descended from the same stock was discussed. It was shown that this
+theory requires a long series of intermediate forms between the species
+and groups in the same classes--forms not directly intermediate between
+existing species, but intermediate with a common parent. It was admitted
+that if even all the preserved fossils and existing species were
+collected, such a series would be far from being formed; but it was
+shown that we have not _good_ evidence that the oldest known deposits
+are contemporaneous with the first appearance of living beings; or that
+the several subsequent formations are nearly consecutive; or that any
+one formation preserves a nearly perfect fauna of even the hard marine
+organisms, which lived in that quarter of the world. Consequently, we
+have no reason to suppose that more than a small fraction of the
+organisms which have lived at any one period have ever been preserved;
+and hence that we ought not to expect to discover the fossilised
+sub-varieties between any two species. On the other hand, the evidence,
+though extremely imperfect, drawn from fossil remains, as far as it does
+go, is in favour of such a series of organisms having existed as that
+required. This want of evidence of the past existence of almost
+infinitely numerous intermediate forms, is, I conceive, much the
+weightiest difficulty{512} on the theory of common descent; but I must
+think that this is due to ignorance necessarily resulting from the
+imperfection of all geological records.
+
+     {511} Part II begins with Ch. IV. See the Introduction, where the
+     absence of division into two parts (in the _Origin_) is discussed.
+
+     {512} In the recapitulation in the last chapter of the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 475, vi. p. 651, the author does not insist on this point
+     as the weightiest difficulty, though he does so in Ed. i. p. 299.
+     It is possible that he had come to think less of the difficulty in
+     question: this was certainly the case when he wrote the 6th
+     edition, see p. 438.
+
+In the fifth chapter it was shown that new species gradually{513}
+appear, and that the old ones gradually disappear, from the earth; and
+this strictly accords with our theory. The extinction of species seems
+to be preceded by their rarity; and if this be so, no one ought to feel
+more surprise at a species being exterminated than at its being rare.
+Every species which is not increasing in number must have its
+geometrical tendency to increase checked by some agency seldom
+accurately perceived by us. Each slight increase in the power of this
+unseen checking agency would cause a corresponding decrease in the
+average numbers of that species, and the species would become rarer: we
+feel not the least surprise at one species of a genus being rare and
+another abundant; why then should we be surprised at its extinction,
+when we have good reason to believe that this very rarity is its regular
+precursor and cause.
+
+     {513} <The following words:> The fauna changes singly <were inserted
+     by the author, apparently to replace a doubtful erasure>.
+
+In the sixth chapter the leading facts in the geographical distribution
+of organic beings were considered--namely, the dissimilarity in areas
+widely and effectually separated, of the organic beings being exposed to
+very similar conditions (as for instance, within the tropical forests of
+Africa and America, or on the volcanic islands adjoining them). Also the
+striking similarity and general relations of the inhabitants of the same
+great continents, conjoined with a lesser degree of dissimilarity in the
+inhabitants living on opposite sides of the barriers intersecting
+it--whether or not these opposite sides are exposed to similar
+conditions. Also the dissimilarity, though in a still lesser degree, in
+the inhabitants of different islands in the same archipelago, together
+with their similarity taken as a whole with the inhabitants of the
+nearest continent, whatever its character may be. Again, the peculiar
+relations of Alpine floras; the absence of mammifers on the smaller
+isolated islands; and the comparative fewness of the plants and other
+organisms on islands with diversified stations; the connection between
+the possibility of occasional transportal from one country to another,
+with an affinity, though not identity, of the organic beings inhabiting
+them. And lastly, the clear and striking relations between the living
+and the extinct in the same great divisions of the world; which
+relation, if we look very far backward, seems to die away. These facts,
+if we bear in mind the geological changes in progress, all simply follow
+from the proposition of allied organic beings having lineally descended
+from common parent-stocks. On the theory of independent creations they
+must remain, though evidently connected together, inexplicable and
+disconnected.
+
+In the seventh chapter, the relationship or grouping of extinct and
+recent species; the appearance and disappearance of groups; the
+ill-defined objects of the natural classification, not depending on the
+similarity of organs physiologically important, not being influenced by
+adaptive or analogical characters, though these often govern the whole
+economy of the individual, but depending on any character which varies
+least, and especially on the forms through which the embryo passes, and,
+as was afterwards shown, on the presence of rudimentary and useless
+organs. The alliance between the nearest species in _distinct_ groups
+being general and not especial; the close similarity in the rules and
+objects in classifying domestic races and true species. All these facts
+were shown to follow on the natural system being a genealogical system.
+
+In the eighth chapter, the unity of structure throughout large groups,
+in species adapted to the most different lives, and the wonderful
+metamorphosis (used metaphorically by naturalists) of one part or organ
+into another, were shown to follow simply on new species being produced
+by the selection and inheritance of successive _small_ changes of
+structure. The unity of type is wonderfully manifested by the similarity
+of structure, during the embryonic period, in the species of entire
+classes. To explain this it was shown that the different races of our
+domestic animals differ less, during their young state, than when full
+grown; and consequently, if species are produced like races, the same
+fact, on a greater scale, might have been expected to hold good with
+them. This remarkable law of nature was attempted to be explained
+through establishing, by sundry facts, that slight variations originally
+appear during all periods of life, and that when inherited they tend to
+appear at the corresponding period of life; according to these
+principles, in several species descended from the same parent-stock,
+their embryos would almost necessarily much more closely resemble each
+other than they would in their adult state. The importance of these
+embryonic resemblances, in making out a natural or genealogical
+classification, thus becomes at once obvious. The occasional greater
+simplicity of structure in the mature animal than in the embryo; the
+gradation in complexity of the species in the great classes; the
+adaptation of the larvæ of animals to independent powers of existence;
+the immense difference in certain animals in their larval and mature
+states, were all shown on the above principles to present no difficulty.
+
+In the <ninth> chapter, the frequent and almost general presence of
+organs and parts, called by naturalists abortive or rudimentary, which,
+though formed with exquisite care, are generally absolutely useless
+<was considered>. <These structures,> though sometimes applied to uses
+not normal,--which cannot be considered as mere representative parts,
+for they are sometimes capable of performing their proper
+function,--which are always best developed, and sometimes only
+developed, during a very early period of life,--and which are of
+admitted high importance in classification,--were shown to be simply
+explicable on our theory of common descent.
+
+
+_Why do we wish to reject the theory of common descent?_
+
+Thus have many general facts, or laws, been included under one
+explanation; and the difficulties encountered are those which would
+naturally result from our acknowledged ignorance. And why should we not
+admit this theory of descent{514}? Can it be shown that organic beings
+in a natural state are _all absolutely invariable_? Can it be said that
+the _limit of variation_ or the number of varieties capable of being
+formed under domestication are known? Can any distinct line be drawn
+_between a race and a species_? To these three questions we may
+certainly answer in the negative. As long as species were thought to be
+divided and defined by an impassable barrier of _sterility_, whilst we
+were ignorant of geology, and imagined that the _world was of short
+duration_, and the number of its past inhabitants few, we were justified
+in assuming individual creations, or in saying with Whewell that the
+beginnings of all things are hidden from man. Why then do we feel so
+strong an inclination to reject this theory--especially when the actual
+case of any two species, or even of any two races, is adduced--and one
+is asked, have these two originally descended from the same parent womb?
+I believe it is because we are always slow in admitting any great
+change of which we do not see the intermediate steps. The mind cannot
+grasp the full meaning of the term of a million or hundred million
+years, and cannot consequently add up and perceive the full effects of
+small successive variations accumulated during almost infinitely many
+generations. The difficulty is the same with that which, with most
+geologists, it has taken long years to remove, as when Lyell propounded
+that great valleys{515} were hollowed out [and long lines of inland
+cliffs had been formed] by the slow action of the waves of the sea. A
+man may long view a grand precipice without actually believing, though
+he may not deny it, that thousands of feet in thickness of solid rock
+once extended over many square miles where the open sea now rolls;
+without fully believing that the same sea which he sees beating the rock
+at his feet has been the sole removing power.
+
+     {514} This question forms the subject of what is practically a
+     section of the final chapter of the _Origin_ (Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p.
+     657).
+
+     {515} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.
+
+Shall we then allow that the three distinct species of rhinoceros{516}
+which separately inhabit Java and Sumatra and the neighbouring mainland
+of Malacca were created, male and female, out of the inorganic materials
+of these countries? Without any adequate cause, as far as our reason
+serves, shall we say that they were merely, from living near each other,
+created very like each other, so as to form a section of the genus
+dissimilar from the African section, some of the species of which
+section inhabit very similar and some very dissimilar stations? Shall we
+say that without any apparent cause they were created on the same
+generic type with the ancient woolly rhinoceros of Siberia and of the
+other species which formerly inhabited the same main division of the
+world: that they were created, less and less closely related, but still
+with interbranching affinities, with all the other living and extinct
+mammalia? That without any apparent adequate cause their short necks
+should contain the same number of vertebræ with the giraffe; that their
+thick legs should be built on the same plan with those of the antelope,
+of the mouse, of the hand of the monkey, of the wing of the bat, and of
+the fin of the porpoise. That in each of these species the second bone
+of their leg should show clear traces of two bones having been soldered
+and united into one; that the complicated bones of their head should
+become intelligible on the supposition of their having been formed of
+three expanded vertebræ; that in the jaws of each when dissected young
+there should exist small teeth which never come to the surface. That in
+possessing these useless abortive teeth, and in other characters, these
+three rhinoceroses in their embryonic state should much more closely
+resemble other mammalia than they do when mature. And lastly, that in a
+still earlier period of life, their arteries should run and branch as in
+a fish, to carry the blood to gills which do not exist. Now these three
+species of rhinoceros closely resemble each other; more closely than
+many generally acknowledged races of our domestic animals; these three
+species if domesticated would almost certainly vary, and races adapted
+to different ends might be selected out of such variations. In this
+state they would probably breed together, and their offspring would
+possibly be quite, and probably in some degree, fertile; and in either
+case, by continued crossing, one of these specific forms might be
+absorbed and lost in another. I repeat, shall we then say that a pair,
+or a gravid female, of each of these three species of rhinoceros, were
+separately created with deceptive appearances of true relationship, with
+the stamp of inutility on some parts, and of conversion in other parts,
+out of the inorganic elements of Java, Sumatra and Malacca? or have they
+descended, like our domestic races, from the same parent-stock? For my
+own part I could no more admit the former proposition than I could admit
+that the planets move in their courses, and that a stone falls to the
+ground, not through the intervention of the secondary and appointed law
+of gravity, but from the direct volition of the Creator.
+
+     {516} The discussion on the three species of _Rhinoceros_ which
+     also occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 48, was omitted in Ch. XIV of
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+Before concluding it will be well to show, although this has
+incidentally appeared, how far the theory of common descent can
+legitimately be extended{517}. If we once admit that two true species of
+the same genus can have descended from the same parent, it will not be
+possible to deny that two species of two genera may also have descended
+from a common stock. For in some families the genera approach almost as
+closely as species of the same genus; and in some orders, for instance
+in the monocotyledonous plants, the families run closely into each
+other. We do not hesitate to assign a common origin to dogs or cabbages,
+because they are divided into groups analogous to the groups in nature.
+Many naturalists indeed admit that all groups are artificial; and that
+they depend entirely on the extinction of intermediate species. Some
+naturalists, however, affirm that though driven from considering
+sterility as the characteristic of species, that an entire incapacity to
+propagate together is the best evidence of the existence of natural
+genera. Even if we put on one side the undoubted fact that some species
+of the same genus will not breed together, we cannot possibly admit the
+above rule, seeing that the grouse and pheasant (considered by some good
+ornithologists as forming two families), the bull-finch and canary-bird
+have bred together.
+
+     {517} This corresponds to a paragraph in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     483, vi. p. 662, where it is assumed that animals have descended
+     "from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an
+     equal or lesser number." In the _Origin_, however, the author goes
+     on, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 663: "Analogy would lead me one step
+     further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have
+     descended from some one prototype."
+
+No doubt the more remote two species are from each other, the weaker the
+arguments become in favour of their common descent. In species of two
+distinct families the analogy, from the variation of domestic organisms
+and from the manner of their intermarrying, fails; and the arguments
+from their geographical distribution quite or almost quite fails. But if
+we once admit the general principles of this work, as far as a clear
+unity of type can be made out in groups of species, adapted to play
+diversified parts in the economy of nature, whether shown in the
+structure of the embryonic or mature being, and especially if shown by a
+community of abortive parts, we are legitimately led to admit their
+community of descent. Naturalists dispute how widely this unity of type
+extends: most, however, admit that the vertebrata are built on one type;
+the articulata on another; the mollusca on a third; and the radiata on
+probably more than one. Plants also appear to fall under three or four
+great types. On this theory, therefore, all the organisms _yet
+discovered_ are descendants of probably less than ten parent-forms.
+
+
+_Conclusion._
+
+My reasons have now been assigned for believing that specific forms are
+not immutable creations{518}. The terms used by naturalists of affinity,
+unity of type, adaptive characters, the metamorphosis and abortion of
+organs, cease to be metaphorical expressions and become intelligible
+facts. We no longer look at an organic being as a savage does at a
+ship{519} or other great work of art, as at a thing wholly beyond his
+comprehension, but as a production that has a history which we may
+search into. How interesting do all instincts become when we speculate
+on their origin as hereditary habits, or as slight congenital
+modifications of former instincts perpetuated by the individuals so
+characterised having been preserved. When we look at every complex
+instinct and mechanism as the summing up of a long history of
+contrivances, each most useful to its possessor, nearly in the same way
+as when we look at a great mechanical invention as the summing up of the
+labour, the experience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous
+workmen. How interesting does the geographical distribution of all
+organic beings, past and present, become as throwing light on the
+ancient geography of the world. Geology loses glory{520} from the
+imperfection of its archives, but it gains in the immensity of its
+subject. There is much grandeur in looking at every existing organic
+being either as the lineal successor of some form now buried under
+thousands of feet of solid rock, or as being the co-descendant of that
+buried form of some more ancient and utterly lost inhabitant of this
+world. It accords with what we know of the laws impressed by the
+Creator{521} on matter that the production and extinction of forms
+should, like the birth and death of individuals, be the result of
+secondary means. It is derogatory that the Creator of countless
+Universes should have made by individual acts of His will the myriads of
+creeping parasites and worms, which since the earliest dawn of life have
+swarmed over the land and in the depths of the ocean. We cease to be
+astonished{522} that a group of animals should have been formed to lay
+their eggs in the bowels and flesh of other sensitive beings; that some
+animals should live by and even delight in cruelty; that animals should
+be led away by false instincts; that annually there should be an
+incalculable waste of the pollen, eggs and immature beings; for we see
+in all this the inevitable consequences of one great law, of the
+multiplication of organic beings not created immutable. From death,
+famine, and the struggle for existence, we see that the most exalted end
+which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the creation of the higher
+animals{523}, has directly proceeded. Doubtless, our first impression is
+to disbelieve that any secondary law could produce infinitely numerous
+organic beings, each characterised by the most exquisite workmanship and
+widely extended adaptations: it at first accords better with our
+faculties to suppose that each required the fiat of a Creator.
+There{524} is a [simple] grandeur in this view of life with its several
+powers of growth, reproduction and of sensation, having been originally
+breathed into matter under a few forms, perhaps into only one{525}, and
+that whilst this planet has gone cycling onwards according to the fixed
+laws of gravity and whilst land and water have gone on replacing each
+other--that from so simple an origin, through the selection of
+infinitesimal varieties, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful
+have been evolved.
+
+     {518} This sentence corresponds, not to the final section of the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 664, but rather to the opening
+     words of the section already referred to (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 480,
+     vi. p. 657).
+
+     {519} This simile occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 50, and in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665, _i.e._ in the final section of
+     Ch. XIV (vi. Ch. XV). In the MS. there is some erasure in pencil of
+     which I have taken no notice.
+
+     {520} An almost identical sentence occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 487, vi. p. 667. The fine prophecy (in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     486, vi. p. 666) on "the almost untrodden field of inquiry" is
+     wanting in the present Essay.
+
+     {521} See the last paragraph on p. 488 of the _Origin_, Ed. i., vi.
+     p. 668.
+
+     {522} A passage corresponding to this occurs in the sketch of 1842,
+     p. 51, but not in the last chapter of the _Origin_.
+
+     {523} This sentence occurs in an almost identical form in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 490, vi. p. 669. It will be noted that man is
+     not named though clearly referred to. Elsewhere (_Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 488) the author is bolder and writes "Light will be thrown on
+     the origin of man and his history." In Ed. vi. p. 668, he writes
+     "Much light &c."
+
+     {524} For the history of this sentence (with which the _Origin of
+     Species_ closes) see the Essay of 1842, p. 52, note 2{Note 184}:
+     also the concluding pages of the Introduction.
+
+     {525} These four words are added in pencil between the lines.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+For the names of Authors, Birds, Mammals (including names of classes)
+and Plants, see sub-indexes under _Authors_, _Birds_, _Mammals_ and
+_Plants_.
+
+
+  Acquired characters, _see_ Characters
+
+  Affinities and classification, 35
+
+  America, fossils, 177
+
+  Analogy, resemblance by, 36, 82, 199, 205, 211
+
+  Animals, marine, preservation of as fossils, 25, 139, 141;
+     --marine distribution, 155, 196
+
+  Australia, fossils, 177
+
+  AUTHORS, NAMES OF:--Ackerman on hybrids, 11;
+    Bakewell, 9, 91;
+    Bateson, W., xxix, 69 _n._, 217;
+    Bellinghausen, 124;
+    Boitard and Corbié, 106 _n._;
+    Brougham, Lord, 17, 117;
+    Brown, R., 233;
+    Buckland on fossils, 24, 137, 145 _n._;
+    Buffon on woodpecker, 6;
+    Bunbury (_Sir_ H.), rules for selection, 67;
+    Butler, S., 116 _n._;
+    d'Archiac, 146 _n._;
+    Darwin, C., origin of his evolutionary views, xi-xv;
+     --on Forbes' theory, 30;
+     --his _Journal of Researches_ quoted, 67 _n._, 168 _n._;
+     --his _Cross-and Self-Fertilisation_, 69 _n._, 103 _n._;
+     --on crossing Chinese and common goose, 72 _n._;
+    Darwin, Mrs, letter to, xxvi;
+    Darwin, F., on Knight's Law, 70 _n._;
+    Darwin, R. W., fact supplied by, 42 _n._, 223;
+    Darwin and Wallace, joint paper by, xxiv, 87 _n._;
+    De Candolle, 7, 47, 87, 204, 238;
+    D'Orbigny, 124, 179 _n._;
+    Ehrenberg, 146 _n._;
+    Ewart on telegony, 108 _n._;
+    Falconer, 167;
+    Forbes, E., xxvii, 30, 146 _n._, 163 _n._, 165 _n._;
+    Gadow, Dr, xxix;
+    Gärtner, 98, 107;
+    Goebel on Knight's Law, 70 _n._;
+    Gould on distribution, 156;
+    Gray, Asa, letter to, publication of in Linnean paper explained, xxiv;
+    Henslow, G., on evolution without selection, 63 _n._;
+    Henslow, J. S., xxvii;
+    Herbert on hybrids, 12, 98;
+     --sterility of crocus, 99 _n._;
+    Hering, 116 _n._;
+    Hogg, 115 _n._;
+    Holland, Dr, 223;
+    Hooker, J. D., xxvii, xxviii, 153 _n._;
+     --on Insular Floras, 161, 164, 167;
+    Huber, P., 118;
+    Hudson on woodpecker, 131 _n._;
+    Humboldt, 71, 166;
+    Hunter, W., 114;
+    Hutton, 27, 138;
+    Huxley, 134 _n._;
+     --on Darwin, xi, xii, xiv;
+     --on Darwin's Essay of 1844, xxviii, 235;
+    Judd, xi, xiii, xxix, 28, 141 _n._;
+    Knight, A., 3 _n._, 65, 114;
+     --on Domestication, 77;
+    Knight-Darwin Law, 70 _n._;
+    Kölreuter, 12, 97, 98, 104, 232;
+    Lamarck, 42 _n._, 47, 82, 146, 200;
+     --reasons for his belief in mutability, 197;
+    Lindley, 101;
+    Linnean Society, joint paper, _see_ Darwin and Wallace;
+    Linnæus on sterility of Alpine plants, 101;
+     --on generic characters, 201;
+    Lonsdale, 145 _n._;
+    Lyell, xxvii, 134 _n._, 138, 141 and _n._, 146 _n._, 159, 171, 173,
+       178;
+     --his doctrine carried to an extreme, 26;
+     --his geological metaphor, 27 _n._, 141;
+     --his uniformitarianism, 53 _n._;
+     --his views on imperfection of geological record, 27;
+    Macculloch, 124 _n._;
+    Macleay, W. S., 202;
+    Magendie, 117;
+    Malthus, xv, 7, 88, 90;
+    Marr, Dr, xxix;
+    Marshall, 65;
+     --on sheep and cattle, 78 and _n._;
+     --on horns of cattle, 207;
+    Mivart, criticisms, 128 _n._;
+    Mozart as a child, his skill on the piano compared to instinct,
+       19 _n._;
+    Müller on consensual movements, 113;
+     --on variation under uniform conditions, (2), 62;
+     --on recapitulation theory, 219;
+    Murchison, 145 _n._;
+    Newton, Alfred, 132 _n._;
+    Owen, R., xxvii, 219;
+    Pallas, 68, 69;
+    Pennant, 93 _n._;
+    Pliny on selection, 67;
+    Poeppig, 113 _n._;
+    Prain, Col., xxix;
+    Rengger, sterility, 100;
+    Richardson, 132 _n._;
+    Rutherford, H. W., xxix;
+    St Hilaire on races of dogs, 106;
+     --on sterility of tame and domestic animals, 12, 100;
+    Smith, Jordan, 140;
+    Sprengel, 233;
+    Stapf, Dr, xxix;
+    Strickland, xxvii;
+    Suchetet, 97 _n._;
+    Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W., xxix, 167;
+    Wallace, xxiv, xxix, 30, 170 _n._;
+    Waterhouse, 125, 126;
+    Western, Lord, 9, 65, 91;
+    Whewell, xxviii, 200;
+    Woodward, H. B., 145 _n._;
+    Wrangel, 119 _n._;
+    Zacharias, Darwin's letter to, xv
+
+
+  Barriers and distribution, 30, 154, 157, 178
+
+  Bees, 113, 117;
+    combs of Hive-bee, 19, 121, 125, 126
+
+  Beetles, abortive wings of, 45
+
+  BIRDS, transporting seeds, 169;
+    feeding young with food different to their own, 19, 126;
+    migration, 123, 124;
+    nests, 120, 121, 122, 126;
+    of Galapagos, 19, 159;
+    rapid increase, 88;
+    song, 117
+
+  BIRDS, NAMES OF:--Apteryx, 45, 236;
+    Duck, 46, 61, 65, 128, 224 _n._;
+    Fowl, domestic, 59, 82 _n._, 97, 113, 114, 217;
+    Goose, 72;
+     --periodic habit, 124 _n._;
+    Grouse, hybridised, 97, 102;
+    Guinea-fowl, 79;
+    Hawk, sterility, 100;
+     --periodic habit, 124;
+    Opetiorynchus, 83;
+    Orpheus, 31;
+    Ostrich, distribution of, 158;
+    Owl, white barn, 82;
+    Partridge, infertility of, 102;
+    Peacock, 79, 97, 102;
+    Penguin, 128 _n._, 237;
+    Petrel, 128 _n._;
+    Pheasant, 97, 102;
+    Pigeon, 66, 82, 110 _n._, 113, 114, 116, 117, 129, 135;
+       _see_ Wood-pigeon;
+    Rhea, 158;
+    Robins, increase in numbers, 88, 90;
+    Rock-thrush of Guiana, 93;
+    Swan, species of, 105;
+    Tailor-bird, 18, 118;
+    Turkey, Australian bush-turkey, 121 _n._, 122;
+    Tyrannus, 31;
+    Water-ouzel, 18 _n._, 120;
+    Woodcock, loss of migratory instinct, 120;
+    Woodpecker, 6, 16, 128 _n._, 148;
+     --in treeless lands, 16, 131;
+    Wood-pigeon, 122;
+    Wren, gold-crested, 120;
+     --willow, 105, 148
+
+  Breeds, domestic, parentage of, 71
+
+  Brothers, death of by same peculiar disease in old age, 42 _n._,
+     44 _n._, 223
+
+  Bud variation, 58;
+    _see_ Sports
+
+  Butterfly, cabbage, 127
+
+
+  Catastrophes, geological, 145, 147
+
+  Caterpillars, food, 126, 127
+
+  Characters, acquired, inheritance of, 1, 57, 60, 225;
+   --congenital, 60;
+   --fixed by breeding, 61;
+   --mental, variation in, 17, 112, 119;
+   --running through whole groups, 106;
+   --useless for classification, 199
+
+  Cirripedes, 201, 229
+
+  Classification, natural system of, 35, 199, 206, 208;
+   --by any constant character, 201;
+   --relation of, to geography, 202;
+   --a law that members of two distinct groups resemble each other not
+     specifically but generally, 203, 212;
+   --of domestic races, 204;
+   --rarity and extinction in relation to, 210
+
+  Compensation, law of, 106
+
+  Conditions, direct, action of, 1, 57 _n._, 62, 65;
+   --change of, analogous to crossing, 15, 77 _n._, 105;
+   --accumulated effects of, 60, 78;
+   --affecting reproduction, 1, 4, 78, 99;
+   --and geographical distribution, 152
+
+  Continent originating as archipelago, bearing of on distribution, 189
+
+  Cordillera, as channel of migration, 34 _n._, 191
+
+  Correlation, 76
+
+  Creation, centres of, 168, 192
+
+  Crocodile, 146
+
+  _Cross-and Self-Fertilisation_, early statement of principles of, 15,
+     69 _n._, 103 _n._
+
+  Crossing, swamping effect of, 2, 69, 96;
+   --of bisexual animals and hermaphrodite plants, 2;
+   --analogous to change in conditions, 3, 15, 69;
+   --in relation to breeds, 68;
+   --in plants, adaptations for, 70
+
+
+  Death, feigned by insects, 123
+
+  Difficulties, on theory of evolution, 15, 121, 128, 134
+
+  Disease, hereditary, 43 _n._, 58, 222
+
+  Distribution, geographical, 29, 31, 151, 174, 177;
+   --in space and time, subject to same laws, 155;
+   --occasional means of (seeds, eggs, &c.), 169
+
+  Disuse, inherited effects of, 46, 57
+
+  Divergence, principle of, xxv, 37 _n._, 145 _n._, 208 _n._
+
+  Domestication, variation under, 57, 62;
+   --accumulated effects of, 75, 78;
+   --analysis of effects of, 76, 83
+
+
+  Ears, drooping, 236
+
+  Elevation, geological, favouring birth of new species, 32, 34 _n._,
+     35 _n._, 185-189;
+   --alternating with subsidence, importance of for evolution, 33, 190;
+   --bad for preservation of fossils, 194
+
+  Embryo, branchial arches of, 42, 220;
+   --absence of special adaptation in, 42, 44 _n._, 220, 228;
+   --less variable than parent, hence importance of embryology for
+     classification, 44 _n._, 229;
+   --alike in all vertebrates, 42, 218;
+   --occasionally more complicated than adult, 219, 227
+
+  Embryology, 42, 218;
+    its value in classification, 45, 200;
+    law of inheritance at corresponding ages, 44 _n._, 224;
+    young of very distinct breeds closely similar, 44 _n._, 225
+
+  Ephemera, selection falls on larva, 87 _n._
+
+  Epizoa, 219
+
+  Essay of 1842, question as to date of, xvi;
+    description of MS., XX;
+    compared with the _Origin_, xxii
+
+  Essay of 1844, writing of, xvi;
+    compared with that of 1842 and with the _Origin_, xxii
+
+  Evolution, theory of, why do we tend to reject it, 248
+
+  Expression, inheritance of, 114
+
+  Extinction, 23, 147, 192;
+    locally sudden, 145;
+    continuous with rarity, 147, 198
+
+  Extinction and rarity, 198
+
+  Eye, 111 _n._, 128, 129, 130
+
+
+  Faculty, in relation to instinct, 123
+
+  Faunas, alpine, 30, 170, 188;
+    of Galapagos, 31 _n._, 82, 159;
+    insular-alpine very peculiar, 188;
+    insular, 159, 160
+
+  Fauna and flora, of islands related to nearest land, 187
+
+  Fear of man, inherited, 17, 113
+
+  Fertility, interracial, 103, 104
+
+  Fish, colours of, 130, 131;
+    eggs of carried by water-beetle, 169;
+    flying, 128 _n._;
+     --transported by whirlwind, 169
+
+  Floras, alpine, 162;
+    of oceanic islands, 162;
+    alpine, related to surrounding lowlands, 163;
+    alpine, identity of on distant mountains, 163;
+    alpine resembling arctic, 164;
+    arctic relation to alpine, 164
+
+  Flower, morphology of, 39, 216;
+    degenerate under domestication if neglected, 58;
+    changed by selection, 66
+
+  Fly, causing extinction, 149
+
+  Flying, evolution of, 16, 131
+
+  Food, causing variations, 1, 58, 77, 78
+
+  Formation (geological) evidence from Tertiary system, 144;
+    (geological), groups of species appear suddenly in Secondary, 26, 144;
+    Palæozoic, if contemporary with beginning of life, author's theory
+       false, 138
+
+  Formations, most ancient escape denudation in conditions unfavourable to
+     life, 25, 139
+
+  Forms, transitional, 24, 35 _n._, 136, 142, 194;
+    on rising land, 196;
+    indirectly intermediate, 24, 135
+
+  Fossils, Silurian, not those which first existed in the world, 26, 138;
+    falling into or between existing groups and indirectly intermediate,
+       24, 137;
+    conditions favourable to preservation, not favourable to existence
+       of much life, 25, 139, 141
+
+  Fruit, attractive to animals, 130
+
+
+  Galapagos Islands and Darwin's views, xiv;
+    physical character of in relation to fauna, 31 _n._, 159
+
+  Galapagos Islands, fauna, 31 _n._, 82
+
+  Gasteropods, embryology, 218
+
+  Genera, crosses between, 11, 97;
+    wide ranging, has wide ranging species, 155;
+    origin of, 209
+
+  Geography, in relation to geology, 31 _n._, 174, 177
+
+  Geographical distribution, _see_ Distribution
+
+  Geology, as producing changed conditions, 4;
+    evidence from, 22, 133;
+    "destroys geography," 31 _n._
+
+  Glacial period, effect of on distribution of alpine and arctic plants,
+     165
+
+
+  Habit in relation to instinct, 17, 113, 115, 116
+
+  Habits in animals taught by parent, 18
+
+  Heredity, _see_ Inheritance
+
+  Homology of limbs, 38, 214
+
+  Homology, serial, 39, 215
+
+  Hybrid, fowls and grouse, 11;
+    fowl and peacock, 97;
+    pheasant and grouse, 97;
+    Azalea and Rhododendron, 97
+
+  Hybrids, gradation in sterility of, 11, 72, 97;
+    sterility of not reciprocal, 97;
+    variability of, 78;
+    compared and contrasted with mongrel, 107
+
+
+  Individual, meaning of term, 58
+
+  Inheritance of acquired characters, _see_ Character
+
+  Inheritance, delayed or latent, 43, 44 _n._, 223;
+    of character at a time of life corresponding to that at which it
+       first appeared, 43, 44 _n._, 223;
+    germinal, 44, 222, 223
+
+  Insect, adapted to fertilise flowers, 87;
+    feigning death, 123;
+    metamorphosis, 129;
+    variation in larvæ, 223
+
+  Instinct, variation in, 17, 112;
+    and faculty, 18, 123;
+    guided by reason, 18, 19, 118;
+    migratory, 19;
+    migratory, loss of by woodcocks, 120;
+    migratory, origin of, 125;
+    due to germinal variation rather than habit, 116;
+    requiring education for perfection, 117;
+    characterised by ignorance of end: _e.g._ butterflies laying eggs,
+       17, 118;
+    butterflies laying eggs on proper plant, 118, 127;
+    instinct, natural selection applicable to, 19, 120
+
+  Instinct, for finding the way, 124;
+    periodic, _i.e._ for lapse of time, 124;
+    comb-making of bee, 125;
+    birds feeding young, 19, 126;
+    nest-building, gradation in, 18, 120, 121, 122;
+    instincts, complex, difficulty in believing in their evolution, 20, 121
+
+  Intermediate forms, _see_ Forms
+
+  Island, _see_ Elevation, Fauna, Flora
+
+  Island, upheaved and gradually colonised, 184
+
+  Islands, nurseries of new species, 33, 35 _n._, 185, 189
+
+  Isolation, 32, 34 _n._, 64, 95, 183, 184
+
+
+  Lepidosiren, 140 _n._, 212
+
+  Limbs, vertebrate, of one type, 38, 216
+
+
+  MAMMALS, arctic, transported by icebergs, 170;
+    distribution, 151, 152, 193;
+    distribution of, ruled by barriers, 154;
+    introduced by man on islands, 172;
+    not found on oceanic islands, 172;
+    relations in time and space, similarity of, 176;
+    of Tertiary period, relation of to existing forms in same region, 174
+
+  MAMMALS, NAMES OF:--
+    Antelope, 148;
+    Armadillo, 174;
+    Ass, 79, 107, 172;
+    Bat, 38, 123, 128 _n._, 131, 132, 214;
+    Bear, sterile in captivity, 100;
+     --whale-like habit, 128 _n._;
+    Bizcacha, 168, 203, 212;
+    Bull, mammæ of, 232;
+    Carnivora, law of compensation in, 106;
+    Cats, run wild at Ascension, 172;
+     --tailless, 60;
+    Cattle, horns of, 75, 207;
+     --increase in S. America, 90;
+     --Indian, 205;
+     --Niata, 61, 73;
+     --suffering in parturition from too large calves, 75;
+    Cheetah, sterility of, 100 and _n._;
+    Chironectes, 199;
+    Cow, abortive mammæ, 232;
+    Ctenomys, _see_ Tuco-tuco;
+    Dog, 106, 114;
+     --in Cuba, 113 and _n._;
+     --mongrel breed in oceanic islands, 70;
+     --difference in size a bar to crossing, 97;
+     --domestic, parentage of, 71, 72, 73;
+     --drooping ears, 236;
+     --effects of selection, 66;
+     --inter-fertile, 14;
+     --long-legged breed produced to catch hares, 9, 10, 91, 92;
+     --of savages, 67;
+     --races of resembling genera, 106, 204;
+     --Australian, change of colour in, 61;
+     --bloodhound, Cuban, 204;
+     --bull-dog, 113;
+     --foxhound, 114, 116;
+     --greyhound and bull-dog, young of resembling each other, 43,
+       44 _n._, 225;
+     --pointer, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118;
+     --retriever, 118 _n._;
+     --setter, 114;
+     --shepherd-dog and harrier crossed, instinct of, 118, 119;
+     --tailless, 60;
+     --turnspit, 66;
+    Echidna, 82 _n._;
+    Edentata, fossil and living in S. America, 174;
+    Elephant, sterility of, 12, 100;
+    Elk, 125;
+    Ferret, fertility of, 12, 102;
+    Fox, 82, 173, 181;
+    Galeopithecus, 131 _n._;
+    Giraffe, fossil, 177;
+     --tail, 128 _n._;
+    Goat, run wild at Tahiti, 172;
+    Guanaco, 175;
+    Guinea-pig, 69;
+    Hare, S. American, 158 _n._;
+    Hedgehog, 82 _n._;
+    Horse, 67, 113, 115, 148, 149;
+     --checks to increase, 148, 149;
+     --increase in S. America, 90;
+     --malconformations and lameness inherited, 58;
+     --parentage, 71, 72;
+     --stripes on, 107;
+     --young of cart-horse and racehorse resembling each other, 43;
+    Hyena, fossil, 177;
+    Jaguar, catching fish, 132;
+    Lemur, flying, 131 _n._;
+    Macrauchenia, 137;
+    Marsupials, fossil in Europe, 175 _n._, 177;
+     --pouch bones, 232, 237;
+    Mastodon, 177;
+    Mouse, 153, 155;
+     --enormous rate of increase, 89, 90;
+    Mule, occasionally breeding, 97, 102;
+    Musk-deer, fossil, 177;
+    _Mustela vison_, 128 _n._, 132 _n._;
+    Mydas, 170;
+    Mydaus, 170;
+    Nutria, _see_ Otter;
+    Otter, 131, 132, 170;
+     --marsupial, 199, 205, 211;
+    Pachydermata, 137;
+    Phascolomys, 203, 212;
+    Pig, 115, 217;
+     --in oceanic islands, 70;
+     --run wild at St Helena, 172;
+    Pole-cat, aquatic, 128 _n._, 132 _n._;
+    Porpoise, paddle of, 38, 214;
+    Rabbit, 74, 113, 236;
+    Rat, Norway, 153;
+    Reindeer, 125;
+    Rhinoceros, 148;
+     --abortive teeth of, 45, 231;
+     --three oriental species of, 48, 249;
+    Ruminantia, 137 and _n._;
+    Seal, 93 _n._, 131;
+    Sheep, 68, 78, 117, 205;
+     --Ancon variety, 59, 66, 73;
+     --inherited habit of returning home to lamb, 115;
+     --transandantes of Spain, their migratory instinct, 114, 117,
+       124 _n._;
+    Squirrel, flying, 131;
+    Tapir, 135, 136;
+    Tuco-tuco, blindness of, 46, 236;
+    Whale, rudimentary teeth, 45, 229;
+    Wolf, 71, 72, 82;
+    Yak, 72
+
+  Metamorphosis, literal not metaphorical, 41, 217
+
+  Metamorphosis, _e.g._ leaves into petals, 215
+
+  Migrants to new land, struggle among, 33, 185
+
+  Migration, taking the place of variation, 188
+
+  Monstrosities, as starting-points of breeds, 49, 59;
+    their relation to rudimentary organs, 46, 234
+
+  Morphology, 38, 215;
+    terminology of, no longer metaphorically used, 41, 217
+
+  Mutation, _see_ Sports
+
+
+  Natural selection, _see_ Selection
+
+  Nest, bird's, _see_ Instinct
+
+
+  Ocean, depth of, and fossils, 25, 195
+
+  Organisms, gradual introduction of new, 23, 144;
+    extinct related to, existing in the same manner as representative
+       existing ones to each other, 33, 192;
+    introduced, beating indigenes, 153;
+    dependent on other organisms rather than on physical surroundings, 185;
+    graduated complexity in the great classes, 227;
+    immature, how subject to natural selection, 42, 220, 228;
+    all descended from a few parent-forms, 52, 252
+
+  Organs, perfect, objection to their evolution, 15, 128;
+    distinct in adult life, indistinguishable in embryo, 42, 218;
+    rudimentary, 45, 231, 232, 233;
+    rudimentary, compared to monstrosities, 46, 234;
+    rudimentary, caused by disuse, 46, 235;
+    rudimentary, adapted to new ends, 47, 237
+
+  Orthogenesis, 241 _n._
+
+  Oscillation of level in relation to continents, 33, 34 _n._, 189
+
+
+  Pallas, on parentage of domestic animals, 71
+
+  Pampas, imaginary case of farmer on, 32, 184
+
+  Perfection, no inherent tendency towards, 227
+
+  Plants, _see also_ Flora;
+    fertilisation, 70;
+    migration of, to arctic and antarctic regions, 167;
+    alpine and arctic, migration of, 31, 166;
+    alpine, characters common to, 162;
+    alpine, sterility of, 13, 101
+
+  PLANTS, NAMES OF:--Ægilops, 58 _n._;
+    Artichoke (Jerusalem), 79;
+    Ash, weeping, seeds of, 61;
+    Asparagus, 79;
+    Azalea, 13, 59, 97;
+    Cabbage, 109, 135, 204;
+    Calceolaria, 11, 99;
+    Cardoon, 153;
+    Carrot, variation of, 58 _n._;
+    Chrysanthemum, 59;
+    Crinum, 11, 99;
+    Crocus, 96, 99 _n._;
+    Cucubalus, crossing, 232;
+    Dahlia, 21, 59, 63, 69, 74, 110;
+    Foxglove, 82;
+    Gentian, colour of flower, 107 _n._;
+    Geranium, 102;
+    Gladiolus, crossed, ancestry of, 11;
+    Grass, abortive flowers, 233;
+    Heath, sterility, 96;
+    Hyacinth, colours of, 106;
+     --feather-hyacinth, 229;
+    Juniperus, hybridised, 97;
+    Laburnum, peculiar hybrid, 108;
+    Lilac, sterility of, 13, 100;
+    Marigold, style of, 47, 233, 237;
+    Mistletoe, 6, 86, 87, 90 _n._;
+    Nectarines on peach trees, 59;
+    Oxalis, colour of flowers of, 107 _n._;
+    Phaseolus, cultivated form suffers from frost, 109;
+    Pine-apple, 207;
+    Poppy, Mexican, 154;
+    Potato, 69, 74, 110;
+    Rhododendron, 97, 99;
+    Rose, moss, 59;
+     --Scotch, 69;
+    Seakale, 79;
+    Sweet-william, 59;
+    Syringa, persica and chinensis, _see_ Lilac;
+    Teazle, 129;
+    Thuja, hybridised, 97;
+    Tulips, "breaking" of, 58;
+    Turnip, Swedish and common, 205;
+    Vine, peculiar hybrid, 108;
+    Yew, weeping, seeds of, 61
+
+  Plasticity, produced by domestication, 1, 63
+
+  Plesiosaurus, loss of unity of type in, 41, 217
+
+  Pteropods, embryology, 218
+
+
+  Quadrupeds, extinction of large, 147
+
+  Quinary System, 202
+
+
+  Race, the word used as equivalent to variety, 94
+
+  Races, domestic, classification of, 204
+
+  Rarity, 28, 148;
+    and extinction, 28, 149, 210
+
+  Recapitulation theory, 42, 219, 230, 239
+
+  Record, geological, imperfection of, 26, 140
+
+  Regions, geographical, of the world, 29, 152, 174;
+    formerly less distinct as judged by fossils, 177
+
+  Resemblance, analogical, 36, 199
+
+  Reversion, 3, 64, 69, 74
+
+  "Roguing," 65
+
+  Rudimentary organs, _see_ Organs
+
+
+  Savages, domestic animals of, 67, 68, 96
+
+  Selection, human, 3, 63;
+    references to the practice of, in past times, 67;
+    great effect produced by, 3, 91;
+    necessary for the formation of breeds, 64;
+    methodical, effects of, 3, 65;
+    unconscious, 3, 67
+
+  Selection, natural, xvi, 7, 87;
+    natural compared to human, 85, 94, 224;
+    of instincts, 19, 120;
+    difficulty of believing, 15, 121, 128
+
+  Selection, sexual, two types of, 10, 92
+
+  Silk-worms, variation in larval state, 44 _n._, 223
+
+  Skull, morphology of, 39, 215
+
+  Species, representative, seen in going from N. to S. in a continent,
+      31 _n._, 156;
+    representative in archipelagoes, 187;
+    wide-ranging, 34 _n._, 146;
+    and varieties, difficulty of distinguishing, 4, 81, 197;
+    sterility of crosses between, supposed to be criterion, 11, 134;
+    gradual appearance and disappearance of, 23, 144;
+    survival of a few among many extinct, 146
+
+  Species, not created more than once, 168, 171, 191;
+    evolution of, compared to birth of individuals, 150, 198, 253;
+    small number in New Zealand as compared to the Cape, 171, 191;
+    persistence of, unchanged, 192, 199
+
+  Sports, 1, 58, 59, 64, 74, 95, 129, 186, 206, 224
+
+  Sterility, due to captivity, 12, 77 _n._, 100;
+    of various plants, 13, 101;
+    of species when crossed, 11, 23, 96, 99, 103;
+    produced by conditions, compared to sterility due to crossing, 101, 102
+
+  Struggle for life, 7, 91, 92, 148, 241
+
+  Subsidence, importance of, in relation to fossils, 25, 35 _n._, 195;
+    of continent leading to isolation of organisms, 190;
+    not favourable to birth of new species, 196
+
+  Swimming bladder, 16, 129
+
+  System, natural, is genealogical, 36, 208
+
+
+  Telegony, 108
+
+  Tibia and fibula, 48, 137
+
+  Time, enormous lapse of, in geological epochs, 25, 140
+
+  Tortoise, 146
+
+  Transitional forms, _see_ Forms
+
+  Trigonia, 147 _n._, 199
+
+  Tree-frogs in treeless regions, 131
+
+  Type, unity of, 38, 214;
+    uniformity of, lost in Plesiosaurus, 217;
+    persistence of, in continents, 158, 178
+
+
+  Uniformitarian views of Lyell, bearing on evolution, 249
+
+  Use, inherited effects of, _see_ Characters, acquired
+
+
+  Variability, as specific character, 83;
+    produced by change and also by crossing, 105
+
+  Variation, by Sports, _see_ Sports;
+    under domestication, 1, 57, 63, 78;
+    due to causes acting on reproductive system, _see_ Variation, germinal;
+     --germinal, 2, 43, 62, 222;
+    individual, 57 _n._;
+    causes of, 1, 4, 57, 61;
+    due to crossing, 68, 69;
+    limits of, 74, 75, 82, 109;
+    small in state of nature, 4, 59 _n._, 81, 83;
+    results of _without_ selection, 84;
+     --minute, value of, 91;
+    analogous in species of same genus, 107;
+    of mental attributes, 17, 112;
+    in mature life, 59, 224, 225
+
+  Varieties, minute, in birds, 82;
+    resemblance of to species, 81 _n._, 82, 105
+
+  Vertebrate skull, morphology of, 215
+
+
+  Wildness, hereditary, 113, 119
+
+
+CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes & Errata                                 |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Inline transcriber's notes are enclosed in curly brackets.   |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Footnote anchors and labels are enclosed in curly brackets.  |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The footnotes have been renumbered consecutively.            |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Because of this, the changed footnote numbers are appended   |
+  | in curly brackets to the internal cross-references.          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Superscript letters are denoted by a preceding caret e.g.,   |
+  | d^o                                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | 'oe' ligatures have been rendered as separate letters.       |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following typographical errors have been corrected.      |
+  |                                                              |
+  |  |simplication |simplification  |                            |
+  |  |care         |case            |                            |
+  |  |apparant     |apparent        |                            |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following words were found in both hyphenated and        |
+  | unhyphenated forms. The figures in parentheses are the       |
+  | number of instances of each.                                 |
+  |                                                              |
+  |  |after-thought (1)    |afterthought (2)     |               |
+  |  |blood-hound (2)      |bloodhound (1)       |               |
+  |  |bull-dog (7)         |bulldog (2)          |               |
+  |  |co-descendants (1)   |codescendants (1)    |               |
+  |  |feather-hyacinth (2) |feather hyacinth (1) |               |
+  |  |grey-hound (2)       |greyhound (10)       |               |
+  |  |high-lands (3)       |highlands (2)        |               |
+  |  |long-legged (2)      |long legged (1)      |               |
+  |  |race-horse (2)       |racehorse (4)        |               |
+  |  |shepherd-dog (3)     |shepherd dog (1)     |               |
+  |  |sub-divisions (3)    |subdivisions (4)     |               |
+  |  |table-land (2)       |tableland (1)        |               |
+  |                                                              |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of
+Species, by Charles Darwin
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of Species, by 
+Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Foundations of the Origin of Species
+       Two Essays written in 1842 and 1844
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Editor: Francis Darwin
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22728]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOUNDATIONS ORIGIN OF SPECIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Geetu Melwani, David Clarke, LN Yaddanapudi
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_i' id='Page_i'>{i}</a></p>
+<h1>THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE<br />ORIGIN OF SPECIES</h1>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_ii' id='Page_ii'>{ii}</a></p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br />
+<span class='sf75'>London: <span class='sc'>FETTER LANE, E.C.<br />
+C. F. CLAY, Manager</span></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/illus-002.png" width="100" height="106" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class='c noin sf75'>Edinburgh: 100, <span class='sc'>PRINCES STREET</span><br />
+<span class='sc'>ALSO</span><br />
+London: <span class='sc'>H. K. LEWIS,</span> 136, <span class='sc'>GOWER STREET, W.C.</span><br /><br />
+Berlin: <span class='sc'>A. ASHER AND CO.</span><br /><br />
+Leipzig: <span class='sc'>F. A. BROCKHAUS</span><br /><br />
+New York: <span class='sc'>G. P. PUTNAM&rsquo;S SONS</span><br /><br />
+Bombay and Calcutta: <span class='sc'>MACMILLAN AND Co., Ltd.</span></p>
+
+<p class='c i mt2 noin'>All rights reserved</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_iii' id='Page_iii'>{iii}</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+<img src="images/illus-darwin.jpg" width="361" height="500" alt="From a photograph by Maull &amp; Fox in 1854" title="" />
+<span class="caption">From a photograph by Maull &amp; Fox in 1854</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_iv' id='Page_iv'>{iv}</a></p>
+
+<h1>THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE<br />
+ORIGIN OF SPECIES<br />
+
+<span class='sf75'>TWO ESSAYS<br />
+WRITTEN IN 1842 AND 1844</span><br />
+<span class='sf50'>by</span><br />
+<span class='sf75'>CHARLES DARWIN</span></h1>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>Edited by his son<br />
+<span  class='b' style='font-size:120%'>FRANCIS DARWIN</span><br />
+<span class='sf75'>Honorary Fellow of Christ's College</span></p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>Cambridge:<br />
+at the University Press<br />
+1909</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_v' id='Page_v'>{v}</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p style='text-align:justify;'>Astronomers might formerly have said that God ordered each planet to
+move in its particular destiny. In same manner God orders each animal
+created with certain form in certain country. But how much more simple
+and sublime power,&mdash;let attraction act according to certain law, such
+are inevitable consequences,&mdash;let animal«<ins>s</ins>» be created, then by the
+fixed laws of generation, such will be their successors.</p>
+
+<p style='text-align:right;'>From <span class='sc'>Darwin&rsquo;s</span> <i>Note Book</i>, 1837, p. 101.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_vi' id='Page_vi'>{vi}</a></p>
+
+<p class='c noin'>
+TO THE MASTER AND FELLOWS<br />
+OF CHRIST&rsquo;S COLLEGE, THIS<br />
+BOOK IS DEDICATED BY THE<br />
+EDITOR IN TOKEN OF RESPECT<br />
+AND GRATITUDE</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_vii' id='Page_vii'>{vii}</a></p>
+
+<h2><a name='CONTENTS' id='CONTENTS'></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>ESSAY OF 1842</p>
+
+<ul class='off'>
+<li><span class='ralign sf50'>PAGES</span><br /></li>
+<li><a href='#INTRODUCTION'><span class='sc'>Introduction</span></a> <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_xi'>xi</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART I</p>
+
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>&sect; i. On variation under domestication, and on the principles of
+selection <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&sect; ii. On variation in a state of nature and on the natural means of
+selection <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_4'>4</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&sect; iii. On variation in instincts and other mental attributes <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART II</p>
+
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>&sect;&sect; iv. and v. On the evidence from Geology. (The reasons for
+combining the two sections are given in the Introduction) <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&sect; vi. Geographical distribution <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&sect; vii. Affinities and classification <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&sect; viii. Unity of type in the great classes <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&sect; ix. Abortive organs <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></span></li>
+
+<li>&sect; x. Recapitulation and conclusion <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_viii' id='Page_viii'>{viii}</a></p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>ESSAY OF 1844</p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART I</p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER I<br />
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION;
+AND ON THE PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION.</p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Variation</li>
+<li>On the hereditary tendency</li>
+<li>Causes of Variation</li>
+<li>On Selection</li>
+<li>Crossing Breeds</li>
+<li>Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild stocks</li>
+<li>Limits to Variation in degree and kind</li>
+<li>In what consists Domestication</li>
+<li>Summary <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a>-<a href='#Page_80'>80</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER II<br />
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE;
+ON THE NATURAL MEANS OF SELECTION; AND ON THE
+COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES.</p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Variation</li>
+<li>Natural means of Selection</li>
+<li>Differences between &ldquo;Races&rdquo; and &ldquo;Species&rdquo;:&mdash;first, in their trueness or variability</li>
+<li>Difference between &ldquo;Races&rdquo; and &ldquo;Species&rdquo; in fertility when crossed</li>
+<li>Causes of Sterility in Hybrids</li>
+<li>Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation</li>
+<li>Points of Resemblance between &ldquo;Races&rdquo; and &ldquo;Species&rdquo;</li>
+<li>External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels</li>
+<li>Summary</li>
+<li>Limits of Variation <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a>-<a href='#Page_111'>111</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER III<br />
+ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL
+ATTRIBUTES UNDER DOMESTICATION AND IN A STATE OF
+NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS SUBJECT; AND
+ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL
+STRUCTURES.</p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Variation of mental attributes under domestication</li>
+<li>Hereditary habits compared with instincts</li>
+<li>Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals</li>
+<li>Principles of Selection applicable to instincts</li>
+<li>Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection</li>
+<li>Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal structures <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_112'>112</a>-<a href='#Page_132'>132</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_ix' id='Page_ix'>{ix}</a></p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>PART II<br />
+ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW
+THAT SPECIES ARE NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED
+FROM COMMON STOCKS.</p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER IV<br />
+ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE
+THEORY OF COMMON DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE
+IN A FOSSIL STATE <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_133'>133</a>-<a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span></p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER V<br />
+GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES. <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_144'>144</a>-<a href='#Page_150'>150</a></span></p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Gradual appearance of species</li>
+<li>Extinction of species</li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER VI<br />
+ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS
+IN PAST AND PRESENT TIMES.</p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>SECTION FIRST <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_151'>151</a>-<a href='#Page_174'>174</a></span></p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents</li>
+<li>Relation of range in genera and species</li>
+<li>Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent</li>
+<li>Insular Faunas</li>
+<li>Alpine Floras</li>
+<li>Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains</li>
+<li>Whether the same species has been created more than once</li>
+<li>On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong in different regions</li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>SECOND SECTION <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_174'>174</a>-<a href='#Page_182'>182</a></span></p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Geographical distribution of extinct organisms</li>
+<li>Changes in geographical distribution</li>
+<li>Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings</li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>SECTION THIRD <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_183'>183</a>-<a href='#Page_197'>197</a></span></p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution, on the theory of allied species having a common descent</li>
+<li>Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing species</li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER VII<br />
+ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION<br />
+OF ORGANIC BEINGS. <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_198'>198</a>-<a href='#Page_213'>213</a></span></p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups</li>
+<li>What is the Natural System?</li>
+<li>On the kind of relation between distinct groups</li>
+<li>Classification of Races or Varieties</li>
+<li>Classification of Races and Species similar</li>
+<li>Origin of genera and families</li></ul>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_x' id='Page_x'>{x}</a></p>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND
+MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES.</p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Unity of Type</li>
+<li>Morphology</li>
+<li>Embryology</li>
+<li>Attempt to explain the facts of embryology</li>
+<li>On the graduated complexity in each great class</li>
+<li>Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals</li>
+<li>Importance of embryology in classification</li>
+<li>Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_214'>214</a>-<a href='#Page_230'>230</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER IX<br />
+ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.</p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>The abortive organs of Naturalists</li>
+<li>The abortive organs of Physiologists</li>
+<li>Abortion from gradual disuse <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_231'>231</a>-<a href='#Page_238'>238</a></span></li></ul>
+
+<p class='c mt2 noin'>CHAPTER X<br />
+RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION.</p>
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Recapitulation</li>
+<li>Why do we wish to reject the Theory of Common Descent?</li>
+<li>Conclusion <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_239'>239</a>-<a href='#Page_255'>255</a></span><br /></li>
+<li><span class='sc'>Index</span> <span class='ralign'><a href='#Page_257'>257</a></span><br /></li>
+<li>Portrait <span class='i ralign'><i>frontispiece</i></span></li>
+<li>Facsimile <span class='ralign'><i>to face</i> p. 50</span></li></ul>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xi' id='Page_xi'>{xi}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='INTRODUCTION' id='INTRODUCTION'></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<p>We know from the contents of Charles Darwin&rsquo;s Note Book of 1837 that he
+was at that time a convinced Evolutionist<a name='FNanchor_1_1' id='FNanchor_1_1'></a><a href='#Footnote_1_1' class='fnanchor'>{1}</a>.
+Nor can there be any doubt that, when he started on board the <i>Beagle</i>,
+such opinions as he had were on the side of immutability. When therefore
+did the current of his thoughts begin to set in the direction of
+Evolution?</p>
+
+<p>We have first to consider the factors that made for such a change. On
+his departure in 1831, Henslow gave him vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> of Lyell's <i>Principles</i>,
+then just published, with the warning that he was not to believe what he
+read<a name='FNanchor_2_2' id='FNanchor_2_2'></a><a href='#Footnote_2_2' class='fnanchor'>{2}</a>.
+But believe he did, and it is certain (as Huxley has forcibly pointed
+out<a name='FNanchor_3_3' id='FNanchor_3_3'></a><a href='#Footnote_3_3' class='fnanchor'>{3}</a>)
+that the doctrine of uniformitarianism when applied to Biology leads of
+necessity to Evolution. If the extermination of a species is no more
+catastrophic than the natural death of an individual, why should the
+birth of a species be any more miraculous than the birth of an
+individual? It is quite clear that this thought was vividly present to
+Darwin when he was writing out his early thoughts in the 1837 Note
+Book<a name='FNanchor_4_4' id='FNanchor_4_4'></a><a href='#Footnote_4_4' class='fnanchor'>{4}</a>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Propagation explains why modern animals same type as extinct, which is
+law almost proved.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xii' id='Page_xii'>{xii}</a></span>
+They die, without they change, like golden pippins; it is a <i>generation
+of species</i> like generation <i>of individuals</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If <i>species</i> generate other <i>species</i> their race is not utterly cut
+off.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These quotations show that he was struggling to see in the origin of
+species a process just as scientifically comprehensible as the birth of
+individuals. They show, I think, that he recognised the two things not
+merely as similar but as identical.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to know how soon the ferment of uniformitarianism began
+to work, but it is fair to suspect that in 1832 he had already begun to
+see that mutability was the logical conclusion of Lyell&rsquo;s doctrine,
+though this was not acknowledged by Lyell himself.</p>
+
+<p>There were however other factors of change. In his Autobiography
+<a name='FNanchor_5_5' id='FNanchor_5_5'></a><a href='#Footnote_5_5' class='fnanchor'>{5}</a>
+he wrote:&mdash;&ldquo;During the voyage of the <i>Beagle</i> I had been deeply
+impressed by discovering in the Pampean formation great fossil animals
+covered with armour like that on the existing armadillos; secondly, by
+the manner in which closely allied animals replace one another in
+proceeding southward over the Continent; and thirdly, by the South
+American character of most of the productions of the Galapagos
+archipelago, and more especially by the manner in which they differ
+slightly on each island of the group; none of the islands appearing to
+be very ancient in a geological sense. It was evident that such facts as
+these, as well as many others, could only be explained on the
+supposition that species gradually become modified; and the subject
+haunted me.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Again we have to ask: how soon did any of these influences produce an
+effect on Darwin&rsquo;s mind? Different answers have been attempted.
+Huxley<a name='FNanchor_6_6' id='FNanchor_6_6'></a><a href='#Footnote_6_6' class='fnanchor'>{6}</a>
+held that these facts could not have produced their essential effect
+until the voyage had <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xiii' id='Page_xiii'>{xiii}</a></span>
+come to an end, and the &ldquo;relations of the existing with the extinct
+species and of the species of the different geographical areas with one
+another were determined with some exactness.&rdquo; He does not therefore
+allow that any appreciable advance towards evolution was made during the
+actual voyage of the <i>Beagle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Judd<a name='FNanchor_7_7' id='FNanchor_7_7'></a><a href='#Footnote_7_7' class='fnanchor'>{7}</a>
+takes a very different view. He holds that November 1832 may be given
+with some confidence as the &ldquo;date at which Darwin commenced that long
+series of observations and reasonings which eventually culminated in the
+preparation of the <i>Origin of Species</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Though I think these words suggest a more direct and continuous march
+than really existed between fossil-collecting in 1832 and writing the
+<i>Origin of Species</i> in 1859, yet I hold that it was during the voyage
+that Darwin's mind began to be turned in the direction of Evolution, and
+I am therefore in essential agreement with Prof. Judd, although I lay
+more stress than he does on the latter part of the voyage.</p>
+
+<p>Let us for a moment confine our attention to the passage, above quoted,
+from the Autobiography and to what is said in the Introduction to the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., viz. &ldquo;When on board H.M.S. &lsquo;Beagle,&rsquo;
+as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution
+of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of
+the present to the past inhabitants of that continent.&rdquo; These
+words, occurring where they do, can only mean one thing,&mdash;namely
+that the facts suggested an evolutionary interpretation. And this being
+so it must be true that his thoughts <i>began to flow in the direction of
+Descent</i> at this early date.</p>
+
+<p>I am inclined to think that the &ldquo;new light which was rising in his
+mind<a name='FNanchor_8_8' id='FNanchor_8_8'></a><a href='#Footnote_8_8' class='fnanchor'>{8}</a>&rdquo;
+had not yet attained any <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xiv' id='Page_xiv'>{xiv}</a></span>
+effective degree of steadiness or brightness. I think so because in his
+Pocket Book under the date 1837 he wrote, &ldquo;In July opened first
+note-book on &lsquo;transmutation of species.&rsquo; Had been greatly
+struck <i>from about month of previous March</i><a name='FNanchor_9_9' id='FNanchor_9_9'></a><a href='#Footnote_9_9' class='fnanchor'>{9}</a>
+on character of South American fossils, and species on Galapagos
+Archipelago. These facts origin (<i>especially latter</i>), of all my
+views.&rdquo; But he did not visit the Galapagos till 1835 and I
+therefore find it hard to believe that his evolutionary views attained
+any strength or permanence until at any rate quite late in the voyage.
+The Galapagos facts are strongly against Huxley&rsquo;s view, for
+Darwin&rsquo;s attention was &ldquo;thoroughly aroused<a name='FNanchor_10_10' id='FNanchor_10_10'></a><a href='#Footnote_10_10' class='fnanchor'>{10}</a>&rdquo;
+by comparing the birds shot by himself and by others on board. The case
+must have struck him at once,&mdash;without waiting for accurate
+determinations,&mdash;as a microcosm of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It is also to be noted, in regard to the remains of extinct animals,
+that, in the above quotation from his Pocket Book, he speaks of March
+1837 as the time at which he began to be &ldquo;greatly struck on
+character of South American fossils,&rdquo; which suggests at least that
+the impression made in 1832 required reinforcement before a really
+powerful effect was produced.</p>
+
+<p>We may therefore conclude, I think, that the evolutionary current in my
+father's thoughts had continued to increase in force from 1832 onwards,
+being especially reinforced at the Galapagos in 1835 and again in 1837
+when he was overhauling the results, mental and material, of his
+travels. And that when the above record in the Pocket Book was made he
+unconsciously minimised the earlier beginnings of his theorisings, and
+laid more stress on the recent thoughts which were <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xv' id='Page_xv'>{xv}</a></span>
+naturally more vivid to him. In his letter<a name='FNanchor_11_11' id='FNanchor_11_11'></a><a href='#Footnote_11_11' class='fnanchor'>{11}</a>
+to Otto Zacharias (1877) he wrote, &ldquo;On my return home in the
+autumn of 1836, I immediately began to prepare my Journal for
+publication, and then saw how many facts indicated the common descent of
+species.&rdquo; This again is evidence in favour of the view that the
+later growths of his theory were the essentially important parts of its
+development.</p>
+
+<p>In the same letter to Zacharias he says, &ldquo;When I was on board the
+<i>Beagle</i> I believed in the permanence of species, but as far as I can
+remember vague doubts occasionally flitted across my mind.&rdquo; Unless
+Prof. Judd and I are altogether wrong in believing that late or early in
+the voyage (it matters little which) a definite approach was made to the
+evolutionary standpoint, we must suppose that in 40 years such advance
+had shrunk in his recollection to the dimensions of &ldquo;vague
+doubts.&rdquo; The letter to Zacharias shows I think some forgetting of
+the past where the author says, &ldquo;But I did not become convinced
+that species were mutable until, I think, two or three years had
+elapsed.&rdquo; It is impossible to reconcile this with the contents of
+the evolutionary Note Book of 1837. I have no doubt that in his
+retrospect he felt that he had not been &ldquo;convinced that species
+were mutable&rdquo; until he had gained a clear conception of the
+mechanism of natural selection, <i>i.e.</i> in 1838-9.</p>
+
+<p>But even on this last date there is some room, not for doubt, but for
+surprise. The passage in the Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_12_12' id='FNanchor_12_12'></a><a href='#Footnote_12_12' class='fnanchor'>{12}</a>
+is quite clear, namely that in October 1838 he read Malthus&rsquo;s
+<i>Essay on the principle of Population</i> and &ldquo;being well prepared to
+appreciate the struggle for existence ..., it at once struck me that
+under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be
+preserved, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xvi' id='Page_xvi'>{xvi}</a></span>
+and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the
+formation of new species. Here then I had at last got a theory by which
+to work.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is surprising that Malthus should have been needed to give him the
+clue, when in the Note Book of 1837 there should occur&mdash;however
+obscurely expressed&mdash;the following forecast<a name='FNanchor_13_13' id='FNanchor_13_13'></a><a href='#Footnote_13_13' class='fnanchor'>{13}</a>
+of the importance of the survival of the fittest. &ldquo;With respect to
+extinction, we can easily see that a variety of the ostrich (Petise <a name='FNanchor_14_14' id='FNanchor_14_14'></a><a href='#Footnote_14_14' class='fnanchor'>{14}</a>),
+may not be well adapted, and thus perish out; or on the other hand, like
+Orpheus<a name='FNanchor_15_15' id='FNanchor_15_15'></a><a href='#Footnote_15_15' class='fnanchor'>{15}</a>,
+being favourable, many might be produced. This requires the principle
+that the permanent variations produced by confined breeding and changing
+circumstances are continued and produce«<ins>d</ins>» according to the adaptation of
+such circumstances, and therefore that death of species is a consequence
+(contrary to what would appear in America) of non-adaptation of
+circumstances.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I can hardly doubt, that with his knowledge of the interdependence of
+organisms and the tyranny of conditions, his experience would have
+crystallized out into &ldquo;a theory by which to work&rdquo; even
+without the aid of Malthus.</p>
+
+<p>In my father's Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_16_16' id='FNanchor_16_16'></a><a href='#Footnote_16_16' class='fnanchor'>{16}</a>
+he writes, &ldquo;In June 1842 I first allowed myself the satisfaction
+of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil in 35 pages; and
+this was enlarged during the summer of 1844 into one of 230 pages<a name='FNanchor_17_17' id='FNanchor_17_17'></a><a href='#Footnote_17_17' class='fnanchor'>{17}</a>,
+which I had fairly copied out and still possess.&rdquo; These two
+Essays, of 1842 and 1844, are now printed under the title <i>The
+Foundations of the Origin of Species</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xvii' id='Page_xvii'>{xvii}</a></span>
+It will be noted that in the above passage he does not mention the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>
+of 1842 as being in existence, and when I was at work on <i>Life and
+Letters</i> I had not seen it. It only came to light after my mother's
+death in 1896 when the house at Down was vacated. The <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> was hidden in
+a cupboard under the stairs which was not used for papers of any value,
+but rather as an overflow for matter which he did not wish to destroy.</p>
+
+<p>The statement in the Autobiography that the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> was written in 1842
+agrees with an entry in my fathers Diary:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;1842. May 18th went to Maer. June 15th to Shrewsbury, and on 18th
+to Capel Curig.... During my stay at Maer and Shrewsbury (five years
+after commencement) wrote pencil sketch of my species theory.&rdquo;
+Again in a letter to Lyell (June 18, 1858) he speaks of his &ldquo;<span
+class='sc lc'>MS.</span> sketch written out in 1842<a name='FNanchor_18_18' id='FNanchor_18_18'></a><a href='#Footnote_18_18' class='fnanchor'>{18}</a>.&rdquo;
+In the <i>Origin of Species</i>, Ed. i. p. 1, he speaks of beginning his
+speculations in 1837 and of allowing himself to draw up some
+&ldquo;short notes&rdquo; after &ldquo;five years' work,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+in 1842. So far there seems no doubt as to 1842 being the date of the
+first sketch; but there is evidence in favour of an earlier date<a name='FNanchor_19_19' id='FNanchor_19_19'></a><a href='#Footnote_19_19' class='fnanchor'>{19}</a>.
+Thus across the Table of Contents of the bound copy of the 1844 <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>
+is written in my father's hand &ldquo;This was sketched in 1839.&rdquo;
+Again in a letter to Mr Wallace<a name='FNanchor_20_20' id='FNanchor_20_20'></a><a href='#Footnote_20_20' class='fnanchor'>{20}</a>
+(Jan. 25, 1859) he speaks of his own contributions to the Linnean
+paper<a name='FNanchor_21_21' id='FNanchor_21_21'></a><a href='#Footnote_21_21' class='fnanchor'>{21}</a>
+of July 1, 1858, as &ldquo;written in 1839, now just twenty years
+ago.&rdquo; This statement as it stands is undoubtedly incorrect, since
+the extracts are from the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844, about the date of which no doubt
+exists; but even if it could be supposed to refer to the 1842 Essay, it
+must, I think, be rejected. I can only account for his mistake by the
+supposition that my father had in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xviii' id='Page_xviii'>{xviii}</a></span>
+mind the date (1839) at which the framework of his theory was laid
+down. It is worth noting that in his Autobiography (p. 88) he speaks of
+the time &ldquo;about 1839, when the theory was clearly
+conceived.&rdquo; However this may be there can be no doubt that 1842 is
+the correct date. Since the publication of <i>Life and Letters</i> I have
+gained fresh evidence on this head. A small packet containing 13 pp. of
+<span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> came to light in 1896. On the outside is written &ldquo;First Pencil
+Sketch of Species Theory. Written at Maer and Shrewsbury during May and
+June 1842.&rdquo; It is not however written in pencil, and it consists
+of a single chapter on <i>The Principles of Variation in Domestic
+Organisms</i>. A single unnumbered page is written in pencil, and is headed
+&ldquo;Maer, May 1842, useless&rdquo;; it also bears the words
+&ldquo;This page was thought of as introduction.&rdquo; It consists of
+the briefest sketch of the geological evidence for evolution, together
+with words intended as headings for discussion,&mdash;such as
+&ldquo;Affinity,&mdash;unity of type,&mdash;f&oelig;tal
+state,&mdash;abortive organs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The back of this &ldquo;useless&rdquo; page is of some interest,
+although it does not bear on the question of date,&mdash;the matter
+immediately before us.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to be an outline of the Essay or sketch of 1842, consisting of
+the titles of the three chapters of which it was to have consisted.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I. The Principles of Var. in domestic organisms.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;II. The possible and probable application of these same
+principles to wild animals and consequently the possible and probable
+production of wild races, analogous to the domestic ones of plants and
+animals.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;III. The reasons for and against believing that such races have
+really been produced, forming what are called species.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that Chapter III as originally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xix' id='Page_xix'>{xix}</a></span>
+designed corresponds to Part II (p. 22) of the Essay of 1842, which is
+(p. 7) defined by the author as discussing &ldquo;whether the characters
+and relations of animated things are such as favour the idea of wild
+species being races descended from a common stock.&rdquo; Again at p. 23
+the author asks &ldquo;What then is the evidence in favour of it (the
+theory of descent) and what the evidence against it.&rdquo; The
+generalised section of his Essay having been originally Chapter III<a name='FNanchor_22_22' id='FNanchor_22_22'></a><a href='#Footnote_22_22' class='fnanchor'>{22}</a>
+accounts for the curious error which occurs in pp. 18 and 22 where the
+second Part of the Essay is called Part III.</p>
+
+<p>The division of the Essay into two parts is maintained in the enlarged
+Essay of 1844, in which he writes: &ldquo;The Second Part of this work
+is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general economy
+of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species and
+genera are descended from common stocks.&rdquo; The <i>Origin of Species</i>
+however is not so divided.</p>
+
+<p>We may now return to the question of the date of the Essay. I have found
+additional evidence in favour of 1842 in a sentence written on the back
+of the Table of Contents of the 1844 <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>&mdash;not the copied version
+but the original in my father's writing: &ldquo;This was written and
+enlarged from a sketch in 37 pages<a name='FNanchor_23_23' id='FNanchor_23_23'></a><a href='#Footnote_23_23' class='fnanchor'>{23}</a>
+in Pencil (the latter written in summer of 1842 at Maer and Shrewsbury)
+in beginning of 1844, and finished it «<ins><i>sic</i></ins>» in July; and
+finally corrected the copy by Mr Fletcher in the last week in
+September.&rdquo; On the whole it is impossible to doubt that 1842 is
+the date of the earlier of the two Essays.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xx' id='Page_xx'>{xx}</a></span>
+The sketch of 1842 is written on bad paper with a soft pencil, and is in
+many parts extremely difficult to read, many of the words ending in mere
+scrawls and being illegible without context. It is evidently written
+rapidly, and is in his most elliptical style, the articles being
+frequently omitted, and the sentences being loosely composed and often
+illogical in structure. There is much erasure and correction, apparently
+made at the moment of writing, and the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> does not give the impression
+of having been re-read with any care. The whole is more like hasty
+memoranda of what was clear to himself, than material for the convincing
+of others.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the pages are covered with writing on the back, an instance of
+his parsimony in the matter of paper<a name='FNanchor_24_24' id='FNanchor_24_24'></a><a href='#Footnote_24_24' class='fnanchor'>{24}</a>.
+This matter consists partly of passages marked for insertion in the
+text, and these can generally (though by no means always) be placed
+where he intended. But he also used the back of one page for a
+preliminary sketch to be rewritten on a clean sheet. These parts of the
+work have been printed as footnotes, so as to allow what was written on
+the front of the pages to form a continuous text. A certain amount of
+repetition is unavoidable, but much of what is written on the backs of
+the pages is of too much interest to be omitted. Some of the matter here
+given in footnotes may, moreover, have been intended as the final text
+and not as the preliminary sketch.</p>
+
+<p>When a word cannot be deciphered, it is replaced by:&mdash;«<ins>illegible</ins>», the angular
+brackets being, as already explained, a symbol for an insertion by the
+editor. More commonly, however, the context makes the interpretation of
+a word reasonably sure although the word is not strictly legible. Such
+words are followed by an inserted mark of interrogation «<ins>?</ins>».
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxi' id='Page_xxi'>{xxi}</a></span>
+Lastly, words inserted by the editor, of which the appropriateness is
+doubtful, are printed thus «<ins>variation?</ins>».</p>
+
+<p>Two kinds of erasure occur in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1842. One by vertical lines
+which seem to have been made when the 35 pp. <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> was being expanded into
+that of 1844, and merely imply that such a page is done with: and
+secondly the ordinary erasures by horizontal lines. I have not been
+quite consistent in regard to these: I began with the intention of
+printing (in square brackets) all such erasures. But I ultimately found
+that the confusion introduced into the already obscure sentences was
+greater than any possible gain; and many such erasures are altogether
+omitted. In the same way I have occasionally omitted hopelessly obscure
+and incomprehensible fragments, which if printed would only have
+burthened the text with a string of «<ins>illegible</ins>»s and queried
+words. Nor have I printed the whole of what is written on the backs of
+the pages, where it seemed to me that nothing but unnecessary repetition
+would have been the result.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of punctuation I have given myself a free hand. I may no
+doubt have misinterpreted the author's meaning in so doing, but without
+such punctuation, the number of repellantly crabbed sentences would have
+been even greater than at present. In dealing with the Essay of 1844, I
+have corrected some obvious slips without indicating such alterations,
+because the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> being legible, there is no danger of changing the
+author's meaning.</p>
+
+<p>The sections into which the Essay of 1842 is divided are in the original
+merely indicated by a gap in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> or by a line
+drawn across the page. No titles are given except in the case of &sect;
+<span class='sc lc'>VIII</span>.; and &sect; <span class='sc lc'>II</span>.
+is the only section which has a number in the original. I might equally
+well have made sections of what are now subsections, <i>e.g. Natural
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxii' id='Page_xxii'>{xxii}</a></span>
+Selection</i> p. 7, or <i>Extermination</i> p. 28. But since the present sketch
+is the germ of the Essay of 1844, it seemed best to preserve the
+identity between the two works, by using such of the author's divisions
+as correspond to the chapters of the enlarged version of 1844. The
+geological discussion with which Part II begins corresponds to two
+chapters (IV and V) of the 1844 Essay. I have therefore described it as
+&sect;&sect; <span class='sc lc'>IV.</span> and <span class='sc lc'>V.</span>,
+although I cannot make sure of its having originally consisted of two
+sections. With this exception the ten sections of the Essay of 1842
+correspond to the ten chapters of that of 1844.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Origin of Species</i> differs from the sketch of 1842 in not being
+divided into two parts. But the two volumes resemble each other in
+general structure. Both begin with a statement of what may be called the
+mechanism of evolution,&mdash;variation and selection: in both the argument
+proceeds from the study of domestic organisms to that of animals and
+plants in a state of nature. This is followed in both by a discussion of
+the <i>Difficulties on Theory</i> and this by a section <i>Instinct</i> which in
+both cases is treated as a special case of difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>If I had to divide the <i>Origin</i> (first edition) into two parts without
+any knowledge of earlier <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>, I should, I think, make Part II begin with
+Ch. VI, <i>Difficulties on Theory</i>. A possible reason why this part of the
+argument is given in Part I of the Essay of 1842 may be found in the
+Essay of 1844, where it is clear that the chapter on instinct is placed
+in Part I because the author thought it of importance to show that
+heredity and variation occur in mental attributes. The whole question is
+perhaps an instance of the sort of difficulty which made the author give
+up the division of his argument into two Parts when he wrote the
+<i>Origin</i>. As matters stand &sect;&sect; <span class='sc lc'>IV.</span>
+and <span class='sc lc'>V.</span> of the 1842 Essay correspond to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxiii' id='Page_xxiii'>{xxiii}</a></span>
+the geological chapters, IX and X, in the <i>Origin</i>. From this point
+onwards the material is grouped in the same order in both works:
+geographical distribution; affinities and classification; unity of type
+and morphology; abortive or rudimentary organs; recapitulation and
+conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>In enlarging the Essay of 1842 into that of 1844, the author retained
+the sections of the sketch as chapters in the completer presentment. It
+follows that what has been said of the relation of the earlier Essay to
+the <i>Origin</i> is generally true of the 1844 Essay. In the latter,
+however, the geological discussion is, clearly instead of obscurely,
+divided into two chapters, which correspond roughly with Chapters IX and
+X of the <i>Origin</i>. But part of the contents of Chapter X (<i>Origin</i>)
+occurs in Chapter VI (1844) on Geographical Distribution. The treatment
+of distribution is particularly full and interesting in the 1844 Essay,
+but the arrangement of the material, especially the introduction of
+&sect; <span class='sc lc'>III.</span> p. 183, leads to some repetition which is avoided in the
+<i>Origin</i>. It should be noted that Hybridism, which has a separate
+chapter (VIII) in the <i>Origin</i>, is treated in Chapter II of the Essay.
+Finally that Chapter XIII (<i>Origin</i>) corresponds to Chapters VII, VIII
+and IX of the work of 1844.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that in 1842, seventeen years before the publication of the
+<i>Origin</i>, my father should have been able to write out so full an
+outline of his future work, is very remarkable. In his Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_25_25' id='FNanchor_25_25'></a><a href='#Footnote_25_25' class='fnanchor'>{25}</a>
+he writes of the 1844 Essay, &ldquo;But at that time I overlooked one
+problem of great importance.... This problem is the tendency in organic
+beings descended from the same stock to diverge in character as they
+become modified.&rdquo; The absence of the principle of divergence is of
+course also a characteristic of the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxiv' id='Page_xxiv'>{xxiv}</a></span>
+sketch of 1842. But at p. 37, the author is not far from this point of
+view. The passage referred to is: &ldquo;If any species, <i>A</i>, in
+changing gets an advantage and that advantage ... is inherited, <i>A</i> will
+be the progenitor of several genera or even families in the hard
+struggle of nature. <i>A</i> will go on beating out other forms, it might
+come that <i>A</i> would people «<ins>the</ins>» earth,&mdash;we may now not
+have one descendant on our globe of the one or several original
+creations<a name='FNanchor_26_26' id='FNanchor_26_26'></a><a href='#Footnote_26_26' class='fnanchor'>{26}</a>.&rdquo;
+But if the descendants of <i>A</i> have peopled the earth by beating out
+other forms, they must have diverged in occupying the innumerable
+diverse modes of life from which they expelled their predecessors. What
+I wrote<a name='FNanchor_27_27' id='FNanchor_27_27'></a><a href='#Footnote_27_27' class='fnanchor'>{27}</a>
+on this subject in 1887 is I think true: &ldquo;Descent with
+modification implies divergence, and we become so habituated to a belief
+in descent, and therefore in divergence, that we do not notice the
+absence of proof that divergence is in itself an advantage.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The fact that there is no set discussion on the principle of divergence
+in the 1844 Essay, makes it clear why the joint paper read before the
+Linnean Society on July 1, 1858, included a letter<a name='FNanchor_28_28' id='FNanchor_28_28'></a><a href='#Footnote_28_28' class='fnanchor'>{28}</a>
+to Asa Gray, as well as an extract<a name='FNanchor_29_29' id='FNanchor_29_29'></a><a href='#Footnote_29_29' class='fnanchor'>{29}</a>
+from the Essay of 1844. It is clearly because the letter to Gray
+includes a discussion on divergence, and was thus, probably, the only
+document, including this subject, which could be appropriately made use
+of. It shows once more how great was the importance attached by its
+author to the principle of divergence.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of the hurried and condensed manner in which the sketch of
+1842 is written; the style of the later Essay (1844) is more finished.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxv' id='Page_xxv'>{xxv}</a></span>
+It has, however, the air of an uncorrected <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> rather than of a book
+which has gone through the ordeal of proof sheets. It has not all the
+force and conciseness of the <i>Origin</i>, but it has a certain freshness
+which gives it a character of its own. It must be remembered that the
+<i>Origin</i> was an abstract or condensation of a much bigger book, whereas
+the Essay of 1844 was an expansion of the sketch of 1842. It is not
+therefore surprising that in the <i>Origin</i> there is occasionally evident
+a chafing against the author's self-imposed limitation. Whereas in the
+1844 Essay there is an air of freedom, as if the author were letting
+himself go, rather than applying the curb. This quality of freshness and
+the fact that some questions were more fully discussed in 1844 than in
+1859, makes the earlier work good reading even to those who are familiar
+with the <i>Origin</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The writing of this Essay &ldquo;during the summer of 1844,&rdquo; as
+stated in the Autobiography<a name='FNanchor_30_30' id='FNanchor_30_30'></a><a href='#Footnote_30_30' class='fnanchor'>{30}</a>,
+and &ldquo;from memory,&rdquo; as Darwin says elsewhere<a name='FNanchor_31_31' id='FNanchor_31_31'></a><a href='#Footnote_31_31' class='fnanchor'>{31}</a>,
+was a remarkable achievement, and possibly renders more conceivable the
+still greater feat of the writing of the <i>Origin</i> between July 1858 and
+September 1859.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting subject for speculation: what influence on the
+world the Essay of 1844 would have exercised, had it been published in
+place of the Origin. The author evidently thought of its publication in
+its present state as an undesirable expedient, as appears clearly from
+the following extracts from the <i>Life and Letters</i>, vol. ii. pp.
+16&mdash;18:</p>
+
+<p class='i c mt2 noin'>C. Darwin to Mrs Darwin.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxvi' id='Page_xxvi'>{xxvi}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class='ralign'><span class='sc'>Down,</span> <i>July 5, 1844</i>.</span><br /></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;... I have just finished my sketch of my species theory. If, as I
+believe, my theory in time be accepted even by one competent judge, it
+will be a considerable step in science.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I therefore write this in case of my sudden death, as my most
+solemn and last request, which I am sure you will consider the same as
+if legally entered in my will, that you will devote &pound;400 to its
+publication, and further will yourself, or through Hensleigh<a name='FNanchor_32_32' id='FNanchor_32_32'></a><a href='#Footnote_32_32' class='fnanchor'>{32}</a>,
+take trouble in promoting it. I wish that my sketch be given to some
+competent person, with this sum to induce him to take trouble in its
+improvement and enlargement. I give to him all my books on Natural
+History, which are either scored or have references at the end to the
+pages, begging him carefully to look over and consider such passages as
+actually bearing, or by possibility bearing, on this subject. I wish you
+to make a list of all such books as some temptation to an editor. I also
+request that you will hand over «<ins>to</ins>» him all those scraps roughly divided
+into eight or ten brown paper portfolios. The scraps, with copied
+quotations from various works, are those which may aid my editor. I also
+request that you, or some amanuensis, will aid in deciphering any of the
+scraps which the editor may think possibly of use. I leave to the
+editor's judgment whether to interpolate these facts in the text, or as
+notes, or under appendices. As the looking over the references and
+scraps will be a long labour, and as the <i>correcting</i> and enlarging and
+altering my sketch will also take considerable time, I leave this sum of
+&pound;400 as some remuneration, and any profits from <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxvii' id='Page_xxvii'>{xxvii}</a></span>
+the work. I consider that for this the editor is bound to get the
+sketch published either at a publisher's or his own risk. Many of the
+scraps in the portfolios contain mere rude suggestions and early views,
+now useless, and many of the facts will probably turn out as having no
+bearing on my theory.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;With respect to editors, Mr Lyell would be the best if he would
+undertake it; I believe he would find the work pleasant, and he would
+learn some facts new to him. As the editor must be a geologist as well
+as a naturalist, the next best editor would be Professor Forbes of
+London. The next best (and quite best in many respects) would be
+Professor Henslow. Dr Hooker would be <i>very</i> good. The next, Mr
+Strickland<a name='FNanchor_33_33' id='FNanchor_33_33'></a><a href='#Footnote_33_33' class='fnanchor'>{33}</a>.
+If none of these would undertake it, I would request you to consult with
+Mr Lyell, or some other capable man, for some editor, a geologist and
+naturalist. Should one other hundred pounds make the difference of
+procuring a good editor, I request earnestly that you will raise
+&pound;500.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;My remaining collections in Natural History may be given to any
+one or any museum where «<ins>they</ins>» would be accepted....&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>«<ins>The following note seems to have formed part of the original
+letter, but may have been of later date:</ins>»</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Lyell, especially with the aid of Hooker (and of any good
+zoological aid), would be best of all. Without an editor will pledge
+himself to give up time to it, it would be of no use paying such a sum.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If there should be any difficulty in getting an editor who would
+go thoroughly into the subject, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxviii' id='Page_xxviii'>{xxviii}</a></span>
+and think of the bearing of the passages marked in the books and copied
+out of scraps of paper, then let my sketch be published as it is,
+stating that it was done several years ago<a name='FNanchor_34_34' id='FNanchor_34_34'></a><a href='#Footnote_34_34' class='fnanchor'>{34}</a>,
+and from memory without consulting any works, and with no intention of
+publication in its present form.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The idea that the sketch of 1844 might remain, in the event of his
+death, as the only record of his work, seems to have been long in his
+mind, for in August, 1854, when he had finished with the Cirripedes, and
+was thinking of beginning his &ldquo;species work,&rdquo; he added on
+the back of the above letter, &ldquo;Hooker by far best man to edit my
+species volume. August 1854.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have called attention in footnotes to many points in which the
+<i>Origin</i> agrees with the <i>Foundations</i>. One of the most interesting is
+the final sentence, practically the same in the Essays of 1842 and 1844,
+and almost identical with the concluding words of the <i>Origin</i>. I have
+elsewhere pointed out<a name='FNanchor_35_35' id='FNanchor_35_35'></a><a href='#Footnote_35_35' class='fnanchor'>{35}</a>
+that the ancestry of this eloquent passage may be traced one stage
+further back,&mdash;to the Note Book of 1837. I have given this sentence
+as an appropriate motto for the <i>Foundations</i> in its character of a
+study of general laws. It will be remembered that a corresponding motto
+from Whewell's <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i> is printed opposite the title-page
+of the <i>Origin of Species</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Huxley who, about the year 1887, read the Essay of 1844, remarked
+that &ldquo;much more weight is attached to the influence of external
+conditions in producing variation and to the inheritance of acquired
+habits than in the <i>Origin</i>.&rdquo; In the <i>Foundations</i> the effect of
+conditions is frequently mentioned, and Darwin seems to have had
+constantly <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxix' id='Page_xxix'>{xxix}</a></span>
+in mind the need of referring each variation to a cause. But I gain the
+impression that the slighter prominence given to this view in the
+<i>Origin</i> was not due to change of opinion, but rather because he had
+gradually come to take this view for granted; so that in the scheme of
+that book, it was overshadowed by considerations which then seemed to
+him more pressing. With regard to the inheritance of acquired characters
+I am not inclined to agree with Huxley. It is certain that the
+<i>Foundations</i> contains strong recognition of the importance of germinal
+variation, that is of external conditions acting indirectly through the
+&ldquo;reproductive functions.&rdquo; He evidently considered this as
+more important than the inheritance of habit or other acquired
+peculiarities.</p>
+
+<p>Another point of interest is the weight he attached in 1842-4 to
+&ldquo;sports&rdquo; or what are now called &ldquo;mutations.&rdquo;
+This is I think more prominent in the <i>Foundations</i> than in the first
+edition of the <i>Origin</i>, and certainly than in the fifth and sixth
+editions.</p>
+
+<p>Among other interesting points may be mentioned the &ldquo;good effects
+of crossing&rdquo; being &ldquo;possibly analogous to good effects of
+change in condition,&rdquo;&mdash;a principle which he upheld on
+experimental grounds in his <i>Cross and Self-Fertilisation</i> in 1876.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I desire to express my thanks to Mr Wallace for a
+footnote he was good enough to supply: and to Professor Bateson, Sir W.
+Thiselton-Dyer, Dr Gadow, Professor Judd, Dr Marr, Col. Prain and Dr
+Stapf for information on various points. I am also indebted to Mr
+Rutherford, of the University Library, for his careful copy of the
+manuscript of 1842.</p>
+
+<p style='margin-left:3em; text-indent:-1.5em;'><span class='sc'>Cambridge,</span><br />
+<i>June 9, 1909.</i></p>
+
+<hr class='minor' /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_xxx' id='Page_xxx'>{xxx}</a></p>
+<p class='c noin'>EXPLANATION OF SIGNS, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>[&nbsp;] Means that the words so enclosed are erased in the original <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></p>
+
+<p>«&nbsp;» Indicates an insertion by the Editor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Origin</i>, Ed. vi. refers to the Popular Edition.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_1' id='Page_1'>{1}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='PART_I' id='PART_I'></a>PART I.</h2>
+
+<h3>&sect; <span class='sc'>I. «<ins>On Variation under Domestication, and on the Principles of Selection.</ins>»</span></h3>
+
+<p>An individual organism placed under new conditions [<del>often</del>] sometimes
+varies in a small degree and in very trifling respects such as stature,
+fatness, sometimes colour, health, habits in animals and probably
+disposition. Also habits of life develope certain parts. Disuse
+atrophies. [<del>Most of these slight variations tend to become hereditary.</del>]</p>
+
+<p>When the individual is multiplied for long periods by buds the variation
+is yet small, though greater and occasionally a single bud or individual
+departs widely from its type (example)<a name='FNanchor_36_36' id='FNanchor_36_36'></a><a href='#Footnote_36_36' class='fnanchor'>{36}</a>
+and continues steadily to propagate, by buds, such new kind.</p>
+
+<p>When the organism is bred for several generations under new or varying
+conditions, the variation is greater in amount and endless in kind
+[especially<a name='FNanchor_37_37' id='FNanchor_37_37'></a><a href='#Footnote_37_37' class='fnanchor'>{37}</a>
+holds good when individuals have long been exposed to new conditions].
+The nature of the external conditions tends to effect some definite
+change in all or greater part of offspring,&mdash;little food, small
+size&mdash;certain foods harmless &amp;c. &amp;c. organs affected and
+diseases&mdash;extent unknown. A certain degree of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_2' id='Page_2'>{2}</a></span>
+variation (M&uuml;ller's twins)<a name='FNanchor_38_38' id='FNanchor_38_38'></a><a href='#Footnote_38_38' class='fnanchor'>{38}</a>
+seems inevitable effect of process of reproduction. But more important
+is that simple «<ins>?</ins>» generation, especially under new
+conditions [<del>when no crossing</del>] «<ins>causes</ins>» infinite variation
+and not direct effect of external conditions, but only in as much as it
+affects the reproductive functions<a name='FNanchor_39_39' id='FNanchor_39_39'></a><a href='#Footnote_39_39' class='fnanchor'>{39}</a>.
+There seems to be no part (<i>beau ideal</i> of liver)<a name='FNanchor_40_40' id='FNanchor_40_40'></a><a href='#Footnote_40_40' class='fnanchor'>{40}</a>
+of body, internal or external, or mind or habits, or instincts which
+does not vary in some small degree and [<del>often</del>] some «<ins>?</ins>» to a
+great amount.</p>
+
+<p>[<del>All such</del>] variations [<del>being congenital</del>] or those very slowly acquired
+of all kinds [<del>decidedly evince a tendency to become hereditary</del>], when
+not so become simple variety, when it does a race. Each<a name='FNanchor_41_41' id='FNanchor_41_41'></a><a href='#Footnote_41_41' class='fnanchor'>{41}</a>
+parent transmits its peculiarities, therefore if varieties allowed
+freely to cross, except by the <i>chance</i> of two characterized by same
+peculiarity happening to marry, such varieties will be constantly
+demolished<a name='FNanchor_42_42' id='FNanchor_42_42'></a><a href='#Footnote_42_42' class='fnanchor'>{42}</a>.
+All bisexual animals must cross, hermaphrodite plants do cross, it seems
+very possible that hermaphrodite <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_3' id='Page_3'>{3}</a></span>
+animals do cross,&mdash;conclusion strengthened: ill effects of
+breeding in and in, good effects of crossing possibly analogous to good
+effects of change in condition «<ins>?</ins>»<a name='FNanchor_43_43' id='FNanchor_43_43'></a><a href='#Footnote_43_43' class='fnanchor'>{43}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore if in any country or district all animals of one species be
+allowed freely to cross, any small tendency in them to vary will be
+constantly counteracted. Secondly reversion to parent
+form&mdash;analogue of <i>vis medicatrix</i><a name='FNanchor_44_44' id='FNanchor_44_44'></a><a href='#Footnote_44_44' class='fnanchor'>{44}</a>.
+But if man selects, then new races rapidly formed,&mdash;of late years
+systematically followed,&mdash;in most ancient times often practically
+followed<a name='FNanchor_45_45' id='FNanchor_45_45'></a><a href='#Footnote_45_45' class='fnanchor'>{45}</a>.
+By such selection make race-horse, dray-horse&mdash;one cow good for
+tallow, another for eating &amp;c.&mdash;one plant's good lay
+«<ins>illegible</ins>» in leaves another in fruit &amp;c. &amp;c.: the
+same plant to supply his wants at different times of year. By former
+means animals become adapted, as a direct effect to a cause, to external
+conditions, as size of body to amount of food. By this latter means they
+may also be so adapted, but further they may be adapted to ends and
+pursuits, which by no possibility can affect growth, as existence of
+tallow-chandler cannot tend to make fat. In such selected races, if not
+removed to new conditions, and «<ins>if</ins>» preserved from all
+cross, after several generations become very true, like each other and
+not varying. But man<a name='FNanchor_46_46' id='FNanchor_46_46'></a><a href='#Footnote_46_46' class='fnanchor'>{46}</a>
+selects only «<ins>?</ins>» what is useful and curious&mdash;has bad
+judgment, is capricious,&mdash;grudges to destroy those that do not come
+up to his pattern,&mdash;has no<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_4' id='Page_4'>{4}</a></span>
+[<del>knowledge</del>] power of selecting according to internal
+variations,&mdash;can hardly keep his conditions uniform,&mdash;[<del>cannot</del>]
+does not select those best adapted to the conditions under which
+«<ins>the</ins>» form «<ins>?</ins>» lives, but those most useful to
+him. This might all be otherwise.</p>
+
+<h3>&sect; <span class='sc'>II. «<ins>On Variation in a State of Nature and on the Natural Means of Selection.</ins>»</span></h3>
+
+<p>Let us see how far above principles of variation apply to wild animals.
+Wild animals vary exceedingly little&mdash;yet they are known as
+individuals<a name='FNanchor_47_47' id='FNanchor_47_47'></a><a href='#Footnote_47_47' class='fnanchor'>{47}</a>.
+British Plants, in many genera number quite uncertain of varieties and
+species: in shells chiefly external conditions<a name='FNanchor_48_48' id='FNanchor_48_48'></a><a href='#Footnote_48_48' class='fnanchor'>{48}</a>.
+Primrose and cowslip. Wild animals from different [<del>countries can be
+recognized</del>]. Specific character gives some organs as varying. Variations
+analogous in kind, but less in degree with domesticated
+animals&mdash;chiefly external and less important parts.</p>
+
+<p>Our experience would lead us to expect that any and every one of these
+organisms would vary if «<ins>the organism were</ins>» taken away
+«<ins>?</ins>» and placed under new conditions. Geology proclaims a
+constant round of change, bringing into play, by every possible
+«<ins>?</ins>» change of climate and the death of pre-existing
+inhabitants, endless variations of new conditions. These «<ins>?</ins>»
+generally very slow, doubtful though «<ins>illegible</ins>» how far the
+slowness «<ins>?</ins>» would produce tendency to vary. But
+Geolog«<ins>ists</ins>» show change in configuration which, together
+with the accidents of air and water and the means of transportal which
+every being possesses, must occasionally bring, rather suddenly,
+organism to new conditions and «<ins>?</ins>» expose it for several
+generations.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_5' id='Page_5'>{5}</a></span>
+Hence «<ins>?</ins>» we should expect every now and then a wild form
+to vary<a name='FNanchor_49_49' id='FNanchor_49_49'></a><a href='#Footnote_49_49' class='fnanchor'>{49}</a>;
+possibly this may be cause of some species varying more than others.</p>
+
+<p>According to nature of new conditions, so we might expect all or
+majority of organisms born under them to vary in some definite way.
+Further we might expect that the mould in which they are cast would
+likewise vary in some small degree. But is there any means of selecting
+those offspring which vary in the same manner, crossing them and keeping
+their offspring separate and thus producing selected races: otherwise as
+the wild animals freely cross, so must such small heterogeneous
+varieties be constantly counter-balanced and lost, and a uniformity of
+character [<del>kept up</del>] preserved. The former variation as the direct and
+necessary effects of causes, which we can see can act on them, as size
+of body from amount of food, effect of certain kinds of food on certain
+parts of bodies &amp;c. &amp;c.; such new varieties may then become
+adapted to those external [<del>natural</del>] agencies which act on them. But can
+varieties be produced adapted to end, which cannot possibly influence
+their structure and which it is absurd to look «<ins>at</ins>» as
+effects of chance. Can varieties like some vars of domesticated animals,
+like almost all wild species be produced adapted by exquisite means to
+prey on one animal or to escape from another,&mdash;or rather, as it
+puts out of question effects of intelligence and habits, can a plant
+become adapted to animals, as a plant which cannot be impregnated
+without agency of insect; or hooked seeds depending on animal&ldquo;s
+existence: woolly animals cannot have any direct effect on seeds of
+plant. This point which all theories about <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_6' id='Page_6'>{6}</a></span>
+climate adapting woodpecker<a name='FNanchor_50_50' id='FNanchor_50_50'></a><a href='#Footnote_50_50' class='fnanchor'>{50}</a>
+to crawl «<ins>?</ins>» up trees, «<ins>illegible</ins>» miseltoe,
+«<ins>sentence incomplete</ins>». But if every part of a plant or
+animal was to vary «<ins>illegible</ins>», and if a being infinitely
+more sagacious than man (not an omniscient creator) during thousands and
+thousands of years were to select all the variations which tended
+towards certain ends ([or were to produce causes «<ins>?</ins>» which
+tended to the same end]), for instance, if he foresaw a canine animal
+would be better off, owing to the country producing more hares, if he
+were longer legged and keener sight,&mdash;greyhound produced<a
+name='FNanchor_51_51' id='FNanchor_51_51'></a><a href='#Footnote_51_51' class='fnanchor'>{51}</a>.
+If he saw that aquatic «<ins>animal would need</ins>» skinned toes. If
+for some unknown cause he found it would advantage a plant, which
+«<ins>?</ins>» like most plants is occasionally visited by bees
+&amp;c.: if that plant&rsquo;s seed were occasionally eaten by birds and
+were then carried on to rotten trees, he might select trees with fruit
+more agreeable to such birds as perched, to ensure their being carried
+to trees; if he perceived those birds more often dropped the seeds, he
+might well have selected a bird who would «<ins>illegible</ins>» rotten
+trees or [gradually select plants which «<ins>he</ins>» had proved to
+live on less and less rotten trees]. Who, seeing how plants vary in
+garden, what blind foolish man has done<a name='FNanchor_52_52' id='FNanchor_52_52'></a><a href='#Footnote_52_52' class='fnanchor'>{52}</a>
+in a few years, will deny an all-seeing being in thousands of years
+could effect (if the Creator chose to do so), either by his own direct
+foresight or by intermediate means,&mdash;which will represent
+«<ins>?</ins>» the creator of this universe. Seems usual means. Be it
+remembered I have nothing to say about life and mind and <i>all</i> <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_7' id='Page_7'>{7}</a></span>
+forms descending from one common type<a name='FNanchor_53_53' id='FNanchor_53_53'></a><a href='#Footnote_53_53' class='fnanchor'>{53}</a>.
+I speak of the variation of the existing great divisions of the
+organised kingdom, how far I would go, hereafter to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Before considering whether «<ins>there</ins>» be any natural means of
+selection, and secondly (which forms the 2nd Part of this sketch) the
+far more important point whether the characters and relations of
+animated «<ins>things</ins>» are such as favour the idea of wild
+species being races «<ins>?</ins>» descended from a common stock, as
+the varieties of potato or dahlia or cattle having so descended, let us
+consider probable character of [<del>selected races</del>] wild varieties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Selection.</i> De Candolle&rsquo;s war of nature,&mdash;seeing
+contented face of nature,&mdash;may be well at first doubted; we see it
+on borders of perpetual cold<a name='FNanchor_54_54' id='FNanchor_54_54'></a><a href='#Footnote_54_54' class='fnanchor'>{54}</a>.
+But considering the enormous geometrical power of increase in every
+organism and as «<ins>?</ins>» every country, in ordinary cases
+«<ins>countries</ins>» must be stocked to full extent, reflection will
+show that this is the case. Malthus on man,&mdash;in animals no moral
+[<del>check</del>] restraint «<ins>?</ins>»&mdash;they breed in time of year when
+provision most abundant, or season most favourable, every country has
+its seasons,&mdash;calculate robins,&mdash;oscillating from years of
+destruction<a name='FNanchor_55_55' id='FNanchor_55_55'></a><a href='#Footnote_55_55' class='fnanchor'>{55}</a>.
+If proof were wanted let any singular change of climate
+«<ins>occur</ins>» here «<ins>?</ins>», how astoundingly some tribes
+«<ins>?</ins>» increase, also introduced animals<a name='FNanchor_56_56' id='FNanchor_56_56'></a><a href='#Footnote_56_56' class='fnanchor'>{56}</a>,
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_8' id='Page_8'>{8}</a></span>
+pressure is always ready,&mdash;capacity of alpine plants to endure
+other climates,&mdash;think of endless seeds scattered
+abroad,&mdash;forests regaining their percentage<a name='FNanchor_57_57' id='FNanchor_57_57'></a><a href='#Footnote_57_57' class='fnanchor'>{57}</a>,&mdash;a
+thousand wedges<a name='FNanchor_58_58' id='FNanchor_58_58'></a><a href='#Footnote_58_58' class='fnanchor'>{58}</a>
+are being forced into the &oelig;conomy of nature. This requires much
+reflection; study Malthus and calculate rates of increase and remember
+the resistance,&mdash;only periodical.</p>
+
+<p>The unavoidable effect of this «<ins>is</ins>» that many of every
+species are destroyed either in egg or [<del>young or mature (the former
+state the more common)</del>]. In the course of a thousand generations
+infinitesimally small differences must inevitably tell<a name='FNanchor_59_59' id='FNanchor_59_59'></a><a href='#Footnote_59_59' class='fnanchor'>{59}</a>;
+when unusually cold winter, or hot or dry summer comes, then out of the
+whole body of individuals of any species, if there be the smallest
+differences in their structure, habits, instincts [<del>senses</del>], health
+&amp;c., «<ins>it</ins>» will on an average tell; as conditions change
+a rather larger proportion will be preserved: so if the chief check to
+increase falls on seeds or eggs, so will, in the course of 1000
+generations or ten thousand, those seeds (like one with down to fly<a
+name='FNanchor_60_60' id='FNanchor_60_60'></a><a href='#Footnote_60_60' class='fnanchor'>{60}</a>)
+which fly furthest and get scattered most ultimately rear most plants,
+and such small differences tend to be hereditary like shades of
+expression in human countenance. So if one parent «<ins>?</ins>» fish
+deposits its egg in infinitesimally different circumstances, as in
+rather shallower or deeper water &amp;c., it will then «<ins>?</ins>»
+tell.</p>
+
+<p>Let hares<a name='FNanchor_61_61' id='FNanchor_61_61'></a><a href='#Footnote_61_61' class='fnanchor'>{61}</a>
+increase very slowly from change of climate affecting peculiar plants,
+and some other «<ins>illegible</ins>» rabbit decrease in same
+proportion [<del>let this unsettle organisation of</del>], a canine animal, who
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_9' id='Page_9'>{9}</a></span>
+formerly derived its chief sustenance by springing on rabbits or
+running them by scent, must decrease too and might thus readily become
+exterminated. But if its form varied very slightly, the long legged
+fleet ones, during a thousand years being selected, and the less fleet
+rigidly destroyed must, if no law of nature be opposed to it, alter
+forms.</p>
+
+<p>Remember how soon Bakewell on the same principle altered cattle and
+Western, sheep,&mdash;carefully avoiding a cross (pigeons) with any breed. We
+cannot suppose that one plant tends to vary in fruit and another in
+flower, and another in flower and foliage,&mdash;some have been selected for
+both fruit and flower: that one animal varies in its covering and
+another not,&mdash;another in its milk. Take any organism and ask what is it
+useful for and on that point it will be found to vary,&mdash;cabbages in
+their leaf,&mdash;corn in size «<ins>and</ins>» quality of grain, both in times of
+year,&mdash;kidney beans for young pod and cotton for envelope of seeds &amp;c.
+&amp;c.: dogs in intellect, courage, fleetness and smell «<ins>?</ins>»: pigeons in
+peculiarities approaching to monsters. This requires
+consideration,&mdash;should be introduced in first chapter if it holds, I
+believe it does. It is hypothetical at best<a name='FNanchor_62_62' id='FNanchor_62_62'></a><a href='#Footnote_62_62' class='fnanchor'>{62}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nature&rsquo;s variation far less, but such selection far more rigid and
+scrutinising. Man&rsquo;s races not [<del>even so well</del>] only not better
+adapted to conditions than other races, but often not «<ins>?</ins>»
+one race adapted to its conditions, as man keeps and propagates some
+alpine plants in garden. Nature lets «<ins>an</ins>» animal live, till
+on actual proof it is found less able to do the required work to serve
+the desired end, man judges solely by his eye, and knows not whether
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_10' id='Page_10'>{10}</a></span>
+nerves, muscles, arteries, are developed in proportion to the change of
+external form.</p>
+
+<p>Besides selection by death, in bisexual animals «<ins>illegible</ins>»
+the selection in time of fullest vigour, namely struggle of males; even
+in animals which pair there seems a surplus «<ins>?</ins>» and a
+battle, possibly as in man more males produced than females, struggle of
+war or charms<a name='FNanchor_63_63' id='FNanchor_63_63'></a><a href='#Footnote_63_63' class='fnanchor'>{63}</a>.
+Hence that male which at that time is in fullest vigour, or best armed
+with arms or ornaments of its species, will gain in hundreds of
+generations some small advantage and transmit such characters to its
+offspring. So in female rearing its young, the most vigorous and skilful
+and industrious, «<ins>whose</ins>» instincts «<ins>are</ins>»
+best developed, will rear more young, probably possessing her good
+qualities, and a greater number will thus «<ins>be</ins>» prepared for
+the struggle of nature. Compared to man using a male alone of good
+breed. This latter section only of limited application, applies to
+variation of [<del>specific</del>] sexual characters. Introduce here contrast with
+Lamarck,&mdash;absurdity of habit, or chance?? or external conditions,
+making a woodpecker adapted to tree<a name='FNanchor_64_64' id='FNanchor_64_64'></a><a href='#Footnote_64_64' class='fnanchor'>{64}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Before considering difficulties of theory of selection let us consider
+character of the races produced, as now explained, by nature. Conditions
+have varied slowly and the organisms best adapted in their whole course
+of life to the changed conditions have always been selected,&mdash;man
+selects small dog and afterwards gives it profusion of food,&mdash;selects a
+long-backed and short-legged breed and gives it no particular exercise
+to suit this function &amp;c. &amp;c. In ordinary cases nature has not allowed
+her race to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_11' id='Page_11'>{11}</a></span>
+be contaminated with a cross of another race, and agriculturists know
+how difficult they find always to prevent this,&mdash;effect would be
+trueness. This character and sterility when crossed, and generally a
+greater amount of difference, are two main features, which distinguish
+domestic races from species.</p>
+
+<p>[<del>Sterility not universal admitted by all<a name='FNanchor_65_65' id='FNanchor_65_65'></a><a href='#Footnote_65_65' class='fnanchor'>{65}</a>.
+<i>Gladiolus</i>, <i>Crinum</i>, <i>Calceolaria</i><a name='FNanchor_66_66' id='FNanchor_66_66'></a><a href='#Footnote_66_66' class='fnanchor'>{66}</a>
+must be species if there be such a thing. Races of dogs and oxen: but
+certainly very general; indeed a gradation of sterility most perfect<a name='FNanchor_67_67' id='FNanchor_67_67'></a><a href='#Footnote_67_67' class='fnanchor'>{67}</a>
+very general. Some nearest species will not cross (crocus, some heath
+«<ins>?</ins>»), some genera cross readily (fowls<a name='FNanchor_68_68' id='FNanchor_68_68'></a><a href='#Footnote_68_68' class='fnanchor'>{68}</a>
+and grouse, peacock &amp;c.). Hybrids no ways monstrous quite perfect
+except secretions<a name='FNanchor_69_69' id='FNanchor_69_69'></a><a href='#Footnote_69_69' class='fnanchor'>{69}</a>
+hence even the mule has bred,&mdash;character of sterility, especially a
+few years ago «<ins>?</ins>» thought very much more universal than it
+now is, has been thought the distinguishing character; indeed it is
+obvious if all forms freely crossed, nature would be a chaos. But the
+very gradation of the character, even if it always existed in some
+degree which it does not, renders it impossible as marks «<ins>?</ins>»
+those «<ins>?</ins>» suppose distinct as species<a name='FNanchor_70_70' id='FNanchor_70_70'></a><a href='#Footnote_70_70' class='fnanchor'>{70}</a></del>].
+Will analogy throw any light <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_12' id='Page_12'>{12}</a></span>
+on the fact of the supposed races of nature being sterile, though none
+of the domestic ones are? Mr Herbert «<ins>and</ins>» Koelreuter have
+shown external differences will not guide one in knowing whether hybrids
+will be fertile or not, but the chief circumstance is constitutional
+differences<a name='FNanchor_71_71' id='FNanchor_71_71'></a><a href='#Footnote_71_71' class='fnanchor'>{71}</a>,
+such as being adapted to different climate or soil, differences which
+[<del>must</del>] probably affect the whole body of the organism and not any one
+part. Now wild animals, taken out of their natural conditions, seldom
+breed. I do not refer to shows or to Zoological Societies where many
+animals unite, but «<ins>do not?</ins>» breed, and others will never
+unite, but to wild animals caught and kept <i>quite tame</i> left loose and
+well fed about houses and living many years. Hybrids produced almost as
+readily as pure breds. St Hilaire great distinction of tame and
+domestic,&mdash;elephants,&mdash;ferrets<a name='FNanchor_72_72' id='FNanchor_72_72'></a><a href='#Footnote_72_72' class='fnanchor'>{72}</a>.
+Reproductive organs not subject to disease in Zoological Garden.
+Dissection and microscope show that hybrid is in exactly same condition
+as another animal in the intervals of breeding season, or those animals
+which taken wild and <i>not bred</i> in domesticity, remain without breeding
+their whole lives. It should be observed that so far from domesticity
+being unfavourable in itself «<ins>it</ins>» makes more fertile: [<del>when
+animal is domesticated and breeds, productive power increased from more
+food and selection of fertile races</del>]. As far as animals go might be
+thought «<ins>an</ins>» effect on their mind and a special case.</p>
+
+<p>But turning to plants we find same class of facts. I do not refer to
+seeds not ripening, perhaps the commonest <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_13' id='Page_13'>{13}</a></span>
+cause, but to plants not setting, which either is owing to some
+imperfection of ovule or pollen. Lindley says sterility is the [<del>curse</del>]
+bane of all propagators,&mdash;Linn&aelig;us about alpine plants.
+American bog plants,&mdash;pollen in exactly same state as in
+hybrids,&mdash;same in geraniums. Persian and Chinese<a name='FNanchor_73_73' id='FNanchor_73_73'></a><a href='#Footnote_73_73' class='fnanchor'>{73}</a>
+lilac will not seed in Italy and England. Probably double plants and all
+fruits owe their developed parts primarily «<ins>?</ins>» to sterility
+and extra food thus «<ins>?</ins>» applied<a name='FNanchor_74_74' id='FNanchor_74_74'></a><a href='#Footnote_74_74' class='fnanchor'>{74}</a>.
+There is here gradation «<ins>in</ins>» sterility and then parts, like
+diseases, are transmitted hereditarily. We cannot assign any cause why
+the Pontic Azalea produces plenty of pollen and not American<a name='FNanchor_75_75' id='FNanchor_75_75'></a><a href='#Footnote_75_75' class='fnanchor'>{75}</a>,
+why common lilac seeds and not Persian, we see no difference in
+healthiness. We know not on what circumstances these facts depend, why
+ferret breeds, and cheetah<a name='FNanchor_76_76' id='FNanchor_76_76'></a><a href='#Footnote_76_76' class='fnanchor'>{76}</a>,
+elephant and pig in India will not.</p>
+
+<p>Now in crossing it is certain every peculiarity in form and constitution
+is transmitted: an alpine plant transmits its alpine tendency to its
+offspring, an American plant its American-bog constitution, and
+«<ins>with</ins>» animals, those peculiarities, on which<a name='FNanchor_77_77' id='FNanchor_77_77'></a><a href='#Footnote_77_77' class='fnanchor'>{77}</a>
+when placed out of their natural conditions they are incapable of
+breeding; and moreover they transmit every part of their constitution,
+their <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_14' id='Page_14'>{14}</a></span>
+respiration, their pulse, their instinct, which are all suddenly
+modified, can it be wondered at that they are incapable of breeding? I
+think it may be truly said it would be more wonderful if they did. But
+it may be asked why have not the recognised varieties, supposed to have
+been produced through the means of man, [<del>not refused to breed</del>] have all
+bred<a name='FNanchor_78_78' id='FNanchor_78_78'></a><a href='#Footnote_78_78' class='fnanchor'>{78}</a>.
+Variation depends on change of condition and selection<a
+name='FNanchor_79_79' id='FNanchor_79_79'></a><a href='#Footnote_79_79' class='fnanchor'>{79}</a>,
+as far as man&rsquo;s systematic or unsystematic selection
+«<ins>has</ins>» gone; he takes external form, has little power from
+ignorance over internal invisible constitutional differences. Races
+which have long been domesticated, and have much varied, are precisely
+those which were capable of bearing great changes, whose constitutions
+were adapted to a diversity of climates. Nature changes slowly and by
+degrees. According to many authors probably breeds of dogs are another
+case of modified species freely crossing. There is no variety which
+«<ins>illegible</ins>» has been «<ins>illegible</ins>» adapted to
+peculiar soil or situation for a thousand years and another rigorously
+adapted to another, till such can be produced, the question is not
+tried<a name='FNanchor_80_80' id='FNanchor_80_80'></a><a href='#Footnote_80_80' class='fnanchor'>{80}</a>.
+Man in past ages, could transport into different climates, animals and
+plants which would freely propagate in such new climates. Nature could
+effect, with selection, such changes slowly, so that precisely those
+animals which are adapted to submit to great changes have given rise to
+diverse races,&mdash;and indeed great doubt on this head<a name='FNanchor_81_81' id='FNanchor_81_81'></a><a href='#Footnote_81_81' class='fnanchor'>{81}</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_15' id='Page_15'>{15}</a></span>
+Before leaving this subject well to observe that it was shown that a
+certain amount of variation is consequent on mere act of reproduction,
+both by buds and sexually,&mdash;is vastly increased when parents
+exposed for some generations to new conditions<a name='FNanchor_82_82' id='FNanchor_82_82'></a><a href='#Footnote_82_82' class='fnanchor'>{82}</a>,
+and we now find that many animals when exposed for first time to very
+new conditions, are «<ins>as</ins>» incapable of breeding as hybrids.
+It [<del>probably</del>] bears also on supposed fact of crossed animals when not
+infertile, as in mongrels, tending to vary much, as likewise seems to be
+the case, when true hybrids possess just sufficient fertility to
+propagate with the parent breeds and <i>inter se</i> for some generations.
+This is Koelreuter&rsquo;s belief. These facts throw light on each other
+and support the truth of each other, we see throughout a connection
+between the reproductive faculties and exposure to changed conditions of
+life whether by crossing or exposure of the individuals<a name='FNanchor_83_83' id='FNanchor_83_83'></a><a href='#Footnote_83_83' class='fnanchor'>{83}</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Difficulties on theory of selection</i><a name='FNanchor_84_84' id='FNanchor_84_84'></a><a href='#Footnote_84_84' class='fnanchor'>{84}</a>.
+It may be objected such perfect organs as eye and ear, could never be
+formed, in latter less difficulty as gradations more perfect; at first
+appears monstrous and to «<ins>the</ins>» end appears difficulty. But
+think of gradation, even now manifest, (Tibia and Fibula). Everyone will
+allow if every fossil preserved, gradation <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_16' id='Page_16'>{16}</a></span>
+infinitely more perfect; for possibility of selection a perfect
+«<ins>?</ins>» gradation is required. Different groups of structure,
+slight gradation in each group,&mdash;every analogy renders it probable
+that intermediate forms have existed. Be it remembered what strange
+metamorphoses; part of eye, not directly connected with vision, might
+come to be [<del>thus used</del>] gradually worked in for this end,&mdash;swimming
+bladder by gradation of structure is admitted to belong to the ear
+system,&mdash;rattlesnake. [<del>Woodpecker best adapted to climb.</del>] In some
+cases gradation not possible,&mdash;as vertebr&aelig;,&mdash;actually
+vary in domestic animals,&mdash;less difficult if growth followed.
+Looking to whole animals, a bat formed not for flight<a name='FNanchor_85_85' id='FNanchor_85_85'></a><a href='#Footnote_85_85' class='fnanchor'>{85}</a>.
+Suppose we had flying fish<a name='FNanchor_86_86' id='FNanchor_86_86'></a><a href='#Footnote_86_86' class='fnanchor'>{86}</a>
+and not one of our now called flying fish preserved, who would have
+guessed intermediate habits. Woodpeckers and tree-frogs both live in
+countries where no trees<a name='FNanchor_87_87' id='FNanchor_87_87'></a><a href='#Footnote_87_87' class='fnanchor'>{87}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The gradations by which each individual organ has arrived at its present
+state, and each individual animal with its aggregate of organs has
+arrived, probably never could be known, and all present great
+difficulties. I merely wish to show that the proposition is not so
+monstrous as it at first appears, and that if good reason can be
+advanced for believing the species have descended from common parents,
+the difficulty of imagining intermediate forms of structure not
+sufficient to make one at once reject the theory.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_17' id='Page_17'>{17}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>&sect; <span class='sc'>III. «<ins>On Variation in instincts and other mental attributes.</ins>»</span></h3>
+
+<p>The mental powers of different animals in wild and tame state [<del>present
+still greater difficulties</del>] require a separate section. Be it remembered
+I have nothing to do with origin of memory, attention, and the different
+faculties of the mind<a name='FNanchor_88_88' id='FNanchor_88_88'></a><a href='#Footnote_88_88' class='fnanchor'>{88}</a>,
+but merely with their differences in each of the great divisions of
+nature. Disposition, courage, pertinacity «<ins>?</ins>», suspicion,
+restlessness, ill-temper, sagacity and «<ins>the</ins>» reverse
+unquestionably vary in animals and are inherited (Cuba wildness dogs,
+rabbits, fear against particular object as man Galapagos<a name='FNanchor_89_89' id='FNanchor_89_89'></a><a href='#Footnote_89_89' class='fnanchor'>{89}</a>).
+Habits purely corporeal, breeding season &amp;c., time of going to rest
+&amp;c., vary and are hereditary, like the analogous habits of plants
+which vary and are inherited. Habits of body, as manner of movement d<sup>o</sup>.
+and d<sup>o</sup>. Habits, as pointing and setting on certain occasions d<sup>o</sup>. Taste
+for hunting certain objects and manner of doing so,&mdash;sheep-dog.
+These are shown clearly by crossing and their analogy with true instinct
+thus shown,&mdash;retriever. Do not know objects for which they do it.
+Lord Brougham&rsquo;s definition<a name='FNanchor_90_90' id='FNanchor_90_90'></a><a href='#Footnote_90_90' class='fnanchor'>{90}</a>.
+Origin partly habit, but the amount necessarily unknown, partly
+selection. Young pointers pointing stones and sheep&mdash;tumbling
+pigeons&mdash;sheep<a name='FNanchor_91_91' id='FNanchor_91_91'></a><a href='#Footnote_91_91' class='fnanchor'>{91}</a>
+going back to place where born.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_18' id='Page_18'>{18}</a></span>
+Instinct aided by reason, as in the taylor-bird<a name='FNanchor_92_92' id='FNanchor_92_92'></a><a href='#Footnote_92_92' class='fnanchor'>{92}</a>.
+Taught by parents, cows choosing food, birds singing. Instincts vary in
+wild state (birds get wilder) often lost<a name='FNanchor_93_93' id='FNanchor_93_93'></a><a href='#Footnote_93_93' class='fnanchor'>{93}</a>;
+more perfect,&mdash;nest without roof. These facts [<del>only clear way</del>] show
+how incomprehensibly brain has power of transmitting intellectual
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>Faculties<a name='FNanchor_94_94' id='FNanchor_94_94'></a><a href='#Footnote_94_94' class='fnanchor'>{94}</a>
+distinct from true instincts,&mdash;finding [<del>way</del>]. It must I think be
+admitted that habits whether congenital or acquired by practice
+[<del>sometimes</del>] often become inherited<a name='FNanchor_95_95' id='FNanchor_95_95'></a><a href='#Footnote_95_95' class='fnanchor'>{95}</a>;
+instincts, influence, equally with structure, the preservation of
+animals; therefore selection must, with changing conditions tend to
+modify the inherited habits of animals. If this be admitted it will be
+found <i>possible</i> that many of the strangest instincts may be thus
+acquired. I may observe, without attempting definition, that an
+inherited habit or trick (trick because may be born) fulfils closely
+what we mean by instinct. A habit is often performed unconsciously, the
+strangest habits become associated, d<sup>o</sup>. tricks, going in certain spots
+&amp;c. &amp;c., even against will, is excited by external agencies, and
+looks not to the end,&mdash;a person playing a pianoforte. If such a
+habit were transmitted it would make a marvellous instinct. Let us
+consider some of the most difficult cases of instincts, whether they
+could be <i>possibly</i> acquired. I do not say <i>probably</i>, for that belongs
+to our 3rd Part<a name='FNanchor_96_96' id='FNanchor_96_96'></a><a href='#Footnote_96_96' class='fnanchor'>{96}</a>,
+I beg this may be remembered, nor do I mean to attempt to show exact
+method. I want only to show that <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_19' id='Page_19'>{19}</a></span>
+whole theory ought not at once to be rejected on this score.</p>
+
+<p>Every instinct must, by my theory, have been acquired gradually by
+slight changes «<ins>illegible</ins>» of former instinct, each change
+being useful to its then species. Shamming death struck me at first as
+remarkable objection. I found none really sham death<a name='FNanchor_97_97' id='FNanchor_97_97'></a><a href='#Footnote_97_97' class='fnanchor'>{97}</a>,
+and that there is gradation; now no one doubts that those insects which
+do it either more or less, do it for some good, if then any species was
+led to do it more, and then «<ins>?</ins>» escaped &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Take migratory instincts, faculty distinct from instinct, animals have
+notion of time,&mdash;like savages. Ordinary finding way by memory, but
+how does savage find way across country,&mdash;as incomprehensible to
+us, as animal to them,&mdash;geological changes,&mdash;fishes in
+river,&mdash;case of sheep in Spain<a name='FNanchor_98_98' id='FNanchor_98_98'></a><a href='#Footnote_98_98' class='fnanchor'>{98}</a>.
+Architectural instincts,&mdash;a manufacturer&rsquo;s employee in making
+single articles extraordinary skill,&mdash;often said seem to make it
+almost «<ins>illegible</ins>», child born with such a notion of
+playing<a name='FNanchor_99_99' id='FNanchor_99_99'></a><a href='#Footnote_99_99' class='fnanchor'>{99}</a>,&mdash;we
+can fancy tailoring acquired in same perfection,&mdash;mixture of
+reason,&mdash;water-ouzel,&mdash;taylor-bird,&mdash;gradation of simple
+nest to most complicated.</p>
+
+<p>Bees again, distinction of faculty,&mdash;how they make a
+hexagon,&mdash;Waterhouse&rsquo;s theory<a name='FNanchor_100_100' id='FNanchor_100_100'></a><a href='#Footnote_100_100' class='fnanchor'>{100}</a>,&mdash;the
+impulse to use whatever faculty they possess,&mdash;the taylor-bird has
+the faculty of sewing with beak, instinct impels him to do it.</p>
+
+<p>Last case of parent feeding young with different food (take case of
+Galapagos birds, gradation from<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_20' id='Page_20'>{20}</a></span>
+Hawfinch to Sylvia) selection and habit might lead old birds to vary
+taste «<ins>?</ins>» and form, leaving their instinct of feeding their
+young with same food<a name='FNanchor_101_101' id='FNanchor_101_101'></a><a href='#Footnote_101_101' class='fnanchor'>{101}</a>,&mdash;or
+I see no difficulty in parents being forced or induced to vary the food
+brought, and selection adapting the young ones to it, and thus by degree
+any amount of diversity might be arrived at. Although we can never hope
+to see the course revealed by which different instincts have been
+acquired, for we have only present animals (not well known) to judge of
+the course of gradation, yet once grant the principle of habits, whether
+congenital or acquired by experience, being inherited and I can see no
+limit to the [<del>amount of variation</del>] extraordinariness «<ins>?</ins>»
+of the habits thus acquired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summing up this Division.</i> If variation be admitted to occur
+occasionally in some wild animals, and how can we doubt it, when we see
+[<del>all</del>] thousands «<ins>of</ins>» organisms, for whatever use taken by
+man, do vary. If we admit such variations tend to be hereditary, and how
+can we doubt it when we «<ins>remember</ins>» resemblances of features
+and character,&mdash;disease and monstrosities inherited and endless
+races produced (1200 cabbages). If we admit selection is steadily at
+work, and who will doubt it, when he considers amount of food on an
+average fixed and reproductive powers act in geometrical ratio. If we
+admit that external conditions vary, as all geology proclaims, they have
+done and are now doing,&mdash;then, if no law of nature be opposed,
+there must occasionally be formed races, [<del>slightly</del>] differing from the
+parent races. So then any such law<a name='FNanchor_102_102' id='FNanchor_102_102'></a><a href='#Footnote_102_102' class='fnanchor'>{102}</a>,
+none is <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_21' id='Page_21'>{21}</a></span>
+known, but in all works it is assumed, in «<ins>?</ins>» flat
+contradiction to all known facts, that the amount of possible variation
+is soon acquired. Are not all the most varied species, the oldest
+domesticated: who «<ins>would</ins>» think that horses or corn could be
+produced? Take dahlia and potato, who will pretend in 5000 years<a name='FNanchor_103_103' id='FNanchor_103_103'></a><a href='#Footnote_103_103' class='fnanchor'>{103}</a>
+«<ins>that great changes might not be effected</ins>»: perfectly
+adapted to conditions and then again brought into varying conditions.
+Think what has been done in few last years, look at pigeons, and cattle.
+With the amount of food man can produce he may have arrived at limit of
+fatness or size, or thickness of wool «<ins>?</ins>», but these are the
+most trivial points, but even in these I conclude it is impossible to
+say we know the limit of variation. And therefore with the [<del>adapting</del>]
+selecting power of nature, infinitely wise compared to those of man,
+«<ins>I conclude</ins>» that it is impossible to say we know the limit
+of races, which would be true «<ins>to their</ins>» kind; if of
+different constitutions would probably be infertile one with another,
+and which might be adapted in the most singular and admirable manner,
+according to their wants, to external nature and to other surrounding
+organisms,&mdash;such races would be species. But is there any evidence
+«<ins>that</ins>» species «<ins>have</ins>» been thus produced, this
+is a question wholly independent of all previous points, and which on
+examination of the kingdom of nature «<ins>we</ins>» ought to answer
+one way or another.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_22' id='Page_22'>{22}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='PART_II104' id='PART_II104'></a>PART II<a name='FNanchor_104_104' id='FNanchor_104_104'></a><a href='#Footnote_104_104' class='fnanchor'>{104}</a>.</h2>
+
+<h3>&sect;&sect; <span class='sc'>IV. &amp; V. «<ins>On the evidence from Geology.</ins>»</span></h3>
+
+<p>I may premise, that according to the view ordinarily received, the
+myriads of organisms peopling this world have been created by so many
+distinct acts of creation. As we know nothing of the
+«<ins>illegible</ins>» will of a Creator,&mdash;we can see no reason
+why there should exist any relation between the organisms thus created;
+or again, they might be created according to any scheme. But it would be
+marvellous if this scheme should be the same as would result from the
+descent of groups of organisms from [<del>certain</del>] the same parents,
+according to the circumstances, just attempted to be developed.</p>
+
+<p>With equal probability did old cosmogonists say fossils were created, as
+we now see them, with a false resemblance to living beings<a
+name='FNanchor_105_105' id='FNanchor_105_105'></a><a href='#Footnote_105_105' class='fnanchor'>{105}</a>;
+what would the Astronomer say to the doctrine that the planets moved
+«<ins>not</ins>» according to the law of gravitation, but from the
+Creator having willed each separate planet to move in its particular
+orbit? I believe such a proposition (if we remove all prejudices) would
+be as legitimate as to admit that certain groups of living and extinct
+organisms, in their distribution, in their structure and in their
+relations one to another and to external conditions, agreed with the
+theory <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_23' id='Page_23'>{23}</a></span>
+and showed signs of common descent, and yet were created distinct. As
+long as it was thought impossible that organisms should vary, or should
+anyhow become adapted to other organisms in a complicated manner, and
+yet be separated from them by an impassable barrier of sterility<a
+name='FNanchor_106_106' id='FNanchor_106_106'></a><a href='#Footnote_106_106' class='fnanchor'>{106}</a>,
+it was justifiable, even with some appearance in favour of a common
+descent, to admit distinct creation according to the will of an
+Omniscient Creator; or, for it is the same thing, to say with Whewell
+that the beginnings of all things surpass the comprehension of man. In
+the former sections I have endeavoured to show that such variation or
+specification is not impossible, nay, in many points of view is
+absolutely probable. What then is the evidence in favour of it and what
+the evidence against it. With our imperfect knowledge of past ages
+[<del>surely there will be some</del>] it would be strange if the imperfection did
+not create some unfavourable evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Give sketch of the Past,&mdash;beginning with facts appearing hostile under
+present knowledge,&mdash;then proceed to geograph. distribution,&mdash;order of
+appearance,&mdash;affinities,&mdash;morphology &amp;c., &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Our theory requires a very gradual introduction of new forms<a name='FNanchor_107_107' id='FNanchor_107_107'></a><a href='#Footnote_107_107' class='fnanchor'>{107}</a>,
+and extermination of the old (to which we shall revert). The
+extermination of old may sometimes be rapid, but never the introduction.
+In the groups descended from common parent, our theory requires a
+perfect gradation not differing more than breed«<ins>s</ins>» of
+cattle, or potatoes, or cabbages in forms. I do not mean that a
+graduated series of animals must have existed, intermediate between
+horse, mouse, tapir<a name='FNanchor_108_108' id='FNanchor_108_108'></a><a href='#Footnote_108_108' class='fnanchor'>{108}</a>,
+elephant [<del>or fowl and peacock</del>], <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_24' id='Page_24'>{24}</a></span>
+but that these must have had a common parent, and between horse and
+this «<ins>?</ins>» parent &amp;c., &amp;c., but the common parent may
+possibly have differed more from either than the two do now from each
+other. Now what evidence of this is there? So perfect gradation in some
+departments, that some naturalists have thought that in some large
+divisions, if all existing forms were collected, a near approach to
+perfect gradation would be made. But such a notion is preposterous with
+respect to all, but evidently so with mammals. Other naturalists have
+thought this would be so if all the specimens entombed in the strata
+were collected<a name='FNanchor_109_109' id='FNanchor_109_109'></a><a href='#Footnote_109_109' class='fnanchor'>{109}</a>.
+I conceive there is no probability whatever of this; nevertheless it is
+certain all the numerous fossil forms fall in«<ins>to</ins>», as
+Buckland remarks, <i>not</i> present classes, families and genera, they fall
+between them: so is it with new discoveries of existing forms. Most
+ancient fossils, that is most separated «<ins>by</ins>» space of time,
+are most apt to fall between the classes&mdash;(but organisms from those
+countries most separated by space also fall between the classes
+«<ins><i>e.g.</i></ins>» Ornithorhyncus?). As far as geological discoveries
+«<ins>go</ins>» they tend towards such gradation<a name='FNanchor_110_110' id='FNanchor_110_110'></a><a href='#Footnote_110_110' class='fnanchor'>{110}</a>.
+Illustrate it with net. Toxodon,&mdash;tibia and fibula,&mdash;dog and
+otter,&mdash;but so utterly improbable is «<ins>it</ins>», in <i>ex. gr.</i>
+Pachydermata, to compose series as perfect as cattle, that if, as many
+geologists seem to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_25' id='Page_25'>{25}</a></span>
+infer, each separate formation presents even an approach to a
+consecutive history, my theory must be given up. Even if it were
+consecutive, it would only collect series of one district in our present
+state of knowledge; but what probability is there that any one formation
+during the <i>immense</i> period which has elapsed during each period will
+<i>generally</i> present a consecutive history. [<del>Compare number living at one
+period to fossils preserved&mdash;look at enormous periods of time.</del>]</p>
+
+<p>Referring only to marine animals, which are obviously most likely to be
+preserved, they must live where «<ins>?</ins>» sediment (of a kind
+favourable for preservation, not sand and pebble)<a name='FNanchor_111_111' id='FNanchor_111_111'></a><a href='#Footnote_111_111' class='fnanchor'>{111}</a>
+is depositing quickly and over large area and must be thickly capped,
+«<ins>illegible</ins>» littoral deposits: for otherwise denudation
+«<ins>will destroy them</ins>»,&mdash;they must live in a shallow space
+which sediment will tend to fill up,&mdash;as movement is
+«<ins>in?</ins>» progress if soon brought «<ins>?</ins>» up
+«<ins>?</ins>» subject to denudation,&mdash;[<del>if</del>] as during subsidence
+favourable, accords with facts of European deposits<a name='FNanchor_112_112' id='FNanchor_112_112'></a><a href='#Footnote_112_112' class='fnanchor'>{112}</a>,
+but subsidence apt to destroy agents which produce sediment<a name='FNanchor_113_113' id='FNanchor_113_113'></a><a href='#Footnote_113_113' class='fnanchor'>{113}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>I believe safely inferred «<ins>that</ins>» groups of marine
+«<ins>?</ins>» fossils only preserved for future ages where sediment
+goes on long «<ins>and</ins>» continuous«<ins>ly</ins>»
+and with rapid but not too rapid deposition in «<ins>an</ins>» area of
+subsidence. In how few places in any one region like Europe will
+«<ins>?</ins>» these contingencies be going on? Hence «<ins>?</ins>»
+in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_26' id='Page_26'>{26}</a></span>
+past ages mere [<del>gaps</del>] pages preserved<a name='FNanchor_114_114' id='FNanchor_114_114'></a><a href='#Footnote_114_114' class='fnanchor'>{114}</a>.
+Lyell's doctrine carried to extreme,&mdash;we shall understand
+difficulty if it be asked:&mdash;what chance of series of gradation
+between cattle by «<ins>illegible</ins>» at age «<ins>illegible</ins>»
+as far back as Miocene<a name='FNanchor_115_115' id='FNanchor_115_115'></a><a href='#Footnote_115_115' class='fnanchor'>{115}</a>?
+We know then cattle existed. Compare number of living,&mdash;immense
+duration of each period,&mdash;fewness of fossils.</p>
+
+<p>This only refers to consecutiveness of history of organisms of each
+formation.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing argument will show firstly, that formations are distinct
+merely from want of fossils «<ins>of intermediate beds</ins>», and
+secondly, that each formation is full of gaps, has been advanced to
+account for <i>fewness</i> of <i>preserved</i> organisms compared to what have
+lived on the world. The very same argument explains why in older
+formations the organisms appear to come on and disappear
+suddenly,&mdash;but in [<del>later</del>] tertiary not quite suddenly<a name='FNanchor_116_116' id='FNanchor_116_116'></a><a href='#Footnote_116_116' class='fnanchor'>{116}</a>,
+in later tertiary gradually,&mdash;becoming rare and
+disappearing,&mdash;some have disappeared within man&rsquo;s time. It is
+obvious that our theory requires gradual and nearly uniform
+introduction, possibly more sudden extermination,&mdash;subsidence of
+continent of Australia &amp;c., &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Our theory requires that the first form which existed of each of the
+great divisions would present points intermediate between existing ones,
+but immensely different. Most geologists believe Silurian<a name='FNanchor_117_117' id='FNanchor_117_117'></a><a href='#Footnote_117_117' class='fnanchor'>{117}</a> fossils
+are those which first existed in the whole world, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_27' id='Page_27'>{27}</a></span>not those which have
+chanced to be the oldest not destroyed,&mdash;or the first which existed in
+profoundly deep seas in progress of conversion from sea to land: if they
+are first they «<ins>? we</ins>» give up. Not so Hutton or Lyell: if first reptile<a name='FNanchor_118_118' id='FNanchor_118_118'></a><a href='#Footnote_118_118' class='fnanchor'>{118}</a>
+of Red Sandstone «<ins>?</ins>» really was first which existed: if Pachyderm<a name='FNanchor_119_119' id='FNanchor_119_119'></a><a href='#Footnote_119_119' class='fnanchor'>{119}</a> of
+Paris was first which existed: fish of Devonian: dragon fly of Lias: for
+we cannot suppose them the progenitors: they agree too closely with
+existing divisions. But geologists consider Europe as «<ins>?</ins>» a passage from
+sea to island «<ins>?</ins>» to continent (except Wealden, see Lyell). These animals
+therefore, I consider then mere introduction «<ins>?</ins>» from continents long since
+submerged.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, if views of some geologists be correct, my theory must be given
+up. [<del>Lyell&rsquo;s views, as far as they go, are in <i>favour</i>, but they
+go so little in favour, and so much more is required, that it may
+«<ins>be</ins>» viewed as objection.</del>] If geology present us with mere
+pages in chapters, towards end of «<ins>a</ins>» history, formed by
+tearing out bundles of leaves, and each page illustrating merely a small
+portion of the organisms of that time, the facts accord perfectly with
+my theory<a name='FNanchor_120_120' id='FNanchor_120_120'></a><a href='#Footnote_120_120' class='fnanchor'>{120}</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_28' id='Page_28'>{28}</a></span>
+<i>Extermination.</i> We have seen that in later periods the organisms have
+disappeared by degrees and [<del>perhaps</del>] probably by degrees in earlier, and
+I have said our theory requires it. As many naturalists seem to think
+extermination a most mysterious circumstance<a name='FNanchor_121_121' id='FNanchor_121_121'></a><a href='#Footnote_121_121' class='fnanchor'>{121}</a>
+and call in astonishing agencies, it is well to recall what we have
+shown concerning the struggle of nature. An exterminating agency is at
+work with every organism: we scarcely see it: if robins would increase
+to thousands in ten years how severe must the process be. How
+imperceptible a small increase: fossils become rare: possibly sudden
+extermination as Australia, but as present means very slow and many
+means of escape, I shall doubt very sudden exterminations. Who can
+explain why some species abound more,&mdash;why does marsh titmouse, or
+ring-ouzel, now little change,&mdash;why is one sea-slug rare and
+another common on our coasts,&mdash;why one species of Rhinoceros more
+than another,&mdash;why is «<ins>illegible</ins>» tiger of India so
+rare? Curious and general sources of error, the place of an organism is
+instantly filled up.</p>
+
+<p>We know state of earth has changed, and as earthquakes and tides go on,
+the state must change,&mdash;many geologists believe a slow gradual
+cooling. Now let us see in accordance with principles of [<del>variation</del>]
+specification explained in Sect. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> how species would probably be
+introduced and how such results accord with what is known.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_29' id='Page_29'>{29}</a></span>
+The first fact geology proclaims is immense number of extinct forms, and
+new appearances. Tertiary strata leads to belief, that forms gradually
+become rare and disappear and are gradually supplied by others. We see
+some forms now becoming rare and disappearing, we know of no sudden
+creation: in older periods the forms <i>appear</i> to come in suddenly, scene
+shifts: but even here Devonian, Permian &amp;c. [<del>keep on supplying new
+links in chain</del>]&mdash;Genera and higher forms come on and disappear, in
+same way leaving a species on one or more stages below that in which the
+form abounded.</p>
+
+<h3 class='sc'>«<ins>Geographical Distribution.</ins>»</h3>
+
+<h3>&sect; <span class='sc lc'>VI.</span> Let us consider the absolute state of distribution of organisms of
+earth's face.</h3>
+
+<p>Referring chiefly, but not exclusively (from difficulty of transport,
+fewness, and the distinct characteristics of groups) to Mammalia; and
+first considering the three or four main [<del>regions</del>] divisions; North
+America, Europe, Asia, including greater part of E. Indian Archipelago
+and Africa are intimately allied. Africa most distinct, especially most
+southern parts. And the Arctic regions, which unite N. America, Asia and
+Europe, only separated (if we travel one way by Behring&rsquo;s St.) by
+a narrow strait, is most intimately allied, indeed forms but one
+restricted group. Next comes S. America,&mdash;then Australia,
+Madagascar (and some small islands which stand very remote from the
+land). Looking at these main divisions separately, the organisms vary
+according to changes in condition<a name='FNanchor_122_122' id='FNanchor_122_122'></a><a href='#Footnote_122_122' class='fnanchor'>{122}</a>
+of different parts. But besides this, barriers of every kind seem to
+separate <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_30' id='Page_30'>{30}</a></span>
+regions in a greater degree than proportionally to the difference of
+climates on each side. Thus great chains of mountains, spaces of sea
+between islands and continents, even great rivers and deserts. In fact
+the amount «<ins>of</ins>» difference in the organisms bears a certain,
+but not invariable relation to the amount of physical difficulties to
+transit<a name='FNanchor_123_123' id='FNanchor_123_123'></a><a href='#Footnote_123_123' class='fnanchor'>{123}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>There are some curious exceptions, namely, similarity of fauna of
+mountains of Europe and N. America and Lapland. Other cases just
+«<ins>the</ins>» reverse, mountains of eastern S. America, Altai
+«<ins>?</ins>», S. India «<ins>?</ins>»<a name='FNanchor_124_124' id='FNanchor_124_124'></a><a href='#Footnote_124_124' class='fnanchor'>{124}</a>:
+mountain summits of islands often eminently peculiar. Fauna generally of
+some islands, even when close, very dissimilar, in others very similar.
+[<del>I am here led to observe one or more centres of creation<a name='FNanchor_125_125' id='FNanchor_125_125'></a><a href='#Footnote_125_125' class='fnanchor'>{125}</a>.</del>]</p>
+
+<p>The simple geologist can explain many of the foregoing cases of
+distribution. Subsidence of a continent in which free means of
+dispersal, would drive the lowland plants up to the mountains, now
+converted into islands, and the semi-alpine plants would take place of
+alpine, and alpine be destroyed, if mountains originally were not of
+great height. So we may see, during gradual changes<a name='FNanchor_126_126' id='FNanchor_126_126'></a><a href='#Footnote_126_126' class='fnanchor'>{126}</a>
+of climate on a continent, the propagation of species would vary and
+adapt themselves to small changes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_31' id='Page_31'>{31}</a></span>
+causing much extermination<a name='FNanchor_127_127' id='FNanchor_127_127'></a><a href='#Footnote_127_127' class='fnanchor'>{127}</a>.
+The mountains of Europe were quite lately covered with ice, and the
+lowlands probably partaking of the Arctic climate and Fauna. Then as
+climate changed, arctic fauna would take place of ice, and an inundation
+of plants from different temperate countries «<ins>would</ins>» seize
+the lowlands, leaving islands of arctic forms. But if this had happened
+on an island, whence could the new forms have come,&mdash;here the
+geologist calls in creationists. If island formed, the geologist will
+suggest «<ins>that</ins>» many of the forms might have been borne from
+nearest land, but if peculiar, he calls in creationist,&mdash;as such
+island rises in height &amp;c., he still more calls in creation. The
+creationist tells one, on a «<ins>illegible</ins>» spot the American
+spirit of creation makes <i>Orpheus</i> and <i>Tyrannus</i> and American doves,
+and in accordance with past and extinct forms, but no persistent
+relation between areas and distribution, Geologico-Geograph.-Distribution.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_32' id='Page_32'>{32}</a></span>
+Now according to analogy of domesticated animals let us see what would
+result. Let us take case of farmer on Pampas, where everything
+approaches nearer to state of nature. He works on organisms having
+strong tendency to vary: and he knows «<ins>that the</ins>» only way to make a distinct breed
+is to select and separate. It would be useless to separate the best
+bulls and pair with best cows if their offspring run loose and bred with
+the other herds, and tendency to reversion not counteracted; he would
+endeavour therefore to get his cows on islands and then commence his
+work of selection. If several farmers in different <i>rincons</i><a
+name='FNanchor_128_128' id='FNanchor_128_128'></a><a
+href='#Footnote_128_128' class='fnanchor'>{128}</a> were to set to work,
+especially if with different objects, several breeds would soon be
+produced. So would it be with horticulturist and so history of every
+plant shows; the number of varieties<a name='FNanchor_129_129' id='FNanchor_129_129'></a><a href='#Footnote_129_129' class='fnanchor'>{129}</a>
+increase in proportion to care bestowed on their selection and, with
+crossing plants, separation. Now, according to this analogy, change of
+external conditions, and isolation either by chance landing
+«<ins>of</ins>» a form on an island, or subsidence dividing a
+continent, or great chain of mountains, and the number of individuals
+not being numerous will best favour variation and selection<a name='FNanchor_130_130' id='FNanchor_130_130'></a><a href='#Footnote_130_130' class='fnanchor'>{130}</a>.
+No doubt change could be effected in same country without any barrier by
+long continued selection on one species: even in case of a plant not
+capable of crossing would easier get possession and solely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_33' id='Page_33'>{33}</a></span>
+occupy an island<a name='FNanchor_131_131' id='FNanchor_131_131'></a><a href='#Footnote_131_131' class='fnanchor'>{131}</a>.
+Now we can at once see that «<ins>if</ins>» two parts of a continent
+isolated, new species thus generated in them, would have closest
+affinities, like cattle in counties of England: if barrier afterwards
+destroyed one species might destroy the other or both keep their ground.
+So if island formed near continent, let it be ever so different, that
+continent would supply inhabitants, and new species (like the old) would
+be allied with that continent. An island generally very different soil
+and climate, and number and order of inhabitants supplied by chance, no
+point so favourable for generation of new species<a name='FNanchor_132_132' id='FNanchor_132_132'></a><a href='#Footnote_132_132' class='fnanchor'>{132}</a>,&mdash;especially
+the mountains, hence, so it is. As isolated mountains formed in a plain
+country (if such happens) is an island. As other islands formed, the old
+species would spread and thus extend and the fauna of distant island
+might ultimately meet and a continent formed between them. No one doubts
+continents formed by repeated elevations and depressions<a name='FNanchor_133_133' id='FNanchor_133_133'></a><a href='#Footnote_133_133' class='fnanchor'>{133}</a>.
+In looking backwards, but not so far that all geographical boundaries
+are destroyed, we can thus at once see why existing forms are related to
+the extinct in the same manner as existing ones are in some part of
+existing continent. By chance we might even have one or two absolute
+parent fossils.</p>
+
+<p>The detection of transitional forms would be rendered more difficult on
+rising point of land.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution therefore in the above enumerated
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_34' id='Page_34'>{34}</a></span>
+points, even the trivial ones, which on any other «<ins>theory?</ins>»
+can be viewed as so many ultimate facts, all follow «<ins>in</ins>»
+a simple manner on the theory of the occurrence of species by «<ins>illegible</ins>»
+and being adapted by selection to «<ins>illegible</ins>»,
+conjoined with their power of dispersal, and the steady geographico-geological
+changes which are now in progress and which undoubtedly have taken place.
+Ought to state the opinion of the immutability of species and the creation
+by so many separate acts of will of the Creator<a name='FNanchor_134_134' id='FNanchor_134_134'></a><a href='#Footnote_134_134' class='fnanchor'>{134}</a>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_35' id='Page_35'>{35}</a></p>
+
+<h3 class='sc'>&sect; VII. «<ins>Affinities and Classification.</ins>»</h3>
+
+<p>Looking now to the affinities of organisms, without relation to their
+distribution, and taking all fossil and recent, we see the degrees of
+relationship are of different degrees and
+arbitrary,&mdash;sub-genera,&mdash;genera,&mdash;sub-families, families,
+orders and classes and kingdoms. The kind of classification which
+everyone feels is most correct is called the natural system, but no can
+define this. If we say with Whewell «<ins>that we have an</ins>»
+undefined instinct of the importance of organs<a name='FNanchor_135_135' id='FNanchor_135_135'></a><a href='#Footnote_135_135' class='fnanchor'>{135}</a>,
+we have no means in lower <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_36' id='Page_36'>{36}</a></span>
+animals of saying which is most important, and yet everyone feels that
+some one system alone deserves to be called natural. The true
+relationship of organisms is brought before one by considering relations
+of analogy, an otter-like animal amongst mammalia and an otter amongst
+marsupials. In such cases external resemblance and habit of life and
+<i>the final end of whole organization</i> very strong, yet no relation<a name='FNanchor_136_136' id='FNanchor_136_136'></a><a href='#Footnote_136_136' class='fnanchor'>{136}</a>.
+Naturalists cannot avoid these terms of relation and affinity though
+they use them metaphorically. If used in simple earnestness the natural
+system ought to be a genealogical «<ins>one</ins>»; and our knowledge
+of the points which are most easily affected in transmission are those
+which we least value in considering the natural system, and practically
+when we find they do vary we regard them of less value<a name='FNanchor_137_137' id='FNanchor_137_137'></a><a href='#Footnote_137_137' class='fnanchor'>{137}</a>.
+In classifying varieties the same language is used and the same kind of
+division: here also (in pine-apple)<a name='FNanchor_138_138' id='FNanchor_138_138'></a><a href='#Footnote_138_138' class='fnanchor'>{138}</a>
+we talk of the natural classification, overlooking similarity of the
+fruits, because whole plant differs. The origin of sub-genera, genera,
+&amp;c., &amp;c., is not difficult on notion of genealogical succession,
+and accords with what we know of similar gradations of affinity in
+domesticated organisms. In the same region the organic beings are
+«<ins>illegible</ins>» related to each other and the external
+conditions in many physical respects are allied<a name='FNanchor_139_139' id='FNanchor_139_139'></a><a href='#Footnote_139_139' class='fnanchor'>{139}</a>
+and their differences of same kind, and therefore when a new species has
+been selected and has obtained a place in the economy of nature, we
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_37' id='Page_37'>{37}</a></span>
+may suppose that generally it will tend to extend its range during
+geographical changes, and thus, becoming isolated and exposed to new
+conditions, will slightly alter and its structure by selection become
+slightly remodified, thus we should get species of a sub-genus and
+genus,&mdash;as varieties of merino-sheep,&mdash;varieties of British
+and Indian cattle. Fresh species might go on forming and others become
+extinct and all might become extinct, and then we should have
+«<ins>an</ins>» extinct genus; a case formerly mentioned, of which
+numerous cases occur in Pal&aelig;ontology. But more often the same
+advantages which caused the new species to spread and become modified
+into several species would favour some of the species being preserved:
+and if two of the species, considerably different, each gave rise to
+group of new species, you would have two genera; the same thing will go
+on. We may look at case in other way, looking to future. According to
+mere chance every existing species may generate another, but if any
+species, A, in changing gets an advantage and that advantage (whatever
+it may be, intellect, &amp;c., &amp;c., or some particular structure or
+constitution) is inherited<a name='FNanchor_140_140' id='FNanchor_140_140'></a><a href='#Footnote_140_140' class='fnanchor'>{140}</a>,
+A will be the progenitor of several genera or even families in the hard
+struggle of nature. A will go on beating out other forms, it might come
+that A would people earth,&mdash;we may now not have one descendant on
+our globe of the one or several original creations<a name='FNanchor_141_141' id='FNanchor_141_141'></a><a href='#Footnote_141_141' class='fnanchor'>{141}</a>.
+External conditions air, earth, water being same<a name='FNanchor_142_142' id='FNanchor_142_142'></a><a href='#Footnote_142_142' class='fnanchor'>{142}</a>
+on globe, and the communication not being perfect, organisms of widely
+different descent might become adapted to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_38' id='Page_38'>{38}</a></span>
+the same end and then we should have cases of analogy<a name='FNanchor_143_143' id='FNanchor_143_143'></a><a href='#Footnote_143_143' class='fnanchor'>{143}</a>,
+[<del>they might even tend to become numerically representative</del>]. From this
+often happening each of the great divisions of nature would have their
+representative eminently adapted to earth, to «<ins>air</ins>»<a name='FNanchor_144_144' id='FNanchor_144_144'></a><a href='#Footnote_144_144' class='fnanchor'>{144}</a>,
+to water, and to these in «<ins>illegible</ins>» and then these great
+divisions would show numerical relations in their classification.</p>
+
+<h3 class='sc'>&sect; VIII. Unity [<del>or similarity</del>] of type in the great classes.</h3>
+
+<p>Nothing more wonderful in Nat. Hist. than looking at the vast number of
+organisms, recent and fossil, exposed to the most diverse conditions,
+living in the most distant climes, and at immensely remote periods,
+fitted to wholely different ends, yet to find large groups united by a
+similar type of structure. When we for instance see bat, horse,
+porpoise-fin, hand, all built on same structure<a name='FNanchor_145_145' id='FNanchor_145_145'></a><a href='#Footnote_145_145' class='fnanchor'>{145}</a>,
+having bones<a name='FNanchor_146_146' id='FNanchor_146_146'></a><a href='#Footnote_146_146' class='fnanchor'>{146}</a>
+with same name, we see there is some deep bond of union between them<a name='FNanchor_147_147' id='FNanchor_147_147'></a><a href='#Footnote_147_147' class='fnanchor'>{147}</a>,
+to illustrate this is the foundation and objects «<ins>?</ins>»
+«<ins>of</ins>» what is called the Natural System; and which is
+foundation of distinction «<ins>?</ins>» of true and adaptive
+characters<a name='FNanchor_148_148' id='FNanchor_148_148'></a><a href='#Footnote_148_148' class='fnanchor'>{148}</a>.
+Now this wonderful fact of hand, hoof, wing, paddle and claw being the
+same, is at once explicable on the principle of some parent-forms, which
+might either be «<ins>illegible</ins>» or walking animals, becoming
+through infinite number of small <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_39' id='Page_39'>{39}</a></span>
+selections adapted to various conditions. We know that proportion,
+size, shape of bones and their accompanying soft parts vary, and hence
+constant selection would alter, to almost any purpose «<ins>?</ins>»
+the framework of an organism, but yet would leave a general, even
+closest similarity in it.</p>
+
+<p>[<del>We know the number of similar parts, as vertebr&aelig; and ribs can
+vary, hence this also we might expect.</del>] Also «<ins>if</ins>» the
+changes carried on to a certain point, doubtless type will be lost, and
+this is case with Plesiosaurus<a name='FNanchor_149_149' id='FNanchor_149_149'></a><a href='#Footnote_149_149' class='fnanchor'>{149}</a>.
+The unity of type in past and present ages of certain great divisions
+thus undoubtedly receives the simplest explanation.</p>
+
+<p>There is another class of allied and almost identical facts, admitted by
+the soberest physiologists, [<del>from the study of a certain set of organs
+in a group of organisms</del>] and refers «<ins>? referring</ins>»
+to a unity of type of different organs in the same individual,
+denominated the science of &ldquo;Morphology.&rdquo; The «<ins>?
+this</ins>» discovered by beautiful and regular series, and in the case
+of plants from monstrous changes, that certain organs in an individual
+are other organs metamorphosed. Thus every botanist considers petals,
+nectaries, stamens, pistils, germen as metamorphosed leaf. They thus
+explain, in the most lucid manner, the position and number of all parts
+of the flower, and the curious conversion under cultivation of one part
+into another. The complicated double set of jaws and palpi of
+crustaceans<a name='FNanchor_150_150' id='FNanchor_150_150'></a><a href='#Footnote_150_150' class='fnanchor'>{150}</a>,
+and all insects are considered as metamorphosed «<ins>limbs</ins>» and
+to see the series is to admit this phraseology. The skulls of the
+vertebrates are undoubtedly composed of three metamorphosed
+vertebr&aelig;; thus we can understand the strange form of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_40' id='Page_40'>{40}</a></span>
+the separate bones which compose the casket holding man&rsquo;s brain.
+These<a name='FNanchor_151_151' id='FNanchor_151_151'></a><a href='#Footnote_151_151' class='fnanchor'>{151}</a>
+facts differ but slightly from those of last section, if with wing,
+paddle, hand and hoof, some common structure was yet visible, or could
+be made out by a series of occasional monstrous conversions, and if
+traces could be discovered of «<ins>the</ins>» whole having once
+existed as walking or swimming instruments, these organs would be said
+to be metamorphosed, as it is they are only said to exhibit a common
+type.</p>
+
+<p>This distinction is not drawn by physiologists, and is only implied by
+some by their general manner of writing. These facts, though affecting
+every organic being on the face of the globe, which has existed, or does
+exist, can only be viewed by the Creationist as ultimate and
+inexplicable facts. But this unity of type through the individuals of a
+group, and this metamorphosis of the same organ into other organs,
+adapted to diverse use, necessarily follows on the theory of descent<a name='FNanchor_152_152' id='FNanchor_152_152'></a><a href='#Footnote_152_152' class='fnanchor'>{152}</a>.
+For let us take case of Vertebrata, which if<a name='FNanchor_153_153' id='FNanchor_153_153'></a><a href='#Footnote_153_153' class='fnanchor'>{153}</a>
+they descended from one parent and by this theory all the Vertebrata
+have been altered by slow degrees, such as we see in domestic animals.
+We know that proportions alter, and even that occasionally numbers of
+vertebr&aelig; alter, that parts become soldered, that parts are lost,
+as tail and toes, but we know «<ins>that?</ins>» here we can see that
+possibly a walking organ might «<ins>?</ins>» be converted into
+swimming or into a gliding organ and so on to a flying organ. But such
+gradual changes would not alter the unity of type in their descendants,
+as parts lost and soldered and vertebr&aelig;.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_41' id='Page_41'>{41}</a></span>
+But we can see that if this carried to extreme, unity
+lost,&mdash;Plesiosaurus. Here we have seen the same organ is formed
+«<ins>?</ins>» «<ins>for</ins>» different purposes «<ins>ten words
+illegible</ins>»: and if, in several orders of vertebrata, we could
+trace origin «<ins>of</ins>» spinous processes and monstrosities
+&amp;c. we should say, instead of there existing a unity of type,
+morphology<a name='FNanchor_154_154' id='FNanchor_154_154'></a><a href='#Footnote_154_154' class='fnanchor'>{154}</a>,
+as we do when we trace the head as being the vertebr&aelig;
+metamorphosed. Be it observed that Naturalists, as they use terms of
+affinity without attaching real meaning, here also they are obliged to
+use metamorphosis, without meaning that any parent of crustacean was
+really an animal with as many legs as crustacean has jaws. The theory of
+descent at once explains these wonderful facts.</p>
+
+<p>Now few of the physiologists who use this language really suppose that
+the parent of insect with the metamorphosed jaw, was an insect with
+[<del>more</del>] so many legs, or that the parent of flowering plants, originally
+had no stamens, or pistils or petals, but some other means of
+propagation,&mdash;and so in other cases. Now according to our theory
+during the infinite number of changes, we might expect that an organ
+used for a purpose might be used for a different one by his descendant,
+as must have been the case by our theory with the bat, porpoise, horse,
+&amp;c., which are descended from one parent. And if it so chanced that
+traces of the former use and structure of the part should be retained,
+which is manifestly possible if not probable, then we should have the
+organs, on which morphology is founded and which instead of being
+metaphorical becomes plain and «<ins>and instead of being</ins>»
+utterly unintelligible becomes simple matter of fact<a name='FNanchor_155_155' id='FNanchor_155_155'></a><a href='#Footnote_155_155' class='fnanchor'>{155}</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_42' id='Page_42'>{42}</a></span>
+«<ins><i>Embryology.</i></ins>» This general unity of type in great groups
+of organisms (including of course these morphological cases) displays
+itself in a most striking manner in the stages through which the
+f&oelig;tus passes<a name='FNanchor_156_156' id='FNanchor_156_156'></a><a href='#Footnote_156_156' class='fnanchor'>{156}</a>.
+In early stage, the wing of bat, hoof, hand, paddle are not to be
+distinguished. At a still earlier «<ins>stage</ins>» there is no
+difference between fish, bird, &amp;c. &amp;c. and mammal. It is not
+that they cannot be distinguished, but the arteries<a
+name='FNanchor_157_157' id='FNanchor_157_157'></a><a href='#Footnote_157_157' class='fnanchor'>{157}</a>
+«<ins>illegible</ins>». It is not true that one passes through the form
+of a lower group, though no doubt fish more nearly related to
+f&oelig;tal state<a name='FNanchor_158_158' id='FNanchor_158_158'></a><a href='#Footnote_158_158' class='fnanchor'>{158}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>This similarity at the earliest stage is remarkably shown in the course
+of the arteries which become greatly altered, as f&oelig;tus advances in
+life and assumes the widely different course and number which
+characterize full-grown fish and mammals. How wonderful that in egg, in
+water or air, or in womb of mother, artery<a name='FNanchor_159_159' id='FNanchor_159_159'></a><a href='#Footnote_159_159' class='fnanchor'>{159}</a>
+should run in same course.</p>
+
+<p>Light can be thrown on this by our theory. The structure of each
+organism is chiefly adapted to the sustension of its life, when
+full-grown, when it has to feed itself and propagate<a name='FNanchor_160_160' id='FNanchor_160_160'></a><a href='#Footnote_160_160' class='fnanchor'>{160}</a>.
+The structure of a kitten is quite in secondary degree adapted to its
+habits, whilst fed by its mother&rsquo;s milk and prey. Hence variation
+in the structure of the full-grown species will <i>chiefly</i> determine the
+preservation of a <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_43' id='Page_43'>{43}</a></span>
+species now become ill-suited to its habitat, or rather with a better
+place opened to it in the economy of Nature. It would not matter to the
+full-grown cat whether in its young state it was more or less eminently
+feline, so that it become so when full-grown. No doubt most variation,
+(not depending on habits of life of individual) depends on early
+change<a name='FNanchor_161_161' id='FNanchor_161_161'></a><a href='#Footnote_161_161' class='fnanchor'>{161}</a>
+and we must suspect that at whatever time of life the alteration of
+f&oelig;tus is effected, it tends to appear at same period. When we
+«<ins>see</ins>» a tendency to particular disease in old age
+transmitted by the male, we know some effect is produced during
+conception, on the simple cell of ovule, which will not produce its
+effect till half a century afterwards and that effect is not visible<a name='FNanchor_162_162' id='FNanchor_162_162'></a><a href='#Footnote_162_162' class='fnanchor'>{162}</a>.
+So we see in grey-hound, bull-dog, in race-horse and cart-horse, which
+have been selected for their form in full-life, there is much less
+«<ins>?</ins>» difference in the few first days after birth<a name='FNanchor_163_163' id='FNanchor_163_163'></a><a href='#Footnote_163_163' class='fnanchor'>{163}</a>,
+than when full-grown: so in cattle, we see it clearly in cases of
+cattle, which differ obviously in shape and length of horns. If man were
+during 10,000 years to be able to select, far more diverse animals from
+horse or cow, I should expect there would be far less differences in the
+very young and f&oelig;tal state: and this, I think, throws light on
+above marvellous fact. In larv&aelig;, which have long life selection,
+perhaps, does much,&mdash;in the pupa not so much<a name='FNanchor_164_164' id='FNanchor_164_164'></a><a href='#Footnote_164_164' class='fnanchor'>{164}</a>
+There is no <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_44' id='Page_44'>{44}</a></span>
+object gained in varying form &amp;c. of f&oelig;tus (beyond certain
+adaptations to mother&rsquo;s womb) and therefore selection will not
+further act on it, than in giving to its changing tissues a tendency to
+certain parts afterwards to assume certain forms.</p>
+
+<p>Thus there is no power to change the course of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_45' id='Page_45'>{45}</a></span>
+the arteries, as long as they nourish the f&oelig;tus; it is the
+selection of slight changes which supervene at any time during
+«<ins>illegible</ins>» of life.</p>
+
+<p>The less differences of f&oelig;tus,&mdash;this has obvious meaning on this
+view: otherwise how strange that a [<del>monkey</del>] horse, a man, a bat should
+at one time of life have arteries, running in a manner, which is only
+intelligibly useful in a fish! The natural system being on theory
+genealogical, we can at once see, why f&oelig;tus, retaining traces of the
+ancestral form, is of the highest value in classification.</p>
+
+<h3 class='sc'>&sect; IX. «<ins>Abortive organs.</ins>»</h3>
+
+<p>There is another grand class of facts relating to what are called
+abortive organs. These consist of organs which the same reasoning power
+that shows us how beautifully these organs in some cases are adapted to
+certain end, declares in other cases are absolutely useless. Thus teeth
+in Rhinoceros<a name='FNanchor_165_165' id='FNanchor_165_165'></a><a href='#Footnote_165_165' class='fnanchor'>{165}</a>,
+whale, narwhal,&mdash;bone on tibia, muscles which do not
+move,&mdash;little bone of wing of Apteryx,&mdash;bone representing
+extremities in some snake,&mdash;little wings within «<ins>?</ins>»
+soldered cover of beetles,&mdash;men and bulls, mamm&aelig;: filaments
+without anthers in plants, mere scales representing petals in others, in
+feather-hyacinth whole flower. Almost infinitely numerous. No one can
+reflect on these without astonishment, can anything be clearer than that
+wings are to fly and teeth «<ins>to bite</ins>», and yet we find these
+organs perfect in every detail in situations where they cannot possibly
+be of their normal use<a name='FNanchor_166_166' id='FNanchor_166_166'></a><a href='#Footnote_166_166' class='fnanchor'>{166}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The term abortive organ has been thus applied<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_46' id='Page_46'>{46}</a></span>
+to above structure (as <i>invariable</i> as all other parts<a name='FNanchor_167_167' id='FNanchor_167_167'></a><a href='#Footnote_167_167' class='fnanchor'>{167}</a>)
+from their absolute similarity to monstrous cases, where from
+<i>accident</i>, certain organs are not developed; as infant without arms or
+fingers with mere stump representing them: teeth represented by mere
+points of ossification: headless children with mere
+button,&mdash;viscera represented by small amorphous masses,
+&amp;c.,&mdash;the tail by mere stump,&mdash;a solid horn by minute
+hanging one<a name='FNanchor_168_168' id='FNanchor_168_168'></a><a href='#Footnote_168_168' class='fnanchor'>{168}</a>.
+There is a tendency in all these cases, when life is preserved, for such
+structures to become hereditary. We see it in tailless dogs and cats. In
+plants we see this strikingly,&mdash;in Thyme, in <i>Linum
+flavum</i>,&mdash;stamen in <i>Geranium pyrenaicum</i><a name='FNanchor_169_169' id='FNanchor_169_169'></a><a href='#Footnote_169_169' class='fnanchor'>{169}</a>.
+Nectaries abort into petals in Columbine «<ins><i>Aquilegia</i></ins>»,
+produced from some accident and then become hereditary, in some cases
+only when propagated by buds, in other cases by seed. These cases have
+been produced suddenly by accident in early growth, but it is part of
+law of growth that when any organ is not used it tends to diminish
+(duck&rsquo;s wing<a name='FNanchor_170_170' id='FNanchor_170_170'></a><a href='#Footnote_170_170' class='fnanchor'>{170}</a>?)
+muscles of dog&rsquo;s ears, «<ins>and of</ins>» rabbits, muscles
+wither, arteries grow up. When eye born defective, optic nerve (Tuco
+Tuco) is atrophied. As every part whether useful or not (diseases,
+double flowers) tends to be transmitted to offspring, the origin of
+abortive organs whether produced at the birth or slowly acquired is
+easily understood in domestic races of organisms: [<del>a struggle between
+the atrophy and hereditariness. Abortive organs in domestic races.</del>]
+There will always be a struggle between atrophy of an organ rendered
+useless, and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_47' id='Page_47'>{47}</a></span>
+hereditariness<a name='FNanchor_171_171' id='FNanchor_171_171'></a><a href='#Footnote_171_171' class='fnanchor'>{171}</a>.
+Because we can understand the origin of abortive organs in certain
+cases, it would be wrong to conclude absolutely that all must have had
+same origin, but the strongest analogy is in favour of it. And we can by
+our theory, for during infinite changes some organ, we might have
+anticipated, would have become useless. «<ins>We can</ins>» readily
+explain the fact, so astounding on any other view, namely that organs
+possibly useless have been formed often with the same exquisite care as
+when of vital importance.</p>
+
+<p>Our theory, I may remark would permit an organ «<ins>to</ins>» become
+abortive with respect to its primary use, to be turned to any other
+purpose, (as the buds in a cauliflower) thus we can see no difficulty in
+bones of male marsupials being used as fulcrum of muscles, or style of
+marygold<a name='FNanchor_172_172' id='FNanchor_172_172'></a><a href='#Footnote_172_172' class='fnanchor'>{172}</a>,&mdash;indeed
+in one point of view, the heads of [<del>vertebrated</del>] animal may be said to
+be abortive vertebr&aelig; turned into other use: legs of some crustacea
+abortive jaws, &amp;c., &amp;c. De Candolle's analogy of table covered
+with dishes<a name='FNanchor_173_173' id='FNanchor_173_173'></a><a href='#Footnote_173_173' class='fnanchor'>{173}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>«<ins>The following passage was possibly intended to be inserted
+here.</ins>» Degradation and complication see Lamarck: no tendency to
+perfection: if room, [<del>even</del>] high organism would have greater power in
+beating lower one, thought «<ins>?</ins>» to be selected for a degraded
+end.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_48' id='Page_48'>{48}</a></p>
+<h3 class='sc'>&sect; X. Recapitulation and conclusion.</h3>
+
+<p>Let us recapitulate the whole «<ins>?</ins>»
+«<ins>of</ins>» these latter sections by taking case of the three
+species of Rhinoceros, which inhabit Java, Sumatra, and mainland of
+Malacca or India. We find these three close neighbours, occupants of
+distinct but neighbouring districts, as a group having a different
+aspect from the Rhinoceros of Africa, though some of these latter
+inhabit very similar countries, but others most diverse stations. We
+find them intimately related [scarcely «<ins>?</ins>»
+differences more than some breeds of cattle] in structure to the
+Rhinoceros, which for immense periods have inhabited this one, out of
+three main zoological divisions of the world. Yet some of these ancient
+animals were fitted to very different stations: we find all three
+«<ins>illegible</ins>» of the generic character of the Rhinoceros,
+which form a [<del>piece of net</del>]<a name='FNanchor_174_174' id='FNanchor_174_174'></a><a href='#Footnote_174_174' class='fnanchor'>{174}</a>
+set of links in the broken chain representing the Pachydermata, as the
+chain likewise forms a portion in other and longer chains. We see this
+wonderfully in dissecting the coarse leg of all three and finding nearly
+the same bones as in bat&rsquo;s wings or man&rsquo;s hand, but we see
+the clear mark in solid tibia of the fusion into it of the fibula. In
+all three we find their heads composed of three altered vertebr&aelig;,
+short neck, same bones as giraffe. In the upper jaws of all three we
+find small teeth like rabbit&rsquo;s. In dissecting them in f&oelig;tal
+state we find at a not very early stage their form exactly alike the
+most different animals, and even with arteries running as in a fish: and
+this similarity holds when the young one is produced in womb, pond, egg
+or spawn. Now these three undoubted species scarcely differ more than
+breeds of cattle, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_49' id='Page_49'>{49}</a></span>
+are probably subject to many the same contagious diseases; if
+domesticated these forms would vary, and they might possibly breed
+together, and fuse into something<a name='FNanchor_175_175' id='FNanchor_175_175'></a><a href='#Footnote_175_175' class='fnanchor'>{175}</a>
+different «<ins>from</ins>» their aboriginal forms; might be selected
+to serve different ends.</p>
+
+<p>Now the Creationist believes these three Rhinoceroses were created<a name='FNanchor_176_176' id='FNanchor_176_176'></a><a href='#Footnote_176_176' class='fnanchor'>{176}</a>
+with their deceptive appearance of true, not «<ins>illegible</ins>»
+relationship; as well can I believe the planets revolve in their present
+courses not from one law of gravity but from distinct volition of
+Creator.</p>
+
+<p>If real species, sterile one with another, differently adapted, now
+inhabiting different countries, with different structures and instincts,
+are admitted to have common descent, we can only legitimately stop where
+our facts stop. Look how far in some case a chain of species will lead
+us. «<ins>This probably refers to the Crustacea, where the two ends of
+the series have &ldquo;hardly a character in common.&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. p. 419.</ins>» May we not jump (considering how much
+extermination, and how imperfect geological records) from one sub-genus
+to another sub-genus. Can genera restrain us; many of the same
+arguments, which made us give up species, inexorably demand genera and
+families and orders to fall, and classes tottering. We ought to stop
+only when clear unity of type, independent of use and adaptation,
+ceases.</p>
+
+<p>Be it remembered no naturalist pretends to give test from external
+characters of species; in many genera the distinction is quite
+arbitrary<a name='FNanchor_177_177' id='FNanchor_177_177'></a><a href='#Footnote_177_177' class='fnanchor'>{177}</a>.
+But there remains one other way of comparing species <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_50' id='Page_50'>{50}</a></span>
+with races; it is to compare the effects of crossing them. Would it not
+be wonderful, if the union of two organisms, produced by two separate
+acts of Creation, blended their characters together when crossed
+according to the same rules, as two races which have undoubtedly
+descended from same parent stock; yet this can be shown to be the case.
+For sterility, though a usual «<ins>?</ins>», is not an invariable
+concomitant, it varies much in degree and has been shown to be probably
+dependent on causes closely analogous with those which make domesticated
+organisms sterile. Independent of sterility there is no difference
+between mongrels and hybrids, as can be shown in a long series of facts.
+It is strikingly seen in cases of instincts, when the minds of the two
+species or races become blended together<a name='FNanchor_178_178' id='FNanchor_178_178'></a><a href='#Footnote_178_178' class='fnanchor'>{178}</a>.
+In both cases if the half-breed be crossed with either parent for a few
+generations, all traces of the one parent form is lost (as
+K&ouml;lreuter in two tobacco species almost sterile together), so that
+the Creationist in the case of a species, must believe that one act of
+creation is absorbed into another!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/illus-manuscript.jpg" width="600" height="297" alt="Facsimile of the original manuscript of the paragraph on p. 50." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Facsimile of the original manuscript of the paragraph on p. 50.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='sc'>Conclusion.</h3>
+
+<p>Such are my reasons for believing that specific forms are not immutable.
+The affinity of different groups, the unity of types of structure, the
+representative forms through which f&oelig;tus passes, the metamorphosis
+of organs, the abortion of others cease to be metaphorical expressions
+and become intelligible facts. We no longer look «<ins>an</ins>»
+on animal as a savage does at a ship<a name='FNanchor_179_179' id='FNanchor_179_179'></a><a href='#Footnote_179_179' class='fnanchor'>{179}</a>,
+or other great work of art, as a thing wholly beyond comprehension, but
+we <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_51' id='Page_51'>{51}</a></span>
+feel far more interest in examining it. How interesting is every
+instinct, when we speculate on their origin as an hereditary or
+congenital habit or produced by the selection of individuals differing
+slightly from their parents. We must look at every complicated mechanism
+and instinct, as the summary of a long history, «<ins>as the summing
+up</ins>» of<a name='FNanchor_180_180' id='FNanchor_180_180'></a><a href='#Footnote_180_180' class='fnanchor'>{180}</a>
+useful contrivances, much like a work of art. How interesting does the
+distribution of all animals become, as throwing light on ancient
+geography. [<del>We see some seas bridged over.</del>] Geology loses in its glory
+from the imperfection of its archives<a name='FNanchor_181_181' id='FNanchor_181_181'></a><a href='#Footnote_181_181' class='fnanchor'>{181}</a>,
+but how does it gain in the immensity of the periods of its formations
+and of the gaps separating these formations. There is much grandeur in
+looking at the existing animals either as the lineal descendants of the
+forms buried under thousand feet of matter, or as the coheirs of some
+still more ancient ancestor. It accords with what we know of the law
+impressed on matter by the Creator, that the creation and extinction of
+forms, like the birth and death of individuals should be the effect of
+secondary [<del>laws</del>] means<a name='FNanchor_182_182' id='FNanchor_182_182'></a><a href='#Footnote_182_182' class='fnanchor'>{182}</a>.
+It is derogatory that the Creator of countless systems of worlds should
+have created each of the myriads of creeping parasites and [<del>slimy</del>] worms
+which have swarmed each day of life on land and water «<ins>on</ins>»
+[<del>this</del>] one globe. We cease being astonished, however much we may
+deplore, that a group of animals should have been directly created to
+lay their eggs in bowels and flesh of other,&mdash;that some organisms
+should delight in cruelty,&mdash;that animals should be led away by
+false instincts,&mdash;that annually there should be an <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_52' id='Page_52'>{52}</a></span>
+incalculable waste of eggs and pollen. From death, famine, rapine, and
+the concealed war of nature we can see that the highest good, which we
+can conceive, the creation of the higher animals has directly come.
+Doubtless it at first transcends our humble powers, to conceive laws
+capable of creating individual organisms, each characterised by the most
+exquisite workmanship and widely-extended adaptations. It accords better
+with [<del>our modesty</del>] the lowness of our faculties to suppose each must
+require the fiat of a creator, but in the same proportion the existence
+of such laws should exalt our notion of the power of the omniscient
+Creator<a name='FNanchor_183_183' id='FNanchor_183_183'></a><a href='#Footnote_183_183' class='fnanchor'>{183}</a>.
+There is a simple grandeur in the view of life with its powers of
+growth, assimilation and reproduction, being originally breathed into
+matter under one or a few forms, and that whilst this our planet has
+gone circling on according to fixed laws, and land and water, in a cycle
+of change, have gone on replacing each other, that from so simple an
+origin, through the process of gradual selection of infinitesimal
+changes, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been
+evolved<a name='FNanchor_184_184' id='FNanchor_184_184'></a><a href='#Footnote_184_184' class='fnanchor'>{184}</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_53' id='Page_53'>{53}</a></span>
+N.B.&mdash;There ought somewhere to be a discussion from Lyell to show that
+external conditions do vary, or a note to Lyell's works «<ins>work?</ins>».</p>
+
+<p>Besides other difficulties in ii. Part, non-acclimatisation of plants.
+Difficulty when asked <i>how</i> did white and negro become altered from
+common intermediate stock: no facts. We do <span class='sc lc'>NOT</span> know that species are
+immutable, on the contrary. What arguments against this theory, except
+our not perceiving every step, like the erosion of valleys<a name='FNanchor_185_185' id='FNanchor_185_185'></a><a href='#Footnote_185_185' class='fnanchor'>{185}</a>.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_55' id='Page_55'>{55}</a></p>
+<h1><a name='THE_ESSAY_OF_1844' id='THE_ESSAY_OF_1844'></a>THE ESSAY OF 1844</h1>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_57' id='Page_57'>{57}</a></p>
+
+<h2>PART I</h2>
+
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_I' id='CHAPTER_I'></a>CHAPTER I<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION; AND ON THE
+PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION</span></h2>
+
+<p>The most favourable conditions for variation seem to be when organic
+beings are bred for many generations under domestication<a name='FNanchor_186_186' id='FNanchor_186_186'></a><a href='#Footnote_186_186' class='fnanchor'>{186}</a>:
+one may infer this from the simple fact of the vast number of races and
+breeds of almost every plant and animal, which has long been
+domesticated. Under certain conditions organic beings even during their
+individual lives become slightly altered from their usual form, size, or
+other characters: and many of the peculiarities thus acquired are
+transmitted to their offspring. Thus in animals, the size and vigour of
+body, fatness, period of maturity, habits of body or consensual
+movements, habits of mind and temper, are modified or acquired during
+the life of the individual<a name='FNanchor_187_187' id='FNanchor_187_187'></a><a href='#Footnote_187_187' class='fnanchor'>{187}</a>,
+and become inherited. There is reason to believe that when long exercise
+has given to certain muscles great development, or disuse has lessened
+them, that such development is also inherited.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_58' id='Page_58'>{58}</a></span>
+Food and climate will occasionally produce changes in the colour and
+texture of the external coverings of animals; and certain unknown
+conditions affect the horns of cattle in parts of Abyssinia; but whether
+these peculiarities, thus acquired during individual lives, have been
+inherited, I do not know. It appears certain that malconformation and
+lameness in horses, produced by too much work on hard roads,&mdash;that
+affections of the eyes in this animal probably caused by bad
+ventilation,&mdash;that tendencies towards many diseases in man, such as
+gout, caused by the course of life and ultimately producing changes of
+structure, and that many other diseases produced by unknown agencies,
+such as goitre, and the idiotcy resulting from it, all become
+hereditary.</p>
+
+<p>It is very doubtful whether the flowers and leaf-buds, annually produced
+from the same bulb, root, or tree, can properly be considered as parts
+of the same individual, though in some respects they certainly seem to
+be so. If they are parts of an individual, plants also are subject to
+considerable changes during their <i>individual</i> lives. Most
+florist-flowers if neglected degenerate, that is, they lose some of
+their characters; so common is this, that trueness is often stated, as
+greatly enhancing the value of a variety<a name='FNanchor_188_188' id='FNanchor_188_188'></a><a href='#Footnote_188_188' class='fnanchor'>{188}</a>:
+tulips break their colours only after some years&rsquo; culture; some
+plants become double and others single, by neglect or care: these
+characters can be transmitted by cuttings or grafts, and in some cases
+by true or seminal propagation. Occasionally a single bud on a plant
+assumes at once a new and widely different character: thus it is certain
+that nectarines have been produced on <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_59' id='Page_59'>{59}</a></span>
+peach trees and moss roses on provence roses; white currants on red
+currant bushes; flowers of a different colour from that of the stock, in
+Chrysanthemums, Dahlias, sweet-williams, Azaleas, &amp;c., &amp;c.;
+variegated leaf-buds on many trees, and other similar cases. These new
+characters appearing in single buds, can, like those lesser changes
+affecting the whole plant, be multiplied not only by cuttings and such
+means, but often likewise by true seminal generation.</p>
+
+<p>The changes thus appearing during the lives of individual animals and
+plants are extremely rare compared with those which are congenital or
+which appear soon after birth. Slight differences thus arising are
+infinitely numerous: the proportions and form of every part of the
+frame, inside and outside, appear to vary in very slight degrees:
+anatomists dispute what is the &ldquo;beau ideal&rdquo; of the bones,
+the liver and kidneys, like painters do of the proportions of the face:
+the proverbial expression that no two animals or plants are born
+absolutely alike, is much truer when applied to those under
+domestication, than to those in a state of nature<a name='FNanchor_189_189' id='FNanchor_189_189'></a><a href='#Footnote_189_189' class='fnanchor'>{189}</a>.
+Besides these slight differences, single individuals are occasionally
+born considerably unlike in certain parts or in their whole structure to
+their parents: these are called by horticulturists and breeders
+&ldquo;sports&rdquo;; and are not uncommon except when very strongly
+marked. Such sports are known in some cases to have been parents of some
+of our domestic races; and such probably have been the parents of many
+other races, especially of those which in some senses may be called
+hereditary monsters; for instance where there is an additional limb, or
+where all the limbs are stunted (as in the Ancon sheep), or where a part
+is wanting, as in rumpless fowls and tailless <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_60' id='Page_60'>{60}</a></span>
+dogs or cats<a name='FNanchor_190_190' id='FNanchor_190_190'></a><a href='#Footnote_190_190' class='fnanchor'>{190}</a>.
+The effects of external conditions on the size, colour and form, which
+can rarely and obscurely be detected during one individual life, become
+apparent after several generations: the slight differences, often hardly
+describable, which characterize the stock of different countries, and
+even of districts in the same country, seem to be due to such continued
+action.</p>
+
+<h3><i>On the hereditary tendency.</i></h3>
+
+<p>A volume might be filled with facts showing what a strong tendency there
+is to inheritance, in almost every case of the most trifling, as well as
+of the most remarkable congenital peculiarities<a name='FNanchor_191_191' id='FNanchor_191_191'></a><a href='#Footnote_191_191' class='fnanchor'>{191}</a>.
+The term congenital peculiarity, I may remark, is a loose expression and
+can only mean a peculiarity apparent when the part affected is nearly or
+fully developed: in the Second Part, I shall have to discuss at what
+period of the embryonic life connatal peculiarities probably first
+appear; and I shall then be able to show from some evidence, that at
+whatever period of life a new peculiarity first appears, it tends
+hereditarily to appear at a corresponding period<a name='FNanchor_192_192' id='FNanchor_192_192'></a><a href='#Footnote_192_192' class='fnanchor'>{192}</a>.
+Numerous though slight changes, slowly supervening in animals during
+mature life (often, though by no means always, taking the form of
+disease), are, as stated in the first paragraphs, very often hereditary.
+In plants, again, the buds which assume a different character from their
+stock likewise tend to transmit their new peculiarities. There is not
+sufficient reason to believe that either mutilations<a name='FNanchor_193_193' id='FNanchor_193_193'></a><a href='#Footnote_193_193' class='fnanchor'>{193}</a>
+or changes of form produced by <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_61' id='Page_61'>{61}</a></span>
+mechanical pressure, even if continued for hundreds of generations, or
+that any changes of structure quickly produced by disease, are
+inherited; it would appear as if the tissue of the part affected must
+slowly and freely grow into the new form, in order to be inheritable.
+There is a very great difference in the hereditary tendency of different
+peculiarities, and of the same peculiarity, in different individuals and
+species; thus twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash have been sown
+and not one come up true;&mdash;out of seventeen seeds of the weeping
+yew, nearly all came up true. The ill-formed and almost monstrous
+&ldquo;Niata&rdquo; cattle of S. America and Ancon sheep, both when bred
+together and when crossed with other breeds, seem to transmit their
+peculiarities to their offspring as truly as the ordinary breeds. I can
+throw no light on these differences in the power of hereditary
+transmission. Breeders believe, and apparently with good cause, that a
+peculiarity generally becomes more firmly implanted after having passed
+through several generations; that is if one offspring out of twenty
+inherits a peculiarity from its parents, then its descendants will tend
+to transmit this peculiarity to a larger proportion than one in twenty;
+and so on in succeeding generations. I have said nothing about mental
+peculiarities being inheritable for I reserve this subject for a
+separate chapter.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Causes of Variation.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Attention must here be drawn to an important distinction in the first
+origin or appearance of varieties: when we see an animal highly kept
+producing offspring with an hereditary tendency to early maturity and
+fatness; when we see the wild-duck and Australian dog always becoming,
+when bred for one or a few generations in confinement, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_62' id='Page_62'>{62}</a></span>
+mottled in their colours; when we see people living in certain
+districts or circumstances becoming subject to an hereditary taint to
+certain organic diseases, as consumption or plica polonica,&mdash;we
+naturally attribute such changes to the direct effect of known or
+unknown agencies acting for one or more generations on the parents. It
+is probable that a multitude of peculiarities may be thus directly
+caused by unknown external agencies. But in breeds, characterized by an
+extra limb or claw, as in certain fowls and dogs; by an extra joint in
+the vertebr&aelig;; by the loss of a part, as the tail; by the
+substitution of a tuft of feathers for a comb in certain poultry; and in
+a multitude of other cases, we can hardly attribute these peculiarities
+directly to external influences, but indirectly to the laws of embryonic
+growth and of reproduction. When we see a multitude of varieties (as has
+often been the case, where a cross has been carefully guarded against)
+produced from seeds matured in the very same capsule<a name='FNanchor_194_194' id='FNanchor_194_194'></a><a href='#Footnote_194_194' class='fnanchor'>{194}</a>,
+with the male and female principle nourished from the same roots and
+necessarily exposed to the same external influences; we cannot believe
+that the endless slight differences between seedling varieties thus
+produced, can be the effect of any corresponding difference in their
+exposure. We are led (as M&uuml;ller has remarked) to the same
+conclusion, when we see in the same litter, produced by the same act of
+conception, animals considerably different.</p>
+
+<p>As variation to the degree here alluded to has been observed only in
+organic beings under domestication, and in plants amongst those most
+highly and long cultivated, we must attribute, in such cases, the
+varieties (although the difference between each variety cannot possibly
+be attributed to any corresponding difference of exposure in the
+parents) to the indirect effects of domestication on the action of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_63' id='Page_63'>{63}</a></span>
+the reproductive system<a name='FNanchor_195_195' id='FNanchor_195_195'></a><a href='#Footnote_195_195' class='fnanchor'>{195}</a>.
+It would appear as if the reproductive powers failed in their ordinary
+function of producing new organic beings closely like their parents; and
+as if the entire organization of the embryo, under domestication, became
+in a slight degree plastic<a name='FNanchor_196_196' id='FNanchor_196_196'></a><a href='#Footnote_196_196' class='fnanchor'>{196}</a>.
+We shall hereafter have occasion to show, that in organic beings, a
+considerable change from the natural conditions of life, affects,
+independently of their general state of health, in another and
+remarkable manner the reproductive system. I may add, judging from the
+vast number of new varieties of plants which have been produced in the
+same districts and under nearly the same routine of culture, that
+probably the indirect effects of domestication in making the
+organization plastic, is a much more efficient source of variation than
+any direct effect which external causes may have on the colour, texture,
+or form of each part. In the few instances in which, as in the Dahlia<a name='FNanchor_197_197' id='FNanchor_197_197'></a><a href='#Footnote_197_197' class='fnanchor'>{197}</a>,
+the course of variation has been recorded, it appears that domestication
+produces little effect for several generations in rendering the
+organization plastic; but afterwards, as if by an accumulated effect,
+the original character of the species suddenly gives way or breaks.</p>
+
+<h3><i>On Selection.</i></h3>
+
+<p>We have hitherto only referred to the first appearance in individuals of
+new peculiarities; but to make a race or breed, something more is
+generally<a name='FNanchor_198_198' id='FNanchor_198_198'></a><a href='#Footnote_198_198' class='fnanchor'>{198}</a>
+requisite than such peculiarities (except <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_64' id='Page_64'>{64}</a></span>
+in the case of the peculiarities being the direct effect of constantly
+surrounding conditions) should be inheritable,&mdash;namely the
+principle of selection, implying separation. Even in the rare instances
+of sports, with the hereditary tendency very strongly implanted,
+crossing must be prevented with other breeds, or if not prevented the
+best characterized of the half-bred offspring must be carefully
+selected. Where the external conditions are constantly tending to give
+some character, a race possessing this character will be formed with far
+greater ease by selecting and breeding together the individuals most
+affected. In the case of the endless slight variations produced by the
+indirect effects of domestication on the action of the reproductive
+system, selection is indispensable to form races; and when carefully
+applied, wonderfully numerous and diverse races can be formed.
+Selection, though so simple in theory, is and has been important to a
+degree which can hardly be overrated. It requires extreme skill, the
+results of long practice, in detecting the slightest difference in the
+forms of animals, and it implies some distinct object in view; with
+these requisites and patience, the breeder has simply to watch for every
+the smallest approach to the desired end, to select such individuals and
+pair them with the most suitable forms, and so continue with succeeding
+generations. In most cases careful selection and the prevention of
+accidental crosses will be necessary for several generations, for in new
+breeds there is a strong tendency to vary and especially to revert to
+ancestral forms: but in every succeeding generation less care will be
+requisite for the breed will become <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_65' id='Page_65'>{65}</a></span>
+truer; until ultimately only an occasional individual will require to
+be separated or destroyed. Horticulturalists in raising seeds regularly
+practise this, and call it &ldquo;roguing,&rdquo; or destroying the
+&ldquo;rogues&rdquo; or false varieties. There is another and less
+efficient means of selection amongst animals: namely repeatedly
+procuring males with some desirable qualities, and allowing them and
+their offspring to breed freely together; and this in the course of time
+will affect the whole lot. These principles of selection have been
+<i>methodically</i> followed for scarcely a century; but their high
+importance is shown by the practical results, and is admitted in the
+writings of the most celebrated agriculturalists and
+horticulturalists;&mdash;I need only name Anderson, Marshall, Bakewell,
+Coke, Western, Sebright and Knight.</p>
+
+<p>Even in well-established breeds the individuals of which to an
+unpractised eye would appear absolutely similar, which would give, it
+might have been thought, no scope to selection, the whole appearance of
+the animal has been changed in a few years (as in the case of Lord
+Western&rsquo;s sheep), so that practised agriculturalists could
+scarcely credit that a change had not been effected by a cross with
+other breeds. Breeders both of plants and animals frequently give their
+means of selection greater scope, by crossing different breeds and
+selecting the offspring; but we shall have to recur to this subject
+again.</p>
+
+<p>The external conditions will doubtless influence and modify the results
+of the most careful selection; it has been found impossible to prevent
+certain breeds of cattle from degenerating on mountain pastures; it
+would probably be impossible to keep the plumage of the wild-duck in the
+domesticated race; in certain soils, no care has been sufficient to
+raise cauliflower seed true to its character; and so <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_66' id='Page_66'>{66}</a></span>
+in many other cases. But with patience it is wonderful what man has
+effected. He has selected and therefore in one sense made one breed of
+horses to race and another to pull; he has made sheep with fleeces good
+for carpets and other sheep good for broadcloth; he has, in the same
+sense, made one dog to find game and give him notice when found, and
+another dog to fetch him the game when killed; he has made by selection
+the fat to lie mixed with the meat in one breed and in another to
+accumulate in the bowels for the tallow-chandler<a name='FNanchor_199_199' id='FNanchor_199_199'></a><a href='#Footnote_199_199' class='fnanchor'>{199}</a>;
+he has made the legs of one breed of pigeons long, and the beak of
+another so short, that it can hardly feed itself; he has previously
+determined how the feathers on a bird&rsquo;s body shall be coloured,
+and how the petals of many flowers shall be streaked or fringed, and has
+given prizes for complete success;&mdash;by selection, he has made the
+leaves of one variety and the flower-buds of another variety of the
+cabbage good to eat, at different seasons of the year; and thus has he
+acted on endless varieties. I do not wish to affirm that the long-and
+short-wooled sheep, or that the pointer and retriever, or that the
+cabbage and cauliflower have certainly descended from one and the same
+aboriginal wild stock; if they have not so descended, though it lessens
+what man has effected, a large result must be left unquestioned.</p>
+
+<p>In saying as I have done that man makes a breed, let it not be
+confounded with saying that man makes the individuals, which are given
+by nature with certain desirable qualities; man only adds together and
+makes a permanent gift of nature&rsquo;s bounties. In several cases,
+indeed, for instance in the &ldquo;Ancon&rdquo; sheep, valuable from not
+getting over fences, and in the turnspit dog, man has probably only
+prevented crossing; but in many cases we positively <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_67' id='Page_67'>{67}</a></span>
+know that he has gone on selecting, and taking advantage of successive
+small variations.</p>
+
+<p>Selection<a name='FNanchor_200_200' id='FNanchor_200_200'></a><a href='#Footnote_200_200' class='fnanchor'>{200}</a>
+has been <i>methodically</i> followed, as I have said, for barely a century;
+but it cannot be doubted that occasionally it has been practised from
+the remotest ages, in those animals completely under the dominion of
+man. In the earliest chapters of the Bible there are rules given for
+influencing the colours of breeds, and black and white sheep are spoken
+of as separated. In the time of Pliny the barbarians of Europe and Asia
+endeavoured by cross-breeding with a wild stock to improve the races of
+their dogs and horses. The savages of Guyana now do so with their dogs:
+such care shows at least that the characters of individual animals were
+attended to. In the rudest times of English history, there were laws to
+prevent the exportation of fine animals of established breeds, and in
+the case of horses, in Henry VIII&rsquo;s time, laws for the destruction
+of all horses under a certain size. In one of the oldest numbers of the
+<i>Phil. Transactions</i>, there are rules for selecting and improving the
+breeds of sheep. Sir H. Bunbury, in 1660, has given rules for selecting
+the finest seedling plants, with as much precision as the best recent
+horticulturalist could. Even in the most savage and rude nations, in the
+wars and famines which so frequently occur, the most useful of their
+animals would be preserved: the value set upon animals by savages is
+shown by the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego devouring their old women
+before their dogs, which as they asserted are useful in otter-hunting<a name='FNanchor_201_201' id='FNanchor_201_201'></a><a href='#Footnote_201_201' class='fnanchor'>{201}</a>:
+who can doubt but that in every case of famine and war, the best
+otter-hunters would be preserved, and therefore in fact selected for
+breeding. As the offspring so obviously <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_68' id='Page_68'>{68}</a></span>
+take after their parents, and as we have seen that savages take pains
+in crossing their dogs and horses with wild stocks, we may even conclude
+as probable that they would sometimes pair the most useful of their
+animals and keep their offspring separate. As different races of men
+require and admire different qualities in their domesticated animals,
+each would thus slowly, though unconsciously, be selecting a different
+breed. As Pallas has remarked, who can doubt but that the ancient
+Russian would esteem and endeavour to preserve those sheep in his flocks
+which had the thickest coats. This kind of insensible selection by which
+new breeds are not selected and kept separate, but a peculiar character
+is slowly given to the whole mass of the breed, by often saving the life
+of animals with certain characteristics, we may feel nearly sure, from
+what we see has been done by the more direct method of separate
+selection within the last 50 years in England, would in the course of
+some thousand years produce a marked effect.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Crossing Breeds.</i></h3>
+
+<p>When once two or more races are formed, or if more than one race, or
+species fertile <i>inter se</i>, originally existed in a wild state, their
+crossing becomes a most copious source of new races<a name='FNanchor_202_202' id='FNanchor_202_202'></a><a href='#Footnote_202_202' class='fnanchor'>{202}</a>.
+When two well-marked races are crossed the offspring in the first
+generation take more or less after either parent or are quite
+intermediate between them, or rarely assume characters in some degree
+new. In the second and several succeeding generations, the offspring are
+generally found to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_69' id='Page_69'>{69}</a></span>
+vary exceedingly, one compared with another, and many revert nearly to
+their ancestral forms. This greater variability in succeeding
+generations seems analogous to the breaking or variability of organic
+beings after having been bred for some generations under domestication<a name='FNanchor_203_203' id='FNanchor_203_203'></a><a href='#Footnote_203_203' class='fnanchor'>{203}</a>.
+So marked is this variability in cross-bred descendants, that Pallas and
+some other naturalists have supposed that all variation is due to an
+original cross; but I conceive that the history of the potato, Dahlia,
+Scotch Rose, the guinea-pig, and of many trees in this country, where
+only one species of the genus exists, clearly shows that a species may
+vary where there can have been no crossing. Owing to this variability
+and tendency to reversion in cross-bred beings, much careful selection
+is requisite to make intermediate or new permanent races: nevertheless
+crossing has been a most powerful engine, especially with plants, where
+means of propagation exist by which the cross-bred varieties can be
+secured without incurring the risk of fresh variation from seminal
+propagation: with animals the most skilful agriculturalists now greatly
+prefer careful selection from a well-established breed, rather than from
+uncertain cross-bred stocks.</p>
+
+<p>Although intermediate and new races may be formed by the mingling of
+others, yet if the two races are allowed to mingle quite freely, so that
+none of either parent race remain pure, then, especially if the parent
+races are not widely different, they will slowly blend together, and the
+two races will be destroyed, and one mongrel race left in its place.
+This will of course happen in a shorter time, if one <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_70' id='Page_70'>{70}</a></span>
+of the parent races exists in greater number than the other. We see the
+effect of this mingling, in the manner in which the aboriginal breeds of
+dogs and pigs in the Oceanic Islands and the many breeds of our domestic
+animals introduced into S. America, have all been lost and absorbed in a
+mongrel race. It is probably owing to the freedom of crossing, that, in
+uncivilised countries, where inclosures do not exist, we seldom meet
+with more than one race of a species: it is only in enclosed countries,
+where the inhabitants do not migrate, and have conveniences for
+separating the several kinds of domestic animals, that we meet with a
+multitude of races. Even in civilised countries, want of care for a few
+years has been found to destroy the good results of far longer periods
+of selection and separation.</p>
+
+<p>This power of crossing will affect the races of all <i>terrestrial</i>
+animals; for all terrestrial animals require for their reproduction the
+union of two individuals. Amongst plants, races will not cross and blend
+together with so much freedom as in terrestrial animals; but this
+crossing takes place through various curious contrivances to a
+surprising extent. In fact such contrivances exist in so very many
+hermaphrodite flowers by which an occasional cross may take place, that
+I cannot avoid suspecting (with Mr Knight) that the reproductive action
+requires, at <i>intervals</i>, the concurrence of distinct individuals<a name='FNanchor_204_204' id='FNanchor_204_204'></a><a href='#Footnote_204_204' class='fnanchor'>{204}</a>.
+Most breeders of plants and animals are firmly convinced that benefit is
+derived from an occasional cross, not with another race, but with
+another family of the same race; and that, on the other hand, injurious
+consequences follow from long-continued close interbreeding in the same
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_71' id='Page_71'>{71}</a></span>
+family. Of marine animals, many more, than was till lately believed,
+have their sexes on separate individuals; and where they are
+hermaphrodite, there seems very generally to be means through the water
+of one individual occasionally impregnating another: if individual
+animals can singly propagate themselves for perpetuity, it is
+unaccountable that no terrestrial animal, where the means of observation
+are more obvious, should be in this predicament of singly perpetuating
+its kind. I conclude, then, that races of most animals and plants, when
+unconfined in the same country, would tend to blend together.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild
+stocks.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Several naturalists, of whom Pallas<a name='FNanchor_205_205' id='FNanchor_205_205'></a><a href='#Footnote_205_205' class='fnanchor'>{205}</a>
+regarding animals, and Humboldt regarding certain plants, were the
+first, believe that the breeds of many of our domestic animals such as
+of the horse, pig, dog, sheep, pigeon, and poultry, and of our plants
+have descended from more than one aboriginal form. They leave it
+doubtful, whether such forms are to be considered wild races, or true
+species, whose offspring are fertile when crossed <i>inter se</i>. The main
+arguments for this view consist, firstly, of the great difference
+between such breeds, as the Race-and Cart-Horse, or the Greyhound and
+Bull-dog, and of our ignorance of the steps or stages through which
+these could have passed from a common parent; and secondly that in the
+most ancient historical periods, breeds resembling some of those at
+present most different, existed in different countries. The wolves of N.
+America and of Siberia are thought to be different species; and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_72' id='Page_72'>{72}</a></span>
+it has been remarked that the dogs belonging to the savages in these
+two countries resemble the wolves of the same country; and therefore
+that they have probably descended from two different wild stocks. In the
+same manner, these naturalists believe that the horse of Arabia and of
+Europe have probably descended from two wild stocks both apparently now
+extinct. I do not think the assumed fertility of these wild stocks any
+very great difficulty on this view; for although in animals the
+offspring of most cross-bred species are infertile, it is not always
+remembered that the experiment is very seldom fairly tried, except when
+two near species <i>both</i> breed freely (which does not readily happen, as
+we shall hereafter see) when under the dominion of man. Moreover in the
+case of the China<a name='FNanchor_206_206' id='FNanchor_206_206'></a><a href='#Footnote_206_206' class='fnanchor'>{206}</a>
+and common goose, the canary and siskin, the hybrids breed freely; in
+other cases the offspring from hybrids crossed with either pure parent
+are fertile, as is practically taken advantage of with the yak and cow;
+as far as the analogy of plants serves, it is impossible to deny that
+some species are quite fertile <i>inter se</i>; but to this subject we shall
+recur.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the upholders of the view that the several breeds of
+dogs, horses, &amp;c., &amp;c., have descended each from one stock, may
+aver that their view removes all <i>difficulty about fertility</i>, and that
+the main argument from the high antiquity of different breeds, somewhat
+similar to the present breeds, is worth little without knowing the date
+of the domestication of such animals, which is far from being the case.
+They may also with more weight aver that, knowing that organic beings
+under domestication do vary in some degree, the argument from the great
+difference between certain breeds is <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_73' id='Page_73'>{73}</a></span>
+worth nothing, without we know the limits of variation during a long
+course of time, which is far from the case. They may argue that almost
+every county in England, and in many districts of other countries, for
+instance in India, there are slightly different breeds of the domestic
+animals; and that it is opposed to all that we know of the distribution
+of wild animals to suppose that these have descended from so many
+different wild races or species: if so, they may argue, is it not
+probable that countries quite separate and exposed to different climates
+would have breeds not slightly, but considerably, different? Taking the
+most favourable case, on both sides, namely that of the dog; they might
+urge that such breeds as the bull-dog and turnspit have been reared by
+man, from the ascertained fact that strictly analogous breeds (namely
+the Niata ox and Ancon sheep) in other quadrupeds have thus originated.
+Again they may say, seeing what training and careful selection has
+effected for the greyhound, and seeing how absolutely unfit the Italian
+greyhound is to maintain itself in a state of nature, is it not probable
+that at least all greyhounds,&mdash;from the rough deerhound, the smooth
+Persian, the common English, to the Italian,&mdash;have descended from
+one stock<a name='FNanchor_207_207' id='FNanchor_207_207'></a><a href='#Footnote_207_207' class='fnanchor'>{207}</a>?
+If so, is it so improbable that the deerhound and long-legged shepherd
+dog have so descended? If we admit this, and give up the bull-dog, we
+can hardly dispute the probable common descent of the other breeds.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence is so conjectural and balanced on both sides that at
+present I conceive that no one can decide: for my own part, I lean to
+the probability of most of our domestic animals having descended from
+more than one wild stock; though from the arguments last advanced and
+from reflecting on the slow though inevitable effect of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_74' id='Page_74'>{74}</a></span>
+different races of mankind, under different circumstances, saving the
+lives of and therefore selecting the individuals most useful to them, I
+cannot doubt but that one class of naturalists have much overrated the
+probable number of the aboriginal wild stocks. As far as we admit the
+difference of our races «<ins>to be</ins>» due to the differences of
+their original stocks, so much must we give up of the amount of
+variation produced under domestication. But this appears to me
+unimportant, for we certainly know in some few cases, for instance in
+the Dahlia, and potato, and rabbit, that a great number of varieties
+have proceeded from one stock; and, in many of our domestic races, we
+know that man, by slowly selecting and by taking advantage of sudden
+sports, has considerably modified old races and produced new ones.
+Whether we consider our races as the descendants of one or several wild
+stocks, we are in far the greater number of cases equally ignorant what
+these stocks were.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Limits to Variation in degree and kind.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Man&rsquo;s power in making races deends, in the first instance, on the
+stock on which he works being variable; but his labours are modified and
+limited, as we have seen, by the direct effects of the external
+conditions,&mdash;by the deficient or imperfect hereditariness of new
+peculiarities,&mdash;and by the tendency to continual variation and
+especially to reversion to ancestral forms. If the stock is not variable
+under domestication, of course he can do nothing; and it appears that
+species differ considerably in this tendency to variation, in the same
+way as even sub-varieties from the same variety differ greatly in this
+respect, and transmit to their offspring this difference in tendency.
+Whether the absence of a tendency to vary is an unalterable quality in
+certain <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_75' id='Page_75'>{75}</a></span>
+species, or depends on some deficient condition of the particular state
+of domestication to which they are exposed, there is no evidence. When
+the organization is rendered variable, or plastic, as I have expressed
+it, under domestication, different parts of the frame vary more or less
+in different species: thus in the breeds of cattle it has been remarked
+that the horns are the most constant or least variable character, for
+these often remain constant, whilst the colour, size, proportions of the
+body, tendency to fatten &amp;c., vary; in sheep, I believe, the horns
+are much more variable. As a general rule the less important parts of
+the organization seem to vary most, but I think there is sufficient
+evidence that every part occasionally varies in a slight degree. Even
+when man has the primary requisite variability he is necessarily checked
+by the health and life of the stock he is working on: thus he has
+already made pigeons with such small beaks that they can hardly eat and
+will not rear their own young; he has made families of sheep with so
+strong a tendency to early maturity and to fatten, that in certain
+pastures they cannot live from their extreme liability to inflammation;
+he has made (<i>i.e.</i> selected) sub-varieties of plants with a tendency to
+such early growth that they are frequently killed by the spring frosts;
+he has made a breed of cows having calves with such large hinder
+quarters that they are born with great difficulty, often to the death of
+their mothers<a name='FNanchor_208_208' id='FNanchor_208_208'></a><a href='#Footnote_208_208' class='fnanchor'>{208}</a>;
+the breeders were compelled to remedy this by the selection of a
+breeding stock with smaller hinder quarters; in such a case, however, it
+is possible by long patience and great loss, a remedy might have been
+found in selecting cows capable of giving birth to calves with large
+hinder quarters, for in human kind there «<ins>are</ins>» no doubt
+hereditary bad and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_76' id='Page_76'>{76}</a></span>
+good confinements. Besides the limits already specified, there can be
+little doubt that the variation of different parts of the frame are
+connected together by many laws<a name='FNanchor_209_209' id='FNanchor_209_209'></a><a href='#Footnote_209_209' class='fnanchor'>{209}</a>:
+thus the two sides of the body, in health and disease, seem almost
+always to vary together: it has been asserted by breeders that if the
+head is much elongated, the bones of the extremities will likewise be
+so; in seedling-apples large leaves and fruit generally go together, and
+serve the horticulturalist as some guide in his selection; we can here
+see the reason, as the fruit is only a metamorphosed leaf. In animals
+the teeth and hair seem connected, for the hairless Chinese dog is
+almost toothless. Breeders believe that one part of the frame or
+function being increased causes other parts to decrease: they dislike
+great horns and great bones as so much flesh lost; in hornless breeds of
+cattle certain bones of the head become more developed: it is said that
+fat accumulating in one part checks its accumulation in another, and
+likewise checks the action of the udder. The whole organization is so
+connected that it is probable there are many conditions determining the
+variation of each part, and causing other parts to vary with it; and man
+in making new races must be limited and ruled by all such laws.</p>
+
+<h3><i>In what consists Domestication.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In this chapter we have treated of variation under domestication, and it
+now remains to consider in what does this power of domestication
+consist<a name='FNanchor_210_210' id='FNanchor_210_210'></a><a href='#Footnote_210_210' class='fnanchor'>{210}</a>,
+a subject of considerable difficulty. Observing that organic beings of
+almost every class, in all climates, countries, and times, have varied
+when long bred <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_77' id='Page_77'>{77}</a></span>
+under domestication, we must conclude that the influence is of some
+very general nature<a name='FNanchor_211_211' id='FNanchor_211_211'></a><a href='#Footnote_211_211' class='fnanchor'>{211}</a>.
+Mr Knight alone, as far as I know, has tried to define it; he believes
+it consists of an excess of food, together with transport to a more
+genial climate, or protection from its severities. I think we cannot
+admit this latter proposition, for we know how many vegetable products,
+aborigines of this country, here vary, when cultivated without any
+protection from the weather; and some of our variable trees, as
+apricots, peaches, have undoubtedly been derived from a more genial
+climate. There appears to be much more truth in the doctrine of excess
+of food being the cause, though I much doubt whether this is the sole
+cause, although it may well be requisite for the kind of variation
+desired by man, namely increase of size and vigour. No doubt
+horticulturalists, when they wish to raise new seedlings, often pluck
+off all the flower-buds, except a few, or remove the whole during one
+season, so that a great stock of nutriment may be thrown into the
+flowers which are to seed. When plants are transported from high-lands,
+forests, marshes, heaths, into our gardens and greenhouses, there must
+be a considerable change of food, but it would be hard to prove that
+there was in every case an excess of the kind proper to the plant. If it
+be an excess of food, compared with that which the being obtained in its
+natural state<a name='FNanchor_212_212' id='FNanchor_212_212'></a><a href='#Footnote_212_212' class='fnanchor'>{212}</a>,
+the effects continue for an improbably long time; during how many ages
+has <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_78' id='Page_78'>{78}</a></span>
+wheat been cultivated, and cattle and sheep reclaimed, and we cannot
+suppose their <i>amount</i> of food has gone on increasing, nevertheless
+these are amongst the most variable of our domestic productions. It has
+been remarked (Marshall) that some of the most highly kept breeds of
+sheep and cattle are truer or less variable than the straggling animals
+of the poor, which subsist on commons, and pick up a bare subsistence<a name='FNanchor_213_213' id='FNanchor_213_213'></a><a href='#Footnote_213_213' class='fnanchor'>{213}</a>.
+In the case of forest-trees raised in nurseries, which vary more than
+the same trees do in their aboriginal forests, the cause would seem
+simply to lie in their not having to struggle against other trees and
+weeds, which in their natural state doubtless would limit the conditions
+of their existence. It appears to me that the power of domestication
+resolves itself into the accumulated effects of a change of all or some
+of the natural conditions of the life of the species, often associated
+with excess of food. These conditions moreover, I may add, can seldom
+remain, owing to the mutability of the affairs, habits, migrations, and
+knowledge of man, for very long periods the same. I am the more inclined
+to come to this conclusion from finding, as we shall hereafter show,
+that changes of the natural conditions of existence seem peculiarly to
+affect the action of the reproductive system<a name='FNanchor_214_214' id='FNanchor_214_214'></a><a href='#Footnote_214_214' class='fnanchor'>{214}</a>.
+As we see that hybrids and mongrels, after the first generation, are apt
+to vary much, we may at least conclude that variability does not
+altogether depend on excess of food.</p>
+
+<p>After these views, it may be asked how it comes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_79' id='Page_79'>{79}</a></span>
+that certain animals and plants, which have been domesticated for a
+considerable length of time, and transported from very different
+conditions of existence, have not varied much, or scarcely at all; for
+instance, the ass, peacock, guinea-fowl, asparagus, Jerusalem
+artichoke<a name='FNanchor_215_215' id='FNanchor_215_215'></a><a href='#Footnote_215_215' class='fnanchor'>{215}</a>.
+I have already said that probably different species, like different
+sub-varieties, possess different degrees of tendency to vary; but I am
+inclined to attribute in these cases the want of numerous races less to
+want of variability than to selection not having been practised on them.
+No one will take the pains to select without some corresponding object,
+either of use or amusement; the individuals raised must be tolerably
+numerous, and not so precious, but that he may freely destroy those not
+answering to his wishes. If guinea-fowls or peacocks<a name='FNanchor_216_216' id='FNanchor_216_216'></a><a href='#Footnote_216_216' class='fnanchor'>{216}</a>
+became &ldquo;fancy&rdquo; birds, I cannot doubt that after some
+generations several breeds would be raised. Asses have not been worked
+on from mere neglect; but they differ in <i>some</i> degree in different
+countries. The insensible selection, due to different races of mankind
+preserving those individuals most useful to them in their different
+circumstances, will apply only to the oldest and most widely
+domesticated animals. In the case of plants, we must put entirely out of
+the case those exclusively (or almost so) propagated by cuttings, layers
+or tubers, such as the Jerusalem artichoke and laurel; and if we put on
+one side plants of little ornament or use, and those which are used at
+so early a period of their growth that no especial characters signify,
+as asparagus<a name='FNanchor_217_217' id='FNanchor_217_217'></a><a href='#Footnote_217_217' class='fnanchor'>{217}</a>
+and seakale, I can think of none long cultivated which have not varied.
+In no case ought we to expect to find as much variation in a race when
+it alone has been formed, as when several have been formed, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_80' id='Page_80'>{80}</a></span>
+for their crossing and recrossing will greatly increase their
+variability.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Summary of first Chapter.</i></h3>
+
+<p>To sum up this chapter. Races are made under domestication: 1st, by the
+direct effects of the external conditions to which the species is
+exposed: 2nd, by the indirect effects of the exposure to new conditions,
+often aided by excess of food, rendering the organization plastic, and
+by man&rsquo;s selecting and separately breeding certain individuals, or
+introducing to his stock selected males, or often preserving with care
+the life of the individuals best adapted to his purposes: 3rd, by
+crossing and recrossing races already made, and selecting their
+offspring. After some generations man may relax his care in selection:
+for the tendency to vary and to revert to ancestral forms will decrease,
+so that he will have only occasionally to remove or destroy one of the
+yearly offspring which departs from its type. Ultimately, with a large
+stock, the effects of free crossing would keep, even without this care,
+his breed true. By these means man can produce infinitely numerous
+races, curiously adapted to ends, both most important and most
+frivolous; at the same time that the effects of the surrounding
+conditions, the laws of inheritance, of growth, and of variation, will
+modify and limit his labours.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_81' id='Page_81'>{81}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_II' id='CHAPTER_II'></a>CHAPTER II<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE; ON THE NATURAL MEANS
+OF SELECTION; AND ON THE COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES</span></h2>
+
+<p>Having treated of variation under domestication, we now come to it in a
+<i>state of nature</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Most organic beings in a state of nature vary exceedingly little<a name='FNanchor_218_218' id='FNanchor_218_218'></a><a href='#Footnote_218_218' class='fnanchor'>{218}</a>:
+I put out of the case variations (as stunted plants &amp;c., and
+sea-shells in brackish water<a name='FNanchor_219_219' id='FNanchor_219_219'></a><a href='#Footnote_219_219' class='fnanchor'>{219}</a>)
+which are directly the effect of external agencies and which we do not
+<i>know are in the breed</i><a name='FNanchor_220_220' id='FNanchor_220_220'></a><a href='#Footnote_220_220' class='fnanchor'>{220}</a>,
+or are <i>hereditary</i>. The amount of hereditary variation is very
+difficult to ascertain, because naturalists (partly from the want of
+knowledge, and partly from the inherent difficulty of the subject) do
+not all agree whether certain forms are species or races<a name='FNanchor_221_221' id='FNanchor_221_221'></a><a href='#Footnote_221_221' class='fnanchor'>{221}</a>.
+Some strongly marked races of plants, comparable with the decided sports
+of horticulturalists, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_82' id='Page_82'>{82}</a></span>
+undoubtedly exist in a state of nature, as is actually known by
+experiment, for instance in the primrose and cowslip<a name='FNanchor_222_222' id='FNanchor_222_222'></a><a href='#Footnote_222_222' class='fnanchor'>{222}</a>,
+in two so-called species of dandelion, in two of foxglove<a name='FNanchor_223_223' id='FNanchor_223_223'></a><a href='#Footnote_223_223' class='fnanchor'>{223}</a>,
+and I believe in some pines. Lamarck has observed that, as long as we
+confine our attention to one limited country, there is seldom much
+difficulty in deciding what forms to call species and what varieties;
+and that it is when collections flow in from all parts of the world that
+naturalists often feel at a loss to decide the limit of variation.
+Undoubtedly so it is, yet amongst British plants (and I may add land
+shells), which are probably better known than any in the world, the best
+naturalists differ very greatly in the relative proportions of what they
+call species and what varieties. In many genera of insects, and shells,
+and plants, it seems almost hopeless to establish which are which. In
+the higher classes there are less doubts; though we find considerable
+difficulty in ascertaining what deserve to be called species amongst
+foxes and wolves, and in some birds, for instance in the case of the
+white barn-owl. When specimens are brought from different parts of the
+world, how often do naturalists dispute this same question, as I found
+with respect to the birds brought from the Galapagos islands. Yarrell
+has remarked that the individuals of the same undoubted species of
+birds, from Europe and N. America, usually present slight, indefinable
+though perceptible differences. The recognition indeed of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_83' id='Page_83'>{83}</a></span>
+one animal by another of its kind seems to imply some difference. The
+disposition of wild animals undoubtedly differs. The variation, such as
+it is, chiefly affects the same parts in wild organisms as in domestic
+breeds; for instance, the size, colour, and the external and less
+important parts. In many species the variability of certain organs or
+qualities is even stated as one of the specific characters: thus, in
+plants, colour, size, hairiness, the number of the stamens and pistils,
+and even their presence, the form of the leaves; the size and form of
+the mandibles of the males of some insects; the length and curvature of
+the beak in some birds (as in Opetiorynchus) are variable characters in
+some species and quite fixed in others. I do not perceive that any just
+distinction can be drawn between this recognised variability of certain
+parts in many species and the more general variability of the whole
+frame in domestic races.</p>
+
+<p>Although the amount of variation be exceedingly small in most organic
+beings in a state of nature, and probably quite wanting (as far as our
+senses serve) in the majority of cases; yet considering how many animals
+and plants, taken by mankind from different quarters of the world for
+the most diverse purposes, have varied under domestication in every
+country and in every age, I think we may safely conclude that all
+organic beings with few exceptions, if capable of being domesticated and
+bred for long periods, would vary. Domestication seems to resolve itself
+into a change from the natural conditions of the species [<del>generally
+perhaps including an increase of food</del>]; if this be so, organisms in a
+state of nature must <i>occasionally</i>, in the course of ages, be exposed
+to analogous influences; for geology clearly shows that many places
+must, in the course of time, become exposed to the widest range of
+climatic and other influences; and if such places be isolated, so that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_84' id='Page_84'>{84}</a></span>
+new and better adapted organic beings cannot freely emigrate, the old
+inhabitants will be exposed to new influences, probably far more varied,
+than man applies under the form of domestication. Although every species
+no doubt will soon breed up to the full number which the country will
+support, yet it is easy to conceive that, on an average, some species
+may receive an increase of food; for the times of dearth may be short,
+yet enough to kill, and recurrent only at long intervals. All such
+changes of conditions from geological causes would be exceedingly slow;
+what effect the slowness might have we are ignorant; under domestication
+it appears that the effects of change of conditions accumulate, and then
+break out. Whatever might be the result of these slow geological
+changes, we may feel sure, from the means of dissemination common in a
+lesser or greater degree to every organism taken conjointly with the
+changes of geology, which are steadily (and sometimes suddenly, as when
+an isthmus at last separates) in progress, that occasionally organisms
+must suddenly be introduced into new regions, where, if the conditions
+of existence are not so foreign as to cause its extermination, it will
+often be propagated under circumstances still more closely analogous to
+those of domestication; and therefore we expect will evince a tendency
+to vary. It appears to me quite <i>inexplicable</i> if this has never
+happened; but it can happen very rarely. Let us then suppose that an
+organism by some chance (which might be hardly repeated in 1000 years)
+arrives at a modern volcanic island in process of formation and not
+fully stocked with the most appropriate organisms; the new organism
+might readily gain a footing, although the external conditions were
+considerably different from its native ones. The effect of this we might
+expect would influence in some small degree the size, colour, nature of
+covering &amp;c., and from inexplicable influences <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_85' id='Page_85'>{85}</a></span>
+even special parts and organs of the body. But we might further (and
+«<ins>this</ins>» is far more important) expect that the reproductive
+system would be affected, as under domesticity, and the structure of the
+offspring rendered in some degree plastic. Hence almost every part of
+the body would tend to vary from the typical form in slight degrees, and
+in no determinate way, and therefore <i>without selection</i> the free
+crossing of these small variations (together with the tendency to
+reversion to the original form) would constantly be counteracting this
+unsettling effect of the extraneous conditions on the reproductive
+system. Such, I conceive, would be the unimportant result without
+selection. And here I must observe that the foregoing remarks are
+equally applicable to that small and admitted amount of variation which
+has been observed in some organisms in a state of nature; as well as to
+the above hypothetical variation consequent on changes of condition.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now suppose a Being<a name='FNanchor_224_224' id='FNanchor_224_224'></a><a href='#Footnote_224_224' class='fnanchor'>{224}</a>
+with penetration sufficient to perceive differences in the outer and
+innermost organization quite imperceptible to man, and with forethought
+extending over future centuries to watch with unerring care and select
+for any object the offspring of an organism produced under the foregoing
+circumstances; I can see no conceivable reason why he could not form a
+new race (or several were he to separate the stock of the original
+organism and work on several islands) adapted to new ends. As we assume
+his discrimination, and his forethought, and his steadiness of object,
+to be incomparably greater that those qualities in man, so we may
+suppose the beauty and complications of the adaptations of the new races
+and their differences from the original stock to be greater than in the
+domestic races produced by man&rsquo;s agency: the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_86' id='Page_86'>{86}</a></span>
+ground-work of his labours we may aid by supposing that the external
+conditions of the volcanic island, from its continued emergence and the
+occasional introduction of new immigrants, vary; and thus to act on the
+reproductive system of the organism, on which he is at work, and so keep
+its organization somewhat plastic. With time enough, such a Being might
+rationally (without some unknown law opposed him) aim at almost any
+result.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, let this imaginary Being wish, from seeing a plant growing
+on the decaying matter in a forest and choked by other plants, to give
+it power of growing on the rotten stems of trees, he would commence
+selecting every seedling whose berries were in the smallest degree more
+attractive to tree-frequenting birds, so as to cause a proper
+dissemination of the seeds, and at the same time he would select those
+plants which had in the slightest degree more and more power of drawing
+nutriment from rotten wood; and he would destroy all other seedlings
+with less of this power. He might thus, in the course of century after
+century, hope to make the plant by degrees grow on rotten wood, even
+high up on trees, wherever birds dropped the non-digested seeds. He
+might then, if the organization of the plant was plastic, attempt by
+continued selection of chance seedlings to make it grow on less and less
+rotten wood, till it would grow on sound wood<a name='FNanchor_225_225' id='FNanchor_225_225'></a><a href='#Footnote_225_225' class='fnanchor'>{225}</a>.
+Supposing again, during these changes the plant failed to seed quite
+freely from non-impregnation, he might begin selecting seedlings with a
+little sweeter «<ins>or</ins>» differently tasted honey or pollen, to
+tempt insects to visit the flowers regularly: having effected this, he
+might wish, if it profited the plant, to render abortive the stamens and
+pistils in different flowers, which he could do by continued selection.
+By such <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_87' id='Page_87'>{87}</a></span>
+steps he might aim at making a plant as wonderfully related to other
+organic beings as is the mistletoe, whose existence absolutely depends
+on certain insects for impregnation, certain birds for transportal, and
+certain trees for growth. Furthermore, if the insect which had been
+induced regularly to visit this hypothetical plant profited much by it,
+our same Being might wish by selection to modify by gradual selection
+the insect&rsquo;s structure, so as to facilitate its obtaining the
+honey or pollen: in this manner he might adapt the insect (always
+presupposing its organization to be in some degree plastic) to the
+flower, and the impregnation of the flower to the insect; as is the case
+with many bees and many plants.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing what blind capricious man has actually effected by selection
+during the few last years, and what in a ruder state he has probably
+effected without any systematic plan during the last few thousand years,
+he will be a bold person who will positively put limits to what the
+supposed Being could effect during whole geological periods. In
+accordance with the plan by which this universe seems governed by the
+Creator, let us consider whether there exists any <i>secondary</i> means in
+the economy of nature by which the process of selection could go on
+adapting, nicely and wonderfully, organisms, if in ever so small a
+degree plastic, to diverse ends. I believe such secondary means do
+exist<a name='FNanchor_226_226' id='FNanchor_226_226'></a><a href='#Footnote_226_226' class='fnanchor'>{226}</a>.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Natural means of Selection</i><a name='FNanchor_227_227' id='FNanchor_227_227'></a><a href='#Footnote_227_227' class='fnanchor'>{227}</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>De Candolle, in an eloquent passage, has declared that all nature is at
+war, one organism with another, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_88' id='Page_88'>{88}</a></span>
+or with external nature. Seeing the contented face of nature, this may
+at first be well doubted; but reflection will inevitably prove it is too
+true. The war, however, is not constant, but only recurrent in a slight
+degree at short periods and more severely at occasional more distant
+periods; and hence its effects are easily overlooked. It is the doctrine
+of Malthus applied in most cases with ten-fold force. As in every
+climate there are seasons for each of its inhabitants of greater and
+less abundance, so all annually breed; and the moral restraint, which in
+some small degree checks the increase of mankind, is entirely lost. Even
+slow-breeding mankind has doubled in 25 years<a name='FNanchor_228_228' id='FNanchor_228_228'></a><a href='#Footnote_228_228' class='fnanchor'>{228}</a>,
+and if he could increase his food with greater ease, he would double in
+less time. But for animals, without artificial means, <i>on an average</i>
+the amount of food for each species must be constant; whereas the
+increase of all organisms tends to be geometrical, and in a vast
+majority of cases at an enormous ratio. Suppose in a certain spot there
+are eight pairs of [<del>robins</del>] birds, and that <i>only</i> four pairs of them
+annually (including double hatches) rear only four young; and that these
+go on rearing their young at the same rate: then at the end of seven
+years (a short life, excluding violent deaths, for any birds) there will
+be 2048 robins, instead of the original sixteen; as this increase is
+quite impossible, so we must conclude either that robins do not rear
+nearly half their young or that the average life of a robin when reared
+is from accident not nearly seven years. Both checks probably concur.
+The same kind of calculation applied to all vegetables and animals
+produces results either more or less striking, but in scarcely a single
+instance less striking than in man<a name='FNanchor_229_229' id='FNanchor_229_229'></a><a href='#Footnote_229_229' class='fnanchor'>{229}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Many practical illustrations of this rapid tendency <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_89' id='Page_89'>{89}</a></span>
+to increase are on record, namely during peculiar seasons, in the
+extraordinary increase of certain animals, for instance during the years
+1826 to 1828, in La Plata, when from drought, some millions of cattle
+perished, the whole country <i>swarmed</i> with innumerable mice: now I think
+it cannot be doubted that during the breeding season all the mice (with
+the exception of a few males or females in excess) ordinarily pair; and
+therefore that this astounding increase during three years must be
+attributed to a greater than usual number surviving the first year, and
+then breeding, and so on, till the third year, when their numbers were
+brought down to their usual limits on the return of wet weather. Where
+man has introduced plants and animals into a new country favourable to
+them, there are many accounts in how surprisingly few years the whole
+country has become stocked with them. This increase would necessarily
+stop as soon as the country was fully stocked; and yet we have every
+reason to believe from what is known of wild animals that <i>all</i> would
+pair in the spring. In the majority of cases it is most difficult to
+imagine where the check falls, generally no doubt on the seeds, eggs,
+and young; but when we remember how impossible even in mankind (so much
+better known than any other animal) it is to infer from repeated casual
+observations what the average of life is, or to discover how different
+the percentage of deaths to the births in different countries, we ought
+to feel no legitimate surprise at not seeing where the check falls in
+animals and plants. It should always be remembered that in most cases
+the checks are yearly recurrent in a small regular degree, and in an
+extreme degree during occasionally unusually cold, hot, dry, or wet
+years, according to the constitution of the being in question. Lighten
+any check in the smallest degree, and the geometrical <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_90' id='Page_90'>{90}</a></span>
+power of increase in every organism will instantly increase the average
+numbers of the favoured species. Nature may be compared to a surface, on
+which rest ten thousand sharp wedges touching each other and driven
+inwards by incessant blows<a name='FNanchor_230_230' id='FNanchor_230_230'></a><a href='#Footnote_230_230' class='fnanchor'>{230}</a>.
+Fully to realise these views much reflection is requisite; Malthus on
+man should be studied; and all such cases as those of the mice in La
+Plata, of the cattle and horses when first turned out in S. America, of
+the robins by our calculation, &amp;c., should be well considered:
+reflect on the enormous multiplying power <i>inherent and annually in
+action</i> in all animals; reflect on the countless seeds scattered by a
+hundred ingenious contrivances, year after year, over the whole face of
+the land; and yet we have every reason to suppose that the average
+percentage of every one of the inhabitants of a country will
+<i>ordinarily</i> remain constant. Finally, let it be borne in mind that this
+average number of individuals (the external conditions remaining the
+same) in each country is kept up by recurrent struggles against other
+species or against external nature (as on the borders of the arctic
+regions<a name='FNanchor_231_231' id='FNanchor_231_231'></a><a href='#Footnote_231_231' class='fnanchor'>{231}</a>,
+where the cold checks life); and that ordinarily each individual of each
+species holds its place, either by its own struggle and capacity of
+acquiring nourishment in some period (from the egg upwards) of its life,
+or by the struggle of its parents (in short lived organisms, when the
+main check occurs at long intervals) against and compared with other
+individuals of the <i>same</i> or <i>different</i> species.</p>
+
+<p>But let the external conditions of a country change; if in a small
+degree, the relative proportions of the inhabitants will in most cases
+simply be <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_91' id='Page_91'>{91}</a></span>
+slightly changed; but let the number of inhabitants be small, as in an
+island<a name='FNanchor_232_232' id='FNanchor_232_232'></a><a href='#Footnote_232_232' class='fnanchor'>{232}</a>,
+and free access to it from other countries be circumscribed; and let the
+change of condition continue progressing (forming new stations); in such
+case the original inhabitants must cease to be so perfectly adapted to
+the changed conditions as they originally were. It has been shown that
+probably such changes of external conditions would, from acting on the
+reproductive system, cause the organization of the beings most affected
+to become, as under domestication, plastic. Now can it be doubted from
+the struggle each individual (or its parents) has to obtain subsistence
+that any minute variation in structure, habits, or instincts, adapting
+that individual better to the new conditions, would tell upon its vigour
+and health? In the struggle it would have a better <i>chance</i> of
+surviving, and those of its offspring which inherited the variation, let
+it be ever so slight, would have a better <i>chance</i> to survive. Yearly
+more are bred than can survive; the smallest grain in the balance, in
+the long run, must tell on which death shall fall, and which shall
+survive<a name='FNanchor_233_233' id='FNanchor_233_233'></a><a href='#Footnote_233_233' class='fnanchor'>{233}</a>.
+Let this work of selection, on the one hand, and death on the other, go
+on for a thousand generations; who would pretend to affirm that it would
+produce no effect, when we remember what in a few years Bakewell
+effected in cattle and Western in sheep, by this identical principle of
+selection.</p>
+
+<p>To give an imaginary example, from changes in progress on an island, let
+the organization<a name='FNanchor_234_234' id='FNanchor_234_234'></a><a href='#Footnote_234_234' class='fnanchor'>{234}</a>
+of a canine animal become slightly plastic, which animal preyed chiefly
+on rabbits, but sometimes on hares; let these same changes cause the
+number of rabbits <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_92' id='Page_92'>{92}</a></span>
+very slowly to decrease and the number of hares to increase; the effect
+of this would be that the fox or dog would be driven to try to catch
+more hares, and his numbers would tend to decrease; his organization,
+however, being slightly plastic, those individuals with the lightest
+forms, longest limbs, and best eye-sight (though perhaps with less
+cunning or scent) would be slightly favoured, let the difference be ever
+so small, and would tend to live longer and to survive during that time
+of the year when food was shortest; they would also rear more young,
+which young would tend to inherit these slight peculiarities. The less
+fleet ones would be rigidly destroyed. I can see no more reason to doubt
+but that these causes in a thousand generations would produce a marked
+effect, and adapt the form of the fox to catching hares instead of
+rabbits, than that greyhounds can be improved by selection and careful
+breeding. So would it be with plants under similar circumstances; if the
+number of individuals of a species with plumed seeds could be increased
+by greater powers of dissemination within its own area (that is if the
+check to increase fell chiefly on the seeds), those seeds which were
+provided with ever so little more down, or with a plume placed so as to
+be slightly more acted on by the winds, would in the long run tend to be
+most disseminated; and hence a greater number of seeds thus formed would
+germinate, and would tend to produce plants inheriting this slightly
+better adapted down.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this natural means of selection, by which those individuals are
+preserved, whether in their egg or seed or in their mature state, which
+are best adapted to the place they fill in nature, there is a second
+agency at work in most bisexual animals tending to produce the same
+effect, namely the struggle of the males for the females. These
+struggles are generally decided by the law of battle; <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_93' id='Page_93'>{93}</a></span>
+but in the case of birds, apparently, by the charms of their song<a name='FNanchor_235_235' id='FNanchor_235_235'></a><a href='#Footnote_235_235' class='fnanchor'>{235}</a>,
+by their beauty or their power of courtship, as in the dancing
+rock-thrush of Guiana. Even in the animals which pair there seems to be
+an excess of males which would aid in causing a struggle: in the
+polygamous animals<a name='FNanchor_236_236' id='FNanchor_236_236'></a><a href='#Footnote_236_236' class='fnanchor'>{236}</a>,
+however, as in deer, oxen, poultry, we might expect there would be
+severest struggle: is it not in the polygamous animals that the males
+are best formed for mutual war? The most vigorous males, implying
+perfect adaptation, must generally gain the victory in their several
+contests. This kind of selection, however, is less rigorous than the
+other; it does not require the death of the less successful, but gives
+to them fewer descendants. This struggle falls, moreover, at a time of
+year when food is generally abundant, and perhaps the effect chiefly
+produced would be the alteration of sexual characters, and the selection
+of individual forms, no way related to their power of obtaining food, or
+of defending themselves from their natural enemies, but of fighting one
+with another. This natural struggle amongst the males may be compared in
+effect, but in a less degree, to that produced by those agriculturalists
+who pay less attention to the careful selection of all the young animals
+which they breed and more to the occasional use of a choice male<a name='FNanchor_237_237' id='FNanchor_237_237'></a><a href='#Footnote_237_237' class='fnanchor'>{237}</a>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_94' id='Page_94'>{94}</a></p>
+
+<h3><i>Differences between &ldquo;Races&rdquo; and &ldquo;Species&rdquo;:&mdash;first, in their trueness or
+variability.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Races<a name='FNanchor_238_238' id='FNanchor_238_238'></a><a href='#Footnote_238_238' class='fnanchor'>{238}</a>
+produced by these natural means of selection<a name='FNanchor_239_239' id='FNanchor_239_239'></a><a href='#Footnote_239_239' class='fnanchor'>{239}</a>
+we may expect would differ in some respects from those produced by man.
+Man selects chiefly by the eye, and is not able to perceive the course
+of every vessel and nerve, or the form of the bones, or whether the
+internal structure corresponds to the outside shape. He<a name='FNanchor_240_240' id='FNanchor_240_240'></a><a href='#Footnote_240_240' class='fnanchor'>{240}</a>
+is unable to select shades of constitutional differences, and by the
+protection he affords and his endeavours to keep his property alive, in
+whatever country he lives, he checks, as much as lies in his power, the
+selecting action of nature, which will, however, go on to a lesser
+degree with all living things, even if their length of life is not
+determined by their own powers of endurance. He has bad judgment, is
+capricious, he does not, or his successors do not, wish to select for
+the same exact end for hundreds of generations. He cannot always suit
+the selected form to the properest conditions; nor does he keep those
+conditions uniform: he selects that which is useful to him, not that
+best adapted to those conditions in which each variety is placed by him:
+he selects a small dog, but feeds it highly; he selects a long-backed
+dog, but does not exercise it in any peculiar manner, at least not
+during every generation. He seldom allows the most vigorous males to
+struggle for themselves and propagate, but picks out such as he
+possesses, or such as he prefers, and not necessarily those best adapted
+to the existing conditions. Every agriculturalist and breeder knows how
+difficult it is to prevent an occasional cross with another breed.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_95' id='Page_95'>{95}</a></span>
+He often grudges to destroy an individual which departs considerably
+from the required type. He often begins his selection by a form or sport
+considerably departing from the parent form. Very differently does the
+natural law of selection act; the varieties selected differ only
+slightly from the parent forms<a name='FNanchor_241_241' id='FNanchor_241_241'></a><a href='#Footnote_241_241' class='fnanchor'>{241}</a>;
+the conditions are constant for long periods and change slowly; rarely
+can there be a cross; the selection is rigid and unfailing, and
+continued through many generations; a selection can <i>never be made</i>
+without the form be <i>better</i> adapted to the conditions than the parent
+form; the selecting power goes on without caprice, and steadily for
+thousands of years adapting the form to these conditions. The selecting
+power is not deceived by external appearances, it tries the being during
+its whole life; and if less well «<ins>?</ins>» adapted than its
+<i>congeners</i>, without fail it is destroyed; every part of its structure
+is thus scrutinised and proved good towards the place in nature which it
+occupies.</p>
+
+<p>We have every reason to believe that in proportion to the number of
+generations that a domestic race is kept free from crosses, and to the
+care employed in continued steady selection with one end in view, and to
+the care in not placing the variety in conditions unsuited to it; in
+such proportion does the new race become &ldquo;true&rdquo; or subject
+to little variation<a name='FNanchor_242_242' id='FNanchor_242_242'></a><a href='#Footnote_242_242' class='fnanchor'>{242}</a>.
+How incomparably &ldquo;truer&rdquo; then would a race produced by the
+above rigid, steady, natural means of selection, excellently trained and
+perfectly adapted to its conditions, free from stains of blood or
+crosses, and continued during thousands of years, be compared with one
+produced by the feeble, capricious, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_96' id='Page_96'>{96}</a></span>
+misdirected and ill-adapted selection of man. Those races of domestic
+animals produced by savages, partly by the inevitable conditions of
+their life, and partly unintentionally by their greater care of the
+individuals most valuable to them, would probably approach closest to
+the character of a species; and I believe this is the case. Now the
+characteristic mark of a species, next, if not equal in importance to
+its sterility when crossed with another species, and indeed almost the
+only other character (without we beg the question and affirm the essence
+of a species, is its not having descended from a parent common to any
+other form), is the similarity of the individuals composing the species,
+or in the language of agriculturalists their &ldquo;trueness.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h3><i>Difference between &ldquo;Races&rdquo; and &ldquo;Species&rdquo; in fertility when crossed.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The sterility of species, or of their offspring, when crossed has,
+however, received more attention than the uniformity in character of the
+individuals composing the species. It is exceedingly natural that such
+sterility<a name='FNanchor_243_243' id='FNanchor_243_243'></a><a href='#Footnote_243_243' class='fnanchor'>{243}</a>
+should have been long thought the certain characteristic of species. For
+it is obvious that if the allied different forms which we meet with in
+the same country could cross together, instead of finding a number of
+distinct species, we should have a confused and blending series. The
+fact however of a perfect gradation in the degree of sterility between
+species, and the circumstance of some species most closely allied (for
+instance many species of crocus and European heaths) refusing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_97' id='Page_97'>{97}</a></span>
+to breed together, whereas other species, widely different, and even
+belonging to distinct genera, as the fowl and the peacock, pheasant and
+grouse<a name='FNanchor_244_244' id='FNanchor_244_244'></a><a href='#Footnote_244_244' class='fnanchor'>{244}</a>,
+Azalea and Rhododendron, Thuja and Juniperus, breeding together ought to
+have caused a doubt whether the sterility did not depend on other
+causes, distinct from a law, coincident with their creation. I may here
+remark that the fact whether one species will or will not breed with
+another is far less important than the sterility of the offspring when
+produced; for even some domestic races differ so greatly in size (as the
+great stag-greyhound and lap-dog, or cart-horse and Burmese ponies) that
+union is nearly impossible; and what is less generally known is, that in
+plants K&ouml;lreuter has shown by hundreds of experiments that the
+pollen of one species will fecundate the germen of another species,
+whereas the pollen of this latter will never act on the germen of the
+former; so that the simple fact of mutual impregnation certainly has no
+relation whatever to the distinctness in creation of the two forms. When
+two species are attempted to be crossed which are so distantly allied
+that offspring are never produced, it has been observed in some cases
+that the pollen commences its proper action by exserting its tube, and
+the germen commences swelling, though soon afterwards it decays. In the
+next stage in the series, hybrid offspring are produced though only
+rarely and few in number, and these are absolutely sterile: then we have
+hybrid offspring more numerous, and occasionally, though very rarely,
+breeding with either parent, as is the case with the common mule. Again,
+other hybrids, though infertile <i>inter se</i>, will breed <i>quite</i> freely
+with either parent, or with a third species, and will yield <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_98' id='Page_98'>{98}</a></span>
+offspring generally infertile, but sometimes fertile; and these latter
+again will breed with either parent, or with a third or fourth species:
+thus K&ouml;lreuter blended together many forms. Lastly it is now
+admitted by those botanists who have longest contended against the
+admission, that in certain families the hybrid offspring of many of the
+species are sometimes perfectly fertile in the first generation when
+bred together: indeed in some few cases Mr Herbert<a name='FNanchor_245_245' id='FNanchor_245_245'></a><a href='#Footnote_245_245' class='fnanchor'>{245}</a>
+found that the hybrids were decidedly more fertile than either of their
+pure parents. There is no way to escape from the admission that the
+hybrids from some species of plants are fertile, except by declaring
+that no form shall be considered as a species, if it produces with
+another species fertile offspring: but this is begging the question<a name='FNanchor_246_246' id='FNanchor_246_246'></a><a href='#Footnote_246_246' class='fnanchor'>{246}</a>.
+It has often been stated that different species of animals have a sexual
+repugnance towards each other; I can find no evidence of this; it
+appears as if they merely did not excite each others passions. I do not
+believe that in this respect there is any essential distinction between
+animals and plants; and in the latter there cannot be a feeling of
+repugnance.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Causes of Sterility in Hybrids.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The difference in nature between species which causes the greater or
+lesser degree of sterility in their offspring appears, according to
+Herbert and K&ouml;lreuter, to be connected much less with external form,
+size, or structure, than with constitutional peculiarities; by which is
+meant their adaptation to different climates, food and situation, &amp;c.:
+these <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_99' id='Page_99'>{99}</a></span>
+peculiarities of constitution probably affect the entire frame, and no
+one part in particular<a name='FNanchor_247_247' id='FNanchor_247_247'></a><a href='#Footnote_247_247' class='fnanchor'>{247}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing facts I think we must admit that there exists a
+perfect gradation in fertility between species which when crossed are
+quite fertile (as in Rhododendron, Calceolaria, &amp;c.), and indeed in
+an extraordinary degree fertile (as in Crinum), and those species which
+never produce offspring, but which by certain effects (as the exsertion
+of the pollen-tube) evince their alliance. Hence, I conceive, we must
+give up sterility, although undoubtedly in a lesser or greater degree of
+very frequent occurrence, as an unfailing mark by which <i>species</i> can be
+distinguished from <i>races</i>, <i>i.e.</i> from those forms which have descended
+from a common stock.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Let us see whether there are any analogous facts which will throw any
+light on this subject, and will tend to explain why the offspring of
+certain species, when crossed, should be sterile, and not others,
+without requiring a distinct law connected with their creation to that
+effect. Great numbers, probably a large majority of animals when caught
+by man and removed from their natural conditions, although taken very
+young, rendered quite tame, living to a good old age, and apparently
+quite healthy, seem incapable under these circumstances of breeding<a name='FNanchor_248_248' id='FNanchor_248_248'></a><a href='#Footnote_248_248' class='fnanchor'>{248}</a>.
+I do not refer to animals kept in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_100' id='Page_100'>{100}</a></span>
+menageries, such as at the Zoological Gardens, many of which, however,
+appear healthy and live long and unite but do not produce; but to
+animals caught and left partly at liberty in their native country.
+Rengger<a name='FNanchor_249_249' id='FNanchor_249_249'></a><a href='#Footnote_249_249' class='fnanchor'>{249}</a>
+enumerates several caught young and rendered tame, which he kept in
+Paraguay, and which would not breed: the hunting leopard or cheetah and
+elephant offer other instances; as do bears in Europe, and the 25
+species of hawks, belonging to different genera, thousands of which have
+been kept for hawking and have lived for long periods in perfect vigour.
+When the expense and trouble of procuring a succession of young animals
+in a wild state be borne in mind, one may feel sure that no trouble has
+been spared in endeavours to make them breed. So clearly marked is this
+difference in different kinds of animals, when captured by man, that St
+Hilaire makes two great classes of animals useful to man:&mdash;the
+<i>tame</i>, which will not breed, and the <i>domestic</i> which will breed in
+domestication. From certain singular facts we might have supposed that
+the non-breeding of animals was owing to some perversion of instinct.
+But we meet with exactly the same class of facts in plants: I do not
+refer to the large number of cases where the climate does not permit the
+seed or fruit to ripen, but where the flowers do not &ldquo;set,&rdquo;
+owing to some imperfection of the ovule or pollen. The latter, which
+alone can be distinctly examined, is often manifestly imperfect, as any
+one with a microscope can observe by comparing the pollen of the Persian
+and Chinese lilacs<a name='FNanchor_250_250' id='FNanchor_250_250'></a><a href='#Footnote_250_250' class='fnanchor'>{250}</a>
+with the common lilac; the two <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_101' id='Page_101'>{101}</a></span>
+former species (I may add) are equally sterile in Italy as in this
+country. Many of the American bog plants here produce little or no
+pollen, whilst the Indian species of the same genera freely produce it.
+Lindley observes that sterility is the bane of the horticulturist<a name='FNanchor_251_251' id='FNanchor_251_251'></a><a href='#Footnote_251_251' class='fnanchor'>{251}</a>:
+Linn&aelig;us has remarked on the sterility of nearly all alpine flowers
+when cultivated in a lowland district<a name='FNanchor_252_252' id='FNanchor_252_252'></a><a href='#Footnote_252_252' class='fnanchor'>{252}</a>.
+Perhaps the immense class of double flowers chiefly owe their structure
+to an excess of food acting on parts rendered slightly sterile and less
+capable of performing their true function, and therefore liable to be
+rendered monstrous, which monstrosity, like any other disease, is
+inherited and rendered common. So far from domestication being in itself
+unfavourable to fertility, it is well known that when an organism is
+once capable of submission to such conditions «<ins>its</ins>»
+fertility is increased<a name='FNanchor_253_253' id='FNanchor_253_253'></a><a href='#Footnote_253_253' class='fnanchor'>{253}</a>
+beyond the natural limit. According to agriculturists, slight changes of
+conditions, that is of food or habitation, and likewise crosses with
+races slightly different, increase the vigour and probably the fertility
+of their offspring. It would appear also that even a great change of
+condition, for instance, transportal from temperate countries to India,
+in many cases does not in the least affect fertility, although it does
+health and length of life and the period of maturity. When sterility is
+induced by domestication it is of the same kind, and varies in degree,
+exactly as with hybrids: for be it remembered that the most sterile
+hybrid is no way monstrous; its organs are perfect, but they do not act,
+and minute microscopical investigations show that they are in the same
+state as those of pure species in the intervals of the breeding season.
+The defective pollen in the cases above alluded to precisely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_102' id='Page_102'>{102}</a></span>
+resembles that of hybrids. The occasional breeding of hybrids, as of
+the common mule, may be aptly compared to the most rare but occasional
+reproduction of elephants in captivity. The cause of many exotic
+Geraniums producing (although in vigorous health) imperfect pollen seems
+to be connected with the period when water is given them<a name='FNanchor_254_254' id='FNanchor_254_254'></a><a href='#Footnote_254_254' class='fnanchor'>{254}</a>;
+but in the far greater majority of cases we cannot form any conjecture
+on what exact cause the sterility of organisms taken from their natural
+conditions depends. Why, for instance, the cheetah will not breed whilst
+the common cat and ferret (the latter generally kept shut up in a small
+box) do,&mdash;why the elephant will not whilst the pig will
+abundantly&mdash;why the partridge and grouse in their own country will
+not, whilst several species of pheasants, the guinea-fowl from the
+deserts of Africa and the peacock from the jungles of India, will. We
+must, however, feel convinced that it depends on some constitutional
+peculiarities in these beings not suited to their new condition; though
+not necessarily causing an ill state of health. Ought we then to wonder
+much that those hybrids which have been produced by the crossing of
+species with different constitutional tendencies (which tendencies we
+know to be eminently inheritable) should be sterile: it does not seem
+improbable that the cross from an alpine and lowland plant should have
+its constitutional powers deranged, in nearly the same manner as when
+the parent alpine plant is brought into a lowland district. Analogy,
+however, is a deceitful guide, and it would be rash to affirm, although
+it may appear probable, that the sterility of hybrids is due to the
+constitutional peculiarities of one parent being disturbed by being
+blended with those of the other parent in exactly the same <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_103' id='Page_103'>{103}</a></span>
+manner as it is caused in some organic beings when placed by man out of
+their natural conditions<a name='FNanchor_255_255' id='FNanchor_255_255'></a><a href='#Footnote_255_255' class='fnanchor'>{255}</a>.
+Although this would be rash, it would, I think, be still rasher, seeing
+that sterility is no more incidental to <i>all</i> cross-bred productions
+than it is to all organic beings when captured by man, to assert that
+the sterility of certain hybrids proved a distinct creation of their
+parents.</p>
+
+<p>But it may be objected<a name='FNanchor_256_256' id='FNanchor_256_256'></a><a href='#Footnote_256_256' class='fnanchor'>{256}</a>
+(however little the sterility of certain hybrids is connected with the
+distinct creations of species), how comes it, if species are only races
+produced by natural selection, that when crossed they so frequently
+produce sterile offspring, whereas in the offspring of those races
+confessedly produced by the arts of man there is no one instance of
+sterility. There is not much difficulty in this, for the races produced
+by the natural means above explained will be slowly but steadily
+selected; will be adapted to various and diverse conditions, and to
+these conditions they will be rigidly confined for immense periods of
+time; hence we may suppose that they would acquire different
+constitutional peculiarities adapted to the stations they occupy; and on
+the constitutional differences between species their sterility,
+according to the best authorities, depends. On the other hand man
+selects by external appearance<a name='FNanchor_257_257' id='FNanchor_257_257'></a><a href='#Footnote_257_257' class='fnanchor'>{257}</a>;
+from his ignorance, and from not having any test at least comparable in
+delicacy to the natural struggle for food, continued at intervals
+through the life of each individual, he cannot eliminate fine shades of
+constitution, dependent on invisible differences in the fluids or solids
+of the body; again, from the value <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_104' id='Page_104'>{104}</a></span>
+which he attaches to each individual, he asserts his utmost power in
+contravening the natural tendency of the most vigorous to survive. Man,
+moreover, especially in the earlier ages, cannot have kept his
+conditions of life constant, and in later ages his stock pure. Until man
+selects two varieties from the same stock, adapted to two climates or to
+other different external conditions, and confines each rigidly for one
+or several thousand years to such conditions, always selecting the
+individuals best adapted to them, he cannot be said to have even
+commenced the experiment. Moreover, the organic beings which man has
+longest had under domestication have been those which were of the
+greatest use to him, and one chief element of their usefulness,
+especially in the earlier ages, must have been their capacity to undergo
+sudden transportals into various climates, and at the same time to
+retain their fertility, which in itself implies that in such respects
+their constitutional peculiarities were not closely limited. If the
+opinion already mentioned be correct, that most of the domestic animals
+in their present state have descended from the fertile commixture of
+wild races or species, we have indeed little reason now to expect
+infertility between any cross of stock thus descended.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of remark, that as many organic beings, when taken by man
+out of their natural conditions, have their reproductive system
+«<ins>so</ins>» affected as to be incapable of propagation, so, we saw
+in the first chapter, that although organic beings when taken by man do
+propagate freely, their offspring after some generations vary or sport
+to a degree which can only be explained by their reproductive system
+being «<ins>in</ins>» some way affected. Again, when species cross,
+their offspring are generally sterile; but it was found by
+K&ouml;lreuter that when hybrids are capable of breeding with either
+parent, or with <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_105' id='Page_105'>{105}</a></span>
+other species, that their offspring are subject after some generations
+to excessive variation<a name='FNanchor_258_258' id='FNanchor_258_258'></a><a href='#Footnote_258_258' class='fnanchor'>{258}</a>.
+Agriculturists, also, affirm that the offspring from mongrels, after the
+first generation, vary much. Hence we see that both sterility and
+variation in the succeeding generations are consequent both on the
+removal of individual species from their natural states and on species
+crossing. The connection between these facts may be accidental, but they
+certainly appear to elucidate and support each other,&mdash;on the
+principle of the reproductive system of all organic beings being
+eminently sensitive to any disturbance, whether from removal or
+commixture, in their constitutional relations to the conditions to which
+they are exposed.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Points of Resemblance between &ldquo;Races&rdquo; and &ldquo;Species</i><a name='FNanchor_259_259' id='FNanchor_259_259'></a><a href='#Footnote_259_259' class='fnanchor'>{259}</a>.<i>&rdquo;</i></h3>
+
+<p>Races and reputed species agree in some respects, although differing
+from causes which, we have seen, we can in some degree understand, in
+the fertility and &ldquo;trueness&rdquo; of their offspring. In the
+first place, there is no clear sign by which to distinguish races from
+species, as is evident from the great difficulty experienced by
+naturalists in attempting to discriminate them. As far as external
+characters are concerned, many of the races which are descended from the
+same stock differ far more than true species of the same genus; look at
+the willow-wrens, some of which skilful ornithologists can hardly
+distinguish from each other except by their nests; look at the wild
+swans, and compare the distinct species of these genera with the races
+of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_106' id='Page_106'>{106}</a></span>
+domestic ducks, poultry, and pigeons; and so again with plants, compare
+the cabbages, almonds, peaches and nectarines, &amp;c. with the species
+of many genera. St Hilaire has even remarked that there is a greater
+difference in size between races, as in dogs (for he believes all have
+descended from one stock), than between the species of any one genus;
+nor is this surprising, considering that amount of food and consequently
+of growth is the element of change over which man has most power. I may
+refer to a former statement, that breeders believe the growth of one
+part or strong action of one function causes a decrease in other parts;
+for this seems in some degree analogous to the law of &ldquo;organic
+compensation<a name='FNanchor_260_260' id='FNanchor_260_260'></a><a href='#Footnote_260_260' class='fnanchor'>{260}</a>,&rdquo;
+which many naturalists believe holds good. To give an instance of this
+law of compensation,&mdash;those species of Carnivora which have the
+canine teeth greatly developed have certain molar teeth deficient; or
+again, in that division of the Crustaceans in which the tail is much
+developed, the thorax is little so, and the converse. The points of
+difference between different races is often strikingly analogous to that
+between species of the same genus: trifling spots or marks of colour<a name='FNanchor_261_261' id='FNanchor_261_261'></a><a href='#Footnote_261_261' class='fnanchor'>{261}</a>
+(as the bars on pigeons&rsquo; wings) are often preserved in races of
+plants and animals, precisely in the same manner as similar trifling
+characters often pervade all the species of a genus, and even of a
+family. Flowers in varying their colours often become veined and spotted
+and the leaves become divided like true species: it is known that the
+varieties of the same plant never have red, blue and yellow flowers,
+though the hyacinth makes a very near approach to an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_107' id='Page_107'>{107}</a></span>
+exception<a name='FNanchor_262_262' id='FNanchor_262_262'></a><a href='#Footnote_262_262' class='fnanchor'>{262}</a>;
+and different species of the same genus seldom, though sometimes they
+have flowers of these three colours. Dun-coloured horses having a dark
+stripe down their backs, and certain domestic asses having transverse
+bars on their legs, afford striking examples of a variation analogous in
+character to the distinctive marks of other species of the same genus.</p>
+
+<h3><i>External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels.</i></h3>
+
+<p>There is, however, as it appears to me, a more important method of
+comparison between species and races, namely the character of the
+offspring<a name='FNanchor_263_263' id='FNanchor_263_263'></a><a href='#Footnote_263_263' class='fnanchor'>{263}</a>
+when species are crossed and when races are crossed: I believe, in no
+one respect, except in sterility, is there any difference. It would, I
+think, be a marvellous fact, if species have been formed by distinct
+acts of creation, that they should act upon each other in uniting, like
+races descended from a common stock. In the first place, by repeated
+crossing one species can absorb and wholly obliterate the characters of
+another, or of several other species, in the same manner as one race
+will absorb by crossing another race. Marvellous, that one act of
+creation should absorb another or even several acts of creation! The
+offspring of species, that is hybrids, and the offspring of races, that
+is mongrels, resemble each other in being either intermediate in
+character (as is most frequent in hybrids) or in resembling sometimes
+closely one and sometimes the other parent; in both the offspring
+produced by the same act of conception sometimes differ in their
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_108' id='Page_108'>{108}</a></span>
+degree of resemblance; both hybrids and mongrels sometimes retain a
+certain part or organ very like that of either parent, both, as we have
+seen, become in succeeding generations variable; and this tendency to
+vary can be transmitted by both; in both for many generations there is a
+strong tendency to reversion to their ancestral form. In the case of a
+hybrid laburnum and of a supposed mongrel vine different parts of the
+same plants took after each of their two parents. In the hybrids from
+some species, and in the mongrel of some races, the offspring differ
+according as which of the two species, or of the two races, is the
+father (as in the common mule and hinny) and which the mother. Some
+races will breed together, which differ so greatly in size, that the dam
+often perishes in labour; so it is with some species when crossed; when
+the dam of one species has borne offspring to the male of another
+species, her succeeding offspring are sometimes stained (as in Lord
+Morton&rsquo;s mare by the quagga, wonderful as the fact<a name='FNanchor_264_264' id='FNanchor_264_264'></a><a href='#Footnote_264_264' class='fnanchor'>{264}</a>
+is) by this first cross; so agriculturists positively affirm is the case
+when a pig or sheep of one breed has produced offspring by the sire of
+another breed.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Summary of second chapter</i><a name='FNanchor_265_265' id='FNanchor_265_265'></a><a href='#Footnote_265_265' class='fnanchor'>{265}</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>Let us sum up this second chapter. If slight variations do occur in
+organic beings in a state of nature; if changes of condition from
+geological causes do produce in the course of ages effects analogous to
+those of domestication on any, however few, organisms; and how can we
+doubt it,&mdash;from what is actually known, and from what may be
+presumed, since thousands of organisms taken by man <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_109' id='Page_109'>{109}</a></span>
+for sundry uses, and placed in new conditions, have varied. If such
+variations tend to be hereditary; and how can we doubt it,&mdash;when we
+see shades of expression, peculiar manners, monstrosities of the
+strangest kinds, diseases, and a multitude of other peculiarities, which
+characterise and form, being inherited, the endless races (there are
+1200 kinds of cabbages<a name='FNanchor_266_266' id='FNanchor_266_266'></a><a href='#Footnote_266_266' class='fnanchor'>{266}</a>)
+of our domestic plants and animals. If we admit that every organism
+maintains its place by an almost periodically recurrent struggle; and
+how can we doubt it,&mdash;when we know that all beings tend to increase
+in a geometrical ratio (as is instantly seen when the conditions become
+for a time more favourable); whereas on an average the amount of food
+must remain constant, if so, there will be a natural means of selection,
+tending to preserve those individuals with any slight deviations of
+structure more favourable to the then existing conditions, and tending
+to destroy any with deviations of an opposite nature. If the above
+propositions be correct, and there be no law of nature limiting the
+possible amount of variation, new races of beings will,&mdash;perhaps
+only rarely, and only in some few districts,&mdash;be formed.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Limits of Variation.</i></h3>
+
+<p>That a limit to variation does exist in nature is assumed by most
+authors, though I am unable to discover a single fact on which this
+belief is grounded<a name='FNanchor_267_267' id='FNanchor_267_267'></a><a href='#Footnote_267_267' class='fnanchor'>{267}</a>.
+One of the commonest statements is that plants do not become
+acclimatised; and I have even observed that kinds not raised by seed,
+but propagated by cuttings, &amp;c., are instanced. A good instance has,
+however, been advanced in the case of kidney beans, which it is believed
+are now as <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_110' id='Page_110'>{110}</a></span>
+tender as when first introduced. Even if we overlook the frequent
+introduction of seed from warmer countries, let me observe that as long
+as the seeds are gathered promiscuously from the bed, without continual
+observation and <i>careful</i> selection of those plants which have stood the
+climate best during their whole growth, the experiment of
+acclimatisation has hardly been begun. Are not all those plants and
+animals, of which we have the greatest number of races, the oldest
+domesticated? Considering the quite recent progress<a
+name='FNanchor_268_268' id='FNanchor_268_268'></a><a
+href='#Footnote_268_268' class='fnanchor'>{268}</a> of systematic
+agriculture and horticulture, is it not opposed to every fact, that we
+have exhausted the capacity of variation in our cattle and in our
+corn,&mdash;even if we have done so in some trivial points, as their
+fatness or kind of wool? Will any one say, that if horticulture
+continues to flourish during the next few centuries, that we shall not
+have numerous new kinds of the potato and Dahlia? But take two varieties
+of each of these plants, and adapt them to certain fixed conditions and
+prevent any cross for 5000 years, and then again vary their conditions;
+try many climates and situations; and who<a name='FNanchor_269_269' id='FNanchor_269_269'></a><a href='#Footnote_269_269' class='fnanchor'>{269}</a>
+will predict the number and degrees of difference which might arise from
+these stocks? I repeat that we know nothing of any limit to the possible
+amount of variation, and therefore to the number and differences of the
+races, which might be produced by the natural means of selection, so
+infinitely more efficient than the agency of man. Races thus produced
+would probably be very &ldquo;true&rdquo;; and if from having been
+adapted to different conditions of existence, they possessed different
+constitutions, if suddenly removed to some new station, they would
+perhaps be sterile and their offspring would perhaps be infertile.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_111' id='Page_111'>{111}</a></span>
+Such races would be undistinguishable from species. But is there any
+evidence that the species, which surround us on all sides, have been
+thus produced? This is a question which an examination of the economy of
+nature we might expect would answer either in the affirmative or
+negative<a name='FNanchor_270_270' id='FNanchor_270_270'></a><a href='#Footnote_270_270' class='fnanchor'>{270}</a>.</p>
+
+<hr  /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_112' id='Page_112'>{112}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_III' id='CHAPTER_III'></a>CHAPTER III<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL ATTRIBUTES UNDER
+DOMESTICATION AND IN STATE OF NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS
+SUBJECT; AND ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL
+STRUCTURES</span></h2>
+
+<h3><i>Variation of mental attributes under domestication.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I have as yet only alluded to the mental qualities which differ greatly
+in different species. Let me here premise that, as will be seen in the
+Second Part, there is no evidence and consequently no attempt to show
+that <i>all</i> existing organisms have descended from any one common
+parent-stock, but that only those have so descended which, in the
+language of naturalists, are clearly related to each other. Hence the
+facts and reasoning advanced in this chapter do not apply to the first
+origin of the senses<a name='FNanchor_271_271' id='FNanchor_271_271'></a><a href='#Footnote_271_271' class='fnanchor'>{271}</a>,
+or of the chief mental attributes, such as of memory, attention,
+reasoning, &amp;c., &amp;c., by which most or all of the great related
+groups are characterised, any more than they apply to the first origin
+of life, or growth, or the power of reproduction. The application of
+such facts as I have collected is merely to the differences of the
+primary mental qualities and of the instincts in the species<a name='FNanchor_272_272' id='FNanchor_272_272'></a><a href='#Footnote_272_272' class='fnanchor'>{272}</a>
+of the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_113' id='Page_113'>{113}</a></span>
+several great groups. In domestic animals every observer has remarked
+in how great a degree, in the individuals of the same species, the
+dispositions, namely courage, pertinacity, suspicion, restlessness,
+confidence, temper, pugnaciousness, affection, care of their young,
+sagacity, &amp;c., &amp;c., vary. It would require a most able
+metaphysician to explain how many primary qualities of the mind must be
+changed to cause these diversities of complex dispositions. From these
+dispositions being inherited, of which the testimony is unanimous,
+families and breeds arise, varying in these respects. I may instance the
+good and ill temper of different stocks of bees and of horses,&mdash;the
+pugnacity and courage of game fowls,&mdash;the pertinacity of certain
+dogs, as bull-dogs, and the sagacity of others,&mdash;for restlessness
+and suspicion compare a wild rabbit reared with the greatest care from
+its earliest age with the extreme tameness of the domestic breed of the
+same animal. The offspring of the domestic dogs which have run wild in
+Cuba<a name='FNanchor_273_273' id='FNanchor_273_273'></a><a href='#Footnote_273_273' class='fnanchor'>{273}</a>,
+though caught quite young, are most difficult to tame, probably nearly
+as much so as the original parent-stock from which the domestic dog
+descended. The habitual &ldquo;<i>periods</i>&rdquo; of different families of
+the same species differ, for instance, in the time of year of
+reproduction, and the period of life when the capacity is acquired, and
+the hour of roosting (in Malay fowls), &amp;c., &amp;c. These periodical
+habits are perhaps essentially corporeal, and may be compared to nearly
+similar habits in plants, which are known to vary extremely. Consensual
+movements (as called by M&uuml;ller) vary and are inherited,&mdash;such
+as the cantering and ambling paces in horses, the tumbling of pigeons,
+and perhaps the handwriting, which is sometimes so similar between
+father <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_114' id='Page_114'>{114}</a></span>
+and sons, may be ranked in this class. <i>Manners</i>, and even tricks which
+perhaps are only <i>peculiar</i> manners, according to W. Hunter and my
+father, are distinctly inherited in cases where children have lost their
+parent in early infancy. The inheritance of expression, which often
+reveals the finest shades of character, is familiar to everyone.</p>
+
+<p>Again the tastes and pleasures of different breeds vary, thus the
+shepherd-dog delights in chasing the sheep, but has no wish to kill
+them,&mdash;the terrier (see Knight) delights in killing vermin, and the
+spaniel in finding game. But it is impossible to separate their mental
+peculiarities in the way I have done: the tumbling of pigeons, which I
+have instanced as a consensual movement, might be called a trick and is
+associated with a taste for flying in a close flock at a great height.
+Certain breeds of fowls have a taste for roosting in trees. The
+different actions of pointers and setters might have been adduced in the
+same class, as might the peculiar <i>manner</i> of hunting of the spaniel.
+Even in the same breed of dogs, namely in fox-hounds, it is the fixed
+opinion of those best able to judge that the different pups are born
+with different tendencies; some are best to find their fox in the cover;
+some are apt to run straggling, some are best to make casts and to
+recover the lost scent, &amp;c.; and that these peculiarities
+undoubtedly are transmitted to their progeny. Or again the tendency to
+point might be adduced as a distinct habit which has become
+inherited,&mdash;as might the tendency of a true sheep dog (as I have
+been assured is the case) to run round the flock instead of directly at
+them, as is the case with other young dogs when attempted to be taught.
+The "transandantes" sheep<a name='FNanchor_274_274' id='FNanchor_274_274'></a><a href='#Footnote_274_274' class='fnanchor'>{274}</a>
+in Spain, which for some centuries have been yearly taken a journey of
+several hundred miles from one province <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_115' id='Page_115'>{115}</a></span>
+to another, know when the time comes, and show the greatest
+restlessness (like migratory birds in confinement), and are prevented
+with difficulty from starting by themselves, which they sometimes do,
+and find their own way. There is a case on good evidence<a name='FNanchor_275_275' id='FNanchor_275_275'></a><a href='#Footnote_275_275' class='fnanchor'>{275}</a>
+of a sheep which, when she lambed, would return across a mountainous
+country to her own birth-place, although at other times of year not of a
+rambling disposition. Her lambs inherited this same disposition, and
+would go to produce their young on the farm whence their parent came;
+and so troublesome was this habit that the whole family was destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>These facts must lead to the conviction, justly wonderful as it is, that
+almost infinitely numerous shades of disposition, of tastes, of peculiar
+movements, and even of individual actions, can be modified or acquired
+by one individual and transmitted to its offspring. One is forced to
+admit that mental phenomena (no doubt through their intimate connection
+with the brain) can be inherited, like infinitely numerous and fine
+differences of corporeal structure. In the same manner as peculiarities
+of corporeal structure slowly acquired or lost during mature life
+(especially cognisant «<ins>?</ins>» in disease), as well as congenital
+peculiarities, are transmitted; so it appears to be with the mind. The
+inherited paces in the horse have no doubt been acquired by compulsion
+during the lives of the parents: and temper and tameness may be modified
+in a breed by the treatment which the individuals receive. Knowing that
+a pig has been taught to point, one would suppose that this quality in
+pointer-dogs was the simple result of habit, but some facts, with
+respect to the occasional appearance of a similar quality in other dogs,
+would make one suspect that it originally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_116' id='Page_116'>{116}</a></span>
+appeared in a less perfect degree, &ldquo;<i>by chance</i>,&rdquo; that is
+from a congenital tendency<a name='FNanchor_276_276' id='FNanchor_276_276'></a><a href='#Footnote_276_276' class='fnanchor'>{276}</a>
+in the parent of the breed of pointers. One cannot believe that the
+tumbling, and high flight in a compact body, of one breed of pigeons has
+been taught; and in the case of the slight differences in the manner of
+hunting in young fox-hounds, they are doubtless congenital. The
+inheritance of the foregoing and similar mental phenomena ought perhaps
+to create less surprise, from the reflection that in no case do
+individual acts of reasoning, or movements, or other phenomena connected
+with consciousness, appear to be transmitted. An action, even a very
+complicated one, when from long practice it is performed unconsciously
+without any effort (and indeed in the case of many peculiarities of
+manners opposed to the will) is said, according to a common expression,
+to be performed &ldquo;instinctively.&rdquo; Those cases of languages,
+and of songs, learnt in early childhood and <i>quite</i> forgotten, being
+<i>perfectly</i> repeated during the unconsciousness of illness, appear to me
+only a few degrees less wonderful than if they had been transmitted to a
+second generation<a name='FNanchor_277_277' id='FNanchor_277_277'></a><a href='#Footnote_277_277' class='fnanchor'>{277}</a>.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Hereditary habits compared with instincts.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics of true instincts appear to be their
+invariability and non-improvement during the mature age of the
+individual animal: the absence of knowledge of the end, for which the
+action is performed, being associated, however, sometimes with a degree
+of reason; being subject to mistakes and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_117' id='Page_117'>{117}</a></span>
+being associated with certain states of the body or times of the year
+or day. In most of these respects there is a resemblance in the above
+detailed cases of the mental qualities acquired or modified during
+domestication. No doubt the instincts of wild animals are more uniform
+than those habits or qualities modified or recently acquired under
+domestication, in the same manner and from the same causes that the
+corporeal structure in this state is less uniform than in beings in
+their natural conditions. I have seen a young pointer point as fixedly,
+the first day it was taken out, as any old dog; Magendie says this was
+the case with a retriever which he himself reared: the tumbling of
+pigeons is not probably improved by age: we have seen that in the case
+above given that the young sheep inherited the migratory tendency to
+their particular birth-place the first time they lambed. This last fact
+offers an instance of a domestic instinct being associated with a state
+of body; as do the &ldquo;transandantes&rdquo; sheep with a time of
+year. Ordinarily the acquired instincts of domestic animals seem to
+require a certain degree of education (as generally in pointers and
+retrievers) to be perfectly developed: perhaps this holds good amongst
+wild animals in rather a greater degree than is generally supposed; for
+instance, in the singing of birds, and in the knowledge of proper herbs
+in Ruminants. It seems pretty clear that bees transmit knowledge from
+generation to generation. Lord Brougham<a name='FNanchor_278_278' id='FNanchor_278_278'></a><a href='#Footnote_278_278' class='fnanchor'>{278}</a>
+insists strongly on ignorance of the end proposed being eminently
+characteristic of true instincts; and this appears to me to apply to
+many acquired hereditary habits; for instance, in the case of the young
+pointer alluded to before, which pointed so steadfastly the first day
+that we were obliged several times to carry <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_118' id='Page_118'>{118}</a></span>
+him away<a name='FNanchor_279_279' id='FNanchor_279_279'></a><a href='#Footnote_279_279' class='fnanchor'>{279}</a>.
+This puppy not only pointed at sheep, at large white stones, and at
+every little bird, but likewise &ldquo;backed&rdquo; the other pointers:
+this young dog must have been as unconscious for what end he was
+pointing, namely to facilitate his master&rsquo;s killing game to eat,
+as is a butterfly which lays her eggs on a cabbage, that her
+caterpillars would eat the leaves. So a horse that ambles instinctively,
+manifestly is ignorant that he performs that peculiar pace for the ease
+of man; and if man had never existed, he would never have ambled. The
+young pointer pointing at white stones appears to be as much a mistake
+of its acquired instinct, as in the case of flesh-flies laying their
+eggs on certain flowers instead of putrifying meat. However true the
+ignorance of the end may generally be, one sees that instincts are
+associated with some degree of reason; for instance, in the case of the
+tailor-bird, who spins threads with which to make her nest
+«<ins>yet</ins>» will use artificial threads when she can procure
+them<a name='FNanchor_280_280' id='FNanchor_280_280'></a><a href='#Footnote_280_280' class='fnanchor'>{280}</a>;
+so it has been known that an old pointer has broken his point and gone
+round a hedge to drive out a bird towards his master<a name='FNanchor_281_281' id='FNanchor_281_281'></a><a href='#Footnote_281_281' class='fnanchor'>{281}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>There is one other quite distinct method by which the instincts or
+habits acquired under domestication may be compared with those given by
+nature, by a test of a fundamental kind; I mean the comparison of the
+mental powers of mongrels and hybrids. Now the instincts, or habits,
+tastes, and dispositions of one <i>breed</i> of animals, when crossed with
+another breed, for instance a shepherd-dog <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_119' id='Page_119'>{119}</a></span>
+with a harrier, are blended and appear in the same curiously mixed
+degree, both in the first and succeeding generations, exactly as happens
+when one <i>species</i> is crossed with another<a name='FNanchor_282_282' id='FNanchor_282_282'></a><a href='#Footnote_282_282' class='fnanchor'>{282}</a>.
+This would hardly be the case if there was any fundamental difference
+between the domestic and natural instinct<a name='FNanchor_283_283' id='FNanchor_283_283'></a><a href='#Footnote_283_283' class='fnanchor'>{283}</a>;
+if the former were, to use a metaphorical expression, merely
+superficial.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals.</i></h3>
+
+<p>With respect to the variation<a name='FNanchor_284_284' id='FNanchor_284_284'></a><a href='#Footnote_284_284' class='fnanchor'>{284}</a>
+of the mental powers of animals in a wild state, we know that there is a
+considerable difference in the disposition of different individuals of
+the same species, as is recognised by all those who have had the charge
+of animals in a menagerie. With respect to the wildness of animals, that
+is fear directed particularly against man, which appears to be as true
+an instinct as the dread of a young mouse of a cat, we have excellent
+evidence that it is slowly acquired and becomes hereditary. It is also
+certain that, in a natural state, individuals of the same species lose
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_120' id='Page_120'>{120}</a></span>
+or do not practice their migratory instincts&mdash;as woodcocks in
+Madeira. With respect to any variation in the more complicated
+instincts, it is obviously most difficult to detect, even more so than
+in the case of corporeal structure, of which it has been admitted the
+variation is exceedingly small, and perhaps scarcely any in the majority
+of species at any one period. Yet, to take one excellent case of
+instinct, namely the nests of birds, those who have paid most attention
+to the subject maintain that not only certain individuals «<ins>?
+species</ins>» seem to be able to build very imperfectly, but that a
+difference in skill may not unfrequently be detected between
+individuals<a name='FNanchor_285_285' id='FNanchor_285_285'></a><a href='#Footnote_285_285' class='fnanchor'>{285}</a>.
+Certain birds, moreover, adapt their nests to circumstances; the
+water-ouzel makes no vault when she builds under cover of a
+rock&mdash;the sparrow builds very differently when its nest is in a
+tree or in a hole, and the golden-crested wren sometimes suspends its
+nest below and sometimes places it <i>on</i> the branches of trees.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Principles of Selection applicable to instincts.</i></h3>
+
+<p>As the instincts of a species are fully as important to its preservation
+and multiplication as its corporeal structure, it is evident that if
+there be the slightest congenital differences in the instincts and
+habits, or if certain individuals during their lives are induced or
+compelled to vary their habits, and if such differences are in the
+smallest degree more favourable, under slightly modified external
+conditions, to their preservation, such individuals must in the long run
+have a better <i>chance</i> of being preserved and of multiplying<a
+name='FNanchor_286_286' id='FNanchor_286_286'></a><a href='#Footnote_286_286' class='fnanchor'>{286}</a>.
+If this be admitted, a series of small changes may, as in the case of
+corporeal structure, work great changes in the mental powers, habits and
+instincts of any species.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_121' id='Page_121'>{121}</a></p>
+
+<h3><i>Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Every one will at first be inclined to explain (as I did for a long
+time) that many of the more complicated and wonderful instincts could
+not be acquired in the manner here supposed<a name='FNanchor_287_287' id='FNanchor_287_287'></a><a href='#Footnote_287_287' class='fnanchor'>{287}</a>. The Second Part of
+this work is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general
+economy of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species
+and genera are descended from common stocks; but we may here consider
+whether the instincts of animals offer such a <i>prim&acirc; facie</i> case of
+impossibility of gradual acquirement, as to justify the rejection of any
+such theory, however strongly it may be supported by other facts. I beg
+to repeat that I wish here to consider not the <i>probability</i> but the
+<i>possibility</i> of complicated instincts having been acquired by the slow
+and long-continued selection of very slight (either congenital or
+produced by habit) modifications of foregoing simpler instincts; each
+modification being as useful and necessary, to the species practising
+it, as the most complicated kind.</p>
+
+<p>First, to take the case of birds&rsquo;-nests; of existing species
+(almost infinitely few in comparison with the multitude which must have
+existed, since the period of the new Red Sandstone of N. America, of
+whose habits we must always remain ignorant) a tolerably perfect series
+could be made from eggs <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_122' id='Page_122'>{122}</a></span>
+laid on the bare ground, to others with a few sticks just laid round
+them, to a simple nest like the wood-pigeons, to others more and more
+complicated: now if, as is asserted, there occasionally exist slight
+differences in the building powers of an individual, and if, which is at
+least probable, that such differences would tend to be inherited, then
+we can see that it is at least <i>possible</i> that the nidificatory
+instincts may have been acquired by the gradual selection, during
+thousands and thousands of generations, of the eggs and young of those
+individuals, whose nests were in some degree better adapted to the
+preservation of their young, under the then existing conditions. One of
+the most surprising instincts on record is that of the Australian
+bush-turkey, whose eggs are hatched by the heat generated from a huge
+pile of fermenting materials, which it heaps together; but here the
+habits of an allied species show how this instinct <i>might possibly</i> have
+been acquired. This second species inhabits a tropical district, where
+the heat of the sun is sufficient to hatch its eggs; this bird, burying
+its eggs, apparently for concealment, under a lesser heap of rubbish,
+but of a dry nature, so as not to ferment. Now suppose this bird to
+range slowly into a climate which was cooler, and where leaves were more
+abundant, in that case, those individuals, which chanced to have their
+collecting instinct strongest developed, would make a somewhat larger
+pile, and the eggs, aided during some colder season, under the slightly
+cooler climate by the heat of incipient fermentation, would in the long
+run be more freely hatched and would probably produce young ones with
+the same more highly developed collecting tendencies; of these again,
+those with the best developed powers would again tend to rear most
+young. Thus this strange instinct might <i>possibly</i> be acquired, every
+individual bird being <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_123' id='Page_123'>{123}</a></span>
+as ignorant of the laws of fermentation, and the consequent development
+of heat, as we know they must be.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, to take the case of animals feigning death (as it is commonly
+expressed) to escape danger. In the case of insects, a perfect series
+can be shown, from some insects, which momentarily stand still, to
+others which for a second slightly contract their legs, to others which
+will remain immovably drawn together for a quarter of an hour, and may
+be torn asunder or roasted at a slow fire, without evincing the smallest
+sign of sensation. No one will doubt that the length of time, during
+which each remains immovable, is well adapted to «<ins>favour the
+insect&rsquo;s</ins>» escape «<ins>from</ins>» the dangers to which it
+is most exposed, and few will deny the <i>possibility</i> of the change from
+one degree to another, by the means and at the rate already explained.
+Thinking it, however, wonderful (though not impossible) that the
+attitude of death should have been acquired by methods which imply no
+imitation, I compared several species, when feigning, as is said, death,
+with others of the same species really dead, and their attitudes were in
+no one case the same.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, in considering many instincts it is useful to <i>endeavour</i> to
+separate the faculty<a name='FNanchor_288_288' id='FNanchor_288_288'></a><a href='#Footnote_288_288' class='fnanchor'>{288}</a>
+by which they perform it, and the mental power which urges to the
+performance, which is more properly called an instinct. We have an
+instinct to eat, we have jaws &amp;c. to give us the faculty to do so.
+These faculties are often unknown to us: bats, with their eyes
+destroyed, can avoid strings suspended across a room, we know not at
+present by what faculty they do this. Thus also, with migratory birds,
+it is a <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_124' id='Page_124'>{124}</a></span>
+wonderful instinct which urges them at certain times of the year to
+direct their course in certain directions, but it is a faculty by which
+they know the time and find their way. With respect to time<a name='FNanchor_289_289' id='FNanchor_289_289'></a><a href='#Footnote_289_289' class='fnanchor'>{289}</a>,
+man without seeing the sun can judge to a certain extent of the hour, as
+must those cattle which come down from the inland mountains to feed on
+sea-weed left bare at the changing hour of low-water<a name='FNanchor_290_290' id='FNanchor_290_290'></a><a href='#Footnote_290_290' class='fnanchor'>{290}</a>.
+A hawk (D&rsquo;Orbigny) seems certainly to have acquired a knowledge of
+a period of every 21 days. In the cases already given of the sheep which
+travelled to their birth-place to cast their lambs, and the sheep in
+Spain which know their time of march<a name='FNanchor_291_291' id='FNanchor_291_291'></a><a href='#Footnote_291_291' class='fnanchor'>{291}</a>,
+we may conjecture that the tendency to move is associated, we may then
+call it instinctively, with some corporeal sensations. With respect to
+direction we can easily conceive how a tendency to travel in a certain
+course may possibly have been acquired, although we must remain ignorant
+how birds are able to preserve any direction whatever in a dark night
+over the wide ocean. I may observe that the power of some savage races
+of mankind to find their way, although perhaps wholly different from the
+faculty of birds, is nearly as unintelligible to us. Bellinghausen, a
+skilful navigator, describes with the utmost wonder the manner in which
+some Esquimaux guided him to a certain point, by a course never
+straight, through newly formed hummocks of ice, on a thick foggy day,
+when he with a compass found it impossible, from having no landmarks,
+and from their course being so extremely crooked, to preserve any sort
+of uniform <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_125' id='Page_125'>{125}</a></span>
+direction: so it is with Australian savages in thick forests. In North
+and South America many birds slowly travel northward and southward,
+urged on by the food they find, as the seasons change; let them continue
+to do this, till, as in the case of the sheep in Spain, it has become an
+urgent instinctive desire, and they will gradually accelerate their
+journey. They would cross narrow rivers, and if these were converted by
+subsidence into narrow estuaries, and gradually during centuries to arms
+of the sea, still we may suppose their restless desire of travelling
+onwards would impel them to cross such an arm, even if it had become of
+great width beyond their span of vision. How they are able to preserve a
+course in any direction, I have said, is a faculty unknown to us. To
+give another illustration of the means by which I conceive it <i>possible</i>
+that the direction of migrations have been determined. Elk and reindeer
+in N. America annually cross, as if they could marvellously smell or see
+at the distance of a hundred miles, a wide tract of absolute desert, to
+arrive at certain islands where there is a scanty supply of food; the
+changes of temperature, which geology proclaims, render it probable that
+this desert tract formerly supported some vegetation, and thus these
+quadrupeds might have been annually led on, till they reached the more
+fertile spots, and so acquired, like the sheep of Spain, their migratory
+powers.</p>
+
+<p>Fourthly, with respect to the combs of the hive-bee<a name='FNanchor_292_292' id='FNanchor_292_292'></a><a href='#Footnote_292_292' class='fnanchor'>{292}</a>;
+here again we must look to some faculty or means by which they make
+their hexagonal cells, without indeed we view these instincts as mere
+machines. At present such a faculty is quite unknown: Mr Waterhouse
+supposes that several bees are led by their instinct to excavate a mass
+of wax to a certain thinness, and that the result of this<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_126' id='Page_126'>{126}</a></span>
+is that hexagons necessarily remain. Whether this or some other theory
+be true, some such means they must possess. They abound, however, with
+true instincts, which are the most wonderful that are known. If we
+examine the little that is known concerning the habits of other species
+of bees, we find much simpler instincts: the humble bee merely fills
+rude balls of wax with honey and aggregates them together with little
+order in a rough nest of grass. If we knew the instinct of all the bees,
+which ever had existed, it is not improbable that we should have
+instincts of every degree of complexity, from actions as simple as a
+bird making a nest, and rearing her young, to the wonderful architecture
+and government of the hive-bee; at least such is <i>possible</i>, which is
+all that I am here considering.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, I will briefly consider under the same point of view one other
+class of instincts, which have often been advanced as truly wonderful,
+namely parents bringing food to their young which they themselves
+neither like nor partake of<a name='FNanchor_293_293' id='FNanchor_293_293'></a><a href='#Footnote_293_293' class='fnanchor'>{293}</a>;&mdash;for
+instance, the common sparrow, a granivorous bird, feeding its young with
+caterpillars. We might of course look into the case still earlier, and
+seek how an instinct in the parent, of feeding its young at all, was
+first derived; but it is useless to waste time in conjectures on a
+series of gradations from the young feeding themselves and being
+slightly and occasionally assisted in their search, to their entire food
+being brought to them. With respect to the parent bringing a different
+kind of food from its own kind, we may suppose either that the remote
+stock, whence the sparrow and other congenerous birds have descended,
+was insectivorous, and that its own habits and structure have been
+changed, whilst its ancient instincts with respect to its young have
+remained <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_127' id='Page_127'>{127}</a></span>
+unchanged; or we may suppose that the parents have been induced to vary
+slightly the food of their young, by a slight scarcity of the proper
+kind (or by the instincts of some individuals not being so truly
+developed), and in this case those young which were most capable of
+surviving were necessarily most often preserved, and would themselves in
+time become parents, and would be similarly compelled to alter their
+food for their young. In the case of those animals, the young of which
+feed themselves, changes in their instincts for food, and in their
+structure, might be selected from slight variations, just as in mature
+animals. Again, where the food of the young depends on where the mother
+places her eggs, as in the case of the caterpillars of the
+cabbage-butterfly, we may suppose that the parent stock of the species
+deposited her eggs sometimes on one kind and sometimes on another of
+congenerous plants (as some species now do), and if the cabbage suited
+the caterpillars better than any other plant, the caterpillars of those
+butterflies, which had chosen the cabbage, would be most plentifully
+reared, and would produce butterflies more apt to lay their eggs on the
+cabbage than on the other congenerous plants.</p>
+
+<p>However vague and unphilosophical these conjectures may appear, they
+serve, I think, to show that one&rsquo;s first impulse utterly to reject
+any theory whatever, implying a gradual acquirement of these instincts,
+which for ages have excited man&rsquo;s admiration, may at least be
+delayed. Once grant that dispositions, tastes, actions or habits can be
+slightly modified, either by slight congenital differences (we must
+suppose in the brain) or by the force of external circumstances, and
+that such slight modifications can be rendered inheritable,&mdash;a
+proposition which no one can reject,&mdash;and it will be difficult to
+put any limit to the complexity and wonder of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_128' id='Page_128'>{128}</a></span>
+the tastes and habits which may <i>possibly</i> be thus acquired.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal
+structures.</i></h3>
+
+<p>After the past discussion it will perhaps be convenient here to consider
+whether any particular corporeal organs, or the entire structure of any
+animals, are so wonderful as to justify the rejection <i>prim&acirc;
+facie</i> of our theory<a name='FNanchor_294_294' id='FNanchor_294_294'></a><a href='#Footnote_294_294' class='fnanchor'>{294}</a>.
+In the case of the eye, as with the more complicated instincts, no doubt
+one&rsquo;s first impulse is to utterly reject every such theory. But if
+the eye from its most complicated form can be shown to graduate into an
+exceedingly simple state,&mdash;if selection can produce the smallest
+change, and if such a series exists, then it is clear (for in this work
+we have nothing to do with the first origin of organs in their simplest
+forms<a name='FNanchor_295_295' id='FNanchor_295_295'></a><a href='#Footnote_295_295' class='fnanchor'>{295}</a>)
+that it may <i>possibly</i> have been acquired by gradual selection of
+slight, but in each case, useful deviations<a name='FNanchor_296_296' id='FNanchor_296_296'></a><a href='#Footnote_296_296' class='fnanchor'>{296}</a>.
+Every naturalist, when he meets with any new and singular organ, always
+expects to find, and looks for, other and simpler modifications of it in
+other beings. In the case of the eye, we have a multitude of different
+forms, more or less simple, not graduating <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_129' id='Page_129'>{129}</a></span>
+into each other, but separated by sudden gaps or intervals; but we must
+recollect how incomparably greater would the multitude of visual
+structures be if we had the eyes of every fossil which ever existed. We
+shall discuss the probable vast proportion of the extinct to the recent
+in the succeeding Part. Notwithstanding the large series of existing
+forms, it is most difficult even to conjecture by what intermediate
+stages very many simple organs could possibly have graduated into
+complex ones: but it should be here borne in mind, that a part having
+originally a wholly different function, may on the theory of gradual
+selection be slowly worked into quite another use; the gradations of
+forms, from which naturalists believe in the hypothetical metamorphosis
+of part of the ear into the swimming bladder in fishes<a name='FNanchor_297_297' id='FNanchor_297_297'></a><a href='#Footnote_297_297' class='fnanchor'>{297}</a>,
+and in insects of legs into jaws, show the manner in which this is
+possible. As under domestication, modifications of structure take place,
+without any continued selection, which man finds very useful, or
+valuable for curiosity (as the hooked calyx of the teazle, or the ruff
+round some pigeons&rsquo; necks), so in a state of nature some small
+modifications, apparently beautifully adapted to certain ends, may
+perhaps be produced from the accidents of the reproductive system, and
+be at once propagated without long-continued selection of small
+deviations towards that structure<a name='FNanchor_298_298' id='FNanchor_298_298'></a><a href='#Footnote_298_298' class='fnanchor'>{298}</a>.
+In conjecturing by what stages any complicated organ in a species may
+have arrived at its present state, although we may look to the analogous
+organs in other existing species, we should do this merely to aid and
+guide our imaginations; for to know the real stages we <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_130' id='Page_130'>{130}</a></span>
+must look only through one line of species, to one ancient stock, from
+which the species in question has descended. In considering the eye of a
+quadruped, for instance, though we may look at the eye of a molluscous
+animal or of an insect, as a proof how simple an organ will serve some
+of the ends of vision; and at the eye of a fish as a nearer guide of the
+manner of <ins class='corr' title="Transcriber&rsquo;s Note: The
+original showed &lsquo;simplication&rsquo;.">simplification</ins>; we must
+remember that it is a mere chance (assuming for a moment the truth of
+our theory) if any existing organic being has preserved any one organ,
+in exactly the same condition, as it existed in the ancient species at
+remote geological periods.</p>
+
+<p>The nature or condition of certain structures has been thought by some
+naturalists to be of no use to the possessor<a name='FNanchor_299_299' id='FNanchor_299_299'></a><a href='#Footnote_299_299' class='fnanchor'>{299}</a>,
+but to have been formed wholly for the good of other species; thus
+certain fruit and seeds have been thought to have been made nutritious
+for certain animals&mdash;numbers of insects, especially in their larval
+state, to exist for the same end&mdash;certain fish to be bright
+coloured to aid certain birds of prey in catching them, &amp;c. Now
+could this be proved (which I am far from admitting) the theory of
+natural selection would be quite overthrown; for it is evident that
+selection depending on the advantage over others of one individual with
+some slight deviation would never produce a structure or quality
+profitable only to another species. No doubt one being takes advantage
+of qualities in another, and may even cause its extermination; but this
+is far from proving that this quality was produced for such an end. It
+may be advantageous to a plant to have its seeds attractive to animals,
+if one out of a hundred or a thousand escapes being <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_131' id='Page_131'>{131}</a></span>
+digested, and thus aids dissemination: the bright colours of a fish may
+be of some advantage to it, or more probably may result from exposure to
+certain conditions in favourable haunts for food, <i>notwithstanding</i> it
+becomes subject to be caught more easily by certain birds.</p>
+
+<p>If instead of looking, as above, at certain individual organs, in order
+to speculate on the stages by which their parts have been matured and
+selected, we consider an individual animal, we meet with the same or
+greater difficulty, but which, I believe, as in the case of single
+organs, rests entirely on our ignorance. It may be asked by what
+intermediate forms could, for instance, a bat possibly have passed; but
+the same question might have been asked with respect to the seal, if we
+had not been familiar with the otter and other semi-aquatic carnivorous
+quadrupeds. But in the case of the bat, who can say what might have been
+the habits of some parent form with less developed wings, when we now
+have insectivorous opossums and herbivorous squirrels fitted for merely
+gliding through the air<a name='FNanchor_300_300' id='FNanchor_300_300'></a><a href='#Footnote_300_300' class='fnanchor'>{300}</a>.
+One species of bat is at present partly aquatic in its habits<a name='FNanchor_301_301' id='FNanchor_301_301'></a><a href='#Footnote_301_301' class='fnanchor'>{301}</a>.
+Woodpeckers and tree-frogs are especially adapted, as their names
+express, for climbing trees; yet we have species of both inhabiting the
+open plains of La Plata, where a tree does not exist<a name='FNanchor_302_302' id='FNanchor_302_302'></a><a href='#Footnote_302_302' class='fnanchor'>{302}</a>.
+I might argue from this circumstance that a structure eminently fitted
+for climbing trees might descend from forms inhabiting a country where a
+tree <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_132' id='Page_132'>{132}</a></span>
+did not exist. Notwithstanding these and a multitude of other
+well-known facts, it has been maintained by several authors that one
+species, for instance of the carnivorous order, could not pass into
+another, for instance into an otter, because in its transitional state
+its habits would not be adapted to any proper conditions of life; but
+the jaguar<a name='FNanchor_303_303' id='FNanchor_303_303'></a><a href='#Footnote_303_303' class='fnanchor'>{303}</a>
+is a thoroughly terrestrial quadruped in its structure, yet it takes
+freely to the water and catches many fish; will it be said that it is
+<i>impossible</i> that the conditions of its country might become such that
+the jaguar should be driven to feed more on fish than they now do; and
+in that case is it impossible, is it not probable, that any the
+slightest deviation in its instincts, its form of body, in the width of
+its feet, and in the extension of the skin (which already unites the
+base of its toes) would give such individuals a better <i>chance</i> of
+surviving and propagating young with similar, barely perceptible (though
+thoroughly exercised), deviations<a name='FNanchor_304_304' id='FNanchor_304_304'></a><a href='#Footnote_304_304' class='fnanchor'>{304}</a>?
+Who will say what could thus be effected in the course of ten thousand
+generations? Who can answer the same question with respect to instincts?
+If no one can, the <i>possibility</i> (for we are not in this chapter
+considering the <i>probability</i>) of simple organs or organic beings being
+modified by natural selection and the effects of external agencies into
+complicated ones ought not to be absolutely rejected.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_133' id='Page_133'>{133}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='PART_II305' id='PART_II305'></a>PART II<a name='FNanchor_305_305' id='FNanchor_305_305'></a><a href='#Footnote_305_305' class='fnanchor'>{305}</a><br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW THAT SPECIES ARE
+NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED FROM COMMON STOCKS</span></h2>
+
+<h2 class='mt2'><a name='CHAPTER_IV' id='CHAPTER_IV'></a>CHAPTER IV<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE THEORY OF COMMON
+DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE IN A FOSSIL STATE</span></h2>
+
+<p>I must here premise that, according to the view ordinarily received, the
+myriads of organisms, which have during past and present times peopled
+this world, have been created by so many distinct acts of creation. It
+is impossible to reason concerning the will of the Creator, and
+therefore, according to this view, we can see no cause why or why not
+the individual organism should have been created on any fixed scheme.
+That all the organisms of this world have been produced on a scheme is
+certain from their general affinities; and if this scheme can be shown
+to be the same with that which would result from allied organic beings
+descending from common stocks, it becomes highly improbable that they
+have been separately created by individual acts of the will of a
+Creator. For as well might it be said that, although the planets move in
+courses conformably to the law of gravity, yet we ought to <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_134' id='Page_134'>{134}</a></span>
+attribute the course of each planet to the individual act of the will
+of the Creator<a name='FNanchor_306_306' id='FNanchor_306_306'></a><a href='#Footnote_306_306' class='fnanchor'>{306}</a>.
+It is in every case more conformable with what we know of the government
+of this earth, that the Creator should have imposed only general laws.
+As long as no method was known by which races could become exquisitely
+adapted to various ends, whilst the existence of species was thought to
+be proved by the sterility<a name='FNanchor_307_307' id='FNanchor_307_307'></a><a href='#Footnote_307_307' class='fnanchor'>{307}</a>
+of their offspring, it was allowable to attribute each organism to an
+individual act of creation. But in the two former chapters it has (I
+think) been shown that the production, under existing conditions, of
+exquisitely adapted species, is at least <i>possible</i>. Is there then any
+direct evidence in favour «<ins>of</ins>» or against this view? I
+believe that the geographical distribution of organic beings in past and
+present times, the kind of affinity linking them together, their
+so-called &ldquo;metamorphic&rdquo; and &ldquo;abortive&rdquo; organs,
+appear in favour of this view. On the other hand, the imperfect evidence
+of the continuousness of the organic series, which, we shall immediately
+see, is required on our theory, is against it; and is the most weighty
+objection<a name='FNanchor_308_308' id='FNanchor_308_308'></a><a href='#Footnote_308_308' class='fnanchor'>{308}</a>.
+The evidence, however, even on this point, as far as it goes, is
+favourable; and considering the imperfection of our knowledge,
+especially with respect to past ages, it would be surprising if evidence
+drawn from such sources were not also imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>As I suppose that species have been formed in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_135' id='Page_135'>{135}</a></span>
+an analogous manner with the varieties of the domesticated animals and
+plants, so must there have existed intermediate forms between all the
+species of the same group, not differing more than recognised varieties
+differ. It must not be supposed necessary that there should have existed
+forms exactly intermediate in character between any two species of a
+genus, or even between any two varieties of a species; but it is
+necessary that there should have existed every intermediate form between
+the one species or variety of the common parent, and likewise between
+the second species or variety, and this same common parent. Thus it does
+not necessarily follow that there ever has existed «<ins>a</ins>»
+series of intermediate sub-varieties (differing no more than the
+occasional seedlings from the same seed-capsule,) between broccoli and
+common red cabbage; but it is certain that there has existed, between
+broccoli and the wild parent cabbage, a series of such intermediate
+seedlings, and again between red cabbage and the wild parent cabbage: so
+that the broccoli and red cabbage are linked together, but not
+<i>necessarily</i> by directly intermediate forms<a name='FNanchor_309_309' id='FNanchor_309_309'></a><a href='#Footnote_309_309' class='fnanchor'>{309}</a>.
+It is of course possible that there <i>may</i> have been directly
+intermediate forms, for the broccoli may have long since descended from
+a common red cabbage, and this from the wild cabbage. So on my theory,
+it must have been with species of the same genus. Still more must the
+supposition be avoided that there has necessarily ever existed (though
+one <i>may</i> have descended from «<ins>the</ins>» other) directly
+intermediate forms between any two genera or families&mdash;for instance
+between the genus <i>Sus</i> and the Tapir<a name='FNanchor_310_310' id='FNanchor_310_310'></a><a href='#Footnote_310_310' class='fnanchor'>{310}</a>;
+although it is necessary that intermediate forms (not differing more
+than the varieties <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_136' id='Page_136'>{136}</a></span>
+of our domestic animals) should have existed between Sus and some
+unknown parent form, and Tapir with this same parent form. The latter
+may have differed more from Sus and Tapir than these two genera now
+differ from each other. In this sense, according to our theory, there
+has been a gradual passage (the steps not being wider apart than our
+domestic varieties) between the species of the same genus, between
+genera of the same family, and between families of the same order, and
+so on, as far as facts, hereafter to be given, lead us; and the number
+of forms which must have at former periods existed, thus to make good
+this passage between different species, genera, and families, must have
+been almost infinitely great.</p>
+
+<p>What evidence<a name='FNanchor_311_311' id='FNanchor_311_311'></a><a href='#Footnote_311_311' class='fnanchor'>{311}</a>
+is there of a number of intermediate forms having existed, making a
+passage in the above sense, between the species of the same groups? Some
+naturalists have supposed that if every fossil which now lies entombed,
+together with all existing species, were collected together, a perfect
+series in every great class would be formed. Considering the enormous
+number of species requisite to effect this, especially in the above
+sense of the forms not being <i>directly</i> intermediate between the
+existing species and genera, but only intermediate by being linked
+through a common but often widely different ancestor, I think this
+supposition highly improbable. I am however far from underrating the
+probable number of fossilised species: no one who has attended to the
+wonderful progress of pal&aelig;ontology during the last few years will
+doubt that we as yet have found only an exceedingly small fraction of
+the species buried in the crust of the earth. Although the almost
+infinitely numerous intermediate forms in no one <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_137' id='Page_137'>{137}</a></span>
+class may have been preserved, it does not follow that they have not
+existed. The fossils which have been discovered, it is important to
+remark, do tend, the little way they go, to make good the series; for as
+observed by Buckland they all fall into or between existing groups<a name='FNanchor_312_312' id='FNanchor_312_312'></a><a href='#Footnote_312_312' class='fnanchor'>{312}</a>.
+Moreover, those that fall between our existing groups, fall in,
+according to the manner required by our theory, for they do not directly
+connect two existing species of different groups, but they connect the
+groups themselves: thus the Pachydermata and Ruminantia are now
+separated by several characters, «<ins>for instance</ins>» the
+Pachydermata<a name='FNanchor_313_313' id='FNanchor_313_313'></a><a href='#Footnote_313_313' class='fnanchor'>{313}</a>
+have both a tibia and fibula, whilst Ruminantia have only a tibia; now
+the fossil Macrauchenia has a leg bone exactly intermediate in this
+respect, and likewise has some other intermediate characters. But the
+Macrauchenia does not connect any one species of Pachydermata with some
+one other of Ruminantia but it shows that these two groups have at one
+time been less widely divided. So have fish and reptiles been at one
+time more closely connected in some points than they now are. Generally
+in those groups in which there has been most change, the more ancient
+the fossil, if not identical with recent, the more often it falls
+between existing groups, or into small existing groups which now lie
+between other large existing groups. Cases like the foregoing, of which
+there are many, form steps, though few and far between, in a series of
+the kind required by my theory.</p>
+
+<p>As I have admitted the high improbability, that if every fossil were
+disinterred, they would compose in each of the Divisions of Nature a
+perfect <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_138' id='Page_138'>{138}</a></span>
+series of the kind required; consequently I freely admit, that if those
+geologists are in the right who consider the lowest known formation as
+contemporaneous with the first appearances of life<a name='FNanchor_314_314' id='FNanchor_314_314'></a><a href='#Footnote_314_314' class='fnanchor'>{314}</a>;
+or the several formations as at all closely consecutive; or any one
+formation as containing a nearly perfect record of the organisms which
+existed during the whole period of its deposition in that quarter of the
+globe;&mdash;if such propositions are to be accepted, my theory must be
+abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>If the Pal&aelig;ozoic system is really contemporaneous with the first
+appearance of life, my theory must be abandoned, both inasmuch as it
+limits <i>from shortness of time</i> the total number of forms which can have
+existed on this world, and because the organisms, as fish, mollusca<a name='FNanchor_315_315' id='FNanchor_315_315'></a><a href='#Footnote_315_315' class='fnanchor'>{315}</a>
+and star-fish found in its lower beds, cannot be considered as the
+parent forms of all the successive species in these classes. But no one
+has yet overturned the arguments of Hutton and Lyell, that the lowest
+formations known to us are only those which have escaped being
+metamorphosed «<ins>illegible</ins>»; if we argued from some
+considerable districts, we might have supposed that even the Cretaceous
+system was that in which life first appeared. From the number of distant
+points, however, in which the Silurian system has been found to be the
+lowest, and not always metamorphosed, there are some objections to
+Hutton&rsquo;s and Lyell&rsquo;s view; but we must not forget that the
+now existing land forms only 1/5 part of the superficies of the globe,
+and that this fraction is only imperfectly known. With respect to the
+fewness of the organisms found in the Silurian and other Pal&aelig;ozoic
+formations, there is less difficulty, inasmuch as<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_139' id='Page_139'>{139}</a></span>
+(besides their gradual obliteration) we can expect formations of this
+vast antiquity to escape entire denudation, only when they have been
+accumulated over a wide area, and have been subsequently protected by
+vast superimposed deposits: now this could generally only hold good with
+deposits accumulating in a wide and deep ocean, and therefore
+unfavourable to the presence of many living things. A mere narrow and
+not very thick strip of matter, deposited along a coast where organisms
+most abound, would have no chance of escaping denudation and being
+preserved to the present time from such immensely distant ages<a name='FNanchor_316_316' id='FNanchor_316_316'></a><a href='#Footnote_316_316' class='fnanchor'>{316}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If the several known formations are at all nearly consecutive in time,
+and preserve a fair record of the organisms which have existed, my
+theory must be abandoned. But when we consider the great changes in
+mineralogical nature and texture between successive formations, what
+vast and entire changes in the geography of the surrounding countries
+must generally have been effected, thus wholly to have changed the
+nature of the deposits on the same area. What time such changes must
+have required! Moreover how often has it not been found, that between
+two conformable and apparently immediately successive deposits a vast
+pile of water-worn matter is interpolated in an adjoining district. We
+have no means of conjecturing in many cases how long a period<a name='FNanchor_317_317' id='FNanchor_317_317'></a><a href='#Footnote_317_317' class='fnanchor'>{317}</a>
+has elapsed between successive formations, for the species are often
+wholly different: as remarked by Lyell, in some cases probably as long a
+period has elapsed between two formations as the whole Tertiary system,
+itself broken by wide gaps.</p>
+
+<p>Consult the writings of any one who has particularly attended to any one
+stage in the Tertiary <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_140' id='Page_140'>{140}</a></span>
+system (and indeed of every system) and see how deeply impressed he is
+with the time required for its accumulation<a name='FNanchor_318_318' id='FNanchor_318_318'></a><a href='#Footnote_318_318' class='fnanchor'>{318}</a>.
+Reflect on the years elapsed in many cases, since the latest beds
+containing only living species have been formed;&mdash;see what Jordan
+Smith says of the 20,000 years since the last bed, which is above the
+boulder formation in Scotland, has been upraised; or of the far longer
+period since the recent beds of Sweden have been upraised 400 feet, what
+an enormous period the boulder formation must have required, and yet how
+insignificant are the records (although there has been plenty of
+elevation to bring up submarine deposits) of the shells, which we know
+existed at that time. Think, then, over the entire length of the
+Tertiary epoch, and think over the probable length of the intervals,
+separating the Secondary deposits. Of these deposits, moreover, those
+consisting of sand and pebbles have seldom been favourable, either to
+the embedment or to the preservation of fossils<a name='FNanchor_319_319' id='FNanchor_319_319'></a><a href='#Footnote_319_319' class='fnanchor'>{319}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can it be admitted as probable that any one Secondary formation
+contains a fair record even of those organisms which are most easily
+preserved, namely hard marine bodies. In how many cases have we not
+certain evidence that between the deposition of apparently closely
+consecutive beds, the lower one existed for an unknown time as land,
+covered with trees. Some of the Secondary formations which contain most
+marine remains appear to have been formed in a wide and not deep sea,
+and therefore only those marine animals which live in such situations
+would be preserved<a name='FNanchor_320_320' id='FNanchor_320_320'></a><a href='#Footnote_320_320' class='fnanchor'>{320}</a>.
+In all cases, on indented rocky coasts, or any other coast, where
+sediment is not accumulating, although often highly <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_141' id='Page_141'>{141}</a></span>
+favourable to marine animals, none can be embedded: where pure sand and
+pebbles are accumulating few or none will be preserved. I may here
+instance the great western line of the S. American coast<a name='FNanchor_321_321' id='FNanchor_321_321'></a><a href='#Footnote_321_321' class='fnanchor'>{321}</a>,
+tenanted by many peculiar animals, of which none probably will be
+preserved to a distant epoch. From these causes, and especially from
+such deposits as are formed along a line of coast, steep above and below
+water, being necessarily of little width, and therefore more likely to
+be subsequently denuded and worn away, we can see why it is improbable
+that our Secondary deposits contain a fair record of the Marine Fauna of
+any one period. The East Indian Archipelago offers an area, as large as
+most of our Secondary deposits, in which there are wide and shallow
+seas, teeming with marine animals, and in which sediment is
+accumulating; now supposing that all the hard marine animals, or rather
+those having hard parts to preserve, were preserved to a future age,
+excepting those which lived on rocky shores where no sediment or only
+sand and gravel were accumulating, and excepting those embedded along
+the steeper coasts, where only a narrow fringe of sediment was
+accumulating, supposing all this, how poor a notion would a person at a
+future age have of the Marine Fauna of the present day. Lyell<a name='FNanchor_322_322' id='FNanchor_322_322'></a><a href='#Footnote_322_322' class='fnanchor'>{322}</a>
+has compared the geological series to a work of which only the few
+latter but not consecutive chapters have been preserved; and out of
+which, it may be added, very many leaves have been torn, the remaining
+ones only illustrating a scanty portion of the Fauna of each period. On
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_142' id='Page_142'>{142}</a></span>
+this view, the records of anteceding ages confirm my theory; on any
+other they destroy it.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, if we narrow the question into, why do we not find in some
+instances every intermediate form between any two species? the answer
+may well be that the average duration of each specific form (as we have
+good reason to believe) is immense in years, and that the transition
+could, according to my theory, be effected only by numberless small
+gradations; and therefore that we should require for this end a most
+perfect record, which the foregoing reasoning teaches us not to expect.
+It might be thought that in a vertical section of great thickness in the
+same formation some of the species ought to be found to vary in the
+upper and lower parts<a name='FNanchor_323_323' id='FNanchor_323_323'></a><a href='#Footnote_323_323' class='fnanchor'>{323}</a>,
+but it may be doubted whether any formation has gone on accumulating
+without any break for a period as long as the duration of a species; and
+if it had done so, we should require a series of specimens from every
+part. How rare must be the chance of sediment accumulating for some 20
+or 30 thousand years on the same spot<a name='FNanchor_324_324' id='FNanchor_324_324'></a><a href='#Footnote_324_324' class='fnanchor'>{324}</a>,
+with the bottom subsiding, so that a proper depth might be preserved for
+any one species to continue living: what an amount of subsidence would
+be thus required, and this subsidence must not destroy the source whence
+the sediment continued to be derived. In the case of terrestrial
+animals, what chance is there when the present time is become a
+pleistocene formation (at an earlier period than this, sufficient
+elevation to expose marine beds could not be expected), what chance is
+there that future geologists will make out the innumerable transitional
+sub-varieties, through which the short-horned and long-horned <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_143' id='Page_143'>{143}</a></span>
+cattle (so different in shape of body) have been derived from the same
+parent stock<a name='FNanchor_325_325' id='FNanchor_325_325'></a><a href='#Footnote_325_325' class='fnanchor'>{325}</a>?
+Yet this transition has been effected in <i>the same country</i>, and in a
+far <i>shorter time</i>, than would be probable in a wild state, both
+contingencies highly favourable for the future hypothetical geologists
+being enabled to trace the variation.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_144' id='Page_144'>{144}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_V' id='CHAPTER_V'></a>CHAPTER V<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES</span><a name='FNanchor_326_326' id='FNanchor_326_326'></a><a href='#Footnote_326_326' class='fnanchor'>{326}</a></h2>
+
+<p>In the Tertiary system, in the last uplifted beds, we find all the
+species recent and living in the immediate vicinity; in rather older
+beds we find only recent species, but some not living in the immediate
+vicinity<a name='FNanchor_327_327' id='FNanchor_327_327'></a><a href='#Footnote_327_327' class='fnanchor'>{327}</a>;
+we then find beds with two or three or a few more extinct or very rare
+species; then considerably more extinct species, but with gaps in the
+regular increase; and finally we have beds with only two or three or not
+one living species. Most geologists believe that the gaps in the
+percentage, that is the sudden increments, in the number of the extinct
+species in the stages of the Tertiary system are due to the imperfection
+of the geological record. Hence we are led to believe that the species
+in the Tertiary system have been gradually introduced; and from analogy
+to carry on the same view to the Secondary formations. In these latter,
+however, entire groups of species generally come in abruptly; but this
+would naturally result, if, as argued in the foregoing chapter, these
+Secondary deposits are separated by wide epochs. Moreover it is
+important to observe that, with our increase of knowledge, the gaps
+between the older formations become fewer and smaller; geologists of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_145' id='Page_145'>{145}</a></span>
+a few years standing remember how beautifully has the Devonian system<a name='FNanchor_328_328' id='FNanchor_328_328'></a><a href='#Footnote_328_328' class='fnanchor'>{328}</a>
+come in between the Carboniferous and Silurian formations. I need hardly
+observe that the slow and gradual appearance of new forms follows from
+our theory, for to form a new species, an old one must not only be
+plastic in its organization, becoming so probably from changes in the
+conditions of its existence, but a place in the natural economy of the
+district must [<del>be made,</del>] come to exist, for the selection of some new
+modification of its structure, better fitted to the surrounding
+conditions than are the other individuals of the same or other species<a name='FNanchor_329_329' id='FNanchor_329_329'></a><a href='#Footnote_329_329' class='fnanchor'>{329}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Tertiary system the same facts, which make us admit as probable
+that new species have slowly appeared, lead to the admission that old
+ones have slowly disappeared, not several together, but one after
+another; and by analogy one is induced to extend this belief to the
+Secondary and Pal&aelig;ozoic epochs. In some cases, as the subsidence
+of a flat country, or the breaking or the joining of an isthmus, and the
+sudden inroad of many new and destructive species, extinction might be
+locally sudden. The view entertained by many geologists, that each fauna
+of each Secondary epoch has been suddenly destroyed over the whole
+world, so that no succession could be left for the production of new
+forms, is subversive of my theory, but I see no grounds whatever to
+admit such a view. On the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_146' id='Page_146'>{146}</a></span>
+contrary, the law, which has been made out, with reference to distinct
+epochs, by independent observers, namely, that the wider the
+geographical range of a species the longer is its duration in time,
+seems entirely opposed to any universal extermination<a name='FNanchor_330_330' id='FNanchor_330_330'></a><a href='#Footnote_330_330' class='fnanchor'>{330}</a>.
+The fact of species of mammiferous animals and fish being renewed at a
+quicker rate than mollusca, though both aquatic; and of these the
+terrestrial genera being renewed quicker than the marine; and the marine
+mollusca being again renewed quicker than the Infusorial animalcula, all
+seem to show that the extinction and renewal of species does not depend
+on general catastrophes, but on the particular relations of the several
+classes to the conditions to which they are exposed<a name='FNanchor_331_331' id='FNanchor_331_331'></a><a href='#Footnote_331_331' class='fnanchor'>{331}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Some authors seem to consider the fact of a few species having
+survived<a name='FNanchor_332_332' id='FNanchor_332_332'></a><a href='#Footnote_332_332' class='fnanchor'>{332}</a>
+amidst a number of extinct forms (as is the case with a tortoise and a
+crocodile out of the vast number of extinct sub-Himalayan fossils) as
+strongly opposed to the view of species being mutable. No doubt this
+would be the case, if it were presupposed with Lamarck that there was
+some inherent tendency to change and development in all species, for
+which supposition I see no evidence. As we see some species at present
+adapted to a wide range of conditions, so we may suppose that such
+species would survive unchanged and unexterminated for a long time; time
+generally being from geological causes a correlative of changing
+conditions. How at present one species becomes adapted to a wide range,
+and another species to a restricted range of conditions, is of difficult
+explanation.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_147' id='Page_147'>{147}</a></p>
+
+<h3><i>Extinction of species.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The extinction of the larger quadrupeds, of which we imagine we better
+know the conditions of existence, has been thought little less wonderful
+than the appearance of new species; and has, I think, chiefly led to the
+belief of universal catastrophes. When considering the wonderful
+disappearance within a late period, whilst recent shells were living, of
+the numerous great and small mammifers of S. America, one is strongly
+induced to join with the catastrophists. I believe, however, that very
+erroneous views are held on this subject. As far as is historically
+known, the disappearance of species from any one country has been
+slow&mdash;the species becoming rarer and rarer, locally extinct, and
+finally lost<a name='FNanchor_333_333' id='FNanchor_333_333'></a><a href='#Footnote_333_333' class='fnanchor'>{333}</a>.
+It may be objected that this has been effected by man&rsquo;s direct
+agency, or by his indirect agency in altering the state of the country;
+in this latter case, however, it would be difficult to draw any just
+distinction between his agency and natural agencies. But we now know in
+the later Tertiary deposits, that shells become rarer and rarer in the
+successive beds, and finally disappear: it has happened, also, that
+shells common in a fossil state, and thought to have been extinct, have
+been found to be still living species, but very <i>rare</i> ones<a name='FNanchor_334_334' id='FNanchor_334_334'></a><a href='#Footnote_334_334' class='fnanchor'>{334}</a>.
+If the rule is that organisms become extinct by becoming rarer and
+rarer, we ought not to view their extinction, even in the case of the
+larger quadrupeds, as anything wonderful and out of the common course of
+events. For no naturalist thinks it wonderful that one species of a
+genus should be rare and another abundant, notwithstanding he be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_148' id='Page_148'>{148}</a></span>
+quite incapable of explaining the causes of the comparative rareness<a name='FNanchor_335_335' id='FNanchor_335_335'></a><a href='#Footnote_335_335' class='fnanchor'>{335}</a>.
+Why is one species of willow-wren or hawk or woodpecker common in
+England, and another extremely rare: why at the Cape of Good Hope is one
+species of rhinoceros or antelope far more abundant than other species?
+Why again is the same species much more abundant in one district of a
+country than in another district? No doubt there are in each case good
+causes: but they are unknown and unperceived by us. May we not then
+safely infer that as certain causes are acting <i>unperceived</i> around us,
+and are making one species to be common and another exceedingly rare,
+that they might equally well cause the final extinction of some species
+without being perceived by us? We should always bear in mind that there
+is a recurrent struggle for life in every organism, and that in every
+country a destroying agency is always counteracting the geometrical
+tendency to increase in every species; and yet without our being able to
+tell with certainty at what period of life, or at what period of the
+year, the destruction falls the heaviest. Ought we then to expect to
+trace the steps by which this destroying power, always at work and
+scarcely perceived by us, becomes increased, and yet if it continues to
+increase ever so slowly (without the fertility of the species in
+question be likewise increased) the average number of the individuals of
+that species must decrease, and become finally lost. I may give a single
+instance of a check causing local extermination which might long have
+escaped discovery<a name='FNanchor_336_336' id='FNanchor_336_336'></a><a href='#Footnote_336_336' class='fnanchor'>{336}</a>;
+the horse, though swarming in a wild state in La Plata, and likewise
+under apparently the most unfavourable conditions in the scorched and
+alternately flooded plains of Caraccas, will not in a wild <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_149' id='Page_149'>{149}</a></span>
+state extend beyond a certain degree of latitude into the intermediate
+country of Paraguay; this is owing to a certain fly depositing its eggs
+on the navels of the foals: as, however, man with a <i>little</i> care can
+rear horses in a tame state <i>abundantly</i> in Paraguay, the problem of its
+extinction is probably complicated by the greater exposure of the wild
+horse to occasional famine from the droughts, to the attacks of the
+jaguar and other such evils. In the Falkland Islands the check to the
+<i>increase</i> of the wild horse is said to be loss of the sucking foals<a name='FNanchor_337_337' id='FNanchor_337_337'></a><a href='#Footnote_337_337' class='fnanchor'>{337}</a>,
+from the stallions compelling the mares to travel across bogs and rocks
+in search of food: if the pasture on these islands decreased a little,
+the horse, perhaps, would cease to exist in a wild state, not from the
+absolute want of food, but from the impatience of the stallions urging
+the mares to travel whilst the foals were too young.</p>
+
+<p>From our more intimate acquaintance with domestic animals, we cannot
+conceive their extinction without some glaring agency; we forget that
+they would undoubtedly in a state of nature (where other animals are
+ready to fill up their place) be acted on in some part of their lives by
+a destroying agency, keeping their numbers on an average constant. If
+the common ox was known only as a wild S. African species, we should
+feel no surprise at hearing that it was a very rare species; and this
+rarity would be a stage towards its extinction. Even in man, so
+infinitely better known than any other inhabitant of this world, how
+impossible it has been found, without statistical calculations, to judge
+of the proportions of births and deaths, of the duration of life, and of
+the increase and decrease of population; and still less of the causes of
+such changes: and yet, as has so often been repeated, decrease in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_150' id='Page_150'>{150}</a></span>
+numbers or rarity seems to be the high-road to extinction. To marvel at
+the extermination of a species appears to me to be the same thing as to
+know that illness is the road to death,&mdash;to look at illness as an
+ordinary event, nevertheless to conclude, when the sick man dies, that
+his death has been caused by some unknown and violent agency<a name='FNanchor_338_338' id='FNanchor_338_338'></a><a href='#Footnote_338_338' class='fnanchor'>{338}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In a future part of this work we shall show that, as a general rule,
+groups of allied species<a name='FNanchor_339_339' id='FNanchor_339_339'></a><a href='#Footnote_339_339' class='fnanchor'>{339}</a>
+gradually appear and disappear, one after the other, on the face of the
+earth, like the individuals of the same species: and we shall then
+endeavour to show the probable cause of this remarkable fact.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_151' id='Page_151'>{151}</a></p>
+
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_VI' id='CHAPTER_VI'></a>CHAPTER VI<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN PAST AND PRESENT
+TIMES</span></h2>
+
+<p>For convenience sake I shall divide this chapter into three sections<a name='FNanchor_340_340' id='FNanchor_340_340'></a><a href='#Footnote_340_340' class='fnanchor'>{340}</a>.
+In the first place I shall endeavour to state the laws of the
+distribution of existing beings, as far as our present object is
+concerned; in the second, that of extinct; and in the third section I
+shall consider how far these laws accord with the theory of allied
+species having a common descent.</p>
+
+<h3 class='sc'>Section First.</h3>
+
+<h3><i>Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the following discussion I shall chiefly refer to terrestrial
+mammifers, inasmuch as they are better known; their differences in
+different countries, strongly marked; and especially as the necessary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_152' id='Page_152'>{152}</a></span>
+means of their transport are more evident, and confusion, from the
+accidental conveyance by man of a species from one district to another
+district, is less likely to arise. It is known that all mammifers (as
+well as all other organisms) are united in one great system; but that
+the different species, genera, or families of the same order inhabit
+different quarters of the globe. If we divide the land<a name='FNanchor_341_341' id='FNanchor_341_341'></a><a href='#Footnote_341_341' class='fnanchor'>{341}</a>
+into two divisions, according to the amount of difference, and
+disregarding the numbers of the terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them,
+we shall have first Australia including New Guinea; and secondly the
+rest of the world: if we make a three-fold division, we shall have
+Australia, S. America, and the rest of the world; I must observe that
+North America is in some respects neutral land, from possessing some S.
+American forms, but I believe it is more closely allied (as it certainly
+is in its birds, plants and shells) with Europe. If our division had
+been four-fold, we should have had Australia, S. America, Madagascar
+(though inhabited by few mammifers) and the remaining land: if
+five-fold, Africa, especially the southern eastern parts, would have to
+be separated from the remainder of the world. These differences in the
+mammiferous inhabitants of the several main divisions of the globe
+cannot, it is well known, be explained by corresponding differences in
+their conditions<a name='FNanchor_342_342' id='FNanchor_342_342'></a><a href='#Footnote_342_342' class='fnanchor'>{342}</a>;
+how similar are parts of tropical America and Africa; and accordingly we
+find some <i>analogous</i> resemblances,&mdash;thus both have monkeys, both
+large feline animals, both large Lepidoptera, and large dung-feeding
+beetles; both have palms and epiphytes; and yet the essential difference
+between their productions is as great as between those of the arid
+plains of the Cape of Good Hope <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_153' id='Page_153'>{153}</a></span>
+and the grass-covered savannahs of La Plata<a name='FNanchor_343_343' id='FNanchor_343_343'></a><a href='#Footnote_343_343' class='fnanchor'>{343}</a>.
+Consider the distribution of the Marsupialia, which are eminently
+characteristic of Australia, and in a lesser degree of S. America; when
+we reflect that animals of this division, feeding both on animal and
+vegetable matter, frequent the dry open or wooded plains and mountains
+of Australia, the humid impenetrable forests of New Guinea and Brazil;
+the dry rocky mountains of Chile, and the grassy plains of Banda
+Oriental, we must look to some other cause, than the nature of the
+country, for their absence in Africa and other quarters of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore it may be observed that <i>all</i> the organisms inhabiting any
+country are not perfectly adapted to it<a name='FNanchor_344_344' id='FNanchor_344_344'></a><a href='#Footnote_344_344' class='fnanchor'>{344}</a>;
+I mean by not being perfectly adapted, only that some few other
+organisms can generally be found better adapted to the country than some
+of the aborigines. We must admit this when we consider the enormous
+number of horses and cattle which have run wild during the three last
+centuries in the uninhabited parts of St Domingo, Cuba, and S. America;
+for these animals must have supplanted some aboriginal ones. I might
+also adduce the same fact in Australia, but perhaps it will be objected
+that 30 or 40 years has not been a sufficient period to test this power
+of struggling «<ins>with</ins>» and overcoming the aborigines. We know
+the European mouse is driving before it that of New Zealand, like the
+Norway rat has driven before it the old English species in England.
+Scarcely an island can be named, where casually introduced plants have
+not supplanted some of the native species: in La Plata the Cardoon
+covers square leagues of country on <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_154' id='Page_154'>{154}</a></span>
+which some S. American plants must once have grown: the commonest weed
+over the whole of India is an introduced Mexican poppy. The geologist
+who knows that slow changes are in progress, replacing land and water,
+will easily perceive that even if all the organisms of any country had
+originally been the best adapted to it, this could hardly continue so
+during succeeding ages without either extermination, or changes, first
+in the relative proportional numbers of the inhabitants of the country,
+and finally in their constitutions and structure.</p>
+
+<p>Inspection of a map of the world at once shows that the five divisions,
+separated according to the greatest amount of difference in the
+mammifers inhabiting them, are likewise those most widely separated from
+each other by barriers<a name='FNanchor_345_345' id='FNanchor_345_345'></a><a href='#Footnote_345_345' class='fnanchor'>{345}</a>
+which mammifers cannot pass: thus Australia is separated from New Guinea
+and some small adjoining islets only by a narrow and shallow strait;
+whereas New Guinea and its adjoining islets are cut off from the other
+East Indian islands by deep water. These latter islands, I may remark,
+which fall into the great Asiatic group, are separated from each other
+and the continent only by shallow water; and where this is the case we
+may suppose, from geological oscillations of level, that generally there
+has been recent union. South America, including the southern part of
+Mexico, is cut off from North America by the West Indies, and the great
+table-land of Mexico, except by a mere fringe of tropical forests along
+the coast: it is owing, perhaps, to this fringe that N. America
+possesses some S. American forms. Madagascar is entirely isolated.
+Africa is also to a great extent isolated, although it approaches, by
+many promontories and by lines of shallower sea, to Europe and Asia:
+southern Africa, which is <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_155' id='Page_155'>{155}</a></span>
+the most distinct in its mammiferous inhabitants, is separated from the
+northern portion by the Great Sahara Desert and the table-land of
+Abyssinia. That the distribution of organisms is related to barriers,
+stopping their progress, we clearly see by comparing the distribution of
+marine and terrestrial productions. The marine animals being different
+on the two sides of land tenanted by the same terrestrial animals, thus
+the shells are wholly different on the opposite sides of the temperate
+parts of South America<a name='FNanchor_346_346' id='FNanchor_346_346'></a><a href='#Footnote_346_346' class='fnanchor'>{346}</a>,
+as they are «<ins>?</ins>» in the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. We can
+at once perceive that the destruction of a barrier would permit two
+geographical groups of organisms to fuse and blend into one. But the
+original cause of groups being different on opposite sides of a barrier
+can only be understood on the hypothesis of each organism having been
+created or produced on one spot or area, and afterwards migrating as
+widely as its means of transport and subsistence permitted it.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Relation of range in genera and species.</i></h3>
+
+<p>It is generally<a name='FNanchor_347_347' id='FNanchor_347_347'></a><a href='#Footnote_347_347' class='fnanchor'>{347}</a>
+found, that where a genus or group ranges over nearly the entire world,
+many of the species composing the group have wide ranges: on the other
+hand, where a group is restricted to any one country, the species
+composing it generally have restricted ranges in that country<a name='FNanchor_348_348' id='FNanchor_348_348'></a><a href='#Footnote_348_348' class='fnanchor'>{348}</a>.
+Thus among mammifers the feline and canine genera are widely
+distributed, and many of the individual species have enormous ranges
+[<del>the genus Mus I believe, however, is a strong exception to the
+rule</del>].<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_156' id='Page_156'>{156}</a></span>
+Mr Gould informs me that the rule holds with birds, as in the owl
+genus, which is mundane, and many of the species range widely. The rule
+holds also with land and fresh-water mollusca, with butterflies and very
+generally with plants. As instances of the converse rule, I may give
+that division of the monkeys which is confined to S. America, and
+amongst plants, the Cacti, confined to the same continent, the species
+of both of which have generally narrow ranges. On the ordinary theory of
+the separate creation of each species, the cause of these relations is
+not obvious; we can see no reason, because many allied species have been
+created in the several main divisions of the world, that several of
+these species should have wide ranges; and on the other hand, that
+species of the same group should have narrow ranges if all have been
+created in one main division of the world. As the result of such and
+probably many other unknown relations, it is found that, even in the
+same great classes of beings, the different divisions of the world are
+characterised by either merely different species, or genera, or even
+families: thus in cats, mice, foxes, S. America differs from Asia and
+Africa only in species; in her pigs, camels and monkeys the difference
+is generic or greater. Again, whilst southern Africa and Australia
+differ more widely in their mammalia than do Africa and S. America, they
+are more closely (though indeed very distantly) allied in their plants.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent.</i></h3>
+
+<p>If we now look at the distribution of the organisms in any one of the
+above main divisions of the world, we shall find it split up into many
+regions, with all or nearly all their species distinct, but yet<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_157' id='Page_157'>{157}</a></span>
+partaking of one common character. This similarity of type in the
+subdivisions of a great region is equally well-known with the
+dissimilarity of the inhabitants of the several great regions; but it
+has been less often insisted on, though more worthy of remark. Thus for
+instance, if in Africa or S. America, we go from south to north<a name='FNanchor_349_349' id='FNanchor_349_349'></a><a href='#Footnote_349_349' class='fnanchor'>{349}</a>,
+or from lowland to upland, or from a humid to a dryer part, we find
+wholly different species of those genera or groups which characterise
+the continent over which we are passing. In these subdivisions we may
+clearly observe, as in the main divisions of the world, that
+sub-barriers divide different groups of species, although the opposite
+sides of such sub-barriers may possess nearly the same climate, and may
+be in other respects nearly similar: thus it is on the opposite sides of
+the Cordillera of Chile, and in a lesser degree on the opposite sides of
+the Rocky mountains. Deserts, arms of the sea, and even rivers form the
+barriers; mere preoccupied space seems sufficient in several cases: thus
+Eastern and Western Australia, in the same latitude, with very similar
+climate and soils, have scarcely a plant, and few animals or birds, in
+common, although all belong to the peculiar genera characterising
+Australia. It is in short impossible to explain the differences in the
+inhabitants, either of the main divisions of the world, or of these
+sub-divisions, by the differences in their physical conditions, and by
+the adaptation of their inhabitants. Some other cause must intervene.</p>
+
+<p>We can see that the destruction of sub-barriers would cause (as before
+remarked in the case of the main divisions) two sub-divisions to blend
+into one; and we can only suppose that the original difference in the
+species, on the opposite sides of sub-barriers, is due to the creation
+or production of <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_158' id='Page_158'>{158}</a></span>
+species in distinct areas, from which they have wandered till arrested
+by such sub-barriers. Although thus far is pretty clear, it may be
+asked, why, when species in the same main division of the world were
+produced on opposite sides of a sub-barrier, both when exposed to
+similar conditions and when exposed to widely different influences (as
+on alpine and lowland tracts, as on arid and humid soils, as in cold and
+hot climates), have they invariably been formed on a similar type, and
+that type confined to this one division of the world? Why when an
+ostrich<a name='FNanchor_350_350' id='FNanchor_350_350'></a><a href='#Footnote_350_350' class='fnanchor'>{350}</a>
+was produced in the southern parts of America, was it formed on the
+American type, instead of on the African or on Australian types? Why
+when hare-like and rabbit-like animals were formed to live on the
+Savannahs of La Plata, were they produced on the peculiar Rodent type of
+S. America, instead of on the true<a name='FNanchor_351_351' id='FNanchor_351_351'></a><a href='#Footnote_351_351' class='fnanchor'>{351}</a>
+hare-type of North America, Asia and Africa? Why when borrowing Rodents,
+and camel-like animals were formed to tenant the Cordillera, were they
+formed on the same type<a name='FNanchor_352_352' id='FNanchor_352_352'></a><a href='#Footnote_352_352' class='fnanchor'>{352}</a>
+with their representatives on the plains? Why were the mice, and many
+birds of different species on the opposite sides of the Cordillera, but
+exposed to a very similar climate and soil, created on the same peculiar
+S. American type? Why were the plants in Eastern and Western Australia,
+though wholly different as species, formed on the same peculiar
+Australian types? The generality of the rule, in so many places and
+under such different circumstances, makes it highly remarkable and seems
+to demand some explanation.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_159' id='Page_159'>{159}</a></p>
+<h3><i>Insular Faunas.</i></h3>
+
+<p>If we now look to the character of the inhabitants of small islands<a name='FNanchor_353_353' id='FNanchor_353_353'></a><a href='#Footnote_353_353' class='fnanchor'>{353}</a>,
+we shall find that those situated close to other land have a similar
+fauna with that land<a name='FNanchor_354_354' id='FNanchor_354_354'></a><a href='#Footnote_354_354' class='fnanchor'>{354}</a>,
+whilst those at a considerable distance from other land often possess an
+almost entirely peculiar fauna. The Galapagos Archipelago<a name='FNanchor_355_355' id='FNanchor_355_355'></a><a href='#Footnote_355_355' class='fnanchor'>{355}</a>
+is a remarkable instance of this latter fact; here almost every bird,
+its one mammifer, its reptiles, land and sea shells, and even fish, are
+almost all peculiar and distinct species, not found in any other quarter
+of the world: so are the majority of its plants. But although situated
+at the distance of between 500 and 600 miles from the S. American coast,
+it is impossible to even glance at a large part of its fauna, especially
+at the birds, without at once seeing that they belong to the American
+type<a name='FNanchor_356_356' id='FNanchor_356_356'></a><a href='#Footnote_356_356' class='fnanchor'>{356}</a>.
+Hence, in fact, groups of islands thus circumstanced form merely small
+but well-defined sub-divisions of the larger geographical divisions. But
+the fact is in such cases far more striking: for taking the Galapagos
+Archipelago as an instance; in the first place we must feel convinced,
+seeing that every island is wholly volcanic and bristles with craters,
+that in a geological sense the whole is of recent origin comparatively
+with a continent; and as the species are nearly all peculiar, we must
+conclude that they have in the same sense recently been produced on this
+very spot; and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_160' id='Page_160'>{160}</a></span>
+although in the nature of the soil, and in a lesser degree in the
+climate, there is a wide difference with the nearer part of the S.
+American coast, we see that the inhabitants have been formed on the same
+closely allied type. On the other hand, these islands, as far as their
+physical conditions are concerned, resemble closely the Cape de Verde
+volcanic group, and yet how wholly unlike are the productions of these
+two archipelagoes. The Cape de Verde<a name='FNanchor_357_357' id='FNanchor_357_357'></a><a href='#Footnote_357_357' class='fnanchor'>{357}</a>
+group, to which may be added the Canary Islands, are allied in their
+inhabitants (of which many are peculiar species) to the coast of Africa
+and southern Europe, in precisely the same manner as the Galapagos
+Archipelago is allied to America. We here clearly see that mere
+geographical proximity affects, more than any relation of adaptation,
+the character of species. How many islands in the Pacific exist far more
+like in their physical conditions to Juan Fernandez than this island is
+to the coast of Chile, distant 300 miles; why then, except from mere
+proximity, should this island alone be tenanted by two very peculiar
+species of humming-birds&mdash;that form of birds which is so
+exclusively American? Innumerable other similar cases might be adduced.</p>
+
+<p>The Galapagos Archipelago offers another, even more remarkable, example
+of the class of facts we are here considering. Most of its genera are,
+as we have said, American, many of them are mundane, or found
+everywhere, and some are quite or nearly confined to this archipelago.
+The islands are of absolutely similar composition, and exposed to the
+same climate; most of them are in sight of each other; and yet several
+of the islands are inhabited, each by peculiar species (or in some cases
+perhaps only varieties) of some of the genera characterising the
+archipelago. So that the small group of the Galapagos<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_161' id='Page_161'>{161}</a></span>
+Islands typifies, and follows exactly the same laws in the distribution
+of its inhabitants, as a great continent. How wonderful it is that two
+or three closely similar but distinct species of a mocking-thrush<a name='FNanchor_358_358' id='FNanchor_358_358'></a><a href='#Footnote_358_358' class='fnanchor'>{358}</a>
+should have been produced on three neighbouring and absolutely similar
+islands; and that these three species of mocking-thrush should be
+closely related to the other species inhabiting wholly different
+climates and different districts of America, and only in America. No
+similar case so striking as this of the Galapagos Archipelago has
+hitherto been observed; and this difference of the productions in the
+different islands may perhaps be partly explained by the depth of the
+sea between them (showing that they could not have been united within
+recent geological periods), and by the currents of the sea sweeping
+<i>straight</i> between them,&mdash;and by storms of wind being rare, through
+which means seeds and birds could be blown, or drifted, from one island
+to another. There are however some similar facts: it is said that the
+different, though neighbouring islands of the East Indian Archipelago
+are inhabited by some different species of the same genera; and at the
+Sandwich group some of the islands have each their peculiar species of
+the same genera of plants.</p>
+
+<p>Islands standing quite isolated within the intra-tropical oceans have
+generally very peculiar floras, related, though feebly (as in the case
+of St Helena<a name='FNanchor_359_359' id='FNanchor_359_359'></a><a href='#Footnote_359_359' class='fnanchor'>{359}</a>
+where almost every species is distinct), with the nearest continent:
+Tristan d'Acunha is feebly related, I believe, in its plants, both to
+Africa and S. America, not by having species in common, but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_162' id='Page_162'>{162}</a></span>
+by the genera to which they belong<a name='FNanchor_360_360' id='FNanchor_360_360'></a><a href='#Footnote_360_360' class='fnanchor'>{360}</a>.
+The floras of the numerous scattered islands of the Pacific are related
+to each other and to all the surrounding continents; but it has been
+said, that they have more of an Indo-Asiatic than American character<a name='FNanchor_361_361' id='FNanchor_361_361'></a><a href='#Footnote_361_361' class='fnanchor'>{361}</a>.
+This is somewhat remarkable, as America is nearer to all the Eastern
+islands, and lies in the direction of the trade-wind and prevailing
+currents; on the other hand, all the heaviest gales come from the
+Asiatic side. But even with the aid of these gales, it is not obvious on
+the ordinary theory of creation how the possibility of migration
+(without we suppose, with extreme improbability, that each species with
+an Indo-Asiatic character has actually travelled from the Asiatic
+shores, where such species do not now exist) explains this Asiatic
+character in the plants of the Pacific. This is no more obvious than
+that (as before remarked) there should exist a relation between the
+creation of closely allied species in several regions of the world, and
+the fact of many such species having wide ranges; and on the other hand,
+of allied species confined to one region of the world having in that
+region narrow ranges.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Alpine Floras.</i></h3>
+
+<p>We will now turn to the floras of mountain-summits which are well known
+to differ from the floras of the neighbouring lowlands. In certain
+characters, such as dwarfness of stature, hairiness, &amp;c., the
+species from the most distant mountains frequently resemble each
+other,&mdash;a kind of analogy like that for instance of the succulency
+of most desert plants. Besides this analogy, Alpine plants <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_163' id='Page_163'>{163}</a></span>
+present some eminently curious facts in their distribution. In some
+cases the summits of mountains, although immensely distant from each
+other, are clothed by the same identical species<a name='FNanchor_362_362' id='FNanchor_362_362'></a><a href='#Footnote_362_362' class='fnanchor'>{362}</a>
+which are likewise the same with those growing on the likewise very
+distant Arctic shores. In other cases, although few or none of the
+species may be actually identical, they are closely related; whilst the
+plants of the lowland districts surrounding the two mountains in
+question will be wholly dissimilar. As mountain-summits, as far as their
+plants are concerned, are islands rising out of an ocean of land in
+which the Alpine species cannot live, nor across which is there any
+known means of transport, this fact appears directly opposed to the
+conclusion which we have come to from considering the general
+distribution of organisms both on continents and on
+islands&mdash;namely, that the degree of relationship between the
+inhabitants of two points depends on the completeness and nature of the
+barriers between those points<a name='FNanchor_363_363' id='FNanchor_363_363'></a><a href='#Footnote_363_363' class='fnanchor'>{363}</a>.
+I believe, however, this anomalous case admits, as we shall presently
+see, of some explanation. We might have expected that the flora of a
+mountain summit would have presented the same relation to the flora of
+the surrounding lowland country, which any isolated part of a continent
+does to the whole, or an island does to the mainland, from which it is
+separated by a rather wide space of sea. This in fact is the case with
+the plants clothing the summits of <i>some</i> mountains, which mountains it
+may be observed are particularly isolated; for instance, all the species
+are peculiar, but they belong to the forms characteristic of the
+surrounding continent, on the mountains of Caraccas, of Van
+Dieman's<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_164' id='Page_164'>{164}</a></span>
+Land and of the Cape of Good Hope<a name='FNanchor_364_364' id='FNanchor_364_364'></a><a href='#Footnote_364_364' class='fnanchor'>{364}</a>.
+On some other mountains, for instance «<ins>in</ins>» Tierra del Fuego
+and in Brazil, some of the plants though distinct species are S.
+American forms; whilst others are allied to or are identical with the
+Alpine species of Europe. In islands of which the lowland flora is
+distinct «<ins>from</ins>» but allied to that of the nearest continent, the Alpine plants
+are sometimes (or perhaps mostly) eminently peculiar and distinct<a name='FNanchor_365_365' id='FNanchor_365_365'></a><a href='#Footnote_365_365' class='fnanchor'>{365}</a>;
+this is the case on Teneriffe, and in a lesser degree even on some of
+the Mediterranean islands.</p>
+
+<p>If all Alpine floras had been characterised like that of the mountain of
+Caraccas, or of Van Dieman&rsquo;s Land, &amp;c., whatever explanation
+is possible of the general laws of geographical distribution would have
+applied to them. But the apparently anomalous case just given, namely of
+the mountains of Europe, of some mountains in the United States (Dr
+Boott) and of the summits of the Himalaya (Royle), having many identical
+species in common conjointly with the Arctic regions, and many species,
+though not identical, closely allied, require a separate explanation.
+The fact likewise of several of the species on the mountains of Tierra
+del Fuego (and in a lesser degree on the mountains of Brazil) not
+belonging to American forms, but to those of Europe, though so immensely
+remote, requires also a separate explanation.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_165' id='Page_165'>{165}</a></p>
+
+<h3><i>Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Now we may with confidence affirm, from the number of the then floating
+icebergs and low descent of the glaciers, that within a period so near
+that species of shells have remained the same, the whole of Central
+Europe and of North America (and perhaps of Eastern Asia) possessed a
+very cold climate; and therefore it is probable that the floras of these
+districts were the same as the present Arctic one,&mdash;as is known to
+have been to some degree the case with then existing sea-shells, and
+those now living on the Arctic shores. At this period the mountains must
+have been covered with ice of which we have evidence in the surfaces
+polished and scored by glaciers. What then would be the natural and
+almost inevitable effects of the gradual change into the present more
+temperate climate<a name='FNanchor_366_366' id='FNanchor_366_366'></a><a href='#Footnote_366_366' class='fnanchor'>{366}</a>?
+The ice and snow would disappear from the mountains, and as new plants
+from the more temperate regions of the south migrated northward,
+replacing the Arctic plants, these latter would crawl<a name='FNanchor_367_367' id='FNanchor_367_367'></a><a href='#Footnote_367_367' class='fnanchor'>{367}</a>
+up the now uncovered mountains, and likewise be driven northward to the
+present Arctic shores. If the Arctic flora of that period was a nearly
+uniform one, as the present one is, then we should have the same plants
+on these mountain-summits and on the present Arctic shores. On this view
+the Arctic flora of that period must have been a widely extended one,
+more so than even the present one; but considering how similar the
+physical conditions must always be of land bordering on perpetual frost,
+this does not appear a great difficulty; and may we not venture to
+suppose that <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_166' id='Page_166'>{166}</a></span>
+the almost infinitely numerous icebergs, charged with great masses of
+rocks, soil and <i>brushwood</i><a name='FNanchor_368_368' id='FNanchor_368_368'></a><a href='#Footnote_368_368' class='fnanchor'>{368}</a>
+and often driven high up on distant beaches, might have been the means
+of widely distributing the seeds of the same species?</p>
+
+<p>I will only hazard one other observation, namely that during the change
+from an extremely cold climate to a more temperate one the conditions,
+both on lowland and mountain, would be singularly favourable for the
+diffusion of any existing plants, which could live on land, just freed
+from the rigour of eternal winter; for it would possess no inhabitants;
+and we cannot doubt that <i>preoccupation</i><a name='FNanchor_369_369' id='FNanchor_369_369'></a><a href='#Footnote_369_369' class='fnanchor'>{369}</a>
+is the chief bar to the diffusion of plants. For amongst many other
+facts, how otherwise can we explain the circumstance that the plants on
+the opposite, though similarly constituted sides of a wide river in
+Eastern Europe (as I was informed by Humboldt) should be widely
+different; across which river birds, swimming quadrupeds and the wind
+must often transport seeds; we can only suppose that plants already
+occupying the soil and freely seeding check the germination of
+occasionally transported seeds.</p>
+
+<p>At about the same period when icebergs were transporting boulders in N.
+America as far as 36&deg; south, where the cotton tree now grows in
+South America, in latitude 42&deg; (where the land is now clothed with
+forests having an almost tropical aspect with the trees bearing
+epiphytes and intertwined with canes), the same ice action was going on;
+is it not then in some degree probable that at this period the whole
+tropical parts of the two Americas <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_167' id='Page_167'>{167}</a></span>
+possessed<a name='FNanchor_370_370' id='FNanchor_370_370'></a><a href='#Footnote_370_370' class='fnanchor'>{370}</a>
+(as Falconer asserts that India did) a more temperate climate? In this
+case the Alpine plants of the long chain of the Cordillera would have
+descended much lower and there would have been a broad high-road<a name='FNanchor_371_371' id='FNanchor_371_371'></a><a href='#Footnote_371_371' class='fnanchor'>{371}</a>
+connecting those parts of North and South America which were then
+frigid. As the present climate supervened, the plants occupying the
+districts which now are become in both hemispheres temperate and even
+semi-tropical must have been driven to the Arctic and Antarctic<a name='FNanchor_372_372' id='FNanchor_372_372'></a><a href='#Footnote_372_372' class='fnanchor'>{372}</a>
+regions; and only a few of the loftiest points of the Cordillera can
+have retained their former connecting flora. The transverse chain of
+Chiquitos might perhaps in a similar manner during the ice-action period
+have served as a connecting road (though a broken one) for Alpine plants
+to become dispersed from the Cordillera to the highlands of Brazil. It
+may be observed that some (though not strong) reasons can be assigned
+for believing that at about this same period the two Americas were not
+so thoroughly divided as they now are by the West Indies and tableland
+of Mexico. I will only further remark that the present most singularly
+close similarity in the vegetation of the lowlands of Kerguelen&rsquo;s
+Land<a name='FNanchor_373_373' id='FNanchor_373_373'></a><a href='#Footnote_373_373' class='fnanchor'>{373}</a>
+and of Tierra del Fuego (Hooker), though so far apart, may perhaps be
+explained by the dissemination of seeds during this same cold period, by
+means of icebergs, as before alluded to<a name='FNanchor_374_374' id='FNanchor_374_374'></a><a href='#Footnote_374_374' class='fnanchor'>{374}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, I think we may safely grant from the foregoing facts and
+reasoning that the anomalous <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_168' id='Page_168'>{168}</a></span>
+similarity in the vegetation of certain very distant mountain-summits
+is not in truth opposed to the conclusion of the intimate relation
+subsisting between proximity in space (in accordance with the means of
+transport in each class) and the degree of affinity of the inhabitants
+of any two countries. In the case of several quite isolated mountains,
+we have seen that the general law holds good.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Whether the same species has been created more than once.</i></h3>
+
+<p>As the fact of the same species of plants having been found on
+mountain-summits immensely remote has been one chief cause of the belief
+of some species having been contemporaneously produced or created at two
+different points<a name='FNanchor_375_375' id='FNanchor_375_375'></a><a href='#Footnote_375_375' class='fnanchor'>{375}</a>,
+I will here briefly discuss this subject. On the ordinary theory of
+creation, we can see no reason why on two similar mountain-summits two
+similar species may not have been created; but the opposite view,
+independently of its simplicity, has been generally received from the
+analogy of the general distribution of all organisms, in which (as shown
+in this chapter) we almost always find that great and continuous
+barriers separate distinct series; and we are naturally led to suppose
+that the two series have been separately created. When taking a more
+limited view we see a river, with a quite similar country on both sides,
+with one side well stocked with a certain animal and on the other side
+not one (as is the case with the Bizcacha<a name='FNanchor_376_376' id='FNanchor_376_376'></a><a href='#Footnote_376_376' class='fnanchor'>{376}</a>
+on the opposite sides of the Plata), we are at once led to conclude that
+the Bizcacha <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_169' id='Page_169'>{169}</a></span>
+was produced on some one point or area on the western side of the
+river. Considering our ignorance of the many strange chances of
+diffusion by birds (which occasionally wander to immense distances) and
+quadrupeds swallowing seeds and ova (as in the case of the flying
+water-beetle which disgorged the eggs of a fish), and of whirlwinds
+carrying seeds and animals into strong upper currents (as in the case of
+volcanic ashes and showers of hay, grain and fish<a name='FNanchor_377_377' id='FNanchor_377_377'></a><a href='#Footnote_377_377' class='fnanchor'>{377}</a>),
+and of the possibility of species having survived for short periods at
+intermediate spots and afterwards becoming extinct there<a name='FNanchor_378_378' id='FNanchor_378_378'></a><a href='#Footnote_378_378' class='fnanchor'>{378}</a>;
+and considering our knowledge of the great changes which <i>have</i> taken
+place from subsidence and elevation in the surface of the earth, and of
+our ignorance of the greater changes which <i>may have</i> taken place, we
+ought to be very slow in admitting the probability of double creations.
+In the case of plants on mountain-summits, I think I have shown how
+almost necessarily they would, under the past conditions of the northern
+hemisphere, be as similar as are the plants on the present Arctic
+shores; and this ought to teach us a lesson of caution.</p>
+
+<p>But the strongest argument against double creations may be drawn from
+considering the case of mammifers<a name='FNanchor_379_379' id='FNanchor_379_379'></a><a href='#Footnote_379_379' class='fnanchor'>{379}</a>
+in which, from their nature and from the size of their offspring, the
+means of distribution are more in view. There are no cases where the
+same species is found in <i>very remote</i> localities, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_170' id='Page_170'>{170}</a></span>
+except where there is a continuous belt of land: the Arctic region
+perhaps offers the strongest exception, and here we know that animals
+are transported on icebergs<a name='FNanchor_380_380' id='FNanchor_380_380'></a><a href='#Footnote_380_380' class='fnanchor'>{380}</a>.
+The cases of lesser difficulty may all receive a more or less simple
+explanation; I will give only one instance; the nutria<a name='FNanchor_381_381' id='FNanchor_381_381'></a><a href='#Footnote_381_381' class='fnanchor'>{381}</a>,
+I believe, on the eastern coast of S. America live exclusively in
+fresh-water rivers, and I was much surprised how they could have got
+into rivulets, widely apart, on the coast of Patagonia; but on the
+opposite coast I found these quadrupeds living exclusively in the sea,
+and hence their migration along the Patagonian coast is not surprising.
+There is no case of the same mammifer being found on an island far from
+the coast, and on the mainland, as happens with plants<a name='FNanchor_382_382' id='FNanchor_382_382'></a><a href='#Footnote_382_382' class='fnanchor'>{382}</a>.
+On the idea of double creations it would be strange if the same species
+of several plants should have been created in Australia and Europe; and
+no one instance of the same species of mammifer having been created, or
+aboriginally existing, in two as nearly remote and equally isolated
+points. It is more philosophical, in such cases, as that of some plants
+being found in Australia and Europe, to admit that we are ignorant of
+the means of transport. I will allude only to one other case, namely,
+that of the Mydas<a name='FNanchor_383_383' id='FNanchor_383_383'></a><a href='#Footnote_383_383' class='fnanchor'>{383}</a>,
+an Alpine animal, found only on the distant peaks of the mountains of
+Java: who will pretend to deny that during the ice period<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_171' id='Page_171'>{171}</a></span>
+of the northern and southern hemispheres, and when India is believed to
+have been colder, the climate might not have permitted this animal to
+haunt a lower country, and thus to have passed along the ridges from
+summit to summit? Mr Lyell has further observed that, <i>as in space, so
+in time</i>, there is no reason to believe that after the extinction of a
+species, the self-same form has ever reappeared<a name='FNanchor_384_384' id='FNanchor_384_384'></a><a href='#Footnote_384_384' class='fnanchor'>{384}</a>.
+I think, then, we may, notwithstanding the many cases of difficulty,
+conclude with some confidence that every species has been created or
+produced on a single point or area.</p>
+
+<h3><i>On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong in
+different regions.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The last fact in geographical distribution, which, as far as I can see,
+in any way concerns the origin of species, relates to the absolute
+number and nature of the organic beings inhabiting different tracts of
+land. Although every species is admirably adapted (but not necessarily
+better adapted than every other species, as we have seen in the great
+increase of introduced species) to the country and station it frequents;
+yet it has been shown that the entire difference between the species in
+distant countries cannot possibly be explained by the difference of the
+physical conditions of these countries. In the same manner, I believe,
+neither the number of the species, nor the nature of the great classes
+to which they belong, can possibly in all cases be explained by the
+conditions of their country. New Zealand<a name='FNanchor_385_385' id='FNanchor_385_385'></a><a href='#Footnote_385_385' class='fnanchor'>{385}</a>,
+a linear island stretching over about 700 miles of latitude, with
+forests, marshes, plains and mountains reaching to the limits of eternal
+snow, has far more <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_172' id='Page_172'>{172}</a></span>
+diversified habitats than an equal area at the Cape of Good Hope; and
+yet, I believe, at the Cape of Good Hope there are, of phanerogamic
+plants, from five to ten times the number of species as in all New
+Zealand. Why on the theory of absolute creations should this large and
+diversified island only have from 400 to 500 (? Dieffenbach)
+phanerogamic plants? and why should the Cape of Good Hope, characterised
+by the uniformity of its scenery, swarm with more species of plants than
+probably any other quarter of the world? Why on the ordinary theory
+should the Galapagos Islands abound with terrestrial reptiles? and why
+should many equal-sized islands in the Pacific be without a single one<a name='FNanchor_386_386' id='FNanchor_386_386'></a><a href='#Footnote_386_386' class='fnanchor'>{386}</a>
+or with only one or two species? Why should the great island of New
+Zealand be without one mammiferous quadruped except the mouse, and that
+was probably introduced with the aborigines? Why should not one island
+(it can be shown, I think, that the mammifers of Mauritius and St Iago
+have all been introduced) in the open ocean possess a mammiferous
+quadruped? Let it not be said that quadrupeds cannot live in islands,
+for we know that cattle, horses and pigs during a long period have run
+wild in the West Indian and Falkland Islands; pigs at St Helena; goats
+at Tahiti; asses in the Canary Islands; dogs in Cuba; cats at Ascension;
+rabbits at Madeira and the Falklands; monkeys at St Iago and the
+Mauritius; even elephants during a long time in one of the very small
+Sooloo Islands; and European mice on very many of the smallest islands
+far from the habitations of man<a name='FNanchor_387_387' id='FNanchor_387_387'></a><a href='#Footnote_387_387' class='fnanchor'>{387}</a>.
+Nor let it be assumed that quadrupeds are more slowly created and hence
+that the oceanic islands, which generally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_173' id='Page_173'>{173}</a></span>
+are of volcanic formation, are of too recent origin to possess them;
+for we know (Lyell) that new forms of quadrupeds succeed each other
+quicker than Mollusca or Reptilia. Nor let it be assumed (though such an
+assumption would be no explanation) that quadrupeds cannot be created on
+small islands; for islands not lying in mid-ocean do possess their
+peculiar quadrupeds; thus many of the smaller islands of the East Indian
+Archipelago possess quadrupeds; as does Fernando Po on the West Coast of
+Africa; as the Falkland Islands possess a peculiar wolf-like fox<a name='FNanchor_388_388' id='FNanchor_388_388'></a><a href='#Footnote_388_388' class='fnanchor'>{388}</a>;
+so do the Galapagos Islands a peculiar mouse of the S. American type.
+These two last are the most remarkable cases with which I am acquainted;
+inasmuch as the islands lie further from other land. It is possible that
+the Galapagos mouse may have been introduced in some ship from the S.
+American coast (though the species is at present unknown there), for the
+aboriginal species soon haunts the goods of man, as I noticed in the
+roof of a newly erected shed in a desert country south of the Plata. The
+Falkland Islands, though between 200 and 300 miles from the S. American
+coast, may in one sense be considered as intimately connected with it;
+for it is certain that formerly many icebergs loaded with boulders were
+stranded on its southern coast, and the old canoes which are
+occasionally now stranded, show that the currents still set from Tierra
+del Fuego. This fact, however, does not explain the presence of the
+<i>Canis antarcticus</i> on the Falkland Islands, unless we suppose that it
+formerly lived on the mainland and became extinct there, whilst it
+survived on these islands, to which it was borne (as happens with its
+northern congener, the common wolf) on an iceberg, but this fact removes
+the anomaly of an island, in appearance effectually separated <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_174' id='Page_174'>{174}</a></span>
+from other land, having its own species of quadruped, and makes the
+case like that of Java and Sumatra, each having their own rhinoceros.</p>
+
+<p>Before summing up all the facts given in this section on the present
+condition of organic beings, and endeavouring to see how far they admit
+of explanation, it will be convenient to state all such facts in the
+past geographical distribution of extinct beings as seem anyway to
+concern the theory of descent.</p>
+
+<h3 class='sc'>Section Second.</h3>
+
+<h3><i>Geographical distribution of extinct organisms.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I have stated that if the land of the entire world be divided into (we
+will say) three sections, according to the amount of difference of the
+terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them, we shall have three unequal
+divisions of (1st) Australia and its dependent islands, (2nd) South
+America, (3rd) Europe, Asia and Africa. If we now look to the mammifers
+which inhabited these three divisions during the later Tertiary periods,
+we shall find them almost as distinct as at the present day, and
+intimately related in each division to the existing forms in that
+division<a name='FNanchor_389_389' id='FNanchor_389_389'></a><a href='#Footnote_389_389' class='fnanchor'>{389}</a>.
+This is wonderfully the case with the several fossil Marsupial genera in
+the caverns of New South Wales and even more wonderfully so in South
+America, where we have the same peculiar group of monkeys, of a
+guanaco-like animal, of many rodents, of the Marsupial Didelphys, of
+Armadilloes and other Edentata. This last family is at present very
+characteristic of S. America, and in a late Tertiary epoch it was even
+more so, as is shown by the numerous enormous animals of the Megatheroid
+family, some <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_175' id='Page_175'>{175}</a></span>
+of which were protected by an osseous armour like that, but on a
+gigantic scale, of the recent Armadillo. Lastly, over Europe the remains
+of the several deer, oxen, bears, foxes, beavers, field-mice, show a
+relation to the present inhabitants of this region; and the
+contemporaneous remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
+hy&aelig;na, show a relation with the grand Africo-Asiatic division of
+the world. In Asia the fossil mammifers of the Himalaya (though mingled
+with forms long extinct in Europe) are equally related to the existing
+forms of the Africo-Asiatic division; but especially to those of India
+itself. As the gigantic and now extinct quadrupeds of Europe have
+naturally excited more attention than the other and smaller remains, the
+relation between the past and the present mammiferous inhabitants of
+Europe has not been sufficiently attended to. But in fact the mammifers
+of Europe are at present nearly as much Africo-Asiatic as they were
+formerly when Europe had its elephants and rhinoceroses, etc.; Europe
+neither now nor then possessed peculiar groups as does Australia and S.
+America. The extinction of certain peculiar forms in one quarter does
+not make the remaining mammifers of that quarter less related to its own
+great division of the world: though Tierra del Fuego possesses only a
+fox, three rodents, and the guanaco, no one (as these all belong to S.
+American types, but not to the most characteristic forms) would doubt
+for one minute «<ins>as to</ins>» classifying this district with S. America; and if fossil
+Edentata, Marsupials and monkeys were to be found in Tierra del Fuego,
+it would not make this district more truly S. American than it now is.
+So it is with Europe<a name='FNanchor_390_390' id='FNanchor_390_390'></a><a href='#Footnote_390_390' class='fnanchor'>{390}</a>,
+and so far as <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_176' id='Page_176'>{176}</a></span>is known with Asia, for the lately past and present
+mammifers all belong to the Africo-Asiatic division of the world. In
+every case, I may add, the forms which a country has is of more
+importance in geographical arrangement than what it has not.</p>
+
+<p>We find some evidence of the same general fact in a relation between
+the recent and the Tertiary sea-shells, in the different main divisions
+of the marine world.</p>
+
+<p>This general and most remarkable relation between the lately past and
+present mammiferous inhabitants of the three main divisions of the world
+is precisely the same kind of fact as the relation between the different
+species of the several sub-regions of any one of the main divisions. As
+we usually associate great physical changes with the total extinction of
+one series of beings, and its succession by another series, this
+identity of relation between the past and the present races of beings in
+the same quarters of the globe is more striking than the same relation
+between existing beings in different sub-regions: but in truth we have
+no reason for supposing that a change in the conditions has in any of
+these cases supervened, greater than that now existing between the
+temperate and tropical, or between the highlands and lowlands of the
+same main divisions, now tenanted by related beings. Finally, then, we
+clearly see that in each main division of the world the same relation
+holds good between its inhabitants in time as over space<a name='FNanchor_391_391' id='FNanchor_391_391'></a><a href='#Footnote_391_391' class='fnanchor'>{391}</a>.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_177' id='Page_177'>{177}</a></p>
+<h3><i>Changes in geographical distribution.</i></h3>
+
+<p>If, however, we look closer, we shall find that even Australia, in
+possessing a terrestrial Pachyderm, was so far less distinct from the
+rest of the world than it now is; so was S. America in possessing the
+Mastodon, horse, [<del>hy&aelig;na,</del>]<a name='FNanchor_392_392' id='FNanchor_392_392'></a><a href='#Footnote_392_392' class='fnanchor'>{392}</a>
+and antelope. N. America, as I have remarked, is now, in its mammifers,
+in some respects neutral ground between S. America and the great
+Africo-Asiatic division; formerly, in possessing the horse, Mastodon and
+three Megatheroid animals, it was more nearly related to S. America; but
+in the horse and Mastodon, and likewise in having the elephant, oxen,
+sheep, and pigs, it was as much, if not more, related to the
+Africo-Asiatic division. Again, northern India was much more closely
+related (in having the giraffe, hippopotamus, and certain musk-deer) to
+southern Africa than it now is; for southern and eastern Africa deserve,
+if we divide the world into five parts, to make one division by itself.
+Turning to the dawn of the Tertiary period, we must, from our ignorance
+of other portions of the world, confine ourselves to Europe; and at that
+period, in the presence of Marsupials<a name='FNanchor_393_393' id='FNanchor_393_393'></a><a href='#Footnote_393_393' class='fnanchor'>{393}</a>
+and Edentata, we behold an <i>entire</i> blending of those mammiferous forms
+which now eminently characterise Australia and S. America<a name='FNanchor_394_394' id='FNanchor_394_394'></a><a href='#Footnote_394_394' class='fnanchor'>{394}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If we now look at the distribution of sea-shells, we find the same
+changes in distribution. The Red Sea and the Mediterranean were more
+nearly related in these shells than they now are. In different parts of
+Europe, on the other hand, during the<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_178' id='Page_178'>{178}</a></span>
+Miocene period, the sea-shells seem to have been more different than at
+present. In<a name='FNanchor_395_395' id='FNanchor_395_395'></a><a href='#Footnote_395_395' class='fnanchor'>{395}</a>
+the Tertiary period, according to Lyell, the shells of N. America and
+Europe were less related than at present, and during the Cretaceous
+still less like; whereas, during this same Cretaceous period, the shells
+of India and Europe were more like than at present. But going further
+back to the Carbonaceous period, in N. America and Europe, the
+productions were much more like than they now are<a name='FNanchor_396_396' id='FNanchor_396_396'></a><a href='#Footnote_396_396' class='fnanchor'>{396}</a>.
+These facts harmonise with the conclusions drawn from the present
+distribution of organic beings, for we have seen, that from species
+being created in different points or areas, the formation of a barrier
+would cause or make two distinct geographical areas; and the destruction
+of a barrier would permit their diffusion<a name='FNanchor_397_397' id='FNanchor_397_397'></a><a href='#Footnote_397_397' class='fnanchor'>{397}</a>.
+And as long-continued geological changes must both destroy and make
+barriers, we might expect, the further we looked backwards, the more
+changed should we find the present distribution. This conclusion is
+worthy of attention; because, finding in widely different parts of the
+same main division of the world, and in volcanic islands near them,
+groups of distinct, but related, species;&mdash;and finding that a
+singularly analogous relation holds good with respect to the beings of
+past times, when none of the present species were living, a person might
+be tempted to believe in some mystical relation between certain areas of
+the world, and the production of certain organic forms; but we now see
+that such an assumption would have to be complicated by the admission
+that such a relation, though holding good for long revolutions of years,
+is not truly persistent.</p>
+
+<p>I will only add one more observation to this <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_179' id='Page_179'>{179}</a></span>
+section. Geologists finding in the most remote period with which we are
+acquainted, namely in the Silurian period, that the shells and other
+marine productions<a name='FNanchor_398_398' id='FNanchor_398_398'></a><a href='#Footnote_398_398' class='fnanchor'>{398}</a>
+in North and South America, in Europe, Southern Africa, and Western
+Asia, are much more similar than they now are at these distant points,
+appear to have imagined that in these ancient times the laws of
+geographical distribution were quite different than what they now are:
+but we have only to suppose that great continents were extended east and
+west, and thus did not divide the inhabitants of the temperate and
+tropical seas, as the continents now do; and it would then become
+probable that the inhabitants of the seas would be much more similar
+than they now are. In the immense space of ocean extending from the east
+coast of Africa to the eastern islands of the Pacific, which space is
+connected either by lines of tropical coast or by islands not very
+distant from each other, we know (Cuming) that many shells, perhaps even
+as many as 200, are common to the Zanzibar coast, the Philippines, and
+the eastern islands of the Low or Dangerous Archipelago in the Pacific.
+This space equals that from the Arctic to the Antarctic pole! Pass over
+the space of quite open ocean, from the Dangerous Archipelago to the
+west coast of S. America, and every shell is different: pass over the
+narrow space of S. America, to its eastern shores, and again every shell
+is different! Many fish, I may add, are also common to the Pacific and
+Indian Oceans.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_180' id='Page_180'>{180}</a></p>
+<h3><i>Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Let us sum up the several facts now given with respect to the past and
+present geographical distribution of organic beings. In a previous
+chapter it was shown that species are not exterminated by universal
+catastrophes, and that they are slowly produced: we have also seen that
+each species is probably only once produced, on one point or area once
+in time; and that each diffuses itself, as far as barriers and its
+conditions of life permit. If we look at any one main division of the
+land, we find in the different parts, whether exposed to different
+conditions or to the same conditions, many groups of species wholly or
+nearly distinct as species, nevertheless intimately related. We find the
+inhabitants of islands, though distinct as species, similarly related to
+the inhabitants of the nearest continent; we find in some cases, that
+even the different islands of one such group are inhabited by species
+distinct, though intimately related to one another and to those of the
+nearest continent:&mdash;thus typifying the distribution of organic
+beings over the whole world. We find the floras of distant
+mountain-summits either very similar (which seems to admit, as shown, of
+a simple explanation) or very distinct but related to the floras of the
+surrounding region; and hence, in this latter case, the floras of two
+mountain-summits, although exposed to closely similar conditions, will
+be very different. On the mountain-summits of islands, characterised by
+peculiar faunas and floras, the plants are often eminently peculiar. The
+dissimilarity of the organic beings inhabiting nearly similar countries
+is best seen by comparing the main divisions of the world; in each of
+which some districts may be found very similarly <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_181' id='Page_181'>{181}</a></span>
+exposed, yet the inhabitants are wholly unlike;&mdash;far more unlike
+than those in very dissimilar districts in the same main division. We
+see this strikingly in comparing two volcanic archipelagoes, with nearly
+the same climate, but situated not very far from two different
+continents; in which case their inhabitants are totally unlike. In the
+different main divisions of the world, the amount of difference between
+the organisms, even in the same class, is widely different, each main
+division having only the species distinct in some families, in other
+families having the genera distinct. The distribution of aquatic
+organisms is very different from that of the terrestrial organisms; and
+necessarily so, from the barriers to their progress being quite unlike.
+The nature of the conditions in an isolated district will not explain
+the number of species inhabiting it; nor the absence of one class or the
+presence of another class. We find that terrestrial mammifers are not
+present on islands far removed from other land. We see in two regions,
+that the species though distinct are more or less related, according to
+the greater or less <i>possibility</i> of the transportal in past and present
+times of species from one to the other region; although we can hardly
+admit that all the species in such cases have been transported from the
+first to the second region, and since have become extinct in the first:
+we see this law in the presence of the fox on the Falkland Islands; in
+the European character of some of the plants of Tierra del Fuego; in the
+Indo-Asiatic character of the plants of the Pacific; and in the
+circumstance of those genera which range widest having many species with
+wide ranges; and those genera with restricted ranges having species with
+restricted ranges. Finally, we find in each of the main divisions of the
+land, and probably of the sea, that the existing organisms are related
+to those lately extinct.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_182' id='Page_182'>{182}</a></span>
+Looking further backwards we see that the past geographical distribution
+of organic beings was different from the present; and indeed,
+considering that geology shows that all our land was once under water,
+and that where water now extends land is forming, the reverse could
+hardly have been possible.</p>
+
+<p>Now these several facts, though evidently all more or less connected
+together, must by the creationist (though the geologist may explain some
+of the anomalies) be considered as so many ultimate facts. He can only
+say, that it so pleased the Creator that the organic beings of the
+plains, deserts, mountains, tropical and temperature forests, of S.
+America, should all have some affinity together; that the inhabitants of
+the Galapagos Archipelago should be related to those of Chile; and that
+some of the species on the similarly constituted islands of this
+archipelago, though most closely related, should be distinct; that all
+its inhabitants should be totally unlike those of the similarly volcanic
+and arid Cape de Verde and Canary Islands; that the plants on the summit
+of Teneriffe should be eminently peculiar; that the diversified island
+of New Zealand should have not many plants, and not one, or only one,
+mammifer; that the mammifers of S. America, Australia and Europe should
+be clearly related to their ancient and exterminated prototypes; and so
+on with other facts. But it is absolutely opposed to every analogy,
+drawn from the laws imposed by the Creator on inorganic matter, that
+facts, when connected, should be considered as ultimate and not the
+direct consequences of more general laws.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_183' id='Page_183'>{183}</a></p>
+<h3><span class='sc'>Section Third.</span></h3>
+<h3><i>An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution,
+on the theory of allied species having a common descent.</i></h3>
+
+<p>First let us recall the circumstances most favourable for variation
+under domestication, as given in the first chapter&mdash;viz. 1st, a
+change, or repeated changes, in the conditions to which the organism has
+been exposed, continued through several seminal (<i>i.e.</i> not by buds or
+divisions) generations: 2nd, steady selection of the slight varieties
+thus generated with a fixed end in view: 3rd, isolation as perfect as
+possible of such selected varieties; that is, the preventing their
+crossing with other forms; this latter condition applies to all
+terrestrial animals, to most if not all plants and perhaps even to most
+(or all) aquatic organisms. It will be convenient here to show the
+advantage of isolation in the formation of a new breed, by comparing the
+progress of two persons (to neither of whom let time be of any
+consequence) endeavouring to select and form some very peculiar new
+breed. Let one of these persons work on the vast herds of cattle in the
+plains of La Plata<a name='FNanchor_399_399' id='FNanchor_399_399'></a><a href='#Footnote_399_399' class='fnanchor'>{399}</a>,
+and the other on a small stock of 20 or 30 animals in an island. The
+latter might have to wait centuries (by the hypothesis of no
+importance)<a name='FNanchor_400_400' id='FNanchor_400_400'></a><a href='#Footnote_400_400' class='fnanchor'>{400}</a>
+before he obtained a &ldquo;sport&rdquo; approaching to what he wanted;
+but when he did and saved the greater number of its offspring and their
+offspring again, he might hope that his whole little stock would be in
+some degree affected, so that by continued selection he might <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_184' id='Page_184'>{184}</a></span>
+gain his end. But on the Pampas, though the man might get his first
+approach to his desired form sooner, how hopeless would it be to
+attempt, by saving its offspring amongst so many of the common kind, to
+affect the whole herd: the effect of this one peculiar &ldquo;sport<a name='FNanchor_401_401' id='FNanchor_401_401'></a><a href='#Footnote_401_401' class='fnanchor'>{401}</a>&rdquo;
+would be quite lost before he could obtain a second original sport of
+the same kind. If, however, he could separate a small number of cattle,
+including the offspring of the desirable &ldquo;sport,&rdquo; he might
+hope, like the man on the island, to effect his end. If there be organic
+beings of which two individuals <i>never</i> unite, then simple selection
+whether on a continent or island would be equally serviceable to make a
+new and desirable breed; and this new breed might be made in
+surprisingly few years from the great and geometrical powers of
+propagation to beat out the old breed; as has happened (notwithstanding
+crossing) where good breeds of dogs and pigs have been introduced into a
+limited country,&mdash;for instance, into the islands of the Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now take the simplest natural case of an islet upheaved by the
+volcanic or subterranean forces in a deep sea, at such a distance from
+other land that only a few organic beings at rare intervals were
+transported to it, whether borne by the sea<a name='FNanchor_402_402' id='FNanchor_402_402'></a><a href='#Footnote_402_402' class='fnanchor'>{402}</a>
+(like the seeds of plants to coral-reefs), or by hurricanes, or by
+floods, or on rafts, or in roots of large trees, or the germs of one
+plant or animal attached to or in the stomach of some other animal, or
+by the intervention (in most cases the most probable means) of other
+islands since sunk or destroyed. It may be remarked that when one part
+of the earth&rsquo;s crust is raised it is probably the <span class='pagenum'><a
+name='Page_185' id='Page_185'>{185}</a></span>general rule that another part
+sinks. Let this island go on slowly, century after century, rising foot
+by foot; and in the course of time we shall have instead
+«<ins>of</ins>» a small mass of rock<a name='FNanchor_403_403' id='FNanchor_403_403'></a><a href='#Footnote_403_403' class='fnanchor'>{403}</a>,
+lowland and highland, moist woods and dry sandy spots, various soils,
+marshes, streams and pools: under water on the sea shore, instead of a
+rocky steeply shelving coast, we shall have in some parts bays with mud,
+sandy beaches and rocky shoals. The formation of the island by itself
+must often slightly affect the surrounding climate. It is impossible
+that the first few transported organisms could be perfectly adapted to
+all these stations; and it will be a chance if those successively
+transported will be so adapted. The greater number would probably come
+from the lowlands of the nearest country; and not even all these would
+be perfectly adapted to the new islet whilst it continued low and
+exposed to coast influences. Moreover, as it is certain that all
+organisms are nearly as much adapted in their structure to the other
+inhabitants of their country as they are to its physical conditions, so
+the mere fact that a <i>few</i> beings (and these taken in great degree by
+chance) were in the first case transported to the islet, would in itself
+greatly modify their conditions<a name='FNanchor_404_404' id='FNanchor_404_404'></a><a href='#Footnote_404_404' class='fnanchor'>{404}</a>.
+As the island continued rising we might also expect an occasional new
+visitant; and I repeat that even one new being must often affect beyond
+our calculation by occupying the room and taking part of the subsistence
+of another (and this again from another and so on), several or many
+other organisms. Now as the first transported and any occasional
+successive visitants spread or tended to spread over the growing island,
+they would undoubtedly be exposed through several generations to new and
+varying conditions: it might also easily happen that some of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_186' id='Page_186'>{186}</a></span>
+the species <i>on an average</i> might obtain an increase of food, or food
+of a more nourishing quality<a name='FNanchor_405_405' id='FNanchor_405_405'></a><a href='#Footnote_405_405' class='fnanchor'>{405}</a>.
+According then to every analogy with what we have seen takes place in
+every country, with nearly every organic being under domestication, we
+might expect that some of the inhabitants of the island would
+&ldquo;sport,&rdquo; or have their organization rendered in some degree
+plastic. As the number of the inhabitants are supposed to be few and as
+all these cannot be so well adapted to their new and varying conditions
+as they were in their native country and habitat, we cannot believe that
+every place or office in the economy of the island would be as well
+filled as on a continent where the number of aboriginal species is far
+greater and where they consequently hold a more strictly limited place.
+We might therefore expect on our island that although very many slight
+variations were of no use to the plastic individuals, yet that
+occasionally in the course of a century an individual might be born<a name='FNanchor_406_406' id='FNanchor_406_406'></a><a href='#Footnote_406_406' class='fnanchor'>{406}</a>
+of which the structure or constitution in some slight degree would allow
+it better to fill up some office in the insular economy and to struggle
+against other species. If such were the case the individual and its
+offspring would have a better <i>chance</i> of surviving and of beating out
+its parent form; and if (as is probable) it and its offspring crossed
+with the unvaried parent form, yet the number of the individuals being
+not very great, there would be a chance of the new and more serviceable
+form being nevertheless in some slight degree preserved. The struggle
+for existence would go on annually selecting such individuals until a
+new race or species was formed. Either few or all the first visitants to
+the island might become modified, according <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_187' id='Page_187'>{187}</a></span>
+as the physical conditions of the island and those resulting from the
+kind and number of other transported species were different from those
+of the parent country&mdash;according to the difficulties offered to
+fresh immigration&mdash;and according to the length of time since the
+first inhabitants were introduced. It is obvious that whatever was the
+country, generally the nearest from which the first tenants were
+transported, they would show an affinity, even if all had become
+modified, to the natives of that country and even if the inhabitants of
+the same source «<ins>?</ins>» had been modified. On this view we can
+at once understand the cause and meaning of the affinity of the fauna
+and flora of the Galapagos Islands with that of the coast of S. America;
+and consequently why the inhabitants of these islands show not the
+smallest affinity with those inhabiting other volcanic islands, with a
+very similar climate and soil, near the coast of Africa<a name='FNanchor_407_407' id='FNanchor_407_407'></a><a href='#Footnote_407_407' class='fnanchor'>{407}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>To return once again to our island, if by the continued action of the
+subterranean forces other neighbouring islands were formed, these would
+generally be stocked by the inhabitants of the first island, or by a few
+immigrants from the neighbouring mainland; but if considerable obstacles
+were interposed to any communication between the terrestrial productions
+of these islands, and their conditions were different (perhaps only by
+the number of different species on each island), a form transported from
+one island to another might become altered in the same manner as one
+from the continent; and we should have several of the islands tenanted
+by representative races or species, as is so wonderfully the case with
+the different islands of the Galapagos Archipelago. As the islands
+become mountainous, if mountain-species were not introduced, as could
+rarely happen, a greater amount of variation and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_188' id='Page_188'>{188}</a></span>selection would be
+requisite to adapt the species, which originally came from the lowlands
+of the nearest continent, to the mountain-summits than to the lower
+districts of our islands. For the lowland species from the continent
+would have first to struggle against other species and other conditions
+on the coast-land of the island, and so probably become modified by the
+selection of its best fitted varieties, then to undergo the same process
+when the land had attained a moderate elevation; and then lastly when it
+had become Alpine. Hence we can understand why the faunas of insular
+mountain-summits are, as in the case of Teneriffe, eminently peculiar.
+Putting on one side the case of a widely extended flora being driven up
+the mountain-summits, during a change of climate from cold to temperate,
+we can see why in other cases the floras of mountain-summits (or as I
+have called them islands in a sea of land) should be tenanted by
+peculiar species, but related to those of the surrounding lowlands, as
+are the inhabitants of a real island in the sea to those of the nearest
+continent<a name='FNanchor_408_408' id='FNanchor_408_408'></a><a href='#Footnote_408_408' class='fnanchor'>{408}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider the effect of a change of climate or of other
+conditions on the inhabitants of a continent and of an isolated island
+without any great change of level. On a continent the chief effects
+would be changes in the numerical proportion of the individuals of the
+different species; for whether the climate became warmer or colder,
+drier or damper, more uniform or extreme, some species are at present
+adapted to its diversified districts; if for instance it became cooler,
+species would migrate from its more temperate parts and from its higher
+land; if damper, from its damper <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_189' id='Page_189'>{189}</a></span>
+regions, &amp;c. On a small and isolated island, however, with few
+species, and these not adapted to much diversified conditions, such
+changes instead of merely increasing the number of certain species
+already adapted to such conditions, and decreasing the number of other
+species, would be apt to affect the constitutions of some of the insular
+species: thus if the island became damper it might well happen that
+there were no species living in any part of it adapted to the
+consequences resulting from more moisture. In this case therefore, and
+still more (as we have seen) during the production of new stations from
+the elevation of the land, an island would be a far more fertile source,
+as far as we can judge, of new specific forms than a continent. The new
+forms thus generated on an island, we might expect, would occasionally
+be transported by accident, or through long-continued geographical
+changes be enabled to emigrate and thus become slowly diffused.</p>
+
+<p>But if we look to the origin of a continent; almost every geologist will
+admit that in most cases it will have first existed as separate islands
+which gradually increased in size<a name='FNanchor_409_409' id='FNanchor_409_409'></a><a href='#Footnote_409_409' class='fnanchor'>{409}</a>;
+and therefore all that which has been said concerning the probable
+changes of the forms tenanting a small archipelago is applicable to a
+continent in its early state. Furthermore, a geologist who reflects on
+the geological history of Europe (the only region well known) will admit
+that it has been many times depressed, raised and left stationary.
+During the sinking of a continent and the probable generally
+accompanying changes of climate the effect would be little, <i>except</i> on
+the numerical proportions and in the extinction (from the lessening of
+rivers, the drying of marshes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_190' id='Page_190'>{190}</a></span>
+and the conversion of high-lands into low &amp;c.) of some or of many
+of the species. As soon however as the continent became divided into
+many isolated portions or islands, preventing free immigration from one
+part to another, the effect of climatic and other changes on the species
+would be greater. But let the now broken continent, forming isolated
+islands, begin to rise and new stations thus to be formed, exactly as in
+the first case of the upheaved volcanic islet, and we shall have equally
+favourable conditions for the modification of old forms, that is the
+formation of new races or species. Let the islands become reunited into
+a continent; and then the new and old forms would all spread, as far as
+barriers, the means of transportal, and the preoccupation of the land by
+other species, would permit. Some of the new species or races would
+probably become extinct, and some perhaps would cross and blend
+together. We should thus have a multitude of forms, adapted to all kinds
+of slightly different stations, and to diverse groups of either
+antagonist or food-serving species. The oftener these oscillations of
+level had taken place (and therefore generally the older the land) the
+greater the number of species «<ins>which</ins>» would tend to be formed. The inhabitants
+of a continent being thus derived in the first stage from the same
+original parents, and subsequently from the inhabitants of one wide
+area, since often broken up and reunited, all would be obviously related
+together and the inhabitants of the most <i>dissimilar</i> stations on the
+same continent would be more closely allied than the inhabitants of two
+very <i>similar</i> stations on two of the main divisions of the world<a name='FNanchor_410_410' id='FNanchor_410_410'></a><a href='#Footnote_410_410' class='fnanchor'>{410}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>I need hardly point out that we now can obviously <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_191' id='Page_191'>{191}</a></span>
+see why the number of species in two districts, independently of the
+number of stations in such districts, should be in some cases as widely
+different as in New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope<a name='FNanchor_411_411' id='FNanchor_411_411'></a><a href='#Footnote_411_411' class='fnanchor'>{411}</a>.
+We can see, knowing the difficulty in the transport of terrestrial
+mammals, why islands far from mainlands do not possess them<a name='FNanchor_412_412' id='FNanchor_412_412'></a><a href='#Footnote_412_412' class='fnanchor'>{412}</a>;
+we see the general reason, namely accidental transport (though not the
+precise reason), why certain islands should, and others should not,
+possess members of the class of reptiles. We can see why an ancient
+channel of communication between two distant points, as the Cordillera
+probably was between southern Chile and the United States during the
+former cold periods; and icebergs between the Falkland Islands and
+Tierra del Fuego; and gales, at a former or present time, between the
+Asiatic shores of the Pacific and eastern islands in this ocean; is
+connected with (or we may now say causes) an affinity between the
+species, though distinct, in two such districts. We can see how the
+better chance of diffusion, from several of the species of any genus
+having wide ranges in their own countries, explains the presence of
+other species of the same genus in other countries<a name='FNanchor_413_413' id='FNanchor_413_413'></a><a href='#Footnote_413_413' class='fnanchor'>{413}</a>;
+and on the other hand, of species of restricted powers of ranging,
+forming genera with restricted ranges.</p>
+
+<p>As every one would be surprised if two exactly similar but peculiar
+varieties<a name='FNanchor_414_414' id='FNanchor_414_414'></a><a href='#Footnote_414_414' class='fnanchor'>{414}</a>
+of any species were raised by man by long continued selection, in two
+different countries, or at two very different periods, so we ought not
+to expect that an exactly similar form would be produced from the
+modification of an old one in two distinct countries or at two distinct
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_192' id='Page_192'>{192}</a></span>
+periods. For in such places and times they would probably be exposed to
+somewhat different climates and almost certainly to different
+associates. Hence we can see why each species appears to have been
+produced singly, in space and in time. I need hardly remark that,
+according to this theory of descent, there is no necessity of
+modification in a species, when it reaches a new and isolated country.
+If it be able to survive and if slight variations better adapted to the
+new conditions are not selected, it might retain (as far as we can see)
+its old form for an indefinite time. As we see that some sub-varieties
+produced under domestication are more variable than others, so in
+nature, perhaps, some species and genera are more variable than others.
+The same precise form, however, would probably be seldom preserved
+through successive geological periods, or in widely and differently
+conditioned countries<a name='FNanchor_415_415' id='FNanchor_415_415'></a><a href='#Footnote_415_415' class='fnanchor'>{415}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, during the long periods of time and probably of oscillations of
+level, necessary for the formation of a continent, we may conclude (as
+above explained) that many forms would become extinct. These extinct
+forms, and those surviving (whether or not modified and changed in
+structure), will all be related in each continent in the same manner and
+degree, as are the inhabitants of any two different sub-regions in that
+same continent. I do not mean to say that, for instance, the present
+Marsupials of Australia or Edentata and rodents of S. America have
+descended from any one of the few fossils of the same orders which have
+been discovered in these countries. It is possible that, in a very few
+instances, this may be the case; but generally they must be considered
+as merely codescendants of common stocks<a name='FNanchor_416_416' id='FNanchor_416_416'></a><a href='#Footnote_416_416' class='fnanchor'>{416}</a>.
+I believe in this, from the improbability, considering the vast number
+of species, which (as <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_193' id='Page_193'>{193}</a></span>
+explained in the last chapter) must by our theory have existed, that
+the <i>comparatively</i> few fossils which have been found should chance to
+be the immediate and linear progenitors of those now existing. Recent as
+the yet discovered fossil mammifers of S. America are, who will pretend
+to say that very many intermediate forms may not have existed? Moreover,
+we shall see in the ensuing chapter that the very existence of genera
+and species can be explained only by a few species of each epoch leaving
+modified successors or new species to a future period; and the more
+distant that future period, the fewer will be the <i>linear</i> heirs of the
+former epoch. As by our theory, all mammifers must have descended from
+the same parent stock, so is it necessary that each land now possessing
+terrestrial mammifers shall at some time have been so far united to
+other land as to permit the passage of mammifers<a name='FNanchor_417_417' id='FNanchor_417_417'></a><a href='#Footnote_417_417' class='fnanchor'>{417}</a>;
+and it accords with this necessity, that in looking far back into the
+earth&rsquo;s history we find, first changes in the geographical
+distribution, and secondly a period when the mammiferous forms most
+distinctive of two of the present main divisions of the world were
+living together<a name='FNanchor_418_418' id='FNanchor_418_418'></a><a href='#Footnote_418_418' class='fnanchor'>{418}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>I think then I am justified in asserting that most of the above
+enumerated and often trivial points in the geographical distribution of
+past and present organisms (which points must be viewed by the
+creationists as so many ultimate facts) follow as a simple consequence
+of specific forms being mutable and of their being adapted by natural
+selection to diverse ends, conjoined with their powers of dispersal, and
+the geologico-geographical changes now in slow progress and which
+undoubtedly have taken place. This large class of facts being thus
+explained, <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_194' id='Page_194'>{194}</a></span>
+far more than counterbalances many separate difficulties and apparent
+objections in convincing my mind of the truth of this theory of common
+descent.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing
+species.</i></h3>
+
+<p>There is one observation of considerable importance that may be here
+introduced, with regard to the improbability of the chief transitional
+forms between any two species being found fossil. With respect to the
+finer shades of transition, I have before remarked that no one has any
+cause to expect to trace them in a fossil state, without he be bold
+enough to imagine that geologists at a future epoch will be able to
+trace from fossil bones the gradations between the Short-Horns,
+Herefordshire, and Alderney breeds of cattle<a name='FNanchor_419_419' id='FNanchor_419_419'></a><a href='#Footnote_419_419' class='fnanchor'>{419}</a>.
+I have attempted to show that rising islands, in process of formation,
+must be the best nurseries of new specific forms, and these points are
+the least favourable for the embedment of fossils<a name='FNanchor_420_420' id='FNanchor_420_420'></a><a href='#Footnote_420_420' class='fnanchor'>{420}</a>:
+I appeal, as evidence, to the state of the <i>numerous</i> scattered islands
+in the several great oceans: how rarely do any sedimentary deposits
+occur on them; and when present they are mere narrow fringes of no great
+antiquity, which the sea is generally wearing away and destroying. The
+cause of this lies in isolated islands being generally volcanic and
+rising points; and the effects of subterranean elevation is to bring up
+the surrounding newly-deposited strata within the destroying action of
+the coast-waves: the strata, deposited at greater distances, and
+therefore in the depths of the ocean, will be almost barren of organic
+remains. These <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_195' id='Page_195'>{195}</a></span>
+remarks may be generalised:&mdash;periods of subsidence will always be
+most favourable to an accumulation of great thicknesses of strata, and
+consequently to their long preservation; for without one formation be
+protected by successive strata, it will seldom be preserved to a distant
+age, owing to the enormous amount of denudation, which seems to be a
+general contingent of time<a name='FNanchor_421_421' id='FNanchor_421_421'></a><a href='#Footnote_421_421' class='fnanchor'>{421}</a>.
+I may refer, as evidence of this remark, to the vast amount of
+subsidence evident in the great pile of the European formations, from
+the Silurian epoch to the end of the Secondary, and perhaps to even a
+later period. Periods of elevation on the other hand cannot be
+favourable to the accumulation of strata and their preservation to
+distant ages, from the circumstance just alluded to, viz. of elevation
+tending to bring to the surface the circum-littoral strata (always
+abounding most in fossils) and destroying them. The bottom of tracts of
+deep water (little favourable, however, to life) must be excepted from
+this unfavourable influence of elevation. In the quite open ocean,
+probably no sediment<a name='FNanchor_422_422' id='FNanchor_422_422'></a><a href='#Footnote_422_422' class='fnanchor'>{422}</a>
+is accumulating, or at a rate so slow as not to preserve fossil remains,
+which will always be subject to disintegration. Caverns, no doubt, will
+be equally likely to preserve terrestrial fossils in periods of
+elevation and of subsidence; but whether it be owing to the enormous
+amount of denudation, which all land seems to have undergone, no cavern
+with fossil bones has been found belonging to the Secondary period<a name='FNanchor_423_423' id='FNanchor_423_423'></a><a href='#Footnote_423_423' class='fnanchor'>{423}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hence many more remains will be preserved to a distant age, in any
+region of the world, during periods of its subsidence<a name='FNanchor_424_424' id='FNanchor_424_424'></a><a href='#Footnote_424_424' class='fnanchor'>{424}</a>,
+than of its elevation.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_196' id='Page_196'>{196}</a></span>
+But during the subsidence of a tract of land, its inhabitants (as before
+shown) will from the decrease of space and of the diversity of its
+stations, and from the land being fully preoccupied by species fitted to
+diversified means of subsistence, be little liable to modification from
+selection, although many may, or rather must, become extinct. With
+respect to its circum-marine inhabitants, although during a change from
+a continent to a <i>great</i> archipelago, the number of stations fitted for
+marine beings will be increased, their means of diffusion (an important
+check to change of form) will be greatly improved; for a continent
+stretching north and south, or a quite open space of ocean, seems to be
+to them the only barrier. On the other hand, during the elevation of a
+small archipelago and its conversion into a continent, we have, whilst
+the number of stations are increasing, both for aquatic and terrestrial
+productions, and whilst these stations are not fully preoccupied by
+perfectly adapted species, the most favourable conditions for the
+selection of new specific forms; but few of them in their early
+transitional states will be preserved to a distant epoch. We must wait
+during an enormous lapse of time, until long-continued subsidence shall
+have taken the place in this quarter of the world of the elevatory
+process, for the best conditions of the embedment and the preservation
+of its inhabitants. Generally the great mass of the strata in every
+country, from having been chiefly accumulated during subsidence, will be
+the tomb, not of transitional forms, but of those either becoming
+extinct or remaining unmodified.</p>
+
+<p>The state of our knowledge, and the slowness of the changes of level, do
+not permit us to test the truth of these remarks, by observing whether
+there are more transitional or &ldquo;fine&rdquo; (as naturalists would
+term them) species, on a rising and enlarging <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_197' id='Page_197'>{197}</a></span>
+tract of land, than on an area of subsidence. Nor do I know whether
+there are more &ldquo;fine&rdquo; species on isolated volcanic islands
+in process of formation, than on a continent; but I may remark, that at
+the Galapagos Archipelago the number of forms, which according to some
+naturalists are true species, and according to others are mere races, is
+considerable: this particularly applies to the different species or
+races of the same genera inhabiting the different islands of this
+archipelago. Furthermore it may be added (as bearing on the great facts
+discussed in this chapter) that when naturalists confine their attention
+to any one country, they have comparatively little difficulty in
+determining what forms to call species and what to call varieties; that
+is, those which can or cannot be traced or shown to be probably
+descendants of some other form: but the difficulty increases, as species
+are brought from many stations, countries and islands. It was this
+increasing (but I believe in few cases insuperable) difficulty which
+seems chiefly to have urged Lamarck to the conclusion that species are
+mutable.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_198' id='Page_198'>{198}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_VII' id='CHAPTER_VII'></a>CHAPTER VII<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC
+BEINGS</span><a name='FNanchor_425_425' id='FNanchor_425_425'></a><a href='#Footnote_425_425' class='fnanchor'>{425}</a></h2>
+
+<h3><i>Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups.</i></h3>
+
+<p>It has been observed from the earliest times that organic beings fall
+into groups<a name='FNanchor_426_426' id='FNanchor_426_426'></a><a href='#Footnote_426_426' class='fnanchor'>{426}</a>,
+and these groups into others of several values, such as species into
+genera, and then into sub-families, into families, orders, &amp;c. The
+same fact holds with those beings which no longer exist. Groups of
+species seem to follow the same laws in their appearance and
+extinction<a name='FNanchor_427_427' id='FNanchor_427_427'></a><a href='#Footnote_427_427' class='fnanchor'>{427}</a>,
+as do the individuals of any one species: we have reason to believe
+that, first, a few species appear, that their numbers increase; and
+that, when tending to extinction, the numbers of the species decrease,
+till finally the group becomes extinct, in the same way as a species
+becomes extinct, by the individuals becoming rarer and rarer. Moreover,
+groups, like the individuals of a species, appear to become extinct at
+different times in different countries. The Pal&aelig;otherium was
+extinct <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_199' id='Page_199'>{199}</a></span>
+much sooner in Europe than in India: the Trigonia<a name='FNanchor_428_428' id='FNanchor_428_428'></a><a href='#Footnote_428_428' class='fnanchor'>{428}</a>
+was extinct in early ages in Europe, but now lives in the seas of
+Australia. As it happens that one species of a family will endure for a
+much longer period than another species, so we find that some whole
+groups, such as Mollusca, tend to retain their forms, or to remain
+persistent, for longer periods than other groups, for instance than the
+Mammalia. Groups therefore, in their appearance, extinction, and rate of
+change or succession, seem to follow nearly the same laws with the
+individuals of a species<a name='FNanchor_429_429' id='FNanchor_429_429'></a><a href='#Footnote_429_429' class='fnanchor'>{429}</a>.</p>
+
+<h3><i>What is the Natural System?</i></h3>
+
+<p>The proper arrangement of species into groups, according to the natural
+system, is the object of all naturalists; but scarcely two naturalists
+will give the same answer to the question, What is the natural system
+and how are we to recognise it? The most important characters<a name='FNanchor_430_430' id='FNanchor_430_430'></a><a href='#Footnote_430_430' class='fnanchor'>{430}</a>
+it might be thought (as it was by the earliest classifiers) ought to be
+drawn from those parts of the structure which determine its habits and
+place in the economy of nature, which we may call the final end of its
+existence. But nothing is further from the truth than this; how much
+external resemblance there is between the little otter (Chironectes) of
+Guiana and the common otter; or again between the common swallow and the
+swift; and who can doubt that the means and ends of their existence are
+closely similar, yet how grossly wrong would be the classification,
+which put close to each other a Marsupial and Placental animal, and two
+birds with widely different skeletons. Relations, such as in the two
+latter cases, or as that <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_200' id='Page_200'>{200}</a></span>
+between the whale and fishes, are denominated &ldquo;analogical<a name='FNanchor_431_431' id='FNanchor_431_431'></a><a href='#Footnote_431_431' class='fnanchor'>{431}</a>,&rdquo;
+or are sometimes described as &ldquo;relations of adaption.&rdquo; They
+are infinitely numerous and often very singular; but are of no use in
+the classification of the higher groups. How it comes, that certain
+parts of the structure, by which the habits and functions of the species
+are settled, are of no use in classification, whilst other parts, formed
+at the same time, are of the greatest, it would be difficult to say, on
+the theory of separate creations.</p>
+
+<p>Some authors as Lamarck, Whewell &amp;c., believe that the degree of
+affinity on the natural system depends on the degrees of resemblance in
+organs more or less physiologically important for the preservation of
+life. This scale of importance in the organs is admitted to be of
+difficult discovery. But quite independent of this, the proposition, as
+a general rule, must be rejected as false; though it may be partially
+true. For it is universally admitted that the same part or organ, which
+is of the highest service in classification in one group, is of very
+little use in another group, though in both groups, as far as we can
+see, the part or organ is of equal physiological importance: moreover,
+characters quite unimportant physiologically, such as whether the
+covering of the body consists of hair or feathers, whether the nostrils
+communicated with the mouth<a name='FNanchor_432_432' id='FNanchor_432_432'></a><a href='#Footnote_432_432' class='fnanchor'>{432}</a>
+&amp;c., &amp;c., are of the highest generality in classification; even
+colour, which is so inconstant in many species, will sometimes well
+characterise even a whole group of species. Lastly, the fact, that no
+one character is of so much importance in determining to what great
+group an organism belongs, as the forms through which the embryo<a name='FNanchor_433_433' id='FNanchor_433_433'></a><a href='#Footnote_433_433' class='fnanchor'>{433}</a>
+passes from the germ upwards to maturity, cannot be reconciled <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_201' id='Page_201'>{201}</a></span>
+with the idea that natural classification follows according to the
+degrees of resemblance in the parts of most physiological importance.
+The affinity of the common rock-barnacle with the Crustaceans can hardly
+be perceived in more than a single character in its mature state, but
+whilst young, locomotive, and furnished with eyes, its affinity cannot
+be mistaken<a name='FNanchor_434_434' id='FNanchor_434_434'></a><a href='#Footnote_434_434' class='fnanchor'>{434}</a>.
+The cause of the greater value of characters, drawn from the early
+stages of life, can, as we shall in a succeeding chapter see, be in a
+considerable degree explained, on the theory of descent, although
+inexplicable on the views of the creationist.</p>
+
+<p>Practically, naturalists seem to classify according to the resemblance
+of those parts or organs which in related groups are most uniform, or
+vary least<a name='FNanchor_435_435' id='FNanchor_435_435'></a><a href='#Footnote_435_435' class='fnanchor'>{435}</a>: thus the &aelig;stivation, or manner in which the
+petals etc. are folded over each other, is found to afford an unvarying
+character in most families of plants, and accordingly any difference in
+this respect would be sufficient to cause the rejection of a species
+from many families; but in the Rubiace&aelig; the &aelig;stivation is a
+varying character, and a botanist would not lay much stress on it, in
+deciding whether or not to class a new species in this family. But this
+rule is obviously so arbitrary a formula, that most naturalists seem to
+be convinced that something ulterior is represented by the natural
+system; they appear to think that we only discover by such similarities
+what the arrangement of the system is, not that such similarities make
+the system. We can only thus understand Linn&aelig;us&rsquo;<a name='FNanchor_436_436' id='FNanchor_436_436'></a><a href='#Footnote_436_436' class='fnanchor'>{436}</a>
+well-known saying, that the characters do not make the genus; but that
+the genus gives the characters: for a classification, independent of
+characters, is here presupposed.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_202' id='Page_202'>{202}</a></span>
+Hence many naturalists have said that the natural system reveals the
+plan of the Creator: but without it be specified whether order in time
+or place, or what else is meant by the plan of the Creator, such
+expressions appear to me to leave the question exactly where it was.</p>
+
+<p>Some naturalists consider that the geographical position<a name='FNanchor_437_437' id='FNanchor_437_437'></a><a href='#Footnote_437_437' class='fnanchor'>{437}</a>
+of a species may enter into the consideration of the group into which it
+should be placed; and most naturalists (either tacitly or openly) give
+value to the different groups, not solely by their relative differences
+in structure, but by the number of forms included in them. Thus a genus
+containing a few species might be, and has often been, raised into a
+family on the discovery of several other species. Many natural families
+are retained, although most closely related to other families, from
+including a great number of closely similar species. The more logical
+naturalist would perhaps, if he could, reject these two contingents in
+classification. From these circumstances, and especially from the
+undefined objects and criterions of the natural system, the number of
+divisions, such as genera, sub-families, families, &amp;c., &amp;c., has
+been quite arbitrary<a name='FNanchor_438_438' id='FNanchor_438_438'></a><a href='#Footnote_438_438' class='fnanchor'>{438}</a>;
+without the clearest definition, how can it be possible to decide
+whether two groups of species are of equal value, and of what value?
+whether they should both be called genera or families; or whether one
+should be a genus, and the other a family<a name='FNanchor_439_439' id='FNanchor_439_439'></a><a href='#Footnote_439_439' class='fnanchor'>{439}</a>?</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_203' id='Page_203'>{203}</a></p>
+<h3><i>On the kind of relation between distinct groups.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I have only one other remark on the affinities of organic beings; that
+is, when two quite distinct groups approach each other, the approach is
+<i>generally</i> generic<a name='FNanchor_440_440' id='FNanchor_440_440'></a><a href='#Footnote_440_440' class='fnanchor'>{440}</a>
+and not special; I can explain this most easily by an example: of all
+Rodents the Bizcacha, by certain peculiarities in its reproductive
+system, approaches nearest to the Marsupials; of all Marsupials the
+Phascolomys, on the other hand, appears to approach in the form of its
+teeth and intestines nearest to the Rodents; but there is no special
+relation between these two genera<a name='FNanchor_441_441' id='FNanchor_441_441'></a><a href='#Footnote_441_441' class='fnanchor'>{441}</a>;
+the Bizcacha is no nearer related to the Phascolomys than to any other
+Marsupial in the points in which it approaches this division; nor again
+is the Phascolomys, in the points of structure in which it approaches
+the Rodents, any nearer related to the Bizcacha than to any other
+Rodent. Other examples might have been chosen, but I have given (from
+Waterhouse) this example as it illustrates another point, namely, the
+difficulty of determining what are analogical or adaptive and what real
+affinities; it seems that the teeth of the Phascolomys though <i>appearing
+closely</i> to resemble those of a Rodent are found to be built on the
+Marsupial type; and it is thought that these teeth and consequently the
+intestines may have been adapted to the peculiar life of this animal and
+therefore may not show any real relation. The structure in the Bizcacha
+that connects it with the Marsupials does not seem a peculiarity related
+to its manner of life, and I imagine that no one would doubt that this
+shows a real affinity, though not more with any one Marsupial <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_204' id='Page_204'>{204}</a></span>
+species than with another. The difficulty of determining what relations
+are real and what analogical is far from surprising when no one pretends
+to define the meaning of the term relation or the ulterior object of all
+classification. We shall immediately see on the theory of descent how it
+comes that there should be &ldquo;real&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;analogical&rdquo; affinities; and why the former alone should be
+of value in classification&mdash;difficulties which it would be I
+believe impossible to explain on the ordinary theory of separate
+creations.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Classification of Races or Varieties.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Let us now for a few moments turn to the classification of the generally
+acknowledged varieties and subdivisions of our domestic beings<a name='FNanchor_442_442' id='FNanchor_442_442'></a><a href='#Footnote_442_442' class='fnanchor'>{442}</a>;
+we shall find them systematically arranged in groups of higher and
+higher value. De Candolle has treated the varieties of the cabbage
+exactly as he would have done a natural family with various divisions
+and subdivisions. In dogs again we have one main division which may be
+called the <i>family</i> of hounds; of these, there are several (we will call
+them) <i>genera</i>, such as blood-hounds, fox-hounds, and harriers; and of
+each of these we have different <i>species</i>, as the blood-hound of Cuba
+and that of England; and of the latter again we have breeds truly
+producing their own kind, which may be called races or varieties. Here
+we see a classification practically used which typifies on a lesser
+scale that which holds good in nature. But amongst true species in the
+natural system and amongst domestic races the number of divisions or
+groups, instituted between those most alike and those most unlike, seems
+to be quite <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_205' id='Page_205'>{205}</a></span>
+arbitrary. The number of the forms in both cases seems practically,
+whether or not it ought theoretically, to influence the denomination of
+groups including them. In both, geographical distribution has sometimes
+been used as an aid to classification<a name='FNanchor_443_443' id='FNanchor_443_443'></a><a href='#Footnote_443_443' class='fnanchor'>{443}</a>;
+amongst varieties, I may instance, the cattle of India or the sheep of
+Siberia, which from possessing some characters in common permit a
+classification of Indian and European cattle, or Siberian and European
+sheep. Amongst domestic varieties we have even something very like the
+relations of &ldquo;analogy&rdquo; or &ldquo;adaptation<a name='FNanchor_444_444' id='FNanchor_444_444'></a><a href='#Footnote_444_444' class='fnanchor'>{444}</a>&rdquo;;
+thus the common and Swedish turnip are both artificial varieties which
+strikingly resemble each other, and they fill nearly the same end in the
+economy of the farm-yard; but although the swede so much more resembles
+a turnip than its presumed parent the field cabbage, no one thinks of
+putting it out of the cabbages into the turnips. Thus the greyhound and
+racehorse, having been selected and trained for extreme fleetness for
+short distances, present an analogical resemblance of the same kind, but
+less striking as that between the little otter (Marsupial) of Guiana and
+the common otter; though these two otters are really less related than
+«<ins>are</ins>» the horse and dog. We are even cautioned by authors
+treating on varieties, to follow the <i>natural</i> in contradistinction of
+an artificial system and not, for instance, to class two varieties of
+the pine-apple<a name='FNanchor_445_445' id='FNanchor_445_445'></a><a href='#Footnote_445_445' class='fnanchor'>{445}</a>
+near each other, because their fruits accidentally resemble each other
+closely (though the fruit may be called <i>the final end</i> of this plant in
+the economy of its world, the hothouse), but to judge from the general
+resemblance of the entire plants. Lastly, varieties often become
+extinct; sometimes from unexplained causes, sometimes <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_206' id='Page_206'>{206}</a></span>
+from accident, but more often from the production of more useful
+varieties, and the less useful ones being destroyed or bred out.</p>
+
+<p>I think it cannot be doubted that the main cause of all the varieties
+which have descended from the aboriginal dog or dogs, or from the
+aboriginal wild cabbage, not being equally like or unlike&mdash;but on
+the contrary, obviously falling into groups and sub-groups&mdash;must in
+chief part be attributed to different degrees of true relationship; for
+instance, that the different kinds of blood-hound have descended from
+one stock, whilst the harriers have descended from another stock, and
+that both these have descended from a different stock from that which
+has been the parent of the several kinds of greyhound. We often hear of
+a florist having some choice variety and breeding from it a whole group
+of sub-varieties more or less characterised by the peculiarities of the
+parent. The case of the peach and nectarine, each with their many
+varieties, might have been introduced. No doubt the relationship of our
+different domestic breeds has been obscured in an extreme degree by
+their crossing; and likewise from the slight difference between many
+breeds it has probably often happened that a &ldquo;sport&rdquo; from
+one breed has less closely resembled its parent breed than some other
+breed, and has therefore been classed with the latter. Moreover the
+effects of a similar climate<a name='FNanchor_446_446' id='FNanchor_446_446'></a><a href='#Footnote_446_446' class='fnanchor'>{446}</a>
+may in some cases have more than counterbalanced the similarity,
+consequent on a common descent, though I should think the similarity of
+the breeds of cattle of India or sheep of Siberia was far more probably
+due to the community of their descent than to the effects of climate on
+animals descended from different stocks.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding these great sources of difficulty,<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_207' id='Page_207'>{207}</a></span>
+I apprehend every one would admit, that if it were possible, a
+genealogical classification of our domestic varieties would be the most
+satisfactory one; and as far as varieties were concerned would be the
+natural system: in some cases it has been followed. In attempting to
+follow out this object a person would have to class a variety, whose
+parentage he did not know, by its external characters; but he would have
+a distinct ulterior object in view, namely, its descent in the same
+manner as a regular systematist seems also to have an ulterior but
+undefined end in all his classifications. Like the regular systematist
+he would not care whether his characters were drawn from more or less
+important organs as long as he found in the tribe which he was examining
+that the characters from such parts were persistent; thus amongst cattle
+he does value a character drawn from the form of the horns more than
+from the proportions of the limbs and whole body, for he finds that the
+shape of the horns is to a considerable degree persistent amongst
+cattle<a name='FNanchor_447_447' id='FNanchor_447_447'></a><a href='#Footnote_447_447' class='fnanchor'>{447}</a>,
+whilst the bones of the limbs and body vary. No doubt as a frequent rule
+the more important the organ, as being less related to external
+influences, the less liable it is to variation; but he would expect that
+according to the object for which the races had been selected, parts
+more or less important might differ; so that characters drawn from parts
+generally most liable to vary, as colour, might in some instances be
+highly serviceable&mdash;as is the case. He would admit that general
+resemblances scarcely definable by language might sometimes serve to
+allocate a species by its nearest relation. He would be able to assign a
+clear reason why the close similarity of the fruit in two varieties of
+pine-apple, and of the so-called root in the common and Swedish turnips,
+and why the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_208' id='Page_208'>{208}</a></span>
+similar gracefulness of form in the greyhound and racehorse, are
+characters of little value in classification; namely, because they are
+the result, not of community of descent, but either of selection for a
+common end, or of the effects of similar external conditions.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Classification of "races" and species similar.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Thus seeing that both the classifiers of species and of varieties<a name='FNanchor_448_448' id='FNanchor_448_448'></a><a href='#Footnote_448_448' class='fnanchor'>{448}</a>
+work by the same means, make similar distinctions in the value of the
+characters, and meet with similar difficulties, and that both seem to
+have in their classification an ulterior object in view; I cannot avoid
+strongly suspecting that the same cause, which has made amongst our
+domestic varieties groups and sub-groups, has made similar groups (but
+of higher values) amongst species; and that this cause is the greater or
+less propinquity of actual descent. The simple fact of species, both
+those long since extinct and those now living, being divisible into
+genera, families, orders &amp;c.&mdash;divisions analogous to those into
+which varieties are divisible&mdash;is otherwise an inexplicable fact,
+and only not remarkable from its familiarity.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Origin of genera and families.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Let us suppose<a name='FNanchor_449_449' id='FNanchor_449_449'></a><a href='#Footnote_449_449' class='fnanchor'>{449}</a>
+for example that a species spreads and arrives at six or more different
+regions, or being already diffused over one wide area, let this area be
+divided into six distinct regions, exposed to different conditions, and
+with stations slightly different, not fully occupied with other species,
+so <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_209' id='Page_209'>{209}</a></span>
+that six different races or species were formed by selection, each best
+fitted to its new habits and station. I must remark that in every case,
+if a species becomes modified in any one sub-region, it is probable that
+it will become modified in some other of the sub-regions over which it
+is diffused, for its organization is shown to be capable of being
+rendered plastic; its diffusion proves that it is able to struggle with
+the other inhabitants of the several sub-regions; and as the organic
+beings of every great region are in some degree allied, and as even the
+physical conditions are often in some respects alike, we might expect
+that a modification in structure, which gave our species some advantage
+over antagonist species in one sub-region, would be followed by other
+modifications in other of the sub-regions. The races or new species
+supposed to be formed would be closely related to each other; and would
+either form a new genus or sub-genus, or would rank (probably forming a
+slightly different section) in the genus to which the parent species
+belonged. In the course of ages, and during the contingent physical
+changes, it is probable that some of the six new species would be
+destroyed; but the same advantage, whatever it may have been (whether
+mere tendency to vary, or some peculiarity of organization, power of
+mind, or means of distribution), which in the parent-species and in its
+six selected and changed species-offspring, caused them to prevail over
+other antagonist species, would generally tend to preserve some or many
+of them for a long period. If then, two or three of the six species were
+preserved, they in their turn would, during continued changes, give rise
+to as many small groups of species: if the parents of these small groups
+were closely similar, the new species would form one great genus, barely
+perhaps divisible into two or three sections: but if the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_210' id='Page_210'>{210}</a></span>
+parents were considerably unlike, their species-offspring would, from
+inheriting most of the peculiarities of their parent-stocks, form either
+two or more sub-genera or (if the course of selection tended in
+different ways) genera. And lastly species descending from different
+species of the newly formed genera would form new genera, and such
+genera collectively would form a family.</p>
+
+<p>The extermination of species follows from changes in the external
+conditions, and from the increase or immigration of more favoured
+species: and as those species which are undergoing modification in any
+one great region (or indeed over the world) will very often be allied
+ones from (as just explained) partaking of many characters, and
+therefore advantages in common, so the species, whose place the new or
+more favoured ones are seizing, from partaking of a common inferiority
+(whether in any particular point of structure, or of general powers of
+mind, of means of distribution, of capacity for variation, &amp;c., &amp;c.),
+will be apt to be allied. Consequently species of the same genus will
+slowly, one after the other, <i>tend</i> to become rarer and rarer in
+numbers, and finally extinct; and as each last species of several allied
+genera fails, even the family will become extinct. There may of course
+be occasional exceptions to the entire destruction of any genus or
+family. From what has gone before, we have seen that the slow and
+successive formation of several new species from the same stock will
+make a new genus, and the slow and successive formation of several other
+new species from another stock will make another genus; and if these two
+stocks were allied, such genera will make a new family. Now, as far as
+our knowledge serves, it is in this slow and gradual manner that groups
+of species appear on, and disappear from, the face of the earth.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_211' id='Page_211'>{211}</a></span>
+The manner in which, according to our theory, the arrangement of species
+in groups is due to partial extinction, will perhaps be rendered clearer
+in the following way. Let us suppose in any one great class, for
+instance in the Mammalia, that every species and every variety, during
+each successive age, had sent down one unaltered descendant (either
+fossil or living) to the present time; we should then have had one
+enormous series, including by small gradations every known mammiferous
+form; and consequently the existence of groups<a name='FNanchor_450_450' id='FNanchor_450_450'></a><a href='#Footnote_450_450' class='fnanchor'>{450}</a>,
+or chasms in the series, which in some parts are in greater width, and
+in some of less, is solely due to former species, and whole groups of
+species, not having thus sent down descendants to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the &ldquo;analogical&rdquo; or &ldquo;adaptive&rdquo;
+resemblances between organic beings which are not really related<a name='FNanchor_451_451' id='FNanchor_451_451'></a><a href='#Footnote_451_451' class='fnanchor'>{451}</a>,
+I will only add, that probably the isolation of different groups of
+species is an important element in the production of such characters:
+thus we can easily see, in a large increasing island, or even a
+continent like Australia, stocked with only certain orders of the main
+classes, that the conditions would be highly favourable for species from
+these orders to become adapted to play parts in the economy of nature,
+which in other countries were performed by tribes especially adapted to
+such parts. We can understand how it might happen that an otter-like
+animal might have been formed in Australia by slow selection from the
+more carnivorous Marsupial types; thus we can understand that curious
+case in the southern hemisphere, where there are no auks (but many
+petrels), of a petrel<a name='FNanchor_452_452' id='FNanchor_452_452'></a><a href='#Footnote_452_452' class='fnanchor'>{452}</a>
+having been modified into the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_212' id='Page_212'>{212}</a></span>
+external general form so as to play the same office in nature with the
+auks of the northern hemisphere; although the habits and form of the
+petrels and auks are normally so wholly different. It follows, from our
+theory, that two orders must have descended from one common stock at an
+immensely remote epoch; and we can perceive when a species in either
+order, or in both, shows some affinity to the other order, why the
+affinity is usually generic and not particular&mdash;that is why the
+Bizcacha amongst Rodents, in the points in which it is related to the
+Marsupial, is related to the whole group<a name='FNanchor_453_453' id='FNanchor_453_453'></a><a href='#Footnote_453_453' class='fnanchor'>{453}</a>,
+and not particularly to the Phascolomys, which of all Marsupialia is
+related most to the Rodents. For the Bizcacha is related to the present
+Marsupialia, only from being related to their common parent-stock; and
+not to any one species in particular. And generally, it may be observed
+in the writings of most naturalists, that when an organism is described
+as intermediate between two <i>great</i> groups, its relations are not to
+particular species of either group, but to both groups, as wholes. A
+little reflection will show how exceptions (as that of the Lepidosiren,
+a fish closely related to <i>particular</i> reptiles) might occur, namely
+from a few descendants of those species, which at a very early period
+branched out from a common parent-stock and so formed the two orders or
+groups, having survived, in nearly their original state, to the present
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, then, we see that all the leading facts in the affinities and
+classification of organic beings can be explained on the theory of the
+natural system being simply a genealogical one. The similarity of the
+principles in classifying domestic varieties and true species, both
+those living and extinct, is at once <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_213' id='Page_213'>{213}</a></span>
+explained; the rules followed and difficulties met with being the same.
+The existence of genera, families, orders, &amp;c., and their mutual
+relations, naturally ensues from extinction going on at all periods
+amongst the diverging descendants of a common stock. These terms of
+affinity, relations, families, adaptive characters, &amp;c., which
+naturalists cannot avoid using, though metaphorically, cease being so,
+and are full of plain signification.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_214' id='Page_214'>{214}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_VIII' id='CHAPTER_VIII'></a>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES</span></h2>
+
+<h3><i>Unity of Type</i><a name='FNanchor_454_454' id='FNanchor_454_454'></a><a href='#Footnote_454_454' class='fnanchor'>{454}</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>Scarcely anything is more wonderful or has been oftener insisted on than
+that the organic beings in each great class, though living in the most
+distant climes and at periods immensely remote, though fitted to widely
+different ends in the economy of nature, yet all in their internal
+structure evince an obvious uniformity. What, for instance, is more
+wonderful than that the hand to clasp, the foot or hoof to walk, the
+bat&rsquo;s wing to fly, the porpoise&rsquo;s fin<a name='FNanchor_455_455' id='FNanchor_455_455'></a><a href='#Footnote_455_455' class='fnanchor'>{455}</a>
+to swim, should all be built on the same plan? and that the bones in
+their position and number should be so similar that they can all be
+classed and called by the same names. Occasionally some of the bones are
+merely represented by an apparently useless, smooth style, or are
+soldered closely to other bones, but the unity of type is not by this
+destroyed, and hardly rendered less clear. We see in this fact some deep
+bond of union between the organic beings of the same great
+classes&mdash;to illustrate which is the object and foundation of the
+natural <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_215' id='Page_215'>{215}</a></span>
+system. The perception of this bond, I may add, is the evident cause
+that naturalists make an ill-defined distinction between true and
+adaptive affinities.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Morphology.</i></h3>
+
+<p>There is another allied or rather almost identical class of facts
+admitted by the least visionary naturalists and included under the name
+of Morphology. These facts show that in an individual organic being,
+several of its organs consist of some other organ metamorphosed<a name='FNanchor_456_456' id='FNanchor_456_456'></a><a href='#Footnote_456_456' class='fnanchor'>{456}</a>:
+thus the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils, &amp;c. of every plant can be
+shown to be metamorphosed leaves; and thus not only can the number,
+position and transitional states of these several organs, but likewise
+their monstrous changes, be most lucidly explained. It is believed that
+the same laws hold good with the gemmiferous vesicles of Zoophytes. In
+the same manner the number and position of the extraordinarily
+complicated jaws and palpi of Crustacea and of insects, and likewise
+their differences in the different groups, all become simple, on the
+view of these parts, or rather legs and all metamorphosed appendages,
+being metamorphosed legs. The skulls, again, of the Vertebrata are
+composed of three metamorphosed vertebr&aelig;, and thus we can see a
+meaning in the number and strange complication of the bony case of the
+brain. In this latter instance, and in that of the jaws of the
+Crustacea, it is only necessary to see a series taken from the different
+groups of each class to admit the truth of these views. It is evident
+that when in each species of a group its organs consist of some other
+part metamorphosed, that there must also be a &ldquo;unity of
+type&rdquo; in such a group. And <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_216' id='Page_216'>{216}</a></span>
+in the cases as that above given in which the foot, hand, wing and
+paddle are said to be constructed on a uniform type, if we could
+perceive in such parts or organs traces of an apparent change from some
+other use or function, we should strictly include such parts or organs
+in the department of morphology: thus if we could trace in the limbs of
+the Vertebrata, as we can in their ribs, traces of an apparent change
+from being processes of the vertebr&aelig;, it would be said that in
+each species of the Vertebrata the limbs were &ldquo;metamorphosed
+spinal processes,&rdquo; and that in all the species throughout the
+class the limbs displayed a &ldquo;unity of type<a name='FNanchor_457_457' id='FNanchor_457_457'></a><a href='#Footnote_457_457' class='fnanchor'>{457}</a>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These wonderful parts of the hoof, foot, hand, wing, paddle, both in
+living and extinct animals, being all constructed on the same framework,
+and again of the petals, stamina, germens, &amp;c. being metamorphosed
+leaves, can by the creationist be viewed only as ultimate facts and
+incapable of explanation; whilst on our theory of descent these facts
+all necessary follow: for by this theory all the beings of any one
+class, say of the mammalia, are supposed to be descended from one
+parent-stock, and to have been altered by such slight steps as man
+effects by the selection of chance domestic variations. Now we can see
+according to this view that a foot might be selected with longer and
+longer bones, and wider connecting membranes, till it became a swimming
+organ, and so on till it became an organ by which to flap along the
+surface or to glide over it, and lastly to fly through the air: but in
+such changes there would be no tendency to alter the framework of the
+internal inherited structure. Parts might become lost (as the tail in
+dogs, or horns in cattle, or the pistils in plants), others might become
+united together (as in the feet of the<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_217' id='Page_217'>{217}</a></span>
+Lincolnshire breed of pigs<a name='FNanchor_458_458' id='FNanchor_458_458'></a><a href='#Footnote_458_458' class='fnanchor'>{458}</a>,
+and in the stamens of many garden flowers); parts of a similar nature
+might become increased in number (as the vertebr&aelig; in the tails of
+pigs, &amp;c., &amp;c. and the fingers and toes in six-fingered races of
+men and in the Dorking fowls), but analogous differences are observed in
+nature and are not considered by naturalists to destroy the uniformity
+of the types. We can, however, conceive such changes to be carried to
+such length that the unity of type might be obscured and finally be
+undistinguishable, and the paddle of the Plesiosaurus has been advanced
+as an instance in which the uniformity of type can hardly be
+recognised<a name='FNanchor_459_459' id='FNanchor_459_459'></a><a href='#Footnote_459_459' class='fnanchor'>{459}</a>.
+If after long and gradual changes in the structure of the co-descendants
+from any parent stock, evidence (either from monstrosities or from a
+graduated series) could be still detected of the function, which certain
+parts or organs played in the parent stock, these parts or organs might
+be strictly determined by their former function with the term
+&ldquo;metamorphosed&rdquo; appended. Naturalists have used this term in
+the same metaphorical manner as they have been obliged to use the terms
+of affinity and relation; and when they affirm, for instance, that the
+jaws of a crab are metamorphosed legs, so that one crab has more legs
+and fewer jaws than another, they are far from meaning that the jaws,
+either during the life of the individual crab or of its progenitors,
+were really legs. By our theory this term assumes its literal meaning<a name='FNanchor_460_460' id='FNanchor_460_460'></a><a href='#Footnote_460_460' class='fnanchor'>{460}</a>;
+and this wonderful fact of the complex jaws of an animal <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_218' id='Page_218'>{218}</a></span>
+retaining numerous characters, which they would probably have retained
+if they had really been metamorphosed during many successive generations
+from true legs, is simply explained.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Embryology</i>.</h3>
+
+<p>The unity of type in the great classes is shown in another and very
+striking manner, namely, in the stages through which the embryo passes
+in coming to maturity<a name='FNanchor_461_461' id='FNanchor_461_461'></a><a href='#Footnote_461_461' class='fnanchor'>{461}</a>.
+Thus, for instance, at one period of the embryo, the wings of the bat,
+the hand, hoof or foot of the quadruped, and the fin of the porpoise do
+not differ, but consist of a simple undivided bone. At a still earlier
+period the embryo of the fish, bird, reptile and mammal all strikingly
+resemble each other. Let it not be supposed this resemblance is only
+external; for on dissection, the arteries are found to branch out and
+run in a peculiar course, wholly unlike that in the full-grown mammal
+and bird, but much less unlike that in the full-grown fish, for they run
+as if to &aelig;rate blood by branchi&aelig;<a name='FNanchor_462_462' id='FNanchor_462_462'></a><a href='#Footnote_462_462' class='fnanchor'>{462}</a>
+on the neck, of which even the slit-like orifices can be discerned. How
+wonderful it is that this structure should be present in the embryos of
+animals about to be developed into such different forms, and of which
+two great classes respire only in the air. Moreover, as the embryo of
+the mammal is matured in the parent&rsquo;s body, and that of the bird
+in an egg in the air, and that of the fish in an egg in the water, we
+cannot believe that this course of the arteries is related to any
+external conditions. In all shell-fish (Gasteropods) the embryo passes
+through a state analogous to that of the Pteropodous Mollusca:<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_219' id='Page_219'>{219}</a></span>
+amongst insects again, even the most different ones, as the moth, fly
+and beetle, the crawling larv&aelig; are all closely analogous: amongst
+the Radiata, the jelly-fish in its embryonic state resembles a polype,
+and in a still earlier state an infusorial animalcule&mdash;as does
+likewise the embryo of the polype. From the part of the embryo of a
+mammal, at one period, resembling a fish more than its parent form; from
+the larv&aelig; of all orders of insects more resembling the simpler
+articulate animals than their parent insects<a name='FNanchor_463_463' id='FNanchor_463_463'></a><a href='#Footnote_463_463' class='fnanchor'>{463}</a>;
+and from such other cases as the embryo of the jelly-fish resembling a
+polype much nearer than the perfect jelly-fish; it has often been
+asserted that the higher animal in each class passes through the state
+of a lower animal; for instance, that the mammal amongst the vertebrata
+passes through the state of a fish<a name='FNanchor_464_464' id='FNanchor_464_464'></a><a href='#Footnote_464_464' class='fnanchor'>{464}</a>:
+but M&uuml;ller denies this, and affirms that the young mammal is at no
+time a fish, as does Owen assert that the embryonic jelly-fish is at no
+time a polype, but that mammal and fish, jelly-fish and polype pass
+through the same state; the mammal and jelly-fish being only further
+developed or changed.</p>
+
+<p>As the embryo, in most cases, possesses a less complicated structure
+than that into which it is to be developed, it might have been thought
+that the resemblance of the embryo to less complicated forms in the same
+great class, was in some manner a necessary preparation for its higher
+development; but in fact the embryo, during its growth, may become less,
+as well as more, complicated<a name='FNanchor_465_465' id='FNanchor_465_465'></a><a href='#Footnote_465_465' class='fnanchor'>{465}</a>.
+Thus certain female Epizoic Crustaceans in their mature <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_220' id='Page_220'>{220}</a></span>
+state have neither eyes nor any organs of locomotion; they consist of a
+mere sack, with a simple apparatus for digestion and procreation; and
+when once attached to the body of the fish, on which they prey, they
+never move again during their whole lives: in their embryonic condition,
+on the other hand, they are furnished with eyes, and with well
+articulated limbs, actively swim about and seek their proper object to
+become attached to. The larv&aelig;, also, of some moths are as
+complicated and are more active than the wingless and limbless females,
+which never leave their pupa-case, never feed and never see the
+daylight.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Attempt to explain the facts of embryology.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I think considerable light can be thrown by the theory of descent on
+these wonderful embryological facts which are common in a greater or
+less degree to the whole animal kingdom, and in some manner to the
+vegetable kingdom: on the fact, for instance, of the arteries in the
+embryonic mammal, bird, reptile and fish, running and branching in the
+same courses and nearly in the same manner with the arteries in the
+full-grown fish; on the fact I may add of the high importance to
+systematic naturalists<a name='FNanchor_466_466' id='FNanchor_466_466'></a><a href='#Footnote_466_466' class='fnanchor'>{466}</a>
+of the characters and resemblances in the embryonic state, in
+ascertaining the true position in the natural system of mature organic
+beings. The following are the considerations which throw light on these
+curious points.</p>
+
+<p>In the economy, we will say of a feline animal<a name='FNanchor_467_467' id='FNanchor_467_467'></a><a href='#Footnote_467_467' class='fnanchor'>{467}</a>,
+the feline structure of the embryo or of the sucking kitten is of quite
+secondary importance to it; hence, if a feline animal varied (assuming
+for the time the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_221' id='Page_221'>{221}</a></span>
+possibility of this) and if some place in the economy of nature
+favoured the selection of a longer-limbed variety, it would be quite
+unimportant to the production by natural selection of a long-limbed
+breed, whether the limbs of the embryo and kitten were elongated if they
+<i>became</i> so <i>as soon</i> as the animal had to provide food for itself. And
+if it were found after continued selection and the production of several
+new breeds from one parent-stock, that the successive variations had
+supervened, not very early in the youth or embryonic life of each breed
+(and we have just seen that it is quite unimportant whether it does so
+or not), then it obviously follows that the young or embryos of the
+several breeds will continue resembling each other more closely than
+their adult parents<a name='FNanchor_468_468' id='FNanchor_468_468'></a><a href='#Footnote_468_468' class='fnanchor'>{468}</a>.
+And again, if two of these breeds became each the parent-stock of
+several other breeds, forming two genera, the young and embryos of these
+would still retain a greater resemblance to the one original stock than
+when in an adult state. Therefore if it could be shown that the period
+of the slight successive variations does not always supervene at a very
+early period of life, the greater resemblance or closer unity in type of
+animals in the young than in the full-grown state would be explained.
+Before practically<a name='FNanchor_469_469' id='FNanchor_469_469'></a><a href='#Footnote_469_469' class='fnanchor'>{469}</a>
+endeavouring to discover in our domestic races whether the structure or
+form of the young has or has not changed in an exactly corresponding
+degree with the changes of full-grown animals, it will be well to show
+that it is at least quite <i>possible</i> for the primary germinal vesicle to
+be impressed with a tendency to produce some change on the growing
+tissues which will not be fully effected till the animal is advanced in
+life.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_222' id='Page_222'>{222}</a></span>
+From the following peculiarities of structure being inheritable and
+appearing only when the animal is full-grown&mdash;namely, general size,
+tallness (not consequent on the tallness of the infant), fatness either
+over the whole body, or local; change of colour in hair and its loss;
+deposition of bony matter on the legs of horses; blindness and deafness,
+that is changes of structure in the eye and ear; gout and consequent
+deposition of chalk-stones; and many other diseases<a name='FNanchor_470_470' id='FNanchor_470_470'></a><a href='#Footnote_470_470' class='fnanchor'>{470}</a>,
+as of the heart and brain, &amp;c., &amp;c.; from all such tendencies
+being I repeat inheritable, we clearly see that the germinal vesicle is
+impressed with some power which is wonderfully preserved during the
+production of infinitely numerous cells in the ever changing tissues,
+till the part ultimately to be affected is formed and the time of life
+arrived at. We see this clearly when we select cattle with any
+peculiarity of their horns, or poultry with any peculiarity of their
+second plumage, for such peculiarities cannot of course reappear till
+the animal is mature. Hence, it is certainly <i>possible</i> that the
+germinal vesicle may be impressed with a tendency to produce a
+long-limbed animal, the full proportional length of whose limbs shall
+appear only when the animal is mature<a name='FNanchor_471_471' id='FNanchor_471_471'></a><a href='#Footnote_471_471' class='fnanchor'>{471}</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In several of the cases just enumerated we know that the first cause of
+the peculiarity, when <i>not</i> inherited, lies in the conditions to which
+the animal is exposed during mature life, thus to a certain extent
+general size and fatness, lameness in horses and in a lesser degree
+blindness, gout and some other diseases are certainly in some degree
+caused <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_223' id='Page_223'>{223}</a></span>
+and accelerated by the habits of life, and these peculiarities when
+transmitted to the offspring of the affected person reappear at a nearly
+corresponding time of life. In medical works it is asserted generally
+that at whatever period an hereditary disease appears in the parent, it
+tends to reappear in the offspring at the same period. Again, we find
+that early maturity, the season of reproduction and longevity are
+transmitted to corresponding periods of life. Dr Holland has insisted
+much on children of the same family exhibiting certain diseases in
+similar and peculiar manners; my father has known three brothers<a name='FNanchor_472_472' id='FNanchor_472_472'></a><a href='#Footnote_472_472' class='fnanchor'>{472}</a>
+die in very old age in a <i>singular</i> comatose state; now to make these
+latter cases strictly bear, the children of such families ought
+similarly to suffer at corresponding times of life; this is probably not
+the case, but such facts show that a tendency in a disease to appear at
+particular stages of life can be transmitted through the germinal
+vesicle to different individuals of the same family. It is then
+certainly possible that diseases affecting widely different periods of
+life can be transmitted. So little attention is paid to very young
+domestic animals that I do not know whether any case is on record of
+selected peculiarities in young animals, for instance, in the first
+plumage of birds, being transmitted to their young. If, however, we turn
+to silk-worms<a name='FNanchor_473_473' id='FNanchor_473_473'></a><a href='#Footnote_473_473' class='fnanchor'>{473}</a>,
+we find that the caterpillars and coccoons (which must correspond to a
+<i>very early</i> period of the embryonic life of mammalia) vary, and that
+these varieties reappear in the offspring caterpillars and coccoons.</p>
+
+<p>I think these facts are sufficient to render it probable that at
+whatever period of life any peculiarity (capable of being inherited)
+appears, whether caused by the action of external influences <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_224' id='Page_224'>{224}</a></span>
+during mature life, or from an affection of the primary germinal
+vesicle, it <i>tends</i> to reappear in the offspring at the corresponding
+period of life<a name='FNanchor_474_474' id='FNanchor_474_474'></a><a href='#Footnote_474_474' class='fnanchor'>{474}</a>.
+Hence (I may add) whatever effect training, that is the full employment
+or action of every newly selected slight variation, has in fully
+developing and increasing such variation, would only show itself in
+mature age, corresponding to the period of training; in the second
+chapter I showed that there was in this respect a marked difference in
+natural and artificial selection, man not regularly exercising or
+adapting his varieties to new ends, whereas selection by nature
+presupposes such exercise and adaptation in each selected and changed
+part. The foregoing facts show and presuppose that slight variations
+occur at various periods of life <i>after birth</i>; the facts of
+monstrosity, on the other hand, show that many changes take place before
+birth, for instance, all such cases as extra fingers, hare-lip and all
+sudden and great alterations in structure; and these when inherited
+reappear during the embryonic period in the offspring. I will only add
+that at a period even anterior to embryonic life, namely, during the
+<i>egg</i> state, varieties appear in size and colour (as with the
+Hertfordshire duck with blackish eggs<a name='FNanchor_475_475' id='FNanchor_475_475'></a><a href='#Footnote_475_475' class='fnanchor'>{475}</a>)
+which reappear in the egg; in plants also the capsule and membranes of
+the seed are very variable and inheritable.</p>
+
+<p>If then the two following propositions are admitted (and I think the
+first can hardly be doubted), viz. that variation of structure takes
+place at all times of life, though no doubt far less in amount and
+seldomer in quite mature life<a name='FNanchor_476_476' id='FNanchor_476_476'></a><a href='#Footnote_476_476' class='fnanchor'>{476}</a>
+(and then generally <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_225' id='Page_225'>{225}</a></span>
+taking the form of disease); and secondly, that these variations tend
+to reappear at a corresponding period of life, which seems at least
+probable, then we might <i>a priori</i> have expected that in any selected
+breed the <i>young</i> animal would not partake in a corresponding degree the
+peculiarities characterising the <i>full-grown</i> parent; though it would in
+a lesser degree. For during the thousand or ten thousand selections of
+slight increments in the length of the limbs of individuals necessary to
+produce a long-limbed breed, we might expect that such increments would
+take place in different individuals (as we do not certainly know at what
+period they do take place), some earlier and some later in the embryonic
+state, and some during early youth; and these increments would reappear
+in their offspring only at corresponding periods. Hence, the entire
+length of limb in the new long-limbed breed would only be acquired at
+the latest period of life, when that one which was latest of the
+thousand primary increments of length supervened. Consequently, the
+f&oelig;tus of the new breed during the earlier part of its existence
+would remain much less changed in the proportions of its limbs; and the
+earlier the period the less would the change be.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be thought of the facts on which this reasoning is
+grounded, it shows how the embryos and young of different species might
+come to remain less changed than their mature parents; and practically
+we find that the young of our domestic animals, though differing, differ
+less than their full-grown parents. Thus if we look at the young
+puppies<a name='FNanchor_477_477' id='FNanchor_477_477'></a><a href='#Footnote_477_477' class='fnanchor'>{477}</a>
+of the greyhound and bulldog&mdash;(the two most obviously modified of
+the breeds of dog)&mdash;we find their puppies at the age of six days
+with legs and noses (the latter measured from the eyes to the tip) of
+the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_226' id='Page_226'>{226}</a></span>
+same length; though in the proportional thicknesses and general
+appearance of these parts there is a great difference. So it is with
+cattle, though the young calves of different breeds are easily
+recognisable, yet they do not differ so much in their proportions as the
+full-grown animals. We see this clearly in the fact that it shows the
+highest skill to select the best forms early in life, either in horses,
+cattle or poultry; no one would attempt it only a few hours after birth;
+and it requires great discrimination to judge with accuracy even during
+their full youth, and the best judges are sometimes deceived. This shows
+that the ultimate proportions of the body are not acquired till near
+mature age. If I had collected sufficient facts to firmly establish the
+proposition that in artificially selected breeds the embryonic and young
+animals are not changed in a corresponding degree with their mature
+parents, I might have omitted all the foregoing reasoning and the
+attempts to explain how this happens; for we might safely have
+transferred the proposition to the breeds or species naturally selected;
+and the ultimate effect would necessarily have been that in a number of
+races or species descended from a common stock and forming several
+genera and families the embryos would have resembled each other more
+closely than full-grown animals. Whatever may have been the form or
+habits of the parent-stock of the Vertebrata, in whatever course the
+arteries ran and branched, the selection of variations, supervening
+after the first formation of the arteries in the embryo, would not tend
+from variations supervening at corresponding periods to alter their
+course at that period: hence, the similar course of the arteries in the
+mammal, bird, reptile and fish, must be looked at as a most ancient
+record of the embryonic structure of the common parent-stock of these
+four great classes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_227' id='Page_227'>{227}</a></span>
+A long course of selection might cause a form to become more simple, as
+well as more complicated; thus the adaptation of a crustaceous<a name='FNanchor_478_478' id='FNanchor_478_478'></a><a href='#Footnote_478_478' class='fnanchor'>{478}</a>
+animal to live attached during its whole life to the body of a fish,
+might permit with advantage great simplification of structure, and on
+this view the singular fact of an embryo being more complex than its
+parent is at once explained.</p>
+
+<h3><i>On the graduated complexity in each great class.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I may take this opportunity of remarking that naturalists have observed
+that in most of the great classes a series exists from very complicated
+to very simple beings; thus in Fish, what a range there is between the
+sand-eel and shark,&mdash;in the Articulata, between the common crab and
+the Daphnia<a name='FNanchor_479_479' id='FNanchor_479_479'></a><a href='#Footnote_479_479' class='fnanchor'>{479}</a>,&mdash;between
+the Aphis and butterfly, and between a mite and a spider<a name='FNanchor_480_480' id='FNanchor_480_480'></a><a href='#Footnote_480_480' class='fnanchor'>{480}</a>.
+Now the observation just made, namely, that selection might tend to
+simplify, as well as to complicate, explains this; for we can see that
+during the endless geologico-geographical changes, and consequent
+isolation of species, a station occupied in other districts by less
+complicated animals might be left unfilled, and be occupied by a
+degraded form of a higher or more complicated class; and it would by no
+means follow that, when the two regions became united, the degraded
+organism would give way to the aboriginally lower organism. According to
+our theory, there is obviously no power tending constantly to exalt
+species, except the mutual struggle between the different individuals
+and classes; but from the strong and general hereditary tendency we
+might expect to find some tendency to progressive complication in the
+successive production of new organic forms.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_228' id='Page_228'>{228}</a></p>
+<h3><i>Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I have above remarked that the feline<a name='FNanchor_481_481' id='FNanchor_481_481'></a><a href='#Footnote_481_481' class='fnanchor'>{481}</a>
+form is quite of secondary importance to the embryo and to the kitten.
+Of course, during any great and prolonged change of structure in the
+mature animal, it might, and often would be, indispensable that the form
+of the embryo should be changed; and this could be effected, owing to
+the hereditary tendency at corresponding ages, by selection, equally
+well as in mature age: thus if the embryo tended to become, or to
+remain, either over its whole body or in certain parts, too bulky, the
+female parent would die or suffer more during parturition; and as in the
+case of the calves with large hinder quarters<a name='FNanchor_482_482' id='FNanchor_482_482'></a><a href='#Footnote_482_482' class='fnanchor'>{482}</a>,
+the peculiarity must be either eliminated or the species become extinct.
+Where an embryonic form has to seek its own food, its structure and
+adaptation is just as important to the species as that of the full-grown
+animal; and as we have seen that a peculiarity appearing in a
+caterpillar (or in a child, as shown by the hereditariness of
+peculiarities in the milk-teeth) reappears in its offspring, so we can
+at once see that our common principle of the selection of slight
+accidental variations would modify and adapt a caterpillar to a new or
+changing condition, precisely as in the full-grown butterfly. Hence
+probably it is that caterpillars of different species of the Lepidoptera
+differ more than those embryos, at a corresponding early period of life,
+do which remain inactive in the womb of their parents. The parent during
+successive ages continuing to be adapted by selection for some one
+object, and the larva for quite another one, we need not wonder at <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_229' id='Page_229'>{229}</a></span>
+the difference becoming wonderfully great between them; even as great
+as that between the fixed rock-barnacle and its free, crab-like
+offspring, which is furnished with eyes and well-articulated, locomotive
+limbs<a name='FNanchor_483_483' id='FNanchor_483_483'></a><a href='#Footnote_483_483' class='fnanchor'>{483}</a>.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Importance of embryology in classification.</i></h3>
+
+<p>We are now prepared to perceive why the study of embryonic forms is of
+such acknowledged importance in classification<a name='FNanchor_484_484' id='FNanchor_484_484'></a><a href='#Footnote_484_484' class='fnanchor'>{484}</a>.
+For we have seen that a variation, supervening at any time, may aid in
+the modification and adaptation of the full-grown being; but for the
+modification of the embryo, only the variations which supervene at a
+very early period can be seized on and perpetuated by selection: hence
+there will be less power and less tendency (for the structure of the
+embryo is mostly unimportant) to modify the young: and hence we might
+expect to find at this period similarities preserved between different
+groups of species which had been obscured and quite lost in the
+full-grown animals. I conceive on the view of separate creations it
+would be impossible to offer any explanation of the affinities of
+organic beings thus being plainest and of the greatest importance at
+that period of life when their structure is not adapted to the final
+part they have to play in the economy of nature.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared.</i></h3>
+
+<p>It follows strictly from the above reasoning only that the embryos of
+(for instance) existing vertebrata resemble more closely the embryo of
+the parent-stock of this great class than do full-grown existing
+vertebrata resemble their full-grown parent-stock.<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_230' id='Page_230'>{230}</a></span>
+But it may be argued with much probability that in the earliest and
+simplest condition of things the parent and embryo must have resembled
+each other, and that the passage of any animal through embryonic states
+in its growth is entirely due to subsequent variations affecting <i>only</i>
+the more mature periods of life. If so, the embryos of the existing
+vertebrata will shadow forth the full-grown structure of some of those
+forms of this great class which existed at the earlier periods of the
+earth's history<a name='FNanchor_485_485' id='FNanchor_485_485'></a><a href='#Footnote_485_485' class='fnanchor'>{485}</a>:
+and accordingly, animals with a fish-like structure ought to have
+preceded birds and mammals; and of fish, that higher organized division
+with the vertebr&aelig; extending into one division of the tail ought to
+have preceded the equal-tailed, because the embryos of the latter have
+an unequal tail; and of Crustacea, entomostraca ought to have preceded
+the ordinary crabs and barnacles&mdash;polypes ought to have preceded
+jelly-fish, and infusorial animalcules to have existed before both. This
+order of precedence in time in some of these cases is believed to hold
+good; but I think our evidence is so exceedingly incomplete regarding
+the number and kinds of organisms which have existed during all,
+especially the earlier, periods of the earth&rsquo;s history, that I
+should put no stress on this accordance, even if it held truer than it
+probably does in our present state of knowledge.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_231' id='Page_231'>{231}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_IX' id='CHAPTER_IX'></a>CHAPTER IX<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS</span></h2>
+
+<h3><i>The abortive organs of naturalists.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Parts of structure are said to be &ldquo;abortive,&rdquo; or when in a
+still lower state of development &ldquo;rudimentary<a name='FNanchor_486_486' id='FNanchor_486_486'></a><a href='#Footnote_486_486' class='fnanchor'>{486}</a>,&rdquo;
+when the same reasoning power, which convinces us that in some cases
+similar parts are beautifully adapted to certain ends, declares that in
+others they are absolutely useless. Thus the rhinoceros, the whale<a name='FNanchor_487_487' id='FNanchor_487_487'></a><a href='#Footnote_487_487' class='fnanchor'>{487}</a>,
+etc., have, when young, small but properly formed teeth, which never
+protrude from the jaws; certain bones, and even the entire extremities
+are represented by mere little cylinders or points of bone, often
+soldered to other bones: many beetles have exceedingly minute but
+regularly formed wings lying under their wing-cases<a name='FNanchor_488_488' id='FNanchor_488_488'></a><a href='#Footnote_488_488' class='fnanchor'>{488}</a>,
+which latter are united never to be opened: many plants have, instead of
+stamens, mere filaments or little knobs; petals are reduced to scales,
+and whole flowers to buds, which (as in the feather hyacinth) never
+expand. Similar instances are almost innumerable, and are justly
+considered wonderful: probably not one organic being exists in which
+some part does not bear the stamp of inutility; for what can be
+clearer<a name='FNanchor_489_489' id='FNanchor_489_489'></a><a href='#Footnote_489_489' class='fnanchor'>{489}</a>,
+as far as our reasoning powers <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_232' id='Page_232'>{232}</a></span>
+can reach, than that teeth are for eating, extremities for locomotion,
+wings for flight, stamens and the entire flower for reproduction; yet
+for these clear ends the parts in question are manifestly unfit.
+Abortive organs are often said to be mere representatives (a
+metaphorical expression) of similar parts in other organic beings; but
+in some cases they are more than representatives, for they seem to be
+the actual organ not fully grown or developed; thus the existence of
+mamm&aelig; in the male vertebrata is one of the oftenest adduced cases
+of abortion; but we know that these organs in man (and in the bull) have
+performed their proper function and secreted milk: the cow has normally
+four mamm&aelig; and two abortive ones, but these latter in some
+instances are largely developed and even (??) give milk<a name='FNanchor_490_490' id='FNanchor_490_490'></a><a href='#Footnote_490_490' class='fnanchor'>{490}</a>.
+Again in flowers, the representatives of stamens and pistils can be
+traced to be really these parts not developed; K&ouml;lreuter has shown
+by crossing a di&aelig;cious plant (a Cucubalus) having a rudimentary
+pistil<a name='FNanchor_491_491' id='FNanchor_491_491'></a><a href='#Footnote_491_491' class='fnanchor'>{491}</a>
+with another species having this organ perfect, that in the hybrid
+offspring the rudimentary part is more developed, though still remaining
+abortive; now this shows how intimately related in nature the mere
+rudiment and the fully developed pistil must be.</p>
+
+<p>Abortive organs, which must be considered as useless as far as their
+ordinary and normal purpose is concerned, are sometimes adapted to other
+ends<a name='FNanchor_492_492' id='FNanchor_492_492'></a><a href='#Footnote_492_492' class='fnanchor'>{492}</a>:
+thus the marsupial bones, which properly serve to support the young in
+the mother&rsquo;s pouch, are present in the male and serve as the
+fulcrum for muscles connected only with male functions: in the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_233' id='Page_233'>{233}</a></span>
+male of the marigold flower the pistil is abortive for its proper end
+of being impregnated, but serves to sweep the pollen out of the
+anthers<a name='FNanchor_493_493' id='FNanchor_493_493'></a><a href='#Footnote_493_493' class='fnanchor'>{493}</a>
+ready to be borne by insects to the perfect pistils in the other
+florets. It is likely in many cases, yet unknown to us, that abortive
+organs perform some useful function; but in other cases, for instance in
+that of teeth embedded in the solid jaw-bone, or of mere knobs, the
+rudiments of stamens and pistils, the boldest imagination will hardly
+venture to ascribe to them any function. Abortive parts, even when
+wholly useless to the individual species, are of great signification in
+the system of nature; for they are often found to be of very high
+importance in a natural classification<a name='FNanchor_494_494' id='FNanchor_494_494'></a><a href='#Footnote_494_494' class='fnanchor'>{494}</a>;
+thus the presence and position of entire abortive flowers, in the
+grasses, cannot be overlooked in attempting to arrange them according to
+their true affinities. This corroborates a statement in a previous
+chapter, viz. that the physiological importance of a part is no index of
+its importance in classification. Finally, abortive organs often are
+only developed, proportionally with other parts, in the embryonic or
+young state of each species<a name='FNanchor_495_495' id='FNanchor_495_495'></a><a href='#Footnote_495_495' class='fnanchor'>{495}</a>;
+this again, especially considering the classificatory importance of
+abortive organs, is evidently part of the law (stated in the last
+chapter) that the higher affinities of organisms are often best seen in
+the stages towards maturity, through which the embryo passes. On the
+ordinary view of individual creations, I think that scarcely any class
+of facts in natural history are more wonderful or less capable of
+receiving explanation.</p>
+
+<p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_234' id='Page_234'>{234}</a></p>
+<h3><i>The abortive organs of physiologists.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Physiologists and medical men apply the term &ldquo;abortive&rdquo; in a
+somewhat different sense from naturalists; and their application is
+probably the primary one; namely, to parts, which from accident or
+disease before birth are not developed or do not grow<a name='FNanchor_496_496' id='FNanchor_496_496'></a><a href='#Footnote_496_496' class='fnanchor'>{496}</a>:
+thus, when a young animal is born with a little stump in the place of a
+finger or of the whole extremity, or with a little button instead of a
+head, or with a mere bead of bony matter instead of a tooth, or with a
+stump instead of a tail, these parts are said to be aborted. Naturalists
+on the other hand, as we have seen, apply this term to parts not stunted
+during the growth of the embryo, but which are as regularly produced in
+successive generations as any other most essential parts of the
+structure of the individual: naturalists, therefore, use this term in a
+metaphorical sense. These two classes of facts, however, blend into each
+other<a name='FNanchor_497_497' id='FNanchor_497_497'></a><a href='#Footnote_497_497' class='fnanchor'>{497}</a>;
+by parts accidentally aborted, during the embryonic life of one
+individual, becoming hereditary in the succeeding generations: thus a
+cat or dog, born with a stump instead of a tail, tends to transmit
+stumps to their offspring; and so it is with stumps representing the
+extremities; and so again with flowers, with defective and rudimentary
+parts, which are annually produced in new flower-buds and even in
+successive seedlings. The strong hereditary tendency to reproduce every
+either congenital or slowly acquired structure, whether useful or
+injurious to the individual, has been shown in the first part; so that
+we need feel no surprise at these truly abortive <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_235' id='Page_235'>{235}</a></span>
+parts becoming hereditary. A curious instance of the force of
+hereditariness is sometimes seen in two little loose hanging horns,
+quite useless as far as the function of a horn is concerned, which are
+produced in hornless races of our domestic cattle<a name='FNanchor_498_498' id='FNanchor_498_498'></a><a href='#Footnote_498_498' class='fnanchor'>{498}</a>.
+Now I believe no real distinction can be drawn between a stump
+representing a tail or a horn or the extremities; or a short shrivelled
+stamen without any pollen; or a dimple in a petal representing a
+nectary, when such rudiments are regularly reproduced in a race or
+family, and the true abortive organs of naturalists. And if we had
+reason to believe (which I think we have not) that all abortive organs
+had been at some period <i>suddenly</i> produced during the embryonic life of
+an individual, and afterwards become inherited, we should at once have a
+simple explanation of the origin of abortive and rudimentary organs<a name='FNanchor_499_499' id='FNanchor_499_499'></a><a href='#Footnote_499_499' class='fnanchor'>{499}</a>.
+In the same manner as during changes of pronunciation certain letters in
+a word may become useless<a name='FNanchor_500_500' id='FNanchor_500_500'></a><a href='#Footnote_500_500' class='fnanchor'>{500}</a>
+in pronouncing it, but yet may aid us in searching for its derivation,
+so we can see that rudimentary organs, no longer useful to the
+individual, may be of high importance in ascertaining its descent, that
+is, its true classification in the natural system.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Abortion from gradual disuse.</i></h3>
+
+<p>There seems to be some probability that continued disuse of any part or
+organ, and the selection of individuals with such parts slightly less
+developed, would in the course of ages produce in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_236' id='Page_236'>{236}</a></span>
+organic beings under domesticity races with such parts abortive. We
+have every reason to believe that every part and organ in an individual
+becomes fully developed only with exercise of its functions; that it
+becomes developed in a somewhat lesser degree with less exercise; and if
+forcibly precluded from all action, such part will often become
+atrophied. Every peculiarity, let it be remembered, tends, especially
+where both parents have it, to be inherited. The less power of flight in
+the common duck compared with the wild, must be partly attributed to
+disuse<a name='FNanchor_501_501' id='FNanchor_501_501'></a><a href='#Footnote_501_501' class='fnanchor'>{501}</a>
+during successive generations, and as the wing is properly adapted to
+flight, we must consider our domestic duck in the first stage towards
+the state of the Apteryx, in which the wings are so curiously abortive.
+Some naturalists have attributed (and possibly with truth) the falling
+ears so characteristic of most domestic dogs, some rabbits, oxen, cats,
+goats, horses, &amp;c., &amp;c., as the effects of the lesser use of the
+muscles of these flexible parts during successive generations of
+inactive life; and muscles, which cannot perform their functions, must
+be considered verging towards abortion. In flowers, again, we see the
+gradual abortion during successive seedlings (though this is more
+properly a conversion) of stamens into imperfect petals, and finally
+into perfect petals. When the eye is blinded in early life the optic
+nerve sometimes becomes atrophied; may we not believe that where this
+organ, as is the case with the subterranean mole-like Tuco-tuco
+«<ins><i>Ctenomys</i></ins>»<a name='FNanchor_502_502' id='FNanchor_502_502'></a><a href='#Footnote_502_502' class='fnanchor'>{502}</a>,
+is frequently impaired and lost, that in the course of generations the
+whole organ might become abortive, as it normally is in some burrowing
+quadrupeds having nearly similar habits with the Tuco-tuco?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_237' id='Page_237'>{237}</a></span>
+In as far then as it is admitted as probable that the effects of disuse
+(together with occasional true and sudden abortions during the embryonic
+period) would cause a part to be less developed, and finally to become
+abortive and useless; then during the infinitely numerous changes of
+habits in the many descendants from a common stock, we might fairly have
+expected that cases of organs becom«<ins>ing</ins>» abortive would have been numerous.
+The preservation of the stump of the tail, as usually happens when an
+animal is born tailless, we can only explain by the strength of the
+hereditary principle and by the period in embryo when affected<a name='FNanchor_503_503' id='FNanchor_503_503'></a><a href='#Footnote_503_503' class='fnanchor'>{503}</a>:
+but on the theory of disuse gradually obliterating a part, we can see,
+according to the principles explained in the last chapter (viz. of
+hereditariness at corresponding periods of life<a name='FNanchor_504_504' id='FNanchor_504_504'></a><a href='#Footnote_504_504' class='fnanchor'>{504}</a>,
+together with the use and disuse of the part in question not being
+brought into play in early or embryonic life), that organs or parts
+would tend not to be utterly obliterated, but to be reduced to that
+state in which they existed in early embryonic life. Owen often speaks
+of a part in a full-grown animal being in an &ldquo;embryonic
+condition.&rdquo; Moreover we can thus see why abortive organs are most
+developed at an early period of life. Again, by gradual selection, we
+can see how an organ rendered abortive in its primary use might be
+converted to other purposes; a duck&rsquo;s wing might come to serve for
+a fin, as does that of the penguin; an abortive bone might come to
+serve, by the slow increment and change of place in the muscular fibres,
+as a fulcrum for a new series of muscles; the pistil<a name='FNanchor_505_505' id='FNanchor_505_505'></a><a href='#Footnote_505_505' class='fnanchor'>{505}</a>
+of the marigold might become abortive as a reproductive part, but be
+continued in its function of sweeping the pollen out of the anthers; for
+if in <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_238' id='Page_238'>{238}</a></span>
+this latter respect the abortion had not been checked by selection, the
+species must have become extinct from the pollen remaining enclosed in
+the capsules of the anthers.</p>
+
+<p>Finally then I must repeat that these wonderful facts of organs formed
+with traces of exquisite care, but now either absolutely useless or
+adapted to ends wholly different from their ordinary end, being present
+and forming part of the structure of almost every inhabitant of this
+world, both in long-past and present times&mdash;being best developed
+and often only discoverable at a very early embryonic period, and being
+full of signification in arranging the long series of organic beings in
+a natural system&mdash;these wonderful facts not only receive a simple
+explanation on the theory of long-continued selection of many species
+from a few common parent-stocks, but necessarily follow from this
+theory. If this theory be rejected, these facts remain quite
+inexplicable; without indeed we rank as an explanation such loose
+metaphors as that of De Candolle&rsquo;s<a name='FNanchor_506_506' id='FNanchor_506_506'></a><a href='#Footnote_506_506' class='fnanchor'>{506}</a>,
+in which the kingdom of nature is compared to a well-covered table, and
+the abortive organs are considered as put in for the sake of symmetry!</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_239' id='Page_239'>{239}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='CHAPTER_X' id='CHAPTER_X'></a>CHAPTER X<br />
+<span class='sc lc'>RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION</span></h2>
+
+<h3><i>Recapitulation.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I will now recapitulate the course of this work, more fully with respect
+to the former parts, and briefly «<ins>as to</ins>» the latter. In the
+first chapter we have seen that most, if not all, organic beings, when
+taken by man out of their natural condition, and bred during several
+generations, vary; that is variation is partly due to the direct effect
+of the new external influences, and partly to the indirect effect on the
+reproductive system rendering the organization of the offspring in some
+degree plastic. Of the variations thus produced, man when uncivilised
+naturally preserves the life, and therefore unintentionally breeds from
+those individuals most useful to him in his different states: when even
+semi-civilised, he intentionally separates and breeds from such
+individuals. Every part of the structure seems occasionally to vary in a
+very slight degree, and the extent to which all kinds of peculiarities
+in mind and body, when congenital and when slowly acquired either from
+external influences, from exercise, or from disuse «<ins>are
+inherited</ins>», is truly wonderful. When several breeds are once
+formed, then crossing is the most fertile source of new breeds<a name='FNanchor_507_507' id='FNanchor_507_507'></a><a href='#Footnote_507_507' class='fnanchor'>{507}</a>.
+Variation <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_240' id='Page_240'>{240}</a></span>
+must be ruled, of course, by the health of the new race, by the
+tendency to return to the ancestral forms, and by unknown laws
+determining the proportional increase and symmetry of the body. The
+amount of variation, which has been effected under domestication, is
+quite unknown in the majority of domestic beings.</p>
+
+<p>In the second chapter it was shown that wild organisms undoubtedly vary
+in some slight degree: and that the kind of variation, though much less
+in degree, is similar to that of domestic organisms. It is highly
+probable that every organic being, if subjected during several
+generations to new and varying conditions, would vary. It is certain
+that organisms, living in an <i>isolated</i> country which is undergoing
+geological changes, must in the course of time be so subjected to new
+conditions; moreover an organism, when by chance transported into a new
+station, for instance into an island, will often be exposed to new
+conditions, and be surrounded by a new series of organic beings. If
+there were no power at work selecting every slight variation, which
+opened new sources of subsistence to a being thus situated, the effects
+of crossing, the chance of death and the constant tendency to reversion
+to the old parent-form, would prevent the production of new races. If
+there were any selective agency at work, it seems impossible to assign
+any limit<a name='FNanchor_508_508' id='FNanchor_508_508'></a><a href='#Footnote_508_508' class='fnanchor'>{508}</a>
+to the complexity and beauty of the adaptive structures, which <i>might</i>
+thus be produced: for certainly the limit of possible variation of
+organic beings, either in a wild or domestic state, is not known.</p>
+
+<p>It was then shown, from the geometrically increasing tendency of each
+species to multiply (as evidenced from what we know of mankind and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_241' id='Page_241'>{241}</a></span>
+of other animals when favoured by circumstances), and from the means of
+subsistence of each species on an <i>average</i> remaining constant, that
+during some part of the life of each, or during every few generations,
+there must be a severe struggle for existence; and that less than a
+grain<a name='FNanchor_509_509' id='FNanchor_509_509'></a><a href='#Footnote_509_509' class='fnanchor'>{509}</a>
+in the balance will determine which individuals shall live and which
+perish. In a country, therefore, undergoing changes, and cut off from
+the free immigration of species better adapted to the new station and
+conditions, it cannot be doubted that there is a most powerful means of
+selection, <i>tending</i> to preserve even the slightest variation, which
+aided the subsistence or defence of those organic beings, during any
+part of their whole existence, whose organization had been rendered
+plastic. Moreover, in animals in which the sexes are distinct, there is
+a sexual struggle, by which the most vigorous, and consequently the best
+adapted, will oftener procreate their kind.</p>
+
+<p>A new race thus formed by natural selection would be undistinguishable
+from a species. For comparing, on the one hand, the several species of a
+genus, and on the other hand several domestic races from a common stock,
+we cannot discriminate them by the amount of external difference, but
+only, first, by domestic races not remaining so constant or being so
+&ldquo;true&rdquo; as species are; and secondly by races always
+producing fertile offspring when crossed. And it was then shown that a
+race naturally selected&mdash;from the variation being slower&mdash;from
+the selection steadily leading towards the same ends<a name='FNanchor_510_510' id='FNanchor_510_510'></a><a href='#Footnote_510_510' class='fnanchor'>{510}</a>,
+and from every new slight change in structure being adapted (as is
+implied by its selection)<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_242' id='Page_242'>{242}</a></span>
+to the new conditions and being fully exercised, and lastly from the
+freedom from occasional crosses with other species, would almost
+necessarily be &ldquo;truer&rdquo; than a race selected by ignorant or
+capricious and short-lived man. With respect to the sterility of species
+when crossed, it was shown not to be a universal character, and when
+present to vary in degree: sterility also was shown probably to depend
+less on external than on constitutional differences. And it was shown
+that when individual animals and plants are placed under new conditions,
+they become, without losing their healths, as sterile, in the same
+manner and to the same degree, as hybrids; and it is therefore
+conceivable that the cross-bred offspring between two species, having
+different constitutions, might have its constitution affected in the
+same peculiar manner as when an individual animal or plant is placed
+under new conditions. Man in selecting domestic races has little wish
+and still less power to adapt the whole frame to new conditions; in
+nature, however, where each species survives by a struggle against other
+species and external nature, the result must be very different.</p>
+
+<p>Races descending from the same stock were then compared with species of
+the same genus, and they were found to present some striking analogies.
+The offspring also of races when crossed, that is mongrels, were
+compared with the cross-bred offspring of species, that is hybrids, and
+they were found to resemble each other in all their characters, with the
+one exception of sterility, and even this, when present, often becomes
+after some generations variable in degree. The chapter was summed up,
+and it was shown that no ascertained limit to the amount of variation is
+known; or could be predicted with due time and changes of condition
+granted. It was then admitted that although the production of new races,
+undistinguishable from <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_243' id='Page_243'>{243}</a></span>
+true species, is probable, we must look to the relations in the past
+and present geographical distribution of the infinitely numerous beings,
+by which we are surrounded&mdash;to their affinities and to their
+structure&mdash;for any direct evidence.</p>
+
+<p>In the third chapter the inheritable variations in the mental phenomena
+of domestic and of wild organic beings were considered. It was shown
+that we are not concerned in this work with the first origin of the
+leading mental qualities; but that tastes, passions, dispositions,
+consensual movements, and habits all became, either congenitally or
+during mature life, modified and were inherited. Several of these
+modified habits were found to correspond in every essential character
+with true instincts, and they were found to follow the same laws.
+Instincts and dispositions &amp;c. are fully as important to the
+preservation and increase of a species as its corporeal structure; and
+therefore the natural means of selection would act on and modify them
+equally with corporeal structures. This being granted, as well as the
+proposition that mental phenomena are variable, and that the
+modifications are inheritable, the possibility of the several most
+complicated instincts being slowly acquired was considered, and it was
+shown from the very imperfect series in the instincts of the animals now
+existing, that we are not justified in <i>prima facie</i> rejecting a theory
+of the common descent of allied organisms from the difficulty of
+imagining the transitional stages in the various now most complicated
+and wonderful instincts. We were thus led on to consider the same
+question with respect both to highly complicated organs, and to the
+aggregate of several such organs, that is individual organic beings; and
+it was shown, by the same method of taking the existing most imperfect
+series, that we ought not at once to reject the theory, because we
+cannot trace the transitional <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_244' id='Page_244'>{244}</a></span>
+stages in such organs, or conjecture the transitional habits of such
+individual species.</p>
+
+<p>In the Second Part<a name='FNanchor_511_511' id='FNanchor_511_511'></a><a href='#Footnote_511_511' class='fnanchor'>{511}</a>
+the direct evidence of allied forms having descended from the same stock
+was discussed. It was shown that this theory requires a long series of
+intermediate forms between the species and groups in the same
+classes&mdash;forms not directly intermediate between existing species,
+but intermediate with a common parent. It was admitted that if even all
+the preserved fossils and existing species were collected, such a series
+would be far from being formed; but it was shown that we have not <i>good</i>
+evidence that the oldest known deposits are contemporaneous with the
+first appearance of living beings; or that the several subsequent
+formations are nearly consecutive; or that any one formation preserves a
+nearly perfect fauna of even the hard marine organisms, which lived in
+that quarter of the world. Consequently, we have no reason to suppose
+that more than a small fraction of the organisms which have lived at any
+one period have ever been preserved; and hence that we ought not to
+expect to discover the fossilised sub-varieties between any two species.
+On the other hand, the evidence, though extremely imperfect, drawn from
+fossil remains, as far as it does go, is in favour of such a series of
+organisms having existed as that required. This want of evidence of the
+past existence of almost infinitely numerous intermediate forms, is, I
+conceive, much the weightiest difficulty<a name='FNanchor_512_512' id='FNanchor_512_512'></a><a href='#Footnote_512_512' class='fnanchor'>{512}</a>
+on the theory of common descent; but I must think that this is due to
+ignorance necessarily resulting from the imperfection of all geological
+records.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_245' id='Page_245'>{245}</a></span>
+In the fifth chapter it was shown that new species gradually<a name='FNanchor_513_513' id='FNanchor_513_513'></a><a href='#Footnote_513_513' class='fnanchor'>{513}</a>
+appear, and that the old ones gradually disappear, from the earth; and
+this strictly accords with our theory. The extinction of species seems
+to be preceded by their rarity; and if this be so, no one ought to feel
+more surprise at a species being exterminated than at its being rare.
+Every species which is not increasing in number must have its
+geometrical tendency to increase checked by some agency seldom
+accurately perceived by us. Each slight increase in the power of this
+unseen checking agency would cause a corresponding decrease in the
+average numbers of that species, and the species would become rarer: we
+feel not the least surprise at one species of a genus being rare and
+another abundant; why then should we be surprised at its extinction,
+when we have good reason to believe that this very rarity is its regular
+precursor and cause.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixth chapter the leading facts in the geographical distribution
+of organic beings were considered&mdash;namely, the dissimilarity in
+areas widely and effectually separated, of the organic beings being
+exposed to very similar conditions (as for instance, within the tropical
+forests of Africa and America, or on the volcanic islands adjoining
+them). Also the striking similarity and general relations of the
+inhabitants of the same great continents, conjoined with a lesser degree
+of dissimilarity in the inhabitants living on opposite sides of the
+barriers intersecting it&mdash;whether or not these opposite sides are
+exposed to similar conditions. Also the dissimilarity, though in a still
+lesser degree, in the inhabitants of different islands in the same
+archipelago, together with their similarity taken as a <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_246' id='Page_246'>{246}</a></span>
+whole with the inhabitants of the nearest continent, whatever its
+character may be. Again, the peculiar relations of Alpine floras; the
+absence of mammifers on the smaller isolated islands; and the
+comparative fewness of the plants and other organisms on islands with
+diversified stations; the connection between the possibility of
+occasional transportal from one country to another, with an affinity,
+though not identity, of the organic beings inhabiting them. And lastly,
+the clear and striking relations between the living and the extinct in
+the same great divisions of the world; which relation, if we look very
+far backward, seems to die away. These facts, if we bear in mind the
+geological changes in progress, all simply follow from the proposition
+of allied organic beings having lineally descended from common
+parent-stocks. On the theory of independent creations they must remain,
+though evidently connected together, inexplicable and disconnected.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventh chapter, the relationship or grouping of extinct and
+recent species; the appearance and disappearance of groups; the
+ill-defined objects of the natural classification, not depending on the
+similarity of organs physiologically important, not being influenced by
+adaptive or analogical characters, though these often govern the whole
+economy of the individual, but depending on any character which varies
+least, and especially on the forms through which the embryo passes, and,
+as was afterwards shown, on the presence of rudimentary and useless
+organs. The alliance between the nearest species in <i>distinct</i> groups
+being general and not especial; the close similarity in the rules and
+objects in classifying domestic races and true species. All these facts
+were shown to follow on the natural system being a genealogical system.</p>
+
+<p>In the eighth chapter, the unity of structure throughout large groups,
+in species adapted to the <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_247' id='Page_247'>{247}</a></span>
+most different lives, and the wonderful metamorphosis (used
+metaphorically by naturalists) of one part or organ into another, were
+shown to follow simply on new species being produced by the selection
+and inheritance of successive <i>small</i> changes of structure. The unity of
+type is wonderfully manifested by the similarity of structure, during
+the embryonic period, in the species of entire classes. To explain this
+it was shown that the different races of our domestic animals differ
+less, during their young state, than when full grown; and consequently,
+if species are produced like races, the same fact, on a greater scale,
+might have been expected to hold good with them. This remarkable law of
+nature was attempted to be explained through establishing, by sundry
+facts, that slight variations originally appear during all periods of
+life, and that when inherited they tend to appear at the corresponding
+period of life; according to these principles, in several species
+descended from the same parent-stock, their embryos would almost
+necessarily much more closely resemble each other than they would in
+their adult state. The importance of these embryonic resemblances, in
+making out a natural or genealogical classification, thus becomes at
+once obvious. The occasional greater simplicity of structure in the
+mature animal than in the embryo; the gradation in complexity of the
+species in the great classes; the adaptation of the larv&aelig; of
+animals to independent powers of existence; the immense difference in
+certain animals in their larval and mature states, were all shown on the
+above principles to present no difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>In the «<ins>ninth</ins>» chapter, the frequent and almost general
+presence of organs and parts, called by naturalists abortive or
+rudimentary, which, though formed with exquisite care, are generally
+absolutely useless «<ins>was considered</ins>». «<ins>These
+structures,</ins>» though <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_248' id='Page_248'>{248}</a></span>
+sometimes applied to uses not normal,&mdash;which cannot be considered
+as mere representative parts, for they are sometimes capable of
+performing their proper function,&mdash;which are always best developed,
+and sometimes only developed, during a very early period of
+life,&mdash;and which are of admitted high importance in
+classification,&mdash;were shown to be simply explicable on our theory
+of common descent.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Why do we wish to reject the theory of common descent?</i></h3>
+
+<p>Thus have many general facts, or laws, been included under one
+explanation; and the difficulties encountered are those which would
+naturally result from our acknowledged ignorance. And why should we not
+admit this theory of descent<a name='FNanchor_514_514' id='FNanchor_514_514'></a><a href='#Footnote_514_514' class='fnanchor'>{514}</a>?
+Can it be shown that organic beings in a natural state are <i>all
+absolutely invariable</i>? Can it be said that the <i>limit of variation</i> or
+the number of varieties capable of being formed under domestication are
+known? Can any distinct line be drawn <i>between a race and a species</i>? To
+these three questions we may certainly answer in the negative. As long
+as species were thought to be divided and defined by an impassable
+barrier of <i>sterility</i>, whilst we were ignorant of geology, and imagined
+that the <i>world was of short duration</i>, and the number of its past
+inhabitants few, we were justified in assuming individual creations, or
+in saying with Whewell that the beginnings of all things are hidden from
+man. Why then do we feel so strong an inclination to reject this
+theory&mdash;especially when the actual case of any two species, or even
+of any two races, is adduced&mdash;and one is asked, have these two
+originally descended from the same parent womb? I believe it is because
+we are <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_249' id='Page_249'>{249}</a></span>
+always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not see the
+intermediate steps. The mind cannot grasp the full meaning of the term
+of a million or hundred million years, and cannot consequently add up
+and perceive the full effects of small successive variations accumulated
+during almost infinitely many generations. The difficulty is the same
+with that which, with most geologists, it has taken long years to
+remove, as when Lyell propounded that great valleys<a name='FNanchor_515_515' id='FNanchor_515_515'></a><a href='#Footnote_515_515' class='fnanchor'>{515}</a>
+were hollowed out [<del>and long lines of inland cliffs had been formed</del>] by
+the slow action of the waves of the sea. A man may long view a grand
+precipice without actually believing, though he may not deny it, that
+thousands of feet in thickness of solid rock once extended over many
+square miles where the open sea now rolls; without fully believing that
+the same sea which he sees beating the rock at his feet has been the
+sole removing power.</p>
+
+<p>Shall we then allow that the three distinct species of rhinoceros<a name='FNanchor_516_516' id='FNanchor_516_516'></a><a href='#Footnote_516_516' class='fnanchor'>{516}</a>
+which separately inhabit Java and Sumatra and the neighbouring mainland
+of Malacca were created, male and female, out of the inorganic materials
+of these countries? Without any adequate cause, as far as our reason
+serves, shall we say that they were merely, from living near each other,
+created very like each other, so as to form a section of the genus
+dissimilar from the African section, some of the species of which
+section inhabit very similar and some very dissimilar stations? Shall we
+say that without any apparent cause they were created on the same
+generic type with the ancient woolly rhinoceros of Siberia and of the
+other species which formerly inhabited the same main division of the
+world: that they were created, less <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_250' id='Page_250'>{250}</a></span>
+and less closely related, but still with interbranching affinities,
+with all the other living and extinct mammalia? That without any <ins
+class='corr' title="Transcriber's Note: The original showed
+&lsquo;apparant&rsquo;.">apparent</ins> adequate cause their short necks
+should contain the same number of vertebr&aelig; with the giraffe; that
+their thick legs should be built on the same plan with those of the
+antelope, of the mouse, of the hand of the monkey, of the wing of the
+bat, and of the fin of the porpoise. That in each of these species the
+second bone of their leg should show clear traces of two bones having
+been soldered and united into one; that the complicated bones of their
+head should become intelligible on the supposition of their having been
+formed of three expanded vertebr&aelig;; that in the jaws of each when
+dissected young there should exist small teeth which never come to the
+surface. That in possessing these useless abortive teeth, and in other
+characters, these three rhinoceroses in their embryonic state should
+much more closely resemble other mammalia than they do when mature. And
+lastly, that in a still earlier period of life, their arteries should
+run and branch as in a fish, to carry the blood to gills which do not
+exist. Now these three species of rhinoceros closely resemble each
+other; more closely than many generally acknowledged races of our
+domestic animals; these three species if domesticated would almost
+certainly vary, and races adapted to different ends might be selected
+out of such variations. In this state they would probably breed
+together, and their offspring would possibly be quite, and probably in
+some degree, fertile; and in either case, by continued crossing, one of
+these specific forms might be absorbed and lost in another. I repeat,
+shall we then say that a pair, or a gravid female, of each of these
+three species of rhinoceros, were separately created with deceptive
+appearances of true relationship, with the stamp of inutility on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_251' id='Page_251'>{251}</a></span>
+some parts, and of conversion in other parts, out of the inorganic
+elements of Java, Sumatra and Malacca? or have they descended, like our
+domestic races, from the same parent-stock? For my own part I could no
+more admit the former proposition than I could admit that the planets
+move in their courses, and that a stone falls to the ground, not through
+the intervention of the secondary and appointed law of gravity, but from
+the direct volition of the Creator.</p>
+
+<p>Before concluding it will be well to show, although this has
+incidentally appeared, how far the theory of common descent can
+legitimately be extended<a name='FNanchor_517_517' id='FNanchor_517_517'></a><a href='#Footnote_517_517' class='fnanchor'>{517}</a>.
+If we once admit that two true species of the same genus can have
+descended from the same parent, it will not be possible to deny that two
+species of two genera may also have descended from a common stock. For
+in some families the genera approach almost as closely as species of the
+same genus; and in some orders, for instance in the monocotyledonous
+plants, the families run closely into each other. We do not hesitate to
+assign a common origin to dogs or cabbages, because they are divided
+into groups analogous to the groups in nature. Many naturalists indeed
+admit that all groups are artificial; and that they depend entirely on
+the extinction of intermediate species. Some naturalists, however,
+affirm that though driven from considering sterility as the
+characteristic of species, that an entire incapacity to propagate
+together is the best evidence of the existence of natural genera. Even
+if we put on one side the undoubted fact that some species of the same
+genus <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_252' id='Page_252'>{252}</a></span>
+will not breed together, we cannot possibly admit the above rule,
+seeing that the grouse and pheasant (considered by some good
+ornithologists as forming two families), the bull-finch and canary-bird
+have bred together.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt the more remote two species are from each other, the weaker the
+arguments become in favour of their common descent. In species of two
+distinct families the analogy, from the variation of domestic organisms
+and from the manner of their intermarrying, fails; and the arguments
+from their geographical distribution quite or almost quite fails. But if
+we once admit the general principles of this work, as far as a clear
+unity of type can be made out in groups of species, adapted to play
+diversified parts in the economy of nature, whether shown in the
+structure of the embryonic or mature being, and especially if shown by a
+community of abortive parts, we are legitimately led to admit their
+community of descent. Naturalists dispute how widely this unity of type
+extends: most, however, admit that the vertebrata are built on one type;
+the articulata on another; the mollusca on a third; and the radiata on
+probably more than one. Plants also appear to fall under three or four
+great types. On this theory, therefore, all the organisms <i>yet
+discovered</i> are descendants of probably less than ten parent-forms.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Conclusion.</i></h3>
+
+<p>My reasons have now been assigned for believing that specific forms are
+not immutable creations<a name='FNanchor_518_518' id='FNanchor_518_518'></a><a href='#Footnote_518_518' class='fnanchor'>{518}</a>.
+The terms used by naturalists of affinity, unity of type, adaptive
+characters, the metamorphosis and <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_253' id='Page_253'>{253}</a></span>
+abortion of organs, cease to be metaphorical expressions and become
+intelligible facts. We no longer look at an organic being as a savage
+does at a ship<a name='FNanchor_519_519' id='FNanchor_519_519'></a><a href='#Footnote_519_519' class='fnanchor'>{519}</a>
+or other great work of art, as at a thing wholly beyond his
+comprehension, but as a production that has a history which we may
+search into. How interesting do all instincts become when we speculate
+on their origin as hereditary habits, or as slight congenital
+modifications of former instincts perpetuated by the individuals so
+characterised having been preserved. When we look at every complex
+instinct and mechanism as the summing up of a long history of
+contrivances, each most useful to its possessor, nearly in the same way
+as when we look at a great mechanical invention as the summing up of the
+labour, the experience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous
+workmen. How interesting does the geographical distribution of all
+organic beings, past and present, become as throwing light on the
+ancient geography of the world. Geology loses glory<a name='FNanchor_520_520' id='FNanchor_520_520'></a><a href='#Footnote_520_520' class='fnanchor'>{520}</a>
+from the imperfection of its archives, but it gains in the immensity of
+its subject. There is much grandeur in looking at every existing organic
+being either as the lineal successor of some form now buried under
+thousands of feet of solid rock, or as being the co-descendant of that
+buried form of some more ancient and utterly lost inhabitant of this
+world. It accords with what we know of the laws impressed by the
+Creator<a name='FNanchor_521_521' id='FNanchor_521_521'></a><a href='#Footnote_521_521' class='fnanchor'>{521}</a>
+on matter that the production and extinction of forms should, like the
+birth and death of individuals, be <span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_254' id='Page_254'>{254}</a></span>
+the result of secondary means. It is derogatory that the Creator of
+countless Universes should have made by individual acts of His will the
+myriads of creeping parasites and worms, which since the earliest dawn
+of life have swarmed over the land and in the depths of the ocean. We
+cease to be astonished<a name='FNanchor_522_522' id='FNanchor_522_522'></a><a href='#Footnote_522_522' class='fnanchor'>{522}</a>
+that a group of animals should have been formed to lay their eggs in the
+bowels and flesh of other sensitive beings; that some animals should
+live by and even delight in cruelty; that animals should be led away by
+false instincts; that annually there should be an incalculable waste of
+the pollen, eggs and immature beings; for we see in all this the
+inevitable consequences of one great law, of the multiplication of
+organic beings not created immutable. From death, famine, and the
+struggle for existence, we see that the most exalted end which we are
+capable of conceiving, namely, the creation of the higher animals<a name='FNanchor_523_523' id='FNanchor_523_523'></a><a href='#Footnote_523_523' class='fnanchor'>{523}</a>,
+has directly proceeded. Doubtless, our first impression is to disbelieve
+that any secondary law could produce infinitely numerous organic beings,
+each characterised by the most exquisite workmanship and widely extended
+adaptations: it at first accords better with our faculties to suppose
+that each required the fiat of a Creator. There<a name='FNanchor_524_524' id='FNanchor_524_524'></a><a href='#Footnote_524_524' class='fnanchor'>{524}</a>
+is a [<del>simple</del>] grandeur in this view of life with its several powers of
+growth, reproduction and of sensation, having been originally breathed
+into matter under a few forms, perhaps into only one<a name='FNanchor_525_525' id='FNanchor_525_525'></a><a href='#Footnote_525_525' class='fnanchor'>{525}</a>,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_255' id='Page_255'>{255}</a></span>
+and that whilst this planet has gone cycling onwards according to the
+fixed laws of gravity and whilst land and water have gone on replacing
+each other&mdash;that from so simple an origin, through the selection of
+infinitesimal varieties, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful
+have been evolved.</p>
+
+<hr /><p class='pagenum'><a name='Page_257' id='Page_257'>{257}</a></p>
+<h2><a name='INDEX' id='INDEX'></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class='sf75'>
+
+<p>For the names of Authors, Birds, Mammals (including names of classes)
+and Plants, see sub-indexes under <i>Authors</i>, <i>Birds</i>, <i>Mammals</i> and
+<i>Plants</i>.</p>
+
+<ul class='off'>
+<li>Acquired characters, <i>see</i> Characters</li>
+
+<li>Affinities and classification, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>America, fossils, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Analogy, resemblance by, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Animals, marine, preservation of as fossils, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;marine distribution, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Australia, fossils, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li><span class='sc'>Authors, Names of</span>:&mdash;
+<ul class='off'><li>Ackerman on hybrids, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+<li>Bakewell, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>Bateson, W., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li>Bellinghausen, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li>Boitard and Corbi&eacute;, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Brougham, Lord, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>Brown, R., <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li>Buckland on fossils, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Buffon on woodpecker, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</li>
+<li>Bunbury (<i>Sir</i> H.), rules for selection, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li>Butler, S., <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>d&rsquo;Archiac, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Darwin, C., origin of his evolutionary views, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>-<a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on Forbes&rsquo; theory, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;his <i>Journal of Researches</i> quoted, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;his <i>Cross-and Self-Fertilisation</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;on crossing Chinese and common goose, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Darwin, Mrs, letter to, <a href="#Page_xxvi">xxvi</a>;</li>
+<li>Darwin, F., on Knight&rsquo;s Law, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Darwin, R. W., fact supplied by, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li>Darwin and Wallace, joint paper by, <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>De Candolle, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+<li>D&rsquo;Orbigny, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Ehrenberg, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Ewart on telegony, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Falconer, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>Forbes, E., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Gadow, Dr, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li>
+<li>G&auml;rtner, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>Goebel on Knight&rsquo;s Law, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Gould on distribution, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li>Gray, Asa, letter to, publication of in Linnean paper explained, <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>;</li>
+<li>Henslow, G., on evolution without selection, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Henslow, J. S., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>;</li>
+<li>Herbert on hybrids, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;sterility of crocus, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Hering, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Hogg, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Holland, Dr, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li>Hooker, J. D., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>n.</i>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on Insular Floras, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Huber, P., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>Hudson on woodpecker, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Humboldt, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>Hunter, W., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>Hutton, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+<li>Huxley, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>n.</i>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on Darwin, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;on Darwin&rsquo;s Essay of 1844, <a href="#Page_xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Judd, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Knight, A., <a href="#Page_3">3</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on Domestication, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Knight-Darwin Law, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>K&ouml;lreuter, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>Lamarck, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;reasons for his belief in mutability, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Lindley, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>Linnean Society, joint paper, <i>see</i> Darwin and Wallace;</li>
+<li>Linn&aelig;us on sterility of Alpine plants, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on generic characters, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Lonsdale, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Lyell, <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> and <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;his doctrine carried to an extreme, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;his geological metaphor, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;his uniformitarianism, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;his views on imperfection of geological record, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Macculloch, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Macleay, W. S., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_258' id='Page_258'>{258}</a></span></li>
+<li>Magendie, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>Malthus, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>Marr, Dr, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li>
+<li>Marshall, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on sheep and cattle, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;on horns of cattle, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mivart, criticisms, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Mozart as a child, his skill on the piano compared to instinct, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>M&uuml;ller on consensual movements, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on variation under uniform conditions, (<a href="#Page_2">2</a>), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;on recapitulation theory, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Murchison, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Newton, Alfred, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Owen, R., <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+<li>Pallas, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>Pennant, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Pliny on selection, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li>Poeppig, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Prain, Col., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li>
+<li>Rengger, sterility, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li>Richardson, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Rutherford, H. W., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li>
+<li>St Hilaire on races of dogs, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;on sterility of tame and domestic animals, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Smith, Jordan, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li>Sprengel, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li>Stapf, Dr, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>;</li>
+<li>Strickland, <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>;</li>
+<li>Suchetet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W., <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>Wallace, <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xxix">xxix</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Waterhouse, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li>Western, Lord, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>Whewell, <a href="#Page_xxviii">xxviii</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+<li>Woodward, H. B., <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Wrangel, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Zacharias, Darwin&rsquo;s letter to, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a></li></ul><br /></li>
+
+<li>Barriers and distribution, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Bees, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>combs of Hive-bee, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Beetles, abortive wings of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li><span class='sc'>Birds</span>, transporting seeds, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>feeding young with food different to their own, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li>migration, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li>nests, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li>of Galapagos, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li>rapid increase, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+<li>song, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='sc'>Birds, Names of</span>:&mdash;
+<ul class='off'><li>Apteryx, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>Duck, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Fowl, domestic, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li>Goose, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;periodic habit, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Grouse, hybridised, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>Guinea-fowl, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>Hawk, sterility, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;periodic habit, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Opetiorynchus, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>Orpheus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li>Ostrich, distribution of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li>Owl, white barn, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+<li>Partridge, infertility of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>Peacock, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>Penguin, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+<li>Petrel, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Pheasant, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>Pigeon, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>; <i>see</i> Wood-pigeon;</li>
+<li>Rhea, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li>Robins, increase in numbers, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li>Rock-thrush of Guiana, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
+<li>Swan, species of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>Tailor-bird, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>Turkey, Australian bush-turkey, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li>Tyrannus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li>Water-ouzel, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+<li>Woodcock, loss of migratory instinct, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+<li>Woodpecker, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;in treeless lands, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Wood-pigeon, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li>Wren, gold-crested, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;willow, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Breeds, domestic, parentage of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li>Brothers, death of by same peculiar disease in old age, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Bud variation, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;  <i>see</i> Sports</li>
+
+<li>Butterfly, cabbage, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Catastrophes, geological, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li>Caterpillars, food, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Characters, acquired, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;congenital, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;fixed by breeding, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;mental, variation in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;running through whole groups, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;useless for classification, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Cirripedes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Classification, natural system of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;by any constant character, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;relation of, to geography, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;a law that members of two distinct groups resemble each other not specifically but generally, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;of domestic races, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;rarity and extinction in relation to, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Compensation, law of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li>Conditions, direct, action of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;change of, analogous to crossing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;accumulated effects of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;affecting reproduction, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;and geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Continent originating as archipelago, bearing of on distribution, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Cordillera, as channel of migration, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Correlation, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Creation, centres of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Crocodile, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Cross-and Self-Fertilisation</i>, early statement of principles of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>n.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_259' id='Page_259'>{259}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Crossing, swamping effect of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;of bisexual animals and hermaphrodite plants, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;analogous to change in conditions, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;in relation to breeds, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;in plants, adaptations for, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li></ul><br /></li>
+
+<li>Death, feigned by insects, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>Difficulties, on theory of evolution, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Disease, hereditary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Distribution, geographical, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;in space and time, subject to same laws, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;occasional means of (seeds, eggs, &amp;c.), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Disuse, inherited effects of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li>Divergence, principle of, <a href="#Page_xxv">xxv</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>n.</i></li>
+
+<li>Domestication, variation under, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;accumulated effects of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;analysis of effects of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li></ul><br /></li>
+
+<li>Ears, drooping, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Elevation, geological, favouring birth of new species, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-<a href="#Page_189">189</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;alternating with subsidence, importance of for evolution, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;bad for preservation of fossils, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Embryo, branchial arches of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>&mdash;absence of special adaptation in, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;less variable than parent, hence importance of embryology for classification, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;alike in all vertebrates, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+<li>&mdash;occasionally more complicated than adult, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Embryology, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>its value in classification, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+<li>law of inheritance at corresponding ages, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li>young of very distinct breeds closely similar, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Ephemera, selection falls on larva, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <i>n.</i></li>
+
+<li>Epizoa, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Essay of 1842, question as to date of, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>description of <span class='sc'>ms.</span>, <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>;</li>
+<li>compared with the <i>Origin</i>, <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Essay of 1844, writing of, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>compared with that of 1842 and with the <i>Origin</i>, <a href="#Page_xxii">xxii</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Evolution, theory of, why do we tend to reject it, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li>Expression, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Extinction, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>locally sudden, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+<li>continuous with rarity, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Extinction and rarity, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Eye, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Faculty, in relation to instinct, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>Faunas, alpine, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>of Galapagos, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+<li>insular-alpine very peculiar, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li>insular, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fauna and flora, of islands related to nearest land, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Fear of man, inherited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li>Fertility, interracial, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>Fish, colours of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>eggs of carried by water-beetle, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li>flying, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;transported by whirlwind, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Floras, alpine, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>of oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li>alpine, related to surrounding lowlands, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li>alpine, identity of on distant mountains, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>alpine resembling arctic, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+<li>arctic relation to alpine, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Flower, morphology of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>degenerate under domestication if neglected, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li>changed by selection, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fly, causing extinction, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Flying, evolution of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Food, causing variations, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li>Formation (geological) evidence from Tertiary system, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>(geological), groups of species appear suddenly in Secondary, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li>Pal&aelig;ozoic, if contemporary with beginning of life, author's theory false, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Formations, most ancient escape denudation in conditions unfavourable to life, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Forms, transitional, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>on rising land, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+<li>indirectly intermediate, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fossils, Silurian, not those which first existed in the world, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>falling into or between existing groups and indirectly intermediate, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_260' id='Page_260'>{260}</a></span></li>
+<li>conditions favourable to preservation, not favourable to existence of much life, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Fruit, attractive to animals, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Galapagos Islands and Darwin&rsquo;s views, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>physical character of in relation to fauna, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Galapagos Islands, fauna, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>Gasteropods, embryology, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Genera, crosses between, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>wide ranging, has wide ranging species, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+<li>origin of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Geography, in relation to geology, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Geographical distribution, <i>see</i> Distribution</li>
+
+<li>Geology, as producing changed conditions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>evidence from, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+<li>&ldquo;destroys geography,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Glacial period, effect of on distribution of alpine and arctic plants, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Habit in relation to instinct, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Habits in animals taught by parent, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, <i>see</i> Inheritance</li>
+
+<li>Homology of limbs, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Homology, serial, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Hybrid, fowls and grouse, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>fowl and peacock, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li>pheasant and grouse, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li>Azalea and Rhododendron, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Hybrids, gradation in sterility of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>sterility of not reciprocal, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li>variability of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li>compared and contrasted with mongrel, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li></ul><br /></li>
+
+<li>Individual, meaning of term, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Inheritance of acquired characters, <i>see</i> Character</li>
+
+<li>Inheritance, delayed or latent, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>of character at a time of life corresponding to that at which it first appeared, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li>germinal, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Insect, adapted to fertilise flowers, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>feigning death, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>metamorphosis, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li>variation in larv&aelig;, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Instinct, variation in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>and faculty, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+<li>guided by reason, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>migratory, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li>migratory, loss of by woodcocks, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+<li>migratory, origin of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li>due to germinal variation rather than habit, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li>requiring education for perfection, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>characterised by ignorance of end: <i>e.g.</i> butterflies laying eggs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>butterflies laying eggs on proper plant, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li>instinct, natural selection applicable to, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Instinct, for finding the way, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>periodic, <i>i.e.</i> for lapse of time, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li>comb-making of bee, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li>birds feeding young, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li>nest-building, gradation in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li>instincts, complex, difficulty in believing in their evolution, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Intermediate forms, <i>see</i> Forms</li>
+
+<li>Island, <i>see</i> Elevation, Fauna, Flora</li>
+
+<li>Island, upheaved and gradually colonised, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Islands, nurseries of new species, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Isolation, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Lepidosiren, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Limbs, vertebrate, of one type, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li><span class='sc'>Mammals</span>, arctic, transported by icebergs, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>distribution, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li>distribution of, ruled by barriers, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>introduced by man on islands, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li>not found on oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li>relations in time and space, similarity of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li>of Tertiary period, relation of to existing forms in same region, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='sc'>Mammals, Names of</span>:&mdash;
+<ul class='off'><li>Antelope, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>Armadillo, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li>Ass, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li>Bat, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>Bear, sterile in captivity, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;whale-like habit, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bizcacha, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li>Bull, mamm&aelig; of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>Carnivora, law of compensation in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>Cats, run wild at Ascension, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;tailless, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Cattle, horns of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;increase in S. America, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_261' id='Page_261'>{261}</a></span></li>
+<li> &mdash;Indian, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;Niata, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;suffering in parturition from too large calves, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Cheetah, sterility of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Chironectes, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li>Cow, abortive mamm&aelig;, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>Ctenomys, <i>see</i> Tuco-tuco;</li>
+<li>Dog, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;in Cuba, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;mongrel breed in oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;difference in size a bar to crossing, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;domestic, parentage of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;drooping ears, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;effects of selection, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;inter-fertile, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;long-legged breed produced to catch hares, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;of savages, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;races of resembling genera, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;Australian, change of colour in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;bloodhound, Cuban, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;bull-dog, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;foxhound, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;greyhound and bull-dog, young of resembling each other, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;pointer, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;retriever, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;setter, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;shepherd-dog and harrier crossed, instinct of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;tailless, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;turnspit, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Echidna, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Edentata, fossil and living in S. America, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li>Elephant, sterility of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li>Elk, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li>Ferret, fertility of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>Fox, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+<li>Galeopithecus, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Giraffe, fossil, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;tail, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Goat, run wild at Tahiti, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li>Guanaco, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+<li>Guinea-pig, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>Hare, S. American, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Hedgehog, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Horse, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;checks to increase, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;increase in S. America, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;malconformations and lameness inherited, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;parentage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;stripes on, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;young of cart-horse and racehorse resembling each other, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Hyena, fossil, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li>Jaguar, catching fish, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li>Lemur, flying, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Macrauchenia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>Marsupials, fossil in Europe, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;pouch bones, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mastodon, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li>Mouse, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;enormous rate of increase, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mule, occasionally breeding, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>Musk-deer, fossil, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+<li><i>Mustela vison</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Mydas, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li>Mydaus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li>Nutria, <i>see</i> Otter;</li>
+<li>Otter, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;marsupial, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Pachydermata, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>Phascolomys, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li>Pig, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;in oceanic islands, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;run wild at St Helena, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Pole-cat, aquatic, <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> _n._;</li>
+<li>Porpoise, paddle of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li>Rabbit, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>Rat, Norway, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li>Reindeer, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li>Rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;abortive teeth of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;three oriental species of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ruminantia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> and <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Seal, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li>Sheep, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;Ancon variety, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;inherited habit of returning home to lamb, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li> &mdash;transandantes of Spain, their migratory instinct, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a> <i>n.</i>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Squirrel, flying, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li>Tapir, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+<li>Tuco-tuco, blindness of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>Whale, rudimentary teeth, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+<li>Wolf, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+<li>Yak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Metamorphosis, literal not metaphorical, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>Metamorphosis, <i>e.g.</i> leaves into petals, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Migrants to new land, struggle among, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Migration, taking the place of variation, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Monstrosities, as starting-points of breeds, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>their relation to rudimentary organs, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Morphology, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>terminology of, no longer metaphorically used, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Mutation, <i>see</i> Sports<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Natural selection, <i>see</i> Selection</li>
+
+<li>Nest, bird&rsquo;s, <i>see</i> Instinct<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Ocean, depth of, and fossils, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li>Organisms, gradual introduction of new, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>extinct related to, existing in the same manner as representative existing ones to each other, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>introduced, beating indigenes, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li>dependent on other organisms rather than on physical surroundings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>graduated complexity in the great classes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li>
+<li>immature, how subject to natural selection, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_262' id='Page_262'>{262}</a></span></li>
+<li>all descended from a few parent-forms, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Organs, perfect, objection to their evolution, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>distinct in adult life, indistinguishable in embryo, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+<li>rudimentary, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li>rudimentary, compared to monstrosities, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+<li>rudimentary, caused by disuse, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+<li>rudimentary, adapted to new ends, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Orthogenesis, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> <i>n.</i></li>
+
+<li>Oscillation of level in relation to continents, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Pallas, on parentage of domestic animals, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li>Pampas, imaginary case of farmer on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Perfection, no inherent tendency towards, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Plants, <i>see also</i> Flora;
+<ul class='off'><li>fertilisation, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li>migration of, to arctic and antarctic regions, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>alpine and arctic, migration of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>alpine, characters common to, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li>alpine, sterility of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class='sc'>Plants, Names of</span>:&mdash;
+<ul class='off'><li>&AElig;gilops, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Artichoke (Jerusalem), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>Ash, weeping, seeds of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li>Asparagus, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>Azalea, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li>Cabbage, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li>Calceolaria, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li>Cardoon, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li>Carrot, variation of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Chrysanthemum, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li>Crinum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li>Crocus, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Cucubalus, crossing, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>Dahlia, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+<li>Foxglove, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li>
+<li>Gentian, colour of flower, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Geranium, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>Gladiolus, crossed, ancestry of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+<li>Grass, abortive flowers, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li>Heath, sterility, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+<li>Hyacinth, colours of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;feather-hyacinth, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Juniperus, hybridised, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li>Laburnum, peculiar hybrid, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li>Lilac, sterility of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
+<li>Marigold, style of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+<li>Mistletoe, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Nectarines on peach trees, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li>Oxalis, colour of flowers of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>Phaseolus, cultivated form suffers from frost, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>Pine-apple, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li>Poppy, Mexican, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>Potato, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+<li>Rhododendron, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li>Rose, moss, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;Scotch, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>Seakale, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+<li>Sweet-william, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+<li>Syringa, persica and chinensis, <i>see</i> Lilac;</li>
+<li>Teazle, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li>Thuja, hybridised, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</li>
+<li>Tulips, "breaking" of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li>Turnip, Swedish and common, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li>Vine, peculiar hybrid, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li>Yew, weeping, seeds of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Plasticity, produced by domestication, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Plesiosaurus, loss of unity of type in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Pteropods, embryology, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Quadrupeds, extinction of large, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li>Quinary System, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Race, the word used as equivalent to variety, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Races, domestic, classification of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Rarity, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>and extinction, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Recapitulation theory, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Record, geological, imperfection of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li>Regions, geographical, of the world, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>formerly less distinct as judged by fossils, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Resemblance, analogical, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Reversion, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li>&ldquo;Roguing,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li>Rudimentary organs, <i>see</i> Organs<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Savages, domestic animals of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Selection, human, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>references to the practice of, in past times, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li>great effect produced by, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+<li>necessary for the formation of breeds, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+<li>methodical, effects of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+<li>unconscious, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Selection, natural, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>natural compared to human, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+<li>of instincts, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
+<li>difficulty of believing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Selection, sexual, two types of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Silk-worms, variation in larval state, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Skull, morphology of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Species, representative, seen in going from N. to S. in a continent, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name='Page_263' id='Page_263'>{263}</a></span>
+<ul class='off'><li>representative in archipelagoes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li>wide-ranging, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li>and varieties, difficulty of distinguishing, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>sterility of crosses between, supposed to be criterion, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>gradual appearance and disappearance of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li>survival of a few among many extinct, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Species, not created more than once, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>evolution of, compared to birth of individuals, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+<li>small number in New Zealand as compared to the Cape, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+<li>persistence of, unchanged, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Sports, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Sterility, due to captivity, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>of various plants, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>of species when crossed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+<li>produced by conditions, compared to sterility due to crossing, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Struggle for life, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Subsidence, importance of, in relation to fossils, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>of continent leading to isolation of organisms, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li>not favourable to birth of new species, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Swimming bladder, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li>System, natural, is genealogical, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Telegony, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>Tibia and fibula, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li>Time, enormous lapse of, in geological epochs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li>Tortoise, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Transitional forms, <i>see</i> Forms</li>
+
+<li>Trigonia, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Tree-frogs in treeless regions, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Type, unity of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>uniformity of, lost in Plesiosaurus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li>persistence of, in continents, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li></ul><br /></li>
+
+<li>Uniformitarian views of Lyell, bearing on evolution, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Use, inherited effects of, <i>see</i> Characters, acquired<br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Variability, as specific character, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>produced by change and also by crossing, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Variation, by Sports, <i>see</i> Sports;
+<ul class='off'><li>under domestication, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+<li>due to causes acting on reproductive system, <i>see</i> Variation, germinal;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;germinal, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>individual, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> <i>n.</i>;</li>
+<li>causes of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+<li>due to crossing, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+<li>limits of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li>small in state of nature, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li>
+<li>results of <i>without</i> selection, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li> &mdash;minute, value of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li></ul></li>
+<li>analogous in species of same genus, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>of mental attributes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>in mature life, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Varieties, minute, in birds, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;
+<ul class='off'><li>resemblance of to species, <a href="#Page_81">81</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li></ul></li>
+
+<li>Vertebrate skull, morphology of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Wildness, hereditary, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+</ul></div>
+
+<div class='footnotes mt2'>
+
+<h2 class='mt0'>Footnotes</h2>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_1_1' id='Footnote_1_1'></a><a href='#FNanchor_1_1'><span class='label'>{1}</span></a>
+See the extracts in <i>Life and Letters of Charles Darwin</i>,
+ii. p. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_2_2' id='Footnote_2_2'></a><a href='#FNanchor_2_2'><span class='label'>{2}</span></a>
+The second volume,&mdash;especially important in regard to
+Evolution,&mdash;reached him in the autumn of 1832, as Prof. Judd has pointed
+out in his most interesting paper in <i>Darwin and Modern Science</i>.
+Cambridge, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_3_3' id='Footnote_3_3'></a><a href='#FNanchor_3_3'><span class='label'>{3}</span></a>
+Obituary Notice of C. Darwin, <i>Proc. R. Soc.</i> vol. 44.
+Reprinted in Huxley's <i>Collected Essays</i>. See also <i>Life and Letters of
+C. Darwin</i>, ii. p. 179.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_4_4' id='Footnote_4_4'></a><a href='#FNanchor_4_4'><span class='label'>{4}</span></a>
+See the extracts in the <i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_5_5' id='Footnote_5_5'></a><a href='#FNanchor_5_5'><span class='label'>{5}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_6_6' id='Footnote_6_6'></a><a href='#FNanchor_6_6'><span class='label'>{6}</span></a>
+<i>Obituary Notice</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_7_7' id='Footnote_7_7'></a><a href='#FNanchor_7_7'><span class='label'>{7}</span></a>
+<i>Darwin and Modern Science.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_8_8' id='Footnote_8_8'></a><a href='#FNanchor_8_8'><span class='label'>{8}</span></a>
+Huxley, <i>Obituary</i>, p. xi.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_9_9' id='Footnote_9_9'></a><a href='#FNanchor_9_9'><span class='label'>{9}</span></a>
+In this citation the italics are mine.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_10_10' id='Footnote_10_10'></a><a href='#FNanchor_10_10'><span class='label'>{10}</span></a>
+<i>Journal of Researches</i>, Ed. 1860, p. 394.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_11_11' id='Footnote_11_11'></a><a href='#FNanchor_11_11'><span class='label'>{11}</span></a>
+F. Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Life of Charles Darwin</i> (in one volume),
+1892, p. 166.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_12_12' id='Footnote_12_12'></a><a href='#FNanchor_12_12'><span class='label'>{12}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 83.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_13_13' id='Footnote_13_13'></a><a href='#FNanchor_13_13'><span class='label'>{13}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_14_14' id='Footnote_14_14'></a><a href='#FNanchor_14_14'><span class='label'>{14}</span></a>
+Avestruz Petise, <i>i.e. Rhea Darwini</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_15_15' id='Footnote_15_15'></a><a href='#FNanchor_15_15'><span class='label'>{15}</span></a>
+A bird.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_16_16' id='Footnote_16_16'></a><a href='#FNanchor_16_16'><span class='label'>{16}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_17_17' id='Footnote_17_17'></a><a href='#FNanchor_17_17'><span class='label'>{17}</span></a>
+It contains as a fact 231 pp. It is a strongly bound
+folio, interleaved with blank pages, as though for notes and additions.
+His own <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> from which it was copied contains 189 pp.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_18_18' id='Footnote_18_18'></a><a href='#FNanchor_18_18'><span class='label'>{18}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 116.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_19_19' id='Footnote_19_19'></a><a href='#FNanchor_19_19'><span class='label'>{19}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_20_20' id='Footnote_20_20'></a><a href='#FNanchor_20_20'><span class='label'>{20}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 146.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_21_21' id='Footnote_21_21'></a><a href='#FNanchor_21_21'><span class='label'>{21}</span></a>
+<i>J. Linn. Soc. Zool.</i> iii. p. 45.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_22_22' id='Footnote_22_22'></a><a href='#FNanchor_22_22'><span class='label'>{22}</span></a>
+It is evident that <i>Parts</i> and <i>Chapters</i> were to some
+extent interchangeable in the author&rsquo;s mind, for p. 1 (of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> we
+have been discussing) is headed in ink Chapter I, and afterwards altered
+in pencil to Part I.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_23_23' id='Footnote_23_23'></a><a href='#FNanchor_23_23'><span class='label'>{23}</span></a>
+On p. 23 of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of the <i>Foundations</i> is a reference to
+the &ldquo;back of p. 21 bis&rdquo;: this suggests that additional pages had been
+interpolated in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> and that it may once have had 37 in place of 35
+pp.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_24_24' id='Footnote_24_24'></a><a href='#FNanchor_24_24'><span class='label'>{24}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 153.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_25_25' id='Footnote_25_25'></a><a href='#FNanchor_25_25'><span class='label'>{25}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_26_26' id='Footnote_26_26'></a><a href='#FNanchor_26_26'><span class='label'>{26}</span></a>
+In the footnotes to the Essay of 1844 attention is called
+to similar passages.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_27_27' id='Footnote_27_27'></a><a href='#FNanchor_27_27'><span class='label'>{27}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_28_28' id='Footnote_28_28'></a><a href='#FNanchor_28_28'><span class='label'>{28}</span></a>
+The passage is given in the <i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p.
+124.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_29_29' id='Footnote_29_29'></a><a href='#FNanchor_29_29'><span class='label'>{29}</span></a>
+The extract consists of the section on <i>Natural Means of
+Selection</i>, p. 87.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_30_30' id='Footnote_30_30'></a><a href='#FNanchor_30_30'><span class='label'>{30}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_31_31' id='Footnote_31_31'></a><a href='#FNanchor_31_31'><span class='label'>{31}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_32_32' id='Footnote_32_32'></a><a href='#FNanchor_32_32'><span class='label'>{32}</span></a>
+Mrs Darwin&rsquo;s brother.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_33_33' id='Footnote_33_33'></a><a href='#FNanchor_33_33'><span class='label'>{33}</span></a>
+After Mr Strickland&rsquo;s name comes the following sentence,
+which has been erased, but remains legible. &ldquo;Professor Owen would be
+very good; but I presume he would not undertake such a work.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_34_34' id='Footnote_34_34'></a><a href='#FNanchor_34_34'><span class='label'>{34}</span></a>
+The words &ldquo;several years ago, and&rdquo; seem to have been added
+at a later date.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_35_35' id='Footnote_35_35'></a><a href='#FNanchor_35_35'><span class='label'>{35}</span></a>
+<i>Life and Letters</i>, ii. p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_36_36' id='Footnote_36_36'></a><a href='#FNanchor_36_36'><span class='label'>{36}</span></a>
+Evidently a memorandum that an example should be given.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_37_37' id='Footnote_37_37'></a><a href='#FNanchor_37_37'><span class='label'>{37}</span></a>
+The importance of exposure to new conditions for several
+generations is insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 7, also p. 131. In
+the latter passage the author guards himself against the assumption that
+variations are &ldquo;due to chance,&rdquo; and speaks of &ldquo;our ignorance of the
+cause of each particular variation.&rdquo; These statements are not always
+remembered by his critics.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_38_38' id='Footnote_38_38'></a><a href='#FNanchor_38_38'><span class='label'>{38}</span></a>
+Cf. <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9, &ldquo;Young of the same
+litter, sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both the
+young and the parents, as M&uuml;ller has remarked, have apparently been
+exposed to exactly the same conditions of life.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_39_39' id='Footnote_39_39'></a><a href='#FNanchor_39_39'><span class='label'>{39}</span></a>
+This is paralleled by the conclusion in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 8, that &ldquo;the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed
+to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior
+to the act of conception.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_40_40' id='Footnote_40_40'></a><a href='#FNanchor_40_40'><span class='label'>{40}</span></a>
+The meaning seems to be that there must be some
+variability in the liver otherwise anatomists would not speak of the
+&lsquo;beau ideal&rsquo; of that organ.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_41_41' id='Footnote_41_41'></a><a href='#FNanchor_41_41'><span class='label'>{41}</span></a>
+The position of the following passage is uncertain. &ldquo;If
+individuals of two widely different varieties be allowed to cross, a
+third race will be formed&mdash;a most fertile source of the variation in
+domesticated animals. «<ins>In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 20 the author says
+that &ldquo;the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has been
+greatly exaggerated.&rdquo;</ins>» If freely allowed, the characters of pure parents
+will be lost, number of races thus «<ins>illegible</ins>» but differences «<ins>?</ins>» besides the «<ins>illegible</ins>». But
+if varieties differing in very slight respects be allowed to cross, such
+small variation will be destroyed, at least to our senses,&mdash;a variation
+[<del>clearly</del>] just to be distinguished by long legs will have offspring not
+to be so distinguished. Free crossing great agent in producing
+uniformity in any breed. Introduce tendency to revert to parent form.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_42_42' id='Footnote_42_42'></a><a href='#FNanchor_42_42'><span class='label'>{42}</span></a>
+The swamping effect of intercrossing is referred to in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 103, vi. p. 126.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_43_43' id='Footnote_43_43'></a><a href='#FNanchor_43_43'><span class='label'>{43}</span></a>
+A discussion on the intercrossing of hermaphrodites in
+relation to Knight&rsquo;s views occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 96, vi. p.
+119. The parallelism between crossing and changed conditions is briefly
+given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 391, and was finally
+investigated in <i>The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the
+Vegetable Kingdom</i>, 1876.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_44_44' id='Footnote_44_44'></a><a href='#FNanchor_44_44'><span class='label'>{44}</span></a>
+There is an article on the <i>vis medicatrix</i> in Brougham&rsquo;s
+<i>Dissertations</i>, 1839, a copy of which is in the author&rsquo;s library.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_45_45' id='Footnote_45_45'></a><a href='#FNanchor_45_45'><span class='label'>{45}</span></a>
+This is the classification of selection into methodical
+and unconscious given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_46_46' id='Footnote_46_46'></a><a href='#FNanchor_46_46'><span class='label'>{46}</span></a>
+This passage, and a similar discussion on the power of the
+Creator (p. 6), correspond to the comparison between the selective
+capacities of man and nature, in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p.
+102.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_47_47' id='Footnote_47_47'></a><a href='#FNanchor_47_47'><span class='label'>{47}</span></a>
+i.e. they are individually distinguishable.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_48_48' id='Footnote_48_48'></a><a href='#FNanchor_48_48'><span class='label'>{48}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 133, vi. p. 165.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_49_49' id='Footnote_49_49'></a><a href='#FNanchor_49_49'><span class='label'>{49}</span></a>
+When the author wrote this sketch he seems not to have
+been so fully convinced of the general occurrence of variation in nature
+as he afterwards became. The above passage in the text possibly suggests
+that at this time he laid more stress on <i>sports</i> or <i>mutations</i> than
+was afterwards the case.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_50_50' id='Footnote_50_50'></a><a href='#FNanchor_50_50'><span class='label'>{50}</span></a>
+The author may possibly have taken the case of the
+woodpecker from Buffon, <i>Histoire Nat. des Oiseaux</i>, T. vii. p. 3, 1780,
+where however it is treated from a different point of view. He uses it
+more than once, see for instance <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 3, 60, 184, vi.
+pp. 3, 76, 220. The passage in the text corresponds with a discussion on
+the woodpecker and the mistletoe in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 3, vi. p. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_51_51' id='Footnote_51_51'></a><a href='#FNanchor_51_51'><span class='label'>{51}</span></a>
+This illustration occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 90,
+91, vi. pp. 110, 111.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_52_52' id='Footnote_52_52'></a><a href='#FNanchor_52_52'><span class='label'>{52}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102, where the word
+<i>Creator</i> is replaced by <i>Nature</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_53_53' id='Footnote_53_53'></a><a href='#FNanchor_53_53'><span class='label'>{53}</span></a>
+Note in the original. &ldquo;Good place to introduce, saying
+reasons hereafter to be given, how far I extend theory, say to all
+mammalia&mdash;reasons growing weaker and weaker.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_54_54' id='Footnote_54_54'></a><a href='#FNanchor_54_54'><span class='label'>{54}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 62, 63, vi. p. 77, where similar
+reference is made to De Candolle; for Malthus see <i>Origin</i>, p. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_55_55' id='Footnote_55_55'></a><a href='#FNanchor_55_55'><span class='label'>{55}</span></a>
+This may possibly refer to the amount of destruction going
+on. See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 68, vi. p. 84, where there is an estimate of
+a later date as to death-rate of birds in winter. &ldquo;Calculate robins&rdquo;
+probably refers to a calculation of the rate of increase of birds under
+favourable conditions.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_56_56' id='Footnote_56_56'></a><a href='#FNanchor_56_56'><span class='label'>{56}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 64, 65, vi. p. 80, he
+instances cattle and horses and certain plants in S. America and
+American species of plants in India, and further on, as unexpected
+effects of changed conditions, the enclosure of a heath, and the
+relation between the fertilisation of clover and the presence of cats
+(<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91).</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_57_57' id='Footnote_57_57'></a><a href='#FNanchor_57_57'><span class='label'>{57}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91. &ldquo;It has been observed
+that the trees now growing on ... ancient Indian mounds ... display the
+same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the surrounding
+virgin forests.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_58_58' id='Footnote_58_58'></a><a href='#FNanchor_58_58'><span class='label'>{58}</span></a>
+The simile of the wedge occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+67; it is deleted in Darwin&rsquo;s copy of the first edition: it does not
+occur in Ed. vi.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_59_59' id='Footnote_59_59'></a><a href='#FNanchor_59_59'><span class='label'>{59}</span></a>
+In a rough summary at the close of the Essay, occur the
+words:&mdash;&ldquo;Every creature lives by a struggle, smallest grain in balance
+must tell.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_60_60' id='Footnote_60_60'></a><a href='#FNanchor_60_60'><span class='label'>{60}</span></a>
+Cf. <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 77, vi. p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_61_61' id='Footnote_61_61'></a><a href='#FNanchor_61_61'><span class='label'>{61}</span></a>
+This is a repetition of what is given at p. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_62_62' id='Footnote_62_62'></a><a href='#FNanchor_62_62'><span class='label'>{62}</span></a>
+Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 47. &ldquo;I have seen it
+gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry began
+to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this plant. No
+doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was cultivated, but the
+slight varieties had been neglected.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_63_63' id='Footnote_63_63'></a><a href='#FNanchor_63_63'><span class='label'>{63}</span></a>
+Here we have the two types of sexual selection discussed
+in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 88 et seq., vi. pp. 108 et seq.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_64_64' id='Footnote_64_64'></a><a href='#FNanchor_64_64'><span class='label'>{64}</span></a>
+It is not obvious why the author objects to &ldquo;chance&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;external conditions making a woodpecker.&rdquo; He allows that variation is
+ultimately referable to conditions and that the nature of the connexion
+is unknown, i.e. that the result is fortuitous. It is not clear in the
+original to how much of the passage the two ? refer.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_65_65' id='Footnote_65_65'></a><a href='#FNanchor_65_65'><span class='label'>{65}</span></a>
+The meaning is &ldquo;That sterility is not universal is
+admitted by all.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_66_66' id='Footnote_66_66'></a><a href='#FNanchor_66_66'><span class='label'>{66}</span></a>
+See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, i. p. 388, where the garden
+forms of <i>Gladiolus</i> and <i>Calceolaria</i> are said to be derived from
+crosses between distinct species. Herbert&rsquo;s hybrid <i>Crinums</i> are
+discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370. It is well known
+that the author believed in a multiple origin of domestic dogs.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_67_67' id='Footnote_67_67'></a><a href='#FNanchor_67_67'><span class='label'>{67}</span></a>
+The argument from gradation in sterility is given in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 248, 255, vi. pp. 368, 375. In the <i>Origin</i>, I have
+not come across the cases mentioned, viz. crocus, heath, or grouse and
+fowl or peacock. For sterility between closely allied species, see
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 257, vi. p. 377. In the present essay the author
+does not distinguish between fertility between species and the fertility
+of the hybrid offspring, a point on which he insists in the <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. p. 245, vi. p. 365.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_68_68' id='Footnote_68_68'></a><a href='#FNanchor_68_68'><span class='label'>{68}</span></a>
+Ackermann (<i>Ber. d. Vereins f. Naturkunde zu Kassel</i>,
+1898, p. 23) quotes from Gloger that a cross has been effected between a
+domestic hen and a <i>Tetrao tetrix</i>; the offspring died when three days
+old.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_69_69' id='Footnote_69_69'></a><a href='#FNanchor_69_69'><span class='label'>{69}</span></a>
+No doubt the sexual cells are meant. I do not know on what
+evidence it is stated that the mule has bred.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_70_70' id='Footnote_70_70'></a><a href='#FNanchor_70_70'><span class='label'>{70}</span></a>
+The sentence is all but illegible. I think that the author
+refers to forms usually ranked as varieties having been marked as
+species when it was found that they were sterile together. See the case
+of the red and blue <i>Anagallis</i> given from G&auml;rtner in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 247, vi. p. 368.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_71_71' id='Footnote_71_71'></a><a href='#FNanchor_71_71'><span class='label'>{71}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 258, where the author speaks of
+constitutional differences in this connexion, he specifies that they are
+confined to the reproductive system.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_72_72' id='Footnote_72_72'></a><a href='#FNanchor_72_72'><span class='label'>{72}</span></a>
+The sensitiveness of the reproductive system to changed
+conditions is insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.</p>
+<p>The ferret is mentioned, as being prolific in captivity, in <i>Var. under
+Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_73_73' id='Footnote_73_73'></a><a href='#FNanchor_73_73'><span class='label'>{73}</span></a>
+Lindley&rsquo;s remark is quoted in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 9.
+Linn&aelig;us&rsquo; remark is to the effect that Alpine plants tend to be sterile
+under cultivation (see <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 147). In the
+same place the author speaks of peat-loving plants being sterile in our
+gardens,&mdash;no doubt the American bog-plants referred to above. On the
+following page (p. 148) the sterility of the lilac (<i>Syringa persica</i>
+and <i>chinensis</i>) is referred to.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_74_74' id='Footnote_74_74'></a><a href='#FNanchor_74_74'><span class='label'>{74}</span></a>
+The author probably means that the increase in the petals
+is due to a greater food supply being available for them owing to
+sterility. See the discussion in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 151.
+It must be noted that doubleness of the flower may exist without
+noticeable sterility.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_75_75' id='Footnote_75_75'></a><a href='#FNanchor_75_75'><span class='label'>{75}</span></a>
+I have not come across this case in the author&rsquo;s works.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_76_76' id='Footnote_76_76'></a><a href='#FNanchor_76_76'><span class='label'>{76}</span></a>
+For the somewhat doubtful case of the cheetah (<i>Felis
+jubata</i>) see <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, ii. p. 133. I do not know to what
+fact &ldquo;pig in India&rdquo; refers.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_77_77' id='Footnote_77_77'></a><a href='#FNanchor_77_77'><span class='label'>{77}</span></a>
+This sentence should run &ldquo;on which depends their
+incapacity to breed in unnatural conditions.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_78_78' id='Footnote_78_78'></a><a href='#FNanchor_78_78'><span class='label'>{78}</span></a>
+This sentence ends in confusion: it should clearly close
+with the words &ldquo;refused to breed&rdquo; in place of the bracket and the
+present concluding phrase.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_79_79' id='Footnote_79_79'></a><a href='#FNanchor_79_79'><span class='label'>{79}</span></a>
+The author doubtless refers to the change produced by the
+<i>summation</i> of variation by means of selection.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_80_80' id='Footnote_80_80'></a><a href='#FNanchor_80_80'><span class='label'>{80}</span></a>
+The meaning of this sentence is made clear by a passage in
+the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844:&mdash;&ldquo;Until man selects two varieties from the same stock,
+adapted to two climates or to other different external conditions, and
+confines each rigidly for one or several thousand years to such
+conditions, always selecting the individuals best adapted to them, he
+cannot be said to have even commenced the experiment.&rdquo; That is, the
+attempt to produce mutually sterile domestic breeds.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_81_81' id='Footnote_81_81'></a><a href='#FNanchor_81_81'><span class='label'>{81}</span></a>
+This passage is to some extent a repetition of a previous
+one and may have been intended to replace an earlier sentence. I have
+thought it best to give both. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 141, vi. p.
+176, the author gives his opinion that the power of resisting diverse
+conditions, seen in man and his domestic animals, is an example &ldquo;of a
+very common flexibility of constitution.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_82_82' id='Footnote_82_82'></a><a href='#FNanchor_82_82'><span class='label'>{82}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. Chs. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> and <span class='sc lc'>V.</span>, the author does
+not admit reproduction, apart from environment, as being a cause of
+variation. With regard to the cumulative effect of new conditions there
+are many passages in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. e.g. pp. 7, 12, vi. pp. 8,
+14.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_83_83' id='Footnote_83_83'></a><a href='#FNanchor_83_83'><span class='label'>{83}</span></a>
+As already pointed out, this is the important principle
+investigated in the author&rsquo;s <i>Cross and Self-Fertilisation</i>. Professor
+Bateson has suggested to me that the experiments should be repeated with
+gametically pure individuals.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_84_84' id='Footnote_84_84'></a><a href='#FNanchor_84_84'><span class='label'>{84}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i> a chapter is given up to &ldquo;difficulties on
+theory&rdquo;: the discussion in the present essay seems slight even when it
+is remembered how small a space is here available. For <i>Tibia</i> &amp;c. see
+p. 48.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_85_85' id='Footnote_85_85'></a><a href='#FNanchor_85_85'><span class='label'>{85}</span></a>
+This may be interpreted &ldquo;The general structure of a bat is
+the same as that of non-flying mammals.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_86_86' id='Footnote_86_86'></a><a href='#FNanchor_86_86'><span class='label'>{86}</span></a>
+That is truly winged fish.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_87_87' id='Footnote_87_87'></a><a href='#FNanchor_87_87'><span class='label'>{87}</span></a>
+The terrestrial woodpecker of S. America formed the
+subject of a paper by Darwin, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1870. See <i>Life and
+Letters</i>, vol. iii. p. 153.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_88_88' id='Footnote_88_88'></a><a href='#FNanchor_88_88'><span class='label'>{88}</span></a>
+The same proviso occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207,
+vi. p. 319.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_89_89' id='Footnote_89_89'></a><a href='#FNanchor_89_89'><span class='label'>{89}</span></a>
+The tameness of the birds in the Galapagos is described in
+the <i>Journal of Researches</i> (1860), p. 398. Dogs and rabbits are
+probably mentioned as cases in which the hereditary fear of man has been
+lost. In the 1844 <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the author states that the Cuban feral dog shows
+great natural wildness, even when caught quite young.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_90_90' id='Footnote_90_90'></a><a href='#FNanchor_90_90'><span class='label'>{90}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319, he refuses to
+define instinct. For Lord Brougham&rsquo;s definition see his <i>Dissertations
+on Subjects of Science etc.</i>, 1839, p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_91_91' id='Footnote_91_91'></a><a href='#FNanchor_91_91'><span class='label'>{91}</span></a>
+See James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Works, 1865, <i>Tales
+and Sketches</i>, p. 403.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_92_92' id='Footnote_92_92'></a><a href='#FNanchor_92_92'><span class='label'>{92}</span></a>
+This refers to the tailor-bird making use of manufactured
+thread supplied to it, instead of thread twisted by itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_93_93' id='Footnote_93_93'></a><a href='#FNanchor_93_93'><span class='label'>{93}</span></a>
+<i>Often lost</i> applies to <i>instinct</i>: <i>birds get wilder</i> is
+printed in a parenthesis because it was apparently added as an
+after-thought. <i>Nest without roof</i> refers to the water-ousel omitting to
+vault its nest when building in a protected situation.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_94_94' id='Footnote_94_94'></a><a href='#FNanchor_94_94'><span class='label'>{94}</span></a>
+In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844 is an interesting discussion on
+<i>faculty</i> as distinct from <i>instinct</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_95_95' id='Footnote_95_95'></a><a href='#FNanchor_95_95'><span class='label'>{95}</span></a>
+At this date and for long afterwards the inheritance of
+acquired characters was assumed to occur.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_96_96' id='Footnote_96_96'></a><a href='#FNanchor_96_96'><span class='label'>{96}</span></a>
+Part II. is here intended: see the Introduction.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_97_97' id='Footnote_97_97'></a><a href='#FNanchor_97_97'><span class='label'>{97}</span></a>
+The meaning is that the attitude assumed in <i>shamming</i> is
+not accurately like that of death.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_98_98' id='Footnote_98_98'></a><a href='#FNanchor_98_98'><span class='label'>{98}</span></a>
+This refers to the <i>transandantes</i> sheep mentioned in the
+<span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1844, as having acquired a migratory instinct.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_99_99' id='Footnote_99_99'></a><a href='#FNanchor_99_99'><span class='label'>{99}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 209, vi. p. 321, Mozart&rsquo;s
+pseudo-instinctive skill in piano-playing is mentioned. See <i>Phil.
+Trans.</i>, 1770, p. 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_100_100' id='Footnote_100_100'></a><a href='#FNanchor_100_100'><span class='label'>{100}</span></a>
+In the discussion on bees&rsquo; cells, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+225, vi. p. 343, the author acknowledges that his theory originated in
+Waterhouse&rsquo;s observations.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_101_101' id='Footnote_101_101'></a><a href='#FNanchor_101_101'><span class='label'>{101}</span></a>
+The hawfinch-and <i>Sylvia-</i>types are figured in the
+<i>Journal of Researches</i>, p. 379. The discussion of change of form in
+relation to change of instinct is not clear, and I find it impossible to
+suggest a paraphrase.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_102_102' id='Footnote_102_102'></a><a href='#FNanchor_102_102'><span class='label'>{102}</span></a>
+I should interpret this obscure sentence as follows, &ldquo;No
+such opposing law is known, but in all works on the subject a law is (in
+flat contradiction to all known facts) assumed to limit the possible
+amount of variation.&rdquo; In the <i>Origin</i>, the author never limits the power
+of variation, as far as I know.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_103_103' id='Footnote_103_103'></a><a href='#FNanchor_103_103'><span class='label'>{103}</span></a>
+In <i>Var. under Dom.</i> Ed. 2, ii. p. 263, the <i>Dahlia</i> is
+described as showing sensitiveness to conditions in 1841. All the
+varieties of the <i>Dahlia</i> are said to have arisen since 1804 (<i>ibid.</i> i.
+p. 393).</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_104_104' id='Footnote_104_104'></a><a href='#FNanchor_104_104'><span class='label'>{104}</span></a>
+In the original <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the heading is: Part III.; but Part
+II. is clearly intended; for details see the Introduction. I have not
+been able to discover where &sect; <span class='sc lc'>IV.</span> ends and &sect; <span class='sc lc'>V.</span> begins.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_105_105' id='Footnote_105_105'></a><a href='#FNanchor_105_105'><span class='label'>{105}</span></a>
+This passage corresponds roughly to the conclusion of the
+<i>Origin</i>, see Ed. i. p. 482, vi. p. 661.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_106_106' id='Footnote_106_106'></a><a href='#FNanchor_106_106'><span class='label'>{106}</span></a>
+A similar passage occurs in the conclusion of the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_107_107' id='Footnote_107_107'></a><a href='#FNanchor_107_107'><span class='label'>{107}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_108_108' id='Footnote_108_108'></a><a href='#FNanchor_108_108'><span class='label'>{108}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 280, 281, vi. p. 414. The author
+uses his experience of pigeons for examples for what he means by
+<i>intermediate</i>; the instance of the horse and tapir also occurs.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_109_109' id='Footnote_109_109'></a><a href='#FNanchor_109_109'><span class='label'>{109}</span></a>
+The absence of intermediate forms between living
+organisms (and also as regards fossils) is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. pp. 279, 280, vi. p. 413. In the above discussion there is no
+evidence that the author felt this difficulty so strongly as it is
+expressed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299,&mdash;as perhaps &ldquo;the most obvious
+and gravest objection that can be urged against my theory.&rdquo; But in a
+rough summary written on the back of the penultimate page of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> he
+refers to the geological evidence:&mdash;&ldquo;Evidence, as far as it does go, is
+favourable, exceedingly incomplete,&mdash;greatest difficulty on this theory.
+I am convinced not insuperable.&rdquo; Buckland&rsquo;s remarks are given in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p. 471.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_110_110' id='Footnote_110_110'></a><a href='#FNanchor_110_110'><span class='label'>{110}</span></a>
+That the evidence of geology, as far as it goes, is
+favourable to the theory of descent is claimed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+pp. 343-345, vi. pp. 490-492. For the reference to <i>net</i> in the
+following sentence, see Note 1, p. 48, {Link:Note 161} of this Essay.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_111_111' id='Footnote_111_111'></a><a href='#FNanchor_111_111'><span class='label'>{111}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422. &ldquo;The remains
+that do become embedded, if in sand and gravel, will, when the beds are
+upraised, generally be dissolved by the percolation of rain-water.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_112_112' id='Footnote_112_112'></a><a href='#FNanchor_112_112'><span class='label'>{112}</span></a>
+The position of the following is not clear:&mdash;&ldquo;Think of
+immense differences in nature of European deposits,&mdash;without interposing
+new causes,&mdash;think of time required by present slow changes, to cause,
+on very same area, such diverse deposits, iron-sand, chalk, sand, coral,
+clay!&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_113_113' id='Footnote_113_113'></a><a href='#FNanchor_113_113'><span class='label'>{113}</span></a>
+The paragraph which ends here is difficult to interpret.
+In spite of obscurity it is easy to recognize the general resemblance to
+the discussion on the importance of subsidence given in the <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. pp. 290 et seq., vi. pp. 422 et seq.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_114_114' id='Footnote_114_114'></a><a href='#FNanchor_114_114'><span class='label'>{114}</span></a>
+See Note 3, p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_115_115' id='Footnote_115_115'></a><a href='#FNanchor_115_115'><span class='label'>{115}</span></a>
+Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 298, vi. p. 437. &ldquo;We shall,
+perhaps, best perceive the improbability of our being enabled to connect
+species by numerous, fine, intermediate, fossil links, by asking
+ourselves whether, for instance, geologists at some future period will
+be able to prove that our different breeds of cattle, sheep, horses, and
+dogs have descended from a single stock or from several aboriginal
+stocks.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_116_116' id='Footnote_116_116'></a><a href='#FNanchor_116_116'><span class='label'>{116}</span></a>
+The sudden appearance of groups of allied species in the
+lowest known fossiliferous strata is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 306, vi. p. 446. The gradual appearance in the later strata occurs in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_117_117' id='Footnote_117_117'></a><a href='#FNanchor_117_117'><span class='label'>{117}</span></a>
+Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_118_118' id='Footnote_118_118'></a><a href='#FNanchor_118_118'><span class='label'>{118}</span></a>
+I have interpreted as <i>Sandstone</i> a scrawl which I first
+read as <i>Sea</i>; I have done so at the suggestion of Professor Judd, who
+points out that &ldquo;footprints in the red sandstone were known at that
+time, and geologists were not then particular to distinguish between
+Amphibians and Reptiles.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_119_119' id='Footnote_119_119'></a><a href='#FNanchor_119_119'><span class='label'>{119}</span></a>
+This refers to Cuvier's discovery of <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i> &amp;c.
+at Montmartre.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_120_120' id='Footnote_120_120'></a><a href='#FNanchor_120_120'><span class='label'>{120}</span></a>
+This simile is more fully given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 310, vi. p. 452. &ldquo;For my part, following out Lyell&rsquo;s metaphor, I look
+at the natural geological record, as a history of the world imperfectly
+kept, and written in a changing dialect; of this history we possess the
+last volume alone, relating only to two or three countries. Of this
+volume, only here and there a short chapter has been preserved; and of
+each page, only here and there a few lines. Each word of the
+slowly-changing language, in which the history is supposed to be
+written, being more or less different in the interrupted succession of
+chapters, may represent the apparently abruptly changed forms of life,
+entombed in our consecutive, but widely separated formations.&rdquo; Professor
+Judd has been good enough to point out to me, that Darwin&rsquo;s metaphor is
+founded on the comparison of geology to history in Ch. i. of the
+<i>Principles of Geology</i>, Ed. i. 1830, vol. i. pp. 1-4. Professor Judd
+has also called my attention to another passage,&mdash;<i>Principles</i>, Ed. i.
+1833, vol. iii. p. 33, when Lyell imagines an historian examining &ldquo;two
+buried cities at the foot of Vesuvius, immediately superimposed upon
+each other.&rdquo; The historian would discover that the inhabitants of the
+lower town were Greeks while those of the upper one were Italians. But
+he would be wrong in supposing that there had been a sudden change from
+the Greek to the Italian language in Campania. I think it is clear that
+Darwin&rsquo;s metaphor is partly taken from this passage. See for instance
+(in the above passage from the <i>Origin</i>) such phrases as &ldquo;history ...
+written in a changing dialect&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;apparently abruptly changed forms of
+life.&rdquo; The passage within [&nbsp;] in the above paragraph:&mdash;&ldquo;Lyell&rsquo;s views as
+far as they go &amp;c.,&rdquo; no doubt refers, as Professor Judd points out, to
+Lyell not going so far as Darwin on the question of the imperfection of
+the geological record.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_121_121' id='Footnote_121_121'></a><a href='#FNanchor_121_121'><span class='label'>{121}</span></a>
+On rarity and extinction see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 109,
+319, vi. pp. 133, 461.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_122_122' id='Footnote_122_122'></a><a href='#FNanchor_122_122'><span class='label'>{122}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493, the author
+begins his discussion on geographical distribution by minimising the
+effect of physical conditions. He lays great stress on the effect of
+<i>barriers</i>, as in the present Essay.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_123_123' id='Footnote_123_123'></a><a href='#FNanchor_123_123'><span class='label'>{123}</span></a>
+Note in the original, &ldquo;Would it be more striking if we
+took animals, take Rhinoceros, and study their habitats?&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_124_124' id='Footnote_124_124'></a><a href='#FNanchor_124_124'><span class='label'>{124}</span></a>
+Note by Mr A. R. Wallace. &ldquo;The want of similarity
+referred to, is, between the mountains of Brazil and Guiana and those of
+the Andes. Also those of the Indian peninsula as compared with the
+Himalayas. In both cases there is continuous intervening land.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The islands referred to were, no doubt, the Galapagos for dissimilarity
+from S. America; our own Islands as compared with Europe, and perhaps
+Java, for similarity with continental Asia.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_125_125' id='Footnote_125_125'></a><a href='#FNanchor_125_125'><span class='label'>{125}</span></a>
+The arguments against multiple centres of creation are
+given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 499.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_126_126' id='Footnote_126_126'></a><a href='#FNanchor_126_126'><span class='label'>{126}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 366, vi. p. 516, the author
+does not give his views on the distribution of alpine plants as original
+but refers to Edward Forbes&rsquo; work (<i>Geolog. Survey Memoirs</i>, 1846). In
+his autobiography, Darwin refers to this. &ldquo;I was forestalled&rdquo; he says,
+&ldquo;in only one important point, which my vanity has always made me
+regret.&rdquo; (<i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 88.)</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_127_127' id='Footnote_127_127'></a><a href='#FNanchor_127_127'><span class='label'>{127}</span></a>
+«<ins>The following is written on the back of a page of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></ins>» Discuss one or more centres of creation: allude
+strongly to facilities of dispersal and amount of geological change:
+allude to mountain-summits afterwards to be referred to. The
+distribution varies, as everyone knows, according to adaptation, explain
+going from N. to S. how we come to fresh groups of species in the same
+general region, but besides this we find difference, according to
+greatness of barriers, in greater proportion than can be well accounted
+for by adaptation. «<ins>On representive species see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349,
+vi. p. 496.</ins>» This very striking when we think of cattle of Pampas,
+plants «<ins>?</ins>» &amp;c. &amp;c. Then go into discussion; this holds with 3 or 4 main
+divisions as well as the endless minor ones in each of these 4 great
+ones: in these I chiefly refer to mammalia &amp;c. &amp;c. The similarity of
+type, but not in species, in same continent has been much less insisted
+on than the dissimilarity of different great regions generically: it is
+more striking.</p>
+
+<p>«<ins>I have here omitted an incomprehensible sentence.</ins>» Galapagos Islands, Tristan d&rsquo;Acunha, <i>volcanic</i> islands covered with
+craters we know lately did not support any organisms. How unlike these
+islands in nature to neighbouring lands. These facts perhaps more
+striking than almost any others. [<del>Geology apt to affect geography
+therefore we ought to expect to find the above.</del>] Geological-geographical
+distribution. In looking to past times we find Australia equally
+distinct. S. America was distinct, though with more forms in common. N.
+America its nearest neighbour more in common,&mdash;in some respects more, in
+some less allied to Europe. Europe we find «<ins>?</ins>» equally European. For Europe
+is now part of Asia though not «<ins>illegible</ins>». Africa unknown,&mdash;examples, Elephant,
+Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Hyaena. As geology destroys geography we
+cannot be surprised in going far back we find Marsupials and Edentata in
+Europe: but geology destroys geography.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_128_128' id='Footnote_128_128'></a><a href='#FNanchor_128_128'><span class='label'>{128}</span></a>
+<i>Rincon</i> in Spanish means a <i>nook</i> or <i>corner</i>, it is
+here probably used to mean a small farm.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_129_129' id='Footnote_129_129'></a><a href='#FNanchor_129_129'><span class='label'>{129}</span></a>
+The following is written across the page: &ldquo;No one would
+expect a set of similar varieties to be produced in the different
+countries, so species different.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_130_130' id='Footnote_130_130'></a><a href='#FNanchor_130_130'><span class='label'>{130}</span></a>
+«<ins>The following passage seems to have been meant to follow here.</ins>» The parent of an organism, we may generally suppose to
+be in less favourable condition than the selected offspring and
+therefore generally in fewer numbers. (This is not borne out by
+horticulture, mere hypothesis; as an organism in favourable conditions
+might by selection be adapted to still more favourable conditions.)</p>
+
+<p>Barrier would further act in preventing species formed in one part
+migrating to another part.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_131_131' id='Footnote_131_131'></a><a href='#FNanchor_131_131'><span class='label'>{131}</span></a>
+«<ins>The following notes occur on the back of the page.</ins>» Number of species not related to capabilities of the
+country: furthermore not always those best adapted, perhaps explained by
+creationists by changes and progress. «<ins>See <a href="#Footnote_134_134">p. 34, note 1</a>.</ins>»</p>
+
+<p>Although creationists can, by help of geology, explain much, how can he
+explain the marked relation of past and present in same area, the
+varying relation in other cases, between past and present, the relation
+of different parts of same great area. If island, to adjoining
+continent, if quite different, on mountain summits,&mdash;the number of
+individuals not being related to capabilities, or how &amp;c.&mdash;our theory, I
+believe, can throw much light and all facts accord.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_132_132' id='Footnote_132_132'></a><a href='#FNanchor_132_132'><span class='label'>{132}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_133_133' id='Footnote_133_133'></a><a href='#FNanchor_133_133'><span class='label'>{133}</span></a>
+On oscillation see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_134_134' id='Footnote_134_134'></a><a href='#FNanchor_134_134'><span class='label'>{134}</span></a>
+«<ins>From the back of <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></ins>» Effect of climate on stationary island and on
+continent, but continent once island. Moreover repeated oscillations
+fresh diffusion when non-united, then isolation, when rising again
+immigration prevented, new habitats formed, new species, when united
+free immigration, hence uniform characters. Hence more forms «<ins>on?</ins>» the
+island. Mountain summits. Why not true species. First let us recall in
+Part I, conditions of variation: change of conditions during several
+generations, and if frequently altered so much better [<del>perhaps excess of
+food</del>]. Secondly, continued selection [<del>while in wild state</del>]. Thirdly,
+isolation in all or nearly all,&mdash;as well to recall advantages of.</p>
+
+<p>[<del>In continent, if we look to terrestrial animal, long continued change
+might go on, which would only cause change in numerical number «<ins>? proportions</ins>»: if
+continued long enough might ultimately affect all, though to most
+continents «<ins>there is</ins>» chance of immigration. Some few of whole body of species
+must be long affected and entire selection working same way. But here
+isolation absent, without barrier, cut off such «<ins>illegible</ins>». We can see advantage
+of isolation. But let us take case of island thrown up by volcanic
+agency at some distances, here we should have occasional visitants, only
+in few numbers and exposed to new conditions and «<ins>illegible</ins>» more important,&mdash;a
+quite new grouping of organic beings, which would open out new sources
+of subsistence, or «<ins>would</ins>» control «<ins>?</ins>» old ones. The number would be few, can old
+have the very best opportunity. «<ins>The conquest of the indigenes by
+introduced organisms shows that the indigenes were not perfectly
+adapted, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390.</ins>» Moreover as the island continued
+changing,&mdash;continued slow changes, river, marshes, lakes, mountains &amp;c.
+&amp;c., new races as successively formed and a fresh occasional visitant.</del></p>
+
+<p><del>If island formed continent, some species would emerge and immigrate.
+Everyone admits continents. We can see why Galapagos and C. Verde differ
+«<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 398</ins>»</del>], depressed and raised. We can see from this repeated action and the
+time required for a continent, why many more forms than in New Zealand
+«<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 389 for a comparison between New Zealand and
+the Cape</ins>» no mammals or other classes «<ins>see however, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+393 for the case of the frog</ins>». We can at once see how it comes when
+there has been an old channel of migration,&mdash;Cordilleras; we can see why
+Indian Asiatic Flora,&mdash;[<del>why species</del>] having a wide range gives better
+chance of some arriving at new points and being selected, and adapted to
+new ends. I need hardly remark no necessity for change.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, as continent (most extinction «<ins>?</ins>» during formation of continent)
+is formed after repeated elevation and depression, and interchange of
+species we might foretell much extinction, and that the survivor would
+belong to same type, as the extinct, in same manner as different part of
+same continent, which were once separated by space as they are by time
+«<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 339 and 349</ins>».</p>
+
+<p>As all mammals have descended from one stock, we ought to expect that
+every continent has been at some time connected, hence obliteration of
+present ranges. I do not mean that the fossil mammifers found in S.
+America are the lineal successors «<ins>ancestors</ins>» of the present forms of S. America:
+for it is highly improbable that more than one or two cases (who will
+say how many races after Plata bones) should be found. I believe this
+from numbers, who have lived,&mdash;mere «<ins>?</ins>» chance of fewness. Moreover in
+every case from very existence of genera and species only few at one
+time will leave progeny, under form of new species, to distant ages; and
+the more distant the ages the fewer the progenitors. An observation may
+be here appended, bad chance of preservation on rising island, the
+nurseries of new species, appeal to experience «<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 292</ins>». This observation may be
+extended, that in all cases, subsiding land must be, in early stages,
+less favourable to formation of new species; but it will isolate them,
+and then if land recommences rising how favourable. As preoccupation is
+bar to diffusion to species, so would it be to a selected variety. But
+it would not be if that variety was better fitted to some not fully
+occupied station; so during elevation or the formation of new stations,
+is scene for new species. But during elevation not favourable to
+preservation of fossil (except in caverns «<ins>?</ins>»); when subsidence highly
+favourable in early stages to preservation of fossils; when subsidence,
+less sediment. So that our strata, as general rule will be the tomb of
+old species (not undergoing any change) when rising land the nursery.
+But if there be vestige will generally be preserved to future ages, the
+new ones will not be entombed till fresh subsidence supervenes. In this
+long gap we shall have no record: so that wonderful if we should get
+transitional forms. I do not mean every stage, for we cannot expect
+that, as before shown, until geologists will be prepared to say that
+although under unnaturally favourable condition we can trace in future
+ages short-horn and Herefordshire «<ins>see <a href="#Footnote_115_115">note 2, p. 26</a></ins>».</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_135_135' id='Footnote_135_135'></a><a href='#FNanchor_135_135'><span class='label'>{135}</span></a>
+After &ldquo;organs&rdquo; is inserted, apparently as an
+afterthought:&mdash;&ldquo;no, and instance metamorphosis, afterwards explicable.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_136_136' id='Footnote_136_136'></a><a href='#FNanchor_136_136'><span class='label'>{136}</span></a>
+For analogical resemblances see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 427,
+vi. p. 582.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_137_137' id='Footnote_137_137'></a><a href='#FNanchor_137_137'><span class='label'>{137}</span></a>
+&ldquo;Practically when naturalists are at work, they do not
+trouble themselves about the physiological value of the characters....
+If they find a character nearly uniform,... they use it as one of high
+value,&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 417, vi. p. 573.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_138_138' id='Footnote_138_138'></a><a href='#FNanchor_138_138'><span class='label'>{138}</span></a>
+&ldquo;We are cautioned ... not to class two varieties of the
+pine-apple together, merely because their fruit, though the most
+important part, happens to be nearly identical,&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+423, vi. p. 579.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_139_139' id='Footnote_139_139'></a><a href='#FNanchor_139_139'><span class='label'>{139}</span></a>
+The whole of this passage is obscure, but the text is
+quite clear, except for one illegible word.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_140_140' id='Footnote_140_140'></a><a href='#FNanchor_140_140'><span class='label'>{140}</span></a>
+«<ins>The exact position of the following passage is uncertain:</ins>» &ldquo;just as it is not likely every present breed of fancy
+birds and cattle will propagate, only some of the best.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_141_141' id='Footnote_141_141'></a><a href='#FNanchor_141_141'><span class='label'>{141}</span></a>
+This suggests that the author was not far from the
+principle of divergence on which he afterwards laid so much stress. See
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 111, vi. p. 134, also <i>Life and Letters</i>, i. p. 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_142_142' id='Footnote_142_142'></a><a href='#FNanchor_142_142'><span class='label'>{142}</span></a>
+That is to say the same conditions occurring in different
+parts of the globe.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_143_143' id='Footnote_143_143'></a><a href='#FNanchor_143_143'><span class='label'>{143}</span></a>
+The position of the following is uncertain, &ldquo;greyhound
+and racehorse have an analogy to each other.&rdquo; The same comparison occurs
+in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 427, vi. p. 583.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_144_144' id='Footnote_144_144'></a><a href='#FNanchor_144_144'><span class='label'>{144}</span></a>
+<i>Air</i> is evidently intended; in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> <i>water</i> is
+written twice.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_145_145' id='Footnote_145_145'></a><a href='#FNanchor_145_145'><span class='label'>{145}</span></a>
+Written between the lines occurs:&mdash;&ldquo;extend to birds and
+other classes.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_146_146' id='Footnote_146_146'></a><a href='#FNanchor_146_146'><span class='label'>{146}</span></a>
+Written between the lines occurs:&mdash;&ldquo;many bones merely
+represented.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_147_147' id='Footnote_147_147'></a><a href='#FNanchor_147_147'><span class='label'>{147}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595, the term
+<i>morphology</i> is taken as including <i>unity of type</i>. The paddle of the
+porpoise and the wing of the bat are there used as instances of
+morphological resemblance.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_148_148' id='Footnote_148_148'></a><a href='#FNanchor_148_148'><span class='label'>{148}</span></a>
+The sentence is difficult to decipher.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_149_149' id='Footnote_149_149'></a><a href='#FNanchor_149_149'><span class='label'>{149}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 598, the author
+speaks of the &ldquo;general pattern&rdquo; being obscured in the paddles of
+&ldquo;extinct gigantic sea-lizards.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_150_150' id='Footnote_150_150'></a><a href='#FNanchor_150_150'><span class='label'>{150}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 437, vi. p. 599.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_151_151' id='Footnote_151_151'></a><a href='#FNanchor_151_151'><span class='label'>{151}</span></a>
+The following passage seems to have been meant to precede
+the sentence beginning &ldquo;These facts&rdquo;:&mdash;&ldquo;It is evident, that when in each
+individual species, organs are metamorph. a unity of type extends.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_152_152' id='Footnote_152_152'></a><a href='#FNanchor_152_152'><span class='label'>{152}</span></a>
+This is, I believe, the first place in which the author
+uses the words &ldquo;theory of descent.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_153_153' id='Footnote_153_153'></a><a href='#FNanchor_153_153'><span class='label'>{153}</span></a>
+The sentence should probably run, &ldquo;Let us take the case
+of the vertebrata: if we assume them to be descended from one parent,
+then by this theory they have been altered &amp;c.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_154_154' id='Footnote_154_154'></a><a href='#FNanchor_154_154'><span class='label'>{154}</span></a>
+That is &ldquo;we should call it a morphological fact.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_155_155' id='Footnote_155_155'></a><a href='#FNanchor_155_155'><span class='label'>{155}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602, the author,
+referring to the expressions used by naturalists in regard to morphology
+and metamorphosis, says &ldquo;On my view these terms may be used
+literally.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_156_156' id='Footnote_156_156'></a><a href='#FNanchor_156_156'><span class='label'>{156}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 605.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_157_157' id='Footnote_157_157'></a><a href='#FNanchor_157_157'><span class='label'>{157}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606, the author
+argues that the &ldquo;loop-like course of the arteries&rdquo; in the vertebrate
+embryo has no direct relation to the conditions of existence.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_158_158' id='Footnote_158_158'></a><a href='#FNanchor_158_158'><span class='label'>{158}</span></a>
+The following passages are written across the
+page:&mdash;&ldquo;They pass through the same phases, but some, generally called
+the higher groups, are further metamorphosed.</p>
+
+<p>? Degradation and complication? no tendency to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>? Justly argued against Lamarck?&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_159_159' id='Footnote_159_159'></a><a href='#FNanchor_159_159'><span class='label'>{159}</span></a>
+An almost identical passage occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 440, vi. p. 606.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_160_160' id='Footnote_160_160'></a><a href='#FNanchor_160_160'><span class='label'>{160}</span></a>
+The following: &ldquo;Deaths of brothers «<ins>when</ins>» old by same peculiar
+disease&rdquo; which is written between the lines seems to have been a
+memorandum which is expanded a few lines lower. I believe the case of
+the brothers came from Dr R. W. Darwin.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_161_161' id='Footnote_161_161'></a><a href='#FNanchor_161_161'><span class='label'>{161}</span></a>
+See the discussion to this effect in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+pp. 443-4, vi. p. 610. The author there makes the distinction between a
+cause affecting the germ-cell and the reaction occurring at a late
+period of life.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_162_162' id='Footnote_162_162'></a><a href='#FNanchor_162_162'><span class='label'>{162}</span></a>
+Possibly the sentence was meant to end &ldquo;is not visible
+till then.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_163_163' id='Footnote_163_163'></a><a href='#FNanchor_163_163'><span class='label'>{163}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 444-5, vi. p. 611. The query
+appended to <i>much less</i> is justified, since measurement was necessary to
+prove that the greyhound and bulldog puppies had not nearly acquired
+&ldquo;their full amount of proportional difference.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_164_164' id='Footnote_164_164'></a><a href='#FNanchor_164_164'><span class='label'>{164}</span></a>
+«<ins>The following discussion, from the back of the page, is
+in large measure the same as the text.</ins>» I think light can be thrown on
+these facts. From the following peculiarities being hereditary, [<del>we know
+that some change in the germinal vesicle is effected, which will only
+betray itself years after</del>] diseases&mdash;man, goitre, gout, baldness,
+fatness, size, [<del>longevity «<ins>illegible</ins>» time of reproduction, shape of horns, case of
+old brothers dying of same disease</del>]. And we know that the germinal
+vesicle must have been affected, though no effect is apparent or can be
+apparent till years afterwards,&mdash;no more apparent than when these
+peculiarities appear by the exposure of the full-grown individual. «<ins>That
+is, &ldquo;the young individual is as apparently free from the hereditary
+changes which will appear later, as the young is actually free from the
+changes produced by exposure to certain conditions in adult life.&rdquo;</ins>» So
+that when we see a variety in cattle, even if the variety be due to act
+of reproduction, we cannot feel sure at what period this change became
+apparent. It may have been effected during early age of free life «<ins>or</ins>»
+f&oelig;tal existence, as monsters show. From arguments before used, and
+crossing, we may generally suspect in germ; but I repeat it does not
+follow, that the change should be apparent till life fully developed;
+any more than fatness depending on heredity should be apparent during
+early childhood, still less during f&oelig;tal existence. In case of horns
+of cattle, which when inherited must depend on germinal vesicle,
+obviously no effect till cattle full-grown. Practically it would appear
+that the [<del>hereditary</del>] peculiarities characterising our domestic races,
+therefore resulting from vesicle, do not appear with their full
+characters in very early states; thus though two breeds of cows have
+calves different, they are not so different,&mdash;grey-hound and bull-dog.
+And this is what is «<ins>to</ins>» be expected, for man is indifferent to characters
+of young animals and hence would select those full-grown animals which
+possessed the desirable characteristics. So that from mere chance we
+might expect that some of the characters would be such only as became
+fully apparent in mature life. Furthermore we may suspect it to be a
+law, that at whatever time a new character appears, whether from
+vesicle, or effects of external conditions, it would appear at
+corresponding time «<ins>see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444</ins>». Thus diseases appearing in old age produce children
+with d<sup>o</sup>.,&mdash;early maturity,&mdash;longevity,&mdash;old men, brothers, of same
+disease&mdash;young children of d<sup>o</sup>. I said men do not select for quality
+of young,&mdash;calf with big bullocks. Silk-worms, peculiarities which,
+appear in caterpillar state or cocoon state, are transmitted to
+corresponding states. The effect of this would be that if some
+peculiarity was born in a young animal, but never exercised, it might be
+inherited in young animal; but if exercised that part of structure would
+be increased and would be inherited in corresponding time of life after
+such training.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that man selects in full-life, so would it be in Nature. In
+struggle of existence, it matters nothing to a feline animal, whether
+kitten eminently feline, as long as it sucks. Therefore natural
+selection would act equally well on character which was fully «<ins>developed</ins>» only in
+full age. Selection could tend to alter no character in f&oelig;tus,
+(except relation to mother) it would alter less in young state (putting
+on one side larva condition) but alter every part in full-grown
+condition. Look to a f&oelig;tus and its parent, and again after ages
+f&oelig;tus and its «<ins>i. e. the above mentioned parents</ins>» descendant; the parent more variable «<ins>?</ins>» than f&oelig;tus,
+which explains all.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_165_165' id='Footnote_165_165'></a><a href='#FNanchor_165_165'><span class='label'>{165}</span></a>
+Some of these examples occur in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp.
+450-51, vi. pp. 619-20.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_166_166' id='Footnote_166_166'></a><a href='#FNanchor_166_166'><span class='label'>{166}</span></a>
+The two following sentences are written, one down the
+margin, the other across the page. &ldquo;Abortive organs eminently useful in
+classification. Embryonic state of organs. Rudiments of organs.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_167_167' id='Footnote_167_167'></a><a href='#FNanchor_167_167'><span class='label'>{167}</span></a>
+I imagine the meaning to be that abortive organs are
+specific characters in contrast to monstrosities.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_168_168' id='Footnote_168_168'></a><a href='#FNanchor_168_168'><span class='label'>{168}</span></a>
+Minute hanging horns are mentioned in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 454, vi. p. 625, as occurring in hornless breeds of cattle.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_169_169' id='Footnote_169_169'></a><a href='#FNanchor_169_169'><span class='label'>{169}</span></a>
+<i>Linum flavum</i> is dimorphic: thyme gynodi&aelig;cious. It is
+not clear what point is referred to under <i>Geranium pyrenaicum</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_170_170' id='Footnote_170_170'></a><a href='#FNanchor_170_170'><span class='label'>{170}</span></a>
+The author&rsquo;s work on duck&rsquo;s wings &amp;c. is in <i>Var. under
+Dom.</i>, Ed. 2, i. p. 299.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_171_171' id='Footnote_171_171'></a><a href='#FNanchor_171_171'><span class='label'>{171}</span></a>
+The words <i>vis medicatrix</i> are inserted after &ldquo;useless,&rdquo;
+apparently as a memorandum.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_172_172' id='Footnote_172_172'></a><a href='#FNanchor_172_172'><span class='label'>{172}</span></a>
+In the male florets of certain Composit&aelig; the style
+functions merely as a piston for forcing out the pollen.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_173_173' id='Footnote_173_173'></a><a href='#FNanchor_173_173'><span class='label'>{173}</span></a>
+«<ins>On the back of the page is the following.</ins>» If abortive organs are a trace preserved by hereditary
+tendency, of organ in ancestor of use, we can at once see why important
+in natural classification, also why more plain in young animal because,
+as in last section, the selection has altered the old animal most. I
+repeat, these wondrous facts, of parts created for no use in past and
+present time, all can by my theory receive simple explanation; or they
+receive none and we must be content with some such empty metaphor, as
+that of De Candolle, who compares creation to a well covered table, and
+says abortive organs may be compared to the dishes (some should be
+empty) placed symmetrically!</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_174_174' id='Footnote_174_174'></a><a href='#FNanchor_174_174'><span class='label'>{174}</span></a>
+The author doubtless meant that the complex relationships
+between organisms can be roughly represented by a net in which the knots
+stand for species.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_175_175' id='Footnote_175_175'></a><a href='#FNanchor_175_175'><span class='label'>{175}</span></a>
+Between the lines occurs:&mdash;&ldquo;one «<ins>?</ins>» form be lost.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_176_176' id='Footnote_176_176'></a><a href='#FNanchor_176_176'><span class='label'>{176}</span></a>
+The original sentence is here broken up by the insertion
+of:&mdash;&ldquo;out of the dust of Java, Sumatra, these «<ins>?</ins>» allied to past and
+present age and «<ins>illegible</ins>», with the stamp of inutility in some of their organs
+and conversion in others.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_177_177' id='Footnote_177_177'></a><a href='#FNanchor_177_177'><span class='label'>{177}</span></a>
+Between the lines occur the words:&mdash;&ldquo;Species vary
+according to same general laws as varieties; they cross according to
+same laws.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_178_178' id='Footnote_178_178'></a><a href='#FNanchor_178_178'><span class='label'>{178}</span></a>
+&ldquo;A cross with a bull-dog has affected for many
+generations the courage and obstinacy of greyhounds,&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 214, vi. p. 327.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_179_179' id='Footnote_179_179'></a><a href='#FNanchor_179_179'><span class='label'>{179}</span></a>
+The simile of the savage and the ship occurs in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_180_180' id='Footnote_180_180'></a><a href='#FNanchor_180_180'><span class='label'>{180}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 486, vi. p. 665, the author
+speaks of the &ldquo;summing up of many contrivances&rdquo;: I have therefore
+introduced the above words which make the passage clearer. In the
+<i>Origin</i> the comparison is with &ldquo;a great mechanical invention,&rdquo;&mdash;not
+with a work of art.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_181_181' id='Footnote_181_181'></a><a href='#FNanchor_181_181'><span class='label'>{181}</span></a>
+See a similar passage in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 487, vi.
+p. 667.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_182_182' id='Footnote_182_182'></a><a href='#FNanchor_182_182'><span class='label'>{182}</span></a>
+See the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_183_183' id='Footnote_183_183'></a><a href='#FNanchor_183_183'><span class='label'>{183}</span></a>
+The following discussion, together with some memoranda
+are on the last page of the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> &ldquo;The supposed creative spirit does not
+create either number or kind which «<ins>are</ins>» from analogy adapted to site (viz.
+New Zealand): it does not keep them all permanently adapted to any
+country,&mdash;it works on spots or areas of creation,&mdash;it is not persistent
+for great periods,&mdash;it creates forms of same groups in same regions,
+with no physical similarity,&mdash;it creates, on islands or mountain
+summits, species allied to the neighbouring ones, and not allied to
+alpine nature as shown in other mountain summits&mdash;even different on
+different island of similarly constituted archipelago, not created on
+two points: never mammifers created on small isolated island; nor number
+of organisms adapted to locality: its power seems influenced or related
+to the range of other species wholly distinct of the same genus,&mdash;it
+does not equally effect, in amount of difference, all the groups of the
+same class.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_184_184' id='Footnote_184_184'></a><a href='#FNanchor_184_184'><span class='label'>{184}</span></a>
+This passage is the ancestor of the concluding words in
+the first edition of the <i>Origin of Species</i> which have remained
+substantially unchanged throughout subsequent editions, &ldquo;There is
+grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been
+originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that whilst this
+planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from
+so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful
+have been, and are being, evolved.&rdquo; In the 2nd edition &ldquo;by the Creator&rdquo;
+is introduced after &ldquo;originally breathed.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_185_185' id='Footnote_185_185'></a><a href='#FNanchor_185_185'><span class='label'>{185}</span></a>
+Compare the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659, &ldquo;The
+difficulty is the same as that felt by so many geologists, when Lyell
+first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been formed, and
+great valleys excavated, by the slow action of the coast-waves.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_186_186' id='Footnote_186_186'></a><a href='#FNanchor_186_186'><span class='label'>{186}</span></a>
+The cumulative effect of domestication is insisted on in
+the <i>Origin</i>, see <i>e.g. Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_187_187' id='Footnote_187_187'></a><a href='#FNanchor_187_187'><span class='label'>{187}</span></a>
+This type of variation passes into what he describes as
+the direct effect of conditions. Since they are due to causes acting
+during the adult life of the organism they might be called individual
+variations, but he uses this term for congenital variations, <i>e.g.</i> the
+differences discoverable in plants raised from seeds of the same pod
+(<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 45, vi. p. 53).</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_188_188' id='Footnote_188_188'></a><a href='#FNanchor_188_188'><span class='label'>{188}</span></a>
+«<ins>It is not clear where the following note is meant to come</ins>»: Case of Orchis,&mdash;most remarkable as not long cultivated
+by seminal propagation. Case of varieties which soon acquire, like
+<i>&AElig;gilops</i> and Carrot (and Maize) <i>a certain general character</i> and then
+go on varying.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_189_189' id='Footnote_189_189'></a><a href='#FNanchor_189_189'><span class='label'>{189}</span></a>
+Here, as in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> of 1842, the author is inclined to
+minimise the variation occurring in nature.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_190_190' id='Footnote_190_190'></a><a href='#FNanchor_190_190'><span class='label'>{190}</span></a>
+This is more strongly stated than in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_191_191' id='Footnote_191_191'></a><a href='#FNanchor_191_191'><span class='label'>{191}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 13.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_192_192' id='Footnote_192_192'></a><a href='#FNanchor_192_192'><span class='label'>{192}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 86, vi. p. 105.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_193_193' id='Footnote_193_193'></a><a href='#FNanchor_193_193'><span class='label'>{193}</span></a>
+It is interesting to find that though the author, like
+his contemporaries, believed in the inheritance of acquired characters,
+he excluded the case of mutilation.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_194_194' id='Footnote_194_194'></a><a href='#FNanchor_194_194'><span class='label'>{194}</span></a>
+This corresponds to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_195_195' id='Footnote_195_195'></a><a href='#FNanchor_195_195'><span class='label'>{195}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_196_196' id='Footnote_196_196'></a><a href='#FNanchor_196_196'><span class='label'>{196}</span></a>
+For <i>plasticity</i> see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 12, 132.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_197_197' id='Footnote_197_197'></a><a href='#FNanchor_197_197'><span class='label'>{197}</span></a>
+<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 393.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_198_198' id='Footnote_198_198'></a><a href='#FNanchor_198_198'><span class='label'>{198}</span></a>
+Selection is here used in the sense of isolation, rather
+than as implying the summation of small differences. Professor Henslow
+in his <i>Heredity of Acquired Characters in Plants</i>, 1908, p. 2, quotes
+from Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. i. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 271, a passage in which
+the author, speaking of the direct action of conditions, says:&mdash;&ldquo;A new
+sub-variety would thus be produced without the aid of selection.&rdquo; Darwin
+certainly did not mean to imply that such varieties are freed from the
+action of natural selection, but merely that a new form may appear
+without <i>summation</i> of new characters. Professor Henslow is apparently
+unaware that the above passage is omitted in the second edition of <i>Var.
+under Dom.</i>, <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 260.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_199_199' id='Footnote_199_199'></a><a href='#FNanchor_199_199'><span class='label'>{199}</span></a>
+See the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_200_200' id='Footnote_200_200'></a><a href='#FNanchor_200_200'><span class='label'>{200}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38. The evidence is
+given in the present Essay rather more fully than in the <i>Origin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_201_201' id='Footnote_201_201'></a><a href='#FNanchor_201_201'><span class='label'>{201}</span></a>
+<i>Journal of Researches</i>, Ed. 1860, p. 214. &ldquo;Doggies catch
+otters, old women no.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_202_202' id='Footnote_202_202'></a><a href='#FNanchor_202_202'><span class='label'>{202}</span></a>
+The effects of crossing is much more strongly stated here
+than in the <i>Origin</i>. See Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23, where indeed the
+opposite point of view is given. His change of opinion may be due to his
+work on pigeons. The whole of the discussion on crossing corresponds to
+Chapter VIII of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. rather than to anything in the
+earlier part of the book.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_203_203' id='Footnote_203_203'></a><a href='#FNanchor_203_203'><span class='label'>{203}</span></a>
+The parallelism between the effects of a cross and the
+effects of conditions is given from a different point of view in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 266, vi. p. 391. See the experimental evidence for
+this important principle in the author&rsquo;s work on <i>Cross and
+Self-Fertilisation</i>. Professor Bateson has suggested that the
+experiments should be repeated with gametically pure plants.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_204_204' id='Footnote_204_204'></a><a href='#FNanchor_204_204'><span class='label'>{204}</span></a>
+The so-called Knight-Darwin Law is often misunderstood.
+See Goebel in <i>Darwin and Modern Science</i>, 1909, p. 419; also F. Darwin,
+<i>Nature</i>, Oct. 27, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_205_205' id='Footnote_205_205'></a><a href='#FNanchor_205_205'><span class='label'>{205}</span></a>
+Pallas&rsquo; theory is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp.
+253, 254, vi. p. 374.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_206_206' id='Footnote_206_206'></a><a href='#FNanchor_206_206'><span class='label'>{206}</span></a>
+See Darwin&rsquo;s paper on the fertility of hybrids from the
+common and Chinese goose in <i>Nature</i>, Jan. 1, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_207_207' id='Footnote_207_207'></a><a href='#FNanchor_207_207'><span class='label'>{207}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 19, vi. p. 22.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_208_208' id='Footnote_208_208'></a><a href='#FNanchor_208_208'><span class='label'>{208}</span></a>
+<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 211.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_209_209' id='Footnote_209_209'></a><a href='#FNanchor_209_209'><span class='label'>{209}</span></a>
+This discussion corresponds to the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp.
+11 and 143, vi. pp. 13 and 177.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_210_210' id='Footnote_210_210'></a><a href='#FNanchor_210_210'><span class='label'>{210}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_211_211' id='Footnote_211_211'></a><a href='#FNanchor_211_211'><span class='label'>{211}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» &ldquo;Isidore G. St Hilaire insists that breeding in
+captivity essential element. Schleiden on alkalies. «<ins>See <i>Var. under
+Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 244, note 10.</ins>» What is it in domestication
+which causes variation?&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_212_212' id='Footnote_212_212'></a><a href='#FNanchor_212_212'><span class='label'>{212}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» &ldquo;It appears that slight changes of condition «<ins>are</ins>» good for
+health; that more change affects the generative system, so that
+variation results in the offspring; that still more change checks or
+destroys fertility not of the offspring.&rdquo; Compare the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 9, vi. p. 11. What the meaning of &ldquo;not of the offspring&rdquo; may be is
+not clear.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_213_213' id='Footnote_213_213'></a><a href='#FNanchor_213_213'><span class='label'>{213}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 46 the question is
+differently treated; it is pointed out that a large stock of individuals
+gives a better chance of available variations occurring. Darwin quotes
+from Marshall that sheep in small lots can never be improved. This comes
+from Marshall&rsquo;s <i>Review of the Reports to the Board of Agriculture</i>,
+1808, p. 406. In this Essay the name Marshall occurs in the margin.
+Probably this refers to <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 200, where unshepherded sheep in
+many parts of England are said to be similar owing to mixed breeding not
+being avoided.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_214_214' id='Footnote_214_214'></a><a href='#FNanchor_214_214'><span class='label'>{214}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_215_215' id='Footnote_215_215'></a><a href='#FNanchor_215_215'><span class='label'>{215}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 42, vi. p. 48.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_216_216' id='Footnote_216_216'></a><a href='#FNanchor_216_216'><span class='label'>{216}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» There are white peacocks.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_217_217' id='Footnote_217_217'></a><a href='#FNanchor_217_217'><span class='label'>{217}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» There are varieties of asparagus.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_218_218' id='Footnote_218_218'></a><a href='#FNanchor_218_218'><span class='label'>{218}</span></a>
+In Chapter II of the first edition of the <i>Origin</i> Darwin
+insists rather on the presence of variability in a state of nature; see,
+for instance, p. 45, Ed. vi. p. 53, &ldquo;I am convinced that the most
+experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the cases of
+variability ... which he could collect on good authority, as I have
+collected, during a course of years.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_219_219' id='Footnote_219_219'></a><a href='#FNanchor_219_219'><span class='label'>{219}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 44, vi. p. 52.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_220_220' id='Footnote_220_220'></a><a href='#FNanchor_220_220'><span class='label'>{220}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» Here discuss <i>what is a species</i>, sterility can most
+rarely be told when crossed.&mdash;Descent from common stock.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_221_221' id='Footnote_221_221'></a><a href='#FNanchor_221_221'><span class='label'>{221}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» Give only rule: chain of intermediate forms, and
+<i>analogy</i>; this important. Every Naturalist at first when he gets hold
+of new variable type is <i>quite puzzled</i> to know what to think species
+and what variations.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_222_222' id='Footnote_222_222'></a><a href='#FNanchor_222_222'><span class='label'>{222}</span></a>
+The author had not at this time the knowledge of the
+meaning of dimorphism.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_223_223' id='Footnote_223_223'></a><a href='#FNanchor_223_223'><span class='label'>{223}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Compare feathered heads in very different birds with
+spines in Echidna and Hedgehog. «<ins>In <i>Variation under Domestication</i>, Ed.
+ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 317, Darwin calls attention to laced and frizzled breeds
+occurring in both fowls and pigeons. In the same way a peculiar form of
+covering occurs in Echidna and the hedgehog.</ins>»</p>
+
+<p>Plants under very different climate not varying. Digitalis shows jumps «<ins>?</ins>»
+in variation, like Laburnum and Orchis case&mdash;in fact hostile cases.
+Variability of sexual characters alike in domestic and wild.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_224_224' id='Footnote_224_224'></a><a href='#FNanchor_224_224'><span class='label'>{224}</span></a>
+A corresponding passage occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83,
+vi. p. 101, where however Nature takes the place of the selecting
+Being.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_225_225' id='Footnote_225_225'></a><a href='#FNanchor_225_225'><span class='label'>{225}</span></a>
+The mistletoe is used as an illustration in <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 3, vi. p. 3, but with less detail.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_226_226' id='Footnote_226_226'></a><a href='#FNanchor_226_226'><span class='label'>{226}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» The selection, in cases where adult lives only few hours
+as Ephemera, must fall on larva&mdash;curious speculation of the effect «<ins>which</ins>»
+changes in it would bring in parent.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_227_227' id='Footnote_227_227'></a><a href='#FNanchor_227_227'><span class='label'>{227}</span></a>
+This section forms part of the joint paper by Darwin and
+Wallace read before the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_228_228' id='Footnote_228_228'></a><a href='#FNanchor_228_228'><span class='label'>{228}</span></a>
+Occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 64, vi. p. 79.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_229_229' id='Footnote_229_229'></a><a href='#FNanchor_229_229'><span class='label'>{229}</span></a>
+Corresponds approximately with <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp.
+64-65, vi. p. 80.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_230_230' id='Footnote_230_230'></a><a href='#FNanchor_230_230'><span class='label'>{230}</span></a>
+This simile occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 67, not in the
+later editions.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_231_231' id='Footnote_231_231'></a><a href='#FNanchor_231_231'><span class='label'>{231}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» In case like mistletoe, it may be asked why not more
+species, no other species interferes; answer almost sufficient, same
+causes which check the multiplication of individuals.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_232_232' id='Footnote_232_232'></a><a href='#FNanchor_232_232'><span class='label'>{232}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 104, 292, vi. pp. 127, 429.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_233_233' id='Footnote_233_233'></a><a href='#FNanchor_233_233'><span class='label'>{233}</span></a>
+Recognition of the importance of minute differences in
+the struggle occurs in the Essay of 1842, <a href="#Footnote_59_59">p. 8 note 3</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_234_234' id='Footnote_234_234'></a><a href='#FNanchor_234_234'><span class='label'>{234}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 90, vi. p. 110.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_235_235' id='Footnote_235_235'></a><a href='#FNanchor_235_235'><span class='label'>{235}</span></a>
+These two forms of sexual selection are given in
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 107. The Guiana rock-thrush is given as
+an example of bloodless competition.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_236_236' id='Footnote_236_236'></a><a href='#FNanchor_236_236'><span class='label'>{236}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Seals? Pennant about battles of seals.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_237_237' id='Footnote_237_237'></a><a href='#FNanchor_237_237'><span class='label'>{237}</span></a>
+In the Linnean paper of July 1, 1858 the final word is
+<i>mate</i>: but the context shows that it should be <i>male</i>; it is moreover
+clearly so written in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_238_238' id='Footnote_238_238'></a><a href='#FNanchor_238_238'><span class='label'>{238}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i> the author would here have used the word
+<i>variety</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_239_239' id='Footnote_239_239'></a><a href='#FNanchor_239_239'><span class='label'>{239}</span></a>
+The whole of p. 94 and 15 lines of p. 95 are, in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>,
+marked through in pencil with vertical lines, beginning at &ldquo;Races
+produced, &amp;c.&rdquo; and ending with &ldquo;to these conditions.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_240_240' id='Footnote_240_240'></a><a href='#FNanchor_240_240'><span class='label'>{240}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_241_241' id='Footnote_241_241'></a><a href='#FNanchor_241_241'><span class='label'>{241}</span></a>
+In the present Essay there is some evidence that the
+author attributed more to <i>sports</i> than was afterwards the case: but the
+above passage points the other way. It must always be remembered that
+many of the minute differences, now considered small mutations, are the
+small variations on which Darwin conceived selection to act.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_242_242' id='Footnote_242_242'></a><a href='#FNanchor_242_242'><span class='label'>{242}</span></a>
+See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 230.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_243_243' id='Footnote_243_243'></a><a href='#FNanchor_243_243'><span class='label'>{243}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» If domestic animals are descended from several species
+and <i>become</i> fertile <i>inter se</i>, then one can see they gain fertility by
+becoming adapted to new conditions and certainly domestic animals can
+withstand changes of climate without loss of fertility in an astonishing
+manner.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_244_244' id='Footnote_244_244'></a><a href='#FNanchor_244_244'><span class='label'>{244}</span></a>
+See Suchetet, <i>L&rsquo;Hybridit&eacute; dans la Nature</i>, Bruxelles,
+1888, p. 67. In <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> hybrids between the
+fowl and the pheasant are mentioned. I can give no information on the
+other cases.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_245_245' id='Footnote_245_245'></a><a href='#FNanchor_245_245'><span class='label'>{245}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_246_246' id='Footnote_246_246'></a><a href='#FNanchor_246_246'><span class='label'>{246}</span></a>
+This was the position of G&auml;rtner and of K&ouml;lreuter: see
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 246-7, vi. pp. 367-8.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_247_247' id='Footnote_247_247'></a><a href='#FNanchor_247_247'><span class='label'>{247}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original.</ins>» Yet this seems introductory to the case of the heaths
+and crocuses above mentioned. «<ins>Herbert observed that crocus does not set
+seed if transplanted before pollination, but that such treatment after
+pollination has no sterilising effect. (<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol.
+<span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 148.) On the same page is a mention of the Ericace&aelig; being subject
+to contabescence of the anthers. For <i>Crinum</i> see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+250: for <i>Rhododenron</i> and <i>Calceolaria</i> see p. 251.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_248_248' id='Footnote_248_248'></a><a href='#FNanchor_248_248'><span class='label'>{248}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Animals seem more often made sterile by being taken out
+of their native condition than plants, and so are more sterile when
+crossed.</p>
+
+<p>We have one broad fact that sterility in hybrids is not closely related
+to external difference, and these are what man alone gets by selection.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_249_249' id='Footnote_249_249'></a><a href='#FNanchor_249_249'><span class='label'>{249}</span></a>
+See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 132; for the
+case of the cheetah see <i>loc cit.</i> p. 133.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_250_250' id='Footnote_250_250'></a><a href='#FNanchor_250_250'><span class='label'>{250}</span></a>
+<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 148.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_251_251' id='Footnote_251_251'></a><a href='#FNanchor_251_251'><span class='label'>{251}</span></a>
+Quoted in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_252_252' id='Footnote_252_252'></a><a href='#FNanchor_252_252'><span class='label'>{252}</span></a>
+See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_253_253' id='Footnote_253_253'></a><a href='#FNanchor_253_253'><span class='label'>{253}</span></a>
+<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 89.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_254_254' id='Footnote_254_254'></a><a href='#FNanchor_254_254'><span class='label'>{254}</span></a>
+See <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_255_255' id='Footnote_255_255'></a><a href='#FNanchor_255_255'><span class='label'>{255}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 392. This is the
+principle experimentally investigated in the author&rsquo;s <i>Cross-and
+Self-Fertilisation</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_256_256' id='Footnote_256_256'></a><a href='#FNanchor_256_256'><span class='label'>{256}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 268, vi. p. 398.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_257_257' id='Footnote_257_257'></a><a href='#FNanchor_257_257'><span class='label'>{257}</span></a>
+«<ins>Notes in original.</ins>» Mere difference of structure no guide to what will or
+will not cross. First step gained by races keeping apart. «<ins>It is not
+clear where these notes were meant to go.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_258_258' id='Footnote_258_258'></a><a href='#FNanchor_258_258'><span class='label'>{258}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 272, vi. p. 404.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_259_259' id='Footnote_259_259'></a><a href='#FNanchor_259_259'><span class='label'>{259}</span></a>
+This section seems not to correspond closely with any in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.; in some points it resembles pp. 15, 16, also the
+section on analogous variation in distinct species, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+159, vi. p. 194.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_260_260' id='Footnote_260_260'></a><a href='#FNanchor_260_260'><span class='label'>{260}</span></a>
+The law of compensation is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 147, vi. p. 182.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_261_261' id='Footnote_261_261'></a><a href='#FNanchor_261_261'><span class='label'>{261}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Boitard and Corbi&eacute; on outer edging red in tail of
+bird,&mdash;so bars on wing, white or black or brown, or white edged with
+black or «<ins>illegible</ins>»: analogous to marks running through genera but with different
+colours. Tail coloured in pigeons.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_262_262' id='Footnote_262_262'></a><a href='#FNanchor_262_262'><span class='label'>{262}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Oxalis and Gentian. «<ins>In Gentians blue, yellow and
+reddish colours occur. In Oxalis yellow, purple, violet and pink.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_263_263' id='Footnote_263_263'></a><a href='#FNanchor_263_263'><span class='label'>{263}</span></a>
+This section corresponds roughly to that on <i>Hybrids and
+Mongrels compared independently of their fertility</i>, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+272, vi. p. 403. The discussion on G&auml;rtner&rsquo;s views, given in the
+<i>Origin</i>, is here wanting. The brief mention of prepotency is common to
+them both.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_264_264' id='Footnote_264_264'></a><a href='#FNanchor_264_264'><span class='label'>{264}</span></a>
+See <i>Animals and Plants</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 435. The
+phenomenon of <i>Telegony</i>, supposed to be established by this and similar
+cases, is now generally discredited in consequence of Ewart&rsquo;s
+experiments.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_265_265' id='Footnote_265_265'></a><a href='#FNanchor_265_265'><span class='label'>{265}</span></a>
+The section on p. <a href="#Page_109">109</a> is an appendix to
+the summary.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_266_266' id='Footnote_266_266'></a><a href='#FNanchor_266_266'><span class='label'>{266}</span></a>
+I do not know the authority for this statement.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_267_267' id='Footnote_267_267'></a><a href='#FNanchor_267_267'><span class='label'>{267}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i> no limit is placed to variation as far as
+I know.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_268_268' id='Footnote_268_268'></a><a href='#FNanchor_268_268'><span class='label'>{268}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» History of pigeons shows increase of peculiarities
+during last years.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_269_269' id='Footnote_269_269'></a><a href='#FNanchor_269_269'><span class='label'>{269}</span></a>
+Compare an obscure passage in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_270_270' id='Footnote_270_270'></a><a href='#FNanchor_270_270'><span class='label'>{270}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Certainly «<ins>two pages in the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span></ins>» ought to be here introduced, viz.,
+difficulty in forming such organ, as eye, by selection. «<ins>In the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., a chapter on <i>Difficulties on Theory</i> follows that on
+<i>Laws of Variation</i>, and precedes that on <i>Instinct</i>: this was also the
+arrangement in the Essay of 1842; whereas in the present Essay
+<i>Instinct</i> follows <i>Variation</i> and precedes <i>Difficulties</i>.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_271_271' id='Footnote_271_271'></a><a href='#FNanchor_271_271'><span class='label'>{271}</span></a>
+A similar proviso occurs in the chapter on instinct in
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_272_272' id='Footnote_272_272'></a><a href='#FNanchor_272_272'><span class='label'>{272}</span></a>
+The discussion occurs later in Chapter VII of the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. than in the present Essay, where moreover it is fuller
+in some respects.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_273_273' id='Footnote_273_273'></a><a href='#FNanchor_273_273'><span class='label'>{273}</span></a>
+In the margin occurs the name of Poeppig. In <i>Var. under
+Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 28, the reference to Poeppig on the Cuban dogs
+contains no mention of the wildness of their offspring.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_274_274' id='Footnote_274_274'></a><a href='#FNanchor_274_274'><span class='label'>{274}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Several authors.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_275_275' id='Footnote_275_275'></a><a href='#FNanchor_275_275'><span class='label'>{275}</span></a>
+In the margin &ldquo;Hogg&rdquo; occurs as authority for this fact.
+For the reference, see p. 17, note 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_276_276' id='Footnote_276_276'></a><a href='#FNanchor_276_276'><span class='label'>{276}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., he speaks more decidedly against
+the belief that instincts are hereditary habits, see for instance pp.
+209, 214, Ed. vi. pp. 321, 327. He allows, however, something to habit
+(p. 216).</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_277_277' id='Footnote_277_277'></a><a href='#FNanchor_277_277'><span class='label'>{277}</span></a>
+A suggestion of Hering&rsquo;s and S. Butler&rsquo;s views on memory
+and inheritance. It is not, however, implied that Darwin was inclined to
+accept these opinions.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_278_278' id='Footnote_278_278'></a><a href='#FNanchor_278_278'><span class='label'>{278}</span></a>
+Lord Brougham&rsquo;s <i>Dissertations on Subjects of Science</i>,
+etc., 1839, p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_279_279' id='Footnote_279_279'></a><a href='#FNanchor_279_279'><span class='label'>{279}</span></a>
+This case is more briefly given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 213, vi. p. 326. The simile of the butterfly occurs there also.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_280_280' id='Footnote_280_280'></a><a href='#FNanchor_280_280'><span class='label'>{280}</span></a>
+&ldquo;A little dose, as Pierre Huber expresses it, of judgment
+or reason, often comes into play.&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 208, vi. p. 320.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_281_281' id='Footnote_281_281'></a><a href='#FNanchor_281_281'><span class='label'>{281}</span></a>
+In the margin is written &ldquo;Retriever killing one bird.&rdquo;
+This refers to the cases given in the <i>Descent of Man</i>, 2nd Ed. (in 1
+vol.) p. 78, of a retriever being puzzled how to deal with a wounded and
+a dead bird, killed the former and carried both at once. This was the
+only known instance of her wilfully injuring game.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_282_282' id='Footnote_282_282'></a><a href='#FNanchor_282_282'><span class='label'>{282}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 214, vi. p. 327.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_283_283' id='Footnote_283_283'></a><a href='#FNanchor_283_283'><span class='label'>{283}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Give some definition of instinct, or at least give chief
+attributes. «<ins>In <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319, Darwin refuses to
+define instinct.</ins>» The term instinct is often used in «<ins>a</ins>» sense which
+implies no more than that the animal does the action in question.
+Faculties and instincts may I think be imperfectly separated. The mole
+has the faculty of scratching burrows, and the instinct to apply it. The
+bird of passage has the faculty of finding its way and the instinct to
+put it in action at certain periods. It can hardly be said to have the
+faculty of knowing the time, for it can possess no means, without indeed
+it be some consciousness of passing sensations. Think over all habitual
+actions and see whether faculties and instincts can be separated. We
+have faculty of waking in the night, if an instinct prompted us to do
+something at certain hour of night or day. Savages finding their way.
+Wrangel&rsquo;s account&mdash;probably a faculty inexplicable by the possessor.
+There are besides faculties &ldquo;<i>means</i>,&rdquo; as conversion of larv&aelig; into
+neuters and queens. I think all this generally implied, anyhow useful.
+«<ins>This discussion, which does not occur in the <i>Origin</i>, is a first draft
+of that which follows in the text, p. 123.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_284_284' id='Footnote_284_284'></a><a href='#FNanchor_284_284'><span class='label'>{284}</span></a>
+A short discussion of a similar kind occurs in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 211, vi. p. 324.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_285_285' id='Footnote_285_285'></a><a href='#FNanchor_285_285'><span class='label'>{285}</span></a>
+This sentence agrees with the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span>, but is clearly in need
+of correction.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_286_286' id='Footnote_286_286'></a><a href='#FNanchor_286_286'><span class='label'>{286}</span></a>
+This corresponds to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 212, vi. p.
+325.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_287_287' id='Footnote_287_287'></a><a href='#FNanchor_287_287'><span class='label'>{287}</span></a>
+This discussion is interesting in differing from the
+corresponding section of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 216, vi. p. 330, to the
+end of the chapter. In the present Essay the subjects dealt with are
+nest-making instincts, including the egg-hatching habit of the
+Australian bush-turkey. The power of &ldquo;shamming death.&rdquo; &ldquo;Faculty&rdquo; in
+relation to instinct. The instinct of lapse of time, and of direction.
+Bees&rsquo; cells very briefly given. Birds feeding their young on food
+differing from their own natural food. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., the
+cases discussed are the instinct of laying eggs in other birds&rsquo; nests;
+the slave-making instinct in ants; the construction of the bee&rsquo;s comb,
+very fully discussed.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_288_288' id='Footnote_288_288'></a><a href='#FNanchor_288_288'><span class='label'>{288}</span></a>
+The distinction between <i>faculty</i> and <i>instinct</i>
+corresponds in some degree to that between perception of a stimulus and
+a specific reaction. I imagine that the author would have said that the
+sensitiveness to light possessed by a plant is <i>faculty</i>, while
+<i>instinct</i> decides whether the plant curves to or from the source of
+illumination.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_289_289' id='Footnote_289_289'></a><a href='#FNanchor_289_289'><span class='label'>{289}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in the original in an unknown handwriting.</ins>» At the time when corn was pitched in the market instead
+of sold by sample, the geese in the town fields of Newcastle «<ins>Staffordshire?</ins>» used to
+know market day and come in to pick up the corn spilt.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_290_290' id='Footnote_290_290'></a><a href='#FNanchor_290_290'><span class='label'>{290}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Macculloch and others.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_291_291' id='Footnote_291_291'></a><a href='#FNanchor_291_291'><span class='label'>{291}</span></a>
+I can find no reference to the <i>transandantes</i> sheep in
+Darwin&rsquo;s published work. He was possibly led to doubt the accuracy of
+the statement on which he relied. For the case of the sheep returning to
+their birth-place see <a href="#Footnote_91_91">p. 17, note 4</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_292_292' id='Footnote_292_292'></a><a href='#FNanchor_292_292'><span class='label'>{292}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 224, vi. p. 342.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_293_293' id='Footnote_293_293'></a><a href='#FNanchor_293_293'><span class='label'>{293}</span></a>
+This is an expansion of an obscure passage in the Essay
+of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_294_294' id='Footnote_294_294'></a><a href='#FNanchor_294_294'><span class='label'>{294}</span></a>
+The difficulties discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+171, vi. p. 207, are the rarity of transitional varieties, the origin of
+the tail of the giraffe; the otter-like polecat (<i>Mustela vison</i>); the
+flying habit of the bat; the penguin and the logger-headed duck; flying
+fish; the whale-like habit of the bear; the woodpecker; diving petrels;
+the eye; the swimming bladder; Cirripedes; neuter insects; electric
+organs.</p>
+
+<p>Of these, the polecat, the bat, the woodpecker, the eye, the swimming
+bladder are discussed in the present Essay, and in addition some
+botanical problems.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_295_295' id='Footnote_295_295'></a><a href='#FNanchor_295_295'><span class='label'>{295}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. vi. p. 275, the author replies to
+Mivart&rsquo;s criticisms (<i>Genesis of Species</i>, 1871), referring especially
+to that writer&rsquo;s objection &ldquo;that natural selection is incompetent to
+account for the incipient stages of useful structures.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_296_296' id='Footnote_296_296'></a><a href='#FNanchor_296_296'><span class='label'>{296}</span></a>
+«<ins>The following sentence seems to have been intended for
+insertion here</ins>» &ldquo;and that each eye throughout the animal kingdom is not
+only most useful, but <i>perfect</i> for its possessor.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_297_297' id='Footnote_297_297'></a><a href='#FNanchor_297_297'><span class='label'>{297}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 190, vi. p. 230.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_298_298' id='Footnote_298_298'></a><a href='#FNanchor_298_298'><span class='label'>{298}</span></a>
+This is one of the most definite statements in the
+present Essay of the possible importance of <i>sports</i> or what would now
+be called <i>mutations</i>. As is well known the author afterwards doubted
+whether species could arise in this way. See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. v. p. 103,
+vi. p. 110, also <i>Life and Letters</i>, vol. iii. p. 107.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_299_299' id='Footnote_299_299'></a><a href='#FNanchor_299_299'><span class='label'>{299}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 210, vi. p. 322, where the
+question is discussed for the case of instincts with a proviso that the
+same argument applies to structure. It is briefly stated in its general
+bearing in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 106.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_300_300' id='Footnote_300_300'></a><a href='#FNanchor_300_300'><span class='label'>{300}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» No one will dispute that the gliding is most useful,
+probably necessary for the species in question.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_301_301' id='Footnote_301_301'></a><a href='#FNanchor_301_301'><span class='label'>{301}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Is this the Galeopithecus? I forget. «<ins><i>Galeopithecus</i>
+&ldquo;or the flying Lemur&rdquo; is mentioned in the corresponding discussion in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 181, vi. p. 217, as formerly placed among the
+bats. I do not know why it is described as partly aquatic in its
+habits.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_302_302' id='Footnote_302_302'></a><a href='#FNanchor_302_302'><span class='label'>{302}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. vi. p. 221, the author modified the
+statement that it <i>never</i> climbs trees; he also inserted a sentence
+quoting Mr Hudson to the effect that in other districts this woodpecker
+climbs trees and bores holes. See Mr Darwin&rsquo;s paper, <i>Zoolog. Soc.
+Proc.</i>, 1870, and <i>Life and Letters</i>, iii. p. 153.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_303_303' id='Footnote_303_303'></a><a href='#FNanchor_303_303'><span class='label'>{303}</span></a>
+Note by the late Alfred Newton. Richardson in <i>Fauna
+Boreali-Americana</i>, i. p. 49.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_304_304' id='Footnote_304_304'></a><a href='#FNanchor_304_304'><span class='label'>{304}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» See Richardson a far better case of a polecat animal
+«<ins><i>Mustela vison</i></ins>», which half-year is aquatic. «<ins>Mentioned in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 179, vi.
+p. 216.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_305_305' id='Footnote_305_305'></a><a href='#FNanchor_305_305'><span class='label'>{305}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i> the division of the work into Parts I and
+II is omitted. In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the chapters of Part II are numbered afresh,
+the present being Ch. I of Pt. II. I have thought it best to call it Ch.
+IV and there is evidence that Darwin had some thought of doing the same.
+It corresponds to Ch. IX of <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., Ch. X in Ed. vi.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_306_306' id='Footnote_306_306'></a><a href='#FNanchor_306_306'><span class='label'>{306}</span></a>
+In the Essay of 1842 the author uses astronomy in the
+same manner as an illustration. In the <i>Origin</i> this does not occur; the
+reference to the action of secondary causes is more general, <i>e.g.</i> Ed.
+i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_307_307' id='Footnote_307_307'></a><a href='#FNanchor_307_307'><span class='label'>{307}</span></a>
+It is interesting to find the argument from sterility
+given so prominent a place. In a corresponding passage in the <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p. 659, it is more summarily treated. The author
+gives, as the chief bar to the acceptance of evolution, the fact that
+&ldquo;we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not see
+the intermediate steps&rdquo;; and goes on to quote Lyell on geological
+action. It will be remembered that the question of sterility remained a
+difficulty for Huxley.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_308_308' id='Footnote_308_308'></a><a href='#FNanchor_308_308'><span class='label'>{308}</span></a>
+Similar statements occur in the Essay of 1842, p. 24,
+note 1, and in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_309_309' id='Footnote_309_309'></a><a href='#FNanchor_309_309'><span class='label'>{309}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 280, vi. p. 414 he uses his
+newly-acquired knowledge of pigeons to illustrate this point.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_310_310' id='Footnote_310_310'></a><a href='#FNanchor_310_310'><span class='label'>{310}</span></a>
+Compare the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 281, vi. p. 414.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_311_311' id='Footnote_311_311'></a><a href='#FNanchor_311_311'><span class='label'>{311}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 301, vi. p. 440.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_312_312' id='Footnote_312_312'></a><a href='#FNanchor_312_312'><span class='label'>{312}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p. 471.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_313_313' id='Footnote_313_313'></a><a href='#FNanchor_313_313'><span class='label'>{313}</span></a>
+The structure of the Pachyderm leg was a favourite with
+the author. It is discussed in the Essay of 1842, p. 48. In the present
+Essay the following sentence in the margin appears to refer to
+Pachyderms and Ruminants: &ldquo;There can be no doubt, if we banish all
+fossils, existing groups stand more separate.&rdquo; The following occurs
+between the lines &ldquo;The earliest forms would be such as others could
+radiate from.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_314_314' id='Footnote_314_314'></a><a href='#FNanchor_314_314'><span class='label'>{314}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_315_315' id='Footnote_315_315'></a><a href='#FNanchor_315_315'><span class='label'>{315}</span></a>
+«<ins>Pencil insertion by the author.</ins>» The parent-forms of Mollusca would probably differ
+greatly from all recent,&mdash;it is not directly that any one division of
+Mollusca would descend from first time unaltered, whilst others had
+become metamorphosed from it.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_316_316' id='Footnote_316_316'></a><a href='#FNanchor_316_316'><span class='label'>{316}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_317_317' id='Footnote_317_317'></a><a href='#FNanchor_317_317'><span class='label'>{317}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Reflect on coming in of the Chalk, extending from
+Iceland to the Crimea.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_318_318' id='Footnote_318_318'></a><a href='#FNanchor_318_318'><span class='label'>{318}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 282, vi. p. 416.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_319_319' id='Footnote_319_319'></a><a href='#FNanchor_319_319'><span class='label'>{319}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 288, 300, vi. pp. 422, 438.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_320_320' id='Footnote_320_320'></a><a href='#FNanchor_320_320'><span class='label'>{320}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Neither highest or lowest fish (<i>i.e.</i> Myxina «<ins>?</ins>» or
+Lepidosiren) could be preserved in intelligible condition in fossils.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_321_321' id='Footnote_321_321'></a><a href='#FNanchor_321_321'><span class='label'>{321}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 290, vi. p. 425.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_322_322' id='Footnote_322_322'></a><a href='#FNanchor_322_322'><span class='label'>{322}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 310, vi. p. 452 for Lyell's
+metaphor. I am indebted to Prof. Judd for pointing out that Darwin&rsquo;s
+version of the metaphor is founded on the first edition of Lyell&rsquo;s
+<i>Principles</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> and vol. <span class='sc lc'>III.</span>; see the Essay of 1842, p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_323_323' id='Footnote_323_323'></a><a href='#FNanchor_323_323'><span class='label'>{323}</span></a>
+See <i>More Letters</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> pp. 344-7, for Darwin&rsquo;s
+interest in the celebrated observations of Hilgendorf and Hyatt.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_324_324' id='Footnote_324_324'></a><a href='#FNanchor_324_324'><span class='label'>{324}</span></a>
+This corresponds partly to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 294, vi.
+p. 431.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_325_325' id='Footnote_325_325'></a><a href='#FNanchor_325_325'><span class='label'>{325}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_326_326' id='Footnote_326_326'></a><a href='#FNanchor_326_326'><span class='label'>{326}</span></a>
+This chapter corresponds to ch. X of <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.,
+vi. ch. XI, &ldquo;On the geological succession of organic beings.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_327_327' id='Footnote_327_327'></a><a href='#FNanchor_327_327'><span class='label'>{327}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_328_328' id='Footnote_328_328'></a><a href='#FNanchor_328_328'><span class='label'>{328}</span></a>
+In the margin the author has written &ldquo;Lonsdale.&rdquo; This
+refers to W. Lonsdale&rsquo;s paper &ldquo;Notes on the age of the Limestone of
+South Devonshire,&rdquo; <i>Geolog. Soc. Trans.</i>, Series 2, vol. <span class='sc lc'>V.</span> 1840, p.
+721. According to Mr H. B. Woodward (<i>History of the Geological Society
+of London</i>, 1907, p. 107) &ldquo;Lonsdale&rsquo;s &lsquo;important and original suggestion
+of the existence of an intermediary type of Pal&aelig;ozoic fossils, since
+called Devonian,&rsquo; led to a change which was then &lsquo;the greatest ever made
+at one time in the classification of our English formations&rsquo;.&rdquo; Mr
+Woodward&rsquo;s quotations are from Murchison and Buckland.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_329_329' id='Footnote_329_329'></a><a href='#FNanchor_329_329'><span class='label'>{329}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Better begin with this. If species really, after
+catastrophes, created in showers over world, my theory false. «<ins>In the
+above passage the author is obviously close to his theory of
+divergence.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_330_330' id='Footnote_330_330'></a><a href='#FNanchor_330_330'><span class='label'>{330}</span></a>
+Opposite to this passage the author has written
+&ldquo;d&rsquo;Archiac, Forbes, Lyell.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_331_331' id='Footnote_331_331'></a><a href='#FNanchor_331_331'><span class='label'>{331}</span></a>
+This passage, for which the author gives as authorities
+the names of Lyell, Forbes and Ehrenberg, corresponds in part to the
+discussion beginning on p. 313 of <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., vi. p. 454.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_332_332' id='Footnote_332_332'></a><a href='#FNanchor_332_332'><span class='label'>{332}</span></a>
+The author gives Falconer as his authority: see <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_333_333' id='Footnote_333_333'></a><a href='#FNanchor_333_333'><span class='label'>{333}</span></a>
+This corresponds approximately to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+317, vi. p. 458.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_334_334' id='Footnote_334_334'></a><a href='#FNanchor_334_334'><span class='label'>{334}</span></a>
+The case of <i>Trigonia</i>, a great Secondary genus of shells
+surviving in a single species in the Australian seas, is given as an
+example in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_335_335' id='Footnote_335_335'></a><a href='#FNanchor_335_335'><span class='label'>{335}</span></a>
+This point, on which the author laid much stress, is
+discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 319, vi. p. 461.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_336_336' id='Footnote_336_336'></a><a href='#FNanchor_336_336'><span class='label'>{336}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 72, vi. p. 89.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_337_337' id='Footnote_337_337'></a><a href='#FNanchor_337_337'><span class='label'>{337}</span></a>
+This case does not occur in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_338_338' id='Footnote_338_338'></a><a href='#FNanchor_338_338'><span class='label'>{338}</span></a>
+An almost identical sentence occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 320, vi. p. 462.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_339_339' id='Footnote_339_339'></a><a href='#FNanchor_339_339'><span class='label'>{339}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_340_340' id='Footnote_340_340'></a><a href='#FNanchor_340_340'><span class='label'>{340}</span></a>
+Chapters XI and XII in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., vi. chs. XII
+and XIII (&ldquo;On geographical distribution&rdquo;) show signs of having been
+originally one, in the fact that one summary serves for both. The
+geological element is not separately treated there, nor is there a
+separate section on &ldquo;how far these laws accord with the theory, &amp;c.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the author has here written in the margin &ldquo;If same species
+appear at two spot at once, fatal to my theory.&rdquo; See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+352, vi. p. 499</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_341_341' id='Footnote_341_341'></a><a href='#FNanchor_341_341'><span class='label'>{341}</span></a>
+This division of the land into regions does not occur in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_342_342' id='Footnote_342_342'></a><a href='#FNanchor_342_342'><span class='label'>{342}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_343_343' id='Footnote_343_343'></a><a href='#FNanchor_343_343'><span class='label'>{343}</span></a>
+Opposite this passage is written &ldquo;<i>not botanically</i>,&rdquo; in
+Sir J. D. Hooker&rsquo;s hand. The word <i>palms</i> is underlined three times and
+followed by three exclamation marks. An explanatory note is added in the
+margin &ldquo;singular paucity of palms and epiphytes in Trop. Africa compared
+with Trop. America and Ind. Or.&rdquo; «<ins>=East Indies</ins>».</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_344_344' id='Footnote_344_344'></a><a href='#FNanchor_344_344'><span class='label'>{344}</span></a>
+This partly corresponds to <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 337, vi.
+p. 483.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_345_345' id='Footnote_345_345'></a><a href='#FNanchor_345_345'><span class='label'>{345}</span></a>
+On the general importance of barriers, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 347, vi. p. 494.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_346_346' id='Footnote_346_346'></a><a href='#FNanchor_346_346'><span class='label'>{346}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 348, vi. p. 495.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_347_347' id='Footnote_347_347'></a><a href='#FNanchor_347_347'><span class='label'>{347}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» The same laws seem to govern distribution of species and
+genera, and individuals in time and space. «<ins>See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 350,
+vi. p. 497, also a passage in the last chapter, p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_348_348' id='Footnote_348_348'></a><a href='#FNanchor_348_348'><span class='label'>{348}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 404, vi. p. 559.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_349_349' id='Footnote_349_349'></a><a href='#FNanchor_349_349'><span class='label'>{349}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_350_350' id='Footnote_350_350'></a><a href='#FNanchor_350_350'><span class='label'>{350}</span></a>
+The case of the ostrich (<i>Rhea</i>) occurs in the <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_351_351' id='Footnote_351_351'></a><a href='#FNanchor_351_351'><span class='label'>{351}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» There is a hare in S. America,&mdash;so bad example.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_352_352' id='Footnote_352_352'></a><a href='#FNanchor_352_352'><span class='label'>{352}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 497.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_353_353' id='Footnote_353_353'></a><a href='#FNanchor_353_353'><span class='label'>{353}</span></a>
+For the general problem of Oceanic Islands, see <i>Origin</i>,
+Ed. i. p. 388, vi. p. 541.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_354_354' id='Footnote_354_354'></a><a href='#FNanchor_354_354'><span class='label'>{354}</span></a>
+This is an illustration of the general theory of barriers
+(<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 347, vi. p. 494). At i. p. 391, vi. p. 544 the
+question is discussed from the point of view of means of transport.
+Between the lines, above the words &ldquo;with that land,&rdquo; the author wrote
+&ldquo;Cause, formerly joined, no one doubts after Lyell.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_355_355' id='Footnote_355_355'></a><a href='#FNanchor_355_355'><span class='label'>{355}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_356_356' id='Footnote_356_356'></a><a href='#FNanchor_356_356'><span class='label'>{356}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 397, vi. p. 552.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_357_357' id='Footnote_357_357'></a><a href='#FNanchor_357_357'><span class='label'>{357}</span></a>
+The Cape de Verde and Galapagos Archipelagoes are
+compared in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553. See also <i>Journal
+of Researches</i>, 1860, p. 393.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_358_358' id='Footnote_358_358'></a><a href='#FNanchor_358_358'><span class='label'>{358}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 390, a strong point is made of
+birds which immigrated &ldquo;with facility and in a body&rdquo; not having been
+modified. Thus the author accounts for the small percentage of peculiar
+&ldquo;marine birds.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_359_359' id='Footnote_359_359'></a><a href='#FNanchor_359_359'><span class='label'>{359}</span></a>
+&ldquo;The affinities of the St Helena flora are strongly South
+African.&rdquo; Hooker&rsquo;s <i>Lecture on Insular Floras</i> in the <i>Gardeners&rsquo;
+Chronicle</i>, Jan. 1867.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_360_360' id='Footnote_360_360'></a><a href='#FNanchor_360_360'><span class='label'>{360}</span></a>
+It is impossible to make out the precise form which the
+author intended to give to this sentence, but the meaning is clear.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_361_361' id='Footnote_361_361'></a><a href='#FNanchor_361_361'><span class='label'>{361}</span></a>
+This is no doubt true, the flora of the Sandwich group
+however has marked American affinities.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_362_362' id='Footnote_362_362'></a><a href='#FNanchor_362_362'><span class='label'>{362}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515. The present
+discussion was written before the publication of Forbes&rsquo; celebrated
+paper on the same subject; see <i>Life and Letters</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_363_363' id='Footnote_363_363'></a><a href='#FNanchor_363_363'><span class='label'>{363}</span></a>
+The apparent breakdown of the doctrine of barriers is
+slightly touched on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_364_364' id='Footnote_364_364'></a><a href='#FNanchor_364_364'><span class='label'>{364}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 375, vi. p. 526, the author
+points out that on the mountains at the Cape of Good Hope &ldquo;some few
+representative European forms are found, which have not been discovered
+in the inter-tropical parts of Africa.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_365_365' id='Footnote_365_365'></a><a href='#FNanchor_365_365'><span class='label'>{365}</span></a>
+See Hooker&rsquo;s <i>Lecture on Insular Floras</i> in the
+<i>Gardeners&rsquo; Chronicle</i>, Jan. 1867.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_366_366' id='Footnote_366_366'></a><a href='#FNanchor_366_366'><span class='label'>{366}</span></a>
+In the margin the author has written &ldquo;(Forbes).&rdquo; This may
+have been inserted at a date later than 1844, or it may refer to a work
+by Forbes earlier than his Alpine paper.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_367_367' id='Footnote_367_367'></a><a href='#FNanchor_367_367'><span class='label'>{367}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 367, vi. p. 517.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_368_368' id='Footnote_368_368'></a><a href='#FNanchor_368_368'><span class='label'>{368}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Perhaps vitality checked by cold and so prevented
+germinating. «<ins>On the carriage of seeds by icebergs, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 363, vi. p. 513.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_369_369' id='Footnote_369_369'></a><a href='#FNanchor_369_369'><span class='label'>{369}</span></a>
+A note by the author gives &ldquo;many authors&rdquo; apparently as
+authority for this statement.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_370_370' id='Footnote_370_370'></a><a href='#FNanchor_370_370'><span class='label'>{370}</span></a>
+Opposite to this passage, in the margin, the author has
+written:&mdash;&ldquo;too hypothetical.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_371_371' id='Footnote_371_371'></a><a href='#FNanchor_371_371'><span class='label'>{371}</span></a>
+The Cordillera is described as supplying a great line of
+invasion in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 378.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_372_372' id='Footnote_372_372'></a><a href='#FNanchor_372_372'><span class='label'>{372}</span></a>
+This is an approximation to the author&rsquo;s views on
+trans-tropical migration (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 376-8). See
+Thiselton-Dyer&rsquo;s interesting discussion in <i>Darwin and Modern Science</i>,
+p. 304.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_373_373' id='Footnote_373_373'></a><a href='#FNanchor_373_373'><span class='label'>{373}</span></a>
+See Hooker&rsquo;s <i>Lecture on Insular Floras</i> in the
+<i>Gardeners&rsquo; Chronicle</i>, Jan. 1867.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_374_374' id='Footnote_374_374'></a><a href='#FNanchor_374_374'><span class='label'>{374}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» Similarity of flora of coral islands easily explained.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_375_375' id='Footnote_375_375'></a><a href='#FNanchor_375_375'><span class='label'>{375}</span></a>
+On centres of creation see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi.
+p. 499.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_376_376' id='Footnote_376_376'></a><a href='#FNanchor_376_376'><span class='label'>{376}</span></a>
+In the <i>Journal of Researches</i>, Ed. 1860, p. 124, the
+distribution of the Bizcacha is described as limited by the river
+Uruguay. The case is not I think given in the <i>Origin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_377_377' id='Footnote_377_377'></a><a href='#FNanchor_377_377'><span class='label'>{377}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. a special section (p. 356, vi. p.
+504) is devoted to <i>Means of Dispersal</i>. The much greater prominence
+given to this subject in the <i>Origin</i> is partly accounted for by the
+author&rsquo;s experiments being of later date, <i>i.e.</i> 1855 (<i>Life and
+Letters</i>, vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 53). The carriage of fish by whirlwinds is given
+in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 384, vi. p. 536.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_378_378' id='Footnote_378_378'></a><a href='#FNanchor_378_378'><span class='label'>{378}</span></a>
+The case of islands serving as halting places is given in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 357, vi. p. 505. But here the evidence of this
+having occurred is supposed to be lost by the subsidence of the islands,
+not merely by the extinction of the species.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_379_379' id='Footnote_379_379'></a><a href='#FNanchor_379_379'><span class='label'>{379}</span></a>
+&ldquo;We find no inexplicable cases of the same mammal
+inhabiting distant points of the world.&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p.
+500. See also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_380_380' id='Footnote_380_380'></a><a href='#FNanchor_380_380'><span class='label'>{380}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» Many authors. «<ins>See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 547.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_381_381' id='Footnote_381_381'></a><a href='#FNanchor_381_381'><span class='label'>{381}</span></a>
+<i>Nutria</i> is the Spanish for otter, and is now a synonym
+for <i>Lutra</i>. The otter on the Atlantic coast is distinguished by minute
+differences from the Pacific species. Both forms are said to take to the
+sea. In fact the case presents no especial difficulties.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_382_382' id='Footnote_382_382'></a><a href='#FNanchor_382_382'><span class='label'>{382}</span></a>
+In <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 548, bats are
+mentioned as an explicable exception to this statement.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_383_383' id='Footnote_383_383'></a><a href='#FNanchor_383_383'><span class='label'>{383}</span></a>
+This reference is doubtless to <i>Mydaus</i>, a badger-like
+animal from the mountains of Java and Sumatra (Wallace, <i>Geographical
+Distribution</i>, ii. p. 199). The instance does not occur in the <i>Origin</i>
+but the author remarks (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 376, vi. p. 527) that cases,
+strictly analogous to the distribution of plants, occur among
+terrestrial mammals.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_384_384' id='Footnote_384_384'></a><a href='#FNanchor_384_384'><span class='label'>{384}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_385_385' id='Footnote_385_385'></a><a href='#FNanchor_385_385'><span class='label'>{385}</span></a>
+The comparison between New Zealand and the Cape is given
+in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_386_386' id='Footnote_386_386'></a><a href='#FNanchor_386_386'><span class='label'>{386}</span></a>
+In a corresponding discussion in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+393, vi. p. 546, stress is laid on the distribution of Batrachians not
+of reptiles.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_387_387' id='Footnote_387_387'></a><a href='#FNanchor_387_387'><span class='label'>{387}</span></a>
+The whole argument is given&mdash;more briefly than here&mdash;in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 547.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_388_388' id='Footnote_388_388'></a><a href='#FNanchor_388_388'><span class='label'>{388}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed i. p. 393, vi. p. 547. The discussion is
+much fuller in the present Essay.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_389_389' id='Footnote_389_389'></a><a href='#FNanchor_389_389'><span class='label'>{389}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_390_390' id='Footnote_390_390'></a><a href='#FNanchor_390_390'><span class='label'>{390}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485, which
+corresponds to this part of the present Essay, the author does not make
+a separate section for such cases as the occurrence of fossil Marsupials
+in Europe (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486) as he does in the
+present Essay; see the section on <i>Changes in geographical
+distribution</i>, p. 177.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_391_391' id='Footnote_391_391'></a><a href='#FNanchor_391_391'><span class='label'>{391}</span></a>
+&ldquo;We can understand how it is that all the forms of life,
+ancient and recent, make together one grand system; for all are
+connected by generation.&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 344, vi. p. 491.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_392_392' id='Footnote_392_392'></a><a href='#FNanchor_392_392'><span class='label'>{392}</span></a>
+The word <i>hy&aelig;na</i> is erased. There appear to be no fossil
+Hy&aelig;nid&aelig; in S. America.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_393_393' id='Footnote_393_393'></a><a href='#FNanchor_393_393'><span class='label'>{393}</span></a>
+See <a href="#Footnote_390_390">note 1, p. 175</a>, also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p.
+486.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_394_394' id='Footnote_394_394'></a><a href='#FNanchor_394_394'><span class='label'>{394}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» And see Eocene European mammals in N. America.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_395_395' id='Footnote_395_395'></a><a href='#FNanchor_395_395'><span class='label'>{395}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» All this requires much verification.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_396_396' id='Footnote_396_396'></a><a href='#FNanchor_396_396'><span class='label'>{396}</span></a>
+This point seems to be less insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_397_397' id='Footnote_397_397'></a><a href='#FNanchor_397_397'><span class='label'>{397}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 356, vi. p. 504.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_398_398' id='Footnote_398_398'></a><a href='#FNanchor_398_398'><span class='label'>{398}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note by the author.</ins>» D'Orbigny shows that this is not so.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_399_399' id='Footnote_399_399'></a><a href='#FNanchor_399_399'><span class='label'>{399}</span></a>
+This instance occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+but not in the <i>Origin</i>; though the importance of isolation is
+discussed (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 104, vi. p. 127).</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_400_400' id='Footnote_400_400'></a><a href='#FNanchor_400_400'><span class='label'>{400}</span></a>
+The meaning of the words within parenthesis is obscure.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_401_401' id='Footnote_401_401'></a><a href='#FNanchor_401_401'><span class='label'>{401}</span></a>
+It is unusual to find the author speaking of the
+selection of <i>sports</i> rather than small variations.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_402_402' id='Footnote_402_402'></a><a href='#FNanchor_402_402'><span class='label'>{402}</span></a>
+This brief discussion is represented in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. by a much fuller one (pp. 356, 383, vi. pp. 504, 535). See, however,
+the section in the present Essay, p. 168.[Link: Page 168]</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_403_403' id='Footnote_403_403'></a><a href='#FNanchor_403_403'><span class='label'>{403}</span></a>
+On the formation of new stations, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+292, vi. p. 429.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_404_404' id='Footnote_404_404'></a><a href='#FNanchor_404_404'><span class='label'>{404}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 390, 400, vi. pp. 543, 554.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_405_405' id='Footnote_405_405'></a><a href='#FNanchor_405_405'><span class='label'>{405}</span></a>
+In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> <i>some of the species ... nourishing quality</i>
+is doubtfully erased. It seems clear that he doubted whether such a
+problematical supply of food would be likely to cause variation.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_406_406' id='Footnote_406_406'></a><a href='#FNanchor_406_406'><span class='label'>{406}</span></a>
+At this time the author clearly put more faith in the
+importance of sport-like variation than in later years.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_407_407' id='Footnote_407_407'></a><a href='#FNanchor_407_407'><span class='label'>{407}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_408_408' id='Footnote_408_408'></a><a href='#FNanchor_408_408'><span class='label'>{408}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 403, vi. p. 558, where the author
+speaks of Alpine humming birds, rodents, plants, &amp;c. in S. America, all
+of strictly American forms. In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> the author has added between the
+lines &ldquo;As world has been getting hotter, there has been radiation from
+high-lands,&mdash;old view?&mdash;curious; I presume Diluvian in origin.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_409_409' id='Footnote_409_409'></a><a href='#FNanchor_409_409'><span class='label'>{409}</span></a>
+See the comparison between the Malay Archipelago and the
+probable former state of Europe, <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 438,
+also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 292, vi. p. 429.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_410_410' id='Footnote_410_410'></a><a href='#FNanchor_410_410'><span class='label'>{410}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496. The arrangement of
+the argument in the present Essay leads to repetition of statements made
+in the earlier part of the book: in the <i>Origin</i> this is avoided.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_411_411' id='Footnote_411_411'></a><a href='#FNanchor_411_411'><span class='label'>{411}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_412_412' id='Footnote_412_412'></a><a href='#FNanchor_412_412'><span class='label'>{412}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_413_413' id='Footnote_413_413'></a><a href='#FNanchor_413_413'><span class='label'>{413}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 350, 404, vi. pp. 498, 559.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_414_414' id='Footnote_414_414'></a><a href='#FNanchor_414_414'><span class='label'>{414}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 500.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_415_415' id='Footnote_415_415'></a><a href='#FNanchor_415_415'><span class='label'>{415}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_416_416' id='Footnote_416_416'></a><a href='#FNanchor_416_416'><span class='label'>{416}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 341, vi. p. 487.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_417_417' id='Footnote_417_417'></a><a href='#FNanchor_417_417'><span class='label'>{417}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 396, vi. p. 549.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_418_418' id='Footnote_418_418'></a><a href='#FNanchor_418_418'><span class='label'>{418}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_419_419' id='Footnote_419_419'></a><a href='#FNanchor_419_419'><span class='label'>{419}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_420_420' id='Footnote_420_420'></a><a href='#FNanchor_420_420'><span class='label'>{420}</span></a>
+&ldquo;Nature may almost be said to have guarded against the
+frequent discovery of her transitional or linking forms,&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 292. A similar but not identical passage occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+vi. p. 428.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_421_421' id='Footnote_421_421'></a><a href='#FNanchor_421_421'><span class='label'>{421}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_422_422' id='Footnote_422_422'></a><a href='#FNanchor_422_422'><span class='label'>{422}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_423_423' id='Footnote_423_423'></a><a href='#FNanchor_423_423'><span class='label'>{423}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 289, vi. p. 423.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_424_424' id='Footnote_424_424'></a><a href='#FNanchor_424_424'><span class='label'>{424}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 300, vi. p. 439.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_425_425' id='Footnote_425_425'></a><a href='#FNanchor_425_425'><span class='label'>{425}</span></a>
+Ch. XIII of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i., Ch. XIV Ed. vi. begins
+with a similar statement. In the present Essay the author adds a
+note:&mdash;&ldquo;The obviousness of the fact (<i>i.e.</i> the natural grouping of
+organisms) alone prevents it being remarkable. It is scarcely explicable
+by creationist: groups of aquatic, of vegetable feeders and carnivorous,
+&amp;c., might resemble each other; but why as it is. So with
+plants,&mdash;analogical resemblance thus accounted for. Must not here enter
+into details.&rdquo; This argument is incorporated with the text in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_426_426' id='Footnote_426_426'></a><a href='#FNanchor_426_426'><span class='label'>{426}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 411, vi. p. 566.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_427_427' id='Footnote_427_427'></a><a href='#FNanchor_427_427'><span class='label'>{427}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_428_428' id='Footnote_428_428'></a><a href='#FNanchor_428_428'><span class='label'>{428}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_429_429' id='Footnote_429_429'></a><a href='#FNanchor_429_429'><span class='label'>{429}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. this preliminary matter is
+replaced (pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567) by a discussion in which
+extinction is also treated, but chiefly from the point of view of the
+theory of divergence.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_430_430' id='Footnote_430_430'></a><a href='#FNanchor_430_430'><span class='label'>{430}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_431_431' id='Footnote_431_431'></a><a href='#FNanchor_431_431'><span class='label'>{431}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_432_432' id='Footnote_432_432'></a><a href='#FNanchor_432_432'><span class='label'>{432}</span></a>
+These instances occur with others in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 416, vi. p. 572.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_433_433' id='Footnote_433_433'></a><a href='#FNanchor_433_433'><span class='label'>{433}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 418, vi. p. 574.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_434_434' id='Footnote_434_434'></a><a href='#FNanchor_434_434'><span class='label'>{434}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 419, 440, vi. pp. 575, 606.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_435_435' id='Footnote_435_435'></a><a href='#FNanchor_435_435'><span class='label'>{435}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 418, 425, vi. pp. 574, 581.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_436_436' id='Footnote_436_436'></a><a href='#FNanchor_436_436'><span class='label'>{436}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 413, vi. p. 569.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_437_437' id='Footnote_437_437'></a><a href='#FNanchor_437_437'><span class='label'>{437}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_438_438' id='Footnote_438_438'></a><a href='#FNanchor_438_438'><span class='label'>{438}</span></a>
+This is discussed from the point of view of divergence in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 420, 421, vi. pp. 576, 577.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_439_439' id='Footnote_439_439'></a><a href='#FNanchor_439_439'><span class='label'>{439}</span></a>
+«<ins>Footnote by the author.</ins>» I discuss this because if Quinarism true, I false. «<ins>The
+Quinary System is set forth in W. S. Macleay&rsquo;s <i>Hor&aelig; Entomologic&aelig;</i>,
+1821.</ins>»</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_440_440' id='Footnote_440_440'></a><a href='#FNanchor_440_440'><span class='label'>{440}</span></a>
+In the corresponding passage in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+430, vi. p. 591, the term <i>general</i> is used in place of <i>generic</i>, and
+seems a better expression. In the margin the author gives Waterhouse as
+his authority.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_441_441' id='Footnote_441_441'></a><a href='#FNanchor_441_441'><span class='label'>{441}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_442_442' id='Footnote_442_442'></a><a href='#FNanchor_442_442'><span class='label'>{442}</span></a>
+In a corresponding passage in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+423, vi. p. 579, the author makes use of his knowledge of pigeons. The
+pseudo-genera among dogs are discussed in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii.
+vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 38.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_443_443' id='Footnote_443_443'></a><a href='#FNanchor_443_443'><span class='label'>{443}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_444_444' id='Footnote_444_444'></a><a href='#FNanchor_444_444'><span class='label'>{444}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 423, 427, vi. pp. 579, 583.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_445_445' id='Footnote_445_445'></a><a href='#FNanchor_445_445'><span class='label'>{445}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_446_446' id='Footnote_446_446'></a><a href='#FNanchor_446_446'><span class='label'>{446}</span></a>
+A general statement of the influence of conditions on
+variation occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 131-3, vi. pp. 164-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_447_447' id='Footnote_447_447'></a><a href='#FNanchor_447_447'><span class='label'>{447}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579. In the margin
+Marshall is given as the authority.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_448_448' id='Footnote_448_448'></a><a href='#FNanchor_448_448'><span class='label'>{448}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_449_449' id='Footnote_449_449'></a><a href='#FNanchor_449_449'><span class='label'>{449}</span></a>
+The discussion here following corresponds more or less to
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567; although the
+doctrine of divergence is not mentioned in this Essay (as it is in the
+<i>Origin</i>) yet the present section seems to me a distinct approximation
+to it.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_450_450' id='Footnote_450_450'></a><a href='#FNanchor_450_450'><span class='label'>{450}</span></a>
+The author probably intended to write &ldquo;groups separated
+by chasms.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_451_451' id='Footnote_451_451'></a><a href='#FNanchor_451_451'><span class='label'>{451}</span></a>
+A similar discussion occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+427, vi. p. 582.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_452_452' id='Footnote_452_452'></a><a href='#FNanchor_452_452'><span class='label'>{452}</span></a>
+<i>Puffinuria berardi</i>, see <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 184, vi. p.
+221.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_453_453' id='Footnote_453_453'></a><a href='#FNanchor_453_453'><span class='label'>{453}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_454_454' id='Footnote_454_454'></a><a href='#FNanchor_454_454'><span class='label'>{454}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595. Ch. VIII corresponds
+to a section of Ch. XIII in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_455_455' id='Footnote_455_455'></a><a href='#FNanchor_455_455'><span class='label'>{455}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 596. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. these examples occur under the heading <i>Morphology</i>; the author does
+not there draw much distinction between this heading and that of <i>Unity
+of Type</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_456_456' id='Footnote_456_456'></a><a href='#FNanchor_456_456'><span class='label'>{456}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 599, where the parts
+of the flower, the jaws and palpi of Crustaceans and the vertebrate
+skull are given as examples.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_457_457' id='Footnote_457_457'></a><a href='#FNanchor_457_457'><span class='label'>{457}</span></a>
+The author here brings <i>Unity of Type</i> and <i>Morphology</i>
+together.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_458_458' id='Footnote_458_458'></a><a href='#FNanchor_458_458'><span class='label'>{458}</span></a>
+The solid-hoofed pigs mentioned in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed.
+ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>II.</span> p. 424 are not <i>Lincolnshire pigs</i>. For other cases see
+Bateson, <i>Materials for the Study of Variation</i>, 1894, pp. 387-90.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_459_459' id='Footnote_459_459'></a><a href='#FNanchor_459_459'><span class='label'>{459}</span></a>
+In the margin C. Bell is given as authority, apparently
+for the statement about Plesiosaurus. See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 436, vi.
+p. 598, where the author speaks of the &ldquo;general pattern&rdquo; being obscured
+in &ldquo;extinct gigantic sea lizards.&rdquo; In the same place the suctorial
+Entomostraca are added as examples of the difficulty of recognising the
+type.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_460_460' id='Footnote_460_460'></a><a href='#FNanchor_460_460'><span class='label'>{460}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_461_461' id='Footnote_461_461'></a><a href='#FNanchor_461_461'><span class='label'>{461}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 604.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_462_462' id='Footnote_462_462'></a><a href='#FNanchor_462_462'><span class='label'>{462}</span></a>
+The uselessness of the branchial arches in mammalia is
+insisted on in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606. Also the
+uselessness of the spots on the young blackbird and the stripes of the
+lion-whelp, cases which do not occur in the present Essay.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_463_463' id='Footnote_463_463'></a><a href='#FNanchor_463_463'><span class='label'>{463}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 442, 448, vi. pp. 608, 614 it
+is pointed out that in some cases the young form resembles the adult,
+<i>e.g.</i> in spiders; again, that in the Aphis there is no &ldquo;worm-like
+stage&rdquo; of development.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_464_464' id='Footnote_464_464'></a><a href='#FNanchor_464_464'><span class='label'>{464}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618, the author
+speaks doubtfully about the recapitulation theory.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_465_465' id='Footnote_465_465'></a><a href='#FNanchor_465_465'><span class='label'>{465}</span></a>
+This corresponds to the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p.
+607, where, however, the example is taken from the Cirripedes.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_466_466' id='Footnote_466_466'></a><a href='#FNanchor_466_466'><span class='label'>{466}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_467_467' id='Footnote_467_467'></a><a href='#FNanchor_467_467'><span class='label'>{467}</span></a>
+This corresponds to the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. pp. 443-4, vi.
+p. 610: the &ldquo;feline animal&rdquo; is not used to illustrate the
+generalisation, but is so used in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_468_468' id='Footnote_468_468'></a><a href='#FNanchor_468_468'><span class='label'>{468}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 447, vi. p. 613.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_469_469' id='Footnote_469_469'></a><a href='#FNanchor_469_469'><span class='label'>{469}</span></a>
+In the margin is written &ldquo;Get young pigeons&rdquo;; this was
+afterwards done, and the results are given in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+445, vi. p. 612.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_470_470' id='Footnote_470_470'></a><a href='#FNanchor_470_470'><span class='label'>{470}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. the corresponding passages are at
+pp. 8, 13, 443, vi. pp. 8, 15, 610. In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. I have not
+found a passage so striking as that which occurs a few lines lower &ldquo;that
+the germinal vesicle is impressed with some power which is wonderfully
+preserved, &amp;c.&rdquo; In the <i>Origin</i> this <i>preservation</i> is rather taken for
+granted.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_471_471' id='Footnote_471_471'></a><a href='#FNanchor_471_471'><span class='label'>{471}</span></a>
+«<ins>In the margin is written</ins>» Aborted organs show, perhaps, something about period «<ins>at</ins>»
+which changes supervene in embryo.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_472_472' id='Footnote_472_472'></a><a href='#FNanchor_472_472'><span class='label'>{472}</span></a>
+See <a href="#Footnote_160_160">p. 42, note 5</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_473_473' id='Footnote_473_473'></a><a href='#FNanchor_473_473'><span class='label'>{473}</span></a>
+The evidence is given in <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 316.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_474_474' id='Footnote_474_474'></a><a href='#FNanchor_474_474'><span class='label'>{474}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 610.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_475_475' id='Footnote_475_475'></a><a href='#FNanchor_475_475'><span class='label'>{475}</span></a>
+In <i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 295, such eggs
+are said to be laid early in each season by the black Labrador duck. In
+the next sentence in the text the author does not distinguish the
+characters of the vegetable capsule from those of the ovum.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_476_476' id='Footnote_476_476'></a><a href='#FNanchor_476_476'><span class='label'>{476}</span></a>
+This seems to me to be more strongly stated here than in
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_477_477' id='Footnote_477_477'></a><a href='#FNanchor_477_477'><span class='label'>{477}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_478_478' id='Footnote_478_478'></a><a href='#FNanchor_478_478'><span class='label'>{478}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_479_479' id='Footnote_479_479'></a><a href='#FNanchor_479_479'><span class='label'>{479}</span></a>
+Compare <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 419, vi. p. 575.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_480_480' id='Footnote_480_480'></a><a href='#FNanchor_480_480'><span class='label'>{480}</span></a>
+«<ins>Note in original.</ins>» Scarcely possible to distinguish between non-development
+and retrograde development.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_481_481' id='Footnote_481_481'></a><a href='#FNanchor_481_481'><span class='label'>{481}</span></a>
+See p. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, where the same illustration is
+used.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_482_482' id='Footnote_482_482'></a><a href='#FNanchor_482_482'><span class='label'>{482}</span></a>
+<i>Var. under Dom.</i>, Ed. ii. vol. <span class='sc lc'>I.</span> p. 452.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_483_483' id='Footnote_483_483'></a><a href='#FNanchor_483_483'><span class='label'>{483}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_484_484' id='Footnote_484_484'></a><a href='#FNanchor_484_484'><span class='label'>{484}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_485_485' id='Footnote_485_485'></a><a href='#FNanchor_485_485'><span class='label'>{485}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_486_486' id='Footnote_486_486'></a><a href='#FNanchor_486_486'><span class='label'>{486}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619, the author
+does not lay stress on any distinction in meaning between the terms
+<i>abortive</i> and <i>rudimentary</i> organs.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_487_487' id='Footnote_487_487'></a><a href='#FNanchor_487_487'><span class='label'>{487}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_488_488' id='Footnote_488_488'></a><a href='#FNanchor_488_488'><span class='label'>{488}</span></a>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_489_489' id='Footnote_489_489'></a><a href='#FNanchor_489_489'><span class='label'>{489}</span></a>
+This argument occurs in <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p.
+619.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_490_490' id='Footnote_490_490'></a><a href='#FNanchor_490_490'><span class='label'>{490}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 619, on male mamm&aelig;. In
+the <i>Origin</i> he speaks certainly of the abortive mamm&aelig; of the cow giving
+milk,&mdash;a point which is here queried.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_491_491' id='Footnote_491_491'></a><a href='#FNanchor_491_491'><span class='label'>{491}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_492_492' id='Footnote_492_492'></a><a href='#FNanchor_492_492'><span class='label'>{492}</span></a>
+The <ins class='corr' title="Transcriber's Note: The
+original showed &lsquo;care&rsquo;.">case</ins> of rudimentary organs adapted to new
+purposes is discussed in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_493_493' id='Footnote_493_493'></a><a href='#FNanchor_493_493'><span class='label'>{493}</span></a>
+This is here stated on the authority of Sprengel; see
+also <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 452, vi. p. 621.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_494_494' id='Footnote_494_494'></a><a href='#FNanchor_494_494'><span class='label'>{494}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627. In the margin R.
+Brown's name is given apparently as the authority for the fact.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_495_495' id='Footnote_495_495'></a><a href='#FNanchor_495_495'><span class='label'>{495}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 626.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_496_496' id='Footnote_496_496'></a><a href='#FNanchor_496_496'><span class='label'>{496}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_497_497' id='Footnote_497_497'></a><a href='#FNanchor_497_497'><span class='label'>{497}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625, the author in
+referring to semi-monstrous variations adds &ldquo;But I doubt whether any of
+these cases throw light on the origin of rudimentary organs in a state
+of nature.&rdquo; In 1844 he was clearly more inclined to an opposite
+opinion.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_498_498' id='Footnote_498_498'></a><a href='#FNanchor_498_498'><span class='label'>{498}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_499_499' id='Footnote_499_499'></a><a href='#FNanchor_499_499'><span class='label'>{499}</span></a>
+See <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625. The author there
+discusses monstrosities in relation to rudimentary organs, and comes to
+the conclusion that disuse is of more importance, giving as a reason his
+doubt &ldquo;whether species under nature ever undergo abrupt changes.&rdquo; It
+seems to me that in the <i>Origin</i> he gives more weight to the &ldquo;Lamarckian
+factor&rdquo; than he did in 1844. Huxley took the opposite view, see the
+Introduction.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_500_500' id='Footnote_500_500'></a><a href='#FNanchor_500_500'><span class='label'>{500}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_501_501' id='Footnote_501_501'></a><a href='#FNanchor_501_501'><span class='label'>{501}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 11, vi. p. 13, where drooping-ears of
+domestic animals are also given.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_502_502' id='Footnote_502_502'></a><a href='#FNanchor_502_502'><span class='label'>{502}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 137, vi. p. 170.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_503_503' id='Footnote_503_503'></a><a href='#FNanchor_503_503'><span class='label'>{503}</span></a>
+These words seem to have been inserted as an
+afterthought.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_504_504' id='Footnote_504_504'></a><a href='#FNanchor_504_504'><span class='label'>{504}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_505_505' id='Footnote_505_505'></a><a href='#FNanchor_505_505'><span class='label'>{505}</span></a>
+This and similar cases occur in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+452, vi. p. 621.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_506_506' id='Footnote_506_506'></a><a href='#FNanchor_506_506'><span class='label'>{506}</span></a>
+The metaphor of the dishes is given in the Essay of 1842,
+<a href="#Footnote_173_173">p. 47, note 3</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_507_507' id='Footnote_507_507'></a><a href='#FNanchor_507_507'><span class='label'>{507}</span></a>
+Compare however Darwin&rsquo;s later view:&mdash;&ldquo;The possibility of
+making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated,&rdquo;
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23. The author&rsquo;s change of opinion was no
+doubt partly due to his experience in breeding pigeons.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_508_508' id='Footnote_508_508'></a><a href='#FNanchor_508_508'><span class='label'>{508}</span></a>
+In the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 469, vi. p. 644, Darwin makes
+a strong statement to this effect.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_509_509' id='Footnote_509_509'></a><a href='#FNanchor_509_509'><span class='label'>{509}</span></a>
+&ldquo;A grain in the balance will determine which individual
+shall live and which shall die,&rdquo; <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 467, vi. p. 642. A
+similar statement occurs in the 1842 Essay, <a href="#Footnote_59_59">p. 8, note 3</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_510_510' id='Footnote_510_510'></a><a href='#FNanchor_510_510'><span class='label'>{510}</span></a>
+Thus according to the author what is now known as
+<i>orthogenesis</i> is due to selection.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_511_511' id='Footnote_511_511'></a><a href='#FNanchor_511_511'><span class='label'>{511}</span></a>
+Part II begins with Ch. IV. See the <a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a>,
+where the absence of division into two parts (in the <i>Origin</i>) is
+discussed.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_512_512' id='Footnote_512_512'></a><a href='#FNanchor_512_512'><span class='label'>{512}</span></a>
+In the recapitulation in the last chapter of the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 475, vi. p. 651, the author does not insist on this
+point as the weightiest difficulty, though he does so in Ed. i. p. 299.
+It is possible that he had come to think less of the difficulty in
+question: this was certainly the case when he wrote the 6th edition, see
+p. 438.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_513_513' id='Footnote_513_513'></a><a href='#FNanchor_513_513'><span class='label'>{513}</span></a>
+«<ins>The following words:</ins>» The fauna changes singly «<ins>were inserted by the author,
+apparently to replace a doubtful erasure</ins>».</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_514_514' id='Footnote_514_514'></a><a href='#FNanchor_514_514'><span class='label'>{514}</span></a>
+This question forms the subject of what is practically a
+section of the final chapter of the <i>Origin</i> (Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p.
+657).</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_515_515' id='Footnote_515_515'></a><a href='#FNanchor_515_515'><span class='label'>{515}</span></a>
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_516_516' id='Footnote_516_516'></a><a href='#FNanchor_516_516'><span class='label'>{516}</span></a>
+The discussion on the three species of <i>Rhinoceros</i> which
+also occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, was omitted in
+Ch. XIV of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_517_517' id='Footnote_517_517'></a><a href='#FNanchor_517_517'><span class='label'>{517}</span></a>
+This corresponds to a paragraph in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.
+p. 483, vi. p. 662, where it is assumed that animals have descended
+&ldquo;from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an equal or
+lesser number.&rdquo; In the <i>Origin</i>, however, the author goes on, Ed. i. p.
+484, vi. p. 663: &ldquo;Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the
+belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one
+prototype.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_518_518' id='Footnote_518_518'></a><a href='#FNanchor_518_518'><span class='label'>{518}</span></a>
+This sentence corresponds, not to the final section of
+the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 664, but rather to the opening words
+of the section already referred to (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p.
+657).</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_519_519' id='Footnote_519_519'></a><a href='#FNanchor_519_519'><span class='label'>{519}</span></a>
+This simile occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+and in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665, <i>i.e.</i> in the final
+section of Ch. XIV (vi. Ch. XV). In the <span class='sc lc'>MS.</span> there is some erasure in
+pencil of which I have taken no notice.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_520_520' id='Footnote_520_520'></a><a href='#FNanchor_520_520'><span class='label'>{520}</span></a>
+An almost identical sentence occurs in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed.
+i. p. 487, vi. p. 667. The fine prophecy (in the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p.
+486, vi. p. 666) on &ldquo;the almost untrodden field of inquiry&rdquo; is wanting
+in the present Essay.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_521_521' id='Footnote_521_521'></a><a href='#FNanchor_521_521'><span class='label'>{521}</span></a>
+See the last paragraph on p. 488 of the <i>Origin</i>, Ed. i.,
+vi. p. 668.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_522_522' id='Footnote_522_522'></a><a href='#FNanchor_522_522'><span class='label'>{522}</span></a>
+A passage corresponding to this occurs in the sketch of
+1842, p. <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, but not in the last chapter of the
+<i>Origin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_523_523' id='Footnote_523_523'></a><a href='#FNanchor_523_523'><span class='label'>{523}</span></a>
+This sentence occurs in an almost identical form in the
+<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 490, vi. p. 669. It will be noted that man is not
+named though clearly referred to. Elsewhere (<i>Origin</i>, Ed. i. p. 488)
+the author is bolder and writes &ldquo;Light will be thrown on the origin of
+man and his history.&rdquo; In Ed. vi. p. 668, he writes &ldquo;Much light &amp;c.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_524_524' id='Footnote_524_524'></a><a href='#FNanchor_524_524'><span class='label'>{524}</span></a>
+For the history of this sentence (with which the <i>Origin
+of Species</i> closes) see the Essay of 1842, <a href="#Footnote_184_184">p. 52, note 2</a>:
+also the concluding pages of the <a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='footnote'><p><a name='Footnote_525_525' id='Footnote_525_525'></a><a href='#FNanchor_525_525'><span class='label'>{525}</span></a>
+These four words are added in pencil between the lines.</p></div>
+</div>
+<p class='b c mt2 noin sf75'>CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p>
+
+<div class='bbox mt2'>
+<h3 class='mt0'>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes &amp; Errata</h3>
+
+<p>Page numbers and footnote anchors are wrapped in curly brackets as
+square brackets are used in the text.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes have been renumbered consecutively. All internal links to
+footnotes go to the appropriately renumbered footnotes.</p>
+
+<p>The following typographical errors have been corrected. The corrected
+part of the text has a thin gray dotted bottom border to signify this.
+If you hover your mouse over this, the original text will be displayed
+in a transient pop-up box.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr class='b'><td align='left'>Page</td><td align='left'>Error</td><td align='left'>Correction</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>130</td><td align='left'>simplication</td><td align='left'>simplification</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>233</td><td align='left'>care</td><td align='left'>case</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>250</td><td align='left'>apparant</td><td align='left'>apparent</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The following words were found in both hyphenated and unhyphenated
+forms.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr class='b c'><td colspan='2'>Hyphenated</td><td colspan='2'>Unhyphenated</td></tr>
+<tr class='i c'><td>Word</td><td>No. of instances</td><td>Word</td><td>No. of instances</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>after-thought</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>afterthought</td><td align='right'>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>blood-hound</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>bloodhound</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bull-dog</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='left'>bulldog</td><td align='right'>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>co-descendants</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='left'>codescendants</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>feather-hyacinth</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>feather hyacinth</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>grey-hound</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>greyhound</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>high-lands</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>highlands</td><td align='right'>2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>long-legged</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>long legged</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>race-horse</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>racehorse</td><td align='right'>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>shepherd-dog</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>shepherd dog</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sub-divisions</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='left'>subdivisions</td><td align='right'>4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>table-land</td><td align='right'>2</td><td align='left'>tableland</td><td align='right'>1</td></tr>
+</table></div></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of
+Species, by Charles Darwin
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of Species, by
+Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Foundations of the Origin of Species
+       Two Essays written in 1842 and 1844
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Editor: Francis Darwin
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22728]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOUNDATIONS ORIGIN OF SPECIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Geetu Melwani, David Clarke, LN Yaddanapudi
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
+
+CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+London: FETTER LANE, E.C.
+
+C. F. CLAY, MANAGER
+
+{Illustration}
+
+Edinburgh: 100, PRINCES STREET
+
+ALSO
+
+London: H. K. LEWIS, 136, GOWER STREET, W.C.
+
+Berlin: A. ASHER AND CO.
+
+Leipzig: F. A. BROCKHAUS
+
+New York: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+Bombay and Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND Co., LTD.
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+{Illustration: Charles Darwin from a photograph by Maull & Fox in 1854}
+
+
+
+
+THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
+
+TWO ESSAYS WRITTEN IN 1842 AND 1844
+
+by
+
+CHARLES DARWIN
+
+
+Edited by his son
+
+FRANCIS DARWIN
+
+Honorary Fellow of Christ's College
+
+
+Cambridge:
+
+at the University Press
+
+1909
+
+
+     Astronomers might formerly have said that God ordered each planet
+     to move in its particular destiny. In same manner God orders each
+     animal created with certain form in certain country. But how much
+     more simple and sublime power,--let attraction act according to
+     certain law, such are inevitable consequences,--let animal(s) be
+     created, then by the fixed laws of generation, such will be their
+     successors.
+
+     From DARWIN'S _Note Book_, 1837, p. 101.
+
+
+     TO THE MASTER AND FELLOWS
+     OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, THIS
+     BOOK IS DEDICATED BY THE
+     EDITOR IN TOKEN OF RESPECT
+     AND GRATITUDE
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ESSAY OF 1842
+                                                                   PAGES
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                          xi
+
+
+PART I
+
+  Sec. i. On variation under domestication, and on the principles
+        of selection                                                   1
+
+  Sec. ii. On variation in a state of nature and on the natural
+        means of selection                                             4
+
+  Sec. iii. On variation in instincts and other mental attributes        17
+
+
+PART II
+
+  Sec.Sec. iv. and v. On the evidence from Geology. (The reasons for
+        combining the two sections are given in the Introduction)     22
+
+  Sec. vi. Geographical distribution                                     29
+
+  Sec. vii. Affinities and classification                                35
+
+  Sec. viii. Unity of type in the great classes                          38
+
+  Sec. ix. Abortive organs                                               45
+
+  Sec. x. Recapitulation and conclusion                                  48
+
+
+ESSAY OF 1844
+
+
+PART I
+
+
+CHAPTER I                                                          57-80
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION;
+AND ON THE PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION.
+
+  Variation
+  On the hereditary tendency
+  Causes of Variation
+  On Selection
+  Crossing Breeds
+  Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild stocks
+  Limits to Variation in degree and kind
+  In what consists Domestication--Summary
+
+
+CHAPTER II                                                        81-111
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE;
+ON THE NATURAL MEANS OF SELECTION; AND ON THE
+COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES.
+
+  Variation
+  Natural means of Selection
+  Differences between "Races" and "Species":-first, in their trueness
+    or variability
+  Difference between "Races" and "Species" in fertility when crossed
+  Causes of Sterility in Hybrids
+  Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation
+  Points of Resemblance between "Races" and "Species"
+  External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels
+  Summary
+  Limits of Variation
+
+
+CHAPTER III                                                      112-132
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL
+ATTRIBUTES UNDER DOMESTICATION AND IN A STATE OF
+NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS SUBJECT; AND
+ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL
+STRUCTURES.
+
+  Variation of mental attributes under domestication
+  Hereditary habits compared with instincts
+  Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals
+  Principles of Selection applicable to instincts
+  Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection
+  Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal
+    structures
+
+
+PART II
+
+ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW
+THAT SPECIES ARE NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED
+FROM COMMON STOCKS.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV                                                       133-143
+
+ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE
+THEORY OF COMMON DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE
+IN A FOSSIL STATE
+
+
+CHAPTER V                                                        144-150
+
+GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES.
+
+  Gradual appearance of species
+  Extinction of species
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS
+IN PAST AND PRESENT TIMES.
+
+
+SECTION FIRST                                                    151-174
+
+  Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents
+  Relation of range in genera and species
+  Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent
+  Insular Faunas
+  Alpine Floras
+  Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains
+  Whether the same species has been created more than once
+  On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong
+    in different regions
+
+
+SECOND SECTION                                                   174-182
+
+  Geographical distribution of extinct organisms
+  Changes in geographical distribution
+  Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings
+
+
+SECTION THIRD                                                    183-197
+
+  An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical
+    distribution, on the theory of allied species having a
+    common descent
+  Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between
+    existing species
+
+
+CHAPTER VII                                                      198-213
+
+ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION
+OF ORGANIC BEINGS.
+
+  Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups
+  What is the Natural System?
+  On the kind of relation between distinct groups
+  Classification of Races or Varieties
+  Classification of Races and Species similar
+  Origin of genera and families
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII                                                     214-230
+
+UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND
+MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES.
+
+  Unity of Type
+  Morphology
+  Embryology
+  Attempt to explain the facts of embryology
+  On the graduated complexity in each great class
+  Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals
+  Importance of embryology in classification
+  Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared
+
+
+CHAPTER IX                                                       231-238
+
+ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS.
+
+  The abortive organs of Naturalists
+  The abortive organs of Physiologists
+  Abortion from gradual disuse
+
+
+CHAPTER X                                                        239-255
+
+RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION.
+
+  Recapitulation
+  Why do we wish to reject the Theory of Common Descent?
+  Conclusion
+
+
+INDEX                                                                257
+
+  Portrait    _frontispiece_
+  Facsimile   _to face_ p. 50
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+We know from the contents of Charles Darwin's Note Book of 1837 that he
+was at that time a convinced Evolutionist{1}. Nor can there be any doubt
+that, when he started on board the _Beagle_, such opinions as he had
+were on the side of immutability. When therefore did the current of his
+thoughts begin to set in the direction of Evolution?
+
+     {1} See the extracts in _Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_, ii.
+     p. 5.
+
+We have first to consider the factors that made for such a change. On
+his departure in 1831, Henslow gave him vol. I. of Lyell's _Principles_,
+then just published, with the warning that he was not to believe what he
+read{2}. But believe he did, and it is certain (as Huxley has forcibly
+pointed out{3}) that the doctrine of uniformitarianism when applied to
+Biology leads of necessity to Evolution. If the extermination of a
+species is no more catastrophic than the natural death of an individual,
+why should the birth of a species be any more miraculous than the birth
+of an individual? It is quite clear that this thought was vividly
+present to Darwin when he was writing out his early thoughts in the 1837
+Note Book{4}:--
+
+"Propagation explains why modern animals same type as extinct, which is
+law almost proved. They die, without they change, like golden pippins;
+it is a _generation of species_ like generation _of individuals_."
+
+"If _species_ generate other _species_ their race is not utterly cut
+off."
+
+     {2} The second volume,--especially important in regard to
+     Evolution,--reached him in the autumn of 1832, as Prof. Judd has
+     pointed out in his most interesting paper in _Darwin and Modern
+     Science_. Cambridge, 1909.
+
+     {3} Obituary Notice of C. Darwin, _Proc. R. Soc._ vol. 44.
+     Reprinted in Huxley's _Collected Essays_. See also _Life and
+     Letters of C. Darwin_, ii. p. 179.
+
+     {4} See the extracts in the _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 5.
+
+These quotations show that he was struggling to see in the origin of
+species a process just as scientifically comprehensible as the birth of
+individuals. They show, I think, that he recognised the two things not
+merely as similar but as identical.
+
+It is impossible to know how soon the ferment of uniformitarianism began
+to work, but it is fair to suspect that in 1832 he had already begun to
+see that mutability was the logical conclusion of Lyell's doctrine,
+though this was not acknowledged by Lyell himself.
+
+There were however other factors of change. In his Autobiography{5} he
+wrote:--"During the voyage of the _Beagle_ I had been deeply impressed
+by discovering in the Pampean formation great fossil animals covered
+with armour like that on the existing armadillos; secondly, by the
+manner in which closely allied animals replace one another in proceeding
+southward over the Continent; and thirdly, by the South American
+character of most of the productions of the Galapagos archipelago, and
+more especially by the manner in which they differ slightly on each
+island of the group; none of the islands appearing to be very ancient in
+a geological sense. It was evident that such facts as these, as well as
+many others, could only be explained on the supposition that species
+gradually become modified; and the subject haunted me."
+
+     {5} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 82.
+
+Again we have to ask: how soon did any of these influences produce an
+effect on Darwin's mind? Different answers have been attempted.
+Huxley{6} held that these facts could not have produced their essential
+effect until the voyage had come to an end, and the "relations of the
+existing with the extinct species and of the species of the different
+geographical areas with one another were determined with some
+exactness." He does not therefore allow that any appreciable advance
+towards evolution was made during the actual voyage of the _Beagle_.
+
+     {6} _Obituary Notice_, _loc. cit._
+
+Professor Judd{7} takes a very different view. He holds that November
+1832 may be given with some confidence as the "date at which Darwin
+commenced that long series of observations and reasonings which
+eventually culminated in the preparation of the _Origin of Species_."
+
+     {7} _Darwin and Modern Science._
+
+Though I think these words suggest a more direct and continuous march
+than really existed between fossil-collecting in 1832 and writing the
+_Origin of Species_ in 1859, yet I hold that it was during the voyage
+that Darwin's mind began to be turned in the direction of Evolution, and
+I am therefore in essential agreement with Prof. Judd, although I lay
+more stress than he does on the latter part of the voyage.
+
+Let us for a moment confine our attention to the passage, above quoted,
+from the Autobiography and to what is said in the Introduction to the
+_Origin_, Ed. i., viz. "When on board H.M.S. 'Beagle,' as naturalist, I
+was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the
+inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the
+present to the past inhabitants of that continent." These words,
+occurring where they do, can only mean one thing,--namely that the facts
+suggested an evolutionary interpretation. And this being so it must be
+true that his thoughts _began to flow in the direction of Descent_ at
+this early date.
+
+I am inclined to think that the "new light which was rising in his
+mind{8}" had not yet attained any effective degree of steadiness or
+brightness. I think so because in his Pocket Book under the date 1837 he
+wrote, "In July opened first note-book on 'transmutation of species.'
+Had been greatly struck _from about month of previous March_{9} on
+character of South American fossils, and species on Galapagos
+Archipelago. These facts origin (_especially latter_), of all my views."
+But he did not visit the Galapagos till 1835 and I therefore find it
+hard to believe that his evolutionary views attained any strength or
+permanence until at any rate quite late in the voyage. The Galapagos
+facts are strongly against Huxley's view, for Darwin's attention was
+"thoroughly aroused{10}" by comparing the birds shot by himself and by
+others on board. The case must have struck him at once,--without waiting
+for accurate determinations,--as a microcosm of evolution.
+
+     {8} Huxley, _Obituary_, p. xi.
+
+     {9} In this citation the italics are mine.
+
+     {10} _Journal of Researches_, Ed. 1860, p. 394.
+
+It is also to be noted, in regard to the remains of extinct animals,
+that, in the above quotation from his Pocket Book, he speaks of March
+1837 as the time at which he began to be "greatly struck on character of
+South American fossils," which suggests at least that the impression
+made in 1832 required reinforcement before a really powerful effect was
+produced.
+
+We may therefore conclude, I think, that the evolutionary current in my
+father's thoughts had continued to increase in force from 1832 onwards,
+being especially reinforced at the Galapagos in 1835 and again in 1837
+when he was overhauling the results, mental and material, of his
+travels. And that when the above record in the Pocket Book was made he
+unconsciously minimised the earlier beginnings of his theorisings, and
+laid more stress on the recent thoughts which were naturally more vivid
+to him. In his letter{11} to Otto Zacharias (1877) he wrote, "On my
+return home in the autumn of 1836, I immediately began to prepare my
+Journal for publication, and then saw how many facts indicated the
+common descent of species." This again is evidence in favour of the view
+that the later growths of his theory were the essentially important
+parts of its development.
+
+     {11} F. Darwin's _Life of Charles Darwin_ (in one volume), 1892, p.
+     166.
+
+In the same letter to Zacharias he says, "When I was on board the
+_Beagle_ I believed in the permanence of species, but as far as I can
+remember vague doubts occasionally flitted across my mind." Unless Prof.
+Judd and I are altogether wrong in believing that late or early in the
+voyage (it matters little which) a definite approach was made to the
+evolutionary standpoint, we must suppose that in 40 years such advance
+had shrunk in his recollection to the dimensions of "vague doubts." The
+letter to Zacharias shows I think some forgetting of the past where the
+author says, "But I did not become convinced that species were mutable
+until, I think, two or three years had elapsed." It is impossible to
+reconcile this with the contents of the evolutionary Note Book of 1837.
+I have no doubt that in his retrospect he felt that he had not been
+"convinced that species were mutable" until he had gained a clear
+conception of the mechanism of natural selection, _i.e._ in 1838-9.
+
+But even on this last date there is some room, not for doubt, but for
+surprise. The passage in the Autobiography{12} is quite clear, namely
+that in October 1838 he read Malthus's _Essay on the principle of
+Population_ and "being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for
+existence ..., it at once struck me that under these circumstances
+favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones
+to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new
+species. Here then I had at last got a theory by which to work."
+
+     {12} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 83.
+
+It is surprising that Malthus should have been needed to give him the
+clue, when in the Note Book of 1837 there should occur--however
+obscurely expressed--the following forecast{13} of the importance of the
+survival of the fittest. "With respect to extinction, we can easily see
+that a variety of the ostrich (Petise{14}), may not be well adapted, and
+thus perish out; or on the other hand, like Orpheus{15}, being
+favourable, many might be produced. This requires the principle that the
+permanent variations produced by confined breeding and changing
+circumstances are continued and produce<d> according to the adaptation of
+such circumstances, and therefore that death of species is a consequence
+(contrary to what would appear in America) of non-adaptation of
+circumstances."
+
+     {13} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 8.
+
+     {14} Avestruz Petise, _i.e. Rhea Darwini_.
+
+     {15} A bird.
+
+I can hardly doubt, that with his knowledge of the interdependence of
+organisms and the tyranny of conditions, his experience would have
+crystallized out into "a theory by which to work" even without the aid
+of Malthus.
+
+In my father's Autobiography{16} he writes, "In June 1842 I first
+allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my
+theory in pencil in 35 pages; and this was enlarged during the summer of
+1844 into one of 230 pages{17}, which I had fairly copied out and still
+possess." These two Essays, of 1842 and 1844, are now printed under the
+title _The Foundations of the Origin of Species_.
+
+     {16} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 84.
+
+     {17} It contains as a fact 231 pp. It is a strongly bound folio,
+     interleaved with blank pages, as though for notes and additions.
+     His own MS. from which it was copied contains 189 pp.
+
+It will be noted that in the above passage he does not mention the MS.
+of 1842 as being in existence, and when I was at work on _Life and
+Letters_ I had not seen it. It only came to light after my mother's
+death in 1896 when the house at Down was vacated. The MS. was hidden in
+a cupboard under the stairs which was not used for papers of any value,
+but rather as an overflow for matter which he did not wish to destroy.
+
+The statement in the Autobiography that the MS. was written in 1842
+agrees with an entry in my fathers Diary:--
+
+"1842. May 18th went to Maer. June 15th to Shrewsbury, and on 18th to
+Capel Curig.... During my stay at Maer and Shrewsbury (five years after
+commencement) wrote pencil sketch of my species theory." Again in a
+letter to Lyell (June 18, 1858) he speaks of his "MS. sketch written out
+in 1842{18}." In the _Origin of Species_, Ed. i. p. 1, he speaks of
+beginning his speculations in 1837 and of allowing himself to draw up
+some "short notes" after "five years' work," _i.e._ in 1842. So far
+there seems no doubt as to 1842 being the date of the first sketch; but
+there is evidence in favour of an earlier date{19}. Thus across the
+Table of Contents of the bound copy of the 1844 MS. is written in my
+father's hand "This was sketched in 1839." Again in a letter to Mr
+Wallace{20} (Jan. 25, 1859) he speaks of his own contributions to the
+Linnean paper{21} of July 1, 1858, as "written in 1839, now just twenty
+years ago." This statement as it stands is undoubtedly incorrect, since
+the extracts are from the MS. of 1844, about the date of which no doubt
+exists; but even if it could be supposed to refer to the 1842 Essay, it
+must, I think, be rejected. I can only account for his mistake by the
+supposition that my father had in mind the date (1839) at which the
+framework of his theory was laid down. It is worth noting that in his
+Autobiography (p. 88) he speaks of the time "about 1839, when the theory
+was clearly conceived." However this may be there can be no doubt that
+1842 is the correct date. Since the publication of _Life and Letters_ I
+have gained fresh evidence on this head. A small packet containing 13
+pp. of MS. came to light in 1896. On the outside is written "First
+Pencil Sketch of Species Theory. Written at Maer and Shrewsbury during
+May and June 1842." It is not however written in pencil, and it consists
+of a single chapter on _The Principles of Variation in Domestic
+Organisms_. A single unnumbered page is written in pencil, and is headed
+"Maer, May 1842, useless"; it also bears the words "This page was
+thought of as introduction." It consists of the briefest sketch of the
+geological evidence for evolution, together with words intended as
+headings for discussion,--such as "Affinity,--unity of type,--foetal
+state,--abortive organs."
+
+     {18} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 116.
+
+     {19} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 10.
+
+     {20} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 146.
+
+     {21} _J. Linn. Soc. Zool._ iii. p. 45.
+
+The back of this "useless" page is of some interest, although it does
+not bear on the question of date,--the matter immediately before us.
+
+It seems to be an outline of the Essay or sketch of 1842, consisting of
+the titles of the three chapters of which it was to have consisted.
+
+"I. The Principles of Var. in domestic organisms.
+
+"II. The possible and probable application of these same principles to
+wild animals and consequently the possible and probable production of
+wild races, analogous to the domestic ones of plants and animals.
+
+"III. The reasons for and against believing that such races have really
+been produced, forming what are called species."
+
+It will be seen that Chapter III as originally designed corresponds to
+Part II (p. 22) of the Essay of 1842, which is (p. 7) defined by the
+author as discussing "whether the characters and relations of animated
+things are such as favour the idea of wild species being races descended
+from a common stock." Again at p. 23 the author asks "What then is the
+evidence in favour of it (the theory of descent) and what the evidence
+against it." The generalised section of his Essay having been originally
+Chapter III{22} accounts for the curious error which occurs in pp. 18
+and 22 where the second Part of the Essay is called Part III.
+
+     {22} It is evident that _Parts_ and _Chapters_ were to some extent
+     interchangeable in the author's mind, for p. 1 (of the MS. we have
+     been discussing) is headed in ink Chapter I, and afterwards altered
+     in pencil to Part I.
+
+The division of the Essay into two parts is maintained in the enlarged
+Essay of 1844, in which he writes: "The Second Part of this work is
+devoted to the general consideration of how far the general economy of
+nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species and genera
+are descended from common stocks." The _Origin of Species_ however is
+not so divided.
+
+We may now return to the question of the date of the Essay. I have found
+additional evidence in favour of 1842 in a sentence written on the back
+of the Table of Contents of the 1844 MS.--not the copied version but the
+original in my father's writing: "This was written and enlarged from a
+sketch in 37 pages{23} in Pencil (the latter written in summer of 1842
+at Maer and Shrewsbury) in beginning of 1844, and finished it <_sic_> in
+July; and finally corrected the copy by Mr Fletcher in the last week in
+September." On the whole it is impossible to doubt that 1842 is the date
+of the earlier of the two Essays.
+
+     {23} On p. 23 of the MS. of the _Foundations_ is a reference to the
+     "back of p. 21 bis": this suggests that additional pages had been
+     interpolated in the MS. and that it may once have had 37 in place
+     of 35 pp.
+
+The sketch of 1842 is written on bad paper with a soft pencil, and is in
+many parts extremely difficult to read, many of the words ending in mere
+scrawls and being illegible without context. It is evidently written
+rapidly, and is in his most elliptical style, the articles being
+frequently omitted, and the sentences being loosely composed and often
+illogical in structure. There is much erasure and correction, apparently
+made at the moment of writing, and the MS. does not give the impression
+of having been re-read with any care. The whole is more like hasty
+memoranda of what was clear to himself, than material for the convincing
+of others.
+
+Many of the pages are covered with writing on the back, an instance of
+his parsimony in the matter of paper{24}. This matter consists partly of
+passages marked for insertion in the text, and these can generally
+(though by no means always) be placed where he intended. But he also
+used the back of one page for a preliminary sketch to be rewritten on a
+clean sheet. These parts of the work have been printed as footnotes, so
+as to allow what was written on the front of the pages to form a
+continuous text. A certain amount of repetition is unavoidable, but much
+of what is written on the backs of the pages is of too much interest to
+be omitted. Some of the matter here given in footnotes may, moreover,
+have been intended as the final text and not as the preliminary sketch.
+
+     {24} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 153.
+
+When a word cannot be deciphered, it is replaced by:--<illegible>, the
+angular brackets being, as already explained, a symbol for an insertion
+by the editor. More commonly, however, the context makes the
+interpretation of a word reasonably sure although the word is not
+strictly legible. Such words are followed by an inserted mark of
+interrogation <?>. Lastly, words inserted by the editor, of which the
+appropriateness is doubtful, are printed thus <variation?>.
+
+Two kinds of erasure occur in the MS. of 1842. One by vertical lines
+which seem to have been made when the 35 pp. MS. was being expanded into
+that of 1844, and merely imply that such a page is done with: and
+secondly the ordinary erasures by horizontal lines. I have not been
+quite consistent in regard to these: I began with the intention of
+printing (in square brackets) all such erasures. But I ultimately found
+that the confusion introduced into the already obscure sentences was
+greater than any possible gain; and many such erasures are altogether
+omitted. In the same way I have occasionally omitted hopelessly obscure
+and incomprehensible fragments, which if printed would only have
+burthened the text with a string of <illegible>s and queried words. Nor have I
+printed the whole of what is written on the backs of the pages, where it
+seemed to me that nothing but unnecessary repetition would have been the
+result.
+
+In the matter of punctuation I have given myself a free hand. I may no
+doubt have misinterpreted the author's meaning in so doing, but without
+such punctuation, the number of repellantly crabbed sentences would have
+been even greater than at present. In dealing with the Essay of 1844, I
+have corrected some obvious slips without indicating such alterations,
+because the MS. being legible, there is no danger of changing the
+author's meaning.
+
+The sections into which the Essay of 1842 is divided are in the original
+merely indicated by a gap in the MS. or by a line drawn across the page.
+No titles are given except in the case of Sec. VIII.; and Sec. II. is the only
+section which has a number in the original. I might equally well have
+made sections of what are now subsections, _e.g. Natural Selection_ p.
+7, or _Extermination_ p. 28. But since the present sketch is the germ of
+the Essay of 1844, it seemed best to preserve the identity between the
+two works, by using such of the author's divisions as correspond to the
+chapters of the enlarged version of 1844. The geological discussion with
+which Part II begins corresponds to two chapters (IV and V) of the 1844
+Essay. I have therefore described it as Sec.Sec. IV. and V., although I cannot
+make sure of its having originally consisted of two sections. With this
+exception the ten sections of the Essay of 1842 correspond to the ten
+chapters of that of 1844.
+
+The _Origin of Species_ differs from the sketch of 1842 in not being
+divided into two parts. But the two volumes resemble each other in
+general structure. Both begin with a statement of what may be called the
+mechanism of evolution,--variation and selection: in both the argument
+proceeds from the study of domestic organisms to that of animals and
+plants in a state of nature. This is followed in both by a discussion of
+the _Difficulties on Theory_ and this by a section _Instinct_ which in
+both cases is treated as a special case of difficulty.
+
+If I had to divide the _Origin_ (first edition) into two parts without
+any knowledge of earlier MS., I should, I think, make Part II begin with
+Ch. VI, _Difficulties on Theory_. A possible reason why this part of the
+argument is given in Part I of the Essay of 1842 may be found in the
+Essay of 1844, where it is clear that the chapter on instinct is placed
+in Part I because the author thought it of importance to show that
+heredity and variation occur in mental attributes. The whole question is
+perhaps an instance of the sort of difficulty which made the author give
+up the division of his argument into two Parts when he wrote the
+_Origin_. As matters stand Sec.Sec. IV. and V. of the 1842 Essay correspond to
+the geological chapters, IX and X, in the _Origin_. From this point
+onwards the material is grouped in the same order in both works:
+geographical distribution; affinities and classification; unity of type
+and morphology; abortive or rudimentary organs; recapitulation and
+conclusion.
+
+In enlarging the Essay of 1842 into that of 1844, the author retained
+the sections of the sketch as chapters in the completer presentment. It
+follows that what has been said of the relation of the earlier Essay to
+the _Origin_ is generally true of the 1844 Essay. In the latter,
+however, the geological discussion is, clearly instead of obscurely,
+divided into two chapters, which correspond roughly with Chapters IX and
+X of the _Origin_. But part of the contents of Chapter X (_Origin_)
+occurs in Chapter VI (1844) on Geographical Distribution. The treatment
+of distribution is particularly full and interesting in the 1844 Essay,
+but the arrangement of the material, especially the introduction of Sec.
+III. p. 183, leads to some repetition which is avoided in the _Origin_.
+It should be noted that Hybridism, which has a separate chapter (VIII)
+in the _Origin_, is treated in Chapter II of the Essay. Finally that
+Chapter XIII (_Origin_) corresponds to Chapters VII, VIII and IX of the
+work of 1844.
+
+The fact that in 1842, seventeen years before the publication of the
+_Origin_, my father should have been able to write out so full an
+outline of his future work, is very remarkable. In his Autobiography{25}
+he writes of the 1844 Essay, "But at that time I overlooked one problem
+of great importance.... This problem is the tendency in organic beings
+descended from the same stock to diverge in character as they become
+modified." The absence of the principle of divergence is of course also
+a characteristic of the sketch of 1842. But at p. 37, the author is not
+far from this point of view. The passage referred to is: "If any
+species, _A_, in changing gets an advantage and that advantage ... is
+inherited, _A_ will be the progenitor of several genera or even families
+in the hard struggle of nature. _A_ will go on beating out other forms,
+it might come that _A_ would people <the> earth,--we may now not have one
+descendant on our globe of the one or several original creations{26}."
+But if the descendants of _A_ have peopled the earth by beating out
+other forms, they must have diverged in occupying the innumerable
+diverse modes of life from which they expelled their predecessors. What
+I wrote{27} on this subject in 1887 is I think true: "Descent with
+modification implies divergence, and we become so habituated to a belief
+in descent, and therefore in divergence, that we do not notice the
+absence of proof that divergence is in itself an advantage."
+
+     {25} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 84.
+
+     {26} In the footnotes to the Essay of 1844 attention is called to
+     similar passages.
+
+     {27} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 15.
+
+The fact that there is no set discussion on the principle of divergence
+in the 1844 Essay, makes it clear why the joint paper read before the
+Linnean Society on July 1, 1858, included a letter{28} to Asa Gray, as
+well as an extract{29} from the Essay of 1844. It is clearly because the
+letter to Gray includes a discussion on divergence, and was thus,
+probably, the only document, including this subject, which could be
+appropriately made use of. It shows once more how great was the
+importance attached by its author to the principle of divergence.
+
+     {28} The passage is given in the _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 124.
+
+     {29} The extract consists of the section on _Natural Means of
+     Selection_, p. 87.
+
+I have spoken of the hurried and condensed manner in which the sketch of
+1842 is written; the style of the later Essay (1844) is more finished.
+It has, however, the air of an uncorrected MS. rather than of a book
+which has gone through the ordeal of proof sheets. It has not all the
+force and conciseness of the _Origin_, but it has a certain freshness
+which gives it a character of its own. It must be remembered that the
+_Origin_ was an abstract or condensation of a much bigger book, whereas
+the Essay of 1844 was an expansion of the sketch of 1842. It is not
+therefore surprising that in the _Origin_ there is occasionally evident
+a chafing against the author's self-imposed limitation. Whereas in the
+1844 Essay there is an air of freedom, as if the author were letting
+himself go, rather than applying the curb. This quality of freshness and
+the fact that some questions were more fully discussed in 1844 than in
+1859, makes the earlier work good reading even to those who are familiar
+with the _Origin_.
+
+The writing of this Essay "during the summer of 1844," as stated in the
+Autobiography{30}, and "from memory," as Darwin says elsewhere{31}, was
+a remarkable achievement, and possibly renders more conceivable the
+still greater feat of the writing of the _Origin_ between July 1858 and
+September 1859.
+
+     {30} _Life and Letters_, i. p. 84.
+
+     {31} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 18.
+
+It is an interesting subject for speculation: what influence on the
+world the Essay of 1844 would have exercised, had it been published in
+place of the Origin. The author evidently thought of its publication in
+its present state as an undesirable expedient, as appears clearly from
+the following extracts from the _Life and Letters_, vol. ii. pp.
+16--18:
+
+_C. Darwin to Mrs Darwin._
+
+DOWN, _July 5, 1844_.
+
+"... I have just finished my sketch of my species theory. If, as I
+believe, my theory in time be accepted even by one competent judge, it
+will be a considerable step in science.
+
+"I therefore write this in case of my sudden death, as my most solemn
+and last request, which I am sure you will consider the same as if
+legally entered in my will, that you will devote L400 to its
+publication, and further will yourself, or through Hensleigh{32}, take
+trouble in promoting it. I wish that my sketch be given to some
+competent person, with this sum to induce him to take trouble in its
+improvement and enlargement. I give to him all my books on Natural
+History, which are either scored or have references at the end to the
+pages, begging him carefully to look over and consider such passages as
+actually bearing, or by possibility bearing, on this subject. I wish you
+to make a list of all such books as some temptation to an editor. I also
+request that you will hand over <to> him all those scraps roughly divided
+into eight or ten brown paper portfolios. The scraps, with copied
+quotations from various works, are those which may aid my editor. I also
+request that you, or some amanuensis, will aid in deciphering any of the
+scraps which the editor may think possibly of use. I leave to the
+editor's judgment whether to interpolate these facts in the text, or as
+notes, or under appendices. As the looking over the references and
+scraps will be a long labour, and as the _correcting_ and enlarging and
+altering my sketch will also take considerable time, I leave this sum of
+L400 as some remuneration, and any profits from the work. I consider
+that for this the editor is bound to get the sketch published either at
+a publisher's or his own risk. Many of the scraps in the portfolios
+contain mere rude suggestions and early views, now useless, and many of
+the facts will probably turn out as having no bearing on my theory.
+
+     {32} Mrs Darwin's brother.
+
+"With respect to editors, Mr Lyell would be the best if he would
+undertake it; I believe he would find the work pleasant, and he would
+learn some facts new to him. As the editor must be a geologist as well
+as a naturalist, the next best editor would be Professor Forbes of
+London. The next best (and quite best in many respects) would be
+Professor Henslow. Dr Hooker would be _very_ good. The next, Mr
+Strickland{33}. If none of these would undertake it, I would request you
+to consult with Mr Lyell, or some other capable man, for some editor, a
+geologist and naturalist. Should one other hundred pounds make the
+difference of procuring a good editor, I request earnestly that you will
+raise L500.
+
+     {33} After Mr Strickland's name comes the following sentence, which
+     has been erased, but remains legible. "Professor Owen would be very
+     good; but I presume he would not undertake such a work."
+
+"My remaining collections in Natural History may be given to any one or
+any museum where <they> would be accepted...."
+
+<The following note seems to have formed part of the original letter,
+but may have been of later date:>
+
+"Lyell, especially with the aid of Hooker (and of any good zoological
+aid), would be best of all. Without an editor will pledge himself to
+give up time to it, it would be of no use paying such a sum.
+
+"If there should be any difficulty in getting an editor who would go
+thoroughly into the subject, and think of the bearing of the passages
+marked in the books and copied out of scraps of paper, then let my
+sketch be published as it is, stating that it was done several years
+ago{34}, and from memory without consulting any works, and with no
+intention of publication in its present form."
+
+     {34} The words "several years ago, and" seem to have been added at
+     a later date.
+
+The idea that the sketch of 1844 might remain, in the event of his
+death, as the only record of his work, seems to have been long in his
+mind, for in August, 1854, when he had finished with the Cirripedes, and
+was thinking of beginning his "species work," he added on the back of
+the above letter, "Hooker by far best man to edit my species volume.
+August 1854."
+
+I have called attention in footnotes to many points in which the
+_Origin_ agrees with the _Foundations_. One of the most interesting is
+the final sentence, practically the same in the Essays of 1842 and 1844,
+and almost identical with the concluding words of the _Origin_. I have
+elsewhere pointed out{35} that the ancestry of this eloquent passage may
+be traced one stage further back,--to the Note Book of 1837. I have
+given this sentence as an appropriate motto for the _Foundations_ in its
+character of a study of general laws. It will be remembered that a
+corresponding motto from Whewell's _Bridgewater Treatise_ is printed
+opposite the title-page of the _Origin of Species_.
+
+     {35} _Life and Letters_, ii. p. 9.
+
+Mr Huxley who, about the year 1887, read the Essay of 1844, remarked
+that "much more weight is attached to the influence of external
+conditions in producing variation and to the inheritance of acquired
+habits than in the _Origin_." In the _Foundations_ the effect of
+conditions is frequently mentioned, and Darwin seems to have had
+constantly in mind the need of referring each variation to a cause. But
+I gain the impression that the slighter prominence given to this view in
+the _Origin_ was not due to change of opinion, but rather because he had
+gradually come to take this view for granted; so that in the scheme of
+that book, it was overshadowed by considerations which then seemed to
+him more pressing. With regard to the inheritance of acquired characters
+I am not inclined to agree with Huxley. It is certain that the
+_Foundations_ contains strong recognition of the importance of germinal
+variation, that is of external conditions acting indirectly through the
+"reproductive functions." He evidently considered this as more important
+than the inheritance of habit or other acquired peculiarities.
+
+Another point of interest is the weight he attached in 1842-4 to
+"sports" or what are now called "mutations." This is I think more
+prominent in the _Foundations_ than in the first edition of the
+_Origin_, and certainly than in the fifth and sixth editions.
+
+Among other interesting points may be mentioned the "good effects of
+crossing" being "possibly analogous to good effects of change in
+condition,"--a principle which he upheld on experimental grounds in his
+_Cross and Self-Fertilisation_ in 1876.
+
+In conclusion, I desire to express my thanks to Mr Wallace for a
+footnote he was good enough to supply: and to Professor Bateson, Sir W.
+Thiselton-Dyer, Dr Gadow, Professor Judd, Dr Marr, Col. Prain and Dr
+Stapf for information on various points. I am also indebted to Mr
+Rutherford, of the University Library, for his careful copy of the
+manuscript of 1842.
+
+CAMBRIDGE,
+
+_June 9, 1909._
+
+
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF SIGNS, &c.
+
+
+[] Means that the words so enclosed are erased in the original MS.
+
+<> Indicates an insertion by the Editor.
+
+_Origin_, Ed. vi. refers to the Popular Edition.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+
+Sec. I. <ON VARIATION UNDER DOMESTICATION, AND ON THE PRINCIPLES OF
+SELECTION.>
+
+An individual organism placed under new conditions [often] sometimes
+varies in a small degree and in very trifling respects such as stature,
+fatness, sometimes colour, health, habits in animals and probably
+disposition. Also habits of life develope certain parts. Disuse
+atrophies. [Most of these slight variations tend to become hereditary.]
+
+When the individual is multiplied for long periods by buds the variation
+is yet small, though greater and occasionally a single bud or individual
+departs widely from its type (example){36} and continues steadily to
+propagate, by buds, such new kind.
+
+     {36} Evidently a memorandum that an example should be given.
+
+When the organism is bred for several generations under new or varying
+conditions, the variation is greater in amount and endless in kind
+[especially{37} holds good when individuals have long been exposed to
+new conditions]. The nature of the external conditions tends to effect
+some definite change in all or greater part of offspring,--little food,
+small size--certain foods harmless &c. &c. organs affected and
+diseases--extent unknown. A certain degree of variation (Mueller's
+twins){38} seems inevitable effect of process of reproduction. But more
+important is that simple <?> generation, especially under new conditions
+[when no crossing] <causes> infinite variation and not direct effect of
+external conditions, but only in as much as it affects the reproductive
+functions{39}. There seems to be no part (_beau ideal_ of liver){40} of
+body, internal or external, or mind or habits, or instincts which does
+not vary in some small degree and [often] some <?> to a great amount.
+
+     {37} The importance of exposure to new conditions for several
+     generations is insisted on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 7, also p.
+     131. In the latter passage the author guards himself against the
+     assumption that variations are "due to chance," and speaks of "our
+     ignorance of the cause of each particular variation." These
+     statements are not always remembered by his critics.
+
+     {38} Cf. _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9, "Young of the same
+     litter, sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both
+     the young and the parents, as Mueller has remarked, have apparently
+     been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life."
+
+     {39} This is paralleled by the conclusion in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 8, that "the most frequent cause of variability may be
+     attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been
+     affected prior to the act of conception."
+
+     {40} The meaning seems to be that there must be some variability in
+     the liver otherwise anatomists would not speak of the 'beau ideal'
+     of that organ.
+
+[All such] variations [being congenital] or those very slowly acquired
+of all kinds [decidedly evince a tendency to become hereditary], when
+not so become simple variety, when it does a race. Each{41} parent
+transmits its peculiarities, therefore if varieties allowed freely to
+cross, except by the _chance_ of two characterized by same peculiarity
+happening to marry, such varieties will be constantly demolished{42}.
+All bisexual animals must cross, hermaphrodite plants do cross, it seems
+very possible that hermaphrodite animals do cross,--conclusion
+strengthened: ill effects of breeding in and in, good effects of
+crossing possibly analogous to good effects of change in condition <?>{43}.
+
+     {41} The position of the following passage is uncertain. "If
+     individuals of two widely different varieties be allowed to cross,
+     a third race will be formed--a most fertile source of the variation
+     in domesticated animals. <In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 20 the author
+     says that "the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has
+     been greatly exaggerated."> If freely allowed, the characters of
+     pure parents will be lost, number of races thus <illegible> but
+     differences <?> besides the <illegible>. But if varieties differing
+     in very slight respects be allowed to cross, such small variation
+     will be destroyed, at least to our senses,--a variation [clearly]
+     just to be distinguished by long legs will have offspring not to be
+     so distinguished. Free crossing great agent in producing uniformity
+     in any breed. Introduce tendency to revert to parent form."
+
+     {42} The swamping effect of intercrossing is referred to in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 103, vi. p. 126.
+
+     {43} A discussion on the intercrossing of hermaphrodites in
+     relation to Knight's views occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 96,
+     vi. p. 119. The parallelism between crossing and changed conditions
+     is briefly given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 391, and
+     was finally investigated in _The Effects of Cross and
+     Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom_, 1876.
+
+Therefore if in any country or district all animals of one species be
+allowed freely to cross, any small tendency in them to vary will be
+constantly counteracted. Secondly reversion to parent form--analogue of
+_vis medicatrix_{44}. But if man selects, then new races rapidly
+formed,--of late years systematically followed,--in most ancient times
+often practically followed{45}. By such selection make race-horse,
+dray-horse--one cow good for tallow, another for eating &c.--one plant's
+good lay <illegible> in leaves another in fruit &c. &c.: the same plant
+to supply his wants at different times of year. By former means animals
+become adapted, as a direct effect to a cause, to external conditions,
+as size of body to amount of food. By this latter means they may also be
+so adapted, but further they may be adapted to ends and pursuits, which
+by no possibility can affect growth, as existence of tallow-chandler
+cannot tend to make fat. In such selected races, if not removed to new
+conditions, and <if> preserved from all cross, after several generations
+become very true, like each other and not varying. But man{46} selects
+only <?> what is useful and curious--has bad judgment, is
+capricious,--grudges to destroy those that do not come up to his
+pattern,--has no [knowledge] power of selecting according to internal
+variations,--can hardly keep his conditions uniform,--[cannot] does not
+select those best adapted to the conditions under which <the> form <?> lives,
+but those most useful to him. This might all be otherwise.
+
+     {44} There is an article on the _vis medicatrix_ in Brougham's
+     _Dissertations_, 1839, a copy of which is in the author's library.
+
+     {45} This is the classification of selection into methodical and
+     unconscious given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38.
+
+     {46} This passage, and a similar discussion on the power of the
+     Creator (p. 6), correspond to the comparison between the selective
+     capacities of man and nature, in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p.
+     102.
+
+
+Sec. II. <ON VARIATION IN A STATE OF NATURE AND ON THE NATURAL MEANS OF
+SELECTION.>
+
+Let us see how far above principles of variation apply to wild animals.
+Wild animals vary exceedingly little--yet they are known as
+individuals{47}. British Plants, in many genera number quite uncertain
+of varieties and species: in shells chiefly external conditions{48}.
+Primrose and cowslip. Wild animals from different [countries can be
+recognized]. Specific character gives some organs as varying. Variations
+analogous in kind, but less in degree with domesticated animals--chiefly
+external and less important parts.
+
+     {47} i.e. they are individually distinguishable.
+
+     {48} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 133, vi. p. 165.
+
+Our experience would lead us to expect that any and every one of these
+organisms would vary if <the organism were> taken away <?> and placed
+under new conditions. Geology proclaims a constant round of change,
+bringing into play, by every possible <?> change of climate and the death
+of pre-existing inhabitants, endless variations of new conditions. These
+<?> generally very slow, doubtful though <illegible> how far the
+slowness <?> would produce tendency to vary. But Geolog<ists> show
+change in configuration which, together with the accidents of air and
+water and the means of transportal which every being possesses, must
+occasionally bring, rather suddenly, organism to new conditions and <?>
+expose it for several generations. Hence <?> we should expect every now
+and then a wild form to vary{49}; possibly this may be cause of some
+species varying more than others.
+
+     {49} When the author wrote this sketch he seems not to have been so
+     fully convinced of the general occurrence of variation in nature as
+     he afterwards became. The above passage in the text possibly
+     suggests that at this time he laid more stress on _sports_ or
+     _mutations_ than was afterwards the case.
+
+According to nature of new conditions, so we might expect all or
+majority of organisms born under them to vary in some definite way.
+Further we might expect that the mould in which they are cast would
+likewise vary in some small degree. But is there any means of selecting
+those offspring which vary in the same manner, crossing them and keeping
+their offspring separate and thus producing selected races: otherwise as
+the wild animals freely cross, so must such small heterogeneous
+varieties be constantly counter-balanced and lost, and a uniformity of
+character [kept up] preserved. The former variation as the direct and
+necessary effects of causes, which we can see can act on them, as size
+of body from amount of food, effect of certain kinds of food on certain
+parts of bodies &c. &c.; such new varieties may then become adapted to
+those external [natural] agencies which act on them. But can varieties
+be produced adapted to end, which cannot possibly influence their
+structure and which it is absurd to look <at> as effects of chance. Can
+varieties like some vars of domesticated animals, like almost all wild
+species be produced adapted by exquisite means to prey on one animal or
+to escape from another,--or rather, as it puts out of question effects
+of intelligence and habits, can a plant become adapted to animals, as a
+plant which cannot be impregnated without agency of insect; or hooked
+seeds depending on animal's existence: woolly animals cannot have any
+direct effect on seeds of plant. This point which all theories about
+climate adapting woodpecker{50} to crawl <?> up trees, <illegible>
+miseltoe, <sentence incomplete>. But if every part of a plant or animal
+was to vary <illegible>, and if a being infinitely more sagacious than
+man (not an omniscient creator) during thousands and thousands of years
+were to select all the variations which tended towards certain ends ([or
+were to produce causes <?> which tended to the same end]), for instance,
+if he foresaw a canine animal would be better off, owing to the country
+producing more hares, if he were longer legged and keener
+sight,--greyhound produced{51}. If he saw that aquatic <animal would
+need> skinned toes. If for some unknown cause he found it would
+advantage a plant, which <?> like most plants is occasionally visited by
+bees &c.: if that plant's seed were occasionally eaten by birds and were
+then carried on to rotten trees, he might select trees with fruit more
+agreeable to such birds as perched, to ensure their being carried to
+trees; if he perceived those birds more often dropped the seeds, he
+might well have selected a bird who would <illegible> rotten trees or
+[gradually select plants which <he> had proved to live on less and less
+rotten trees]. Who, seeing how plants vary in garden, what blind foolish
+man has done{52} in a few years, will deny an all-seeing being in
+thousands of years could effect (if the Creator chose to do so), either
+by his own direct foresight or by intermediate means,--which will
+represent <?> the creator of this universe. Seems usual means. Be it
+remembered I have nothing to say about life and mind and _all_ forms
+descending from one common type{53}. I speak of the variation of the
+existing great divisions of the organised kingdom, how far I would go,
+hereafter to be seen.
+
+     {50} The author may possibly have taken the case of the woodpecker
+     from Buffon, _Histoire Nat. des Oiseaux_, T. vii. p. 3, 1780, where
+     however it is treated from a different point of view. He uses it
+     more than once, see for instance _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 3, 60, 184,
+     vi. pp. 3, 76, 220. The passage in the text corresponds with a
+     discussion on the woodpecker and the mistletoe in _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 3, vi. p. 3.
+
+     {51} This illustration occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 90, 91,
+     vi. pp. 110, 111.
+
+     {52} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102, where the word
+     _Creator_ is replaced by _Nature_.
+
+     {53} Note in the original. "Good place to introduce, saying reasons
+     hereafter to be given, how far I extend theory, say to all
+     mammalia--reasons growing weaker and weaker."
+
+Before considering whether <there> be any natural means of selection, and
+secondly (which forms the 2nd Part of this sketch) the far more
+important point whether the characters and relations of animated
+<things> are such as favour the idea of wild species being races <?>
+descended from a common stock, as the varieties of potato or dahlia or
+cattle having so descended, let us consider probable character of
+[selected races] wild varieties.
+
+_Natural Selection._ De Candolle's war of nature,--seeing contented face
+of nature,--may be well at first doubted; we see it on borders of
+perpetual cold{54}. But considering the enormous geometrical power of
+increase in every organism and as <?> every country, in ordinary cases
+<countries> must be stocked to full extent, reflection will show that
+this is the case. Malthus on man,--in animals no moral [check] restraint
+<?>--they breed in time of year when provision most abundant, or season
+most favourable, every country has its seasons,--calculate
+robins,--oscillating from years of destruction{55}. If proof were wanted
+let any singular change of climate <occur> here <?>, how astoundingly
+some tribes <?> increase, also introduced animals{56}, the pressure is
+always ready,--capacity of alpine plants to endure other
+climates,--think of endless seeds scattered abroad,--forests regaining
+their percentage{57},--a thousand wedges{58} are being forced into the
+oeconomy of nature. This requires much reflection; study Malthus and
+calculate rates of increase and remember the resistance,--only
+periodical.
+
+     {54} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 62, 63, vi. p. 77, where similar
+     reference is made to De Candolle; for Malthus see _Origin_, p. 5.
+
+     {55} This may possibly refer to the amount of destruction going on.
+     See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 68, vi. p. 84, where there is an estimate
+     of a later date as to death-rate of birds in winter. "Calculate
+     robins" probably refers to a calculation of the rate of increase of
+     birds under favourable conditions.
+
+     {56} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 64, 65, vi. p. 80, he instances
+     cattle and horses and certain plants in S. America and American
+     species of plants in India, and further on, as unexpected effects
+     of changed conditions, the enclosure of a heath, and the relation
+     between the fertilisation of clover and the presence of cats
+     (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91).
+
+     {57} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 74, vi. p. 91. "It has been observed that
+     the trees now growing on ... ancient Indian mounds ... display the
+     same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the
+     surrounding virgin forests."
+
+     {58} The simile of the wedge occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 67;
+     it is deleted in Darwin's copy of the first edition: it does not
+     occur in Ed. vi.
+
+The unavoidable effect of this <is> that many of every species are
+destroyed either in egg or [young or mature (the former state the more
+common)]. In the course of a thousand generations infinitesimally small
+differences must inevitably tell{59}; when unusually cold winter, or hot
+or dry summer comes, then out of the whole body of individuals of any
+species, if there be the smallest differences in their structure,
+habits, instincts [senses], health &c, <it> will on an average tell; as
+conditions change a rather larger proportion will be preserved: so if
+the chief check to increase falls on seeds or eggs, so will, in the
+course of 1000 generations or ten thousand, those seeds (like one with
+down to fly{60}) which fly furthest and get scattered most ultimately
+rear most plants, and such small differences tend to be hereditary like
+shades of expression in human countenance. So if one parent <?> fish
+deposits its egg in infinitesimally different circumstances, as in
+rather shallower or deeper water &c., it will then <?> tell.
+
+     {59} In a rough summary at the close of the Essay, occur the
+     words:--"Every creature lives by a struggle, smallest grain in
+     balance must tell."
+
+     {60} Cf. _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 77, vi. p. 94.
+
+Let hares{61} increase very slowly from change of climate affecting
+peculiar plants, and some other <illegible> rabbit decrease in same
+proportion [let this unsettle organisation of], a canine animal, who
+formerly derived its chief sustenance by springing on rabbits or
+running them by scent, must decrease too and might thus readily become
+exterminated. But if its form varied very slightly, the long legged
+fleet ones, during a thousand years being selected, and the less fleet
+rigidly destroyed must, if no law of nature be opposed to it, alter
+forms.
+
+     {61} This is a repetition of what is given at p. 6.
+
+Remember how soon Bakewell on the same principle altered cattle and
+Western, sheep,--carefully avoiding a cross (pigeons) with any breed.
+We cannot suppose that one plant tends to vary in fruit and another
+in flower, and another in flower and foliage,--some have been selected
+for both fruit and flower: that one animal varies in its covering and
+another not,--another in its milk. Take any organism and ask what is
+it useful for and on that point it will be found to vary,--cabbages
+in their leaf,--corn in size <and> quality of grain, both in times
+of year,--kidney beans for young pod and cotton for envelope of seeds
+&c. &c.: dogs in intellect, courage, fleetness and smell <?>: pigeons
+in peculiarities approaching to monsters. This requires
+consideration,--should be introduced in first chapter if it holds, I
+believe it does. It is hypothetical at best{62}.
+
+     {62} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 47. "I have seen it
+     gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry
+     began to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this
+     plant. No doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was
+     cultivated, but the slight varieties had been neglected."
+
+Nature's variation far less, but such selection far more rigid and
+scrutinising. Man's races not [even so well] only not better adapted to
+conditions than other races, but often not <?> one race adapted to its
+conditions, as man keeps and propagates some alpine plants in garden.
+Nature lets <an> animal live, till on actual proof it is found less able
+to do the required work to serve the desired end, man judges solely by
+his eye, and knows not whether nerves, muscles, arteries, are developed
+in proportion to the change of external form.
+
+Besides selection by death, in bisexual animals <illegible> the
+selection in time of fullest vigour, namely struggle of males; even in
+animals which pair there seems a surplus <?> and a battle, possibly as in
+man more males produced than females, struggle of war or charms{63}.
+Hence that male which at that time is in fullest vigour, or best armed
+with arms or ornaments of its species, will gain in hundreds of
+generations some small advantage and transmit such characters to its
+offspring. So in female rearing its young, the most vigorous and skilful
+and industrious, <whose> instincts <are> best developed, will rear more
+young, probably possessing her good qualities, and a greater number will
+thus <be> prepared for the struggle of nature. Compared to man using a
+male alone of good breed. This latter section only of limited
+application, applies to variation of [specific] sexual characters.
+Introduce here contrast with Lamarck,--absurdity of habit, or chance??
+or external conditions, making a woodpecker adapted to tree{64}.
+
+     {63} Here we have the two types of sexual selection discussed in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 88 et seq., vi. pp. 108 et seq.
+
+     {64} It is not obvious why the author objects to "chance" or
+     "external conditions making a woodpecker." He allows that variation
+     is ultimately referable to conditions and that the nature of the
+     connexion is unknown, i.e. that the result is fortuitous. It is not
+     clear in the original to how much of the passage the two ? refer.
+
+Before considering difficulties of theory of selection let us consider
+character of the races produced, as now explained, by nature. Conditions
+have varied slowly and the organisms best adapted in their whole course
+of life to the changed conditions have always been selected,--man
+selects small dog and afterwards gives it profusion of food,--selects a
+long-backed and short-legged breed and gives it no particular exercise
+to suit this function &c. &c. In ordinary cases nature has not allowed
+her race to be contaminated with a cross of another race, and
+agriculturists know how difficult they find always to prevent
+this,--effect would be trueness. This character and sterility when
+crossed, and generally a greater amount of difference, are two main
+features, which distinguish domestic races from species.
+
+[Sterility not universal admitted by all{65}. _Gladiolus_, _Crinum_,
+_Calceolaria_{66} must be species if there be such a thing. Races of
+dogs and oxen: but certainly very general; indeed a gradation of
+sterility most perfect{67} very general. Some nearest species will not
+cross (crocus, some heath <?>), some genera cross readily (fowls{68} and
+grouse, peacock &c.). Hybrids no ways monstrous quite perfect except
+secretions{69} hence even the mule has bred,--character of sterility,
+especially a few years ago <?> thought very much more universal than it now
+is, has been thought the distinguishing character; indeed it is obvious
+if all forms freely crossed, nature would be a chaos. But the very
+gradation of the character, even if it always existed in some degree
+which it does not, renders it impossible as marks <?> those <?> suppose
+distinct as species{70}]. Will analogy throw any light on the fact of
+the supposed races of nature being sterile, though none of the domestic
+ones are? Mr Herbert <and> Koelreuter have shown external differences will
+not guide one in knowing whether hybrids will be fertile or not, but the
+chief circumstance is constitutional differences{71}, such as being
+adapted to different climate or soil, differences which [must] probably
+affect the whole body of the organism and not any one part. Now wild
+animals, taken out of their natural conditions, seldom breed. I do not
+refer to shows or to Zoological Societies where many animals unite, but
+<do not?> breed, and others will never unite, but to wild animals caught
+and kept _quite tame_ left loose and well fed about houses and living
+many years. Hybrids produced almost as readily as pure breds. St Hilaire
+great distinction of tame and domestic,--elephants,--ferrets{72}.
+Reproductive organs not subject to disease in Zoological Garden.
+Dissection and microscope show that hybrid is in exactly same condition
+as another animal in the intervals of breeding season, or those animals
+which taken wild and _not bred_ in domesticity, remain without breeding
+their whole lives. It should be observed that so far from domesticity
+being unfavourable in itself <it> makes more fertile: [when animal is
+domesticated and breeds, productive power increased from more food and
+selection of fertile races]. As far as animals go might be thought <an>
+effect on their mind and a special case.
+
+     {65} The meaning is "That sterility is not universal is admitted by
+     all."
+
+     {66} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, i. p. 388, where the garden
+     forms of _Gladiolus_ and _Calceolaria_ are said to be derived from
+     crosses between distinct species. Herbert's hybrid _Crinums_ are
+     discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370. It is well
+     known that the author believed in a multiple origin of domestic
+     dogs.
+
+     {67} The argument from gradation in sterility is given in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 248, 255, vi. pp. 368, 375. In the _Origin_, I
+     have not come across the cases mentioned, viz. crocus, heath, or
+     grouse and fowl or peacock. For sterility between closely allied
+     species, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 257, vi. p. 377. In the present
+     essay the author does not distinguish between fertility between
+     species and the fertility of the hybrid offspring, a point on which
+     he insists in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 245, vi. p. 365.
+
+     {68} Ackermann (_Ber. d. Vereins f. Naturkunde zu Kassel_, 1898, p.
+     23) quotes from Gloger that a cross has been effected between a
+     domestic hen and a _Tetrao tetrix_; the offspring died when three
+     days old.
+
+     {69} No doubt the sexual cells are meant. I do not know on what
+     evidence it is stated that the mule has bred.
+
+     {70} The sentence is all but illegible. I think that the author
+     refers to forms usually ranked as varieties having been marked as
+     species when it was found that they were sterile together. See the
+     case of the red and blue _Anagallis_ given from Gaertner in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 247, vi. p. 368.
+
+     {71} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 258, where the author speaks of
+     constitutional differences in this connexion, he specifies that
+     they are confined to the reproductive system.
+
+     {72} The sensitiveness of the reproductive system to changed
+     conditions is insisted on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.
+
+     The ferret is mentioned, as being prolific in captivity, in _Var.
+     under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p. 90.
+
+But turning to plants we find same class of facts. I do not refer to
+seeds not ripening, perhaps the commonest cause, but to plants not
+setting, which either is owing to some imperfection of ovule or pollen.
+Lindley says sterility is the [curse] bane of all propagators,--Linnaeus
+about alpine plants. American bog plants,--pollen in exactly same state
+as in hybrids,--same in geraniums. Persian and Chinese{73} lilac will
+not seed in Italy and England. Probably double plants and all fruits owe
+their developed parts primarily <?> to sterility and extra food thus <?>
+applied{74}. There is here gradation <in> sterility and then parts, like
+diseases, are transmitted hereditarily. We cannot assign any cause why
+the Pontic Azalea produces plenty of pollen and not American{75}, why
+common lilac seeds and not Persian, we see no difference in healthiness.
+We know not on what circumstances these facts depend, why ferret breeds,
+and cheetah{76}, elephant and pig in India will not.
+
+     {73} Lindley's remark is quoted in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 9.
+     Linnaeus' remark is to the effect that Alpine plants tend to be
+     sterile under cultivation (see _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p.
+     147). In the same place the author speaks of peat-loving plants
+     being sterile in our gardens,--no doubt the American bog-plants
+     referred to above. On the following page (p. 148) the sterility of
+     the lilac (_Syringa persica_ and _chinensis_) is referred to.
+
+     {74} The author probably means that the increase in the petals is
+     due to a greater food supply being available for them owing to
+     sterility. See the discussion in _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p.
+     151. It must be noted that doubleness of the flower may exist
+     without noticeable sterility.
+
+     {75} I have not come across this case in the author's works.
+
+     {76} For the somewhat doubtful case of the cheetah (_Felis jubata_)
+     see _Var. under Dom._, Ed. 2, ii. p. 133. I do not know to what
+     fact "pig in India" refers.
+
+Now in crossing it is certain every peculiarity in form and constitution
+is transmitted: an alpine plant transmits its alpine tendency to its
+offspring, an American plant its American-bog constitution, and <with>
+animals, those peculiarities, on which{77} when placed out of their
+natural conditions they are incapable of breeding; and moreover they
+transmit every part of their constitution, their respiration, their
+pulse, their instinct, which are all suddenly modified, can it be
+wondered at that they are incapable of breeding? I think it may be truly
+said it would be more wonderful if they did. But it may be asked why
+have not the recognised varieties, supposed to have been produced
+through the means of man, [not refused to breed] have all bred{78}.
+Variation depends on change of condition and selection{79}, as far as
+man's systematic or unsystematic selection <has> gone; he takes external
+form, has little power from ignorance over internal invisible
+constitutional differences. Races which have long been domesticated, and
+have much varied, are precisely those which were capable of bearing
+great changes, whose constitutions were adapted to a diversity of
+climates. Nature changes slowly and by degrees. According to many
+authors probably breeds of dogs are another case of modified species
+freely crossing. There is no variety which <illegible> has been <illegible>
+adapted to peculiar soil or situation for a thousand years and another
+rigorously adapted to another, till such can be produced, the question
+is not tried{80}. Man in past ages, could transport into different
+climates, animals and plants which would freely propagate in such new
+climates. Nature could effect, with selection, such changes slowly, so
+that precisely those animals which are adapted to submit to great
+changes have given rise to diverse races,--and indeed great doubt on
+this head{81}.
+
+     {77} This sentence should run "on which depends their incapacity to
+     breed in unnatural conditions."
+
+     {78} This sentence ends in confusion: it should clearly close with
+     the words "refused to breed" in place of the bracket and the
+     present concluding phrase.
+
+     {79} The author doubtless refers to the change produced by the
+     _summation_ of variation by means of selection.
+
+     {80} The meaning of this sentence is made clear by a passage in the
+     MS. of 1844:--"Until man selects two varieties from the same stock,
+     adapted to two climates or to other different external conditions,
+     and confines each rigidly for one or several thousand years to such
+     conditions, always selecting the individuals best adapted to them,
+     he cannot be said to have even commenced the experiment." That is,
+     the attempt to produce mutually sterile domestic breeds.
+
+     {81} This passage is to some extent a repetition of a previous one
+     and may have been intended to replace an earlier sentence. I have
+     thought it best to give both. In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 141, vi.
+     p. 176, the author gives his opinion that the power of resisting
+     diverse conditions, seen in man and his domestic animals, is an
+     example "of a very common flexibility of constitution."
+
+Before leaving this subject well to observe that it was shown that a
+certain amount of variation is consequent on mere act of reproduction,
+both by buds and sexually,--is vastly increased when parents exposed for
+some generations to new conditions{82}, and we now find that many
+animals when exposed for first time to very new conditions, are <as>
+incapable of breeding as hybrids. It [probably] bears also on supposed
+fact of crossed animals when not infertile, as in mongrels, tending to
+vary much, as likewise seems to be the case, when true hybrids possess
+just sufficient fertility to propagate with the parent breeds and _inter
+se_ for some generations. This is Koelreuter's belief. These facts throw
+light on each other and support the truth of each other, we see
+throughout a connection between the reproductive faculties and exposure
+to changed conditions of life whether by crossing or exposure of the
+individuals{83}.
+
+     {82} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. Chs. I. and V., the author does not
+     admit reproduction, apart from environment, as being a cause of
+     variation. With regard to the cumulative effect of new conditions
+     there are many passages in the _Origin_, Ed. i. e.g. pp. 7, 12, vi.
+     pp. 8, 14.
+
+     {83} As already pointed out, this is the important principle
+     investigated in the author's _Cross and Self-Fertilisation_.
+     Professor Bateson has suggested to me that the experiments should
+     be repeated with gametically pure individuals.
+
+_Difficulties on theory of selection_{84}. It may be objected such
+perfect organs as eye and ear, could never be formed, in latter less
+difficulty as gradations more perfect; at first appears monstrous and to
+<the> end appears difficulty. But think of gradation, even now manifest,
+(Tibia and Fibula). Everyone will allow if every fossil preserved,
+gradation infinitely more perfect; for possibility of selection a
+perfect <?> gradation is required. Different groups of structure, slight
+gradation in each group,--every analogy renders it probable that
+intermediate forms have existed. Be it remembered what strange
+metamorphoses; part of eye, not directly connected with vision, might
+come to be [thus used] gradually worked in for this end,--swimming
+bladder by gradation of structure is admitted to belong to the ear
+system,--rattlesnake. [Woodpecker best adapted to climb.] In some cases
+gradation not possible,--as vertebrae,--actually vary in domestic
+animals,--less difficult if growth followed. Looking to whole animals, a
+bat formed not for flight{85}. Suppose we had flying fish{86} and not
+one of our now called flying fish preserved, who would have guessed
+intermediate habits. Woodpeckers and tree-frogs both live in countries
+where no trees{87}.
+
+     {84} In the _Origin_ a chapter is given up to "difficulties on
+     theory": the discussion in the present essay seems slight even when
+     it is remembered how small a space is here available. For _Tibia_
+     &c. see p. 48.
+
+     {85} This may be interpreted "The general structure of a bat is the
+     same as that of non-flying mammals."
+
+     {86} That is truly winged fish.
+
+     {87} The terrestrial woodpecker of S. America formed the subject of
+     a paper by Darwin, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1870. See _Life and
+     Letters_, vol. iii. p. 153.
+
+The gradations by which each individual organ has arrived at its present
+state, and each individual animal with its aggregate of organs has
+arrived, probably never could be known, and all present great
+difficulties. I merely wish to show that the proposition is not so
+monstrous as it at first appears, and that if good reason can be
+advanced for believing the species have descended from common parents,
+the difficulty of imagining intermediate forms of structure not
+sufficient to make one at once reject the theory.
+
+
+Sec. III. <ON VARIATION IN INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL ATTRIBUTES.>
+
+The mental powers of different animals in wild and tame state [present
+still greater difficulties] require a separate section. Be it remembered
+I have nothing to do with origin of memory, attention, and the different
+faculties of the mind{88}, but merely with their differences in each of
+the great divisions of nature. Disposition, courage, pertinacity <?>,
+suspicion, restlessness, ill-temper, sagacity and <the> reverse
+unquestionably vary in animals and are inherited (Cuba wildness dogs,
+rabbits, fear against particular object as man Galapagos{89}). Habits
+purely corporeal, breeding season &c., time of going to rest &c., vary
+and are hereditary, like the analogous habits of plants which vary and
+are inherited. Habits of body, as manner of movement d^o. and d^o.
+Habits, as pointing and setting on certain occasions d^o. Taste for
+hunting certain objects and manner of doing so,--sheep-dog. These are
+shown clearly by crossing and their analogy with true instinct thus
+shown,--retriever. Do not know objects for which they do it. Lord
+Brougham's definition{90}. Origin partly habit, but the amount
+necessarily unknown, partly selection. Young pointers pointing stones
+and sheep--tumbling pigeons--sheep{91} going back to place where born.
+Instinct aided by reason, as in the taylor-bird{92}. Taught by parents,
+cows choosing food, birds singing. Instincts vary in wild state (birds
+get wilder) often lost{93}; more perfect,--nest without roof. These
+facts [only clear way] show how incomprehensibly brain has power of
+transmitting intellectual operations.
+
+     {88} The same proviso occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p.
+     319.
+
+     {89} The tameness of the birds in the Galapagos is described in the
+     _Journal of Researches_ (1860), p. 398. Dogs and rabbits are
+     probably mentioned as cases in which the hereditary fear of man has
+     been lost. In the 1844 MS. the author states that the Cuban feral
+     dog shows great natural wildness, even when caught quite young.
+
+     {90} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319, he refuses to
+     define instinct. For Lord Brougham's definition see his
+     _Dissertations on Subjects of Science etc._, 1839, p. 27.
+
+     {91} See James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Works, 1865, _Tales and
+     Sketches_, p. 403.
+
+     {92} This refers to the tailor-bird making use of manufactured
+     thread supplied to it, instead of thread twisted by itself.
+
+     {93} _Often lost_ applies to _instinct_: _birds get wilder_ is
+     printed in a parenthesis because it was apparently added as an
+     after-thought. _Nest without roof_ refers to the water-ousel
+     omitting to vault its nest when building in a protected situation.
+
+Faculties{94} distinct from true instincts,--finding [way]. It must I
+think be admitted that habits whether congenital or acquired by practice
+[sometimes] often become inherited{95}; instincts, influence, equally
+with structure, the preservation of animals; therefore selection must,
+with changing conditions tend to modify the inherited habits of animals.
+If this be admitted it will be found _possible_ that many of the
+strangest instincts may be thus acquired. I may observe, without
+attempting definition, that an inherited habit or trick (trick because
+may be born) fulfils closely what we mean by instinct. A habit is often
+performed unconsciously, the strangest habits become associated, d^o.
+tricks, going in certain spots &c. &c., even against will, is excited by
+external agencies, and looks not to the end,--a person playing a
+pianoforte. If such a habit were transmitted it would make a marvellous
+instinct. Let us consider some of the most difficult cases of instincts,
+whether they could be _possibly_ acquired. I do not say _probably_, for
+that belongs to our 3rd Part{96}, I beg this may be remembered, nor do I
+mean to attempt to show exact method. I want only to show that whole
+theory ought not at once to be rejected on this score.
+
+     {94} In the MS. of 1844 is an interesting discussion on _faculty_
+     as distinct from _instinct_.
+
+     {95} At this date and for long afterwards the inheritance of
+     acquired characters was assumed to occur.
+
+     {96} Part II. is here intended: see the Introduction.
+
+Every instinct must, by my theory, have been acquired gradually by
+slight changes <illegible> of former instinct, each change being useful
+to its then species. Shamming death struck me at first as remarkable
+objection. I found none really sham death{97}, and that there is
+gradation; now no one doubts that those insects which do it either more
+or less, do it for some good, if then any species was led to do it more,
+and then <?> escaped &c. &c.
+
+     {97} The meaning is that the attitude assumed in _shamming_ is not
+     accurately like that of death.
+
+Take migratory instincts, faculty distinct from instinct, animals have
+notion of time,--like savages. Ordinary finding way by memory, but how
+does savage find way across country,--as incomprehensible to us, as
+animal to them,--geological changes,--fishes in river,--case of sheep in
+Spain{98}. Architectural instincts,--a manufacturer's employee in making
+single articles extraordinary skill,--often said seem to make it almost
+<illegible>, child born with such a notion of playing{99},--we can
+fancy tailoring acquired in same perfection,--mixture of
+reason,--water-ouzel,--taylor-bird,--gradation of simple nest to most
+complicated.
+
+     {98} This refers to the _transandantes_ sheep mentioned in the MS.
+     of 1844, as having acquired a migratory instinct.
+
+     {99} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 209, vi. p. 321, Mozart's
+     pseudo-instinctive skill in piano-playing is mentioned. See _Phil.
+     Trans._, 1770, p. 54.
+
+Bees again, distinction of faculty,--how they make a
+hexagon,--Waterhouse's theory{100},--the impulse to use whatever faculty
+they possess,--the taylor-bird has the faculty of sewing with beak,
+instinct impels him to do it.
+
+     {100} In the discussion on bees' cells, _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 225,
+     vi. p. 343, the author acknowledges that his theory originated in
+     Waterhouse's observations.
+
+Last case of parent feeding young with different food (take case of
+Galapagos birds, gradation from Hawfinch to Sylvia) selection and habit
+might lead old birds to vary taste <?> and form, leaving their instinct of
+feeding their young with same food{101},--or I see no difficulty in
+parents being forced or induced to vary the food brought, and selection
+adapting the young ones to it, and thus by degree any amount of
+diversity might be arrived at. Although we can never hope to see the
+course revealed by which different instincts have been acquired, for we
+have only present animals (not well known) to judge of the course of
+gradation, yet once grant the principle of habits, whether congenital or
+acquired by experience, being inherited and I can see no limit to the
+[amount of variation] extraordinariness <?> of the habits thus acquired.
+
+     {101} The hawfinch-and _Sylvia-_types are figured in the _Journal
+     of Researches_, p. 379. The discussion of change of form in
+     relation to change of instinct is not clear, and I find it
+     impossible to suggest a paraphrase.
+
+_Summing up this Division._ If variation be admitted to occur
+occasionally in some wild animals, and how can we doubt it, when we see
+[all] thousands <of> organisms, for whatever use taken by man, do vary.
+If we admit such variations tend to be hereditary, and how can we doubt
+it when we <remember> resemblances of features and character,--disease
+and monstrosities inherited and endless races produced (1200 cabbages).
+If we admit selection is steadily at work, and who will doubt it, when
+he considers amount of food on an average fixed and reproductive powers
+act in geometrical ratio. If we admit that external conditions vary, as
+all geology proclaims, they have done and are now doing,--then, if no
+law of nature be opposed, there must occasionally be formed races,
+[slightly] differing from the parent races. So then any such law{102},
+none is known, but in all works it is assumed, in <?> flat contradiction
+to all known facts, that the amount of possible variation is soon
+acquired. Are not all the most varied species, the oldest domesticated:
+who <would> think that horses or corn could be produced? Take dahlia and
+potato, who will pretend in 5000 years{103} <that great changes might
+not be effected>: perfectly adapted to conditions and then again brought
+into varying conditions. Think what has been done in few last years,
+look at pigeons, and cattle. With the amount of food man can produce he
+may have arrived at limit of fatness or size, or thickness of wool <?>,
+but these are the most trivial points, but even in these I conclude it
+is impossible to say we know the limit of variation. And therefore with
+the [adapting] selecting power of nature, infinitely wise compared to
+those of man, <I conclude> that it is impossible to say we know the limit
+of races, which would be true <to their> kind; if of different
+constitutions would probably be infertile one with another, and which
+might be adapted in the most singular and admirable manner, according to
+their wants, to external nature and to other surrounding
+organisms,--such races would be species. But is there any evidence <that>
+species <have> been thus produced, this is a question wholly independent
+of all previous points, and which on examination of the kingdom of
+nature <we> ought to answer one way or another.
+
+     {102} I should interpret this obscure sentence as follows, "No such
+     opposing law is known, but in all works on the subject a law is (in
+     flat contradiction to all known facts) assumed to limit the
+     possible amount of variation." In the _Origin_, the author never
+     limits the power of variation, as far as I know.
+
+     {103} In _Var. under Dom._ Ed. 2, ii. p. 263, the _Dahlia_ is
+     described as showing sensitiveness to conditions in 1841. All the
+     varieties of the _Dahlia_ are said to have arisen since 1804
+     (_ibid._ i. p. 393).
+
+
+
+
+PART II{104}.
+
+     {104} In the original MS. the heading is: Part III.; but Part II.
+     is clearly intended; for details see the Introduction. I have not
+     been able to discover where Sec. IV. ends and Sec. V. begins.
+
+
+Sec.Sec. IV. & V. <ON THE EVIDENCE FROM GEOLOGY.>
+
+I may premise, that according to the view ordinarily received, the
+myriads of organisms peopling this world have been created by so many
+distinct acts of creation. As we know nothing of the <illegible> will of a
+Creator,--we can see no reason why there should exist any relation
+between the organisms thus created; or again, they might be created
+according to any scheme. But it would be marvellous if this scheme
+should be the same as would result from the descent of groups of
+organisms from [certain] the same parents, according to the
+circumstances, just attempted to be developed.
+
+With equal probability did old cosmogonists say fossils were created, as
+we now see them, with a false resemblance to living beings{105}; what
+would the Astronomer say to the doctrine that the planets moved <not>
+according to the law of gravitation, but from the Creator having willed
+each separate planet to move in its particular orbit? I believe such a
+proposition (if we remove all prejudices) would be as legitimate as to
+admit that certain groups of living and extinct organisms, in their
+distribution, in their structure and in their relations one to another
+and to external conditions, agreed with the theory and showed signs of
+common descent, and yet were created distinct. As long as it was thought
+impossible that organisms should vary, or should anyhow become adapted
+to other organisms in a complicated manner, and yet be separated from
+them by an impassable barrier of sterility{106}, it was justifiable,
+even with some appearance in favour of a common descent, to admit
+distinct creation according to the will of an Omniscient Creator; or,
+for it is the same thing, to say with Whewell that the beginnings of all
+things surpass the comprehension of man. In the former sections I have
+endeavoured to show that such variation or specification is not
+impossible, nay, in many points of view is absolutely probable. What
+then is the evidence in favour of it and what the evidence against it.
+With our imperfect knowledge of past ages [surely there will be some] it
+would be strange if the imperfection did not create some unfavourable
+evidence.
+
+     {105} This passage corresponds roughly to the conclusion of the
+     _Origin_, see Ed. i. p. 482, vi. p. 661.
+
+     {106} A similar passage occurs in the conclusion of the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.
+
+Give sketch of the Past,--beginning with facts appearing hostile under
+present knowledge,--then proceed to geograph. distribution,--order of
+appearance,--affinities,--morphology &c., &c.
+
+Our theory requires a very gradual introduction of new forms{107}, and
+extermination of the old (to which we shall revert). The extermination
+of old may sometimes be rapid, but never the introduction. In the groups
+descended from common parent, our theory requires a perfect gradation
+not differing more than breed<s> of cattle, or potatoes, or cabbages in
+forms. I do not mean that a graduated series of animals must have
+existed, intermediate between horse, mouse, tapir{108}, elephant [or
+fowl and peacock], but that these must have had a common parent, and
+between horse and this <?> parent &c., &c., but the common parent may
+possibly have differed more from either than the two do now from each
+other. Now what evidence of this is there? So perfect gradation in some
+departments, that some naturalists have thought that in some large
+divisions, if all existing forms were collected, a near approach to
+perfect gradation would be made. But such a notion is preposterous with
+respect to all, but evidently so with mammals. Other naturalists have
+thought this would be so if all the specimens entombed in the strata
+were collected{109}. I conceive there is no probability whatever of
+this; nevertheless it is certain all the numerous fossil forms fall
+in<to>, as Buckland remarks, _not_ present classes, families and genera,
+they fall between them: so is it with new discoveries of existing forms.
+Most ancient fossils, that is most separated <by> space of time, are most
+apt to fall between the classes--(but organisms from those countries
+most separated by space also fall between the classes <_e.g._>
+Ornithorhyncus?). As far as geological discoveries <go> they tend towards
+such gradation{110}. Illustrate it with net. Toxodon,--tibia and
+fibula,--dog and otter,--but so utterly improbable is <it>, in _ex. gr._
+Pachydermata, to compose series as perfect as cattle, that if, as many
+geologists seem to infer, each separate formation presents even an
+approach to a consecutive history, my theory must be given up. Even if
+it were consecutive, it would only collect series of one district in our
+present state of knowledge; but what probability is there that any one
+formation during the _immense_ period which has elapsed during each
+period will _generally_ present a consecutive history. [Compare number
+living at one period to fossils preserved--look at enormous periods of
+time.]
+
+     {107} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.
+
+     {108} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 280, 281, vi. p. 414. The author
+     uses his experience of pigeons for examples for what he means by
+     _intermediate_; the instance of the horse and tapir also occurs.
+
+     {109} The absence of intermediate forms between living organisms
+     (and also as regards fossils) is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     pp. 279, 280, vi. p. 413. In the above discussion there is no
+     evidence that the author felt this difficulty so strongly as it is
+     expressed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299,--as perhaps "the most
+     obvious and gravest objection that can be urged against my theory."
+     But in a rough summary written on the back of the penultimate page
+     of the MS. he refers to the geological evidence:--"Evidence, as far
+     as it does go, is favourable, exceedingly incomplete,--greatest
+     difficulty on this theory. I am convinced not insuperable."
+     Buckland's remarks are given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p.
+     471.
+
+     {110} That the evidence of geology, as far as it goes, is
+     favourable to the theory of descent is claimed in the _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. pp. 343-345, vi. pp. 490-492. For the reference to _net_ in the
+     following sentence, see Note 1, p. 48, {Note 161} of this Essay.
+
+Referring only to marine animals, which are obviously most likely to be
+preserved, they must live where <?> sediment (of a kind favourable for
+preservation, not sand and pebble){111} is depositing quickly and over
+large area and must be thickly capped, <illegible> littoral deposits:
+for otherwise denudation <will destroy them>,--they must live in a
+shallow space which sediment will tend to fill up,--as movement is <in?>
+progress if soon brought <?> up <?> subject to denudation,--[if] as
+during subsidence favourable, accords with facts of European
+deposits{112}, but subsidence apt to destroy agents which produce
+sediment{113}.
+
+     {111} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422. "The remains that do
+     become embedded, if in sand and gravel, will, when the beds are
+     upraised, generally be dissolved by the percolation of rain-water."
+
+     {112} The position of the following is not clear:--"Think of
+     immense differences in nature of European deposits,--without
+     interposing new causes,--think of time required by present slow
+     changes, to cause, on very same area, such diverse deposits,
+     iron-sand, chalk, sand, coral, clay!"
+
+     {113} The paragraph which ends here is difficult to interpret. In
+     spite of obscurity it is easy to recognize the general resemblance
+     to the discussion on the importance of subsidence given in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 290 et seq., vi. pp. 422 et seq.
+
+I believe safely inferred <that> groups of marine <?> fossils only
+preserved for future ages where sediment goes on long <and>
+continuous<ly> and with rapid but not too rapid deposition in <an> area
+of subsidence. In how few places in any one region like Europe will <?>
+these contingencies be going on? Hence <?> in past ages mere [gaps]
+pages preserved{114}. Lyell's doctrine carried to extreme,--we shall
+understand difficulty if it be asked:--what chance of series of
+gradation between cattle by <illegible> at age <illegible> as far back
+as Miocene{115}? We know then cattle existed. Compare number of
+living,--immense duration of each period,--fewness of fossils.
+
+     {114} See Note 3, p. 27.
+
+     {115} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 298, vi. p. 437. "We shall,
+     perhaps, best perceive the improbability of our being enabled to
+     connect species by numerous, fine, intermediate, fossil links, by
+     asking ourselves whether, for instance, geologists at some future
+     period will be able to prove that our different breeds of cattle,
+     sheep, horses, and dogs have descended from a single stock or from
+     several aboriginal stocks."
+
+This only refers to consecutiveness of history of organisms of each
+formation.
+
+The foregoing argument will show firstly, that formations are distinct
+merely from want of fossils <of intermediate beds>, and secondly, that
+each formation is full of gaps, has been advanced to account for
+_fewness_ of _preserved_ organisms compared to what have lived on the
+world. The very same argument explains why in older formations the
+organisms appear to come on and disappear suddenly,--but in [later]
+tertiary not quite suddenly{116}, in later tertiary gradually,--becoming
+rare and disappearing,--some have disappeared within man's time. It is
+obvious that our theory requires gradual and nearly uniform
+introduction, possibly more sudden extermination,--subsidence of
+continent of Australia &c., &c.
+
+     {116} The sudden appearance of groups of allied species in the
+     lowest known fossiliferous strata is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 306, vi. p. 446. The gradual appearance in the later strata
+     occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.
+
+Our theory requires that the first form which existed of each of the
+great divisions would present points intermediate between existing ones,
+but immensely different. Most geologists believe Silurian{117} fossils
+are those which first existed in the whole world, not those which have
+chanced to be the oldest not destroyed,--or the first which existed in
+profoundly deep seas in progress of conversion from sea to land: if they
+are first they <? we> give up. Not so Hutton or Lyell: if first
+reptile{118} of Red Sandstone <?> really was first which existed: if
+Pachyderm{119} of Paris was first which existed: fish of Devonian:
+dragon fly of Lias: for we cannot suppose them the progenitors: they
+agree too closely with existing divisions. But geologists consider
+Europe as <?> a passage from sea to island <?> to continent (except
+Wealden, see Lyell). These animals therefore, I consider then mere
+introduction <?> from continents long since submerged.
+
+     {117} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.
+
+     {118} I have interpreted as _Sandstone_ a scrawl which I first read
+     as _Sea_; I have done so at the suggestion of Professor Judd, who
+     points out that "footprints in the red sandstone were known at that
+     time, and geologists were not then particular to distinguish
+     between Amphibians and Reptiles."
+
+     {119} This refers to Cuvier's discovery of _Palaeotherium_ &c. at
+     Montmartre.
+
+Finally, if views of some geologists be correct, my theory must be given
+up. [Lyell's views, as far as they go, are in _favour_, but they go so
+little in favour, and so much more is required, that it may <be> viewed as
+objection.] If geology present us with mere pages in chapters, towards
+end of <a> history, formed by tearing out bundles of leaves, and each page
+illustrating merely a small portion of the organisms of that time, the
+facts accord perfectly with my theory{120}.
+
+     {120} This simile is more fully given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     310, vi. p. 452. "For my part, following out Lyell's metaphor, I
+     look at the natural geological record, as a history of the world
+     imperfectly kept, and written in a changing dialect; of this
+     history we possess the last volume alone, relating only to two or
+     three countries. Of this volume, only here and there a short
+     chapter has been preserved; and of each page, only here and there a
+     few lines. Each word of the slowly-changing language, in which the
+     history is supposed to be written, being more or less different in
+     the interrupted succession of chapters, may represent the
+     apparently abruptly changed forms of life, entombed in our
+     consecutive, but widely separated formations." Professor Judd has
+     been good enough to point out to me, that Darwin's metaphor is
+     founded on the comparison of geology to history in Ch. i. of the
+     _Principles of Geology_, Ed. i. 1830, vol. i. pp. 1-4. Professor
+     Judd has also called my attention to another
+     passage,--_Principles_, Ed. i. 1833, vol. iii. p. 33, when Lyell
+     imagines an historian examining "two buried cities at the foot of
+     Vesuvius, immediately superimposed upon each other." The historian
+     would discover that the inhabitants of the lower town were Greeks
+     while those of the upper one were Italians. But he would be wrong
+     in supposing that there had been a sudden change from the Greek to
+     the Italian language in Campania. I think it is clear that Darwin's
+     metaphor is partly taken from this passage. See for instance (in
+     the above passage from the _Origin_) such phrases as "history ...
+     written in a changing dialect"--"apparently abruptly changed forms
+     of life." The passage within [] in the above paragraph:--"Lyell's
+     views as far as they go &c.," no doubt refers, as Professor Judd
+     points out, to Lyell not going so far as Darwin on the question of
+     the imperfection of the geological record.
+
+_Extermination._ We have seen that in later periods the organisms have
+disappeared by degrees and [perhaps] probably by degrees in earlier, and
+I have said our theory requires it. As many naturalists seem to think
+extermination a most mysterious circumstance{121} and call in
+astonishing agencies, it is well to recall what we have shown concerning
+the struggle of nature. An exterminating agency is at work with every
+organism: we scarcely see it: if robins would increase to thousands in
+ten years how severe must the process be. How imperceptible a small
+increase: fossils become rare: possibly sudden extermination as
+Australia, but as present means very slow and many means of escape, I
+shall doubt very sudden exterminations. Who can explain why some species
+abound more,--why does marsh titmouse, or ring-ouzel, now little
+change,--why is one sea-slug rare and another common on our coasts,--why
+one species of Rhinoceros more than another,--why is <illegible> tiger of
+India so rare? Curious and general sources of error, the place of an
+organism is instantly filled up.
+
+     {121} On rarity and extinction see _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 109, 319,
+     vi. pp. 133, 461.
+
+We know state of earth has changed, and as earthquakes and tides go on,
+the state must change,--many geologists believe a slow gradual cooling.
+Now let us see in accordance with principles of [variation]
+specification explained in Sect. II. how species would probably be
+introduced and how such results accord with what is known.
+
+The first fact geology proclaims is immense number of extinct forms, and
+new appearances. Tertiary strata leads to belief, that forms gradually
+become rare and disappear and are gradually supplied by others. We see
+some forms now becoming rare and disappearing, we know of no sudden
+creation: in older periods the forms _appear_ to come in suddenly, scene
+shifts: but even here Devonian, Permian &c. [keep on supplying new links
+in chain]--Genera and higher forms come on and disappear, in same way
+leaving a species on one or more stages below that in which the form
+abounded.
+
+
+<GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.>
+
+Sec. VI. Let us consider the absolute state of distribution of organisms of
+earth's face.
+
+Referring chiefly, but not exclusively (from difficulty of transport,
+fewness, and the distinct characteristics of groups) to Mammalia; and
+first considering the three or four main [regions] divisions; North
+America, Europe, Asia, including greater part of E. Indian Archipelago
+and Africa are intimately allied. Africa most distinct, especially most
+southern parts. And the Arctic regions, which unite N. America, Asia and
+Europe, only separated (if we travel one way by Behring's St.) by a
+narrow strait, is most intimately allied, indeed forms but one
+restricted group. Next comes S. America,--then Australia, Madagascar
+(and some small islands which stand very remote from the land). Looking
+at these main divisions separately, the organisms vary according to
+changes in condition{122} of different parts. But besides this, barriers
+of every kind seem to separate regions in a greater degree than
+proportionally to the difference of climates on each side. Thus great
+chains of mountains, spaces of sea between islands and continents, even
+great rivers and deserts. In fact the amount <of> difference in the
+organisms bears a certain, but not invariable relation to the amount of
+physical difficulties to transit{123}.
+
+     {122} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493, the author begins
+     his discussion on geographical distribution by minimising the
+     effect of physical conditions. He lays great stress on the effect
+     of _barriers_, as in the present Essay.
+
+     {123} Note in the original, "Would it be more striking if we took
+     animals, take Rhinoceros, and study their habitats?"
+
+There are some curious exceptions, namely, similarity of fauna of
+mountains of Europe and N. America and Lapland. Other cases just <the>
+reverse, mountains of eastern S. America, Altai <?>, S. India <?>{124}:
+mountain summits of islands often eminently peculiar. Fauna generally of
+some islands, even when close, very dissimilar, in others very similar.
+[I am here led to observe one or more centres of creation{125}.]
+
+     {124} Note by Mr A. R. Wallace. "The want of similarity referred
+     to, is, between the mountains of Brazil and Guiana and those of the
+     Andes. Also those of the Indian peninsula as compared with the
+     Himalayas. In both cases there is continuous intervening land.
+
+     "The islands referred to were, no doubt, the Galapagos for
+     dissimilarity from S. America; our own Islands as compared with
+     Europe, and perhaps Java, for similarity with continental Asia."
+
+     {125} The arguments against multiple centres of creation are given
+     in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 499.
+
+The simple geologist can explain many of the foregoing cases of
+distribution. Subsidence of a continent in which free means of
+dispersal, would drive the lowland plants up to the mountains, now
+converted into islands, and the semi-alpine plants would take place of
+alpine, and alpine be destroyed, if mountains originally were not of
+great height. So we may see, during gradual changes{126} of climate on a
+continent, the propagation of species would vary and adapt themselves to
+small changes causing much extermination{127}. The mountains of Europe
+were quite lately covered with ice, and the lowlands probably partaking
+of the Arctic climate and Fauna. Then as climate changed, arctic fauna
+would take place of ice, and an inundation of plants from different
+temperate countries <would> seize the lowlands, leaving islands of arctic
+forms. But if this had happened on an island, whence could the new forms
+have come,--here the geologist calls in creationists. If island formed,
+the geologist will suggest <that> many of the forms might have been
+borne from nearest land, but if peculiar, he calls in creationist,--as
+such island rises in height &c., he still more calls in creation. The
+creationist tells one, on a <illegible> spot the American spirit of
+creation makes _Orpheus_ and _Tyrannus_ and American doves, and in
+accordance with past and extinct forms, but no persistent relation
+between areas and distribution, Geologico-Geograph.-Distribution.
+
+     {126} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 366, vi. p. 516, the author does
+     not give his views on the distribution of alpine plants as original
+     but refers to Edward Forbes' work (_Geolog. Survey Memoirs_, 1846).
+     In his autobiography, Darwin refers to this. "I was forestalled" he
+     says, "in only one important point, which my vanity has always made
+     me regret." (_Life and Letters_, i. p. 88.)
+
+     {127} <The following is written on the back of a page of the MS.>
+     Discuss one or more centres of creation: allude strongly to
+     facilities of dispersal and amount of geological change: allude to
+     mountain-summits afterwards to be referred to. The distribution
+     varies, as everyone knows, according to adaptation, explain going
+     from N. to S. how we come to fresh groups of species in the same
+     general region, but besides this we find difference, according to
+     greatness of barriers, in greater proportion than can be well
+     accounted for by adaptation. <On representive species see _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.> This very striking when we think of
+     cattle of Pampas, plants <?> &c. &c. Then go into discussion; this
+     holds with 3 or 4 main divisions as well as the endless minor ones
+     in each of these 4 great ones: in these I chiefly refer to mammalia
+     &c. &c. The similarity of type, but not in species, in same
+     continent has been much less insisted on than the dissimilarity of
+     different great regions generically: it is more striking.
+
+     <I have here omitted an incomprehensible sentence.> Galapagos
+     Islands, Tristan d'Acunha, _volcanic_ islands covered with craters
+     we know lately did not support any organisms. How unlike these
+     islands in nature to neighbouring lands. These facts perhaps more
+     striking than almost any others. [Geology apt to affect geography
+     therefore we ought to expect to find the above.]
+     Geological-geographical distribution. In looking to past times we
+     find Australia equally distinct. S. America was distinct, though
+     with more forms in common. N. America its nearest neighbour more in
+     common,--in some respects more, in some less allied to Europe.
+     Europe we find <?> equally European. For Europe is now part of Asia
+     though not <illegible>. Africa unknown,--examples, Elephant,
+     Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Hyaena. As geology destroys geography we
+     cannot be surprised in going far back we find Marsupials and
+     Edentata in Europe: but geology destroys geography.
+
+Now according to analogy of domesticated animals let us see what would
+result. Let us take case of farmer on Pampas, where everything
+approaches nearer to state of nature. He works on organisms having
+strong tendency to vary: and he knows <that the> only way to make a
+distinct breed is to select and separate. It would be useless to
+separate the best bulls and pair with best cows if their offspring run
+loose and bred with the other herds, and tendency to reversion not
+counteracted; he would endeavour therefore to get his cows on islands
+and then commence his work of selection. If several farmers in different
+_rincons_{128} were to set to work, especially if with different
+objects, several breeds would soon be produced. So would it be with
+horticulturist and so history of every plant shows; the number of
+varieties{129} increase in proportion to care bestowed on their
+selection and, with crossing plants, separation. Now, according to this
+analogy, change of external conditions, and isolation either by chance
+landing <of> a form on an island, or subsidence dividing a continent, or
+great chain of mountains, and the number of individuals not being
+numerous will best favour variation and selection{130}. No doubt change
+could be effected in same country without any barrier by long continued
+selection on one species: even in case of a plant not capable of
+crossing would easier get possession and solely occupy an island{131}.
+Now we can at once see that <if> two parts of a continent isolated, new
+species thus generated in them, would have closest affinities, like
+cattle in counties of England: if barrier afterwards destroyed one
+species might destroy the other or both keep their ground. So if island
+formed near continent, let it be ever so different, that continent would
+supply inhabitants, and new species (like the old) would be allied with
+that continent. An island generally very different soil and climate, and
+number and order of inhabitants supplied by chance, no point so
+favourable for generation of new species{132},--especially the
+mountains, hence, so it is. As isolated mountains formed in a plain
+country (if such happens) is an island. As other islands formed, the old
+species would spread and thus extend and the fauna of distant island
+might ultimately meet and a continent formed between them. No one doubts
+continents formed by repeated elevations and depressions{133}. In
+looking backwards, but not so far that all geographical boundaries are
+destroyed, we can thus at once see why existing forms are related to the
+extinct in the same manner as existing ones are in some part of existing
+continent. By chance we might even have one or two absolute parent
+fossils.
+
+     {128} _Rincon_ in Spanish means a _nook_ or _corner_, it is here
+     probably used to mean a small farm.
+
+     {129} The following is written across the page: "No one would
+     expect a set of similar varieties to be produced in the different
+     countries, so species different."
+
+     {130} <The following passage seems to have been meant to follow
+     here.> The parent of an organism, we may generally suppose to be in
+     less favourable condition than the selected offspring and therefore
+     generally in fewer numbers. (This is not borne out by horticulture,
+     mere hypothesis; as an organism in favourable conditions might by
+     selection be adapted to still more favourable conditions.)
+
+     Barrier would further act in preventing species formed in one part
+     migrating to another part.
+
+     {131} <The following notes occur on the back of the page.> Number
+     of species not related to capabilities of the country: furthermore
+     not always those best adapted, perhaps explained by creationists by
+     changes and progress. <See p. 34, note 1.{Note 134}>
+
+     Although creationists can, by help of geology, explain much, how
+     can he explain the marked relation of past and present in same
+     area, the varying relation in other cases, between past and
+     present, the relation of different parts of same great area. If
+     island, to adjoining continent, if quite different, on mountain
+     summits,--the number of individuals not being related to
+     capabilities, or how &c.--our theory, I believe, can throw much
+     light and all facts accord.
+
+     {132} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.
+
+     {133} On oscillation see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.
+
+The detection of transitional forms would be rendered more difficult on
+rising point of land.
+
+The distribution therefore in the above enumerated points, even the
+trivial ones, which on any other <theory?> can be viewed as so many
+ultimate facts, all follow <in> a simple manner on the theory of the
+occurrence of species by <illegible> and being adapted by selection to
+<illegible>, conjoined with their power of dispersal, and the steady
+geographico-geological changes which are now in progress and which
+undoubtedly have taken place. Ought to state the opinion of the
+immutability of species and the creation by so many separate acts of
+will of the Creator{134}.
+
+     {134} <From the back of MS.> Effect of climate on stationary island
+     and on continent, but continent once island. Moreover repeated
+     oscillations fresh diffusion when non-united, then isolation, when
+     rising again immigration prevented, new habitats formed, new
+     species, when united free immigration, hence uniform characters.
+     Hence more forms <on?> the island. Mountain summits. Why not true
+     species. First let us recall in Part I, conditions of variation:
+     change of conditions during several generations, and if frequently
+     altered so much better [perhaps excess of food]. Secondly, continued
+     selection [while in wild state]. Thirdly, isolation in all or nearly
+     all,--as well to recall advantages of.
+
+     [In continent, if we look to terrestrial animal, long continued
+     change might go on, which would only cause change in numerical
+     number <? proportions>: if continued long enough might ultimately
+     affect all, though to most continents <there is> chance of
+     immigration. Some few of whole body of species must be long affected
+     and entire selection working same way. But here isolation absent,
+     without barrier, cut off such <illegible>. We can see advantage of
+     isolation. But let us take case of island thrown up by volcanic
+     agency at some distances, here we should have occasional visitants,
+     only in few numbers and exposed to new conditions and <illegible>
+     more important,--a quite new grouping of organic beings, which would
+     open out new sources of subsistence, or <would> control <?> old
+     ones. The number would be few, can old have the very best opportunity.
+     <The conquest of the indigenes by introduced organisms shows that
+     the indigenes were not perfectly adapted, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     390.> Moreover as the island continued changing,--continued slow
+     changes, river, marshes, lakes, mountains &c. &c., new races as
+     successively formed and a fresh occasional visitant.
+
+     If island formed continent, some species would emerge and
+     immigrate. Everyone admits continents. We can see why Galapagos and
+     C. Verde differ <see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 398>], depressed and raised.
+     We can see from this repeated action and the time required for a
+     continent, why many more forms than in New Zealand <see _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 389 for a comparison between New Zealand and the Cape> no
+     mammals or other classes <see however, _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393 for
+     the case of the frog>. We can at once see how it comes when there
+     has been an old channel of migration,--Cordilleras; we can see why
+     Indian Asiatic Flora,--[why species] having a wide range gives
+     better chance of some arriving at new points and being selected, and
+     adapted to new ends. I need hardly remark no necessity for change.
+
+     Finally, as continent (most extinction <?> during formation of
+     continent) is formed after repeated elevation and depression, and
+     interchange of species we might foretell much extinction, and that
+     the survivor would belong to same type, as the extinct, in same
+     manner as different part of same continent, which were once
+     separated by space as they are by time <see _Origin_, Ed. i. pp.
+     339 and 349>.
+
+     As all mammals have descended from one stock, we ought to expect
+     that every continent has been at some time connected, hence
+     obliteration of present ranges. I do not mean that the fossil
+     mammifers found in S. America are the lineal successors <ancestors>
+     of the present forms of S. America: for it is highly improbable
+     that more than one or two cases (who will say how many races after
+     Plata bones) should be found. I believe this from numbers, who have
+     lived,--mere <?> chance of fewness. Moreover in every case from
+     very existence of genera and species only few at one time will
+     leave progeny, under form of new species, to distant ages; and the
+     more distant the ages the fewer the progenitors. An observation may
+     be here appended, bad chance of preservation on rising island, the
+     nurseries of new species, appeal to experience <see _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 292>. This observation may be extended, that in all cases,
+     subsiding land must be, in early stages, less favourable to
+     formation of new species; but it will isolate them, and then if
+     land recommences rising how favourable. As preoccupation is bar to
+     diffusion to species, so would it be to a selected variety. But it
+     would not be if that variety was better fitted to some not fully
+     occupied station; so during elevation or the formation of new
+     stations, is scene for new species. But during elevation not
+     favourable to preservation of fossil (except in caverns <?>); when
+     subsidence highly favourable in early stages to preservation of
+     fossils; when subsidence, less sediment. So that our strata, as
+     general rule will be the tomb of old species (not undergoing any
+     change) when rising land the nursery. But if there be vestige will
+     generally be preserved to future ages, the new ones will not be
+     entombed till fresh subsidence supervenes. In this long gap we
+     shall have no record: so that wonderful if we should get
+     transitional forms. I do not mean every stage, for we cannot expect
+     that, as before shown, until geologists will be prepared to say
+     that although under unnaturally favourable condition we can trace
+     in future ages short-horn and Herefordshire <see note 2, p. 26>.
+     {Note 115}
+
+
+Sec. VII. <AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION.>
+
+Looking now to the affinities of organisms, without relation to their
+distribution, and taking all fossil and recent, we see the degrees of
+relationship are of different degrees and
+arbitrary,--sub-genera,--genera,--sub-families, families, orders and
+classes and kingdoms. The kind of classification which everyone feels is
+most correct is called the natural system, but no can define this. If we
+say with Whewell <that we have an> undefined instinct of the importance
+of organs{135}, we have no means in lower animals of saying which is
+most important, and yet everyone feels that some one system alone
+deserves to be called natural. The true relationship of organisms is
+brought before one by considering relations of analogy, an otter-like
+animal amongst mammalia and an otter amongst marsupials. In such cases
+external resemblance and habit of life and _the final end of whole
+organization_ very strong, yet no relation{136}. Naturalists cannot
+avoid these terms of relation and affinity though they use them
+metaphorically. If used in simple earnestness the natural system ought
+to be a genealogical <one>; and our knowledge of the points which are
+most easily affected in transmission are those which we least value in
+considering the natural system, and practically when we find they do
+vary we regard them of less value{137}. In classifying varieties the
+same language is used and the same kind of division: here also (in
+pine-apple){138} we talk of the natural classification, overlooking
+similarity of the fruits, because whole plant differs. The origin of
+sub-genera, genera, &c., &c., is not difficult on notion of genealogical
+succession, and accords with what we know of similar gradations of
+affinity in domesticated organisms. In the same region the organic
+beings are <illegible> related to each other and the external conditions
+in many physical respects are allied{139} and their differences of same
+kind, and therefore when a new species has been selected and has
+obtained a place in the economy of nature, we may suppose that
+generally it will tend to extend its range during geographical changes,
+and thus, becoming isolated and exposed to new conditions, will slightly
+alter and its structure by selection become slightly remodified, thus we
+should get species of a sub-genus and genus,--as varieties of
+merino-sheep,--varieties of British and Indian cattle. Fresh species
+might go on forming and others become extinct and all might become
+extinct, and then we should have <an> extinct genus; a case formerly
+mentioned, of which numerous cases occur in Palaeontology. But more often
+the same advantages which caused the new species to spread and become
+modified into several species would favour some of the species being
+preserved: and if two of the species, considerably different, each gave
+rise to group of new species, you would have two genera; the same thing
+will go on. We may look at case in other way, looking to future.
+According to mere chance every existing species may generate another,
+but if any species, A, in changing gets an advantage and that advantage
+(whatever it may be, intellect, &c., &c., or some particular structure
+or constitution) is inherited{140}, A will be the progenitor of several
+genera or even families in the hard struggle of nature. A will go on
+beating out other forms, it might come that A would people earth,--we
+may now not have one descendant on our globe of the one or several
+original creations{141}. External conditions air, earth, water being
+same{142} on globe, and the communication not being perfect, organisms
+of widely different descent might become adapted to the same end and
+then we should have cases of analogy{143}, [they might even tend to
+become numerically representative]. From this often happening each of
+the great divisions of nature would have their representative eminently
+adapted to earth, to <air>{144}, to water, and to these in <illegible>
+and then these great divisions would show numerical relations in their
+classification.
+
+     {135} After "organs" is inserted, apparently as an
+     afterthought:--"no, and instance metamorphosis, afterwards
+     explicable."
+
+     {136} For analogical resemblances see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 427, vi.
+     p. 582.
+
+     {137} "Practically when naturalists are at work, they do not
+     trouble themselves about the physiological value of the
+     characters.... If they find a character nearly uniform, ... they
+     use it as one of high value," _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 417, vi. p. 573.
+
+     {138} "We are cautioned ... not to class two varieties of the
+     pine-apple together, merely because their fruit, though the most
+     important part, happens to be nearly identical," _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 423, vi. p. 579.
+
+     {139} The whole of this passage is obscure, but the text is quite
+     clear, except for one illegible word.
+
+     {140} <The exact position of the following passage is uncertain:>
+     "just as it is not likely every present breed of fancy birds
+     and cattle will propagate, only some of the best."
+
+     {141} This suggests that the author was not far from the principle
+     of divergence on which he afterwards laid so much stress. See
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 111, vi. p. 134, also _Life and Letters_, i. p.
+     84.
+
+     {142} That is to say the same conditions occurring in different
+     parts of the globe.
+
+     {143} The position of the following is uncertain, "greyhound and
+     racehorse have an analogy to each other." The same comparison
+     occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 427, vi. p. 583.
+
+     {144} _Air_ is evidently intended; in the MS. _water_ is written
+     twice.
+
+
+Sec. VIII. UNITY [OR SIMILARITY] OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES.
+
+Nothing more wonderful in Nat. Hist. than looking at the vast number of
+organisms, recent and fossil, exposed to the most diverse conditions,
+living in the most distant climes, and at immensely remote periods,
+fitted to wholely different ends, yet to find large groups united by a
+similar type of structure. When we for instance see bat, horse,
+porpoise-fin, hand, all built on same structure{145}, having bones{146}
+with same name, we see there is some deep bond of union between
+them{147}, to illustrate this is the foundation and objects <?> <of>
+what is called the Natural System; and which is foundation of
+distinction <?> of true and adaptive characters{148}. Now this wonderful
+fact of hand, hoof, wing, paddle and claw being the same, is at once
+explicable on the principle of some parent-forms, which might either be
+<illegible> or walking animals, becoming through infinite number of small
+selections adapted to various conditions. We know that proportion,
+size, shape of bones and their accompanying soft parts vary, and hence
+constant selection would alter, to almost any purpose <?> the framework
+of an organism, but yet would leave a general, even closest similarity in
+it.
+
+     {145} Written between the lines occurs:--"extend to birds and other
+     classes."
+
+     {146} Written between the lines occurs:--"many bones merely
+     represented."
+
+     {147} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595, the term
+     _morphology_ is taken as including _unity of type_. The paddle of
+     the porpoise and the wing of the bat are there used as instances of
+     morphological resemblance.
+
+     {148} The sentence is difficult to decipher.
+
+[We know the number of similar parts, as vertebrae and ribs can vary,
+hence this also we might expect.] Also <if> the changes carried on to a
+certain point, doubtless type will be lost, and this is case with
+Plesiosaurus{149}. The unity of type in past and present ages of certain
+great divisions thus undoubtedly receives the simplest explanation.
+
+     {149} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 598, the author speaks
+     of the "general pattern" being obscured in the paddles of "extinct
+     gigantic sea-lizards."
+
+There is another class of allied and almost identical facts, admitted by
+the soberest physiologists, [from the study of a certain set of organs
+in a group of organisms] and refers <? referring> to a unity of type of
+different organs in the same individual, denominated the science of
+"Morphology." The <? this> discovered by beautiful and regular series,
+and in the case of plants from monstrous changes, that certain organs in
+an individual are other organs metamorphosed. Thus every botanist
+considers petals, nectaries, stamens, pistils, germen as metamorphosed
+leaf. They thus explain, in the most lucid manner, the position and
+number of all parts of the flower, and the curious conversion under
+cultivation of one part into another. The complicated double set of jaws
+and palpi of crustaceans{150}, and all insects are considered as
+metamorphosed <limbs> and to see the series is to admit this phraseology.
+The skulls of the vertebrates are undoubtedly composed of three
+metamorphosed vertebrae; thus we can understand the strange form of the
+separate bones which compose the casket holding man's brain. These{151}
+facts differ but slightly from those of last section, if with wing,
+paddle, hand and hoof, some common structure was yet visible, or could
+be made out by a series of occasional monstrous conversions, and if
+traces could be discovered of <the> whole having once existed as walking or
+swimming instruments, these organs would be said to be metamorphosed, as
+it is they are only said to exhibit a common type.
+
+     {150} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 437, vi. p. 599.
+
+     {151} The following passage seems to have been meant to precede the
+     sentence beginning "These facts":--"It is evident, that when in
+     each individual species, organs are metamorph. a unity of type
+     extends."
+
+This distinction is not drawn by physiologists, and is only implied by
+some by their general manner of writing. These facts, though affecting
+every organic being on the face of the globe, which has existed, or does
+exist, can only be viewed by the Creationist as ultimate and
+inexplicable facts. But this unity of type through the individuals of a
+group, and this metamorphosis of the same organ into other organs,
+adapted to diverse use, necessarily follows on the theory of
+descent{152}. For let us take case of Vertebrata, which if{153} they
+descended from one parent and by this theory all the Vertebrata have
+been altered by slow degrees, such as we see in domestic animals. We
+know that proportions alter, and even that occasionally numbers of
+vertebrae alter, that parts become soldered, that parts are lost, as tail
+and toes, but we know <that?> here we can see that possibly a walking organ
+might <?> be converted into swimming or into a gliding organ and so on to a
+flying organ. But such gradual changes would not alter the unity of type
+in their descendants, as parts lost and soldered and vertebrae. But we
+can see that if this carried to extreme, unity lost,--Plesiosaurus. Here
+we have seen the same organ is formed <?> <for> different purposes
+<ten words illegible>: and if, in several orders of vertebrata, we could
+trace origin <of> spinous processes and monstrosities &c. we should say,
+instead of there existing a unity of type, morphology{154}, as we do
+when we trace the head as being the vertebrae metamorphosed. Be it
+observed that Naturalists, as they use terms of affinity without
+attaching real meaning, here also they are obliged to use metamorphosis,
+without meaning that any parent of crustacean was really an animal with
+as many legs as crustacean has jaws. The theory of descent at once
+explains these wonderful facts.
+
+     {152} This is, I believe, the first place in which the author uses
+     the words "theory of descent."
+
+     {153} The sentence should probably run, "Let us take the case of
+     the vertebrata: if we assume them to be descended from one parent,
+     then by this theory they have been altered &c."
+
+     {154} That is "we should call it a morphological fact."
+
+Now few of the physiologists who use this language really suppose that
+the parent of insect with the metamorphosed jaw, was an insect with
+[more] so many legs, or that the parent of flowering plants, originally
+had no stamens, or pistils or petals, but some other means of
+propagation,--and so in other cases. Now according to our theory during
+the infinite number of changes, we might expect that an organ used for a
+purpose might be used for a different one by his descendant, as must
+have been the case by our theory with the bat, porpoise, horse, &c.,
+which are descended from one parent. And if it so chanced that traces of
+the former use and structure of the part should be retained, which is
+manifestly possible if not probable, then we should have the organs, on
+which morphology is founded and which instead of being metaphorical
+becomes plain and <and instead of being> utterly unintelligible becomes
+simple matter of fact{155}.
+
+     {155} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602, the author,
+     referring to the expressions used by naturalists in regard to
+     morphology and metamorphosis, says "On my view these terms may be
+     used literally."
+
+<_Embryology._> This general unity of type in great groups of organisms
+(including of course these morphological cases) displays itself in a
+most striking manner in the stages through which the foetus passes{156}.
+In early stage, the wing of bat, hoof, hand, paddle are not to be
+distinguished. At a still earlier <stage> there is no difference between
+fish, bird, &c. &c. and mammal. It is not that they cannot be
+distinguished, but the arteries{157} <illegible>. It is not true that
+one passes through the form of a lower group, though no doubt fish more
+nearly related to foetal state{158}.
+
+     {156} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 605.
+
+     {157} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606, the author argues
+     that the "loop-like course of the arteries" in the vertebrate
+     embryo has no direct relation to the conditions of existence.
+
+     {158} The following passages are written across the page:--"They
+     pass through the same phases, but some, generally called the higher
+     groups, are further metamorphosed.
+
+     ? Degradation and complication? no tendency to perfection.
+
+     ? Justly argued against Lamarck?"
+
+This similarity at the earliest stage is remarkably shown in the course
+of the arteries which become greatly altered, as foetus advances in life
+and assumes the widely different course and number which characterize
+full-grown fish and mammals. How wonderful that in egg, in water or air,
+or in womb of mother, artery{159} should run in same course.
+
+     {159} An almost identical passage occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     440, vi. p. 606.
+
+Light can be thrown on this by our theory. The structure of each
+organism is chiefly adapted to the sustension of its life, when
+full-grown, when it has to feed itself and propagate{160}. The structure
+of a kitten is quite in secondary degree adapted to its habits, whilst
+fed by its mother's milk and prey. Hence variation in the structure of
+the full-grown species will _chiefly_ determine the preservation of a
+species now become ill-suited to its habitat, or rather with a better
+place opened to it in the economy of Nature. It would not matter to the
+full-grown cat whether in its young state it was more or less eminently
+feline, so that it become so when full-grown. No doubt most variation,
+(not depending on habits of life of individual) depends on early
+change{161} and we must suspect that at whatever time of life the
+alteration of foetus is effected, it tends to appear at same period.
+When we <see> a tendency to particular disease in old age transmitted by
+the male, we know some effect is produced during conception, on the
+simple cell of ovule, which will not produce its effect till half a
+century afterwards and that effect is not visible{162}. So we see in
+grey-hound, bull-dog, in race-horse and cart-horse, which have been
+selected for their form in full-life, there is much less (?) difference
+in the few first days after birth{163}, than when full-grown: so in
+cattle, we see it clearly in cases of cattle, which differ obviously in
+shape and length of horns. If man were during 10,000 years to be able to
+select, far more diverse animals from horse or cow, I should expect
+there would be far less differences in the very young and foetal state:
+and this, I think, throws light on above marvellous fact. In larvae,
+which have long life selection, perhaps, does much,--in the pupa not so
+much{164} There is no object gained in varying form &c. of foetus
+(beyond certain adaptations to mother's womb) and therefore selection
+will not further act on it, than in giving to its changing tissues a
+tendency to certain parts afterwards to assume certain forms.
+
+     {160} The following: "Deaths of brothers <when> old by same peculiar
+     disease" which is written between the lines seems to have been a
+     memorandum which is expanded a few lines lower. I believe the case
+     of the brothers came from Dr R. W. Darwin.
+
+     {161} See the discussion to this effect in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp.
+     443-4, vi. p. 610. The author there makes the distinction between a
+     cause affecting the germ-cell and the reaction occurring at a late
+     period of life.
+
+     {162} Possibly the sentence was meant to end "is not visible till
+     then."
+
+     {163} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 444-5, vi. p. 611. The query
+     appended to _much less_ is justified, since measurement was
+     necessary to prove that the greyhound and bulldog puppies had not
+     nearly acquired "their full amount of proportional difference."
+
+     {164} <The following discussion, from the back of the page, is in
+     large measure the same as the text.> I think light can be thrown on
+     these facts. From the following peculiarities being hereditary, [we
+     know that some change in the germinal vesicle is effected, which
+     will only betray itself years after] diseases--man, goitre, gout,
+     baldness, fatness, size, [longevity <illegible> time of reproduction,
+     shape of horns, case of old brothers dying of same disease]. And we
+     know that the germinal vesicle must have been affected, though no
+     effect is apparent or can be apparent till years afterwards,--no
+     more apparent than when these peculiarities appear by the exposure
+     of the full-grown individual. <That is, "the young individual is as
+     apparently free from the hereditary changes which will appear
+     later, as the young is actually free from the changes produced by
+     exposure to certain conditions in adult life."> So that when we see
+     a variety in cattle, even if the variety be due to act of
+     reproduction, we cannot feel sure at what period this change became
+     apparent. It may have been effected during early age of free life
+     <or> foetal existence, as monsters show. From arguments before used,
+     and crossing, we may generally suspect in germ; but I repeat it
+     does not follow, that the change should be apparent till life fully
+     developed; any more than fatness depending on heredity should be
+     apparent during early childhood, still less during foetal
+     existence. In case of horns of cattle, which when inherited must
+     depend on germinal vesicle, obviously no effect till cattle
+     full-grown. Practically it would appear that the [hereditary]
+     peculiarities characterising our domestic races, therefore
+     resulting from vesicle, do not appear with their full characters
+     in very early states; thus though two breeds of cows have calves
+     different, they are not so different,--grey-hound and bull-dog.
+     And this is what is <to> be expected, for man is indifferent to
+     characters of young animals and hence would select those full-grown
+     animals which possessed the desirable characteristics. So that from
+     mere chance we might expect that some of the characters would be
+     such only as became fully apparent in mature life. Furthermore we
+     may suspect it to be a law, that at whatever time a new character
+     appears, whether from vesicle, or effects of external conditions,
+     it would appear at corresponding time <see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444>.
+     Thus diseases appearing in old age produce children with d^o.,--early
+     maturity,--longevity,--old men, brothers, of same disease--young
+     children of d^o. I said men do not select for quality of
+     young,--calf with big bullocks. Silk-worms, peculiarities which,
+     appear in caterpillar state or cocoon state, are transmitted to
+     corresponding states. The effect of this would be that if some
+     peculiarity was born in a young animal, but never exercised, it
+     might be inherited in young animal; but if exercised that part of
+     structure would be increased and would be inherited in
+     corresponding time of life after such training.
+
+     I have said that man selects in full-life, so would it be in
+     Nature. In struggle of existence, it matters nothing to a feline
+     animal, whether kitten eminently feline, as long as it sucks.
+     Therefore natural selection would act equally well on character
+     which was fully <developed> only in full age. Selection could tend
+     to alter no character in foetus, (except relation to mother) it would
+     alter less in young state (putting on one side larva condition) but
+     alter every part in full-grown condition. Look to a foetus and its
+     parent, and again after ages foetus and its <i. e. the above
+     mentioned parents> descendant; the parent more variable <?> than
+     foetus, which explains all.]
+
+Thus there is no power to change the course of the arteries, as long as
+they nourish the foetus; it is the selection of slight changes which
+supervene at any time during <illegible> of life.
+
+The less differences of foetus,--this has obvious meaning on this view:
+otherwise how strange that a [monkey] horse, a man, a bat should at one
+time of life have arteries, running in a manner, which is only
+intelligibly useful in a fish! The natural system being on theory
+genealogical, we can at once see, why foetus, retaining traces of the
+ancestral form, is of the highest value in classification.
+
+
+Sec. IX. <ABORTIVE ORGANS.>
+
+There is another grand class of facts relating to what are called
+abortive organs. These consist of organs which the same reasoning power
+that shows us how beautifully these organs in some cases are adapted to
+certain end, declares in other cases are absolutely useless. Thus teeth
+in Rhinoceros{165}, whale, narwhal,--bone on tibia, muscles which do not
+move,--little bone of wing of Apteryx,--bone representing extremities in
+some snake,--little wings within <?> soldered cover of beetles,--men and
+bulls, mammae: filaments without anthers in plants, mere scales
+representing petals in others, in feather-hyacinth whole flower. Almost
+infinitely numerous. No one can reflect on these without astonishment,
+can anything be clearer than that wings are to fly and teeth <to bite>,
+and yet we find these organs perfect in every detail in situations where
+they cannot possibly be of their normal use{166}.
+
+     {165} Some of these examples occur in _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 450-51,
+     vi. pp. 619-20.
+
+     {166} The two following sentences are written, one down the margin,
+     the other across the page. "Abortive organs eminently useful in
+     classification. Embryonic state of organs. Rudiments of organs."
+
+The term abortive organ has been thus applied to above structure (as
+_invariable_ as all other parts{167}) from their absolute similarity to
+monstrous cases, where from _accident_, certain organs are not
+developed; as infant without arms or fingers with mere stump
+representing them: teeth represented by mere points of ossification:
+headless children with mere button,--viscera represented by small
+amorphous masses, &c.,--the tail by mere stump,--a solid horn by minute
+hanging one{168}. There is a tendency in all these cases, when life is
+preserved, for such structures to become hereditary. We see it in
+tailless dogs and cats. In plants we see this strikingly,--in Thyme, in
+_Linum flavum_,--stamen in _Geranium pyrenaicum_{169}. Nectaries abort
+into petals in Columbine <_Aquilegia_>, produced from some accident and
+then become hereditary, in some cases only when propagated by buds, in
+other cases by seed. These cases have been produced suddenly by accident
+in early growth, but it is part of law of growth that when any organ is
+not used it tends to diminish (duck's wing{170}?) muscles of dog's ears,
+<and of> rabbits, muscles wither, arteries grow up. When eye born
+defective, optic nerve (Tuco Tuco) is atrophied. As every part whether
+useful or not (diseases, double flowers) tends to be transmitted to
+offspring, the origin of abortive organs whether produced at the birth
+or slowly acquired is easily understood in domestic races of organisms:
+[a struggle between the atrophy and hereditariness. Abortive organs in
+domestic races.] There will always be a struggle between atrophy of an
+organ rendered useless, and hereditariness{171}. Because we can
+understand the origin of abortive organs in certain cases, it would be
+wrong to conclude absolutely that all must have had same origin, but the
+strongest analogy is in favour of it. And we can by our theory, for
+during infinite changes some organ, we might have anticipated, would
+have become useless. <We can> readily explain the fact, so astounding
+on any other view, namely that organs possibly useless have been formed
+often with the same exquisite care as when of vital importance.
+
+     {167} I imagine the meaning to be that abortive organs are specific
+     characters in contrast to monstrosities.
+
+     {168} Minute hanging horns are mentioned in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     454, vi. p. 625, as occurring in hornless breeds of cattle.
+
+     {169} _Linum flavum_ is dimorphic: thyme gynodiaecious. It is not
+     clear what point is referred to under _Geranium pyrenaicum_.
+
+     {170} The author's work on duck's wings &c. is in _Var. under
+     Dom._, Ed. 2, i. p. 299.
+
+     {171} The words _vis medicatrix_ are inserted after "useless,"
+     apparently as a memorandum.
+
+Our theory, I may remark would permit an organ <to> become abortive with
+respect to its primary use, to be turned to any other purpose, (as the
+buds in a cauliflower) thus we can see no difficulty in bones of male
+marsupials being used as fulcrum of muscles, or style of
+marygold{172},--indeed in one point of view, the heads of [vertebrated]
+animal may be said to be abortive vertebrae turned into other use: legs
+of some crustacea abortive jaws, &c., &c. De Candolle's analogy of table
+covered with dishes{173}.
+
+     {172} In the male florets of certain Compositae the style functions
+     merely as a piston for forcing out the pollen.
+
+     {173} <On the back of the page is the following.> If abortive organs
+     are a trace preserved by hereditary tendency, of organ in ancestor
+     of use, we can at once see why important in natural classification,
+     also why more plain in young animal because, as in last section, the
+     selection has altered the old animal most. I repeat, these wondrous
+     facts, of parts created for no use in past and present time, all
+     can by my theory receive simple explanation; or they receive none
+     and we must be content with some such empty metaphor, as that of De
+     Candolle, who compares creation to a well covered table, and says
+     abortive organs may be compared to the dishes (some should be empty)
+     placed symmetrically!
+
+<The following passage was possibly intended to be inserted here.>
+Degradation and complication see Lamarck: no tendency to perfection: if
+room, [even] high organism would have greater power in beating lower
+one, thought <?> to be selected for a degraded end.
+
+
+Sec. X. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION.
+
+Let us recapitulate the whole <?> <of> these latter sections by taking
+case of the three species of Rhinoceros, which inhabit Java, Sumatra,
+and mainland of Malacca or India. We find these three close neighbours,
+occupants of distinct but neighbouring districts, as a group having a
+different aspect from the Rhinoceros of Africa, though some of these
+latter inhabit very similar countries, but others most diverse stations.
+We find them intimately related [scarcely <?> differences more than some
+breeds of cattle] in structure to the Rhinoceros, which for immense
+periods have inhabited this one, out of three main zoological divisions
+of the world. Yet some of these ancient animals were fitted to very
+different stations: we find all three <illegible> of the generic character
+of the Rhinoceros, which form a [piece of net]{174} set of links in the
+broken chain representing the Pachydermata, as the chain likewise forms
+a portion in other and longer chains. We see this wonderfully in
+dissecting the coarse leg of all three and finding nearly the same bones
+as in bat's wings or man's hand, but we see the clear mark in solid
+tibia of the fusion into it of the fibula. In all three we find their
+heads composed of three altered vertebrae, short neck, same bones as
+giraffe. In the upper jaws of all three we find small teeth like
+rabbit's. In dissecting them in foetal state we find at a not very early
+stage their form exactly alike the most different animals, and even with
+arteries running as in a fish: and this similarity holds when the young
+one is produced in womb, pond, egg or spawn. Now these three undoubted
+species scarcely differ more than breeds of cattle, are probably
+subject to many the same contagious diseases; if domesticated these
+forms would vary, and they might possibly breed together, and fuse into
+something{175} different <from> their aboriginal forms; might be selected
+to serve different ends.
+
+     {174} The author doubtless meant that the complex relationships
+     between organisms can be roughly represented by a net in which the
+     knots stand for species.
+
+     {175} Between the lines occurs:--"one <?> form be lost."
+
+Now the Creationist believes these three Rhinoceroses were created{176}
+with their deceptive appearance of true, not <illegible> relationship;
+as well can I believe the planets revolve in their present courses not
+from one law of gravity but from distinct volition of Creator.
+
+     {176} The original sentence is here broken up by the insertion
+     of:--"out of the dust of Java, Sumatra, these <?> allied to past
+     and present age and <illegible>, with the stamp of inutility in
+     some of their organs and conversion in others."
+
+If real species, sterile one with another, differently adapted, now
+inhabiting different countries, with different structures and instincts,
+are admitted to have common descent, we can only legitimately stop where
+our facts stop. Look how far in some case a chain of species will lead
+us. <This probably refers to the Crustacea, where the two ends of the
+series have "hardly a character in common." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 419.>
+May we not jump (considering how much extermination, and how imperfect
+geological records) from one sub-genus to another sub-genus. Can genera
+restrain us; many of the same arguments, which made us give up species,
+inexorably demand genera and families and orders to fall, and classes
+tottering. We ought to stop only when clear unity of type, independent
+of use and adaptation, ceases.
+
+Be it remembered no naturalist pretends to give test from external
+characters of species; in many genera the distinction is quite
+arbitrary{177}. But there remains one other way of comparing species
+with races; it is to compare the effects of crossing them. Would it not
+be wonderful, if the union of two organisms, produced by two separate
+acts of Creation, blended their characters together when crossed
+according to the same rules, as two races which have undoubtedly
+descended from same parent stock; yet this can be shown to be the case.
+For sterility, though a usual <?>, is not an invariable concomitant, it
+varies much in degree and has been shown to be probably dependent on
+causes closely analogous with those which make domesticated organisms
+sterile. Independent of sterility there is no difference between
+mongrels and hybrids, as can be shown in a long series of facts. It is
+strikingly seen in cases of instincts, when the minds of the two species
+or races become blended together{178}. In both cases if the half-breed
+be crossed with either parent for a few generations, all traces of the
+one parent form is lost (as Koelreuter in two tobacco species almost
+sterile together), so that the Creationist in the case of a species,
+must believe that one act of creation is absorbed into another!
+
+     {177} Between the lines occur the words:--"Species vary according
+     to same general laws as varieties; they cross according to same
+     laws."
+
+     {178} "A cross with a bull-dog has affected for many generations
+     the courage and obstinacy of greyhounds," _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 214,
+     vi. p. 327.
+
+{Illustration: Facsimile of the original manuscript of the paragraph on
+p. 50.}
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+Such are my reasons for believing that specific forms are not immutable.
+The affinity of different groups, the unity of types of structure, the
+representative forms through which foetus passes, the metamorphosis of
+organs, the abortion of others cease to be metaphorical expressions and
+become intelligible facts. We no longer look <an> on animal as a savage does
+at a ship{179}, or other great work of art, as a thing wholly beyond
+comprehension, but we feel far more interest in examining it. How
+interesting is every instinct, when we speculate on their origin as an
+hereditary or congenital habit or produced by the selection of
+individuals differing slightly from their parents. We must look at every
+complicated mechanism and instinct, as the summary of a long history,
+<as the summing up> of{180} useful contrivances, much like a work of art.
+How interesting does the distribution of all animals become, as throwing
+light on ancient geography. [We see some seas bridged over.] Geology
+loses in its glory from the imperfection of its archives{181}, but how
+does it gain in the immensity of the periods of its formations and of
+the gaps separating these formations. There is much grandeur in looking
+at the existing animals either as the lineal descendants of the forms
+buried under thousand feet of matter, or as the coheirs of some still
+more ancient ancestor. It accords with what we know of the law impressed
+on matter by the Creator, that the creation and extinction of forms,
+like the birth and death of individuals should be the effect of
+secondary [laws] means{182}. It is derogatory that the Creator of
+countless systems of worlds should have created each of the myriads of
+creeping parasites and [slimy] worms which have swarmed each day of life
+on land and water <on> [this] one globe. We cease being astonished, however
+much we may deplore, that a group of animals should have been directly
+created to lay their eggs in bowels and flesh of other,--that some
+organisms should delight in cruelty,--that animals should be led away by
+false instincts,--that annually there should be an incalculable waste
+of eggs and pollen. From death, famine, rapine, and the concealed war of
+nature we can see that the highest good, which we can conceive, the
+creation of the higher animals has directly come. Doubtless it at first
+transcends our humble powers, to conceive laws capable of creating
+individual organisms, each characterised by the most exquisite
+workmanship and widely-extended adaptations. It accords better with [our
+modesty] the lowness of our faculties to suppose each must require the
+fiat of a creator, but in the same proportion the existence of such laws
+should exalt our notion of the power of the omniscient Creator{183}.
+There is a simple grandeur in the view of life with its powers of
+growth, assimilation and reproduction, being originally breathed into
+matter under one or a few forms, and that whilst this our planet has
+gone circling on according to fixed laws, and land and water, in a cycle
+of change, have gone on replacing each other, that from so simple an
+origin, through the process of gradual selection of infinitesimal
+changes, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been
+evolved{184}.
+
+     {179} The simile of the savage and the ship occurs in the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665.
+
+     {180} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 486, vi. p. 665, the author speaks
+     of the "summing up of many contrivances": I have therefore
+     introduced the above words which make the passage clearer. In the
+     _Origin_ the comparison is with "a great mechanical
+     invention,"--not with a work of art.
+
+     {181} See a similar passage in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 487, vi. p.
+     667.
+
+     {182} See the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.
+
+     {183} The following discussion, together with some memoranda are on
+     the last page of the MS. "The supposed creative spirit does not
+     create either number or kind which <are> from analogy adapted to site
+     (viz. New Zealand): it does not keep them all permanently adapted
+     to any country,--it works on spots or areas of creation,--it is not
+     persistent for great periods,--it creates forms of same groups in
+     same regions, with no physical similarity,--it creates, on islands
+     or mountain summits, species allied to the neighbouring ones, and
+     not allied to alpine nature as shown in other mountain
+     summits--even different on different island of similarly
+     constituted archipelago, not created on two points: never mammifers
+     created on small isolated island; nor number of organisms adapted
+     to locality: its power seems influenced or related to the range of
+     other species wholly distinct of the same genus,--it does not
+     equally effect, in amount of difference, all the groups of the same
+     class."
+
+     {184} This passage is the ancestor of the concluding words in the
+     first edition of the _Origin of Species_ which have remained
+     substantially unchanged throughout subsequent editions, "There is
+     grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been
+     originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that whilst
+     this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of
+     gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful
+     and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved." In the 2nd
+     edition "by the Creator" is introduced after "originally breathed."
+
+N.B.--There ought somewhere to be a discussion from Lyell to show that
+external conditions do vary, or a note to Lyell's works <work?>.
+
+Besides other difficulties in ii. Part, non-acclimatisation of plants.
+Difficulty when asked _how_ did white and negro become altered from
+common intermediate stock: no facts. We do NOT know that species are
+immutable, on the contrary. What arguments against this theory, except
+our not perceiving every step, like the erosion of valleys{185}.
+
+     {185} Compare the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659, "The
+     difficulty is the same as that felt by so many geologists, when
+     Lyell first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been
+     formed, and great valleys excavated, by the slow action of the
+     coast-waves."
+
+
+
+
+THE ESSAY OF 1844 PART I
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS UNDER DOMESTICATION; AND ON THE
+PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION
+
+
+The most favourable conditions for variation seem to be when organic
+beings are bred for many generations under domestication{186}: one may
+infer this from the simple fact of the vast number of races and breeds
+of almost every plant and animal, which has long been domesticated.
+Under certain conditions organic beings even during their individual
+lives become slightly altered from their usual form, size, or other
+characters: and many of the peculiarities thus acquired are transmitted
+to their offspring. Thus in animals, the size and vigour of body,
+fatness, period of maturity, habits of body or consensual movements,
+habits of mind and temper, are modified or acquired during the life of
+the individual{187}, and become inherited. There is reason to believe
+that when long exercise has given to certain muscles great development,
+or disuse has lessened them, that such development is also inherited.
+Food and climate will occasionally produce changes in the colour and
+texture of the external coverings of animals; and certain unknown
+conditions affect the horns of cattle in parts of Abyssinia; but whether
+these peculiarities, thus acquired during individual lives, have been
+inherited, I do not know. It appears certain that malconformation and
+lameness in horses, produced by too much work on hard roads,--that
+affections of the eyes in this animal probably caused by bad
+ventilation,--that tendencies towards many diseases in man, such as
+gout, caused by the course of life and ultimately producing changes of
+structure, and that many other diseases produced by unknown agencies,
+such as goitre, and the idiotcy resulting from it, all become
+hereditary.
+
+     {186} The cumulative effect of domestication is insisted on in the
+     _Origin_, see _e.g. Origin_, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 8.
+
+     {187} This type of variation passes into what he describes as the
+     direct effect of conditions. Since they are due to causes acting
+     during the adult life of the organism they might be called
+     individual variations, but he uses this term for congenital
+     variations, _e.g._ the differences discoverable in plants raised
+     from seeds of the same pod _(Origin_, Ed. i. p. 45, vi. p. 53).
+
+It is very doubtful whether the flowers and leaf-buds, annually produced
+from the same bulb, root, or tree, can properly be considered as parts
+of the same individual, though in some respects they certainly seem to
+be so. If they are parts of an individual, plants also are subject to
+considerable changes during their _individual_ lives. Most
+florist-flowers if neglected degenerate, that is, they lose some of
+their characters; so common is this, that trueness is often stated, as
+greatly enhancing the value of a variety{188}: tulips break their
+colours only after some years' culture; some plants become double and
+others single, by neglect or care: these characters can be transmitted
+by cuttings or grafts, and in some cases by true or seminal propagation.
+Occasionally a single bud on a plant assumes at once a new and widely
+different character: thus it is certain that nectarines have been
+produced on peach trees and moss roses on provence roses; white
+currants on red currant bushes; flowers of a different colour from that
+of the stock, in Chrysanthemums, Dahlias, sweet-williams, Azaleas, &c.,
+&c.; variegated leaf-buds on many trees, and other similar cases. These
+new characters appearing in single buds, can, like those lesser changes
+affecting the whole plant, be multiplied not only by cuttings and such
+means, but often likewise by true seminal generation.
+
+     {188} <It is not clear where the following note is meant to come>:
+     Case of Orchis,--most remarkable as not long cultivated by
+     seminal propagation. Case of varieties which soon acquire, like
+     _AEgilops_ and Carrot (and Maize) _a certain general character_ and
+     then go on varying.
+
+The changes thus appearing during the lives of individual animals and
+plants are extremely rare compared with those which are congenital or
+which appear soon after birth. Slight differences thus arising are
+infinitely numerous: the proportions and form of every part of the
+frame, inside and outside, appear to vary in very slight degrees:
+anatomists dispute what is the "beau ideal" of the bones, the liver and
+kidneys, like painters do of the proportions of the face: the proverbial
+expression that no two animals or plants are born absolutely alike, is
+much truer when applied to those under domestication, than to those in a
+state of nature{189}. Besides these slight differences, single
+individuals are occasionally born considerably unlike in certain parts
+or in their whole structure to their parents: these are called by
+horticulturists and breeders "sports"; and are not uncommon except when
+very strongly marked. Such sports are known in some cases to have been
+parents of some of our domestic races; and such probably have been the
+parents of many other races, especially of those which in some senses
+may be called hereditary monsters; for instance where there is an
+additional limb, or where all the limbs are stunted (as in the Ancon
+sheep), or where a part is wanting, as in rumpless fowls and tailless
+dogs or cats{190}. The effects of external conditions on the size,
+colour and form, which can rarely and obscurely be detected during one
+individual life, become apparent after several generations: the slight
+differences, often hardly describable, which characterize the stock of
+different countries, and even of districts in the same country, seem to
+be due to such continued action.
+
+     {189} Here, as in the MS. of 1842, the author is inclined to
+     minimise the variation occurring in nature.
+
+     {190} This is more strongly stated than in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     30.
+
+
+_On the hereditary tendency._
+
+A volume might be filled with facts showing what a strong tendency there
+is to inheritance, in almost every case of the most trifling, as well as
+of the most remarkable congenital peculiarities{191}. The term
+congenital peculiarity, I may remark, is a loose expression and can only
+mean a peculiarity apparent when the part affected is nearly or fully
+developed: in the Second Part, I shall have to discuss at what period of
+the embryonic life connatal peculiarities probably first appear; and I
+shall then be able to show from some evidence, that at whatever period
+of life a new peculiarity first appears, it tends hereditarily to appear
+at a corresponding period{192}. Numerous though slight changes, slowly
+supervening in animals during mature life (often, though by no means
+always, taking the form of disease), are, as stated in the first
+paragraphs, very often hereditary. In plants, again, the buds which
+assume a different character from their stock likewise tend to transmit
+their new peculiarities. There is not sufficient reason to believe that
+either mutilations{193} or changes of form produced by mechanical
+pressure, even if continued for hundreds of generations, or that any
+changes of structure quickly produced by disease, are inherited; it
+would appear as if the tissue of the part affected must slowly and
+freely grow into the new form, in order to be inheritable. There is a
+very great difference in the hereditary tendency of different
+peculiarities, and of the same peculiarity, in different individuals and
+species; thus twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash have been sown
+and not one come up true;--out of seventeen seeds of the weeping yew,
+nearly all came up true. The ill-formed and almost monstrous "Niata"
+cattle of S. America and Ancon sheep, both when bred together and when
+crossed with other breeds, seem to transmit their peculiarities to their
+offspring as truly as the ordinary breeds. I can throw no light on these
+differences in the power of hereditary transmission. Breeders believe,
+and apparently with good cause, that a peculiarity generally becomes
+more firmly implanted after having passed through several generations;
+that is if one offspring out of twenty inherits a peculiarity from its
+parents, then its descendants will tend to transmit this peculiarity to
+a larger proportion than one in twenty; and so on in succeeding
+generations. I have said nothing about mental peculiarities being
+inheritable for I reserve this subject for a separate chapter.
+
+     {191} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 13.
+
+     {192} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 86, vi. p. 105.
+
+     {193} It is interesting to find that though the author, like his
+     contemporaries, believed in the inheritance of acquired characters,
+     he excluded the case of mutilation.
+
+
+_Causes of Variation._
+
+Attention must here be drawn to an important distinction in the first
+origin or appearance of varieties: when we see an animal highly kept
+producing offspring with an hereditary tendency to early maturity and
+fatness; when we see the wild-duck and Australian dog always becoming,
+when bred for one or a few generations in confinement, mottled in their
+colours; when we see people living in certain districts or circumstances
+becoming subject to an hereditary taint to certain organic diseases, as
+consumption or plica polonica,--we naturally attribute such changes to
+the direct effect of known or unknown agencies acting for one or more
+generations on the parents. It is probable that a multitude of
+peculiarities may be thus directly caused by unknown external agencies.
+But in breeds, characterized by an extra limb or claw, as in certain
+fowls and dogs; by an extra joint in the vertebrae; by the loss of a
+part, as the tail; by the substitution of a tuft of feathers for a comb
+in certain poultry; and in a multitude of other cases, we can hardly
+attribute these peculiarities directly to external influences, but
+indirectly to the laws of embryonic growth and of reproduction. When we
+see a multitude of varieties (as has often been the case, where a cross
+has been carefully guarded against) produced from seeds matured in the
+very same capsule{194}, with the male and female principle nourished
+from the same roots and necessarily exposed to the same external
+influences; we cannot believe that the endless slight differences
+between seedling varieties thus produced, can be the effect of any
+corresponding difference in their exposure. We are led (as Mueller has
+remarked) to the same conclusion, when we see in the same litter,
+produced by the same act of conception, animals considerably different.
+
+     {194} This corresponds to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 10, vi. p. 9.
+
+As variation to the degree here alluded to has been observed only in
+organic beings under domestication, and in plants amongst those most
+highly and long cultivated, we must attribute, in such cases, the
+varieties (although the difference between each variety cannot possibly
+be attributed to any corresponding difference of exposure in the
+parents) to the indirect effects of domestication on the action of the
+reproductive system{195}. It would appear as if the reproductive powers
+failed in their ordinary function of producing new organic beings
+closely like their parents; and as if the entire organization of the
+embryo, under domestication, became in a slight degree plastic{196}. We
+shall hereafter have occasion to show, that in organic beings, a
+considerable change from the natural conditions of life, affects,
+independently of their general state of health, in another and
+remarkable manner the reproductive system. I may add, judging from the
+vast number of new varieties of plants which have been produced in the
+same districts and under nearly the same routine of culture, that
+probably the indirect effects of domestication in making the
+organization plastic, is a much more efficient source of variation than
+any direct effect which external causes may have on the colour, texture,
+or form of each part. In the few instances in which, as in the
+Dahlia{197}, the course of variation has been recorded, it appears that
+domestication produces little effect for several generations in
+rendering the organization plastic; but afterwards, as if by an
+accumulated effect, the original character of the species suddenly gives
+way or breaks.
+
+     {195} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 10.
+
+     {196} For _plasticity_ see _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 12, 132.
+
+     {197} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. I. p. 393.
+
+
+_On Selection._
+
+We have hitherto only referred to the first appearance in individuals of
+new peculiarities; but to make a race or breed, something more is
+generally{198} requisite than such peculiarities (except in the case of
+the peculiarities being the direct effect of constantly surrounding
+conditions) should be inheritable,--namely the principle of selection,
+implying separation. Even in the rare instances of sports, with the
+hereditary tendency very strongly implanted, crossing must be prevented
+with other breeds, or if not prevented the best characterized of the
+half-bred offspring must be carefully selected. Where the external
+conditions are constantly tending to give some character, a race
+possessing this character will be formed with far greater ease by
+selecting and breeding together the individuals most affected. In the
+case of the endless slight variations produced by the indirect effects
+of domestication on the action of the reproductive system, selection is
+indispensable to form races; and when carefully applied, wonderfully
+numerous and diverse races can be formed. Selection, though so simple in
+theory, is and has been important to a degree which can hardly be
+overrated. It requires extreme skill, the results of long practice, in
+detecting the slightest difference in the forms of animals, and it
+implies some distinct object in view; with these requisites and
+patience, the breeder has simply to watch for every the smallest
+approach to the desired end, to select such individuals and pair them
+with the most suitable forms, and so continue with succeeding
+generations. In most cases careful selection and the prevention of
+accidental crosses will be necessary for several generations, for in new
+breeds there is a strong tendency to vary and especially to revert to
+ancestral forms: but in every succeeding generation less care will be
+requisite for the breed will become truer; until ultimately only an
+occasional individual will require to be separated or destroyed.
+Horticulturalists in raising seeds regularly practise this, and call it
+"roguing," or destroying the "rogues" or false varieties. There is
+another and less efficient means of selection amongst animals: namely
+repeatedly procuring males with some desirable qualities, and allowing
+them and their offspring to breed freely together; and this in the
+course of time will affect the whole lot. These principles of selection
+have been _methodically_ followed for scarcely a century; but their
+high importance is shown by the practical results, and is admitted
+in the writings of the most celebrated agriculturalists and
+horticulturalists;--I need only name Anderson, Marshall, Bakewell, Coke,
+Western, Sebright and Knight.
+
+     {198} Selection is here used in the sense of isolation, rather than
+     as implying the summation of small differences. Professor Henslow
+     in his _Heredity of Acquired Characters in Plants_, 1908, p. 2,
+     quotes from Darwin's _Var. under Dom._, Ed. i. II. p. 271, a
+     passage in which the author, speaking of the direct action of
+     conditions, says:--"A new sub-variety would thus be produced
+     without the aid of selection." Darwin certainly did not mean to
+     imply that such varieties are freed from the action of natural
+     selection, but merely that a new form may appear without
+     _summation_ of new characters. Professor Henslow is apparently
+     unaware that the above passage is omitted in the second edition of
+     _Var. under Dom._, II. p. 260.
+
+Even in well-established breeds the individuals of which to an
+unpractised eye would appear absolutely similar, which would give, it
+might have been thought, no scope to selection, the whole appearance of
+the animal has been changed in a few years (as in the case of Lord
+Western's sheep), so that practised agriculturalists could scarcely
+credit that a change had not been effected by a cross with other breeds.
+Breeders both of plants and animals frequently give their means of
+selection greater scope, by crossing different breeds and selecting the
+offspring; but we shall have to recur to this subject again.
+
+The external conditions will doubtless influence and modify the results
+of the most careful selection; it has been found impossible to prevent
+certain breeds of cattle from degenerating on mountain pastures; it
+would probably be impossible to keep the plumage of the wild-duck in the
+domesticated race; in certain soils, no care has been sufficient to
+raise cauliflower seed true to its character; and so in many other
+cases. But with patience it is wonderful what man has effected. He has
+selected and therefore in one sense made one breed of horses to race and
+another to pull; he has made sheep with fleeces good for carpets and
+other sheep good for broadcloth; he has, in the same sense, made one dog
+to find game and give him notice when found, and another dog to fetch
+him the game when killed; he has made by selection the fat to lie mixed
+with the meat in one breed and in another to accumulate in the bowels
+for the tallow-chandler{199}; he has made the legs of one breed of
+pigeons long, and the beak of another so short, that it can hardly feed
+itself; he has previously determined how the feathers on a bird's body
+shall be coloured, and how the petals of many flowers shall be streaked
+or fringed, and has given prizes for complete success;--by selection, he
+has made the leaves of one variety and the flower-buds of another
+variety of the cabbage good to eat, at different seasons of the year;
+and thus has he acted on endless varieties. I do not wish to affirm that
+the long-and short-wooled sheep, or that the pointer and retriever, or
+that the cabbage and cauliflower have certainly descended from one and
+the same aboriginal wild stock; if they have not so descended, though it
+lessens what man has effected, a large result must be left unquestioned.
+
+     {199} See the Essay of 1842, p. 3.
+
+In saying as I have done that man makes a breed, let it not be
+confounded with saying that man makes the individuals, which are given
+by nature with certain desirable qualities; man only adds together and
+makes a permanent gift of nature's bounties. In several cases, indeed,
+for instance in the "Ancon" sheep, valuable from not getting over
+fences, and in the turnspit dog, man has probably only prevented
+crossing; but in many cases we positively know that he has gone on
+selecting, and taking advantage of successive small variations.
+
+Selection{200} has been _methodically_ followed, as I have said, for
+barely a century; but it cannot be doubted that occasionally it has been
+practised from the remotest ages, in those animals completely under the
+dominion of man. In the earliest chapters of the Bible there are rules
+given for influencing the colours of breeds, and black and white sheep
+are spoken of as separated. In the time of Pliny the barbarians of
+Europe and Asia endeavoured by cross-breeding with a wild stock to
+improve the races of their dogs and horses. The savages of Guyana now do
+so with their dogs: such care shows at least that the characters of
+individual animals were attended to. In the rudest times of English
+history, there were laws to prevent the exportation of fine animals of
+established breeds, and in the case of horses, in Henry VIII's time,
+laws for the destruction of all horses under a certain size. In one of
+the oldest numbers of the _Phil. Transactions_, there are rules for
+selecting and improving the breeds of sheep. Sir H. Bunbury, in 1660,
+has given rules for selecting the finest seedling plants, with as much
+precision as the best recent horticulturalist could. Even in the most
+savage and rude nations, in the wars and famines which so frequently
+occur, the most useful of their animals would be preserved: the value
+set upon animals by savages is shown by the inhabitants of Tierra del
+Fuego devouring their old women before their dogs, which as they
+asserted are useful in otter-hunting{201}: who can doubt but that in
+every case of famine and war, the best otter-hunters would be preserved,
+and therefore in fact selected for breeding. As the offspring so
+obviously take after their parents, and as we have seen that savages
+take pains in crossing their dogs and horses with wild stocks, we may
+even conclude as probable that they would sometimes pair the most useful
+of their animals and keep their offspring separate. As different races
+of men require and admire different qualities in their domesticated
+animals, each would thus slowly, though unconsciously, be selecting a
+different breed. As Pallas has remarked, who can doubt but that the
+ancient Russian would esteem and endeavour to preserve those sheep in
+his flocks which had the thickest coats. This kind of insensible
+selection by which new breeds are not selected and kept separate, but a
+peculiar character is slowly given to the whole mass of the breed, by
+often saving the life of animals with certain characteristics, we may
+feel nearly sure, from what we see has been done by the more direct
+method of separate selection within the last 50 years in England, would
+in the course of some thousand years produce a marked effect.
+
+     {200} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 33, vi. p. 38. The evidence is given
+     in the present Essay rather more fully than in the _Origin_.
+
+     {201} _Journal of Researches_, Ed. 1860, p. 214. "Doggies catch
+     otters, old women no."
+
+
+_Crossing Breeds._
+
+When once two or more races are formed, or if more than one race, or
+species fertile _inter se_, originally existed in a wild state, their
+crossing becomes a most copious source of new races{202}. When two
+well-marked races are crossed the offspring in the first generation take
+more or less after either parent or are quite intermediate between them,
+or rarely assume characters in some degree new. In the second and
+several succeeding generations, the offspring are generally found to
+vary exceedingly, one compared with another, and many revert nearly to
+their ancestral forms. This greater variability in succeeding
+generations seems analogous to the breaking or variability of organic
+beings after having been bred for some generations under
+domestication{203}. So marked is this variability in cross-bred
+descendants, that Pallas and some other naturalists have supposed that
+all variation is due to an original cross; but I conceive that the
+history of the potato, Dahlia, Scotch Rose, the guinea-pig, and of many
+trees in this country, where only one species of the genus exists,
+clearly shows that a species may vary where there can have been no
+crossing. Owing to this variability and tendency to reversion in
+cross-bred beings, much careful selection is requisite to make
+intermediate or new permanent races: nevertheless crossing has been a
+most powerful engine, especially with plants, where means of propagation
+exist by which the cross-bred varieties can be secured without incurring
+the risk of fresh variation from seminal propagation: with animals the
+most skilful agriculturalists now greatly prefer careful selection from
+a well-established breed, rather than from uncertain cross-bred stocks.
+
+     {202} The effects of crossing is much more strongly stated here
+     than in the _Origin_. See Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23, where indeed the
+     opposite point of view is given. His change of opinion may be due
+     to his work on pigeons. The whole of the discussion on crossing
+     corresponds to Chapter VIII of the _Origin_, Ed. i. rather than to
+     anything in the earlier part of the book.
+
+     {203} The parallelism between the effects of a cross and the
+     effects of conditions is given from a different point of view in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 266, vi. p. 391. See the experimental
+     evidence for this important principle in the author's work on
+     _Cross and Self-Fertilisation_. Professor Bateson has suggested
+     that the experiments should be repeated with gametically pure
+     plants.
+
+Although intermediate and new races may be formed by the mingling of
+others, yet if the two races are allowed to mingle quite freely, so that
+none of either parent race remain pure, then, especially if the parent
+races are not widely different, they will slowly blend together, and the
+two races will be destroyed, and one mongrel race left in its place.
+This will of course happen in a shorter time, if one of the parent
+races exists in greater number than the other. We see the effect of this
+mingling, in the manner in which the aboriginal breeds of dogs and pigs
+in the Oceanic Islands and the many breeds of our domestic animals
+introduced into S. America, have all been lost and absorbed in a mongrel
+race. It is probably owing to the freedom of crossing, that, in
+uncivilised countries, where inclosures do not exist, we seldom meet
+with more than one race of a species: it is only in enclosed countries,
+where the inhabitants do not migrate, and have conveniences for
+separating the several kinds of domestic animals, that we meet with a
+multitude of races. Even in civilised countries, want of care for a few
+years has been found to destroy the good results of far longer periods
+of selection and separation.
+
+This power of crossing will affect the races of all _terrestrial_
+animals; for all terrestrial animals require for their reproduction the
+union of two individuals. Amongst plants, races will not cross and blend
+together with so much freedom as in terrestrial animals; but this
+crossing takes place through various curious contrivances to a
+surprising extent. In fact such contrivances exist in so very many
+hermaphrodite flowers by which an occasional cross may take place, that
+I cannot avoid suspecting (with Mr Knight) that the reproductive action
+requires, at _intervals_, the concurrence of distinct individuals{204}.
+Most breeders of plants and animals are firmly convinced that benefit is
+derived from an occasional cross, not with another race, but with
+another family of the same race; and that, on the other hand, injurious
+consequences follow from long-continued close interbreeding in the same
+family. Of marine animals, many more, than was till lately believed,
+have their sexes on separate individuals; and where they are
+hermaphrodite, there seems very generally to be means through the water
+of one individual occasionally impregnating another: if individual
+animals can singly propagate themselves for perpetuity, it is
+unaccountable that no terrestrial animal, where the means of observation
+are more obvious, should be in this predicament of singly perpetuating
+its kind. I conclude, then, that races of most animals and plants, when
+unconfined in the same country, would tend to blend together.
+
+     {204} The so-called Knight-Darwin Law is often misunderstood. See
+     Goebel in _Darwin and Modern Science_, 1909, p. 419; also F.
+     Darwin, _Nature_, Oct. 27, 1898.
+
+
+_Whether our domestic races have descended from one or more wild
+stocks._
+
+Several naturalists, of whom Pallas{205} regarding animals, and Humboldt
+regarding certain plants, were the first, believe that the breeds of
+many of our domestic animals such as of the horse, pig, dog, sheep,
+pigeon, and poultry, and of our plants have descended from more than one
+aboriginal form. They leave it doubtful, whether such forms are to be
+considered wild races, or true species, whose offspring are fertile when
+crossed _inter se_. The main arguments for this view consist, firstly,
+of the great difference between such breeds, as the Race-and Cart-Horse,
+or the Greyhound and Bull-dog, and of our ignorance of the steps or
+stages through which these could have passed from a common parent; and
+secondly that in the most ancient historical periods, breeds resembling
+some of those at present most different, existed in different countries.
+The wolves of N. America and of Siberia are thought to be different
+species; and it has been remarked that the dogs belonging to the
+savages in these two countries resemble the wolves of the same country;
+and therefore that they have probably descended from two different wild
+stocks. In the same manner, these naturalists believe that the horse of
+Arabia and of Europe have probably descended from two wild stocks both
+apparently now extinct. I do not think the assumed fertility of these
+wild stocks any very great difficulty on this view; for although in
+animals the offspring of most cross-bred species are infertile, it is
+not always remembered that the experiment is very seldom fairly tried,
+except when two near species _both_ breed freely (which does not readily
+happen, as we shall hereafter see) when under the dominion of man.
+Moreover in the case of the China{206} and common goose, the canary and
+siskin, the hybrids breed freely; in other cases the offspring from
+hybrids crossed with either pure parent are fertile, as is practically
+taken advantage of with the yak and cow; as far as the analogy of plants
+serves, it is impossible to deny that some species are quite fertile
+_inter se_; but to this subject we shall recur.
+
+     {205} Pallas' theory is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 253,
+     254, vi. p. 374.
+
+     {206} See Darwin's paper on the fertility of hybrids from the
+     common and Chinese goose in _Nature_, Jan. 1, 1880.
+
+On the other hand, the upholders of the view that the several breeds of
+dogs, horses, &c., &c., have descended each from one stock, may aver
+that their view removes all _difficulty about fertility_, and that the
+main argument from the high antiquity of different breeds, somewhat
+similar to the present breeds, is worth little without knowing the date
+of the domestication of such animals, which is far from being the case.
+They may also with more weight aver that, knowing that organic beings
+under domestication do vary in some degree, the argument from the great
+difference between certain breeds is worth nothing, without we know the
+limits of variation during a long course of time, which is far from the
+case. They may argue that almost every county in England, and in many
+districts of other countries, for instance in India, there are slightly
+different breeds of the domestic animals; and that it is opposed to all
+that we know of the distribution of wild animals to suppose that these
+have descended from so many different wild races or species: if so, they
+may argue, is it not probable that countries quite separate and exposed
+to different climates would have breeds not slightly, but considerably,
+different? Taking the most favourable case, on both sides, namely that
+of the dog; they might urge that such breeds as the bull-dog and
+turnspit have been reared by man, from the ascertained fact that
+strictly analogous breeds (namely the Niata ox and Ancon sheep) in other
+quadrupeds have thus originated. Again they may say, seeing what
+training and careful selection has effected for the greyhound, and
+seeing how absolutely unfit the Italian greyhound is to maintain itself
+in a state of nature, is it not probable that at least all
+greyhounds,--from the rough deerhound, the smooth Persian, the common
+English, to the Italian,--have descended from one stock{207}? If so, is
+it so improbable that the deerhound and long-legged shepherd dog have so
+descended? If we admit this, and give up the bull-dog, we can hardly
+dispute the probable common descent of the other breeds.
+
+     {207} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 19, vi. p. 22.
+
+The evidence is so conjectural and balanced on both sides that at
+present I conceive that no one can decide: for my own part, I lean to
+the probability of most of our domestic animals having descended from
+more than one wild stock; though from the arguments last advanced and
+from reflecting on the slow though inevitable effect of different races
+of mankind, under different circumstances, saving the lives of and
+therefore selecting the individuals most useful to them, I cannot doubt
+but that one class of naturalists have much overrated the probable
+number of the aboriginal wild stocks. As far as we admit the difference
+of our races <to be> due to the differences of their original stocks, so
+much must we give up of the amount of variation produced under
+domestication. But this appears to me unimportant, for we certainly know
+in some few cases, for instance in the Dahlia, and potato, and rabbit,
+that a great number of varieties have proceeded from one stock; and, in
+many of our domestic races, we know that man, by slowly selecting and by
+taking advantage of sudden sports, has considerably modified old races
+and produced new ones. Whether we consider our races as the descendants
+of one or several wild stocks, we are in far the greater number of cases
+equally ignorant what these stocks were.
+
+
+_Limits to Variation in degree and kind._
+
+Man's power in making races deends, in the first instance, on the stock
+on which he works being variable; but his labours are modified and
+limited, as we have seen, by the direct effects of the external
+conditions,--by the deficient or imperfect hereditariness of new
+peculiarities,--and by the tendency to continual variation and
+especially to reversion to ancestral forms. If the stock is not variable
+under domestication, of course he can do nothing; and it appears that
+species differ considerably in this tendency to variation, in the same
+way as even sub-varieties from the same variety differ greatly in this
+respect, and transmit to their offspring this difference in tendency.
+Whether the absence of a tendency to vary is an unalterable quality in
+certain species, or depends on some deficient condition of the
+particular state of domestication to which they are exposed, there is no
+evidence. When the organization is rendered variable, or plastic, as I
+have expressed it, under domestication, different parts of the frame
+vary more or less in different species: thus in the breeds of cattle it
+has been remarked that the horns are the most constant or least variable
+character, for these often remain constant, whilst the colour, size,
+proportions of the body, tendency to fatten &c., vary; in sheep, I
+believe, the horns are much more variable. As a general rule the less
+important parts of the organization seem to vary most, but I think there
+is sufficient evidence that every part occasionally varies in a slight
+degree. Even when man has the primary requisite variability he is
+necessarily checked by the health and life of the stock he is working
+on: thus he has already made pigeons with such small beaks that they can
+hardly eat and will not rear their own young; he has made families of
+sheep with so strong a tendency to early maturity and to fatten, that in
+certain pastures they cannot live from their extreme liability to
+inflammation; he has made (_i.e._ selected) sub-varieties of plants with
+a tendency to such early growth that they are frequently killed by the
+spring frosts; he has made a breed of cows having calves with such large
+hinder quarters that they are born with great difficulty, often to the
+death of their mothers{208}; the breeders were compelled to remedy this
+by the selection of a breeding stock with smaller hinder quarters; in
+such a case, however, it is possible by long patience and great loss, a
+remedy might have been found in selecting cows capable of giving birth
+to calves with large hinder quarters, for in human kind there <are> no
+doubt hereditary bad and good confinements. Besides the limits already
+specified, there can be little doubt that the variation of different
+parts of the frame are connected together by many laws{209}: thus the
+two sides of the body, in health and disease, seem almost always to vary
+together: it has been asserted by breeders that if the head is much
+elongated, the bones of the extremities will likewise be so; in
+seedling-apples large leaves and fruit generally go together, and serve
+the horticulturalist as some guide in his selection; we can here see the
+reason, as the fruit is only a metamorphosed leaf. In animals the teeth
+and hair seem connected, for the hairless Chinese dog is almost
+toothless. Breeders believe that one part of the frame or function being
+increased causes other parts to decrease: they dislike great horns and
+great bones as so much flesh lost; in hornless breeds of cattle certain
+bones of the head become more developed: it is said that fat
+accumulating in one part checks its accumulation in another, and
+likewise checks the action of the udder. The whole organization is so
+connected that it is probable there are many conditions determining the
+variation of each part, and causing other parts to vary with it; and man
+in making new races must be limited and ruled by all such laws.
+
+     {208} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 211.
+
+     {209} This discussion corresponds to the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 11
+     and 143, vi. pp. 13 and 177.
+
+
+_In what consists Domestication._
+
+In this chapter we have treated of variation under domestication, and it
+now remains to consider in what does this power of domestication
+consist{210}, a subject of considerable difficulty. Observing that
+organic beings of almost every class, in all climates, countries, and
+times, have varied when long bred under domestication, we must conclude
+that the influence is of some very general nature{211}. Mr Knight alone,
+as far as I know, has tried to define it; he believes it consists of an
+excess of food, together with transport to a more genial climate, or
+protection from its severities. I think we cannot admit this latter
+proposition, for we know how many vegetable products, aborigines of this
+country, here vary, when cultivated without any protection from the
+weather; and some of our variable trees, as apricots, peaches, have
+undoubtedly been derived from a more genial climate. There appears to be
+much more truth in the doctrine of excess of food being the cause,
+though I much doubt whether this is the sole cause, although it may well
+be requisite for the kind of variation desired by man, namely increase
+of size and vigour. No doubt horticulturalists, when they wish to raise
+new seedlings, often pluck off all the flower-buds, except a few, or
+remove the whole during one season, so that a great stock of nutriment
+may be thrown into the flowers which are to seed. When plants are
+transported from high-lands, forests, marshes, heaths, into our gardens
+and greenhouses, there must be a considerable change of food, but it
+would be hard to prove that there was in every case an excess of the
+kind proper to the plant. If it be an excess of food, compared with that
+which the being obtained in its natural state{212}, the effects continue
+for an improbably long time; during how many ages has wheat been
+cultivated, and cattle and sheep reclaimed, and we cannot suppose their
+_amount_ of food has gone on increasing, nevertheless these are amongst
+the most variable of our domestic productions. It has been remarked
+(Marshall) that some of the most highly kept breeds of sheep and cattle
+are truer or less variable than the straggling animals of the poor,
+which subsist on commons, and pick up a bare subsistence{213}. In the
+case of forest-trees raised in nurseries, which vary more than the same
+trees do in their aboriginal forests, the cause would seem simply to lie
+in their not having to struggle against other trees and weeds, which in
+their natural state doubtless would limit the conditions of their
+existence. It appears to me that the power of domestication resolves
+itself into the accumulated effects of a change of all or some of the
+natural conditions of the life of the species, often associated with
+excess of food. These conditions moreover, I may add, can seldom remain,
+owing to the mutability of the affairs, habits, migrations, and
+knowledge of man, for very long periods the same. I am the more inclined
+to come to this conclusion from finding, as we shall hereafter show,
+that changes of the natural conditions of existence seem peculiarly to
+affect the action of the reproductive system{214}. As we see that
+hybrids and mongrels, after the first generation, are apt to vary much,
+we may at least conclude that variability does not altogether depend on
+excess of food.
+
+     {210} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 7, vi. p. 7.
+
+     {211} <Note in the original.> "Isidore G. St Hilaire insists that
+     breeding in captivity essential element. Schleiden on alkalies.
+     <See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 244, note 10.> What is
+     it in domestication which causes variation?"
+
+     {212} <Note in the original.> "It appears that slight changes of
+     condition <are> good for health; that more change affects the
+     generative system, so that variation results in the offspring;
+     that still more change checks or destroys fertility not of the
+     offspring." Compare the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 9, vi. p. 11. What the
+     meaning of "not of the offspring" may be is not clear.
+
+     {213} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 41, vi. p. 46 the question is
+     differently treated; it is pointed out that a large stock of
+     individuals gives a better chance of available variations
+     occurring. Darwin quotes from Marshall that sheep in small lots can
+     never be improved. This comes from Marshall's _Review of the
+     Reports to the Board of Agriculture_, 1808, p. 406. In this Essay
+     the name Marshall occurs in the margin. Probably this refers to
+     _loc. cit._ p. 200, where unshepherded sheep in many parts of
+     England are said to be similar owing to mixed breeding not being
+     avoided.
+
+     {214} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 8, vi. p. 8.
+
+After these views, it may be asked how it comes that certain animals
+and plants, which have been domesticated for a considerable length of
+time, and transported from very different conditions of existence, have
+not varied much, or scarcely at all; for instance, the ass, peacock,
+guinea-fowl, asparagus, Jerusalem artichoke{215}. I have already said
+that probably different species, like different sub-varieties, possess
+different degrees of tendency to vary; but I am inclined to attribute in
+these cases the want of numerous races less to want of variability than
+to selection not having been practised on them. No one will take the
+pains to select without some corresponding object, either of use or
+amusement; the individuals raised must be tolerably numerous, and not so
+precious, but that he may freely destroy those not answering to his
+wishes. If guinea-fowls or peacocks{216} became "fancy" birds, I cannot
+doubt that after some generations several breeds would be raised. Asses
+have not been worked on from mere neglect; but they differ in _some_
+degree in different countries. The insensible selection, due to
+different races of mankind preserving those individuals most useful to
+them in their different circumstances, will apply only to the oldest and
+most widely domesticated animals. In the case of plants, we must put
+entirely out of the case those exclusively (or almost so) propagated by
+cuttings, layers or tubers, such as the Jerusalem artichoke and laurel;
+and if we put on one side plants of little ornament or use, and those
+which are used at so early a period of their growth that no especial
+characters signify, as asparagus{217} and seakale, I can think of none
+long cultivated which have not varied. In no case ought we to expect to
+find as much variation in a race when it alone has been formed, as when
+several have been formed, for their crossing and recrossing will
+greatly increase their variability.
+
+     {215} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 42, vi. p. 48.
+
+     {216} <Note in the original.> There are white peacocks.
+
+     {217} <Note in the original.> There are varieties of asparagus.
+
+
+_Summary of first Chapter._
+
+To sum up this chapter. Races are made under domestication: 1st, by the
+direct effects of the external conditions to which the species is
+exposed: 2nd, by the indirect effects of the exposure to new conditions,
+often aided by excess of food, rendering the organization plastic, and
+by man's selecting and separately breeding certain individuals, or
+introducing to his stock selected males, or often preserving with care
+the life of the individuals best adapted to his purposes: 3rd, by
+crossing and recrossing races already made, and selecting their
+offspring. After some generations man may relax his care in selection:
+for the tendency to vary and to revert to ancestral forms will decrease,
+so that he will have only occasionally to remove or destroy one of the
+yearly offspring which departs from its type. Ultimately, with a large
+stock, the effects of free crossing would keep, even without this care,
+his breed true. By these means man can produce infinitely numerous
+races, curiously adapted to ends, both most important and most
+frivolous; at the same time that the effects of the surrounding
+conditions, the laws of inheritance, of growth, and of variation, will
+modify and limit his labours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN A WILD STATE; ON THE NATURAL MEANS
+OF SELECTION; AND ON THE COMPARISON OF DOMESTIC RACES AND TRUE SPECIES
+
+
+Having treated of variation under domestication, we now come to it in a
+_state of nature_.
+
+Most organic beings in a state of nature vary exceedingly little{218}: I
+put out of the case variations (as stunted plants &c., and sea-shells in
+brackish water{219}) which are directly the effect of external agencies
+and which we do not _know are in the breed_{220}, or are _hereditary_.
+The amount of hereditary variation is very difficult to ascertain,
+because naturalists (partly from the want of knowledge, and partly from
+the inherent difficulty of the subject) do not all agree whether certain
+forms are species or races{221}. Some strongly marked races of plants,
+comparable with the decided sports of horticulturalists, undoubtedly
+exist in a state of nature, as is actually known by experiment, for
+instance in the primrose and cowslip{222}, in two so-called species of
+dandelion, in two of foxglove{223}, and I believe in some pines. Lamarck
+has observed that, as long as we confine our attention to one limited
+country, there is seldom much difficulty in deciding what forms to call
+species and what varieties; and that it is when collections flow in from
+all parts of the world that naturalists often feel at a loss to decide
+the limit of variation. Undoubtedly so it is, yet amongst British plants
+(and I may add land shells), which are probably better known than any in
+the world, the best naturalists differ very greatly in the relative
+proportions of what they call species and what varieties. In many genera
+of insects, and shells, and plants, it seems almost hopeless to
+establish which are which. In the higher classes there are less doubts;
+though we find considerable difficulty in ascertaining what deserve to
+be called species amongst foxes and wolves, and in some birds, for
+instance in the case of the white barn-owl. When specimens are brought
+from different parts of the world, how often do naturalists dispute this
+same question, as I found with respect to the birds brought from the
+Galapagos islands. Yarrell has remarked that the individuals of the same
+undoubted species of birds, from Europe and N. America, usually present
+slight, indefinable though perceptible differences. The recognition
+indeed of one animal by another of its kind seems to imply some
+difference. The disposition of wild animals undoubtedly differs. The
+variation, such as it is, chiefly affects the same parts in wild
+organisms as in domestic breeds; for instance, the size, colour, and the
+external and less important parts. In many species the variability of
+certain organs or qualities is even stated as one of the specific
+characters: thus, in plants, colour, size, hairiness, the number of the
+stamens and pistils, and even their presence, the form of the leaves;
+the size and form of the mandibles of the males of some insects; the
+length and curvature of the beak in some birds (as in Opetiorynchus) are
+variable characters in some species and quite fixed in others. I do not
+perceive that any just distinction can be drawn between this recognised
+variability of certain parts in many species and the more general
+variability of the whole frame in domestic races.
+
+     {218} In Chapter II of the first edition of the _Origin_ Darwin
+     insists rather on the presence of variability in a state of nature;
+     see, for instance, p. 45, Ed. vi. p. 53, "I am convinced that the
+     most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the
+     cases of variability ... which he could collect on good authority,
+     as I have collected, during a course of years."
+
+     {219} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 44, vi. p. 52.
+
+     {220} <Note in the original.> Here discuss _what is a species_,
+     sterility can most rarely be told when crossed.--Descent from common
+     stock.
+
+     {221} <Note in the original.> Give only rule: chain of intermediate
+     forms, and _analogy_; this important. Every Naturalist at first when
+     he gets hold of new variable type is _quite puzzled_ to know what to
+     think species and what variations.
+
+     {222} The author had not at this time the knowledge of the meaning
+     of dimorphism.
+
+     {223} <Note in original.> Compare feathered heads in very different
+     birds with spines in Echidna and Hedgehog. <In _Variation under
+     Domestication_, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 317, Darwin calls attention to
+     laced and frizzled breeds occurring in both fowls and pigeons. In
+     the same way a peculiar form of covering occurs in Echidna and the
+     hedgehog.>
+
+     Plants under very different climate not varying. Digitalis shows
+     jumps <?> in variation, like Laburnum and Orchis case--in fact hostile
+     cases. Variability of sexual characters alike in domestic and wild.
+
+Although the amount of variation be exceedingly small in most organic
+beings in a state of nature, and probably quite wanting (as far as our
+senses serve) in the majority of cases; yet considering how many animals
+and plants, taken by mankind from different quarters of the world for
+the most diverse purposes, have varied under domestication in every
+country and in every age, I think we may safely conclude that all
+organic beings with few exceptions, if capable of being domesticated and
+bred for long periods, would vary. Domestication seems to resolve itself
+into a change from the natural conditions of the species [generally
+perhaps including an increase of food]; if this be so, organisms in a
+state of nature must _occasionally_, in the course of ages, be exposed
+to analogous influences; for geology clearly shows that many places
+must, in the course of time, become exposed to the widest range of
+climatic and other influences; and if such places be isolated, so that
+new and better adapted organic beings cannot freely emigrate, the old
+inhabitants will be exposed to new influences, probably far more varied,
+than man applies under the form of domestication. Although every species
+no doubt will soon breed up to the full number which the country will
+support, yet it is easy to conceive that, on an average, some species
+may receive an increase of food; for the times of dearth may be short,
+yet enough to kill, and recurrent only at long intervals. All such
+changes of conditions from geological causes would be exceedingly slow;
+what effect the slowness might have we are ignorant; under domestication
+it appears that the effects of change of conditions accumulate, and then
+break out. Whatever might be the result of these slow geological
+changes, we may feel sure, from the means of dissemination common in a
+lesser or greater degree to every organism taken conjointly with the
+changes of geology, which are steadily (and sometimes suddenly, as when
+an isthmus at last separates) in progress, that occasionally organisms
+must suddenly be introduced into new regions, where, if the conditions
+of existence are not so foreign as to cause its extermination, it will
+often be propagated under circumstances still more closely analogous to
+those of domestication; and therefore we expect will evince a tendency
+to vary. It appears to me quite _inexplicable_ if this has never
+happened; but it can happen very rarely. Let us then suppose that an
+organism by some chance (which might be hardly repeated in 1000 years)
+arrives at a modern volcanic island in process of formation and not
+fully stocked with the most appropriate organisms; the new organism
+might readily gain a footing, although the external conditions were
+considerably different from its native ones. The effect of this we might
+expect would influence in some small degree the size, colour, nature of
+covering &c., and from inexplicable influences even special parts and
+organs of the body. But we might further (and <this> is far more important)
+expect that the reproductive system would be affected, as under
+domesticity, and the structure of the offspring rendered in some degree
+plastic. Hence almost every part of the body would tend to vary from the
+typical form in slight degrees, and in no determinate way, and therefore
+_without selection_ the free crossing of these small variations
+(together with the tendency to reversion to the original form) would
+constantly be counteracting this unsettling effect of the extraneous
+conditions on the reproductive system. Such, I conceive, would be the
+unimportant result without selection. And here I must observe that the
+foregoing remarks are equally applicable to that small and admitted
+amount of variation which has been observed in some organisms in a state
+of nature; as well as to the above hypothetical variation consequent on
+changes of condition.
+
+Let us now suppose a Being{224} with penetration sufficient to perceive
+differences in the outer and innermost organization quite imperceptible
+to man, and with forethought extending over future centuries to watch
+with unerring care and select for any object the offspring of an
+organism produced under the foregoing circumstances; I can see no
+conceivable reason why he could not form a new race (or several were he
+to separate the stock of the original organism and work on several
+islands) adapted to new ends. As we assume his discrimination, and his
+forethought, and his steadiness of object, to be incomparably greater
+that those qualities in man, so we may suppose the beauty and
+complications of the adaptations of the new races and their differences
+from the original stock to be greater than in the domestic races
+produced by man's agency: the ground-work of his labours we may aid by
+supposing that the external conditions of the volcanic island, from its
+continued emergence and the occasional introduction of new immigrants,
+vary; and thus to act on the reproductive system of the organism, on
+which he is at work, and so keep its organization somewhat plastic. With
+time enough, such a Being might rationally (without some unknown law
+opposed him) aim at almost any result.
+
+     {224} A corresponding passage occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi.
+     p. 101, where however Nature takes the place of the selecting
+     Being.
+
+For instance, let this imaginary Being wish, from seeing a plant growing
+on the decaying matter in a forest and choked by other plants, to give
+it power of growing on the rotten stems of trees, he would commence
+selecting every seedling whose berries were in the smallest degree more
+attractive to tree-frequenting birds, so as to cause a proper
+dissemination of the seeds, and at the same time he would select those
+plants which had in the slightest degree more and more power of drawing
+nutriment from rotten wood; and he would destroy all other seedlings
+with less of this power. He might thus, in the course of century after
+century, hope to make the plant by degrees grow on rotten wood, even
+high up on trees, wherever birds dropped the non-digested seeds. He
+might then, if the organization of the plant was plastic, attempt by
+continued selection of chance seedlings to make it grow on less and less
+rotten wood, till it would grow on sound wood{225}. Supposing again,
+during these changes the plant failed to seed quite freely from
+non-impregnation, he might begin selecting seedlings with a little
+sweeter <or> differently tasted honey or pollen, to tempt insects to visit
+the flowers regularly: having effected this, he might wish, if it
+profited the plant, to render abortive the stamens and pistils in
+different flowers, which he could do by continued selection. By such
+steps he might aim at making a plant as wonderfully related to other
+organic beings as is the mistletoe, whose existence absolutely depends
+on certain insects for impregnation, certain birds for transportal, and
+certain trees for growth. Furthermore, if the insect which had been
+induced regularly to visit this hypothetical plant profited much by it,
+our same Being might wish by selection to modify by gradual selection
+the insect's structure, so as to facilitate its obtaining the honey or
+pollen: in this manner he might adapt the insect (always presupposing
+its organization to be in some degree plastic) to the flower, and the
+impregnation of the flower to the insect; as is the case with many bees
+and many plants.
+
+     {225} The mistletoe is used as an illustration in _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 3, vi. p. 3, but with less detail.
+
+Seeing what blind capricious man has actually effected by selection
+during the few last years, and what in a ruder state he has probably
+effected without any systematic plan during the last few thousand years,
+he will be a bold person who will positively put limits to what the
+supposed Being could effect during whole geological periods. In
+accordance with the plan by which this universe seems governed by the
+Creator, let us consider whether there exists any _secondary_ means in
+the economy of nature by which the process of selection could go on
+adapting, nicely and wonderfully, organisms, if in ever so small a
+degree plastic, to diverse ends. I believe such secondary means do
+exist{226}.
+
+     {226} <Note in original.> The selection, in cases where adult lives
+     only few hours as Ephemera, must fall on larva--curious speculation
+     of the effect <which> changes in it would bring in parent.
+
+
+_Natural means of Selection{227}._
+
+     {227} This section forms part of the joint paper by Darwin and
+     Wallace read before the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858.
+
+De Candolle, in an eloquent passage, has declared that all nature is at
+war, one organism with another, or with external nature. Seeing the
+contented face of nature, this may at first be well doubted; but
+reflection will inevitably prove it is too true. The war, however, is
+not constant, but only recurrent in a slight degree at short periods and
+more severely at occasional more distant periods; and hence its effects
+are easily overlooked. It is the doctrine of Malthus applied in most
+cases with ten-fold force. As in every climate there are seasons for
+each of its inhabitants of greater and less abundance, so all annually
+breed; and the moral restraint, which in some small degree checks the
+increase of mankind, is entirely lost. Even slow-breeding mankind has
+doubled in 25 years{228}, and if he could increase his food with greater
+ease, he would double in less time. But for animals, without artificial
+means, _on an average_ the amount of food for each species must be
+constant; whereas the increase of all organisms tends to be geometrical,
+and in a vast majority of cases at an enormous ratio. Suppose in a
+certain spot there are eight pairs of [robins] birds, and that _only_
+four pairs of them annually (including double hatches) rear only four
+young; and that these go on rearing their young at the same rate: then
+at the end of seven years (a short life, excluding violent deaths, for
+any birds) there will be 2048 robins, instead of the original sixteen;
+as this increase is quite impossible, so we must conclude either that
+robins do not rear nearly half their young or that the average life of a
+robin when reared is from accident not nearly seven years. Both checks
+probably concur. The same kind of calculation applied to all vegetables
+and animals produces results either more or less striking, but in
+scarcely a single instance less striking than in man{229}.
+
+     {228} Occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 64, vi. p. 79.
+
+     {229} Corresponds approximately with _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 64-65,
+     vi. p. 80.
+
+Many practical illustrations of this rapid tendency to increase are on
+record, namely during peculiar seasons, in the extraordinary increase of
+certain animals, for instance during the years 1826 to 1828, in La
+Plata, when from drought, some millions of cattle perished, the whole
+country _swarmed_ with innumerable mice: now I think it cannot be
+doubted that during the breeding season all the mice (with the exception
+of a few males or females in excess) ordinarily pair; and therefore that
+this astounding increase during three years must be attributed to a
+greater than usual number surviving the first year, and then breeding,
+and so on, till the third year, when their numbers were brought down to
+their usual limits on the return of wet weather. Where man has
+introduced plants and animals into a new country favourable to them,
+there are many accounts in how surprisingly few years the whole country
+has become stocked with them. This increase would necessarily stop as
+soon as the country was fully stocked; and yet we have every reason to
+believe from what is known of wild animals that _all_ would pair in the
+spring. In the majority of cases it is most difficult to imagine where
+the check falls, generally no doubt on the seeds, eggs, and young; but
+when we remember how impossible even in mankind (so much better known
+than any other animal) it is to infer from repeated casual observations
+what the average of life is, or to discover how different the percentage
+of deaths to the births in different countries, we ought to feel no
+legitimate surprise at not seeing where the check falls in animals and
+plants. It should always be remembered that in most cases the checks are
+yearly recurrent in a small regular degree, and in an extreme degree
+during occasionally unusually cold, hot, dry, or wet years, according to
+the constitution of the being in question. Lighten any check in the
+smallest degree, and the geometrical power of increase in every
+organism will instantly increase the average numbers of the favoured
+species. Nature may be compared to a surface, on which rest ten thousand
+sharp wedges touching each other and driven inwards by incessant
+blows{230}. Fully to realise these views much reflection is requisite;
+Malthus on man should be studied; and all such cases as those of the
+mice in La Plata, of the cattle and horses when first turned out in S.
+America, of the robins by our calculation, &c., should be well
+considered: reflect on the enormous multiplying power _inherent and
+annually in action_ in all animals; reflect on the countless seeds
+scattered by a hundred ingenious contrivances, year after year, over the
+whole face of the land; and yet we have every reason to suppose that the
+average percentage of every one of the inhabitants of a country will
+_ordinarily_ remain constant. Finally, let it be borne in mind that this
+average number of individuals (the external conditions remaining the
+same) in each country is kept up by recurrent struggles against other
+species or against external nature (as on the borders of the arctic
+regions{231}, where the cold checks life); and that ordinarily each
+individual of each species holds its place, either by its own struggle
+and capacity of acquiring nourishment in some period (from the egg
+upwards) of its life, or by the struggle of its parents (in short lived
+organisms, when the main check occurs at long intervals) against and
+compared with other individuals of the _same_ or _different_ species.
+
+     {230} This simile occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 67, not in the
+     later editions.
+
+     {231} <Note in the original.> In case like mistletoe, it may be
+     asked why not more species, no other species interferes; answer
+     almost sufficient, same causes which check the multiplication of
+     individuals.
+
+But let the external conditions of a country change; if in a small
+degree, the relative proportions of the inhabitants will in most cases
+simply be slightly changed; but let the number of inhabitants be small,
+as in an island{232}, and free access to it from other countries be
+circumscribed; and let the change of condition continue progressing
+(forming new stations); in such case the original inhabitants must cease
+to be so perfectly adapted to the changed conditions as they originally
+were. It has been shown that probably such changes of external
+conditions would, from acting on the reproductive system, cause the
+organization of the beings most affected to become, as under
+domestication, plastic. Now can it be doubted from the struggle each
+individual (or its parents) has to obtain subsistence that any minute
+variation in structure, habits, or instincts, adapting that individual
+better to the new conditions, would tell upon its vigour and health? In
+the struggle it would have a better _chance_ of surviving, and those of
+its offspring which inherited the variation, let it be ever so slight,
+would have a better _chance_ to survive. Yearly more are bred than can
+survive; the smallest grain in the balance, in the long run, must tell
+on which death shall fall, and which shall survive{233}. Let this work
+of selection, on the one hand, and death on the other, go on for a
+thousand generations; who would pretend to affirm that it would produce
+no effect, when we remember what in a few years Bakewell effected in
+cattle and Western in sheep, by this identical principle of selection.
+
+     {232} See _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 104, 292, vi. pp. 127, 429.
+
+     {233} Recognition of the importance of minute differences in the
+     struggle occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 8 note 3.{Note 59}
+
+To give an imaginary example, from changes in progress on an island, let
+the organization{234} of a canine animal become slightly plastic, which
+animal preyed chiefly on rabbits, but sometimes on hares; let these same
+changes cause the number of rabbits very slowly to decrease and the
+number of hares to increase; the effect of this would be that the fox or
+dog would be driven to try to catch more hares, and his numbers would
+tend to decrease; his organization, however, being slightly plastic,
+those individuals with the lightest forms, longest limbs, and best
+eye-sight (though perhaps with less cunning or scent) would be slightly
+favoured, let the difference be ever so small, and would tend to live
+longer and to survive during that time of the year when food was
+shortest; they would also rear more young, which young would tend to
+inherit these slight peculiarities. The less fleet ones would be rigidly
+destroyed. I can see no more reason to doubt but that these causes in a
+thousand generations would produce a marked effect, and adapt the form
+of the fox to catching hares instead of rabbits, than that greyhounds
+can be improved by selection and careful breeding. So would it be with
+plants under similar circumstances; if the number of individuals of a
+species with plumed seeds could be increased by greater powers of
+dissemination within its own area (that is if the check to increase fell
+chiefly on the seeds), those seeds which were provided with ever so
+little more down, or with a plume placed so as to be slightly more acted
+on by the winds, would in the long run tend to be most disseminated; and
+hence a greater number of seeds thus formed would germinate, and would
+tend to produce plants inheriting this slightly better adapted down.
+
+     {234} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 90, vi. p. 110.
+
+Besides this natural means of selection, by which those individuals are
+preserved, whether in their egg or seed or in their mature state, which
+are best adapted to the place they fill in nature, there is a second
+agency at work in most bisexual animals tending to produce the same
+effect, namely the struggle of the males for the females. These
+struggles are generally decided by the law of battle; but in the case
+of birds, apparently, by the charms of their song{235}, by their beauty
+or their power of courtship, as in the dancing rock-thrush of Guiana.
+Even in the animals which pair there seems to be an excess of males
+which would aid in causing a struggle: in the polygamous animals{236},
+however, as in deer, oxen, poultry, we might expect there would be
+severest struggle: is it not in the polygamous animals that the males
+are best formed for mutual war? The most vigorous males, implying
+perfect adaptation, must generally gain the victory in their several
+contests. This kind of selection, however, is less rigorous than the
+other; it does not require the death of the less successful, but gives
+to them fewer descendants. This struggle falls, moreover, at a time of
+year when food is generally abundant, and perhaps the effect chiefly
+produced would be the alteration of sexual characters, and the selection
+of individual forms, no way related to their power of obtaining food, or
+of defending themselves from their natural enemies, but of fighting one
+with another. This natural struggle amongst the males may be compared in
+effect, but in a less degree, to that produced by those agriculturalists
+who pay less attention to the careful selection of all the young animals
+which they breed and more to the occasional use of a choice male{237}.
+
+     {235} These two forms of sexual selection are given in _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 107. The Guiana rock-thrush is given as an
+     example of bloodless competition.
+
+     {236} <Note in original.> Seals? Pennant about battles of seals.
+
+     {237} In the Linnean paper of July 1, 1858 the final word is
+     _mate_: but the context shows that it should be _male_; it is
+     moreover clearly so written in the MS.
+
+
+_Differences between "Races" and "Species":--first, in their trueness or
+variability._
+
+Races{238} produced by these natural means of selection{239} we may
+expect would differ in some respects from those produced by man. Man
+selects chiefly by the eye, and is not able to perceive the course of
+every vessel and nerve, or the form of the bones, or whether the
+internal structure corresponds to the outside shape. He{240} is unable
+to select shades of constitutional differences, and by the protection he
+affords and his endeavours to keep his property alive, in whatever
+country he lives, he checks, as much as lies in his power, the selecting
+action of nature, which will, however, go on to a lesser degree with all
+living things, even if their length of life is not determined by their
+own powers of endurance. He has bad judgment, is capricious, he does
+not, or his successors do not, wish to select for the same exact end for
+hundreds of generations. He cannot always suit the selected form to the
+properest conditions; nor does he keep those conditions uniform: he
+selects that which is useful to him, not that best adapted to those
+conditions in which each variety is placed by him: he selects a small
+dog, but feeds it highly; he selects a long-backed dog, but does not
+exercise it in any peculiar manner, at least not during every
+generation. He seldom allows the most vigorous males to struggle for
+themselves and propagate, but picks out such as he possesses, or such as
+he prefers, and not necessarily those best adapted to the existing
+conditions. Every agriculturalist and breeder knows how difficult it is
+to prevent an occasional cross with another breed. He often grudges to
+destroy an individual which departs considerably from the required type.
+He often begins his selection by a form or sport considerably departing
+from the parent form. Very differently does the natural law of selection
+act; the varieties selected differ only slightly from the parent
+forms{241}; the conditions are constant for long periods and change
+slowly; rarely can there be a cross; the selection is rigid and
+unfailing, and continued through many generations; a selection can
+_never be made_ without the form be _better_ adapted to the conditions
+than the parent form; the selecting power goes on without caprice, and
+steadily for thousands of years adapting the form to these conditions.
+The selecting power is not deceived by external appearances, it tries
+the being during its whole life; and if less well <?> adapted than its
+_congeners_, without fail it is destroyed; every part of its structure
+is thus scrutinised and proved good towards the place in nature which it
+occupies.
+
+     {238} In the _Origin_ the author would here have used the word
+     _variety_.
+
+     {239} The whole of p. 94 and 15 lines of p. 95 are, in the MS.,
+     marked through in pencil with vertical lines, beginning at "Races
+     produced, &c." and ending with "to these conditions."
+
+     {240} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 83, vi. p. 102.
+
+     {241} In the present Essay there is some evidence that the author
+     attributed more to _sports_ than was afterwards the case: but the
+     above passage points the other way. It must always be remembered
+     that many of the minute differences, now considered small
+     mutations, are the small variations on which Darwin conceived
+     selection to act.
+
+We have every reason to believe that in proportion to the number of
+generations that a domestic race is kept free from crosses, and to the
+care employed in continued steady selection with one end in view, and to
+the care in not placing the variety in conditions unsuited to it; in
+such proportion does the new race become "true" or subject to little
+variation{242}. How incomparably "truer" then would a race produced by
+the above rigid, steady, natural means of selection, excellently trained
+and perfectly adapted to its conditions, free from stains of blood or
+crosses, and continued during thousands of years, be compared with one
+produced by the feeble, capricious, misdirected and ill-adapted
+selection of man. Those races of domestic animals produced by savages,
+partly by the inevitable conditions of their life, and partly
+unintentionally by their greater care of the individuals most valuable
+to them, would probably approach closest to the character of a species;
+and I believe this is the case. Now the characteristic mark of a
+species, next, if not equal in importance to its sterility when crossed
+with another species, and indeed almost the only other character
+(without we beg the question and affirm the essence of a species, is its
+not having descended from a parent common to any other form), is the
+similarity of the individuals composing the species, or in the language
+of agriculturalists their "trueness."
+
+     {242} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 230.
+
+
+_Difference between "Races" and "Species" in fertility when crossed._
+
+The sterility of species, or of their offspring, when crossed has,
+however, received more attention than the uniformity in character of the
+individuals composing the species. It is exceedingly natural that such
+sterility{243} should have been long thought the certain characteristic
+of species. For it is obvious that if the allied different forms which
+we meet with in the same country could cross together, instead of
+finding a number of distinct species, we should have a confused and
+blending series. The fact however of a perfect gradation in the degree
+of sterility between species, and the circumstance of some species most
+closely allied (for instance many species of crocus and European heaths)
+refusing to breed together, whereas other species, widely different,
+and even belonging to distinct genera, as the fowl and the peacock,
+pheasant and grouse{244}, Azalea and Rhododendron, Thuja and Juniperus,
+breeding together ought to have caused a doubt whether the sterility did
+not depend on other causes, distinct from a law, coincident with their
+creation. I may here remark that the fact whether one species will or
+will not breed with another is far less important than the sterility of
+the offspring when produced; for even some domestic races differ so
+greatly in size (as the great stag-greyhound and lap-dog, or cart-horse
+and Burmese ponies) that union is nearly impossible; and what is less
+generally known is, that in plants Koelreuter has shown by hundreds of
+experiments that the pollen of one species will fecundate the germen of
+another species, whereas the pollen of this latter will never act on the
+germen of the former; so that the simple fact of mutual impregnation
+certainly has no relation whatever to the distinctness in creation of
+the two forms. When two species are attempted to be crossed which are so
+distantly allied that offspring are never produced, it has been observed
+in some cases that the pollen commences its proper action by exserting
+its tube, and the germen commences swelling, though soon afterwards it
+decays. In the next stage in the series, hybrid offspring are produced
+though only rarely and few in number, and these are absolutely sterile:
+then we have hybrid offspring more numerous, and occasionally, though
+very rarely, breeding with either parent, as is the case with the common
+mule. Again, other hybrids, though infertile _inter se_, will breed
+_quite_ freely with either parent, or with a third species, and will
+yield offspring generally infertile, but sometimes fertile; and these
+latter again will breed with either parent, or with a third or fourth
+species: thus Koelreuter blended together many forms. Lastly it is now
+admitted by those botanists who have longest contended against the
+admission, that in certain families the hybrid offspring of many of the
+species are sometimes perfectly fertile in the first generation when
+bred together: indeed in some few cases Mr Herbert{245} found that the
+hybrids were decidedly more fertile than either of their pure parents.
+There is no way to escape from the admission that the hybrids from some
+species of plants are fertile, except by declaring that no form shall be
+considered as a species, if it produces with another species fertile
+offspring: but this is begging the question{246}. It has often been
+stated that different species of animals have a sexual repugnance
+towards each other; I can find no evidence of this; it appears as if
+they merely did not excite each others passions. I do not believe that
+in this respect there is any essential distinction between animals and
+plants; and in the latter there cannot be a feeling of repugnance.
+
+     {243} <Note in the original.> If domestic animals are descended from
+     several species and _become_ fertile _inter se_, then one can see
+     they gain fertility by becoming adapted to new conditions and
+     certainly domestic animals can withstand changes of climate without
+     loss of fertility in an astonishing manner.
+
+     {244} See Suchetet, _L'Hybridite dans la Nature_, Bruxelles, 1888,
+     p. 67. In _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. hybrids between the
+     fowl and the pheasant are mentioned. I can give no information on
+     the other cases.
+
+     {245} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 250, vi. p. 370.
+
+     {246} This was the position of Gaertner and of Koelreuter: see
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 246-7, vi. pp. 367-8.
+
+
+_Causes of Sterility in Hybrids._
+
+The difference in nature between species which causes the greater or
+lesser degree of sterility in their offspring appears, according to
+Herbert and Koelreuter, to be connected much less with external form,
+size, or structure, than with constitutional peculiarities; by which is
+meant their adaptation to different climates, food and situation, &c.:
+these peculiarities of constitution probably affect the entire frame,
+and no one part in particular{247}.
+
+     {247} <Note in the original.> Yet this seems introductory to the
+     case of the heaths and crocuses above mentioned. <Herbert observed
+     that crocus does not set seed if transplanted before pollination,
+     but that such treatment after pollination has no sterilising effect.
+     (_Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 148.) On the same page is
+     a mention of the Ericaceae being subject to contabescence of the
+     anthers. For _Crinum_ see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 250: for _Rhododenron_
+     and _Calceolaria_ see p. 251.>
+
+From the foregoing facts I think we must admit that there exists a
+perfect gradation in fertility between species which when crossed are
+quite fertile (as in Rhododendron, Calceolaria, &c.), and indeed in an
+extraordinary degree fertile (as in Crinum), and those species which
+never produce offspring, but which by certain effects (as the exsertion
+of the pollen-tube) evince their alliance. Hence, I conceive, we must
+give up sterility, although undoubtedly in a lesser or greater degree of
+very frequent occurrence, as an unfailing mark by which _species_ can be
+distinguished from _races_, _i.e._ from those forms which have descended
+from a common stock.
+
+
+_Infertility from causes distinct from hybridisation._
+
+Let us see whether there are any analogous facts which will throw any
+light on this subject, and will tend to explain why the offspring of
+certain species, when crossed, should be sterile, and not others,
+without requiring a distinct law connected with their creation to that
+effect. Great numbers, probably a large majority of animals when caught
+by man and removed from their natural conditions, although taken very
+young, rendered quite tame, living to a good old age, and apparently
+quite healthy, seem incapable under these circumstances of
+breeding{248}. I do not refer to animals kept in menageries, such as at
+the Zoological Gardens, many of which, however, appear healthy and live
+long and unite but do not produce; but to animals caught and left partly
+at liberty in their native country. Rengger{249} enumerates several
+caught young and rendered tame, which he kept in Paraguay, and which
+would not breed: the hunting leopard or cheetah and elephant offer other
+instances; as do bears in Europe, and the 25 species of hawks, belonging
+to different genera, thousands of which have been kept for hawking and
+have lived for long periods in perfect vigour. When the expense and
+trouble of procuring a succession of young animals in a wild state be
+borne in mind, one may feel sure that no trouble has been spared in
+endeavours to make them breed. So clearly marked is this difference in
+different kinds of animals, when captured by man, that St Hilaire makes
+two great classes of animals useful to man:--the _tame_, which will not
+breed, and the _domestic_ which will breed in domestication. From
+certain singular facts we might have supposed that the non-breeding of
+animals was owing to some perversion of instinct. But we meet with
+exactly the same class of facts in plants: I do not refer to the large
+number of cases where the climate does not permit the seed or fruit to
+ripen, but where the flowers do not "set," owing to some imperfection of
+the ovule or pollen. The latter, which alone can be distinctly examined,
+is often manifestly imperfect, as any one with a microscope can observe
+by comparing the pollen of the Persian and Chinese lilacs{250} with the
+common lilac; the two former species (I may add) are equally sterile in
+Italy as in this country. Many of the American bog plants here produce
+little or no pollen, whilst the Indian species of the same genera freely
+produce it. Lindley observes that sterility is the bane of the
+horticulturist{251}: Linnaeus has remarked on the sterility of nearly all
+alpine flowers when cultivated in a lowland district{252}. Perhaps the
+immense class of double flowers chiefly owe their structure to an excess
+of food acting on parts rendered slightly sterile and less capable of
+performing their true function, and therefore liable to be rendered
+monstrous, which monstrosity, like any other disease, is inherited and
+rendered common. So far from domestication being in itself unfavourable
+to fertility, it is well known that when an organism is once capable of
+submission to such conditions <its> fertility is increased{253} beyond the
+natural limit. According to agriculturists, slight changes of
+conditions, that is of food or habitation, and likewise crosses with
+races slightly different, increase the vigour and probably the fertility
+of their offspring. It would appear also that even a great change of
+condition, for instance, transportal from temperate countries to India,
+in many cases does not in the least affect fertility, although it does
+health and length of life and the period of maturity. When sterility is
+induced by domestication it is of the same kind, and varies in degree,
+exactly as with hybrids: for be it remembered that the most sterile
+hybrid is no way monstrous; its organs are perfect, but they do not act,
+and minute microscopical investigations show that they are in the same
+state as those of pure species in the intervals of the breeding season.
+The defective pollen in the cases above alluded to precisely resembles
+that of hybrids. The occasional breeding of hybrids, as of the common
+mule, may be aptly compared to the most rare but occasional reproduction
+of elephants in captivity. The cause of many exotic Geraniums producing
+(although in vigorous health) imperfect pollen seems to be connected
+with the period when water is given them{254}; but in the far greater
+majority of cases we cannot form any conjecture on what exact cause the
+sterility of organisms taken from their natural conditions depends. Why,
+for instance, the cheetah will not breed whilst the common cat and
+ferret (the latter generally kept shut up in a small box) do,--why the
+elephant will not whilst the pig will abundantly--why the partridge and
+grouse in their own country will not, whilst several species of
+pheasants, the guinea-fowl from the deserts of Africa and the peacock
+from the jungles of India, will. We must, however, feel convinced that
+it depends on some constitutional peculiarities in these beings not
+suited to their new condition; though not necessarily causing an ill
+state of health. Ought we then to wonder much that those hybrids which
+have been produced by the crossing of species with different
+constitutional tendencies (which tendencies we know to be eminently
+inheritable) should be sterile: it does not seem improbable that the
+cross from an alpine and lowland plant should have its constitutional
+powers deranged, in nearly the same manner as when the parent alpine
+plant is brought into a lowland district. Analogy, however, is a
+deceitful guide, and it would be rash to affirm, although it may appear
+probable, that the sterility of hybrids is due to the constitutional
+peculiarities of one parent being disturbed by being blended with those
+of the other parent in exactly the same manner as it is caused in some
+organic beings when placed by man out of their natural conditions{255}.
+Although this would be rash, it would, I think, be still rasher, seeing
+that sterility is no more incidental to _all_ cross-bred productions
+than it is to all organic beings when captured by man, to assert that
+the sterility of certain hybrids proved a distinct creation of their
+parents.
+
+     {248} <Note in original.> Animals seem more often made sterile by
+     being taken out of their native condition than plants, and so are
+     more sterile when crossed.
+
+     We have one broad fact that sterility in hybrids is not closely
+     related to external difference, and these are what man alone gets
+     by selection.
+
+     {249} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 132; for the case
+     of the cheetah see _loc cit._ p. 133.
+
+     {250} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 148.
+
+     {251} Quoted in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 9.
+
+     {252} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 147.
+
+     {253} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 89.
+
+     {254} See _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. II. p. 147.
+
+     {255} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 267, vi. p. 392. This is the principle
+     experimentally investigated in the author's _Cross-and
+     Self-Fertilisation_.
+
+But it may be objected{256} (however little the sterility of certain
+hybrids is connected with the distinct creations of species), how comes
+it, if species are only races produced by natural selection, that when
+crossed they so frequently produce sterile offspring, whereas in the
+offspring of those races confessedly produced by the arts of man there
+is no one instance of sterility. There is not much difficulty in this,
+for the races produced by the natural means above explained will be
+slowly but steadily selected; will be adapted to various and diverse
+conditions, and to these conditions they will be rigidly confined for
+immense periods of time; hence we may suppose that they would acquire
+different constitutional peculiarities adapted to the stations they
+occupy; and on the constitutional differences between species their
+sterility, according to the best authorities, depends. On the other hand
+man selects by external appearance{257}; from his ignorance, and from
+not having any test at least comparable in delicacy to the natural
+struggle for food, continued at intervals through the life of each
+individual, he cannot eliminate fine shades of constitution, dependent
+on invisible differences in the fluids or solids of the body; again,
+from the value which he attaches to each individual, he asserts his
+utmost power in contravening the natural tendency of the most vigorous
+to survive. Man, moreover, especially in the earlier ages, cannot have
+kept his conditions of life constant, and in later ages his stock pure.
+Until man selects two varieties from the same stock, adapted to two
+climates or to other different external conditions, and confines each
+rigidly for one or several thousand years to such conditions, always
+selecting the individuals best adapted to them, he cannot be said to
+have even commenced the experiment. Moreover, the organic beings which
+man has longest had under domestication have been those which were of
+the greatest use to him, and one chief element of their usefulness,
+especially in the earlier ages, must have been their capacity to undergo
+sudden transportals into various climates, and at the same time to
+retain their fertility, which in itself implies that in such respects
+their constitutional peculiarities were not closely limited. If the
+opinion already mentioned be correct, that most of the domestic animals
+in their present state have descended from the fertile commixture of
+wild races or species, we have indeed little reason now to expect
+infertility between any cross of stock thus descended.
+
+     {256} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 268, vi. p. 398.
+
+     {257} <Notes in original.> Mere difference of structure no guide to
+     what will or will not cross. First step gained by races keeping
+     apart. <It is not clear where these notes were meant to go.>
+
+It is worthy of remark, that as many organic beings, when taken by man
+out of their natural conditions, have their reproductive system <so>
+affected as to be incapable of propagation, so, we saw in the first
+chapter, that although organic beings when taken by man do propagate
+freely, their offspring after some generations vary or sport to a degree
+which can only be explained by their reproductive system being <in> some way
+affected. Again, when species cross, their offspring are generally
+sterile; but it was found by Koelreuter that when hybrids are capable of
+breeding with either parent, or with other species, that their
+offspring are subject after some generations to excessive
+variation{258}. Agriculturists, also, affirm that the offspring from
+mongrels, after the first generation, vary much. Hence we see that both
+sterility and variation in the succeeding generations are consequent
+both on the removal of individual species from their natural states and
+on species crossing. The connection between these facts may be
+accidental, but they certainly appear to elucidate and support each
+other,--on the principle of the reproductive system of all organic
+beings being eminently sensitive to any disturbance, whether from
+removal or commixture, in their constitutional relations to the
+conditions to which they are exposed.
+
+     {258} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 272, vi. p. 404.
+
+
+_Points of Resemblance between "Races" and "Species{259}."_
+
+     {259} This section seems not to correspond closely with any in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i.; in some points it resembles pp. 15, 16, also the
+     section on analogous variation in distinct species, _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 159, vi. p. 194.
+
+Races and reputed species agree in some respects, although differing
+from causes which, we have seen, we can in some degree understand, in
+the fertility and "trueness" of their offspring. In the first place,
+there is no clear sign by which to distinguish races from species, as is
+evident from the great difficulty experienced by naturalists in
+attempting to discriminate them. As far as external characters are
+concerned, many of the races which are descended from the same stock
+differ far more than true species of the same genus; look at the
+willow-wrens, some of which skilful ornithologists can hardly
+distinguish from each other except by their nests; look at the wild
+swans, and compare the distinct species of these genera with the races
+of domestic ducks, poultry, and pigeons; and so again with plants,
+compare the cabbages, almonds, peaches and nectarines, &c. with the
+species of many genera. St Hilaire has even remarked that there is a
+greater difference in size between races, as in dogs (for he believes
+all have descended from one stock), than between the species of any one
+genus; nor is this surprising, considering that amount of food and
+consequently of growth is the element of change over which man has most
+power. I may refer to a former statement, that breeders believe the
+growth of one part or strong action of one function causes a decrease in
+other parts; for this seems in some degree analogous to the law of
+"organic compensation{260}," which many naturalists believe holds good.
+To give an instance of this law of compensation,--those species of
+Carnivora which have the canine teeth greatly developed have certain
+molar teeth deficient; or again, in that division of the Crustaceans in
+which the tail is much developed, the thorax is little so, and the
+converse. The points of difference between different races is often
+strikingly analogous to that between species of the same genus: trifling
+spots or marks of colour{261} (as the bars on pigeons' wings) are often
+preserved in races of plants and animals, precisely in the same manner
+as similar trifling characters often pervade all the species of a genus,
+and even of a family. Flowers in varying their colours often become
+veined and spotted and the leaves become divided like true species: it
+is known that the varieties of the same plant never have red, blue and
+yellow flowers, though the hyacinth makes a very near approach to an
+exception{262}; and different species of the same genus seldom, though
+sometimes they have flowers of these three colours. Dun-coloured horses
+having a dark stripe down their backs, and certain domestic asses having
+transverse bars on their legs, afford striking examples of a variation
+analogous in character to the distinctive marks of other species of the
+same genus.
+
+     {260} The law of compensation is discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 147, vi. p. 182.
+
+     {261} <Note in original.> Boitard and Corbie on outer edging red in
+     tail of bird,--so bars on wing, white or black or brown, or white
+     edged with black or <illegible>: analogous to marks running through
+     genera but with different colours. Tail coloured in pigeons.
+
+     {262} <Note in original.> Oxalis and Gentian. <In Gentians blue,
+     yellow and reddish colours occur. In Oxalis yellow, purple, violet
+     and pink.>
+
+
+_External characters of Hybrids and Mongrels._
+
+There is, however, as it appears to me, a more important method of
+comparison between species and races, namely the character of the
+offspring{263} when species are crossed and when races are crossed: I
+believe, in no one respect, except in sterility, is there any
+difference. It would, I think, be a marvellous fact, if species have
+been formed by distinct acts of creation, that they should act upon each
+other in uniting, like races descended from a common stock. In the first
+place, by repeated crossing one species can absorb and wholly obliterate
+the characters of another, or of several other species, in the same
+manner as one race will absorb by crossing another race. Marvellous,
+that one act of creation should absorb another or even several acts of
+creation! The offspring of species, that is hybrids, and the offspring
+of races, that is mongrels, resemble each other in being either
+intermediate in character (as is most frequent in hybrids) or in
+resembling sometimes closely one and sometimes the other parent; in both
+the offspring produced by the same act of conception sometimes differ in
+their degree of resemblance; both hybrids and mongrels sometimes retain
+a certain part or organ very like that of either parent, both, as we
+have seen, become in succeeding generations variable; and this tendency
+to vary can be transmitted by both; in both for many generations there
+is a strong tendency to reversion to their ancestral form. In the case
+of a hybrid laburnum and of a supposed mongrel vine different parts of
+the same plants took after each of their two parents. In the hybrids
+from some species, and in the mongrel of some races, the offspring
+differ according as which of the two species, or of the two races, is
+the father (as in the common mule and hinny) and which the mother. Some
+races will breed together, which differ so greatly in size, that the dam
+often perishes in labour; so it is with some species when crossed; when
+the dam of one species has borne offspring to the male of another
+species, her succeeding offspring are sometimes stained (as in Lord
+Morton's mare by the quagga, wonderful as the fact{264} is) by this
+first cross; so agriculturists positively affirm is the case when a pig
+or sheep of one breed has produced offspring by the sire of another
+breed.
+
+     {263} This section corresponds roughly to that on _Hybrids and
+     Mongrels compared independently of their fertility_, _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 272, vi. p. 403. The discussion on Gaertner's views, given in
+     the _Origin_, is here wanting. The brief mention of prepotency is
+     common to them both.
+
+     {264} See _Animals and Plants_, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 435. The
+     phenomenon of _Telegony_, supposed to be established by this and
+     similar cases, is now generally discredited in consequence of
+     Ewart's experiments.
+
+
+_Summary of second chapter_{265}.
+
+     {265} The section on p. 109 is an appendix to the summary.
+
+Let us sum up this second chapter. If slight variations do occur in
+organic beings in a state of nature; if changes of condition from
+geological causes do produce in the course of ages effects analogous to
+those of domestication on any, however few, organisms; and how can we
+doubt it,--from what is actually known, and from what may be presumed,
+since thousands of organisms taken by man for sundry uses, and placed
+in new conditions, have varied. If such variations tend to be
+hereditary; and how can we doubt it,--when we see shades of expression,
+peculiar manners, monstrosities of the strangest kinds, diseases, and a
+multitude of other peculiarities, which characterise and form, being
+inherited, the endless races (there are 1200 kinds of cabbages{266}) of
+our domestic plants and animals. If we admit that every organism
+maintains its place by an almost periodically recurrent struggle; and
+how can we doubt it,--when we know that all beings tend to increase in a
+geometrical ratio (as is instantly seen when the conditions become for a
+time more favourable); whereas on an average the amount of food must
+remain constant, if so, there will be a natural means of selection,
+tending to preserve those individuals with any slight deviations of
+structure more favourable to the then existing conditions, and tending
+to destroy any with deviations of an opposite nature. If the above
+propositions be correct, and there be no law of nature limiting the
+possible amount of variation, new races of beings will,--perhaps only
+rarely, and only in some few districts,--be formed.
+
+     {266} I do not know the authority for this statement.
+
+
+_Limits of Variation._
+
+That a limit to variation does exist in nature is assumed by most
+authors, though I am unable to discover a single fact on which this
+belief is grounded{267}. One of the commonest statements is that plants
+do not become acclimatised; and I have even observed that kinds not
+raised by seed, but propagated by cuttings, &c., are instanced. A good
+instance has, however, been advanced in the case of kidney beans, which
+it is believed are now as tender as when first introduced. Even if we
+overlook the frequent introduction of seed from warmer countries, let me
+observe that as long as the seeds are gathered promiscuously from the
+bed, without continual observation and _careful_ selection of those
+plants which have stood the climate best during their whole growth, the
+experiment of acclimatisation has hardly been begun. Are not all those
+plants and animals, of which we have the greatest number of races, the
+oldest domesticated? Considering the quite recent progress{268} of
+systematic agriculture and horticulture, is it not opposed to every
+fact, that we have exhausted the capacity of variation in our cattle and
+in our corn,--even if we have done so in some trivial points, as their
+fatness or kind of wool? Will any one say, that if horticulture
+continues to flourish during the next few centuries, that we shall not
+have numerous new kinds of the potato and Dahlia? But take two varieties
+of each of these plants, and adapt them to certain fixed conditions and
+prevent any cross for 5000 years, and then again vary their conditions;
+try many climates and situations; and who{269} will predict the number
+and degrees of difference which might arise from these stocks? I repeat
+that we know nothing of any limit to the possible amount of variation,
+and therefore to the number and differences of the races, which might be
+produced by the natural means of selection, so infinitely more efficient
+than the agency of man. Races thus produced would probably be very
+"true"; and if from having been adapted to different conditions of
+existence, they possessed different constitutions, if suddenly removed
+to some new station, they would perhaps be sterile and their offspring
+would perhaps be infertile. Such races would be undistinguishable from
+species. But is there any evidence that the species, which surround us
+on all sides, have been thus produced? This is a question which an
+examination of the economy of nature we might expect would answer either
+in the affirmative or negative{270}.
+
+     {267} In the _Origin_ no limit is placed to variation as far as I
+     know.
+
+     {268} <Note in original.> History of pigeons shows increase of
+     peculiarities during last years.
+
+     {269} Compare an obscure passage in the Essay of 1842, p. 14.
+
+     {270} <Note in original.> Certainly <two pages in the MS.> ought to
+     be here introduced, viz., difficulty in forming such organ, as eye,
+     by selection. <In the _Origin_, Ed. i., a chapter on _Difficulties
+     on Theory_ follows that on _Laws of Variation_, and precedes that
+     on _Instinct_: this was also the arrangement in the Essay of 1842;
+     whereas in the present Essay _Instinct_ follows _Variation_ and
+     precedes _Difficulties_.>
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ON THE VARIATION OF INSTINCTS AND OTHER MENTAL ATTRIBUTES UNDER
+DOMESTICATION AND IN STATE OF NATURE; ON THE DIFFICULTIES IN THIS
+SUBJECT; AND ON ANALOGOUS DIFFICULTIES WITH RESPECT TO CORPOREAL
+STRUCTURES
+
+
+_Variation of mental attributes under domestication._
+
+I have as yet only alluded to the mental qualities which differ greatly
+in different species. Let me here premise that, as will be seen in the
+Second Part, there is no evidence and consequently no attempt to show
+that _all_ existing organisms have descended from any one common
+parent-stock, but that only those have so descended which, in the
+language of naturalists, are clearly related to each other. Hence the
+facts and reasoning advanced in this chapter do not apply to the first
+origin of the senses{271}, or of the chief mental attributes, such as of
+memory, attention, reasoning, &c., &c., by which most or all of the
+great related groups are characterised, any more than they apply to the
+first origin of life, or growth, or the power of reproduction. The
+application of such facts as I have collected is merely to the
+differences of the primary mental qualities and of the instincts in the
+species{272} of the several great groups. In domestic animals every
+observer has remarked in how great a degree, in the individuals of the
+same species, the dispositions, namely courage, pertinacity, suspicion,
+restlessness, confidence, temper, pugnaciousness, affection, care of
+their young, sagacity, &c., &c., vary. It would require a most able
+metaphysician to explain how many primary qualities of the mind must be
+changed to cause these diversities of complex dispositions. From these
+dispositions being inherited, of which the testimony is unanimous,
+families and breeds arise, varying in these respects. I may instance the
+good and ill temper of different stocks of bees and of horses,--the
+pugnacity and courage of game fowls,--the pertinacity of certain dogs,
+as bull-dogs, and the sagacity of others,--for restlessness and
+suspicion compare a wild rabbit reared with the greatest care from its
+earliest age with the extreme tameness of the domestic breed of the same
+animal. The offspring of the domestic dogs which have run wild in
+Cuba{273}, though caught quite young, are most difficult to tame,
+probably nearly as much so as the original parent-stock from which the
+domestic dog descended. The habitual "_periods_" of different families
+of the same species differ, for instance, in the time of year of
+reproduction, and the period of life when the capacity is acquired, and
+the hour of roosting (in Malay fowls), &c., &c. These periodical habits
+are perhaps essentially corporeal, and may be compared to nearly similar
+habits in plants, which are known to vary extremely. Consensual
+movements (as called by Mueller) vary and are inherited,--such as the
+cantering and ambling paces in horses, the tumbling of pigeons, and
+perhaps the handwriting, which is sometimes so similar between father
+and sons, may be ranked in this class. _Manners_, and even tricks which
+perhaps are only _peculiar_ manners, according to W. Hunter and my
+father, are distinctly inherited in cases where children have lost their
+parent in early infancy. The inheritance of expression, which often
+reveals the finest shades of character, is familiar to everyone.
+
+     {271} A similar proviso occurs in the chapter on instinct in
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p. 319.
+
+     {272} The discussion occurs later in Chapter VII of the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. than in the present Essay, where moreover it is fuller in
+     some respects.
+
+     {273} In the margin occurs the name of Poeppig. In _Var. under
+     Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 28, the reference to Poeppig on the Cuban
+     dogs contains no mention of the wildness of their offspring.
+
+Again the tastes and pleasures of different breeds vary, thus the
+shepherd-dog delights in chasing the sheep, but has no wish to kill
+them,--the terrier (see Knight) delights in killing vermin, and the
+spaniel in finding game. But it is impossible to separate their mental
+peculiarities in the way I have done: the tumbling of pigeons, which I
+have instanced as a consensual movement, might be called a trick and is
+associated with a taste for flying in a close flock at a great height.
+Certain breeds of fowls have a taste for roosting in trees. The
+different actions of pointers and setters might have been adduced in the
+same class, as might the peculiar _manner_ of hunting of the spaniel.
+Even in the same breed of dogs, namely in fox-hounds, it is the fixed
+opinion of those best able to judge that the different pups are born
+with different tendencies; some are best to find their fox in the cover;
+some are apt to run straggling, some are best to make casts and to
+recover the lost scent, &c.; and that these peculiarities undoubtedly
+are transmitted to their progeny. Or again the tendency to point might
+be adduced as a distinct habit which has become inherited,--as might the
+tendency of a true sheep dog (as I have been assured is the case) to run
+round the flock instead of directly at them, as is the case with other
+young dogs when attempted to be taught. The "transandantes" sheep{274}
+in Spain, which for some centuries have been yearly taken a journey of
+several hundred miles from one province to another, know when the time
+comes, and show the greatest restlessness (like migratory birds in
+confinement), and are prevented with difficulty from starting by
+themselves, which they sometimes do, and find their own way. There is a
+case on good evidence{275} of a sheep which, when she lambed, would
+return across a mountainous country to her own birth-place, although at
+other times of year not of a rambling disposition. Her lambs inherited
+this same disposition, and would go to produce their young on the farm
+whence their parent came; and so troublesome was this habit that the
+whole family was destroyed.
+
+     {274} <Note in original.> Several authors.
+
+     {275} In the margin "Hogg" occurs as authority for this fact. For
+     the reference, see p. 17, note 4.
+
+These facts must lead to the conviction, justly wonderful as it is, that
+almost infinitely numerous shades of disposition, of tastes, of peculiar
+movements, and even of individual actions, can be modified or acquired
+by one individual and transmitted to its offspring. One is forced to
+admit that mental phenomena (no doubt through their intimate connection
+with the brain) can be inherited, like infinitely numerous and fine
+differences of corporeal structure. In the same manner as peculiarities
+of corporeal structure slowly acquired or lost during mature life
+(especially cognisant <?> in disease), as well as congenital peculiarities,
+are transmitted; so it appears to be with the mind. The inherited paces
+in the horse have no doubt been acquired by compulsion during the lives
+of the parents: and temper and tameness may be modified in a breed by
+the treatment which the individuals receive. Knowing that a pig has been
+taught to point, one would suppose that this quality in pointer-dogs was
+the simple result of habit, but some facts, with respect to the
+occasional appearance of a similar quality in other dogs, would make one
+suspect that it originally appeared in a less perfect degree, "_by
+chance_," that is from a congenital tendency{276} in the parent of the
+breed of pointers. One cannot believe that the tumbling, and high flight
+in a compact body, of one breed of pigeons has been taught; and in the
+case of the slight differences in the manner of hunting in young
+fox-hounds, they are doubtless congenital. The inheritance of the
+foregoing and similar mental phenomena ought perhaps to create less
+surprise, from the reflection that in no case do individual acts of
+reasoning, or movements, or other phenomena connected with
+consciousness, appear to be transmitted. An action, even a very
+complicated one, when from long practice it is performed unconsciously
+without any effort (and indeed in the case of many peculiarities of
+manners opposed to the will) is said, according to a common expression,
+to be performed "instinctively." Those cases of languages, and of songs,
+learnt in early childhood and _quite_ forgotten, being _perfectly_
+repeated during the unconsciousness of illness, appear to me only a few
+degrees less wonderful than if they had been transmitted to a second
+generation{277}.
+
+     {276} In the _Origin_, Ed. i., he speaks more decidedly against the
+     belief that instincts are hereditary habits, see for instance pp.
+     209, 214, Ed. vi. pp. 321, 327. He allows, however, something to
+     habit (p. 216).
+
+     {277} A suggestion of Hering's and S. Butler's views on memory and
+     inheritance. It is not, however, implied that Darwin was inclined
+     to accept these opinions.
+
+
+_Hereditary habits compared with instincts._
+
+The chief characteristics of true instincts appear to be their
+invariability and non-improvement during the mature age of the
+individual animal: the absence of knowledge of the end, for which the
+action is performed, being associated, however, sometimes with a degree
+of reason; being subject to mistakes and being associated with certain
+states of the body or times of the year or day. In most of these
+respects there is a resemblance in the above detailed cases of the
+mental qualities acquired or modified during domestication. No doubt the
+instincts of wild animals are more uniform than those habits or
+qualities modified or recently acquired under domestication, in the same
+manner and from the same causes that the corporeal structure in this
+state is less uniform than in beings in their natural conditions. I have
+seen a young pointer point as fixedly, the first day it was taken out,
+as any old dog; Magendie says this was the case with a retriever which
+he himself reared: the tumbling of pigeons is not probably improved by
+age: we have seen that in the case above given that the young sheep
+inherited the migratory tendency to their particular birth-place the
+first time they lambed. This last fact offers an instance of a domestic
+instinct being associated with a state of body; as do the
+"transandantes" sheep with a time of year. Ordinarily the acquired
+instincts of domestic animals seem to require a certain degree of
+education (as generally in pointers and retrievers) to be perfectly
+developed: perhaps this holds good amongst wild animals in rather a
+greater degree than is generally supposed; for instance, in the singing
+of birds, and in the knowledge of proper herbs in Ruminants. It seems
+pretty clear that bees transmit knowledge from generation to generation.
+Lord Brougham{278} insists strongly on ignorance of the end proposed
+being eminently characteristic of true instincts; and this appears to me
+to apply to many acquired hereditary habits; for instance, in the case
+of the young pointer alluded to before, which pointed so steadfastly the
+first day that we were obliged several times to carry him away{279}.
+This puppy not only pointed at sheep, at large white stones, and at
+every little bird, but likewise "backed" the other pointers: this young
+dog must have been as unconscious for what end he was pointing, namely
+to facilitate his master's killing game to eat, as is a butterfly which
+lays her eggs on a cabbage, that her caterpillars would eat the leaves.
+So a horse that ambles instinctively, manifestly is ignorant that he
+performs that peculiar pace for the ease of man; and if man had never
+existed, he would never have ambled. The young pointer pointing at white
+stones appears to be as much a mistake of its acquired instinct, as in
+the case of flesh-flies laying their eggs on certain flowers instead of
+putrifying meat. However true the ignorance of the end may generally be,
+one sees that instincts are associated with some degree of reason; for
+instance, in the case of the tailor-bird, who spins threads with which
+to make her nest <yet> will use artificial threads when she can procure
+them{280}; so it has been known that an old pointer has broken his point
+and gone round a hedge to drive out a bird towards his master{281}.
+
+     {278} Lord Brougham's _Dissertations on Subjects of Science_, etc.,
+     1839, p. 27.
+
+     {279} This case is more briefly given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     213, vi. p. 326. The simile of the butterfly occurs there also.
+
+     {280} "A little dose, as Pierre Huber expresses it, of judgment or
+     reason, often comes into play." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 208, vi. p.
+     320.
+
+     {281} In the margin is written "Retriever killing one bird." This
+     refers to the cases given in the _Descent of Man_, 2nd Ed. (in 1
+     vol.) p. 78, of a retriever being puzzled how to deal with a
+     wounded and a dead bird, killed the former and carried both at
+     once. This was the only known instance of her wilfully injuring
+     game.
+
+There is one other quite distinct method by which the instincts or
+habits acquired under domestication may be compared with those given by
+nature, by a test of a fundamental kind; I mean the comparison of the
+mental powers of mongrels and hybrids. Now the instincts, or habits,
+tastes, and dispositions of one _breed_ of animals, when crossed with
+another breed, for instance a shepherd-dog with a harrier, are blended
+and appear in the same curiously mixed degree, both in the first and
+succeeding generations, exactly as happens when one _species_ is crossed
+with another{282}. This would hardly be the case if there was any
+fundamental difference between the domestic and natural instinct{283};
+if the former were, to use a metaphorical expression, merely
+superficial.
+
+     {282} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 214, vi. p. 327.
+
+     {283} <Note in original.> Give some definition of instinct, or at
+     least give chief attributes. <In _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 207, vi. p.
+     319, Darwin refuses to define instinct.> The term instinct is often
+     used in <a> sense which implies no more than that the animal does
+     the action in question. Faculties and instincts may I think be
+     imperfectly separated. The mole has the faculty of scratching
+     burrows, and the instinct to apply it. The bird of passage has the
+     faculty of finding its way and the instinct to put it in action at
+     certain periods. It can hardly be said to have the faculty of
+     knowing the time, for it can possess no means, without indeed it be
+     some consciousness of passing sensations. Think over all habitual
+     actions and see whether faculties and instincts can be separated.
+     We have faculty of waking in the night, if an instinct prompted us
+     to do something at certain hour of night or day. Savages finding
+     their way. Wrangel's account--probably a faculty inexplicable by
+     the possessor. There are besides faculties "_means_," as conversion
+     of larvae into neuters and queens. I think all this generally
+     implied, anyhow useful. <This discussion, which does not occur in
+     the _Origin_, is a first draft of that which follows in the text,
+     p. 123.>
+
+
+_Variation in the mental attributes of wild animals._
+
+With respect to the variation{284} of the mental powers of animals in a
+wild state, we know that there is a considerable difference in the
+disposition of different individuals of the same species, as is
+recognised by all those who have had the charge of animals in a
+menagerie. With respect to the wildness of animals, that is fear
+directed particularly against man, which appears to be as true an
+instinct as the dread of a young mouse of a cat, we have excellent
+evidence that it is slowly acquired and becomes hereditary. It is also
+certain that, in a natural state, individuals of the same species lose
+or do not practice their migratory instincts--as woodcocks in Madeira.
+With respect to any variation in the more complicated instincts, it is
+obviously most difficult to detect, even more so than in the case of
+corporeal structure, of which it has been admitted the variation is
+exceedingly small, and perhaps scarcely any in the majority of species
+at any one period. Yet, to take one excellent case of instinct, namely
+the nests of birds, those who have paid most attention to the subject
+maintain that not only certain individuals <? species> seem to be able
+to build very imperfectly, but that a difference in skill may not
+unfrequently be detected between individuals{285}. Certain birds,
+moreover, adapt their nests to circumstances; the water-ouzel makes no
+vault when she builds under cover of a rock--the sparrow builds very
+differently when its nest is in a tree or in a hole, and the
+golden-crested wren sometimes suspends its nest below and sometimes
+places it _on_ the branches of trees.
+
+     {284} A short discussion of a similar kind occurs in the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 211, vi. p. 324.
+
+     {285} This sentence agrees with the MS., but is clearly in need of
+     correction.
+
+
+_Principles of Selection applicable to instincts._
+
+As the instincts of a species are fully as important to its preservation
+and multiplication as its corporeal structure, it is evident that if
+there be the slightest congenital differences in the instincts and
+habits, or if certain individuals during their lives are induced or
+compelled to vary their habits, and if such differences are in the
+smallest degree more favourable, under slightly modified external
+conditions, to their preservation, such individuals must in the long run
+have a better _chance_ of being preserved and of multiplying{286}. If
+this be admitted, a series of small changes may, as in the case of
+corporeal structure, work great changes in the mental powers, habits and
+instincts of any species.
+
+     {286} This corresponds to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 212, vi. p. 325.
+
+
+_Difficulties in the acquirement of complex instincts by Selection._
+
+Every one will at first be inclined to explain (as I did for a long
+time) that many of the more complicated and wonderful instincts could
+not be acquired in the manner here supposed{287}. The Second Part of
+this work is devoted to the general consideration of how far the general
+economy of nature justifies or opposes the belief that related species
+and genera are descended from common stocks; but we may here consider
+whether the instincts of animals offer such a _prima facie_ case of
+impossibility of gradual acquirement, as to justify the rejection of any
+such theory, however strongly it may be supported by other facts. I beg
+to repeat that I wish here to consider not the _probability_ but the
+_possibility_ of complicated instincts having been acquired by the slow
+and long-continued selection of very slight (either congenital or
+produced by habit) modifications of foregoing simpler instincts; each
+modification being as useful and necessary, to the species practising
+it, as the most complicated kind.
+
+     {287} This discussion is interesting in differing from the
+     corresponding section of the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 216, vi. p. 330,
+     to the end of the chapter. In the present Essay the subjects dealt
+     with are nest-making instincts, including the egg-hatching habit of
+     the Australian bush-turkey. The power of "shamming death."
+     "Faculty" in relation to instinct. The instinct of lapse of time,
+     and of direction. Bees' cells very briefly given. Birds feeding
+     their young on food differing from their own natural food. In the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i., the cases discussed are the instinct of laying
+     eggs in other birds' nests; the slave-making instinct in ants; the
+     construction of the bee's comb, very fully discussed.
+
+First, to take the case of birds'-nests; of existing species (almost
+infinitely few in comparison with the multitude which must have existed,
+since the period of the new Red Sandstone of N. America, of whose habits
+we must always remain ignorant) a tolerably perfect series could be made
+from eggs laid on the bare ground, to others with a few sticks just
+laid round them, to a simple nest like the wood-pigeons, to others more
+and more complicated: now if, as is asserted, there occasionally exist
+slight differences in the building powers of an individual, and if,
+which is at least probable, that such differences would tend to be
+inherited, then we can see that it is at least _possible_ that the
+nidificatory instincts may have been acquired by the gradual selection,
+during thousands and thousands of generations, of the eggs and young of
+those individuals, whose nests were in some degree better adapted to the
+preservation of their young, under the then existing conditions. One of
+the most surprising instincts on record is that of the Australian
+bush-turkey, whose eggs are hatched by the heat generated from a huge
+pile of fermenting materials, which it heaps together; but here the
+habits of an allied species show how this instinct _might possibly_ have
+been acquired. This second species inhabits a tropical district, where
+the heat of the sun is sufficient to hatch its eggs; this bird, burying
+its eggs, apparently for concealment, under a lesser heap of rubbish,
+but of a dry nature, so as not to ferment. Now suppose this bird to
+range slowly into a climate which was cooler, and where leaves were more
+abundant, in that case, those individuals, which chanced to have their
+collecting instinct strongest developed, would make a somewhat larger
+pile, and the eggs, aided during some colder season, under the slightly
+cooler climate by the heat of incipient fermentation, would in the long
+run be more freely hatched and would probably produce young ones with
+the same more highly developed collecting tendencies; of these again,
+those with the best developed powers would again tend to rear most
+young. Thus this strange instinct might _possibly_ be acquired, every
+individual bird being as ignorant of the laws of fermentation, and the
+consequent development of heat, as we know they must be.
+
+Secondly, to take the case of animals feigning death (as it is commonly
+expressed) to escape danger. In the case of insects, a perfect series
+can be shown, from some insects, which momentarily stand still, to
+others which for a second slightly contract their legs, to others which
+will remain immovably drawn together for a quarter of an hour, and may
+be torn asunder or roasted at a slow fire, without evincing the smallest
+sign of sensation. No one will doubt that the length of time, during
+which each remains immovable, is well adapted to <favour the insect's>
+escape <from> the dangers to which it is most exposed, and few will deny
+the _possibility_ of the change from one degree to another, by the means
+and at the rate already explained. Thinking it, however, wonderful
+(though not impossible) that the attitude of death should have been
+acquired by methods which imply no imitation, I compared several
+species, when feigning, as is said, death, with others of the same
+species really dead, and their attitudes were in no one case the same.
+
+Thirdly, in considering many instincts it is useful to _endeavour_ to
+separate the faculty{288} by which they perform it, and the mental power
+which urges to the performance, which is more properly called an
+instinct. We have an instinct to eat, we have jaws &c. to give us the
+faculty to do so. These faculties are often unknown to us: bats, with
+their eyes destroyed, can avoid strings suspended across a room, we know
+not at present by what faculty they do this. Thus also, with migratory
+birds, it is a wonderful instinct which urges them at certain times of
+the year to direct their course in certain directions, but it is a
+faculty by which they know the time and find their way. With respect to
+time{289}, man without seeing the sun can judge to a certain extent of
+the hour, as must those cattle which come down from the inland mountains
+to feed on sea-weed left bare at the changing hour of low-water{290}. A
+hawk (D'Orbigny) seems certainly to have acquired a knowledge of a
+period of every 21 days. In the cases already given of the sheep which
+travelled to their birth-place to cast their lambs, and the sheep in
+Spain which know their time of march{291}, we may conjecture that the
+tendency to move is associated, we may then call it instinctively, with
+some corporeal sensations. With respect to direction we can easily
+conceive how a tendency to travel in a certain course may possibly have
+been acquired, although we must remain ignorant how birds are able to
+preserve any direction whatever in a dark night over the wide ocean. I
+may observe that the power of some savage races of mankind to find their
+way, although perhaps wholly different from the faculty of birds, is
+nearly as unintelligible to us. Bellinghausen, a skilful navigator,
+describes with the utmost wonder the manner in which some Esquimaux
+guided him to a certain point, by a course never straight, through newly
+formed hummocks of ice, on a thick foggy day, when he with a compass
+found it impossible, from having no landmarks, and from their course
+being so extremely crooked, to preserve any sort of uniform direction:
+so it is with Australian savages in thick forests. In North and South
+America many birds slowly travel northward and southward, urged on by
+the food they find, as the seasons change; let them continue to do this,
+till, as in the case of the sheep in Spain, it has become an urgent
+instinctive desire, and they will gradually accelerate their journey.
+They would cross narrow rivers, and if these were converted by
+subsidence into narrow estuaries, and gradually during centuries to arms
+of the sea, still we may suppose their restless desire of travelling
+onwards would impel them to cross such an arm, even if it had become of
+great width beyond their span of vision. How they are able to preserve a
+course in any direction, I have said, is a faculty unknown to us. To
+give another illustration of the means by which I conceive it _possible_
+that the direction of migrations have been determined. Elk and reindeer
+in N. America annually cross, as if they could marvellously smell or see
+at the distance of a hundred miles, a wide tract of absolute desert, to
+arrive at certain islands where there is a scanty supply of food; the
+changes of temperature, which geology proclaims, render it probable that
+this desert tract formerly supported some vegetation, and thus these
+quadrupeds might have been annually led on, till they reached the more
+fertile spots, and so acquired, like the sheep of Spain, their migratory
+powers.
+
+     {288} The distinction between _faculty_ and _instinct_ corresponds
+     in some degree to that between perception of a stimulus and a
+     specific reaction. I imagine that the author would have said that
+     the sensitiveness to light possessed by a plant is _faculty_, while
+     _instinct_ decides whether the plant curves to or from the source
+     of illumination.
+
+     {289} <Note in the original in an unknown handwriting.> At the time
+     when corn was pitched in the market instead of sold by sample, the
+     geese in the town fields of Newcastle <Staffordshire?> used to
+     know market day and come in to pick up the corn spilt.
+
+     {290} <Note in original.> Macculloch and others.
+
+     {291} I can find no reference to the _transandantes_ sheep in
+     Darwin's published work. He was possibly led to doubt the accuracy
+     of the statement on which he relied. For the case of the sheep
+     returning to their birth-place see p. 17, note 4.{Note 91}
+
+Fourthly, with respect to the combs of the hive-bee{292}; here again we
+must look to some faculty or means by which they make their hexagonal
+cells, without indeed we view these instincts as mere machines. At
+present such a faculty is quite unknown: Mr Waterhouse supposes that
+several bees are led by their instinct to excavate a mass of wax to a
+certain thinness, and that the result of this is that hexagons
+necessarily remain. Whether this or some other theory be true, some such
+means they must possess. They abound, however, with true instincts,
+which are the most wonderful that are known. If we examine the little
+that is known concerning the habits of other species of bees, we find
+much simpler instincts: the humble bee merely fills rude balls of wax
+with honey and aggregates them together with little order in a rough
+nest of grass. If we knew the instinct of all the bees, which ever had
+existed, it is not improbable that we should have instincts of every
+degree of complexity, from actions as simple as a bird making a nest,
+and rearing her young, to the wonderful architecture and government of
+the hive-bee; at least such is _possible_, which is all that I am here
+considering.
+
+     {292} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 224, vi. p. 342.
+
+Finally, I will briefly consider under the same point of view one other
+class of instincts, which have often been advanced as truly wonderful,
+namely parents bringing food to their young which they themselves
+neither like nor partake of{293};--for instance, the common sparrow, a
+granivorous bird, feeding its young with caterpillars. We might of
+course look into the case still earlier, and seek how an instinct in the
+parent, of feeding its young at all, was first derived; but it is
+useless to waste time in conjectures on a series of gradations from the
+young feeding themselves and being slightly and occasionally assisted in
+their search, to their entire food being brought to them. With respect
+to the parent bringing a different kind of food from its own kind, we
+may suppose either that the remote stock, whence the sparrow and other
+congenerous birds have descended, was insectivorous, and that its own
+habits and structure have been changed, whilst its ancient instincts
+with respect to its young have remained unchanged; or we may suppose
+that the parents have been induced to vary slightly the food of their
+young, by a slight scarcity of the proper kind (or by the instincts of
+some individuals not being so truly developed), and in this case those
+young which were most capable of surviving were necessarily most often
+preserved, and would themselves in time become parents, and would be
+similarly compelled to alter their food for their young. In the case of
+those animals, the young of which feed themselves, changes in their
+instincts for food, and in their structure, might be selected from
+slight variations, just as in mature animals. Again, where the food of
+the young depends on where the mother places her eggs, as in the case of
+the caterpillars of the cabbage-butterfly, we may suppose that the
+parent stock of the species deposited her eggs sometimes on one kind and
+sometimes on another of congenerous plants (as some species now do), and
+if the cabbage suited the caterpillars better than any other plant, the
+caterpillars of those butterflies, which had chosen the cabbage, would
+be most plentifully reared, and would produce butterflies more apt to
+lay their eggs on the cabbage than on the other congenerous plants.
+
+     {293} This is an expansion of an obscure passage in the Essay of
+     1842, p. 19.
+
+However vague and unphilosophical these conjectures may appear, they
+serve, I think, to show that one's first impulse utterly to reject any
+theory whatever, implying a gradual acquirement of these instincts,
+which for ages have excited man's admiration, may at least be delayed.
+Once grant that dispositions, tastes, actions or habits can be slightly
+modified, either by slight congenital differences (we must suppose in
+the brain) or by the force of external circumstances, and that such
+slight modifications can be rendered inheritable,--a proposition which
+no one can reject,--and it will be difficult to put any limit to the
+complexity and wonder of the tastes and habits which may _possibly_ be
+thus acquired.
+
+
+_Difficulties in the acquirement by Selection of complex corporeal
+structures._
+
+After the past discussion it will perhaps be convenient here to consider
+whether any particular corporeal organs, or the entire structure of any
+animals, are so wonderful as to justify the rejection _prima facie_ of
+our theory{294}. In the case of the eye, as with the more complicated
+instincts, no doubt one's first impulse is to utterly reject every such
+theory. But if the eye from its most complicated form can be shown to
+graduate into an exceedingly simple state,--if selection can produce the
+smallest change, and if such a series exists, then it is clear (for in
+this work we have nothing to do with the first origin of organs in their
+simplest forms{295}) that it may _possibly_ have been acquired by
+gradual selection of slight, but in each case, useful deviations{296}.
+Every naturalist, when he meets with any new and singular organ, always
+expects to find, and looks for, other and simpler modifications of it in
+other beings. In the case of the eye, we have a multitude of different
+forms, more or less simple, not graduating into each other, but
+separated by sudden gaps or intervals; but we must recollect how
+incomparably greater would the multitude of visual structures be if we
+had the eyes of every fossil which ever existed. We shall discuss the
+probable vast proportion of the extinct to the recent in the succeeding
+Part. Notwithstanding the large series of existing forms, it is most
+difficult even to conjecture by what intermediate stages very many
+simple organs could possibly have graduated into complex ones: but it
+should be here borne in mind, that a part having originally a wholly
+different function, may on the theory of gradual selection be slowly
+worked into quite another use; the gradations of forms, from which
+naturalists believe in the hypothetical metamorphosis of part of the ear
+into the swimming bladder in fishes{297}, and in insects of legs into
+jaws, show the manner in which this is possible. As under domestication,
+modifications of structure take place, without any continued selection,
+which man finds very useful, or valuable for curiosity (as the hooked
+calyx of the teazle, or the ruff round some pigeons' necks), so in a
+state of nature some small modifications, apparently beautifully adapted
+to certain ends, may perhaps be produced from the accidents of the
+reproductive system, and be at once propagated without long-continued
+selection of small deviations towards that structure{298}. In
+conjecturing by what stages any complicated organ in a species may have
+arrived at its present state, although we may look to the analogous
+organs in other existing species, we should do this merely to aid and
+guide our imaginations; for to know the real stages we must look only
+through one line of species, to one ancient stock, from which the
+species in question has descended. In considering the eye of a
+quadruped, for instance, though we may look at the eye of a molluscous
+animal or of an insect, as a proof how simple an organ will serve some
+of the ends of vision; and at the eye of a fish as a nearer guide of the
+manner of simplification; we must remember that it is a mere chance
+(assuming for a moment the truth of our theory) if any existing organic
+being has preserved any one organ, in exactly the same condition, as it
+existed in the ancient species at remote geological periods.
+
+     {294} The difficulties discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 171,
+     vi. p. 207, are the rarity of transitional varieties, the origin of
+     the tail of the giraffe; the otter-like polecat (_Mustela vison_);
+     the flying habit of the bat; the penguin and the logger-headed
+     duck; flying fish; the whale-like habit of the bear; the
+     woodpecker; diving petrels; the eye; the swimming bladder;
+     Cirripedes; neuter insects; electric organs.
+
+     Of these, the polecat, the bat, the woodpecker, the eye, the
+     swimming bladder are discussed in the present Essay, and in
+     addition some botanical problems.
+
+     {295} In the _Origin_, Ed. vi. p. 275, the author replies to
+     Mivart's criticisms (_Genesis of Species_, 1871), referring
+     especially to that writer's objection "that natural selection is
+     incompetent to account for the incipient stages of useful
+     structures."
+
+     {296} <The following sentence seems to have been intended for
+     insertion here> "and that each eye throughout the animal kingdom is
+     not only most useful, but _perfect_ for its possessor."
+
+     {297} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 190, vi. p. 230.
+
+     {298} This is one of the most definite statements in the present
+     Essay of the possible importance of _sports_ or what would now be
+     called _mutations_. As is well known the author afterwards doubted
+     whether species could arise in this way. See _Origin_, Ed. v. p.
+     103, vi. p. 110, also _Life and Letters_, vol. iii. p. 107.
+
+The nature or condition of certain structures has been thought by some
+naturalists to be of no use to the possessor{299}, but to have been
+formed wholly for the good of other species; thus certain fruit and
+seeds have been thought to have been made nutritious for certain
+animals--numbers of insects, especially in their larval state, to exist
+for the same end--certain fish to be bright coloured to aid certain
+birds of prey in catching them, &c. Now could this be proved (which I am
+far from admitting) the theory of natural selection would be quite
+overthrown; for it is evident that selection depending on the advantage
+over others of one individual with some slight deviation would never
+produce a structure or quality profitable only to another species. No
+doubt one being takes advantage of qualities in another, and may even
+cause its extermination; but this is far from proving that this quality
+was produced for such an end. It may be advantageous to a plant to have
+its seeds attractive to animals, if one out of a hundred or a thousand
+escapes being digested, and thus aids dissemination: the bright colours
+of a fish may be of some advantage to it, or more probably may result
+from exposure to certain conditions in favourable haunts for food,
+_notwithstanding_ it becomes subject to be caught more easily by certain
+birds.
+
+     {299} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 210, vi. p. 322, where the question
+     is discussed for the case of instincts with a proviso that the same
+     argument applies to structure. It is briefly stated in its general
+     bearing in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 87, vi. p. 106.
+
+If instead of looking, as above, at certain individual organs, in order
+to speculate on the stages by which their parts have been matured and
+selected, we consider an individual animal, we meet with the same or
+greater difficulty, but which, I believe, as in the case of single
+organs, rests entirely on our ignorance. It may be asked by what
+intermediate forms could, for instance, a bat possibly have passed; but
+the same question might have been asked with respect to the seal, if we
+had not been familiar with the otter and other semi-aquatic carnivorous
+quadrupeds. But in the case of the bat, who can say what might have been
+the habits of some parent form with less developed wings, when we now
+have insectivorous opossums and herbivorous squirrels fitted for merely
+gliding through the air{300}. One species of bat is at present partly
+aquatic in its habits{301}. Woodpeckers and tree-frogs are especially
+adapted, as their names express, for climbing trees; yet we have species
+of both inhabiting the open plains of La Plata, where a tree does not
+exist{302}. I might argue from this circumstance that a structure
+eminently fitted for climbing trees might descend from forms inhabiting
+a country where a tree did not exist. Notwithstanding these and a
+multitude of other well-known facts, it has been maintained by several
+authors that one species, for instance of the carnivorous order, could
+not pass into another, for instance into an otter, because in its
+transitional state its habits would not be adapted to any proper
+conditions of life; but the jaguar{303} is a thoroughly terrestrial
+quadruped in its structure, yet it takes freely to the water and catches
+many fish; will it be said that it is _impossible_ that the conditions
+of its country might become such that the jaguar should be driven to
+feed more on fish than they now do; and in that case is it impossible,
+is it not probable, that any the slightest deviation in its instincts,
+its form of body, in the width of its feet, and in the extension of the
+skin (which already unites the base of its toes) would give such
+individuals a better _chance_ of surviving and propagating young with
+similar, barely perceptible (though thoroughly exercised),
+deviations{304}? Who will say what could thus be effected in the course
+of ten thousand generations? Who can answer the same question with
+respect to instincts? If no one can, the _possibility_ (for we are not
+in this chapter considering the _probability_) of simple organs or
+organic beings being modified by natural selection and the effects of
+external agencies into complicated ones ought not to be absolutely
+rejected.
+
+     {300} <Note in original.> No one will dispute that the gliding is
+     most useful, probably necessary for the species in question.
+
+     {301} <Note in original.> Is this the Galeopithecus? I forget.
+     <_Galeopithecus_ "or the flying Lemur" is mentioned in the
+     corresponding discussion in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 181, vi. p. 217,
+     as formerly placed among the bats. I do not know why it is described
+      as partly aquatic in its habits.>
+
+     {302} In the _Origin_, Ed. vi. p. 221, the author modified the
+     statement that it _never_ climbs trees; he also inserted a sentence
+     quoting Mr Hudson to the effect that in other districts this
+     woodpecker climbs trees and bores holes. See Mr Darwin's paper,
+     _Zoolog. Soc. Proc._, 1870, and _Life and Letters_, iii. p. 153.
+
+     {303} Note by the late Alfred Newton. Richardson in _Fauna
+     Boreali-Americana_, i. p. 49.
+
+     {304} <Note in original.> See Richardson a far better case of a
+     polecat animal <_Mustela vison_>, which half-year is aquatic.
+     <Mentioned in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 179, vi. p. 216.>
+
+
+
+
+PART II{305}
+
+ON THE EVIDENCE FAVOURABLE AND OPPOSED TO THE VIEW THAT SPECIES ARE
+NATURALLY FORMED RACES, DESCENDED FROM COMMON STOCKS
+
+     {305} In the _Origin_ the division of the work into Parts I and II
+     is omitted. In the MS. the chapters of Part II are numbered afresh,
+     the present being Ch. I of Pt. II. I have thought it best to call
+     it Ch. IV and there is evidence that Darwin had some thought of
+     doing the same. It corresponds to Ch. IX of _Origin_, Ed. i., Ch. X
+     in Ed. vi.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ON THE NUMBER OF INTERMEDIATE FORMS REQUIRED ON THE THEORY OF COMMON
+DESCENT; AND ON THEIR ABSENCE IN A FOSSIL STATE
+
+
+I must here premise that, according to the view ordinarily received, the
+myriads of organisms, which have during past and present times peopled
+this world, have been created by so many distinct acts of creation. It
+is impossible to reason concerning the will of the Creator, and
+therefore, according to this view, we can see no cause why or why not
+the individual organism should have been created on any fixed scheme.
+That all the organisms of this world have been produced on a scheme is
+certain from their general affinities; and if this scheme can be shown
+to be the same with that which would result from allied organic beings
+descending from common stocks, it becomes highly improbable that they
+have been separately created by individual acts of the will of a
+Creator. For as well might it be said that, although the planets move in
+courses conformably to the law of gravity, yet we ought to attribute
+the course of each planet to the individual act of the will of the
+Creator{306}. It is in every case more conformable with what we know of
+the government of this earth, that the Creator should have imposed only
+general laws. As long as no method was known by which races could become
+exquisitely adapted to various ends, whilst the existence of species was
+thought to be proved by the sterility{307} of their offspring, it was
+allowable to attribute each organism to an individual act of creation.
+But in the two former chapters it has (I think) been shown that the
+production, under existing conditions, of exquisitely adapted species,
+is at least _possible_. Is there then any direct evidence in favour <of> or
+against this view? I believe that the geographical distribution of
+organic beings in past and present times, the kind of affinity linking
+them together, their so-called "metamorphic" and "abortive" organs,
+appear in favour of this view. On the other hand, the imperfect evidence
+of the continuousness of the organic series, which, we shall immediately
+see, is required on our theory, is against it; and is the most weighty
+objection{308}. The evidence, however, even on this point, as far as it
+goes, is favourable; and considering the imperfection of our knowledge,
+especially with respect to past ages, it would be surprising if evidence
+drawn from such sources were not also imperfect.
+
+     {306} In the Essay of 1842 the author uses astronomy in the same
+     manner as an illustration. In the _Origin_ this does not occur; the
+     reference to the action of secondary causes is more general, _e.g._
+     Ed. i. p. 488, vi. p. 668.
+
+     {307} It is interesting to find the argument from sterility given
+     so prominent a place. In a corresponding passage in the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p. 659, it is more summarily treated. The author
+     gives, as the chief bar to the acceptance of evolution, the fact
+     that "we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we
+     do not see the intermediate steps"; and goes on to quote Lyell on
+     geological action. It will be remembered that the question of
+     sterility remained a difficulty for Huxley.
+
+     {308} Similar statements occur in the Essay of 1842, p. 24, note 1,
+     and in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299.
+
+As I suppose that species have been formed in an analogous manner with
+the varieties of the domesticated animals and plants, so must there have
+existed intermediate forms between all the species of the same group,
+not differing more than recognised varieties differ. It must not be
+supposed necessary that there should have existed forms exactly
+intermediate in character between any two species of a genus, or even
+between any two varieties of a species; but it is necessary that there
+should have existed every intermediate form between the one species or
+variety of the common parent, and likewise between the second species or
+variety, and this same common parent. Thus it does not necessarily
+follow that there ever has existed <a> series of intermediate sub-varieties
+(differing no more than the occasional seedlings from the same
+seed-capsule,) between broccoli and common red cabbage; but it is
+certain that there has existed, between broccoli and the wild parent
+cabbage, a series of such intermediate seedlings, and again between red
+cabbage and the wild parent cabbage: so that the broccoli and red
+cabbage are linked together, but not _necessarily_ by directly
+intermediate forms{309}. It is of course possible that there _may_ have
+been directly intermediate forms, for the broccoli may have long since
+descended from a common red cabbage, and this from the wild cabbage. So
+on my theory, it must have been with species of the same genus. Still
+more must the supposition be avoided that there has necessarily ever
+existed (though one _may_ have descended from <the> other) directly
+intermediate forms between any two genera or families--for instance
+between the genus _Sus_ and the Tapir{310}; although it is necessary
+that intermediate forms (not differing more than the varieties of our
+domestic animals) should have existed between Sus and some unknown
+parent form, and Tapir with this same parent form. The latter may have
+differed more from Sus and Tapir than these two genera now differ from
+each other. In this sense, according to our theory, there has been a
+gradual passage (the steps not being wider apart than our domestic
+varieties) between the species of the same genus, between genera of the
+same family, and between families of the same order, and so on, as far
+as facts, hereafter to be given, lead us; and the number of forms which
+must have at former periods existed, thus to make good this passage
+between different species, genera, and families, must have been almost
+infinitely great.
+
+     {309} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 280, vi. p. 414 he uses his
+     newly-acquired knowledge of pigeons to illustrate this point.
+
+     {310} Compare the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 281, vi. p. 414.
+
+What evidence{311} is there of a number of intermediate forms having
+existed, making a passage in the above sense, between the species of the
+same groups? Some naturalists have supposed that if every fossil which
+now lies entombed, together with all existing species, were collected
+together, a perfect series in every great class would be formed.
+Considering the enormous number of species requisite to effect this,
+especially in the above sense of the forms not being _directly_
+intermediate between the existing species and genera, but only
+intermediate by being linked through a common but often widely different
+ancestor, I think this supposition highly improbable. I am however far
+from underrating the probable number of fossilised species: no one who
+has attended to the wonderful progress of palaeontology during the last
+few years will doubt that we as yet have found only an exceedingly small
+fraction of the species buried in the crust of the earth. Although the
+almost infinitely numerous intermediate forms in no one class may have
+been preserved, it does not follow that they have not existed. The
+fossils which have been discovered, it is important to remark, do tend,
+the little way they go, to make good the series; for as observed by
+Buckland they all fall into or between existing groups{312}. Moreover,
+those that fall between our existing groups, fall in, according to the
+manner required by our theory, for they do not directly connect two
+existing species of different groups, but they connect the groups
+themselves: thus the Pachydermata and Ruminantia are now separated by
+several characters, <for instance> the Pachydermata{313} have both a
+tibia and fibula, whilst Ruminantia have only a tibia; now the fossil
+Macrauchenia has a leg bone exactly intermediate in this respect, and
+likewise has some other intermediate characters. But the Macrauchenia
+does not connect any one species of Pachydermata with some one other of
+Ruminantia but it shows that these two groups have at one time been less
+widely divided. So have fish and reptiles been at one time more closely
+connected in some points than they now are. Generally in those groups in
+which there has been most change, the more ancient the fossil, if not
+identical with recent, the more often it falls between existing groups,
+or into small existing groups which now lie between other large existing
+groups. Cases like the foregoing, of which there are many, form steps,
+though few and far between, in a series of the kind required by my
+theory.
+
+     {311} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 301, vi. p. 440.
+
+     {312} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 329, vi. p. 471.
+
+     {313} The structure of the Pachyderm leg was a favourite with the
+     author. It is discussed in the Essay of 1842, p. 48. In the present
+     Essay the following sentence in the margin appears to refer to
+     Pachyderms and Ruminants: "There can be no doubt, if we banish all
+     fossils, existing groups stand more separate." The following occurs
+     between the lines "The earliest forms would be such as others could
+     radiate from."
+
+As I have admitted the high improbability, that if every fossil were
+disinterred, they would compose in each of the Divisions of Nature a
+perfect series of the kind required; consequently I freely admit, that
+if those geologists are in the right who consider the lowest known
+formation as contemporaneous with the first appearances of life{314}; or
+the several formations as at all closely consecutive; or any one
+formation as containing a nearly perfect record of the organisms which
+existed during the whole period of its deposition in that quarter of the
+globe;--if such propositions are to be accepted, my theory must be
+abandoned.
+
+     {314} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 307, vi. p. 448.
+
+If the Palaeozoic system is really contemporaneous with the first
+appearance of life, my theory must be abandoned, both inasmuch as it
+limits _from shortness of time_ the total number of forms which can have
+existed on this world, and because the organisms, as fish, mollusca{315}
+and star-fish found in its lower beds, cannot be considered as the
+parent forms of all the successive species in these classes. But no one
+has yet overturned the arguments of Hutton and Lyell, that the lowest
+formations known to us are only those which have escaped being
+metamorphosed <illegible>; if we argued from some considerable districts,
+we might have supposed that even the Cretaceous system was that in which
+life first appeared. From the number of distant points, however, in
+which the Silurian system has been found to be the lowest, and not
+always metamorphosed, there are some objections to Hutton's and Lyell's
+view; but we must not forget that the now existing land forms only 1/5
+part of the superficies of the globe, and that this fraction is only
+imperfectly known. With respect to the fewness of the organisms found in
+the Silurian and other Palaeozoic formations, there is less difficulty,
+inasmuch as (besides their gradual obliteration) we can expect
+formations of this vast antiquity to escape entire denudation, only when
+they have been accumulated over a wide area, and have been subsequently
+protected by vast superimposed deposits: now this could generally only
+hold good with deposits accumulating in a wide and deep ocean, and
+therefore unfavourable to the presence of many living things. A mere
+narrow and not very thick strip of matter, deposited along a coast where
+organisms most abound, would have no chance of escaping denudation and
+being preserved to the present time from such immensely distant
+ages{316}.
+
+     {315} <Pencil insertion by the author.> The parent-forms of Mollusca
+     would probably differ greatly from all recent,--it is not directly
+     that any one division of Mollusca would descend from first time
+     unaltered, whilst others had become metamorphosed from it.
+
+     {316} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.
+
+If the several known formations are at all nearly consecutive in time,
+and preserve a fair record of the organisms which have existed, my
+theory must be abandoned. But when we consider the great changes in
+mineralogical nature and texture between successive formations, what
+vast and entire changes in the geography of the surrounding countries
+must generally have been effected, thus wholly to have changed the
+nature of the deposits on the same area. What time such changes must
+have required! Moreover how often has it not been found, that between
+two conformable and apparently immediately successive deposits a vast
+pile of water-worn matter is interpolated in an adjoining district. We
+have no means of conjecturing in many cases how long a period{317} has
+elapsed between successive formations, for the species are often wholly
+different: as remarked by Lyell, in some cases probably as long a period
+has elapsed between two formations as the whole Tertiary system, itself
+broken by wide gaps.
+
+     {317} <Note in original.> Reflect on coming in of the Chalk,
+     extending from Iceland to the Crimea.
+
+Consult the writings of any one who has particularly attended to any one
+stage in the Tertiary system (and indeed of every system) and see how
+deeply impressed he is with the time required for its accumulation{318}.
+Reflect on the years elapsed in many cases, since the latest beds
+containing only living species have been formed;--see what Jordan Smith
+says of the 20,000 years since the last bed, which is above the boulder
+formation in Scotland, has been upraised; or of the far longer period
+since the recent beds of Sweden have been upraised 400 feet, what an
+enormous period the boulder formation must have required, and yet how
+insignificant are the records (although there has been plenty of
+elevation to bring up submarine deposits) of the shells, which we know
+existed at that time. Think, then, over the entire length of the
+Tertiary epoch, and think over the probable length of the intervals,
+separating the Secondary deposits. Of these deposits, moreover, those
+consisting of sand and pebbles have seldom been favourable, either to
+the embedment or to the preservation of fossils{319}.
+
+     {318} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 282, vi. p. 416.
+
+     {319} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 288, 300, vi. pp. 422, 438.
+
+Nor can it be admitted as probable that any one Secondary formation
+contains a fair record even of those organisms which are most easily
+preserved, namely hard marine bodies. In how many cases have we not
+certain evidence that between the deposition of apparently closely
+consecutive beds, the lower one existed for an unknown time as land,
+covered with trees. Some of the Secondary formations which contain most
+marine remains appear to have been formed in a wide and not deep sea,
+and therefore only those marine animals which live in such situations
+would be preserved{320}. In all cases, on indented rocky coasts, or any
+other coast, where sediment is not accumulating, although often highly
+favourable to marine animals, none can be embedded: where pure sand and
+pebbles are accumulating few or none will be preserved. I may here
+instance the great western line of the S. American coast{321}, tenanted
+by many peculiar animals, of which none probably will be preserved to a
+distant epoch. From these causes, and especially from such deposits as
+are formed along a line of coast, steep above and below water, being
+necessarily of little width, and therefore more likely to be
+subsequently denuded and worn away, we can see why it is improbable that
+our Secondary deposits contain a fair record of the Marine Fauna of any
+one period. The East Indian Archipelago offers an area, as large as most
+of our Secondary deposits, in which there are wide and shallow seas,
+teeming with marine animals, and in which sediment is accumulating; now
+supposing that all the hard marine animals, or rather those having hard
+parts to preserve, were preserved to a future age, excepting those which
+lived on rocky shores where no sediment or only sand and gravel were
+accumulating, and excepting those embedded along the steeper coasts,
+where only a narrow fringe of sediment was accumulating, supposing all
+this, how poor a notion would a person at a future age have of the
+Marine Fauna of the present day. Lyell{322} has compared the geological
+series to a work of which only the few latter but not consecutive
+chapters have been preserved; and out of which, it may be added, very
+many leaves have been torn, the remaining ones only illustrating a
+scanty portion of the Fauna of each period. On this view, the records
+of anteceding ages confirm my theory; on any other they destroy it.
+
+     {320} <Note in original.> Neither highest or lowest fish (_i.e._
+     Myxina <?> or Lepidosiren) could be preserved in intelligible
+     condition in fossils.
+
+     {321} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 290, vi. p. 425.
+
+     {322} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 310, vi. p. 452 for Lyell's metaphor.
+     I am indebted to Prof. Judd for pointing out that Darwin's version
+     of the metaphor is founded on the first edition of Lyell's
+     _Principles_, vol. I. and vol. III.; see the Essay of 1842, p. 27.
+
+Finally, if we narrow the question into, why do we not find in some
+instances every intermediate form between any two species? the answer
+may well be that the average duration of each specific form (as we have
+good reason to believe) is immense in years, and that the transition
+could, according to my theory, be effected only by numberless small
+gradations; and therefore that we should require for this end a most
+perfect record, which the foregoing reasoning teaches us not to expect.
+It might be thought that in a vertical section of great thickness in the
+same formation some of the species ought to be found to vary in the
+upper and lower parts{323}, but it may be doubted whether any formation
+has gone on accumulating without any break for a period as long as the
+duration of a species; and if it had done so, we should require a series
+of specimens from every part. How rare must be the chance of sediment
+accumulating for some 20 or 30 thousand years on the same spot{324},
+with the bottom subsiding, so that a proper depth might be preserved for
+any one species to continue living: what an amount of subsidence would
+be thus required, and this subsidence must not destroy the source whence
+the sediment continued to be derived. In the case of terrestrial
+animals, what chance is there when the present time is become a
+pleistocene formation (at an earlier period than this, sufficient
+elevation to expose marine beds could not be expected), what chance is
+there that future geologists will make out the innumerable transitional
+sub-varieties, through which the short-horned and long-horned cattle
+(so different in shape of body) have been derived from the same parent
+stock{325}? Yet this transition has been effected in _the same country_,
+and in a far _shorter time_, than would be probable in a wild state,
+both contingencies highly favourable for the future hypothetical
+geologists being enabled to trace the variation.
+
+     {323} See _More Letters_, vol. I. pp. 344-7, for Darwin's interest
+     in the celebrated observations of Hilgendorf and Hyatt.
+
+     {324} This corresponds partly to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 294, vi. p.
+     431.
+
+     {325} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+GRADUAL APPEARANCE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF SPECIES{326}
+
+     {326} This chapter corresponds to ch. X of _Origin_, Ed. i., vi.
+     ch. XI, "On the geological succession of organic beings."
+
+
+In the Tertiary system, in the last uplifted beds, we find all the
+species recent and living in the immediate vicinity; in rather older
+beds we find only recent species, but some not living in the immediate
+vicinity{327}; we then find beds with two or three or a few more extinct
+or very rare species; then considerably more extinct species, but with
+gaps in the regular increase; and finally we have beds with only two or
+three or not one living species. Most geologists believe that the gaps
+in the percentage, that is the sudden increments, in the number of the
+extinct species in the stages of the Tertiary system are due to the
+imperfection of the geological record. Hence we are led to believe that
+the species in the Tertiary system have been gradually introduced; and
+from analogy to carry on the same view to the Secondary formations. In
+these latter, however, entire groups of species generally come in
+abruptly; but this would naturally result, if, as argued in the
+foregoing chapter, these Secondary deposits are separated by wide
+epochs. Moreover it is important to observe that, with our increase of
+knowledge, the gaps between the older formations become fewer and
+smaller; geologists of a few years standing remember how beautifully
+has the Devonian system{328} come in between the Carboniferous and
+Silurian formations. I need hardly observe that the slow and gradual
+appearance of new forms follows from our theory, for to form a new
+species, an old one must not only be plastic in its organization,
+becoming so probably from changes in the conditions of its existence,
+but a place in the natural economy of the district must [be made,] come
+to exist, for the selection of some new modification of its structure,
+better fitted to the surrounding conditions than are the other
+individuals of the same or other species{329}.
+
+     {327} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 312, vi. p. 453.
+
+     {328} In the margin the author has written "Lonsdale." This refers
+     to W. Lonsdale's paper "Notes on the age of the Limestone of South
+     Devonshire," _Geolog. Soc. Trans._, Series 2, vol. V. 1840, p. 721.
+     According to Mr H. B. Woodward (_History of the Geological Society
+     of London_, 1907, p. 107) "Lonsdale's 'important and original
+     suggestion of the existence of an intermediary type of Palaeozoic
+     fossils, since called Devonian,' led to a change which was then
+     'the greatest ever made at one time in the classification of our
+     English formations'." Mr Woodward's quotations are from Murchison
+     and Buckland.
+
+     {329} <Note in original.> Better begin with this. If species really,
+     after catastrophes, created in showers over world, my theory false.
+     <In the above passage the author is obviously close to his theory of
+     divergence.>
+
+In the Tertiary system the same facts, which make us admit as probable
+that new species have slowly appeared, lead to the admission that old
+ones have slowly disappeared, not several together, but one after
+another; and by analogy one is induced to extend this belief to the
+Secondary and Palaeozoic epochs. In some cases, as the subsidence of a
+flat country, or the breaking or the joining of an isthmus, and the
+sudden inroad of many new and destructive species, extinction might be
+locally sudden. The view entertained by many geologists, that each fauna
+of each Secondary epoch has been suddenly destroyed over the whole
+world, so that no succession could be left for the production of new
+forms, is subversive of my theory, but I see no grounds whatever to
+admit such a view. On the contrary, the law, which has been made out,
+with reference to distinct epochs, by independent observers, namely,
+that the wider the geographical range of a species the longer is its
+duration in time, seems entirely opposed to any universal
+extermination{330}. The fact of species of mammiferous animals and fish
+being renewed at a quicker rate than mollusca, though both aquatic; and
+of these the terrestrial genera being renewed quicker than the marine;
+and the marine mollusca being again renewed quicker than the Infusorial
+animalcula, all seem to show that the extinction and renewal of species
+does not depend on general catastrophes, but on the particular relations
+of the several classes to the conditions to which they are exposed{331}.
+
+     {330} Opposite to this passage the author has written "d'Archiac,
+     Forbes, Lyell."
+
+     {331} This passage, for which the author gives as authorities the
+     names of Lyell, Forbes and Ehrenberg, corresponds in part to the
+     discussion beginning on p. 313 of _Origin_, Ed. i., vi. p. 454.
+
+Some authors seem to consider the fact of a few species having
+survived{332} amidst a number of extinct forms (as is the case with a
+tortoise and a crocodile out of the vast number of extinct sub-Himalayan
+fossils) as strongly opposed to the view of species being mutable. No
+doubt this would be the case, if it were presupposed with Lamarck that
+there was some inherent tendency to change and development in all
+species, for which supposition I see no evidence. As we see some species
+at present adapted to a wide range of conditions, so we may suppose that
+such species would survive unchanged and unexterminated for a long time;
+time generally being from geological causes a correlative of changing
+conditions. How at present one species becomes adapted to a wide range,
+and another species to a restricted range of conditions, is of difficult
+explanation.
+
+     {332} The author gives Falconer as his authority: see _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.
+
+
+_Extinction of species._
+
+The extinction of the larger quadrupeds, of which we imagine we better
+know the conditions of existence, has been thought little less wonderful
+than the appearance of new species; and has, I think, chiefly led to the
+belief of universal catastrophes. When considering the wonderful
+disappearance within a late period, whilst recent shells were living, of
+the numerous great and small mammifers of S. America, one is strongly
+induced to join with the catastrophists. I believe, however, that very
+erroneous views are held on this subject. As far as is historically
+known, the disappearance of species from any one country has been
+slow--the species becoming rarer and rarer, locally extinct, and finally
+lost{333}. It may be objected that this has been effected by man's
+direct agency, or by his indirect agency in altering the state of the
+country; in this latter case, however, it would be difficult to draw any
+just distinction between his agency and natural agencies. But we now
+know in the later Tertiary deposits, that shells become rarer and rarer
+in the successive beds, and finally disappear: it has happened, also,
+that shells common in a fossil state, and thought to have been extinct,
+have been found to be still living species, but very _rare_ ones{334}.
+If the rule is that organisms become extinct by becoming rarer and
+rarer, we ought not to view their extinction, even in the case of the
+larger quadrupeds, as anything wonderful and out of the common course of
+events. For no naturalist thinks it wonderful that one species of a
+genus should be rare and another abundant, notwithstanding he be quite
+incapable of explaining the causes of the comparative rareness{335}. Why
+is one species of willow-wren or hawk or woodpecker common in England,
+and another extremely rare: why at the Cape of Good Hope is one species
+of rhinoceros or antelope far more abundant than other species? Why
+again is the same species much more abundant in one district of a
+country than in another district? No doubt there are in each case good
+causes: but they are unknown and unperceived by us. May we not then
+safely infer that as certain causes are acting _unperceived_ around us,
+and are making one species to be common and another exceedingly rare,
+that they might equally well cause the final extinction of some species
+without being perceived by us? We should always bear in mind that there
+is a recurrent struggle for life in every organism, and that in every
+country a destroying agency is always counteracting the geometrical
+tendency to increase in every species; and yet without our being able to
+tell with certainty at what period of life, or at what period of the
+year, the destruction falls the heaviest. Ought we then to expect to
+trace the steps by which this destroying power, always at work and
+scarcely perceived by us, becomes increased, and yet if it continues to
+increase ever so slowly (without the fertility of the species in
+question be likewise increased) the average number of the individuals of
+that species must decrease, and become finally lost. I may give a single
+instance of a check causing local extermination which might long have
+escaped discovery{336}; the horse, though swarming in a wild state in La
+Plata, and likewise under apparently the most unfavourable conditions in
+the scorched and alternately flooded plains of Caraccas, will not in a
+wild state extend beyond a certain degree of latitude into the
+intermediate country of Paraguay; this is owing to a certain fly
+depositing its eggs on the navels of the foals: as, however, man with a
+_little_ care can rear horses in a tame state _abundantly_ in Paraguay,
+the problem of its extinction is probably complicated by the greater
+exposure of the wild horse to occasional famine from the droughts, to
+the attacks of the jaguar and other such evils. In the Falkland Islands
+the check to the _increase_ of the wild horse is said to be loss of the
+sucking foals{337}, from the stallions compelling the mares to travel
+across bogs and rocks in search of food: if the pasture on these islands
+decreased a little, the horse, perhaps, would cease to exist in a wild
+state, not from the absolute want of food, but from the impatience of
+the stallions urging the mares to travel whilst the foals were too
+young.
+
+     {333} This corresponds approximately to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 317,
+     vi. p. 458.
+
+     {334} The case of _Trigonia_, a great Secondary genus of shells
+     surviving in a single species in the Australian seas, is given as
+     an example in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.
+
+     {335} This point, on which the author laid much stress, is
+     discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 319, vi. p. 461.
+
+     {336} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 72, vi. p. 89.
+
+     {337} This case does not occur in the _Origin_, Ed.
+
+From our more intimate acquaintance with domestic animals, we cannot
+conceive their extinction without some glaring agency; we forget that
+they would undoubtedly in a state of nature (where other animals are
+ready to fill up their place) be acted on in some part of their lives by
+a destroying agency, keeping their numbers on an average constant. If
+the common ox was known only as a wild S. African species, we should
+feel no surprise at hearing that it was a very rare species; and this
+rarity would be a stage towards its extinction. Even in man, so
+infinitely better known than any other inhabitant of this world, how
+impossible it has been found, without statistical calculations, to judge
+of the proportions of births and deaths, of the duration of life, and of
+the increase and decrease of population; and still less of the causes of
+such changes: and yet, as has so often been repeated, decrease in
+numbers or rarity seems to be the high-road to extinction. To marvel at
+the extermination of a species appears to me to be the same thing as to
+know that illness is the road to death,--to look at illness as an
+ordinary event, nevertheless to conclude, when the sick man dies, that
+his death has been caused by some unknown and violent agency{338}.
+
+     {338} An almost identical sentence occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 320, vi. p. 462.
+
+In a future part of this work we shall show that, as a general rule,
+groups of allied species{339} gradually appear and disappear, one after
+the other, on the face of the earth, like the individuals of the same
+species: and we shall then endeavour to show the probable cause of this
+remarkable fact.
+
+     {339} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC BEINGS IN PAST AND PRESENT
+TIMES
+
+
+For convenience sake I shall divide this chapter into three
+sections{340}. In the first place I shall endeavour to state the laws of
+the distribution of existing beings, as far as our present object is
+concerned; in the second, that of extinct; and in the third section I
+shall consider how far these laws accord with the theory of allied
+species having a common descent.
+
+     {340} Chapters XI and XII in the _Origin_, Ed. i., vi. chs. XII and
+     XIII ("On geographical distribution") show signs of having been
+     originally one, in the fact that one summary serves for both. The
+     geological element is not separately treated there, nor is there a
+     separate section on "how far these laws accord with the theory,
+     &c."
+
+     In the MS. the author has here written in the margin "If same
+     species appear at two spot at once, fatal to my theory." See
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 499
+
+
+SECTION FIRST.
+
+
+_Distribution of the inhabitants in the different continents._
+
+In the following discussion I shall chiefly refer to terrestrial
+mammifers, inasmuch as they are better known; their differences in
+different countries, strongly marked; and especially as the necessary
+means of their transport are more evident, and confusion, from the
+accidental conveyance by man of a species from one district to another
+district, is less likely to arise. It is known that all mammifers (as
+well as all other organisms) are united in one great system; but that
+the different species, genera, or families of the same order inhabit
+different quarters of the globe. If we divide the land{341} into two
+divisions, according to the amount of difference, and disregarding the
+numbers of the terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them, we shall have
+first Australia including New Guinea; and secondly the rest of the
+world: if we make a three-fold division, we shall have Australia, S.
+America, and the rest of the world; I must observe that North America is
+in some respects neutral land, from possessing some S. American forms,
+but I believe it is more closely allied (as it certainly is in its
+birds, plants and shells) with Europe. If our division had been
+four-fold, we should have had Australia, S. America, Madagascar (though
+inhabited by few mammifers) and the remaining land: if five-fold,
+Africa, especially the southern eastern parts, would have to be
+separated from the remainder of the world. These differences in the
+mammiferous inhabitants of the several main divisions of the globe
+cannot, it is well known, be explained by corresponding differences in
+their conditions{342}; how similar are parts of tropical America and
+Africa; and accordingly we find some _analogous_ resemblances,--thus
+both have monkeys, both large feline animals, both large Lepidoptera,
+and large dung-feeding beetles; both have palms and epiphytes; and yet
+the essential difference between their productions is as great as
+between those of the arid plains of the Cape of Good Hope and the
+grass-covered savannahs of La Plata{343}. Consider the distribution of
+the Marsupialia, which are eminently characteristic of Australia, and in
+a lesser degree of S. America; when we reflect that animals of this
+division, feeding both on animal and vegetable matter, frequent the dry
+open or wooded plains and mountains of Australia, the humid impenetrable
+forests of New Guinea and Brazil; the dry rocky mountains of Chile, and
+the grassy plains of Banda Oriental, we must look to some other cause,
+than the nature of the country, for their absence in Africa and other
+quarters of the world.
+
+     {341} This division of the land into regions does not occur in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+     {342} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 346, vi. p. 493.
+
+     {343} Opposite this passage is written "_not botanically_," in Sir
+     J. D. Hooker's hand. The word _palms_ is underlined three times and
+     followed by three exclamation marks. An explanatory note is added
+     in the margin "singular paucity of palms and epiphytes in Trop.
+     Africa compared with Trop. America and Ind. Or." <=East Indies>.
+
+Furthermore it may be observed that _all_ the organisms inhabiting any
+country are not perfectly adapted to it{344}; I mean by not being
+perfectly adapted, only that some few other organisms can generally be
+found better adapted to the country than some of the aborigines. We must
+admit this when we consider the enormous number of horses and cattle
+which have run wild during the three last centuries in the uninhabited
+parts of St Domingo, Cuba, and S. America; for these animals must have
+supplanted some aboriginal ones. I might also adduce the same fact in
+Australia, but perhaps it will be objected that 30 or 40 years has not
+been a sufficient period to test this power of struggling <with> and
+overcoming the aborigines. We know the European mouse is driving before
+it that of New Zealand, like the Norway rat has driven before it the old
+English species in England. Scarcely an island can be named, where
+casually introduced plants have not supplanted some of the native
+species: in La Plata the Cardoon covers square leagues of country on
+which some S. American plants must once have grown: the commonest weed
+over the whole of India is an introduced Mexican poppy. The geologist
+who knows that slow changes are in progress, replacing land and water,
+will easily perceive that even if all the organisms of any country had
+originally been the best adapted to it, this could hardly continue so
+during succeeding ages without either extermination, or changes, first
+in the relative proportional numbers of the inhabitants of the country,
+and finally in their constitutions and structure.
+
+     {344} This partly corresponds to _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 337, vi. p.
+     483.
+
+Inspection of a map of the world at once shows that the five divisions,
+separated according to the greatest amount of difference in the
+mammifers inhabiting them, are likewise those most widely separated from
+each other by barriers{345} which mammifers cannot pass: thus Australia
+is separated from New Guinea and some small adjoining islets only by a
+narrow and shallow strait; whereas New Guinea and its adjoining islets
+are cut off from the other East Indian islands by deep water. These
+latter islands, I may remark, which fall into the great Asiatic group,
+are separated from each other and the continent only by shallow water;
+and where this is the case we may suppose, from geological oscillations
+of level, that generally there has been recent union. South America,
+including the southern part of Mexico, is cut off from North America by
+the West Indies, and the great table-land of Mexico, except by a mere
+fringe of tropical forests along the coast: it is owing, perhaps, to
+this fringe that N. America possesses some S. American forms. Madagascar
+is entirely isolated. Africa is also to a great extent isolated,
+although it approaches, by many promontories and by lines of shallower
+sea, to Europe and Asia: southern Africa, which is the most distinct in
+its mammiferous inhabitants, is separated from the northern portion by
+the Great Sahara Desert and the table-land of Abyssinia. That the
+distribution of organisms is related to barriers, stopping their
+progress, we clearly see by comparing the distribution of marine and
+terrestrial productions. The marine animals being different on the two
+sides of land tenanted by the same terrestrial animals, thus the shells
+are wholly different on the opposite sides of the temperate parts of
+South America{346}, as they are (?) in the Red Sea and the
+Mediterranean. We can at once perceive that the destruction of a barrier
+would permit two geographical groups of organisms to fuse and blend into
+one. But the original cause of groups being different on opposite sides
+of a barrier can only be understood on the hypothesis of each organism
+having been created or produced on one spot or area, and afterwards
+migrating as widely as its means of transport and subsistence permitted
+it.
+
+     {345} On the general importance of barriers, see _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 347, vi. p. 494.
+
+     {346} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 348, vi. p. 495.
+
+
+_Relation of range in genera and species._
+
+It is generally{347} found, that where a genus or group ranges over
+nearly the entire world, many of the species composing the group have
+wide ranges: on the other hand, where a group is restricted to any one
+country, the species composing it generally have restricted ranges in
+that country{348}. Thus among mammifers the feline and canine genera are
+widely distributed, and many of the individual species have enormous
+ranges [the genus Mus I believe, however, is a strong exception to the
+rule]. Mr Gould informs me that the rule holds with birds, as in the
+owl genus, which is mundane, and many of the species range widely. The
+rule holds also with land and fresh-water mollusca, with butterflies and
+very generally with plants. As instances of the converse rule, I may
+give that division of the monkeys which is confined to S. America, and
+amongst plants, the Cacti, confined to the same continent, the species
+of both of which have generally narrow ranges. On the ordinary theory of
+the separate creation of each species, the cause of these relations is
+not obvious; we can see no reason, because many allied species have been
+created in the several main divisions of the world, that several of
+these species should have wide ranges; and on the other hand, that
+species of the same group should have narrow ranges if all have been
+created in one main division of the world. As the result of such and
+probably many other unknown relations, it is found that, even in the
+same great classes of beings, the different divisions of the world are
+characterised by either merely different species, or genera, or even
+families: thus in cats, mice, foxes, S. America differs from Asia and
+Africa only in species; in her pigs, camels and monkeys the difference
+is generic or greater. Again, whilst southern Africa and Australia
+differ more widely in their mammalia than do Africa and S. America, they
+are more closely (though indeed very distantly) allied in their plants.
+
+     {347} <Note in original.> The same laws seem to govern distribution
+     of species and genera, and individuals in time and space. <See
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 350, vi. p. 497, also a passage in the last
+     chapter, p. 146.>
+
+     {348} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 404, vi. p. 559.
+
+
+_Distribution of the inhabitants in the same continent._
+
+If we now look at the distribution of the organisms in any one of the
+above main divisions of the world, we shall find it split up into many
+regions, with all or nearly all their species distinct, but yet
+partaking of one common character. This similarity of type in the
+subdivisions of a great region is equally well-known with the
+dissimilarity of the inhabitants of the several great regions; but it
+has been less often insisted on, though more worthy of remark. Thus for
+instance, if in Africa or S. America, we go from south to north{349}, or
+from lowland to upland, or from a humid to a dryer part, we find wholly
+different species of those genera or groups which characterise the
+continent over which we are passing. In these subdivisions we may
+clearly observe, as in the main divisions of the world, that
+sub-barriers divide different groups of species, although the opposite
+sides of such sub-barriers may possess nearly the same climate, and may
+be in other respects nearly similar: thus it is on the opposite sides of
+the Cordillera of Chile, and in a lesser degree on the opposite sides of
+the Rocky mountains. Deserts, arms of the sea, and even rivers form the
+barriers; mere preoccupied space seems sufficient in several cases: thus
+Eastern and Western Australia, in the same latitude, with very similar
+climate and soils, have scarcely a plant, and few animals or birds, in
+common, although all belong to the peculiar genera characterising
+Australia. It is in short impossible to explain the differences in the
+inhabitants, either of the main divisions of the world, or of these
+sub-divisions, by the differences in their physical conditions, and by
+the adaptation of their inhabitants. Some other cause must intervene.
+
+     {349} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.
+
+We can see that the destruction of sub-barriers would cause (as before
+remarked in the case of the main divisions) two sub-divisions to blend
+into one; and we can only suppose that the original difference in the
+species, on the opposite sides of sub-barriers, is due to the creation
+or production of species in distinct areas, from which they have
+wandered till arrested by such sub-barriers. Although thus far is pretty
+clear, it may be asked, why, when species in the same main division of
+the world were produced on opposite sides of a sub-barrier, both when
+exposed to similar conditions and when exposed to widely different
+influences (as on alpine and lowland tracts, as on arid and humid soils,
+as in cold and hot climates), have they invariably been formed on a
+similar type, and that type confined to this one division of the world?
+Why when an ostrich{350} was produced in the southern parts of America,
+was it formed on the American type, instead of on the African or on
+Australian types? Why when hare-like and rabbit-like animals were formed
+to live on the Savannahs of La Plata, were they produced on the peculiar
+Rodent type of S. America, instead of on the true{351} hare-type of
+North America, Asia and Africa? Why when borrowing Rodents, and
+camel-like animals were formed to tenant the Cordillera, were they
+formed on the same type{352} with their representatives on the plains?
+Why were the mice, and many birds of different species on the opposite
+sides of the Cordillera, but exposed to a very similar climate and soil,
+created on the same peculiar S. American type? Why were the plants in
+Eastern and Western Australia, though wholly different as species,
+formed on the same peculiar Australian types? The generality of the
+rule, in so many places and under such different circumstances, makes it
+highly remarkable and seems to demand some explanation.
+
+     {350} The case of the ostrich (_Rhea_) occurs in the _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 349, vi. p. 496.
+
+     {351} <Note in original.> There is a hare in S. America,--so bad
+     example.
+
+     {352} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 497.
+
+
+_Insular Faunas._
+
+If we now look to the character of the inhabitants of small
+islands{353}, we shall find that those situated close to other land have
+a similar fauna with that land{354}, whilst those at a considerable
+distance from other land often possess an almost entirely peculiar
+fauna. The Galapagos Archipelago{355} is a remarkable instance of this
+latter fact; here almost every bird, its one mammifer, its reptiles,
+land and sea shells, and even fish, are almost all peculiar and distinct
+species, not found in any other quarter of the world: so are the
+majority of its plants. But although situated at the distance of between
+500 and 600 miles from the S. American coast, it is impossible to even
+glance at a large part of its fauna, especially at the birds, without at
+once seeing that they belong to the American type{356}. Hence, in fact,
+groups of islands thus circumstanced form merely small but well-defined
+sub-divisions of the larger geographical divisions. But the fact is in
+such cases far more striking: for taking the Galapagos Archipelago as an
+instance; in the first place we must feel convinced, seeing that every
+island is wholly volcanic and bristles with craters, that in a
+geological sense the whole is of recent origin comparatively with a
+continent; and as the species are nearly all peculiar, we must conclude
+that they have in the same sense recently been produced on this very
+spot; and although in the nature of the soil, and in a lesser degree in
+the climate, there is a wide difference with the nearer part of the S.
+American coast, we see that the inhabitants have been formed on the same
+closely allied type. On the other hand, these islands, as far as their
+physical conditions are concerned, resemble closely the Cape de Verde
+volcanic group, and yet how wholly unlike are the productions of these
+two archipelagoes. The Cape de Verde{357} group, to which may be added
+the Canary Islands, are allied in their inhabitants (of which many are
+peculiar species) to the coast of Africa and southern Europe, in
+precisely the same manner as the Galapagos Archipelago is allied to
+America. We here clearly see that mere geographical proximity affects,
+more than any relation of adaptation, the character of species. How many
+islands in the Pacific exist far more like in their physical conditions
+to Juan Fernandez than this island is to the coast of Chile, distant 300
+miles; why then, except from mere proximity, should this island alone be
+tenanted by two very peculiar species of humming-birds--that form of
+birds which is so exclusively American? Innumerable other similar cases
+might be adduced.
+
+     {353} For the general problem of Oceanic Islands, see _Origin_, Ed.
+     i. p. 388, vi. p. 541.
+
+     {354} This is an illustration of the general theory of barriers
+     (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 347, vi. p. 494). At i. p. 391, vi. p. 544 the
+     question is discussed from the point of view of means of transport.
+     Between the lines, above the words "with that land," the author
+     wrote "Cause, formerly joined, no one doubts after Lyell."
+
+     {355} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 390, vi. p. 543.
+
+     {356} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 397, vi. p. 552.
+
+     {357} The Cape de Verde and Galapagos Archipelagoes are compared in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553. See also _Journal of
+     Researches_, 1860, p. 393.
+
+The Galapagos Archipelago offers another, even more remarkable, example
+of the class of facts we are here considering. Most of its genera are,
+as we have said, American, many of them are mundane, or found
+everywhere, and some are quite or nearly confined to this archipelago.
+The islands are of absolutely similar composition, and exposed to the
+same climate; most of them are in sight of each other; and yet several
+of the islands are inhabited, each by peculiar species (or in some cases
+perhaps only varieties) of some of the genera characterising the
+archipelago. So that the small group of the Galapagos Islands typifies,
+and follows exactly the same laws in the distribution of its
+inhabitants, as a great continent. How wonderful it is that two or three
+closely similar but distinct species of a mocking-thrush{358} should
+have been produced on three neighbouring and absolutely similar islands;
+and that these three species of mocking-thrush should be closely related
+to the other species inhabiting wholly different climates and different
+districts of America, and only in America. No similar case so striking
+as this of the Galapagos Archipelago has hitherto been observed; and
+this difference of the productions in the different islands may perhaps
+be partly explained by the depth of the sea between them (showing that
+they could not have been united within recent geological periods), and
+by the currents of the sea sweeping _straight_ between them,--and by
+storms of wind being rare, through which means seeds and birds could be
+blown, or drifted, from one island to another. There are however some
+similar facts: it is said that the different, though neighbouring
+islands of the East Indian Archipelago are inhabited by some different
+species of the same genera; and at the Sandwich group some of the
+islands have each their peculiar species of the same genera of plants.
+
+     {358} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 390, a strong point is made of
+     birds which immigrated "with facility and in a body" not having
+     been modified. Thus the author accounts for the small percentage of
+     peculiar "marine birds."
+
+Islands standing quite isolated within the intra-tropical oceans have
+generally very peculiar floras, related, though feebly (as in the case
+of St Helena{359} where almost every species is distinct), with the
+nearest continent: Tristan d'Acunha is feebly related, I believe, in its
+plants, both to Africa and S. America, not by having species in common,
+but by the genera to which they belong{360}. The floras of the numerous
+scattered islands of the Pacific are related to each other and to all
+the surrounding continents; but it has been said, that they have more of
+an Indo-Asiatic than American character{361}. This is somewhat
+remarkable, as America is nearer to all the Eastern islands, and lies in
+the direction of the trade-wind and prevailing currents; on the other
+hand, all the heaviest gales come from the Asiatic side. But even with
+the aid of these gales, it is not obvious on the ordinary theory of
+creation how the possibility of migration (without we suppose, with
+extreme improbability, that each species with an Indo-Asiatic character
+has actually travelled from the Asiatic shores, where such species do
+not now exist) explains this Asiatic character in the plants of the
+Pacific. This is no more obvious than that (as before remarked) there
+should exist a relation between the creation of closely allied species
+in several regions of the world, and the fact of many such species
+having wide ranges; and on the other hand, of allied species confined to
+one region of the world having in that region narrow ranges.
+
+     {359} "The affinities of the St Helena flora are strongly South
+     African." Hooker's _Lecture on Insular Floras_ in the _Gardeners'
+     Chronicle_, Jan. 1867.
+
+     {360} It is impossible to make out the precise form which the
+     author intended to give to this sentence, but the meaning is clear.
+
+     {361} This is no doubt true, the flora of the Sandwich group
+     however has marked American affinities.
+
+
+_Alpine Floras._
+
+We will now turn to the floras of mountain-summits which are well known
+to differ from the floras of the neighbouring lowlands. In certain
+characters, such as dwarfness of stature, hairiness, &c., the species
+from the most distant mountains frequently resemble each other,--a kind
+of analogy like that for instance of the succulency of most desert
+plants. Besides this analogy, Alpine plants present some eminently
+curious facts in their distribution. In some cases the summits of
+mountains, although immensely distant from each other, are clothed by
+the same identical species{362} which are likewise the same with those
+growing on the likewise very distant Arctic shores. In other cases,
+although few or none of the species may be actually identical, they are
+closely related; whilst the plants of the lowland districts surrounding
+the two mountains in question will be wholly dissimilar. As
+mountain-summits, as far as their plants are concerned, are islands
+rising out of an ocean of land in which the Alpine species cannot live,
+nor across which is there any known means of transport, this fact
+appears directly opposed to the conclusion which we have come to from
+considering the general distribution of organisms both on continents and
+on islands--namely, that the degree of relationship between the
+inhabitants of two points depends on the completeness and nature of the
+barriers between those points{363}. I believe, however, this anomalous
+case admits, as we shall presently see, of some explanation. We might
+have expected that the flora of a mountain summit would have presented
+the same relation to the flora of the surrounding lowland country, which
+any isolated part of a continent does to the whole, or an island does to
+the mainland, from which it is separated by a rather wide space of sea.
+This in fact is the case with the plants clothing the summits of _some_
+mountains, which mountains it may be observed are particularly isolated;
+for instance, all the species are peculiar, but they belong to the forms
+characteristic of the surrounding continent, on the mountains of
+Caraccas, of Van Dieman's Land and of the Cape of Good Hope{364}. On
+some other mountains, for instance <in> Tierra del Fuego and in Brazil,
+some of the plants though distinct species are S. American forms; whilst
+others are allied to or are identical with the Alpine species of Europe.
+In islands of which the lowland flora is distinct <from> but allied to
+that of the nearest continent, the Alpine plants are sometimes (or
+perhaps mostly) eminently peculiar and distinct{365}; this is the case
+on Teneriffe, and in a lesser degree even on some of the Mediterranean
+islands.
+
+     {362} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515. The present
+     discussion was written before the publication of Forbes' celebrated
+     paper on the same subject; see _Life and Letters_, vol. I. p. 88.
+
+     {363} The apparent breakdown of the doctrine of barriers is
+     slightly touched on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 365, vi. p. 515.
+
+     {364} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 375, vi. p. 526, the author points
+     out that on the mountains at the Cape of Good Hope "some few
+     representative European forms are found, which have not been
+     discovered in the inter-tropical parts of Africa."
+
+     {365} See Hooker's _Lecture on Insular Floras_ in the _Gardeners'
+     Chronicle_, Jan. 1867.
+
+If all Alpine floras had been characterised like that of the mountain of
+Caraccas, or of Van Dieman's Land, &c., whatever explanation is possible
+of the general laws of geographical distribution would have applied to
+them. But the apparently anomalous case just given, namely of the
+mountains of Europe, of some mountains in the United States (Dr Boott)
+and of the summits of the Himalaya (Royle), having many identical
+species in common conjointly with the Arctic regions, and many species,
+though not identical, closely allied, require a separate explanation.
+The fact likewise of several of the species on the mountains of Tierra
+del Fuego (and in a lesser degree on the mountains of Brazil) not
+belonging to American forms, but to those of Europe, though so immensely
+remote, requires also a separate explanation.
+
+
+_Cause of the similarity in the floras of some distant mountains._
+
+Now we may with confidence affirm, from the number of the then floating
+icebergs and low descent of the glaciers, that within a period so near
+that species of shells have remained the same, the whole of Central
+Europe and of North America (and perhaps of Eastern Asia) possessed a
+very cold climate; and therefore it is probable that the floras of these
+districts were the same as the present Arctic one,--as is known to have
+been to some degree the case with then existing sea-shells, and those
+now living on the Arctic shores. At this period the mountains must have
+been covered with ice of which we have evidence in the surfaces polished
+and scored by glaciers. What then would be the natural and almost
+inevitable effects of the gradual change into the present more temperate
+climate{366}? The ice and snow would disappear from the mountains, and
+as new plants from the more temperate regions of the south migrated
+northward, replacing the Arctic plants, these latter would crawl{367} up
+the now uncovered mountains, and likewise be driven northward to the
+present Arctic shores. If the Arctic flora of that period was a nearly
+uniform one, as the present one is, then we should have the same plants
+on these mountain-summits and on the present Arctic shores. On this view
+the Arctic flora of that period must have been a widely extended one,
+more so than even the present one; but considering how similar the
+physical conditions must always be of land bordering on perpetual frost,
+this does not appear a great difficulty; and may we not venture to
+suppose that the almost infinitely numerous icebergs, charged with
+great masses of rocks, soil and _brushwood_{368} and often driven high
+up on distant beaches, might have been the means of widely distributing
+the seeds of the same species?
+
+     {366} In the margin the author has written "(Forbes)." This may
+     have been inserted at a date later than 1844, or it may refer to a
+     work by Forbes earlier than his Alpine paper.
+
+     {367} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 367, vi. p. 517.
+
+     {368} <Note in original.> Perhaps vitality checked by cold and so
+     prevented germinating. <On the carriage of seeds by icebergs, see
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 363, vi. p. 513.>
+
+I will only hazard one other observation, namely that during the change
+from an extremely cold climate to a more temperate one the conditions,
+both on lowland and mountain, would be singularly favourable for the
+diffusion of any existing plants, which could live on land, just freed
+from the rigour of eternal winter; for it would possess no inhabitants;
+and we cannot doubt that _preoccupation_{369} is the chief bar to the
+diffusion of plants. For amongst many other facts, how otherwise can we
+explain the circumstance that the plants on the opposite, though
+similarly constituted sides of a wide river in Eastern Europe (as I was
+informed by Humboldt) should be widely different; across which river
+birds, swimming quadrupeds and the wind must often transport seeds; we
+can only suppose that plants already occupying the soil and freely
+seeding check the germination of occasionally transported seeds.
+
+     {369} A note by the author gives "many authors" apparently as
+     authority for this statement.
+
+At about the same period when icebergs were transporting boulders in N.
+America as far as 36 deg. south, where the cotton tree now grows in South
+America, in latitude 42 deg. (where the land is now clothed with forests
+having an almost tropical aspect with the trees bearing epiphytes and
+intertwined with canes), the same ice action was going on; is it not
+then in some degree probable that at this period the whole tropical
+parts of the two Americas possessed{370} (as Falconer asserts that
+India did) a more temperate climate? In this case the Alpine plants of
+the long chain of the Cordillera would have descended much lower and
+there would have been a broad high-road{371} connecting those parts of
+North and South America which were then frigid. As the present climate
+supervened, the plants occupying the districts which now are become in
+both hemispheres temperate and even semi-tropical must have been driven
+to the Arctic and Antarctic{372} regions; and only a few of the loftiest
+points of the Cordillera can have retained their former connecting
+flora. The transverse chain of Chiquitos might perhaps in a similar
+manner during the ice-action period have served as a connecting road
+(though a broken one) for Alpine plants to become dispersed from the
+Cordillera to the highlands of Brazil. It may be observed that some
+(though not strong) reasons can be assigned for believing that at about
+this same period the two Americas were not so thoroughly divided as they
+now are by the West Indies and tableland of Mexico. I will only further
+remark that the present most singularly close similarity in the
+vegetation of the lowlands of Kerguelen's Land{373} and of Tierra del
+Fuego (Hooker), though so far apart, may perhaps be explained by the
+dissemination of seeds during this same cold period, by means of
+icebergs, as before alluded to{374}.
+
+     {370} Opposite to this passage, in the margin, the author has
+     written:--"too hypothetical."
+
+     {371} The Cordillera is described as supplying a great line of
+     invasion in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 378.
+
+     {372} This is an approximation to the author's views on
+     trans-tropical migration (_Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 376-8). See
+     Thiselton-Dyer's interesting discussion in _Darwin and Modern
+     Science_, p. 304.
+
+     {373} See Hooker's _Lecture on Insular Floras_ in the _Gardeners'
+     Chronicle_, Jan. 1867.
+
+     {374} <Note by the author.> Similarity of flora of coral islands
+     easily explained.
+
+Finally, I think we may safely grant from the foregoing facts and
+reasoning that the anomalous similarity in the vegetation of certain
+very distant mountain-summits is not in truth opposed to the conclusion
+of the intimate relation subsisting between proximity in space (in
+accordance with the means of transport in each class) and the degree of
+affinity of the inhabitants of any two countries. In the case of several
+quite isolated mountains, we have seen that the general law holds good.
+
+
+_Whether the same species has been created more than once._
+
+As the fact of the same species of plants having been found on
+mountain-summits immensely remote has been one chief cause of the belief
+of some species having been contemporaneously produced or created at two
+different points{375}, I will here briefly discuss this subject. On the
+ordinary theory of creation, we can see no reason why on two similar
+mountain-summits two similar species may not have been created; but the
+opposite view, independently of its simplicity, has been generally
+received from the analogy of the general distribution of all organisms,
+in which (as shown in this chapter) we almost always find that great and
+continuous barriers separate distinct series; and we are naturally led
+to suppose that the two series have been separately created. When taking
+a more limited view we see a river, with a quite similar country on both
+sides, with one side well stocked with a certain animal and on the other
+side not one (as is the case with the Bizcacha{376} on the opposite
+sides of the Plata), we are at once led to conclude that the Bizcacha
+was produced on some one point or area on the western side of the
+river. Considering our ignorance of the many strange chances of
+diffusion by birds (which occasionally wander to immense distances) and
+quadrupeds swallowing seeds and ova (as in the case of the flying
+water-beetle which disgorged the eggs of a fish), and of whirlwinds
+carrying seeds and animals into strong upper currents (as in the case of
+volcanic ashes and showers of hay, grain and fish{377}), and of the
+possibility of species having survived for short periods at intermediate
+spots and afterwards becoming extinct there{378}; and considering our
+knowledge of the great changes which _have_ taken place from subsidence
+and elevation in the surface of the earth, and of our ignorance of the
+greater changes which _may have_ taken place, we ought to be very slow
+in admitting the probability of double creations. In the case of plants
+on mountain-summits, I think I have shown how almost necessarily they
+would, under the past conditions of the northern hemisphere, be as
+similar as are the plants on the present Arctic shores; and this ought
+to teach us a lesson of caution.
+
+     {375} On centres of creation see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p.
+     499.
+
+     {376} In the _Journal of Researches_, Ed. 1860, p. 124, the
+     distribution of the Bizcacha is described as limited by the river
+     Uruguay. The case is not I think given in the _Origin_.
+
+     {377} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. a special section (p. 356, vi. p.
+     504) is devoted to _Means of Dispersal_. The much greater
+     prominence given to this subject in the _Origin_ is partly
+     accounted for by the author's experiments being of later date,
+     _i.e._ 1855 (_Life and Letters_, vol. II. p. 53). The carriage of
+     fish by whirlwinds is given in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 384, vi. p.
+     536.
+
+     {378} The case of islands serving as halting places is given in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 357, vi. p. 505. But here the evidence of this
+     having occurred is supposed to be lost by the subsidence of the
+     islands, not merely by the extinction of the species.
+
+But the strongest argument against double creations may be drawn from
+considering the case of mammifers{379} in which, from their nature and
+from the size of their offspring, the means of distribution are more in
+view. There are no cases where the same species is found in _very
+remote_ localities, except where there is a continuous belt of land:
+the Arctic region perhaps offers the strongest exception, and here we
+know that animals are transported on icebergs{380}. The cases of lesser
+difficulty may all receive a more or less simple explanation; I will
+give only one instance; the nutria{381}, I believe, on the eastern coast
+of S. America live exclusively in fresh-water rivers, and I was much
+surprised how they could have got into rivulets, widely apart, on the
+coast of Patagonia; but on the opposite coast I found these quadrupeds
+living exclusively in the sea, and hence their migration along the
+Patagonian coast is not surprising. There is no case of the same
+mammifer being found on an island far from the coast, and on the
+mainland, as happens with plants{382}. On the idea of double creations
+it would be strange if the same species of several plants should have
+been created in Australia and Europe; and no one instance of the same
+species of mammifer having been created, or aboriginally existing, in
+two as nearly remote and equally isolated points. It is more
+philosophical, in such cases, as that of some plants being found in
+Australia and Europe, to admit that we are ignorant of the means of
+transport. I will allude only to one other case, namely, that of the
+Mydas{383}, an Alpine animal, found only on the distant peaks of the
+mountains of Java: who will pretend to deny that during the ice period
+of the northern and southern hemispheres, and when India is believed to
+have been colder, the climate might not have permitted this animal to
+haunt a lower country, and thus to have passed along the ridges from
+summit to summit? Mr Lyell has further observed that, _as in space, so
+in time_, there is no reason to believe that after the extinction of a
+species, the self-same form has ever reappeared{384}. I think, then, we
+may, notwithstanding the many cases of difficulty, conclude with some
+confidence that every species has been created or produced on a single
+point or area.
+
+     {379} "We find no inexplicable cases of the same mammal inhabiting
+     distant points of the world." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 500.
+     See also _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.
+
+     {380} <Note by the author.> Many authors. <See _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     394, vi. p. 547.>
+
+     {381} _Nutria_ is the Spanish for otter, and is now a synonym for
+     _Lutra_. The otter on the Atlantic coast is distinguished by minute
+     differences from the Pacific species. Both forms are said to take
+     to the sea. In fact the case presents no especial difficulties.
+
+     {382} In _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 548, bats are mentioned as
+     an explicable exception to this statement.
+
+     {383} This reference is doubtless to _Mydaus_, a badger-like animal
+     from the mountains of Java and Sumatra (Wallace, _Geographical
+     Distribution_, ii. p. 199). The instance does not occur in the
+     _Origin_ but the author remarks (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 376, vi. p.
+     527) that cases, strictly analogous to the distribution of plants,
+     occur among terrestrial mammals.
+
+     {384} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.
+
+
+_On the number of species, and of the classes to which they belong in
+different regions._
+
+The last fact in geographical distribution, which, as far as I can see,
+in any way concerns the origin of species, relates to the absolute
+number and nature of the organic beings inhabiting different tracts of
+land. Although every species is admirably adapted (but not necessarily
+better adapted than every other species, as we have seen in the great
+increase of introduced species) to the country and station it frequents;
+yet it has been shown that the entire difference between the species in
+distant countries cannot possibly be explained by the difference of the
+physical conditions of these countries. In the same manner, I believe,
+neither the number of the species, nor the nature of the great classes
+to which they belong, can possibly in all cases be explained by the
+conditions of their country. New Zealand{385}, a linear island
+stretching over about 700 miles of latitude, with forests, marshes,
+plains and mountains reaching to the limits of eternal snow, has far
+more diversified habitats than an equal area at the Cape of Good Hope;
+and yet, I believe, at the Cape of Good Hope there are, of phanerogamic
+plants, from five to ten times the number of species as in all New
+Zealand. Why on the theory of absolute creations should this large and
+diversified island only have from 400 to 500 (? Dieffenbach)
+phanerogamic plants? and why should the Cape of Good Hope, characterised
+by the uniformity of its scenery, swarm with more species of plants than
+probably any other quarter of the world? Why on the ordinary theory
+should the Galapagos Islands abound with terrestrial reptiles? and why
+should many equal-sized islands in the Pacific be without a single
+one{386} or with only one or two species? Why should the great island of
+New Zealand be without one mammiferous quadruped except the mouse, and
+that was probably introduced with the aborigines? Why should not one
+island (it can be shown, I think, that the mammifers of Mauritius and St
+Iago have all been introduced) in the open ocean possess a mammiferous
+quadruped? Let it not be said that quadrupeds cannot live in islands,
+for we know that cattle, horses and pigs during a long period have run
+wild in the West Indian and Falkland Islands; pigs at St Helena; goats
+at Tahiti; asses in the Canary Islands; dogs in Cuba; cats at Ascension;
+rabbits at Madeira and the Falklands; monkeys at St Iago and the
+Mauritius; even elephants during a long time in one of the very small
+Sooloo Islands; and European mice on very many of the smallest islands
+far from the habitations of man{387}. Nor let it be assumed that
+quadrupeds are more slowly created and hence that the oceanic islands,
+which generally are of volcanic formation, are of too recent origin to
+possess them; for we know (Lyell) that new forms of quadrupeds succeed
+each other quicker than Mollusca or Reptilia. Nor let it be assumed
+(though such an assumption would be no explanation) that quadrupeds
+cannot be created on small islands; for islands not lying in mid-ocean
+do possess their peculiar quadrupeds; thus many of the smaller islands
+of the East Indian Archipelago possess quadrupeds; as does Fernando Po
+on the West Coast of Africa; as the Falkland Islands possess a peculiar
+wolf-like fox{388}; so do the Galapagos Islands a peculiar mouse of the
+S. American type. These two last are the most remarkable cases with
+which I am acquainted; inasmuch as the islands lie further from other
+land. It is possible that the Galapagos mouse may have been introduced
+in some ship from the S. American coast (though the species is at
+present unknown there), for the aboriginal species soon haunts the goods
+of man, as I noticed in the roof of a newly erected shed in a desert
+country south of the Plata. The Falkland Islands, though between 200 and
+300 miles from the S. American coast, may in one sense be considered as
+intimately connected with it; for it is certain that formerly many
+icebergs loaded with boulders were stranded on its southern coast, and
+the old canoes which are occasionally now stranded, show that the
+currents still set from Tierra del Fuego. This fact, however, does not
+explain the presence of the _Canis antarcticus_ on the Falkland Islands,
+unless we suppose that it formerly lived on the mainland and became
+extinct there, whilst it survived on these islands, to which it was
+borne (as happens with its northern congener, the common wolf) on an
+iceberg, but this fact removes the anomaly of an island, in appearance
+effectually separated from other land, having its own species of
+quadruped, and makes the case like that of Java and Sumatra, each having
+their own rhinoceros.
+
+     {385} The comparison between New Zealand and the Cape is given in
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.
+
+     {386} In a corresponding discussion in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393,
+     vi. p. 546, stress is laid on the distribution of Batrachians not
+     of reptiles.
+
+     {387} The whole argument is given--more briefly than here--in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 394, vi. p. 547.
+
+     {388} See _Origin_, Ed i. p. 393, vi. p. 547. The discussion is
+     much fuller in the present Essay.
+
+Before summing up all the facts given in this section on the present
+condition of organic beings, and endeavouring to see how far they admit
+of explanation, it will be convenient to state all such facts in the
+past geographical distribution of extinct beings as seem anyway to
+concern the theory of descent.
+
+
+SECTION SECOND.
+
+
+_Geographical distribution of extinct organisms._
+
+I have stated that if the land of the entire world be divided into (we
+will say) three sections, according to the amount of difference of the
+terrestrial mammifers inhabiting them, we shall have three unequal
+divisions of (1st) Australia and its dependent islands, (2nd) South
+America, (3rd) Europe, Asia and Africa. If we now look to the mammifers
+which inhabited these three divisions during the later Tertiary periods,
+we shall find them almost as distinct as at the present day, and
+intimately related in each division to the existing forms in that
+division{389}. This is wonderfully the case with the several fossil
+Marsupial genera in the caverns of New South Wales and even more
+wonderfully so in South America, where we have the same peculiar group
+of monkeys, of a guanaco-like animal, of many rodents, of the Marsupial
+Didelphys, of Armadilloes and other Edentata. This last family is at
+present very characteristic of S. America, and in a late Tertiary epoch
+it was even more so, as is shown by the numerous enormous animals of the
+Megatheroid family, some of which were protected by an osseous armour
+like that, but on a gigantic scale, of the recent Armadillo. Lastly,
+over Europe the remains of the several deer, oxen, bears, foxes,
+beavers, field-mice, show a relation to the present inhabitants of this
+region; and the contemporaneous remains of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+hippopotamus, hyaena, show a relation with the grand Africo-Asiatic
+division of the world. In Asia the fossil mammifers of the Himalaya
+(though mingled with forms long extinct in Europe) are equally related
+to the existing forms of the Africo-Asiatic division; but especially to
+those of India itself. As the gigantic and now extinct quadrupeds of
+Europe have naturally excited more attention than the other and smaller
+remains, the relation between the past and the present mammiferous
+inhabitants of Europe has not been sufficiently attended to. But in fact
+the mammifers of Europe are at present nearly as much Africo-Asiatic as
+they were formerly when Europe had its elephants and rhinoceroses, etc.;
+Europe neither now nor then possessed peculiar groups as does Australia
+and S. America. The extinction of certain peculiar forms in one quarter
+does not make the remaining mammifers of that quarter less related to
+its own great division of the world: though Tierra del Fuego possesses
+only a fox, three rodents, and the guanaco, no one (as these all belong
+to S. American types, but not to the most characteristic forms) would
+doubt for one minute <as to> classifying this district with S. America;
+and if fossil Edentata, Marsupials and monkeys were to be found in
+Tierra del Fuego, it would not make this district more truly S. American
+than it now is. So it is with Europe{390}, and so far as is known with
+Asia, for the lately past and present mammifers all belong to the
+Africo-Asiatic division of the world. In every case, I may add, the
+forms which a country has is of more importance in geographical
+arrangement than what it has not.
+
+     {389} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485.
+
+     {390} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 339, vi. p. 485, which corresponds
+     to this part of the present Essay, the author does not make a
+     separate section for such cases as the occurrence of fossil
+     Marsupials in Europe (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486) as he
+     does in the present Essay; see the section on _Changes in
+     geographical distribution_, p. 177.
+
+We find some evidence of the same general fact in a relation between the
+recent and the Tertiary sea-shells, in the different main divisions of
+the marine world.
+
+This general and most remarkable relation between the lately past and
+present mammiferous inhabitants of the three main divisions of the world
+is precisely the same kind of fact as the relation between the different
+species of the several sub-regions of any one of the main divisions. As
+we usually associate great physical changes with the total extinction of
+one series of beings, and its succession by another series, this
+identity of relation between the past and the present races of beings in
+the same quarters of the globe is more striking than the same relation
+between existing beings in different sub-regions: but in truth we have
+no reason for supposing that a change in the conditions has in any of
+these cases supervened, greater than that now existing between the
+temperate and tropical, or between the highlands and lowlands of the
+same main divisions, now tenanted by related beings. Finally, then, we
+clearly see that in each main division of the world the same relation
+holds good between its inhabitants in time as over space{391}.
+
+     {391} "We can understand how it is that all the forms of life,
+     ancient and recent, make together one grand system; for all are
+     connected by generation." _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 344, vi. p. 491.
+
+
+_Changes in geographical distribution._
+
+If, however, we look closer, we shall find that even Australia, in
+possessing a terrestrial Pachyderm, was so far less distinct from the
+rest of the world than it now is; so was S. America in possessing the
+Mastodon, horse, [hyaena,]{392} and antelope. N. America, as I have
+remarked, is now, in its mammifers, in some respects neutral ground
+between S. America and the great Africo-Asiatic division; formerly, in
+possessing the horse, Mastodon and three Megatheroid animals, it was
+more nearly related to S. America; but in the horse and Mastodon, and
+likewise in having the elephant, oxen, sheep, and pigs, it was as much,
+if not more, related to the Africo-Asiatic division. Again, northern
+India was much more closely related (in having the giraffe,
+hippopotamus, and certain musk-deer) to southern Africa than it now is;
+for southern and eastern Africa deserve, if we divide the world into
+five parts, to make one division by itself. Turning to the dawn of the
+Tertiary period, we must, from our ignorance of other portions of the
+world, confine ourselves to Europe; and at that period, in the presence
+of Marsupials{393} and Edentata, we behold an _entire_ blending of those
+mammiferous forms which now eminently characterise Australia and S.
+America{394}.
+
+     {392} The word _hyaena_ is erased. There appear to be no fossil
+     Hyaenidae in S. America.
+
+     {393} See note 1{390}, p. 175, also _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486.
+
+     {394} <Note by the author.> And see Eocene European mammals in
+     N. America.
+
+If we now look at the distribution of sea-shells, we find the same
+changes in distribution. The Red Sea and the Mediterranean were more
+nearly related in these shells than they now are. In different parts of
+Europe, on the other hand, during the Miocene period, the sea-shells
+seem to have been more different than at present. In{395} the Tertiary
+period, according to Lyell, the shells of N. America and Europe were
+less related than at present, and during the Cretaceous still less like;
+whereas, during this same Cretaceous period, the shells of India and
+Europe were more like than at present. But going further back to the
+Carbonaceous period, in N. America and Europe, the productions were much
+more like than they now are{396}. These facts harmonise with the
+conclusions drawn from the present distribution of organic beings, for
+we have seen, that from species being created in different points or
+areas, the formation of a barrier would cause or make two distinct
+geographical areas; and the destruction of a barrier would permit their
+diffusion{397}. And as long-continued geological changes must both
+destroy and make barriers, we might expect, the further we looked
+backwards, the more changed should we find the present distribution.
+This conclusion is worthy of attention; because, finding in widely
+different parts of the same main division of the world, and in volcanic
+islands near them, groups of distinct, but related, species;--and
+finding that a singularly analogous relation holds good with respect to
+the beings of past times, when none of the present species were living,
+a person might be tempted to believe in some mystical relation between
+certain areas of the world, and the production of certain organic forms;
+but we now see that such an assumption would have to be complicated by
+the admission that such a relation, though holding good for long
+revolutions of years, is not truly persistent.
+
+     {395} <Note by the author.> All this requires much verification.
+
+     {396} This point seems to be less insisted on in the _Origin_.
+
+     {397} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 356, vi. p. 504.
+
+I will only add one more observation to this section. Geologists
+finding in the most remote period with which we are acquainted, namely
+in the Silurian period, that the shells and other marine
+productions{398} in North and South America, in Europe, Southern Africa,
+and Western Asia, are much more similar than they now are at these
+distant points, appear to have imagined that in these ancient times the
+laws of geographical distribution were quite different than what they
+now are: but we have only to suppose that great continents were extended
+east and west, and thus did not divide the inhabitants of the temperate
+and tropical seas, as the continents now do; and it would then become
+probable that the inhabitants of the seas would be much more similar
+than they now are. In the immense space of ocean extending from the east
+coast of Africa to the eastern islands of the Pacific, which space is
+connected either by lines of tropical coast or by islands not very
+distant from each other, we know (Cuming) that many shells, perhaps even
+as many as 200, are common to the Zanzibar coast, the Philippines, and
+the eastern islands of the Low or Dangerous Archipelago in the Pacific.
+This space equals that from the Arctic to the Antarctic pole! Pass over
+the space of quite open ocean, from the Dangerous Archipelago to the
+west coast of S. America, and every shell is different: pass over the
+narrow space of S. America, to its eastern shores, and again every shell
+is different! Many fish, I may add, are also common to the Pacific and
+Indian Oceans.
+
+     {398} <Note by the author.> D'Orbigny shows that this is not so.
+
+
+_Summary on the distribution of living and extinct organic beings._
+
+Let us sum up the several facts now given with respect to the past and
+present geographical distribution of organic beings. In a previous
+chapter it was shown that species are not exterminated by universal
+catastrophes, and that they are slowly produced: we have also seen that
+each species is probably only once produced, on one point or area once
+in time; and that each diffuses itself, as far as barriers and its
+conditions of life permit. If we look at any one main division of the
+land, we find in the different parts, whether exposed to different
+conditions or to the same conditions, many groups of species wholly or
+nearly distinct as species, nevertheless intimately related. We find the
+inhabitants of islands, though distinct as species, similarly related to
+the inhabitants of the nearest continent; we find in some cases, that
+even the different islands of one such group are inhabited by species
+distinct, though intimately related to one another and to those of the
+nearest continent:--thus typifying the distribution of organic beings
+over the whole world. We find the floras of distant mountain-summits
+either very similar (which seems to admit, as shown, of a simple
+explanation) or very distinct but related to the floras of the
+surrounding region; and hence, in this latter case, the floras of two
+mountain-summits, although exposed to closely similar conditions, will
+be very different. On the mountain-summits of islands, characterised by
+peculiar faunas and floras, the plants are often eminently peculiar. The
+dissimilarity of the organic beings inhabiting nearly similar countries
+is best seen by comparing the main divisions of the world; in each of
+which some districts may be found very similarly exposed, yet the
+inhabitants are wholly unlike;--far more unlike than those in very
+dissimilar districts in the same main division. We see this strikingly
+in comparing two volcanic archipelagoes, with nearly the same climate,
+but situated not very far from two different continents; in which case
+their inhabitants are totally unlike. In the different main divisions of
+the world, the amount of difference between the organisms, even in the
+same class, is widely different, each main division having only the
+species distinct in some families, in other families having the genera
+distinct. The distribution of aquatic organisms is very different from
+that of the terrestrial organisms; and necessarily so, from the barriers
+to their progress being quite unlike. The nature of the conditions in an
+isolated district will not explain the number of species inhabiting it;
+nor the absence of one class or the presence of another class. We find
+that terrestrial mammifers are not present on islands far removed from
+other land. We see in two regions, that the species though distinct are
+more or less related, according to the greater or less _possibility_ of
+the transportal in past and present times of species from one to the
+other region; although we can hardly admit that all the species in such
+cases have been transported from the first to the second region, and
+since have become extinct in the first: we see this law in the presence
+of the fox on the Falkland Islands; in the European character of some of
+the plants of Tierra del Fuego; in the Indo-Asiatic character of the
+plants of the Pacific; and in the circumstance of those genera which
+range widest having many species with wide ranges; and those genera with
+restricted ranges having species with restricted ranges. Finally, we
+find in each of the main divisions of the land, and probably of the sea,
+that the existing organisms are related to those lately extinct.
+
+Looking further backwards we see that the past geographical distribution
+of organic beings was different from the present; and indeed,
+considering that geology shows that all our land was once under water,
+and that where water now extends land is forming, the reverse could
+hardly have been possible.
+
+Now these several facts, though evidently all more or less connected
+together, must by the creationist (though the geologist may explain some
+of the anomalies) be considered as so many ultimate facts. He can only
+say, that it so pleased the Creator that the organic beings of the
+plains, deserts, mountains, tropical and temperature forests, of S.
+America, should all have some affinity together; that the inhabitants of
+the Galapagos Archipelago should be related to those of Chile; and that
+some of the species on the similarly constituted islands of this
+archipelago, though most closely related, should be distinct; that all
+its inhabitants should be totally unlike those of the similarly volcanic
+and arid Cape de Verde and Canary Islands; that the plants on the summit
+of Teneriffe should be eminently peculiar; that the diversified island
+of New Zealand should have not many plants, and not one, or only one,
+mammifer; that the mammifers of S. America, Australia and Europe should
+be clearly related to their ancient and exterminated prototypes; and so
+on with other facts. But it is absolutely opposed to every analogy,
+drawn from the laws imposed by the Creator on inorganic matter, that
+facts, when connected, should be considered as ultimate and not the
+direct consequences of more general laws.
+
+
+SECTION THIRD.
+
+
+_An attempt to explain the foregoing laws of geographical distribution,
+on the theory of allied species having a common descent._
+
+First let us recall the circumstances most favourable for variation
+under domestication, as given in the first chapter--viz. 1st, a change,
+or repeated changes, in the conditions to which the organism has been
+exposed, continued through several seminal (_i.e._ not by buds or
+divisions) generations: 2nd, steady selection of the slight varieties
+thus generated with a fixed end in view: 3rd, isolation as perfect as
+possible of such selected varieties; that is, the preventing their
+crossing with other forms; this latter condition applies to all
+terrestrial animals, to most if not all plants and perhaps even to most
+(or all) aquatic organisms. It will be convenient here to show the
+advantage of isolation in the formation of a new breed, by comparing the
+progress of two persons (to neither of whom let time be of any
+consequence) endeavouring to select and form some very peculiar new
+breed. Let one of these persons work on the vast herds of cattle in the
+plains of La Plata{399}, and the other on a small stock of 20 or 30
+animals in an island. The latter might have to wait centuries (by the
+hypothesis of no importance){400} before he obtained a "sport"
+approaching to what he wanted; but when he did and saved the greater
+number of its offspring and their offspring again, he might hope that
+his whole little stock would be in some degree affected, so that by
+continued selection he might gain his end. But on the Pampas, though
+the man might get his first approach to his desired form sooner, how
+hopeless would it be to attempt, by saving its offspring amongst so many
+of the common kind, to affect the whole herd: the effect of this one
+peculiar "sport{401}" would be quite lost before he could obtain a
+second original sport of the same kind. If, however, he could separate a
+small number of cattle, including the offspring of the desirable
+"sport," he might hope, like the man on the island, to effect his end.
+If there be organic beings of which two individuals _never_ unite, then
+simple selection whether on a continent or island would be equally
+serviceable to make a new and desirable breed; and this new breed might
+be made in surprisingly few years from the great and geometrical powers
+of propagation to beat out the old breed; as has happened
+(notwithstanding crossing) where good breeds of dogs and pigs have been
+introduced into a limited country,--for instance, into the islands of
+the Pacific.
+
+     {399} This instance occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 32, but not in
+     the _Origin_; though the importance of isolation is discussed
+     (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 104, vi. p. 127).
+
+     {400} The meaning of the words within parenthesis is obscure.
+
+     {401} It is unusual to find the author speaking of the selection of
+     _sports_ rather than small variations.
+
+Let us now take the simplest natural case of an islet upheaved by the
+volcanic or subterranean forces in a deep sea, at such a distance from
+other land that only a few organic beings at rare intervals were
+transported to it, whether borne by the sea{402} (like the seeds of
+plants to coral-reefs), or by hurricanes, or by floods, or on rafts, or
+in roots of large trees, or the germs of one plant or animal attached to
+or in the stomach of some other animal, or by the intervention (in most
+cases the most probable means) of other islands since sunk or destroyed.
+It may be remarked that when one part of the earth's crust is raised it
+is probably the general rule that another part sinks. Let this island
+go on slowly, century after century, rising foot by foot; and in the
+course of time we shall have instead <of> a small mass of rock{403},
+lowland and highland, moist woods and dry sandy spots, various soils,
+marshes, streams and pools: under water on the sea shore, instead of a
+rocky steeply shelving coast, we shall have in some parts bays with mud,
+sandy beaches and rocky shoals. The formation of the island by itself
+must often slightly affect the surrounding climate. It is impossible
+that the first few transported organisms could be perfectly adapted to
+all these stations; and it will be a chance if those successively
+transported will be so adapted. The greater number would probably come
+from the lowlands of the nearest country; and not even all these would
+be perfectly adapted to the new islet whilst it continued low and
+exposed to coast influences. Moreover, as it is certain that all
+organisms are nearly as much adapted in their structure to the other
+inhabitants of their country as they are to its physical conditions, so
+the mere fact that a _few_ beings (and these taken in great degree by
+chance) were in the first case transported to the islet, would in itself
+greatly modify their conditions{404}. As the island continued rising we
+might also expect an occasional new visitant; and I repeat that even one
+new being must often affect beyond our calculation by occupying the room
+and taking part of the subsistence of another (and this again from
+another and so on), several or many other organisms. Now as the first
+transported and any occasional successive visitants spread or tended to
+spread over the growing island, they would undoubtedly be exposed
+through several generations to new and varying conditions: it might also
+easily happen that some of the species _on an average_ might obtain an
+increase of food, or food of a more nourishing quality{405}. According
+then to every analogy with what we have seen takes place in every
+country, with nearly every organic being under domestication, we might
+expect that some of the inhabitants of the island would "sport," or have
+their organization rendered in some degree plastic. As the number of the
+inhabitants are supposed to be few and as all these cannot be so well
+adapted to their new and varying conditions as they were in their native
+country and habitat, we cannot believe that every place or office in the
+economy of the island would be as well filled as on a continent where
+the number of aboriginal species is far greater and where they
+consequently hold a more strictly limited place. We might therefore
+expect on our island that although very many slight variations were of
+no use to the plastic individuals, yet that occasionally in the course
+of a century an individual might be born{406} of which the structure or
+constitution in some slight degree would allow it better to fill up some
+office in the insular economy and to struggle against other species. If
+such were the case the individual and its offspring would have a better
+_chance_ of surviving and of beating out its parent form; and if (as is
+probable) it and its offspring crossed with the unvaried parent form,
+yet the number of the individuals being not very great, there would be a
+chance of the new and more serviceable form being nevertheless in some
+slight degree preserved. The struggle for existence would go on annually
+selecting such individuals until a new race or species was formed.
+Either few or all the first visitants to the island might become
+modified, according as the physical conditions of the island and those
+resulting from the kind and number of other transported species were
+different from those of the parent country--according to the
+difficulties offered to fresh immigration--and according to the length
+of time since the first inhabitants were introduced. It is obvious that
+whatever was the country, generally the nearest from which the first
+tenants were transported, they would show an affinity, even if all had
+become modified, to the natives of that country and even if the
+inhabitants of the same source (?) had been modified. On this view we
+can at once understand the cause and meaning of the affinity of the
+fauna and flora of the Galapagos Islands with that of the coast of S.
+America; and consequently why the inhabitants of these islands show not
+the smallest affinity with those inhabiting other volcanic islands, with
+a very similar climate and soil, near the coast of Africa{407}.
+
+     {402} This brief discussion is represented in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     by a much fuller one (pp. 356, 383, vi. pp. 504, 535). See,
+     however, the section in the present Essay, p. 168.
+
+     {403} On the formation of new stations, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     292, vi. p. 429.
+
+     {404} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 390, 400, vi. pp. 543, 554.
+
+     {405} In the MS. _some of the species ... nourishing quality_ is
+     doubtfully erased. It seems clear that he doubted whether such a
+     problematical supply of food would be likely to cause variation.
+
+     {406} At this time the author clearly put more faith in the
+     importance of sport-like variation than in later years.
+
+     {407} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 398, vi. p. 553.
+
+To return once again to our island, if by the continued action of the
+subterranean forces other neighbouring islands were formed, these would
+generally be stocked by the inhabitants of the first island, or by a few
+immigrants from the neighbouring mainland; but if considerable obstacles
+were interposed to any communication between the terrestrial productions
+of these islands, and their conditions were different (perhaps only by
+the number of different species on each island), a form transported from
+one island to another might become altered in the same manner as one
+from the continent; and we should have several of the islands tenanted
+by representative races or species, as is so wonderfully the case with
+the different islands of the Galapagos Archipelago. As the islands
+become mountainous, if mountain-species were not introduced, as could
+rarely happen, a greater amount of variation and selection would be
+requisite to adapt the species, which originally came from the lowlands
+of the nearest continent, to the mountain-summits than to the lower
+districts of our islands. For the lowland species from the continent
+would have first to struggle against other species and other conditions
+on the coast-land of the island, and so probably become modified by the
+selection of its best fitted varieties, then to undergo the same process
+when the land had attained a moderate elevation; and then lastly when it
+had become Alpine. Hence we can understand why the faunas of insular
+mountain-summits are, as in the case of Teneriffe, eminently peculiar.
+Putting on one side the case of a widely extended flora being driven up
+the mountain-summits, during a change of climate from cold to temperate,
+we can see why in other cases the floras of mountain-summits (or as I
+have called them islands in a sea of land) should be tenanted by
+peculiar species, but related to those of the surrounding lowlands, as
+are the inhabitants of a real island in the sea to those of the nearest
+continent{408}.
+
+     {408} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 403, vi. p. 558, where the author
+     speaks of Alpine humming birds, rodents, plants, &c. in S. America,
+     all of strictly American forms. In the MS. the author has added
+     between the lines "As world has been getting hotter, there has been
+     radiation from high-lands,--old view?--curious; I presume Diluvian
+     in origin."
+
+Let us now consider the effect of a change of climate or of other
+conditions on the inhabitants of a continent and of an isolated island
+without any great change of level. On a continent the chief effects
+would be changes in the numerical proportion of the individuals of the
+different species; for whether the climate became warmer or colder,
+drier or damper, more uniform or extreme, some species are at present
+adapted to its diversified districts; if for instance it became cooler,
+species would migrate from its more temperate parts and from its higher
+land; if damper, from its damper regions, &c. On a small and isolated
+island, however, with few species, and these not adapted to much
+diversified conditions, such changes instead of merely increasing the
+number of certain species already adapted to such conditions, and
+decreasing the number of other species, would be apt to affect the
+constitutions of some of the insular species: thus if the island became
+damper it might well happen that there were no species living in any
+part of it adapted to the consequences resulting from more moisture. In
+this case therefore, and still more (as we have seen) during the
+production of new stations from the elevation of the land, an island
+would be a far more fertile source, as far as we can judge, of new
+specific forms than a continent. The new forms thus generated on an
+island, we might expect, would occasionally be transported by accident,
+or through long-continued geographical changes be enabled to emigrate
+and thus become slowly diffused.
+
+But if we look to the origin of a continent; almost every geologist will
+admit that in most cases it will have first existed as separate islands
+which gradually increased in size{409}; and therefore all that which has
+been said concerning the probable changes of the forms tenanting a small
+archipelago is applicable to a continent in its early state.
+Furthermore, a geologist who reflects on the geological history of
+Europe (the only region well known) will admit that it has been many
+times depressed, raised and left stationary. During the sinking of a
+continent and the probable generally accompanying changes of climate the
+effect would be little, _except_ on the numerical proportions and in the
+extinction (from the lessening of rivers, the drying of marshes and the
+conversion of high-lands into low &c.) of some or of many of the
+species. As soon however as the continent became divided into many
+isolated portions or islands, preventing free immigration from one part
+to another, the effect of climatic and other changes on the species
+would be greater. But let the now broken continent, forming isolated
+islands, begin to rise and new stations thus to be formed, exactly as in
+the first case of the upheaved volcanic islet, and we shall have equally
+favourable conditions for the modification of old forms, that is the
+formation of new races or species. Let the islands become reunited into
+a continent; and then the new and old forms would all spread, as far as
+barriers, the means of transportal, and the preoccupation of the land by
+other species, would permit. Some of the new species or races would
+probably become extinct, and some perhaps would cross and blend
+together. We should thus have a multitude of forms, adapted to all kinds
+of slightly different stations, and to diverse groups of either
+antagonist or food-serving species. The oftener these oscillations of
+level had taken place (and therefore generally the older the land) the
+greater the number of species <which> would tend to be formed. The
+inhabitants of a continent being thus derived in the first stage from
+the same original parents, and subsequently from the inhabitants of one
+wide area, since often broken up and reunited, all would be obviously
+related together and the inhabitants of the most _dissimilar_ stations
+on the same continent would be more closely allied than the inhabitants
+of two very _similar_ stations on two of the main divisions of the
+world{410}.
+
+     {409} See the comparison between the Malay Archipelago and the
+     probable former state of Europe, _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p.
+     438, also _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 292, vi. p. 429.
+
+     {410} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 349, vi. p. 496. The arrangement of the
+     argument in the present Essay leads to repetition of statements
+     made in the earlier part of the book: in the _Origin_ this is
+     avoided.
+
+I need hardly point out that we now can obviously see why the number of
+species in two districts, independently of the number of stations in
+such districts, should be in some cases as widely different as in New
+Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope{411}. We can see, knowing the
+difficulty in the transport of terrestrial mammals, why islands far from
+mainlands do not possess them{412}; we see the general reason, namely
+accidental transport (though not the precise reason), why certain
+islands should, and others should not, possess members of the class of
+reptiles. We can see why an ancient channel of communication between two
+distant points, as the Cordillera probably was between southern Chile
+and the United States during the former cold periods; and icebergs
+between the Falkland Islands and Tierra del Fuego; and gales, at a
+former or present time, between the Asiatic shores of the Pacific and
+eastern islands in this ocean; is connected with (or we may now say
+causes) an affinity between the species, though distinct, in two such
+districts. We can see how the better chance of diffusion, from several
+of the species of any genus having wide ranges in their own countries,
+explains the presence of other species of the same genus in other
+countries{413}; and on the other hand, of species of restricted powers
+of ranging, forming genera with restricted ranges.
+
+     {411} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 389, vi. p. 542.
+
+     {412} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 393, vi. p. 547.
+
+     {413} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 350, 404, vi. pp. 498, 559.
+
+As every one would be surprised if two exactly similar but peculiar
+varieties{414} of any species were raised by man by long continued
+selection, in two different countries, or at two very different periods,
+so we ought not to expect that an exactly similar form would be produced
+from the modification of an old one in two distinct countries or at two
+distinct periods. For in such places and times they would probably be
+exposed to somewhat different climates and almost certainly to different
+associates. Hence we can see why each species appears to have been
+produced singly, in space and in time. I need hardly remark that,
+according to this theory of descent, there is no necessity of
+modification in a species, when it reaches a new and isolated country.
+If it be able to survive and if slight variations better adapted to the
+new conditions are not selected, it might retain (as far as we can see)
+its old form for an indefinite time. As we see that some sub-varieties
+produced under domestication are more variable than others, so in
+nature, perhaps, some species and genera are more variable than others.
+The same precise form, however, would probably be seldom preserved
+through successive geological periods, or in widely and differently
+conditioned countries{415}.
+
+     {414} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 352, vi. p. 500.
+
+     {415} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 313, vi. p. 454.
+
+Finally, during the long periods of time and probably of oscillations of
+level, necessary for the formation of a continent, we may conclude (as
+above explained) that many forms would become extinct. These extinct
+forms, and those surviving (whether or not modified and changed in
+structure), will all be related in each continent in the same manner and
+degree, as are the inhabitants of any two different sub-regions in that
+same continent. I do not mean to say that, for instance, the present
+Marsupials of Australia or Edentata and rodents of S. America have
+descended from any one of the few fossils of the same orders which have
+been discovered in these countries. It is possible that, in a very few
+instances, this may be the case; but generally they must be considered
+as merely codescendants of common stocks{416}. I believe in this, from
+the improbability, considering the vast number of species, which (as
+explained in the last chapter) must by our theory have existed, that
+the _comparatively_ few fossils which have been found should chance to
+be the immediate and linear progenitors of those now existing. Recent as
+the yet discovered fossil mammifers of S. America are, who will pretend
+to say that very many intermediate forms may not have existed? Moreover,
+we shall see in the ensuing chapter that the very existence of genera
+and species can be explained only by a few species of each epoch leaving
+modified successors or new species to a future period; and the more
+distant that future period, the fewer will be the _linear_ heirs of the
+former epoch. As by our theory, all mammifers must have descended from
+the same parent stock, so is it necessary that each land now possessing
+terrestrial mammifers shall at some time have been so far united to
+other land as to permit the passage of mammifers{417}; and it accords
+with this necessity, that in looking far back into the earth's history
+we find, first changes in the geographical distribution, and secondly a
+period when the mammiferous forms most distinctive of two of the present
+main divisions of the world were living together{418}.
+
+     {416} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 341, vi. p. 487.
+
+     {417} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 396, vi. p. 549.
+
+     {418} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 340, vi. p. 486.
+
+I think then I am justified in asserting that most of the above
+enumerated and often trivial points in the geographical distribution of
+past and present organisms (which points must be viewed by the
+creationists as so many ultimate facts) follow as a simple consequence
+of specific forms being mutable and of their being adapted by natural
+selection to diverse ends, conjoined with their powers of dispersal, and
+the geologico-geographical changes now in slow progress and which
+undoubtedly have taken place. This large class of facts being thus
+explained, far more than counterbalances many separate difficulties and
+apparent objections in convincing my mind of the truth of this theory of
+common descent.
+
+
+_Improbability of finding fossil forms intermediate between existing
+species._
+
+There is one observation of considerable importance that may be here
+introduced, with regard to the improbability of the chief transitional
+forms between any two species being found fossil. With respect to the
+finer shades of transition, I have before remarked that no one has any
+cause to expect to trace them in a fossil state, without he be bold
+enough to imagine that geologists at a future epoch will be able to
+trace from fossil bones the gradations between the Short-Horns,
+Herefordshire, and Alderney breeds of cattle{419}. I have attempted to
+show that rising islands, in process of formation, must be the best
+nurseries of new specific forms, and these points are the least
+favourable for the embedment of fossils{420}: I appeal, as evidence, to
+the state of the _numerous_ scattered islands in the several great
+oceans: how rarely do any sedimentary deposits occur on them; and when
+present they are mere narrow fringes of no great antiquity, which the
+sea is generally wearing away and destroying. The cause of this lies in
+isolated islands being generally volcanic and rising points; and the
+effects of subterranean elevation is to bring up the surrounding
+newly-deposited strata within the destroying action of the coast-waves:
+the strata, deposited at greater distances, and therefore in the depths
+of the ocean, will be almost barren of organic remains. These remarks
+may be generalised:--periods of subsidence will always be most
+favourable to an accumulation of great thicknesses of strata, and
+consequently to their long preservation; for without one formation be
+protected by successive strata, it will seldom be preserved to a distant
+age, owing to the enormous amount of denudation, which seems to be a
+general contingent of time{421}. I may refer, as evidence of this
+remark, to the vast amount of subsidence evident in the great pile of
+the European formations, from the Silurian epoch to the end of the
+Secondary, and perhaps to even a later period. Periods of elevation on
+the other hand cannot be favourable to the accumulation of strata and
+their preservation to distant ages, from the circumstance just alluded
+to, viz. of elevation tending to bring to the surface the
+circum-littoral strata (always abounding most in fossils) and destroying
+them. The bottom of tracts of deep water (little favourable, however, to
+life) must be excepted from this unfavourable influence of elevation. In
+the quite open ocean, probably no sediment{422} is accumulating, or at a
+rate so slow as not to preserve fossil remains, which will always be
+subject to disintegration. Caverns, no doubt, will be equally likely to
+preserve terrestrial fossils in periods of elevation and of subsidence;
+but whether it be owing to the enormous amount of denudation, which all
+land seems to have undergone, no cavern with fossil bones has been found
+belonging to the Secondary period{423}.
+
+     {419} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 299, vi. p. 437.
+
+     {420} "Nature may almost be said to have guarded against the
+     frequent discovery of her transitional or linking forms," _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 292. A similar but not identical passage occurs in
+     _Origin_, Ed. vi. p. 428.
+
+     {421} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 291, vi. p. 426.
+
+     {422} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 288, vi. p. 422.
+
+     {423} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 289, vi. p. 423.
+
+Hence many more remains will be preserved to a distant age, in any
+region of the world, during periods of its subsidence{424}, than of its
+elevation.
+
+     {424} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 300, vi. p. 439.
+
+But during the subsidence of a tract of land, its inhabitants (as before
+shown) will from the decrease of space and of the diversity of its
+stations, and from the land being fully preoccupied by species fitted to
+diversified means of subsistence, be little liable to modification from
+selection, although many may, or rather must, become extinct. With
+respect to its circum-marine inhabitants, although during a change from
+a continent to a _great_ archipelago, the number of stations fitted for
+marine beings will be increased, their means of diffusion (an important
+check to change of form) will be greatly improved; for a continent
+stretching north and south, or a quite open space of ocean, seems to be
+to them the only barrier. On the other hand, during the elevation of a
+small archipelago and its conversion into a continent, we have, whilst
+the number of stations are increasing, both for aquatic and terrestrial
+productions, and whilst these stations are not fully preoccupied by
+perfectly adapted species, the most favourable conditions for the
+selection of new specific forms; but few of them in their early
+transitional states will be preserved to a distant epoch. We must wait
+during an enormous lapse of time, until long-continued subsidence shall
+have taken the place in this quarter of the world of the elevatory
+process, for the best conditions of the embedment and the preservation
+of its inhabitants. Generally the great mass of the strata in every
+country, from having been chiefly accumulated during subsidence, will be
+the tomb, not of transitional forms, but of those either becoming
+extinct or remaining unmodified.
+
+The state of our knowledge, and the slowness of the changes of level, do
+not permit us to test the truth of these remarks, by observing whether
+there are more transitional or "fine" (as naturalists would term them)
+species, on a rising and enlarging tract of land, than on an area of
+subsidence. Nor do I know whether there are more "fine" species on
+isolated volcanic islands in process of formation, than on a continent;
+but I may remark, that at the Galapagos Archipelago the number of forms,
+which according to some naturalists are true species, and according to
+others are mere races, is considerable: this particularly applies to the
+different species or races of the same genera inhabiting the different
+islands of this archipelago. Furthermore it may be added (as bearing on
+the great facts discussed in this chapter) that when naturalists confine
+their attention to any one country, they have comparatively little
+difficulty in determining what forms to call species and what to call
+varieties; that is, those which can or cannot be traced or shown to be
+probably descendants of some other form: but the difficulty increases,
+as species are brought from many stations, countries and islands. It was
+this increasing (but I believe in few cases insuperable) difficulty
+which seems chiefly to have urged Lamarck to the conclusion that species
+are mutable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+ON THE NATURE OF THE AFFINITIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC
+BEINGS{425}
+
+     {425} Ch. XIII of the _Origin_, Ed. i., Ch. XIV Ed. vi. begins with
+     a similar statement. In the present Essay the author adds a
+     note:--"The obviousness of the fact (_i.e._ the natural grouping of
+     organisms) alone prevents it being remarkable. It is scarcely
+     explicable by creationist: groups of aquatic, of vegetable feeders
+     and carnivorous, &c., might resemble each other; but why as it is.
+     So with plants,--analogical resemblance thus accounted for. Must
+     not here enter into details." This argument is incorporated with
+     the text in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+
+_Gradual appearance and disappearance of groups._
+
+It has been observed from the earliest times that organic beings fall
+into groups{426}, and these groups into others of several values, such
+as species into genera, and then into sub-families, into families,
+orders, &c. The same fact holds with those beings which no longer exist.
+Groups of species seem to follow the same laws in their appearance and
+extinction{427}, as do the individuals of any one species: we have
+reason to believe that, first, a few species appear, that their numbers
+increase; and that, when tending to extinction, the numbers of the
+species decrease, till finally the group becomes extinct, in the same
+way as a species becomes extinct, by the individuals becoming rarer and
+rarer. Moreover, groups, like the individuals of a species, appear to
+become extinct at different times in different countries. The
+Palaeotherium was extinct much sooner in Europe than in India: the
+Trigonia{428} was extinct in early ages in Europe, but now lives in the
+seas of Australia. As it happens that one species of a family will
+endure for a much longer period than another species, so we find that
+some whole groups, such as Mollusca, tend to retain their forms, or to
+remain persistent, for longer periods than other groups, for instance
+than the Mammalia. Groups therefore, in their appearance, extinction,
+and rate of change or succession, seem to follow nearly the same laws
+with the individuals of a species{429}.
+
+     {426} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 411, vi. p. 566.
+
+     {427} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 316, vi. p. 457.
+
+     {428} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 321, vi. p. 463.
+
+     {429} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. this preliminary matter is replaced
+     (pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567) by a discussion in which
+     extinction is also treated, but chiefly from the point of view of
+     the theory of divergence.
+
+
+_What is the Natural System?_
+
+The proper arrangement of species into groups, according to the natural
+system, is the object of all naturalists; but scarcely two naturalists
+will give the same answer to the question, What is the natural system
+and how are we to recognise it? The most important characters{430} it
+might be thought (as it was by the earliest classifiers) ought to be
+drawn from those parts of the structure which determine its habits and
+place in the economy of nature, which we may call the final end of its
+existence. But nothing is further from the truth than this; how much
+external resemblance there is between the little otter (Chironectes) of
+Guiana and the common otter; or again between the common swallow and the
+swift; and who can doubt that the means and ends of their existence are
+closely similar, yet how grossly wrong would be the classification,
+which put close to each other a Marsupial and Placental animal, and two
+birds with widely different skeletons. Relations, such as in the two
+latter cases, or as that between the whale and fishes, are denominated
+"analogical{431}," or are sometimes described as "relations of
+adaption." They are infinitely numerous and often very singular; but are
+of no use in the classification of the higher groups. How it comes, that
+certain parts of the structure, by which the habits and functions of the
+species are settled, are of no use in classification, whilst other
+parts, formed at the same time, are of the greatest, it would be
+difficult to say, on the theory of separate creations.
+
+     {430} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.
+
+     {431} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 414, vi. p. 570.
+
+Some authors as Lamarck, Whewell &c., believe that the degree of
+affinity on the natural system depends on the degrees of resemblance in
+organs more or less physiologically important for the preservation of
+life. This scale of importance in the organs is admitted to be of
+difficult discovery. But quite independent of this, the proposition, as
+a general rule, must be rejected as false; though it may be partially
+true. For it is universally admitted that the same part or organ, which
+is of the highest service in classification in one group, is of very
+little use in another group, though in both groups, as far as we can
+see, the part or organ is of equal physiological importance: moreover,
+characters quite unimportant physiologically, such as whether the
+covering of the body consists of hair or feathers, whether the nostrils
+communicated with the mouth{432} &c., &c., are of the highest generality
+in classification; even colour, which is so inconstant in many species,
+will sometimes well characterise even a whole group of species. Lastly,
+the fact, that no one character is of so much importance in determining
+to what great group an organism belongs, as the forms through which the
+embryo{433} passes from the germ upwards to maturity, cannot be
+reconciled with the idea that natural classification follows according
+to the degrees of resemblance in the parts of most physiological
+importance. The affinity of the common rock-barnacle with the
+Crustaceans can hardly be perceived in more than a single character in
+its mature state, but whilst young, locomotive, and furnished with eyes,
+its affinity cannot be mistaken{434}. The cause of the greater value of
+characters, drawn from the early stages of life, can, as we shall in a
+succeeding chapter see, be in a considerable degree explained, on the
+theory of descent, although inexplicable on the views of the
+creationist.
+
+     {432} These instances occur with others in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     416, vi. p. 572.
+
+     {433} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 418, vi. p. 574.
+
+     {434} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 419, 440, vi. pp. 575, 606.
+
+Practically, naturalists seem to classify according to the resemblance
+of those parts or organs which in related groups are most uniform, or
+vary least{435}: thus the aestivation, or manner in which the petals etc.
+are folded over each other, is found to afford an unvarying character in
+most families of plants, and accordingly any difference in this respect
+would be sufficient to cause the rejection of a species from many
+families; but in the Rubiaceae the aestivation is a varying character, and
+a botanist would not lay much stress on it, in deciding whether or not
+to class a new species in this family. But this rule is obviously so
+arbitrary a formula, that most naturalists seem to be convinced that
+something ulterior is represented by the natural system; they appear to
+think that we only discover by such similarities what the arrangement of
+the system is, not that such similarities make the system. We can only
+thus understand Linnaeus'{436} well-known saying, that the characters do
+not make the genus; but that the genus gives the characters: for a
+classification, independent of characters, is here presupposed. Hence
+many naturalists have said that the natural system reveals the plan of
+the Creator: but without it be specified whether order in time or place,
+or what else is meant by the plan of the Creator, such expressions
+appear to me to leave the question exactly where it was.
+
+     {435} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 418, 425, vi. pp. 574, 581.
+
+     {436} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 413, vi. p. 569.
+
+Some naturalists consider that the geographical position{437} of a
+species may enter into the consideration of the group into which it
+should be placed; and most naturalists (either tacitly or openly) give
+value to the different groups, not solely by their relative differences
+in structure, but by the number of forms included in them. Thus a genus
+containing a few species might be, and has often been, raised into a
+family on the discovery of several other species. Many natural families
+are retained, although most closely related to other families, from
+including a great number of closely similar species. The more logical
+naturalist would perhaps, if he could, reject these two contingents in
+classification. From these circumstances, and especially from the
+undefined objects and criterions of the natural system, the number of
+divisions, such as genera, sub-families, families, &c., &c., has been
+quite arbitrary{438}; without the clearest definition, how can it be
+possible to decide whether two groups of species are of equal value, and
+of what value? whether they should both be called genera or families; or
+whether one should be a genus, and the other a family{439}?
+
+     {437} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.
+
+     {438} This is discussed from the point of view of divergence in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 420, 421, vi. pp. 576, 577.
+
+     {439} <Footnote by the author.> I discuss this because if Quinarism
+     true, I false. <The Quinary System is set forth in W. S. Macleay's
+     _Horae Entomologicae_, 1821.>
+
+
+_On the kind of relation between distinct groups._
+
+I have only one other remark on the affinities of organic beings; that
+is, when two quite distinct groups approach each other, the approach is
+_generally_ generic{440} and not special; I can explain this most easily
+by an example: of all Rodents the Bizcacha, by certain peculiarities in
+its reproductive system, approaches nearest to the Marsupials; of all
+Marsupials the Phascolomys, on the other hand, appears to approach in
+the form of its teeth and intestines nearest to the Rodents; but there
+is no special relation between these two genera{441}; the Bizcacha is no
+nearer related to the Phascolomys than to any other Marsupial in the
+points in which it approaches this division; nor again is the
+Phascolomys, in the points of structure in which it approaches the
+Rodents, any nearer related to the Bizcacha than to any other Rodent.
+Other examples might have been chosen, but I have given (from
+Waterhouse) this example as it illustrates another point, namely, the
+difficulty of determining what are analogical or adaptive and what real
+affinities; it seems that the teeth of the Phascolomys though _appearing
+closely_ to resemble those of a Rodent are found to be built on the
+Marsupial type; and it is thought that these teeth and consequently the
+intestines may have been adapted to the peculiar life of this animal and
+therefore may not show any real relation. The structure in the Bizcacha
+that connects it with the Marsupials does not seem a peculiarity related
+to its manner of life, and I imagine that no one would doubt that this
+shows a real affinity, though not more with any one Marsupial species
+than with another. The difficulty of determining what relations are real
+and what analogical is far from surprising when no one pretends to
+define the meaning of the term relation or the ulterior object of all
+classification. We shall immediately see on the theory of descent how it
+comes that there should be "real" and "analogical" affinities; and why
+the former alone should be of value in classification--difficulties
+which it would be I believe impossible to explain on the ordinary theory
+of separate creations.
+
+     {440} In the corresponding passage in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 430,
+     vi. p. 591, the term _general_ is used in place of _generic_, and
+     seems a better expression. In the margin the author gives
+     Waterhouse as his authority.
+
+     {441} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.
+
+
+_Classification of Races or Varieties._
+
+Let us now for a few moments turn to the classification of the generally
+acknowledged varieties and subdivisions of our domestic beings{442}; we
+shall find them systematically arranged in groups of higher and higher
+value. De Candolle has treated the varieties of the cabbage exactly as
+he would have done a natural family with various divisions and
+subdivisions. In dogs again we have one main division which may be
+called the _family_ of hounds; of these, there are several (we will call
+them) _genera_, such as blood-hounds, fox-hounds, and harriers; and of
+each of these we have different _species_, as the blood-hound of Cuba
+and that of England; and of the latter again we have breeds truly
+producing their own kind, which may be called races or varieties. Here
+we see a classification practically used which typifies on a lesser
+scale that which holds good in nature. But amongst true species in the
+natural system and amongst domestic races the number of divisions or
+groups, instituted between those most alike and those most unlike, seems
+to be quite arbitrary. The number of the forms in both cases seems
+practically, whether or not it ought theoretically, to influence the
+denomination of groups including them. In both, geographical
+distribution has sometimes been used as an aid to classification{443};
+amongst varieties, I may instance, the cattle of India or the sheep of
+Siberia, which from possessing some characters in common permit a
+classification of Indian and European cattle, or Siberian and European
+sheep. Amongst domestic varieties we have even something very like the
+relations of "analogy" or "adaptation{444}"; thus the common and Swedish
+turnip are both artificial varieties which strikingly resemble each
+other, and they fill nearly the same end in the economy of the
+farm-yard; but although the swede so much more resembles a turnip than
+its presumed parent the field cabbage, no one thinks of putting it out
+of the cabbages into the turnips. Thus the greyhound and racehorse,
+having been selected and trained for extreme fleetness for short
+distances, present an analogical resemblance of the same kind, but less
+striking as that between the little otter (Marsupial) of Guiana and the
+common otter; though these two otters are really less related than <are>
+the horse and dog. We are even cautioned by authors treating on
+varieties, to follow the _natural_ in contradistinction of an artificial
+system and not, for instance, to class two varieties of the
+pine-apple{445} near each other, because their fruits accidentally
+resemble each other closely (though the fruit may be called _the final
+end_ of this plant in the economy of its world, the hothouse), but to
+judge from the general resemblance of the entire plants. Lastly,
+varieties often become extinct; sometimes from unexplained causes,
+sometimes from accident, but more often from the production of more
+useful varieties, and the less useful ones being destroyed or bred out.
+
+     {442} In a corresponding passage in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423,
+     vi. p. 579, the author makes use of his knowledge of pigeons. The
+     pseudo-genera among dogs are discussed in _Var. under Dom._, Ed.
+     ii. vol. I. p. 38.
+
+     {443} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 419, 427, vi. pp. 575, 582.
+
+     {444} _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 423, 427, vi. pp. 579, 583.
+
+     {445} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.
+
+I think it cannot be doubted that the main cause of all the varieties
+which have descended from the aboriginal dog or dogs, or from the
+aboriginal wild cabbage, not being equally like or unlike--but on the
+contrary, obviously falling into groups and sub-groups--must in chief
+part be attributed to different degrees of true relationship; for
+instance, that the different kinds of blood-hound have descended from
+one stock, whilst the harriers have descended from another stock, and
+that both these have descended from a different stock from that which
+has been the parent of the several kinds of greyhound. We often hear of
+a florist having some choice variety and breeding from it a whole group
+of sub-varieties more or less characterised by the peculiarities of the
+parent. The case of the peach and nectarine, each with their many
+varieties, might have been introduced. No doubt the relationship of our
+different domestic breeds has been obscured in an extreme degree by
+their crossing; and likewise from the slight difference between many
+breeds it has probably often happened that a "sport" from one breed has
+less closely resembled its parent breed than some other breed, and has
+therefore been classed with the latter. Moreover the effects of a
+similar climate{446} may in some cases have more than counterbalanced
+the similarity, consequent on a common descent, though I should think
+the similarity of the breeds of cattle of India or sheep of Siberia was
+far more probably due to the community of their descent than to the
+effects of climate on animals descended from different stocks.
+
+     {446} A general statement of the influence of conditions on
+     variation occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 131-3, vi. pp. 164-5.
+
+Notwithstanding these great sources of difficulty, I apprehend every
+one would admit, that if it were possible, a genealogical classification
+of our domestic varieties would be the most satisfactory one; and as far
+as varieties were concerned would be the natural system: in some cases
+it has been followed. In attempting to follow out this object a person
+would have to class a variety, whose parentage he did not know, by its
+external characters; but he would have a distinct ulterior object in
+view, namely, its descent in the same manner as a regular systematist
+seems also to have an ulterior but undefined end in all his
+classifications. Like the regular systematist he would not care whether
+his characters were drawn from more or less important organs as long as
+he found in the tribe which he was examining that the characters from
+such parts were persistent; thus amongst cattle he does value a
+character drawn from the form of the horns more than from the
+proportions of the limbs and whole body, for he finds that the shape of
+the horns is to a considerable degree persistent amongst cattle{447},
+whilst the bones of the limbs and body vary. No doubt as a frequent rule
+the more important the organ, as being less related to external
+influences, the less liable it is to variation; but he would expect that
+according to the object for which the races had been selected, parts
+more or less important might differ; so that characters drawn from parts
+generally most liable to vary, as colour, might in some instances be
+highly serviceable--as is the case. He would admit that general
+resemblances scarcely definable by language might sometimes serve to
+allocate a species by its nearest relation. He would be able to assign a
+clear reason why the close similarity of the fruit in two varieties of
+pine-apple, and of the so-called root in the common and Swedish turnips,
+and why the similar gracefulness of form in the greyhound and
+racehorse, are characters of little value in classification; namely,
+because they are the result, not of community of descent, but either of
+selection for a common end, or of the effects of similar external
+conditions.
+
+     {447} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579. In the margin Marshall
+     is given as the authority.
+
+
+_Classification of "races" and species similar._
+
+Thus seeing that both the classifiers of species and of varieties{448}
+work by the same means, make similar distinctions in the value of the
+characters, and meet with similar difficulties, and that both seem to
+have in their classification an ulterior object in view; I cannot avoid
+strongly suspecting that the same cause, which has made amongst our
+domestic varieties groups and sub-groups, has made similar groups (but
+of higher values) amongst species; and that this cause is the greater or
+less propinquity of actual descent. The simple fact of species, both
+those long since extinct and those now living, being divisible into
+genera, families, orders &c.--divisions analogous to those into which
+varieties are divisible--is otherwise an inexplicable fact, and only not
+remarkable from its familiarity.
+
+     {448} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 423, vi. p. 579.
+
+
+_Origin of genera and families._
+
+Let us suppose{449} for example that a species spreads and arrives at
+six or more different regions, or being already diffused over one wide
+area, let this area be divided into six distinct regions, exposed to
+different conditions, and with stations slightly different, not fully
+occupied with other species, so that six different races or species
+were formed by selection, each best fitted to its new habits and
+station. I must remark that in every case, if a species becomes modified
+in any one sub-region, it is probable that it will become modified in
+some other of the sub-regions over which it is diffused, for its
+organization is shown to be capable of being rendered plastic; its
+diffusion proves that it is able to struggle with the other inhabitants
+of the several sub-regions; and as the organic beings of every great
+region are in some degree allied, and as even the physical conditions
+are often in some respects alike, we might expect that a modification in
+structure, which gave our species some advantage over antagonist species
+in one sub-region, would be followed by other modifications in other of
+the sub-regions. The races or new species supposed to be formed would be
+closely related to each other; and would either form a new genus or
+sub-genus, or would rank (probably forming a slightly different section)
+in the genus to which the parent species belonged. In the course of
+ages, and during the contingent physical changes, it is probable that
+some of the six new species would be destroyed; but the same advantage,
+whatever it may have been (whether mere tendency to vary, or some
+peculiarity of organization, power of mind, or means of distribution),
+which in the parent-species and in its six selected and changed
+species-offspring, caused them to prevail over other antagonist species,
+would generally tend to preserve some or many of them for a long period.
+If then, two or three of the six species were preserved, they in their
+turn would, during continued changes, give rise to as many small groups
+of species: if the parents of these small groups were closely similar,
+the new species would form one great genus, barely perhaps divisible
+into two or three sections: but if the parents were considerably
+unlike, their species-offspring would, from inheriting most of the
+peculiarities of their parent-stocks, form either two or more sub-genera
+or (if the course of selection tended in different ways) genera. And
+lastly species descending from different species of the newly formed
+genera would form new genera, and such genera collectively would form a
+family.
+
+     {449} The discussion here following corresponds more or less to the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 411, 412, vi. pp. 566, 567; although the
+     doctrine of divergence is not mentioned in this Essay (as it is in
+     the _Origin_) yet the present section seems to me a distinct
+     approximation to it.
+
+The extermination of species follows from changes in the external
+conditions, and from the increase or immigration of more favoured
+species: and as those species which are undergoing modification in any
+one great region (or indeed over the world) will very often be allied
+ones from (as just explained) partaking of many characters, and
+therefore advantages in common, so the species, whose place the new or
+more favoured ones are seizing, from partaking of a common inferiority
+(whether in any particular point of structure, or of general powers of
+mind, of means of distribution, of capacity for variation, &c., &c.),
+will be apt to be allied. Consequently species of the same genus will
+slowly, one after the other, _tend_ to become rarer and rarer in
+numbers, and finally extinct; and as each last species of several allied
+genera fails, even the family will become extinct. There may of course
+be occasional exceptions to the entire destruction of any genus or
+family. From what has gone before, we have seen that the slow and
+successive formation of several new species from the same stock will
+make a new genus, and the slow and successive formation of several other
+new species from another stock will make another genus; and if these two
+stocks were allied, such genera will make a new family. Now, as far as
+our knowledge serves, it is in this slow and gradual manner that groups
+of species appear on, and disappear from, the face of the earth.
+
+The manner in which, according to our theory, the arrangement of species
+in groups is due to partial extinction, will perhaps be rendered clearer
+in the following way. Let us suppose in any one great class, for
+instance in the Mammalia, that every species and every variety, during
+each successive age, had sent down one unaltered descendant (either
+fossil or living) to the present time; we should then have had one
+enormous series, including by small gradations every known mammiferous
+form; and consequently the existence of groups{450}, or chasms in the
+series, which in some parts are in greater width, and in some of less,
+is solely due to former species, and whole groups of species, not having
+thus sent down descendants to the present time.
+
+     {450} The author probably intended to write "groups separated by
+     chasms."
+
+With respect to the "analogical" or "adaptive" resemblances between
+organic beings which are not really related{451}, I will only add, that
+probably the isolation of different groups of species is an important
+element in the production of such characters: thus we can easily see, in
+a large increasing island, or even a continent like Australia, stocked
+with only certain orders of the main classes, that the conditions would
+be highly favourable for species from these orders to become adapted to
+play parts in the economy of nature, which in other countries were
+performed by tribes especially adapted to such parts. We can understand
+how it might happen that an otter-like animal might have been formed in
+Australia by slow selection from the more carnivorous Marsupial types;
+thus we can understand that curious case in the southern hemisphere,
+where there are no auks (but many petrels), of a petrel{452} having been
+modified into the external general form so as to play the same office
+in nature with the auks of the northern hemisphere; although the habits
+and form of the petrels and auks are normally so wholly different. It
+follows, from our theory, that two orders must have descended from one
+common stock at an immensely remote epoch; and we can perceive when a
+species in either order, or in both, shows some affinity to the other
+order, why the affinity is usually generic and not particular--that is
+why the Bizcacha amongst Rodents, in the points in which it is related
+to the Marsupial, is related to the whole group{453}, and not
+particularly to the Phascolomys, which of all Marsupialia is related
+most to the Rodents. For the Bizcacha is related to the present
+Marsupialia, only from being related to their common parent-stock; and
+not to any one species in particular. And generally, it may be observed
+in the writings of most naturalists, that when an organism is described
+as intermediate between two _great_ groups, its relations are not to
+particular species of either group, but to both groups, as wholes. A
+little reflection will show how exceptions (as that of the Lepidosiren,
+a fish closely related to _particular_ reptiles) might occur, namely
+from a few descendants of those species, which at a very early period
+branched out from a common parent-stock and so formed the two orders or
+groups, having survived, in nearly their original state, to the present
+time.
+
+     {451} A similar discussion occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 427,
+     vi. p. 582.
+
+     {452} _Puffinuria berardi_, see _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 184, vi. p.
+     221.
+
+     {453} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 430, vi. p. 591.
+
+Finally, then, we see that all the leading facts in the affinities and
+classification of organic beings can be explained on the theory of the
+natural system being simply a genealogical one. The similarity of the
+principles in classifying domestic varieties and true species, both
+those living and extinct, is at once explained; the rules followed and
+difficulties met with being the same. The existence of genera, families,
+orders, &c., and their mutual relations, naturally ensues from
+extinction going on at all periods amongst the diverging descendants of
+a common stock. These terms of affinity, relations, families, adaptive
+characters, &c., which naturalists cannot avoid using, though
+metaphorically, cease being so, and are full of plain signification.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+UNITY OF TYPE IN THE GREAT CLASSES; AND MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
+
+
+_Unity of Type_{454}.
+
+     {454} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 595. Ch. VIII corresponds to
+     a section of Ch. XIII in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+Scarcely anything is more wonderful or has been oftener insisted on than
+that the organic beings in each great class, though living in the most
+distant climes and at periods immensely remote, though fitted to widely
+different ends in the economy of nature, yet all in their internal
+structure evince an obvious uniformity. What, for instance, is more
+wonderful than that the hand to clasp, the foot or hoof to walk, the
+bat's wing to fly, the porpoise's fin{455} to swim, should all be built
+on the same plan? and that the bones in their position and number should
+be so similar that they can all be classed and called by the same names.
+Occasionally some of the bones are merely represented by an apparently
+useless, smooth style, or are soldered closely to other bones, but the
+unity of type is not by this destroyed, and hardly rendered less clear.
+We see in this fact some deep bond of union between the organic beings
+of the same great classes--to illustrate which is the object and
+foundation of the natural system. The perception of this bond, I may
+add, is the evident cause that naturalists make an ill-defined
+distinction between true and adaptive affinities.
+
+     {455} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 434, vi. p. 596. In the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     these examples occur under the heading _Morphology_; the author
+     does not there draw much distinction between this heading and that
+     of _Unity of Type_.
+
+
+_Morphology._
+
+There is another allied or rather almost identical class of facts
+admitted by the least visionary naturalists and included under the name
+of Morphology. These facts show that in an individual organic being,
+several of its organs consist of some other organ metamorphosed{456}:
+thus the sepals, petals, stamens, pistils, &c. of every plant can be
+shown to be metamorphosed leaves; and thus not only can the number,
+position and transitional states of these several organs, but likewise
+their monstrous changes, be most lucidly explained. It is believed that
+the same laws hold good with the gemmiferous vesicles of Zoophytes. In
+the same manner the number and position of the extraordinarily
+complicated jaws and palpi of Crustacea and of insects, and likewise
+their differences in the different groups, all become simple, on the
+view of these parts, or rather legs and all metamorphosed appendages,
+being metamorphosed legs. The skulls, again, of the Vertebrata are
+composed of three metamorphosed vertebrae, and thus we can see a meaning
+in the number and strange complication of the bony case of the brain. In
+this latter instance, and in that of the jaws of the Crustacea, it is
+only necessary to see a series taken from the different groups of each
+class to admit the truth of these views. It is evident that when in each
+species of a group its organs consist of some other part metamorphosed,
+that there must also be a "unity of type" in such a group. And in the
+cases as that above given in which the foot, hand, wing and paddle are
+said to be constructed on a uniform type, if we could perceive in such
+parts or organs traces of an apparent change from some other use or
+function, we should strictly include such parts or organs in the
+department of morphology: thus if we could trace in the limbs of the
+Vertebrata, as we can in their ribs, traces of an apparent change from
+being processes of the vertebrae, it would be said that in each species
+of the Vertebrata the limbs were "metamorphosed spinal processes," and
+that in all the species throughout the class the limbs displayed a
+"unity of type{457}."
+
+     {456} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 436, vi. p. 599, where the parts of
+     the flower, the jaws and palpi of Crustaceans and the vertebrate
+     skull are given as examples.
+
+     {457} The author here brings _Unity of Type_ and _Morphology_
+     together.
+
+These wonderful parts of the hoof, foot, hand, wing, paddle, both in
+living and extinct animals, being all constructed on the same framework,
+and again of the petals, stamina, germens, &c. being metamorphosed
+leaves, can by the creationist be viewed only as ultimate facts and
+incapable of explanation; whilst on our theory of descent these facts
+all necessary follow: for by this theory all the beings of any one
+class, say of the mammalia, are supposed to be descended from one
+parent-stock, and to have been altered by such slight steps as man
+effects by the selection of chance domestic variations. Now we can see
+according to this view that a foot might be selected with longer and
+longer bones, and wider connecting membranes, till it became a swimming
+organ, and so on till it became an organ by which to flap along the
+surface or to glide over it, and lastly to fly through the air: but in
+such changes there would be no tendency to alter the framework of the
+internal inherited structure. Parts might become lost (as the tail in
+dogs, or horns in cattle, or the pistils in plants), others might become
+united together (as in the feet of the Lincolnshire breed of pigs{458},
+and in the stamens of many garden flowers); parts of a similar nature
+might become increased in number (as the vertebrae in the tails of pigs,
+&c., &c. and the fingers and toes in six-fingered races of men and in
+the Dorking fowls), but analogous differences are observed in nature and
+are not considered by naturalists to destroy the uniformity of the
+types. We can, however, conceive such changes to be carried to such
+length that the unity of type might be obscured and finally be
+undistinguishable, and the paddle of the Plesiosaurus has been advanced
+as an instance in which the uniformity of type can hardly be
+recognised{459}. If after long and gradual changes in the structure of
+the co-descendants from any parent stock, evidence (either from
+monstrosities or from a graduated series) could be still detected of the
+function, which certain parts or organs played in the parent stock,
+these parts or organs might be strictly determined by their former
+function with the term "metamorphosed" appended. Naturalists have used
+this term in the same metaphorical manner as they have been obliged to
+use the terms of affinity and relation; and when they affirm, for
+instance, that the jaws of a crab are metamorphosed legs, so that one
+crab has more legs and fewer jaws than another, they are far from
+meaning that the jaws, either during the life of the individual crab or
+of its progenitors, were really legs. By our theory this term assumes
+its literal meaning{460}; and this wonderful fact of the complex jaws of
+an animal retaining numerous characters, which they would probably have
+retained if they had really been metamorphosed during many successive
+generations from true legs, is simply explained.
+
+     {458} The solid-hoofed pigs mentioned in _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii.
+     vol. II. p. 424 are not _Lincolnshire pigs_. For other cases see
+     Bateson, _Materials for the Study of Variation_, 1894, pp. 387-90.
+
+     {459} In the margin C. Bell is given as authority, apparently for
+     the statement about Plesiosaurus. See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 436, vi.
+     p. 598, where the author speaks of the "general pattern" being
+     obscured in "extinct gigantic sea lizards." In the same place the
+     suctorial Entomostraca are added as examples of the difficulty of
+     recognising the type.
+
+     {460} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 438, vi. p. 602.
+
+
+_Embryology_.
+
+The unity of type in the great classes is shown in another and very
+striking manner, namely, in the stages through which the embryo passes
+in coming to maturity{461}. Thus, for instance, at one period of the
+embryo, the wings of the bat, the hand, hoof or foot of the quadruped,
+and the fin of the porpoise do not differ, but consist of a simple
+undivided bone. At a still earlier period the embryo of the fish, bird,
+reptile and mammal all strikingly resemble each other. Let it not be
+supposed this resemblance is only external; for on dissection, the
+arteries are found to branch out and run in a peculiar course, wholly
+unlike that in the full-grown mammal and bird, but much less unlike that
+in the full-grown fish, for they run as if to aerate blood by
+branchiae{462} on the neck, of which even the slit-like orifices can be
+discerned. How wonderful it is that this structure should be present in
+the embryos of animals about to be developed into such different forms,
+and of which two great classes respire only in the air. Moreover, as the
+embryo of the mammal is matured in the parent's body, and that of the
+bird in an egg in the air, and that of the fish in an egg in the water,
+we cannot believe that this course of the arteries is related to any
+external conditions. In all shell-fish (Gasteropods) the embryo passes
+through a state analogous to that of the Pteropodous Mollusca: amongst
+insects again, even the most different ones, as the moth, fly and
+beetle, the crawling larvae are all closely analogous: amongst the
+Radiata, the jelly-fish in its embryonic state resembles a polype, and
+in a still earlier state an infusorial animalcule--as does likewise the
+embryo of the polype. From the part of the embryo of a mammal, at one
+period, resembling a fish more than its parent form; from the larvae of
+all orders of insects more resembling the simpler articulate animals
+than their parent insects{463}; and from such other cases as the embryo
+of the jelly-fish resembling a polype much nearer than the perfect
+jelly-fish; it has often been asserted that the higher animal in each
+class passes through the state of a lower animal; for instance, that the
+mammal amongst the vertebrata passes through the state of a fish{464}:
+but Mueller denies this, and affirms that the young mammal is at no time
+a fish, as does Owen assert that the embryonic jelly-fish is at no time
+a polype, but that mammal and fish, jelly-fish and polype pass through
+the same state; the mammal and jelly-fish being only further developed
+or changed.
+
+     {461} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 439, vi. p. 604.
+
+     {462} The uselessness of the branchial arches in mammalia is
+     insisted on in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 440, vi. p. 606. Also the
+     uselessness of the spots on the young blackbird and the stripes of
+     the lion-whelp, cases which do not occur in the present Essay.
+
+     {463} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 442, 448, vi. pp. 608, 614 it is
+     pointed out that in some cases the young form resembles the adult,
+     _e.g._ in spiders; again, that in the Aphis there is no "worm-like
+     stage" of development.
+
+     {464} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618, the author speaks
+     doubtfully about the recapitulation theory.
+
+As the embryo, in most cases, possesses a less complicated structure
+than that into which it is to be developed, it might have been thought
+that the resemblance of the embryo to less complicated forms in the same
+great class, was in some manner a necessary preparation for its higher
+development; but in fact the embryo, during its growth, may become less,
+as well as more, complicated{465}. Thus certain female Epizoic
+Crustaceans in their mature state have neither eyes nor any organs of
+locomotion; they consist of a mere sack, with a simple apparatus for
+digestion and procreation; and when once attached to the body of the
+fish, on which they prey, they never move again during their whole
+lives: in their embryonic condition, on the other hand, they are
+furnished with eyes, and with well articulated limbs, actively swim
+about and seek their proper object to become attached to. The larvae,
+also, of some moths are as complicated and are more active than the
+wingless and limbless females, which never leave their pupa-case, never
+feed and never see the daylight.
+
+     {465} This corresponds to the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607,
+     where, however, the example is taken from the Cirripedes.
+
+
+_Attempt to explain the facts of embryology._
+
+I think considerable light can be thrown by the theory of descent on
+these wonderful embryological facts which are common in a greater or
+less degree to the whole animal kingdom, and in some manner to the
+vegetable kingdom: on the fact, for instance, of the arteries in the
+embryonic mammal, bird, reptile and fish, running and branching in the
+same courses and nearly in the same manner with the arteries in the
+full-grown fish; on the fact I may add of the high importance to
+systematic naturalists{466} of the characters and resemblances in the
+embryonic state, in ascertaining the true position in the natural system
+of mature organic beings. The following are the considerations which
+throw light on these curious points.
+
+     {466} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.
+
+In the economy, we will say of a feline animal{467}, the feline
+structure of the embryo or of the sucking kitten is of quite secondary
+importance to it; hence, if a feline animal varied (assuming for the
+time the possibility of this) and if some place in the economy of
+nature favoured the selection of a longer-limbed variety, it would be
+quite unimportant to the production by natural selection of a
+long-limbed breed, whether the limbs of the embryo and kitten were
+elongated if they _became_ so _as soon_ as the animal had to provide
+food for itself. And if it were found after continued selection and the
+production of several new breeds from one parent-stock, that the
+successive variations had supervened, not very early in the youth or
+embryonic life of each breed (and we have just seen that it is quite
+unimportant whether it does so or not), then it obviously follows that
+the young or embryos of the several breeds will continue resembling each
+other more closely than their adult parents{468}. And again, if two of
+these breeds became each the parent-stock of several other breeds,
+forming two genera, the young and embryos of these would still retain a
+greater resemblance to the one original stock than when in an adult
+state. Therefore if it could be shown that the period of the slight
+successive variations does not always supervene at a very early period
+of life, the greater resemblance or closer unity in type of animals in
+the young than in the full-grown state would be explained. Before
+practically{469} endeavouring to discover in our domestic races whether
+the structure or form of the young has or has not changed in an exactly
+corresponding degree with the changes of full-grown animals, it will be
+well to show that it is at least quite _possible_ for the primary
+germinal vesicle to be impressed with a tendency to produce some change
+on the growing tissues which will not be fully effected till the animal
+is advanced in life.
+
+     {467} This corresponds to the _Origin_, Ed. i. pp. 443-4, vi. p.
+     610: the "feline animal" is not used to illustrate the
+     generalisation, but is so used in the Essay of 1842, p. 42.
+
+     {468} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 447, vi. p. 613.
+
+     {469} In the margin is written "Get young pigeons"; this was
+     afterwards done, and the results are given in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 445, vi. p. 612.
+
+From the following peculiarities of structure being inheritable and
+appearing only when the animal is full-grown--namely, general size,
+tallness (not consequent on the tallness of the infant), fatness either
+over the whole body, or local; change of colour in hair and its loss;
+deposition of bony matter on the legs of horses; blindness and deafness,
+that is changes of structure in the eye and ear; gout and consequent
+deposition of chalk-stones; and many other diseases{470}, as of the
+heart and brain, &c., &c.; from all such tendencies being I repeat
+inheritable, we clearly see that the germinal vesicle is impressed with
+some power which is wonderfully preserved during the production of
+infinitely numerous cells in the ever changing tissues, till the part
+ultimately to be affected is formed and the time of life arrived at. We
+see this clearly when we select cattle with any peculiarity of their
+horns, or poultry with any peculiarity of their second plumage, for such
+peculiarities cannot of course reappear till the animal is mature.
+Hence, it is certainly _possible_ that the germinal vesicle may be
+impressed with a tendency to produce a long-limbed animal, the full
+proportional length of whose limbs shall appear only when the animal is
+mature{471}.
+
+     {470} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. the corresponding passages are at pp.
+     8, 13, 443, vi. pp. 8, 15, 610. In the _Origin_, Ed. i. I have not
+     found a passage so striking as that which occurs a few lines lower
+     "that the germinal vesicle is impressed with some power which is
+     wonderfully preserved, &c." In the _Origin_ this _preservation_ is
+     rather taken for granted.
+
+     {471} <In the margin is written> Aborted organs show, perhaps,
+     something about period <at> which changes supervene in embryo.
+
+In several of the cases just enumerated we know that the first cause of
+the peculiarity, when _not_ inherited, lies in the conditions to which
+the animal is exposed during mature life, thus to a certain extent
+general size and fatness, lameness in horses and in a lesser degree
+blindness, gout and some other diseases are certainly in some degree
+caused and accelerated by the habits of life, and these peculiarities
+when transmitted to the offspring of the affected person reappear at a
+nearly corresponding time of life. In medical works it is asserted
+generally that at whatever period an hereditary disease appears in the
+parent, it tends to reappear in the offspring at the same period. Again,
+we find that early maturity, the season of reproduction and longevity
+are transmitted to corresponding periods of life. Dr Holland has
+insisted much on children of the same family exhibiting certain diseases
+in similar and peculiar manners; my father has known three brothers{472}
+die in very old age in a _singular_ comatose state; now to make these
+latter cases strictly bear, the children of such families ought
+similarly to suffer at corresponding times of life; this is probably not
+the case, but such facts show that a tendency in a disease to appear at
+particular stages of life can be transmitted through the germinal
+vesicle to different individuals of the same family. It is then
+certainly possible that diseases affecting widely different periods of
+life can be transmitted. So little attention is paid to very young
+domestic animals that I do not know whether any case is on record of
+selected peculiarities in young animals, for instance, in the first
+plumage of birds, being transmitted to their young. If, however, we turn
+to silk-worms{473}, we find that the caterpillars and coccoons (which
+must correspond to a _very early_ period of the embryonic life of
+mammalia) vary, and that these varieties reappear in the offspring
+caterpillars and coccoons.
+
+     {472} See p. 42, note 5.{Note 160}
+
+     {473} The evidence is given in _Var. under Dom._, I. p. 316.
+
+I think these facts are sufficient to render it probable that at
+whatever period of life any peculiarity (capable of being inherited)
+appears, whether caused by the action of external influences during
+mature life, or from an affection of the primary germinal vesicle, it
+_tends_ to reappear in the offspring at the corresponding period of
+life{474}. Hence (I may add) whatever effect training, that is the full
+employment or action of every newly selected slight variation, has in
+fully developing and increasing such variation, would only show itself
+in mature age, corresponding to the period of training; in the second
+chapter I showed that there was in this respect a marked difference in
+natural and artificial selection, man not regularly exercising or
+adapting his varieties to new ends, whereas selection by nature
+presupposes such exercise and adaptation in each selected and changed
+part. The foregoing facts show and presuppose that slight variations
+occur at various periods of life _after birth_; the facts of
+monstrosity, on the other hand, show that many changes take place before
+birth, for instance, all such cases as extra fingers, hare-lip and all
+sudden and great alterations in structure; and these when inherited
+reappear during the embryonic period in the offspring. I will only add
+that at a period even anterior to embryonic life, namely, during the
+_egg_ state, varieties appear in size and colour (as with the
+Hertfordshire duck with blackish eggs{475}) which reappear in the egg;
+in plants also the capsule and membranes of the seed are very variable
+and inheritable.
+
+     {474} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 610.
+
+     {475} In _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 295, such eggs are
+     said to be laid early in each season by the black Labrador duck. In
+     the next sentence in the text the author does not distinguish the
+     characters of the vegetable capsule from those of the ovum.
+
+If then the two following propositions are admitted (and I think the
+first can hardly be doubted), viz. that variation of structure takes
+place at all times of life, though no doubt far less in amount and
+seldomer in quite mature life{476} (and then generally taking the form
+of disease); and secondly, that these variations tend to reappear at a
+corresponding period of life, which seems at least probable, then we
+might _a priori_ have expected that in any selected breed the _young_
+animal would not partake in a corresponding degree the peculiarities
+characterising the _full-grown_ parent; though it would in a lesser
+degree. For during the thousand or ten thousand selections of slight
+increments in the length of the limbs of individuals necessary to
+produce a long-limbed breed, we might expect that such increments would
+take place in different individuals (as we do not certainly know at what
+period they do take place), some earlier and some later in the embryonic
+state, and some during early youth; and these increments would reappear
+in their offspring only at corresponding periods. Hence, the entire
+length of limb in the new long-limbed breed would only be acquired at
+the latest period of life, when that one which was latest of the
+thousand primary increments of length supervened. Consequently, the
+foetus of the new breed during the earlier part of its existence would
+remain much less changed in the proportions of its limbs; and the
+earlier the period the less would the change be.
+
+     {476} This seems to me to be more strongly stated here than in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+Whatever may be thought of the facts on which this reasoning is
+grounded, it shows how the embryos and young of different species might
+come to remain less changed than their mature parents; and practically
+we find that the young of our domestic animals, though differing, differ
+less than their full-grown parents. Thus if we look at the young
+puppies{477} of the greyhound and bulldog--(the two most obviously
+modified of the breeds of dog)--we find their puppies at the age of six
+days with legs and noses (the latter measured from the eyes to the tip)
+of the same length; though in the proportional thicknesses and general
+appearance of these parts there is a great difference. So it is with
+cattle, though the young calves of different breeds are easily
+recognisable, yet they do not differ so much in their proportions as the
+full-grown animals. We see this clearly in the fact that it shows the
+highest skill to select the best forms early in life, either in horses,
+cattle or poultry; no one would attempt it only a few hours after birth;
+and it requires great discrimination to judge with accuracy even during
+their full youth, and the best judges are sometimes deceived. This shows
+that the ultimate proportions of the body are not acquired till near
+mature age. If I had collected sufficient facts to firmly establish the
+proposition that in artificially selected breeds the embryonic and young
+animals are not changed in a corresponding degree with their mature
+parents, I might have omitted all the foregoing reasoning and the
+attempts to explain how this happens; for we might safely have
+transferred the proposition to the breeds or species naturally selected;
+and the ultimate effect would necessarily have been that in a number of
+races or species descended from a common stock and forming several
+genera and families the embryos would have resembled each other more
+closely than full-grown animals. Whatever may have been the form or
+habits of the parent-stock of the Vertebrata, in whatever course the
+arteries ran and branched, the selection of variations, supervening
+after the first formation of the arteries in the embryo, would not tend
+from variations supervening at corresponding periods to alter their
+course at that period: hence, the similar course of the arteries in the
+mammal, bird, reptile and fish, must be looked at as a most ancient
+record of the embryonic structure of the common parent-stock of these
+four great classes.
+
+     {477} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.
+
+A long course of selection might cause a form to become more simple, as
+well as more complicated; thus the adaptation of a crustaceous{478}
+animal to live attached during its whole life to the body of a fish,
+might permit with advantage great simplification of structure, and on
+this view the singular fact of an embryo being more complex than its
+parent is at once explained.
+
+     {478} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.
+
+
+_On the graduated complexity in each great class._
+
+I may take this opportunity of remarking that naturalists have observed
+that in most of the great classes a series exists from very complicated
+to very simple beings; thus in Fish, what a range there is between the
+sand-eel and shark,--in the Articulata, between the common crab and the
+Daphnia{479},--between the Aphis and butterfly, and between a mite and a
+spider{480}. Now the observation just made, namely, that selection might
+tend to simplify, as well as to complicate, explains this; for we can
+see that during the endless geologico-geographical changes, and
+consequent isolation of species, a station occupied in other districts
+by less complicated animals might be left unfilled, and be occupied by a
+degraded form of a higher or more complicated class; and it would by no
+means follow that, when the two regions became united, the degraded
+organism would give way to the aboriginally lower organism. According to
+our theory, there is obviously no power tending constantly to exalt
+species, except the mutual struggle between the different individuals
+and classes; but from the strong and general hereditary tendency we
+might expect to find some tendency to progressive complication in the
+successive production of new organic forms.
+
+     {479} Compare _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 419, vi. p. 575.
+
+     {480} <Note in original.> Scarcely possible to distinguish between
+     non-development and retrograde development.
+
+
+_Modification by selection of the forms of immature animals._
+
+I have above remarked that the feline{481} form is quite of secondary
+importance to the embryo and to the kitten. Of course, during any great
+and prolonged change of structure in the mature animal, it might, and
+often would be, indispensable that the form of the embryo should be
+changed; and this could be effected, owing to the hereditary tendency at
+corresponding ages, by selection, equally well as in mature age: thus if
+the embryo tended to become, or to remain, either over its whole body or
+in certain parts, too bulky, the female parent would die or suffer more
+during parturition; and as in the case of the calves with large hinder
+quarters{482}, the peculiarity must be either eliminated or the species
+become extinct. Where an embryonic form has to seek its own food, its
+structure and adaptation is just as important to the species as that of
+the full-grown animal; and as we have seen that a peculiarity appearing
+in a caterpillar (or in a child, as shown by the hereditariness of
+peculiarities in the milk-teeth) reappears in its offspring, so we can
+at once see that our common principle of the selection of slight
+accidental variations would modify and adapt a caterpillar to a new or
+changing condition, precisely as in the full-grown butterfly. Hence
+probably it is that caterpillars of different species of the Lepidoptera
+differ more than those embryos, at a corresponding early period of life,
+do which remain inactive in the womb of their parents. The parent during
+successive ages continuing to be adapted by selection for some one
+object, and the larva for quite another one, we need not wonder at the
+difference becoming wonderfully great between them; even as great as
+that between the fixed rock-barnacle and its free, crab-like offspring,
+which is furnished with eyes and well-articulated, locomotive
+limbs{483}.
+
+     {481} See p. 42, where the same illustration is used.
+
+     {482} _Var. under Dom._, Ed. ii. vol. I. p. 452.
+
+     {483} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 441, vi. p. 607.
+
+
+_Importance of embryology in classification._
+
+We are now prepared to perceive why the study of embryonic forms is of
+such acknowledged importance in classification{484}. For we have seen
+that a variation, supervening at any time, may aid in the modification
+and adaptation of the full-grown being; but for the modification of the
+embryo, only the variations which supervene at a very early period can
+be seized on and perpetuated by selection: hence there will be less
+power and less tendency (for the structure of the embryo is mostly
+unimportant) to modify the young: and hence we might expect to find at
+this period similarities preserved between different groups of species
+which had been obscured and quite lost in the full-grown animals. I
+conceive on the view of separate creations it would be impossible to
+offer any explanation of the affinities of organic beings thus being
+plainest and of the greatest importance at that period of life when
+their structure is not adapted to the final part they have to play in
+the economy of nature.
+
+     {484} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 617.
+
+
+_Order in time in which the great classes have first appeared._
+
+It follows strictly from the above reasoning only that the embryos of
+(for instance) existing vertebrata resemble more closely the embryo of
+the parent-stock of this great class than do full-grown existing
+vertebrata resemble their full-grown parent-stock. But it may be argued
+with much probability that in the earliest and simplest condition of
+things the parent and embryo must have resembled each other, and that
+the passage of any animal through embryonic states in its growth is
+entirely due to subsequent variations affecting _only_ the more mature
+periods of life. If so, the embryos of the existing vertebrata will
+shadow forth the full-grown structure of some of those forms of this
+great class which existed at the earlier periods of the earth's
+history{485}: and accordingly, animals with a fish-like structure ought
+to have preceded birds and mammals; and of fish, that higher organized
+division with the vertebrae extending into one division of the tail ought
+to have preceded the equal-tailed, because the embryos of the latter
+have an unequal tail; and of Crustacea, entomostraca ought to have
+preceded the ordinary crabs and barnacles--polypes ought to have
+preceded jelly-fish, and infusorial animalcules to have existed before
+both. This order of precedence in time in some of these cases is
+believed to hold good; but I think our evidence is so exceedingly
+incomplete regarding the number and kinds of organisms which have
+existed during all, especially the earlier, periods of the earth's
+history, that I should put no stress on this accordance, even if it held
+truer than it probably does in our present state of knowledge.
+
+     {485} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 449, vi. p. 618.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ABORTIVE OR RUDIMENTARY ORGANS
+
+
+_The abortive organs of naturalists._
+
+Parts of structure are said to be "abortive," or when in a still lower
+state of development "rudimentary{486}," when the same reasoning power,
+which convinces us that in some cases similar parts are beautifully
+adapted to certain ends, declares that in others they are absolutely
+useless. Thus the rhinoceros, the whale{487}, etc., have, when young,
+small but properly formed teeth, which never protrude from the jaws;
+certain bones, and even the entire extremities are represented by mere
+little cylinders or points of bone, often soldered to other bones: many
+beetles have exceedingly minute but regularly formed wings lying under
+their wing-cases{488}, which latter are united never to be opened: many
+plants have, instead of stamens, mere filaments or little knobs; petals
+are reduced to scales, and whole flowers to buds, which (as in the
+feather hyacinth) never expand. Similar instances are almost
+innumerable, and are justly considered wonderful: probably not one
+organic being exists in which some part does not bear the stamp of
+inutility; for what can be clearer{489}, as far as our reasoning powers
+can reach, than that teeth are for eating, extremities for locomotion,
+wings for flight, stamens and the entire flower for reproduction; yet
+for these clear ends the parts in question are manifestly unfit.
+Abortive organs are often said to be mere representatives (a
+metaphorical expression) of similar parts in other organic beings; but
+in some cases they are more than representatives, for they seem to be
+the actual organ not fully grown or developed; thus the existence of
+mammae in the male vertebrata is one of the oftenest adduced cases of
+abortion; but we know that these organs in man (and in the bull) have
+performed their proper function and secreted milk: the cow has normally
+four mammae and two abortive ones, but these latter in some instances are
+largely developed and even (??) give milk{490}. Again in flowers, the
+representatives of stamens and pistils can be traced to be really these
+parts not developed; Koelreuter has shown by crossing a diaecious plant (a
+Cucubalus) having a rudimentary pistil{491} with another species having
+this organ perfect, that in the hybrid offspring the rudimentary part is
+more developed, though still remaining abortive; now this shows how
+intimately related in nature the mere rudiment and the fully developed
+pistil must be.
+
+     {486} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619, the author does
+     not lay stress on any distinction in meaning between the terms
+     _abortive_ and _rudimentary_ organs.
+
+     {487} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 450, vi. p. 619.
+
+     {488} _Ibid._
+
+     {489} This argument occurs in _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 619.
+
+     {490} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 619, on male mammae. In the
+     _Origin_ he speaks certainly of the abortive mammae of the cow
+     giving milk,--a point which is here queried.
+
+     {491} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.
+
+Abortive organs, which must be considered as useless as far as their
+ordinary and normal purpose is concerned, are sometimes adapted to other
+ends{492}: thus the marsupial bones, which properly serve to support the
+young in the mother's pouch, are present in the male and serve as the
+fulcrum for muscles connected only with male functions: in the male of
+the marigold flower the pistil is abortive for its proper end of being
+impregnated, but serves to sweep the pollen out of the anthers{493}
+ready to be borne by insects to the perfect pistils in the other
+florets. It is likely in many cases, yet unknown to us, that abortive
+organs perform some useful function; but in other cases, for instance in
+that of teeth embedded in the solid jaw-bone, or of mere knobs, the
+rudiments of stamens and pistils, the boldest imagination will hardly
+venture to ascribe to them any function. Abortive parts, even when
+wholly useless to the individual species, are of great signification in
+the system of nature; for they are often found to be of very high
+importance in a natural classification{494}; thus the presence and
+position of entire abortive flowers, in the grasses, cannot be
+overlooked in attempting to arrange them according to their true
+affinities. This corroborates a statement in a previous chapter, viz.
+that the physiological importance of a part is no index of its
+importance in classification. Finally, abortive organs often are only
+developed, proportionally with other parts, in the embryonic or young
+state of each species{495}; this again, especially considering the
+classificatory importance of abortive organs, is evidently part of the
+law (stated in the last chapter) that the higher affinities of organisms
+are often best seen in the stages towards maturity, through which the
+embryo passes. On the ordinary view of individual creations, I think
+that scarcely any class of facts in natural history are more wonderful
+or less capable of receiving explanation.
+
+     {492} The case of rudimentary organs adapted to new purposes is
+     discussed in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 451, vi. p. 620.
+
+     {493} This is here stated on the authority of Sprengel; see also
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 452, vi. p. 621.
+
+     {494} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627. In the margin R. Brown's
+     name is given apparently as the authority for the fact.
+
+     {495} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 626.
+
+
+_The abortive organs of physiologists._
+
+Physiologists and medical men apply the term "abortive" in a somewhat
+different sense from naturalists; and their application is probably the
+primary one; namely, to parts, which from accident or disease before
+birth are not developed or do not grow{496}: thus, when a young animal
+is born with a little stump in the place of a finger or of the whole
+extremity, or with a little button instead of a head, or with a mere
+bead of bony matter instead of a tooth, or with a stump instead of a
+tail, these parts are said to be aborted. Naturalists on the other hand,
+as we have seen, apply this term to parts not stunted during the growth
+of the embryo, but which are as regularly produced in successive
+generations as any other most essential parts of the structure of the
+individual: naturalists, therefore, use this term in a metaphorical
+sense. These two classes of facts, however, blend into each other{497};
+by parts accidentally aborted, during the embryonic life of one
+individual, becoming hereditary in the succeeding generations: thus a
+cat or dog, born with a stump instead of a tail, tends to transmit
+stumps to their offspring; and so it is with stumps representing the
+extremities; and so again with flowers, with defective and rudimentary
+parts, which are annually produced in new flower-buds and even in
+successive seedlings. The strong hereditary tendency to reproduce every
+either congenital or slowly acquired structure, whether useful or
+injurious to the individual, has been shown in the first part; so that
+we need feel no surprise at these truly abortive parts becoming
+hereditary. A curious instance of the force of hereditariness is
+sometimes seen in two little loose hanging horns, quite useless as far
+as the function of a horn is concerned, which are produced in hornless
+races of our domestic cattle{498}. Now I believe no real distinction can
+be drawn between a stump representing a tail or a horn or the
+extremities; or a short shrivelled stamen without any pollen; or a
+dimple in a petal representing a nectary, when such rudiments are
+regularly reproduced in a race or family, and the true abortive organs
+of naturalists. And if we had reason to believe (which I think we have
+not) that all abortive organs had been at some period _suddenly_
+produced during the embryonic life of an individual, and afterwards
+become inherited, we should at once have a simple explanation of the
+origin of abortive and rudimentary organs{499}. In the same manner as
+during changes of pronunciation certain letters in a word may become
+useless{500} in pronouncing it, but yet may aid us in searching for its
+derivation, so we can see that rudimentary organs, no longer useful to
+the individual, may be of high importance in ascertaining its descent,
+that is, its true classification in the natural system.
+
+     {496} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.
+
+     {497} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625, the author in
+     referring to semi-monstrous variations adds "But I doubt whether
+     any of these cases throw light on the origin of rudimentary organs
+     in a state of nature." In 1844 he was clearly more inclined to an
+     opposite opinion.
+
+     {498} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625.
+
+     {499} See _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 454, vi. p. 625. The author there
+     discusses monstrosities in relation to rudimentary organs, and
+     comes to the conclusion that disuse is of more importance, giving
+     as a reason his doubt "whether species under nature ever undergo
+     abrupt changes." It seems to me that in the _Origin_ he gives more
+     weight to the "Lamarckian factor" than he did in 1844. Huxley took
+     the opposite view, see the Introduction.
+
+     {500} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 455, vi. p. 627.
+
+
+_Abortion from gradual disuse._
+
+There seems to be some probability that continued disuse of any part or
+organ, and the selection of individuals with such parts slightly less
+developed, would in the course of ages produce in organic beings under
+domesticity races with such parts abortive. We have every reason to
+believe that every part and organ in an individual becomes fully
+developed only with exercise of its functions; that it becomes developed
+in a somewhat lesser degree with less exercise; and if forcibly
+precluded from all action, such part will often become atrophied. Every
+peculiarity, let it be remembered, tends, especially where both parents
+have it, to be inherited. The less power of flight in the common duck
+compared with the wild, must be partly attributed to disuse{501} during
+successive generations, and as the wing is properly adapted to flight,
+we must consider our domestic duck in the first stage towards the state
+of the Apteryx, in which the wings are so curiously abortive. Some
+naturalists have attributed (and possibly with truth) the falling ears
+so characteristic of most domestic dogs, some rabbits, oxen, cats,
+goats, horses, &c., &c., as the effects of the lesser use of the muscles
+of these flexible parts during successive generations of inactive life;
+and muscles, which cannot perform their functions, must be considered
+verging towards abortion. In flowers, again, we see the gradual abortion
+during successive seedlings (though this is more properly a conversion)
+of stamens into imperfect petals, and finally into perfect petals. When
+the eye is blinded in early life the optic nerve sometimes becomes
+atrophied; may we not believe that where this organ, as is the case with
+the subterranean mole-like Tuco-tuco <_Ctenomys_>{502}, is frequently
+impaired and lost, that in the course of generations the whole organ
+might become abortive, as it normally is in some burrowing quadrupeds
+having nearly similar habits with the Tuco-tuco?
+
+     {501} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 11, vi. p. 13, where drooping-ears of
+     domestic animals are also given.
+
+     {502} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 137, vi. p. 170.
+
+In as far then as it is admitted as probable that the effects of disuse
+(together with occasional true and sudden abortions during the embryonic
+period) would cause a part to be less developed, and finally to become
+abortive and useless; then during the infinitely numerous changes of
+habits in the many descendants from a common stock, we might fairly have
+expected that cases of organs becom<ing> abortive would have been numerous.
+The preservation of the stump of the tail, as usually happens when an
+animal is born tailless, we can only explain by the strength of the
+hereditary principle and by the period in embryo when affected{503}: but
+on the theory of disuse gradually obliterating a part, we can see,
+according to the principles explained in the last chapter (viz. of
+hereditariness at corresponding periods of life{504}, together with the
+use and disuse of the part in question not being brought into play in
+early or embryonic life), that organs or parts would tend not to be
+utterly obliterated, but to be reduced to that state in which they
+existed in early embryonic life. Owen often speaks of a part in a
+full-grown animal being in an "embryonic condition." Moreover we can
+thus see why abortive organs are most developed at an early period of
+life. Again, by gradual selection, we can see how an organ rendered
+abortive in its primary use might be converted to other purposes; a
+duck's wing might come to serve for a fin, as does that of the penguin;
+an abortive bone might come to serve, by the slow increment and change
+of place in the muscular fibres, as a fulcrum for a new series of
+muscles; the pistil{505} of the marigold might become abortive as a
+reproductive part, but be continued in its function of sweeping the
+pollen out of the anthers; for if in this latter respect the abortion
+had not been checked by selection, the species must have become extinct
+from the pollen remaining enclosed in the capsules of the anthers.
+
+     {503} These words seem to have been inserted as an afterthought.
+
+     {504} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 444, vi. p. 611.
+
+     {505} This and similar cases occur in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 452,
+     vi. p. 621.
+
+Finally then I must repeat that these wonderful facts of organs formed
+with traces of exquisite care, but now either absolutely useless or
+adapted to ends wholly different from their ordinary end, being present
+and forming part of the structure of almost every inhabitant of this
+world, both in long-past and present times--being best developed and
+often only discoverable at a very early embryonic period, and being full
+of signification in arranging the long series of organic beings in a
+natural system--these wonderful facts not only receive a simple
+explanation on the theory of long-continued selection of many species
+from a few common parent-stocks, but necessarily follow from this
+theory. If this theory be rejected, these facts remain quite
+inexplicable; without indeed we rank as an explanation such loose
+metaphors as that of De Candolle's{506}, in which the kingdom of nature
+is compared to a well-covered table, and the abortive organs are
+considered as put in for the sake of symmetry!
+
+     {506} The metaphor of the dishes is given in the Essay of 1842, p.
+     47, note 3.{Note 173}
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION
+
+
+_Recapitulation._
+
+I will now recapitulate the course of this work, more fully with respect
+to the former parts, and briefly <as to> the latter. In the first
+chapter we have seen that most, if not all, organic beings, when taken
+by man out of their natural condition, and bred during several
+generations, vary; that is variation is partly due to the direct effect
+of the new external influences, and partly to the indirect effect on the
+reproductive system rendering the organization of the offspring in some
+degree plastic. Of the variations thus produced, man when uncivilised
+naturally preserves the life, and therefore unintentionally breeds from
+those individuals most useful to him in his different states: when even
+semi-civilised, he intentionally separates and breeds from such
+individuals. Every part of the structure seems occasionally to vary in a
+very slight degree, and the extent to which all kinds of peculiarities
+in mind and body, when congenital and when slowly acquired either from
+external influences, from exercise, or from disuse <are inherited>, is
+truly wonderful. When several breeds are once formed, then crossing is
+the most fertile source of new breeds{507}. Variation must be ruled, of
+course, by the health of the new race, by the tendency to return to the
+ancestral forms, and by unknown laws determining the proportional
+increase and symmetry of the body. The amount of variation, which has
+been effected under domestication, is quite unknown in the majority of
+domestic beings.
+
+     {507} Compare however Darwin's later view:--"The possibility of
+     making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated,"
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 20, vi. p. 23. The author's change of opinion
+     was no doubt partly due to his experience in breeding pigeons.
+
+In the second chapter it was shown that wild organisms undoubtedly vary
+in some slight degree: and that the kind of variation, though much less
+in degree, is similar to that of domestic organisms. It is highly
+probable that every organic being, if subjected during several
+generations to new and varying conditions, would vary. It is certain
+that organisms, living in an _isolated_ country which is undergoing
+geological changes, must in the course of time be so subjected to new
+conditions; moreover an organism, when by chance transported into a new
+station, for instance into an island, will often be exposed to new
+conditions, and be surrounded by a new series of organic beings. If
+there were no power at work selecting every slight variation, which
+opened new sources of subsistence to a being thus situated, the effects
+of crossing, the chance of death and the constant tendency to reversion
+to the old parent-form, would prevent the production of new races. If
+there were any selective agency at work, it seems impossible to assign
+any limit{508} to the complexity and beauty of the adaptive structures,
+which _might_ thus be produced: for certainly the limit of possible
+variation of organic beings, either in a wild or domestic state, is not
+known.
+
+     {508} In the _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 469, vi. p. 644, Darwin makes a
+     strong statement to this effect.
+
+It was then shown, from the geometrically increasing tendency of each
+species to multiply (as evidenced from what we know of mankind and of
+other animals when favoured by circumstances), and from the means of
+subsistence of each species on an _average_ remaining constant, that
+during some part of the life of each, or during every few generations,
+there must be a severe struggle for existence; and that less than a
+grain{509} in the balance will determine which individuals shall live
+and which perish. In a country, therefore, undergoing changes, and cut
+off from the free immigration of species better adapted to the new
+station and conditions, it cannot be doubted that there is a most
+powerful means of selection, _tending_ to preserve even the slightest
+variation, which aided the subsistence or defence of those organic
+beings, during any part of their whole existence, whose organization had
+been rendered plastic. Moreover, in animals in which the sexes are
+distinct, there is a sexual struggle, by which the most vigorous, and
+consequently the best adapted, will oftener procreate their kind.
+
+     {509} "A grain in the balance will determine which individual shall
+     live and which shall die," _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 467, vi. p. 642. A
+     similar statement occurs in the 1842 Essay, p. 8, note 3.{Note 59}
+
+A new race thus formed by natural selection would be undistinguishable
+from a species. For comparing, on the one hand, the several species of a
+genus, and on the other hand several domestic races from a common stock,
+we cannot discriminate them by the amount of external difference, but
+only, first, by domestic races not remaining so constant or being so
+"true" as species are; and secondly by races always producing fertile
+offspring when crossed. And it was then shown that a race naturally
+selected--from the variation being slower--from the selection steadily
+leading towards the same ends{510}, and from every new slight change in
+structure being adapted (as is implied by its selection) to the new
+conditions and being fully exercised, and lastly from the freedom from
+occasional crosses with other species, would almost necessarily be
+"truer" than a race selected by ignorant or capricious and short-lived
+man. With respect to the sterility of species when crossed, it was shown
+not to be a universal character, and when present to vary in degree:
+sterility also was shown probably to depend less on external than on
+constitutional differences. And it was shown that when individual
+animals and plants are placed under new conditions, they become, without
+losing their healths, as sterile, in the same manner and to the same
+degree, as hybrids; and it is therefore conceivable that the cross-bred
+offspring between two species, having different constitutions, might
+have its constitution affected in the same peculiar manner as when an
+individual animal or plant is placed under new conditions. Man in
+selecting domestic races has little wish and still less power to adapt
+the whole frame to new conditions; in nature, however, where each
+species survives by a struggle against other species and external
+nature, the result must be very different.
+
+     {510} Thus according to the author what is now known as
+     _orthogenesis_ is due to selection.
+
+Races descending from the same stock were then compared with species of
+the same genus, and they were found to present some striking analogies.
+The offspring also of races when crossed, that is mongrels, were
+compared with the cross-bred offspring of species, that is hybrids, and
+they were found to resemble each other in all their characters, with the
+one exception of sterility, and even this, when present, often becomes
+after some generations variable in degree. The chapter was summed up,
+and it was shown that no ascertained limit to the amount of variation is
+known; or could be predicted with due time and changes of condition
+granted. It was then admitted that although the production of new races,
+undistinguishable from true species, is probable, we must look to the
+relations in the past and present geographical distribution of the
+infinitely numerous beings, by which we are surrounded--to their
+affinities and to their structure--for any direct evidence.
+
+In the third chapter the inheritable variations in the mental phenomena
+of domestic and of wild organic beings were considered. It was shown
+that we are not concerned in this work with the first origin of the
+leading mental qualities; but that tastes, passions, dispositions,
+consensual movements, and habits all became, either congenitally or
+during mature life, modified and were inherited. Several of these
+modified habits were found to correspond in every essential character
+with true instincts, and they were found to follow the same laws.
+Instincts and dispositions &c. are fully as important to the
+preservation and increase of a species as its corporeal structure; and
+therefore the natural means of selection would act on and modify them
+equally with corporeal structures. This being granted, as well as the
+proposition that mental phenomena are variable, and that the
+modifications are inheritable, the possibility of the several most
+complicated instincts being slowly acquired was considered, and it was
+shown from the very imperfect series in the instincts of the animals now
+existing, that we are not justified in _prima facie_ rejecting a theory
+of the common descent of allied organisms from the difficulty of
+imagining the transitional stages in the various now most complicated
+and wonderful instincts. We were thus led on to consider the same
+question with respect both to highly complicated organs, and to the
+aggregate of several such organs, that is individual organic beings; and
+it was shown, by the same method of taking the existing most imperfect
+series, that we ought not at once to reject the theory, because we
+cannot trace the transitional stages in such organs, or conjecture the
+transitional habits of such individual species.
+
+In the Second Part{511} the direct evidence of allied forms having
+descended from the same stock was discussed. It was shown that this
+theory requires a long series of intermediate forms between the species
+and groups in the same classes--forms not directly intermediate between
+existing species, but intermediate with a common parent. It was admitted
+that if even all the preserved fossils and existing species were
+collected, such a series would be far from being formed; but it was
+shown that we have not _good_ evidence that the oldest known deposits
+are contemporaneous with the first appearance of living beings; or that
+the several subsequent formations are nearly consecutive; or that any
+one formation preserves a nearly perfect fauna of even the hard marine
+organisms, which lived in that quarter of the world. Consequently, we
+have no reason to suppose that more than a small fraction of the
+organisms which have lived at any one period have ever been preserved;
+and hence that we ought not to expect to discover the fossilised
+sub-varieties between any two species. On the other hand, the evidence,
+though extremely imperfect, drawn from fossil remains, as far as it does
+go, is in favour of such a series of organisms having existed as that
+required. This want of evidence of the past existence of almost
+infinitely numerous intermediate forms, is, I conceive, much the
+weightiest difficulty{512} on the theory of common descent; but I must
+think that this is due to ignorance necessarily resulting from the
+imperfection of all geological records.
+
+     {511} Part II begins with Ch. IV. See the Introduction, where the
+     absence of division into two parts (in the _Origin_) is discussed.
+
+     {512} In the recapitulation in the last chapter of the _Origin_,
+     Ed. i. p. 475, vi. p. 651, the author does not insist on this point
+     as the weightiest difficulty, though he does so in Ed. i. p. 299.
+     It is possible that he had come to think less of the difficulty in
+     question: this was certainly the case when he wrote the 6th
+     edition, see p. 438.
+
+In the fifth chapter it was shown that new species gradually{513}
+appear, and that the old ones gradually disappear, from the earth; and
+this strictly accords with our theory. The extinction of species seems
+to be preceded by their rarity; and if this be so, no one ought to feel
+more surprise at a species being exterminated than at its being rare.
+Every species which is not increasing in number must have its
+geometrical tendency to increase checked by some agency seldom
+accurately perceived by us. Each slight increase in the power of this
+unseen checking agency would cause a corresponding decrease in the
+average numbers of that species, and the species would become rarer: we
+feel not the least surprise at one species of a genus being rare and
+another abundant; why then should we be surprised at its extinction,
+when we have good reason to believe that this very rarity is its regular
+precursor and cause.
+
+     {513} <The following words:> The fauna changes singly <were inserted
+     by the author, apparently to replace a doubtful erasure>.
+
+In the sixth chapter the leading facts in the geographical distribution
+of organic beings were considered--namely, the dissimilarity in areas
+widely and effectually separated, of the organic beings being exposed to
+very similar conditions (as for instance, within the tropical forests of
+Africa and America, or on the volcanic islands adjoining them). Also the
+striking similarity and general relations of the inhabitants of the same
+great continents, conjoined with a lesser degree of dissimilarity in the
+inhabitants living on opposite sides of the barriers intersecting
+it--whether or not these opposite sides are exposed to similar
+conditions. Also the dissimilarity, though in a still lesser degree, in
+the inhabitants of different islands in the same archipelago, together
+with their similarity taken as a whole with the inhabitants of the
+nearest continent, whatever its character may be. Again, the peculiar
+relations of Alpine floras; the absence of mammifers on the smaller
+isolated islands; and the comparative fewness of the plants and other
+organisms on islands with diversified stations; the connection between
+the possibility of occasional transportal from one country to another,
+with an affinity, though not identity, of the organic beings inhabiting
+them. And lastly, the clear and striking relations between the living
+and the extinct in the same great divisions of the world; which
+relation, if we look very far backward, seems to die away. These facts,
+if we bear in mind the geological changes in progress, all simply follow
+from the proposition of allied organic beings having lineally descended
+from common parent-stocks. On the theory of independent creations they
+must remain, though evidently connected together, inexplicable and
+disconnected.
+
+In the seventh chapter, the relationship or grouping of extinct and
+recent species; the appearance and disappearance of groups; the
+ill-defined objects of the natural classification, not depending on the
+similarity of organs physiologically important, not being influenced by
+adaptive or analogical characters, though these often govern the whole
+economy of the individual, but depending on any character which varies
+least, and especially on the forms through which the embryo passes, and,
+as was afterwards shown, on the presence of rudimentary and useless
+organs. The alliance between the nearest species in _distinct_ groups
+being general and not especial; the close similarity in the rules and
+objects in classifying domestic races and true species. All these facts
+were shown to follow on the natural system being a genealogical system.
+
+In the eighth chapter, the unity of structure throughout large groups,
+in species adapted to the most different lives, and the wonderful
+metamorphosis (used metaphorically by naturalists) of one part or organ
+into another, were shown to follow simply on new species being produced
+by the selection and inheritance of successive _small_ changes of
+structure. The unity of type is wonderfully manifested by the similarity
+of structure, during the embryonic period, in the species of entire
+classes. To explain this it was shown that the different races of our
+domestic animals differ less, during their young state, than when full
+grown; and consequently, if species are produced like races, the same
+fact, on a greater scale, might have been expected to hold good with
+them. This remarkable law of nature was attempted to be explained
+through establishing, by sundry facts, that slight variations originally
+appear during all periods of life, and that when inherited they tend to
+appear at the corresponding period of life; according to these
+principles, in several species descended from the same parent-stock,
+their embryos would almost necessarily much more closely resemble each
+other than they would in their adult state. The importance of these
+embryonic resemblances, in making out a natural or genealogical
+classification, thus becomes at once obvious. The occasional greater
+simplicity of structure in the mature animal than in the embryo; the
+gradation in complexity of the species in the great classes; the
+adaptation of the larvae of animals to independent powers of existence;
+the immense difference in certain animals in their larval and mature
+states, were all shown on the above principles to present no difficulty.
+
+In the <ninth> chapter, the frequent and almost general presence of
+organs and parts, called by naturalists abortive or rudimentary, which,
+though formed with exquisite care, are generally absolutely useless
+<was considered>. <These structures,> though sometimes applied to uses
+not normal,--which cannot be considered as mere representative parts,
+for they are sometimes capable of performing their proper
+function,--which are always best developed, and sometimes only
+developed, during a very early period of life,--and which are of
+admitted high importance in classification,--were shown to be simply
+explicable on our theory of common descent.
+
+
+_Why do we wish to reject the theory of common descent?_
+
+Thus have many general facts, or laws, been included under one
+explanation; and the difficulties encountered are those which would
+naturally result from our acknowledged ignorance. And why should we not
+admit this theory of descent{514}? Can it be shown that organic beings
+in a natural state are _all absolutely invariable_? Can it be said that
+the _limit of variation_ or the number of varieties capable of being
+formed under domestication are known? Can any distinct line be drawn
+_between a race and a species_? To these three questions we may
+certainly answer in the negative. As long as species were thought to be
+divided and defined by an impassable barrier of _sterility_, whilst we
+were ignorant of geology, and imagined that the _world was of short
+duration_, and the number of its past inhabitants few, we were justified
+in assuming individual creations, or in saying with Whewell that the
+beginnings of all things are hidden from man. Why then do we feel so
+strong an inclination to reject this theory--especially when the actual
+case of any two species, or even of any two races, is adduced--and one
+is asked, have these two originally descended from the same parent womb?
+I believe it is because we are always slow in admitting any great
+change of which we do not see the intermediate steps. The mind cannot
+grasp the full meaning of the term of a million or hundred million
+years, and cannot consequently add up and perceive the full effects of
+small successive variations accumulated during almost infinitely many
+generations. The difficulty is the same with that which, with most
+geologists, it has taken long years to remove, as when Lyell propounded
+that great valleys{515} were hollowed out [and long lines of inland
+cliffs had been formed] by the slow action of the waves of the sea. A
+man may long view a grand precipice without actually believing, though
+he may not deny it, that thousands of feet in thickness of solid rock
+once extended over many square miles where the open sea now rolls;
+without fully believing that the same sea which he sees beating the rock
+at his feet has been the sole removing power.
+
+     {514} This question forms the subject of what is practically a
+     section of the final chapter of the _Origin_ (Ed. i. p. 480, vi. p.
+     657).
+
+     {515} _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 481, vi. p. 659.
+
+Shall we then allow that the three distinct species of rhinoceros{516}
+which separately inhabit Java and Sumatra and the neighbouring mainland
+of Malacca were created, male and female, out of the inorganic materials
+of these countries? Without any adequate cause, as far as our reason
+serves, shall we say that they were merely, from living near each other,
+created very like each other, so as to form a section of the genus
+dissimilar from the African section, some of the species of which
+section inhabit very similar and some very dissimilar stations? Shall we
+say that without any apparent cause they were created on the same
+generic type with the ancient woolly rhinoceros of Siberia and of the
+other species which formerly inhabited the same main division of the
+world: that they were created, less and less closely related, but still
+with interbranching affinities, with all the other living and extinct
+mammalia? That without any apparent adequate cause their short necks
+should contain the same number of vertebrae with the giraffe; that their
+thick legs should be built on the same plan with those of the antelope,
+of the mouse, of the hand of the monkey, of the wing of the bat, and of
+the fin of the porpoise. That in each of these species the second bone
+of their leg should show clear traces of two bones having been soldered
+and united into one; that the complicated bones of their head should
+become intelligible on the supposition of their having been formed of
+three expanded vertebrae; that in the jaws of each when dissected young
+there should exist small teeth which never come to the surface. That in
+possessing these useless abortive teeth, and in other characters, these
+three rhinoceroses in their embryonic state should much more closely
+resemble other mammalia than they do when mature. And lastly, that in a
+still earlier period of life, their arteries should run and branch as in
+a fish, to carry the blood to gills which do not exist. Now these three
+species of rhinoceros closely resemble each other; more closely than
+many generally acknowledged races of our domestic animals; these three
+species if domesticated would almost certainly vary, and races adapted
+to different ends might be selected out of such variations. In this
+state they would probably breed together, and their offspring would
+possibly be quite, and probably in some degree, fertile; and in either
+case, by continued crossing, one of these specific forms might be
+absorbed and lost in another. I repeat, shall we then say that a pair,
+or a gravid female, of each of these three species of rhinoceros, were
+separately created with deceptive appearances of true relationship, with
+the stamp of inutility on some parts, and of conversion in other parts,
+out of the inorganic elements of Java, Sumatra and Malacca? or have they
+descended, like our domestic races, from the same parent-stock? For my
+own part I could no more admit the former proposition than I could admit
+that the planets move in their courses, and that a stone falls to the
+ground, not through the intervention of the secondary and appointed law
+of gravity, but from the direct volition of the Creator.
+
+     {516} The discussion on the three species of _Rhinoceros_ which
+     also occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 48, was omitted in Ch. XIV of
+     the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+
+Before concluding it will be well to show, although this has
+incidentally appeared, how far the theory of common descent can
+legitimately be extended{517}. If we once admit that two true species of
+the same genus can have descended from the same parent, it will not be
+possible to deny that two species of two genera may also have descended
+from a common stock. For in some families the genera approach almost as
+closely as species of the same genus; and in some orders, for instance
+in the monocotyledonous plants, the families run closely into each
+other. We do not hesitate to assign a common origin to dogs or cabbages,
+because they are divided into groups analogous to the groups in nature.
+Many naturalists indeed admit that all groups are artificial; and that
+they depend entirely on the extinction of intermediate species. Some
+naturalists, however, affirm that though driven from considering
+sterility as the characteristic of species, that an entire incapacity to
+propagate together is the best evidence of the existence of natural
+genera. Even if we put on one side the undoubted fact that some species
+of the same genus will not breed together, we cannot possibly admit the
+above rule, seeing that the grouse and pheasant (considered by some good
+ornithologists as forming two families), the bull-finch and canary-bird
+have bred together.
+
+     {517} This corresponds to a paragraph in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     483, vi. p. 662, where it is assumed that animals have descended
+     "from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an
+     equal or lesser number." In the _Origin_, however, the author goes
+     on, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 663: "Analogy would lead me one step
+     further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have
+     descended from some one prototype."
+
+No doubt the more remote two species are from each other, the weaker the
+arguments become in favour of their common descent. In species of two
+distinct families the analogy, from the variation of domestic organisms
+and from the manner of their intermarrying, fails; and the arguments
+from their geographical distribution quite or almost quite fails. But if
+we once admit the general principles of this work, as far as a clear
+unity of type can be made out in groups of species, adapted to play
+diversified parts in the economy of nature, whether shown in the
+structure of the embryonic or mature being, and especially if shown by a
+community of abortive parts, we are legitimately led to admit their
+community of descent. Naturalists dispute how widely this unity of type
+extends: most, however, admit that the vertebrata are built on one type;
+the articulata on another; the mollusca on a third; and the radiata on
+probably more than one. Plants also appear to fall under three or four
+great types. On this theory, therefore, all the organisms _yet
+discovered_ are descendants of probably less than ten parent-forms.
+
+
+_Conclusion._
+
+My reasons have now been assigned for believing that specific forms are
+not immutable creations{518}. The terms used by naturalists of affinity,
+unity of type, adaptive characters, the metamorphosis and abortion of
+organs, cease to be metaphorical expressions and become intelligible
+facts. We no longer look at an organic being as a savage does at a
+ship{519} or other great work of art, as at a thing wholly beyond his
+comprehension, but as a production that has a history which we may
+search into. How interesting do all instincts become when we speculate
+on their origin as hereditary habits, or as slight congenital
+modifications of former instincts perpetuated by the individuals so
+characterised having been preserved. When we look at every complex
+instinct and mechanism as the summing up of a long history of
+contrivances, each most useful to its possessor, nearly in the same way
+as when we look at a great mechanical invention as the summing up of the
+labour, the experience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous
+workmen. How interesting does the geographical distribution of all
+organic beings, past and present, become as throwing light on the
+ancient geography of the world. Geology loses glory{520} from the
+imperfection of its archives, but it gains in the immensity of its
+subject. There is much grandeur in looking at every existing organic
+being either as the lineal successor of some form now buried under
+thousands of feet of solid rock, or as being the co-descendant of that
+buried form of some more ancient and utterly lost inhabitant of this
+world. It accords with what we know of the laws impressed by the
+Creator{521} on matter that the production and extinction of forms
+should, like the birth and death of individuals, be the result of
+secondary means. It is derogatory that the Creator of countless
+Universes should have made by individual acts of His will the myriads of
+creeping parasites and worms, which since the earliest dawn of life have
+swarmed over the land and in the depths of the ocean. We cease to be
+astonished{522} that a group of animals should have been formed to lay
+their eggs in the bowels and flesh of other sensitive beings; that some
+animals should live by and even delight in cruelty; that animals should
+be led away by false instincts; that annually there should be an
+incalculable waste of the pollen, eggs and immature beings; for we see
+in all this the inevitable consequences of one great law, of the
+multiplication of organic beings not created immutable. From death,
+famine, and the struggle for existence, we see that the most exalted end
+which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the creation of the higher
+animals{523}, has directly proceeded. Doubtless, our first impression is
+to disbelieve that any secondary law could produce infinitely numerous
+organic beings, each characterised by the most exquisite workmanship and
+widely extended adaptations: it at first accords better with our
+faculties to suppose that each required the fiat of a Creator.
+There{524} is a [simple] grandeur in this view of life with its several
+powers of growth, reproduction and of sensation, having been originally
+breathed into matter under a few forms, perhaps into only one{525}, and
+that whilst this planet has gone cycling onwards according to the fixed
+laws of gravity and whilst land and water have gone on replacing each
+other--that from so simple an origin, through the selection of
+infinitesimal varieties, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful
+have been evolved.
+
+     {518} This sentence corresponds, not to the final section of the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 484, vi. p. 664, but rather to the opening
+     words of the section already referred to (_Origin_, Ed. i. p. 480,
+     vi. p. 657).
+
+     {519} This simile occurs in the Essay of 1842, p. 50, and in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 485, vi. p. 665, _i.e._ in the final section of
+     Ch. XIV (vi. Ch. XV). In the MS. there is some erasure in pencil of
+     which I have taken no notice.
+
+     {520} An almost identical sentence occurs in the _Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 487, vi. p. 667. The fine prophecy (in the _Origin_, Ed. i. p.
+     486, vi. p. 666) on "the almost untrodden field of inquiry" is
+     wanting in the present Essay.
+
+     {521} See the last paragraph on p. 488 of the _Origin_, Ed. i., vi.
+     p. 668.
+
+     {522} A passage corresponding to this occurs in the sketch of 1842,
+     p. 51, but not in the last chapter of the _Origin_.
+
+     {523} This sentence occurs in an almost identical form in the
+     _Origin_, Ed. i. p. 490, vi. p. 669. It will be noted that man is
+     not named though clearly referred to. Elsewhere (_Origin_, Ed. i.
+     p. 488) the author is bolder and writes "Light will be thrown on
+     the origin of man and his history." In Ed. vi. p. 668, he writes
+     "Much light &c."
+
+     {524} For the history of this sentence (with which the _Origin of
+     Species_ closes) see the Essay of 1842, p. 52, note 2{Note 184}:
+     also the concluding pages of the Introduction.
+
+     {525} These four words are added in pencil between the lines.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+For the names of Authors, Birds, Mammals (including names of classes)
+and Plants, see sub-indexes under _Authors_, _Birds_, _Mammals_ and
+_Plants_.
+
+
+  Acquired characters, _see_ Characters
+
+  Affinities and classification, 35
+
+  America, fossils, 177
+
+  Analogy, resemblance by, 36, 82, 199, 205, 211
+
+  Animals, marine, preservation of as fossils, 25, 139, 141;
+     --marine distribution, 155, 196
+
+  Australia, fossils, 177
+
+  AUTHORS, NAMES OF:--Ackerman on hybrids, 11;
+    Bakewell, 9, 91;
+    Bateson, W., xxix, 69 _n._, 217;
+    Bellinghausen, 124;
+    Boitard and Corbie, 106 _n._;
+    Brougham, Lord, 17, 117;
+    Brown, R., 233;
+    Buckland on fossils, 24, 137, 145 _n._;
+    Buffon on woodpecker, 6;
+    Bunbury (_Sir_ H.), rules for selection, 67;
+    Butler, S., 116 _n._;
+    d'Archiac, 146 _n._;
+    Darwin, C., origin of his evolutionary views, xi-xv;
+     --on Forbes' theory, 30;
+     --his _Journal of Researches_ quoted, 67 _n._, 168 _n._;
+     --his _Cross-and Self-Fertilisation_, 69 _n._, 103 _n._;
+     --on crossing Chinese and common goose, 72 _n._;
+    Darwin, Mrs, letter to, xxvi;
+    Darwin, F., on Knight's Law, 70 _n._;
+    Darwin, R. W., fact supplied by, 42 _n._, 223;
+    Darwin and Wallace, joint paper by, xxiv, 87 _n._;
+    De Candolle, 7, 47, 87, 204, 238;
+    D'Orbigny, 124, 179 _n._;
+    Ehrenberg, 146 _n._;
+    Ewart on telegony, 108 _n._;
+    Falconer, 167;
+    Forbes, E., xxvii, 30, 146 _n._, 163 _n._, 165 _n._;
+    Gadow, Dr, xxix;
+    Gaertner, 98, 107;
+    Goebel on Knight's Law, 70 _n._;
+    Gould on distribution, 156;
+    Gray, Asa, letter to, publication of in Linnean paper explained, xxiv;
+    Henslow, G., on evolution without selection, 63 _n._;
+    Henslow, J. S., xxvii;
+    Herbert on hybrids, 12, 98;
+     --sterility of crocus, 99 _n._;
+    Hering, 116 _n._;
+    Hogg, 115 _n._;
+    Holland, Dr, 223;
+    Hooker, J. D., xxvii, xxviii, 153 _n._;
+     --on Insular Floras, 161, 164, 167;
+    Huber, P., 118;
+    Hudson on woodpecker, 131 _n._;
+    Humboldt, 71, 166;
+    Hunter, W., 114;
+    Hutton, 27, 138;
+    Huxley, 134 _n._;
+     --on Darwin, xi, xii, xiv;
+     --on Darwin's Essay of 1844, xxviii, 235;
+    Judd, xi, xiii, xxix, 28, 141 _n._;
+    Knight, A., 3 _n._, 65, 114;
+     --on Domestication, 77;
+    Knight-Darwin Law, 70 _n._;
+    Koelreuter, 12, 97, 98, 104, 232;
+    Lamarck, 42 _n._, 47, 82, 146, 200;
+     --reasons for his belief in mutability, 197;
+    Lindley, 101;
+    Linnean Society, joint paper, _see_ Darwin and Wallace;
+    Linnaeus on sterility of Alpine plants, 101;
+     --on generic characters, 201;
+    Lonsdale, 145 _n._;
+    Lyell, xxvii, 134 _n._, 138, 141 and _n._, 146 _n._, 159, 171, 173,
+       178;
+     --his doctrine carried to an extreme, 26;
+     --his geological metaphor, 27 _n._, 141;
+     --his uniformitarianism, 53 _n._;
+     --his views on imperfection of geological record, 27;
+    Macculloch, 124 _n._;
+    Macleay, W. S., 202;
+    Magendie, 117;
+    Malthus, xv, 7, 88, 90;
+    Marr, Dr, xxix;
+    Marshall, 65;
+     --on sheep and cattle, 78 and _n._;
+     --on horns of cattle, 207;
+    Mivart, criticisms, 128 _n._;
+    Mozart as a child, his skill on the piano compared to instinct,
+       19 _n._;
+    Mueller on consensual movements, 113;
+     --on variation under uniform conditions, (2), 62;
+     --on recapitulation theory, 219;
+    Murchison, 145 _n._;
+    Newton, Alfred, 132 _n._;
+    Owen, R., xxvii, 219;
+    Pallas, 68, 69;
+    Pennant, 93 _n._;
+    Pliny on selection, 67;
+    Poeppig, 113 _n._;
+    Prain, Col., xxix;
+    Rengger, sterility, 100;
+    Richardson, 132 _n._;
+    Rutherford, H. W., xxix;
+    St Hilaire on races of dogs, 106;
+     --on sterility of tame and domestic animals, 12, 100;
+    Smith, Jordan, 140;
+    Sprengel, 233;
+    Stapf, Dr, xxix;
+    Strickland, xxvii;
+    Suchetet, 97 _n._;
+    Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W., xxix, 167;
+    Wallace, xxiv, xxix, 30, 170 _n._;
+    Waterhouse, 125, 126;
+    Western, Lord, 9, 65, 91;
+    Whewell, xxviii, 200;
+    Woodward, H. B., 145 _n._;
+    Wrangel, 119 _n._;
+    Zacharias, Darwin's letter to, xv
+
+
+  Barriers and distribution, 30, 154, 157, 178
+
+  Bees, 113, 117;
+    combs of Hive-bee, 19, 121, 125, 126
+
+  Beetles, abortive wings of, 45
+
+  BIRDS, transporting seeds, 169;
+    feeding young with food different to their own, 19, 126;
+    migration, 123, 124;
+    nests, 120, 121, 122, 126;
+    of Galapagos, 19, 159;
+    rapid increase, 88;
+    song, 117
+
+  BIRDS, NAMES OF:--Apteryx, 45, 236;
+    Duck, 46, 61, 65, 128, 224 _n._;
+    Fowl, domestic, 59, 82 _n._, 97, 113, 114, 217;
+    Goose, 72;
+     --periodic habit, 124 _n._;
+    Grouse, hybridised, 97, 102;
+    Guinea-fowl, 79;
+    Hawk, sterility, 100;
+     --periodic habit, 124;
+    Opetiorynchus, 83;
+    Orpheus, 31;
+    Ostrich, distribution of, 158;
+    Owl, white barn, 82;
+    Partridge, infertility of, 102;
+    Peacock, 79, 97, 102;
+    Penguin, 128 _n._, 237;
+    Petrel, 128 _n._;
+    Pheasant, 97, 102;
+    Pigeon, 66, 82, 110 _n._, 113, 114, 116, 117, 129, 135;
+       _see_ Wood-pigeon;
+    Rhea, 158;
+    Robins, increase in numbers, 88, 90;
+    Rock-thrush of Guiana, 93;
+    Swan, species of, 105;
+    Tailor-bird, 18, 118;
+    Turkey, Australian bush-turkey, 121 _n._, 122;
+    Tyrannus, 31;
+    Water-ouzel, 18 _n._, 120;
+    Woodcock, loss of migratory instinct, 120;
+    Woodpecker, 6, 16, 128 _n._, 148;
+     --in treeless lands, 16, 131;
+    Wood-pigeon, 122;
+    Wren, gold-crested, 120;
+     --willow, 105, 148
+
+  Breeds, domestic, parentage of, 71
+
+  Brothers, death of by same peculiar disease in old age, 42 _n._,
+     44 _n._, 223
+
+  Bud variation, 58;
+    _see_ Sports
+
+  Butterfly, cabbage, 127
+
+
+  Catastrophes, geological, 145, 147
+
+  Caterpillars, food, 126, 127
+
+  Characters, acquired, inheritance of, 1, 57, 60, 225;
+   --congenital, 60;
+   --fixed by breeding, 61;
+   --mental, variation in, 17, 112, 119;
+   --running through whole groups, 106;
+   --useless for classification, 199
+
+  Cirripedes, 201, 229
+
+  Classification, natural system of, 35, 199, 206, 208;
+   --by any constant character, 201;
+   --relation of, to geography, 202;
+   --a law that members of two distinct groups resemble each other not
+     specifically but generally, 203, 212;
+   --of domestic races, 204;
+   --rarity and extinction in relation to, 210
+
+  Compensation, law of, 106
+
+  Conditions, direct, action of, 1, 57 _n._, 62, 65;
+   --change of, analogous to crossing, 15, 77 _n._, 105;
+   --accumulated effects of, 60, 78;
+   --affecting reproduction, 1, 4, 78, 99;
+   --and geographical distribution, 152
+
+  Continent originating as archipelago, bearing of on distribution, 189
+
+  Cordillera, as channel of migration, 34 _n._, 191
+
+  Correlation, 76
+
+  Creation, centres of, 168, 192
+
+  Crocodile, 146
+
+  _Cross-and Self-Fertilisation_, early statement of principles of, 15,
+     69 _n._, 103 _n._
+
+  Crossing, swamping effect of, 2, 69, 96;
+   --of bisexual animals and hermaphrodite plants, 2;
+   --analogous to change in conditions, 3, 15, 69;
+   --in relation to breeds, 68;
+   --in plants, adaptations for, 70
+
+
+  Death, feigned by insects, 123
+
+  Difficulties, on theory of evolution, 15, 121, 128, 134
+
+  Disease, hereditary, 43 _n._, 58, 222
+
+  Distribution, geographical, 29, 31, 151, 174, 177;
+   --in space and time, subject to same laws, 155;
+   --occasional means of (seeds, eggs, &c.), 169
+
+  Disuse, inherited effects of, 46, 57
+
+  Divergence, principle of, xxv, 37 _n._, 145 _n._, 208 _n._
+
+  Domestication, variation under, 57, 62;
+   --accumulated effects of, 75, 78;
+   --analysis of effects of, 76, 83
+
+
+  Ears, drooping, 236
+
+  Elevation, geological, favouring birth of new species, 32, 34 _n._,
+     35 _n._, 185-189;
+   --alternating with subsidence, importance of for evolution, 33, 190;
+   --bad for preservation of fossils, 194
+
+  Embryo, branchial arches of, 42, 220;
+   --absence of special adaptation in, 42, 44 _n._, 220, 228;
+   --less variable than parent, hence importance of embryology for
+     classification, 44 _n._, 229;
+   --alike in all vertebrates, 42, 218;
+   --occasionally more complicated than adult, 219, 227
+
+  Embryology, 42, 218;
+    its value in classification, 45, 200;
+    law of inheritance at corresponding ages, 44 _n._, 224;
+    young of very distinct breeds closely similar, 44 _n._, 225
+
+  Ephemera, selection falls on larva, 87 _n._
+
+  Epizoa, 219
+
+  Essay of 1842, question as to date of, xvi;
+    description of MS., XX;
+    compared with the _Origin_, xxii
+
+  Essay of 1844, writing of, xvi;
+    compared with that of 1842 and with the _Origin_, xxii
+
+  Evolution, theory of, why do we tend to reject it, 248
+
+  Expression, inheritance of, 114
+
+  Extinction, 23, 147, 192;
+    locally sudden, 145;
+    continuous with rarity, 147, 198
+
+  Extinction and rarity, 198
+
+  Eye, 111 _n._, 128, 129, 130
+
+
+  Faculty, in relation to instinct, 123
+
+  Faunas, alpine, 30, 170, 188;
+    of Galapagos, 31 _n._, 82, 159;
+    insular-alpine very peculiar, 188;
+    insular, 159, 160
+
+  Fauna and flora, of islands related to nearest land, 187
+
+  Fear of man, inherited, 17, 113
+
+  Fertility, interracial, 103, 104
+
+  Fish, colours of, 130, 131;
+    eggs of carried by water-beetle, 169;
+    flying, 128 _n._;
+     --transported by whirlwind, 169
+
+  Floras, alpine, 162;
+    of oceanic islands, 162;
+    alpine, related to surrounding lowlands, 163;
+    alpine, identity of on distant mountains, 163;
+    alpine resembling arctic, 164;
+    arctic relation to alpine, 164
+
+  Flower, morphology of, 39, 216;
+    degenerate under domestication if neglected, 58;
+    changed by selection, 66
+
+  Fly, causing extinction, 149
+
+  Flying, evolution of, 16, 131
+
+  Food, causing variations, 1, 58, 77, 78
+
+  Formation (geological) evidence from Tertiary system, 144;
+    (geological), groups of species appear suddenly in Secondary, 26, 144;
+    Palaeozoic, if contemporary with beginning of life, author's theory
+       false, 138
+
+  Formations, most ancient escape denudation in conditions unfavourable to
+     life, 25, 139
+
+  Forms, transitional, 24, 35 _n._, 136, 142, 194;
+    on rising land, 196;
+    indirectly intermediate, 24, 135
+
+  Fossils, Silurian, not those which first existed in the world, 26, 138;
+    falling into or between existing groups and indirectly intermediate,
+       24, 137;
+    conditions favourable to preservation, not favourable to existence
+       of much life, 25, 139, 141
+
+  Fruit, attractive to animals, 130
+
+
+  Galapagos Islands and Darwin's views, xiv;
+    physical character of in relation to fauna, 31 _n._, 159
+
+  Galapagos Islands, fauna, 31 _n._, 82
+
+  Gasteropods, embryology, 218
+
+  Genera, crosses between, 11, 97;
+    wide ranging, has wide ranging species, 155;
+    origin of, 209
+
+  Geography, in relation to geology, 31 _n._, 174, 177
+
+  Geographical distribution, _see_ Distribution
+
+  Geology, as producing changed conditions, 4;
+    evidence from, 22, 133;
+    "destroys geography," 31 _n._
+
+  Glacial period, effect of on distribution of alpine and arctic plants,
+     165
+
+
+  Habit in relation to instinct, 17, 113, 115, 116
+
+  Habits in animals taught by parent, 18
+
+  Heredity, _see_ Inheritance
+
+  Homology of limbs, 38, 214
+
+  Homology, serial, 39, 215
+
+  Hybrid, fowls and grouse, 11;
+    fowl and peacock, 97;
+    pheasant and grouse, 97;
+    Azalea and Rhododendron, 97
+
+  Hybrids, gradation in sterility of, 11, 72, 97;
+    sterility of not reciprocal, 97;
+    variability of, 78;
+    compared and contrasted with mongrel, 107
+
+
+  Individual, meaning of term, 58
+
+  Inheritance of acquired characters, _see_ Character
+
+  Inheritance, delayed or latent, 43, 44 _n._, 223;
+    of character at a time of life corresponding to that at which it
+       first appeared, 43, 44 _n._, 223;
+    germinal, 44, 222, 223
+
+  Insect, adapted to fertilise flowers, 87;
+    feigning death, 123;
+    metamorphosis, 129;
+    variation in larvae, 223
+
+  Instinct, variation in, 17, 112;
+    and faculty, 18, 123;
+    guided by reason, 18, 19, 118;
+    migratory, 19;
+    migratory, loss of by woodcocks, 120;
+    migratory, origin of, 125;
+    due to germinal variation rather than habit, 116;
+    requiring education for perfection, 117;
+    characterised by ignorance of end: _e.g._ butterflies laying eggs,
+       17, 118;
+    butterflies laying eggs on proper plant, 118, 127;
+    instinct, natural selection applicable to, 19, 120
+
+  Instinct, for finding the way, 124;
+    periodic, _i.e._ for lapse of time, 124;
+    comb-making of bee, 125;
+    birds feeding young, 19, 126;
+    nest-building, gradation in, 18, 120, 121, 122;
+    instincts, complex, difficulty in believing in their evolution, 20, 121
+
+  Intermediate forms, _see_ Forms
+
+  Island, _see_ Elevation, Fauna, Flora
+
+  Island, upheaved and gradually colonised, 184
+
+  Islands, nurseries of new species, 33, 35 _n._, 185, 189
+
+  Isolation, 32, 34 _n._, 64, 95, 183, 184
+
+
+  Lepidosiren, 140 _n._, 212
+
+  Limbs, vertebrate, of one type, 38, 216
+
+
+  MAMMALS, arctic, transported by icebergs, 170;
+    distribution, 151, 152, 193;
+    distribution of, ruled by barriers, 154;
+    introduced by man on islands, 172;
+    not found on oceanic islands, 172;
+    relations in time and space, similarity of, 176;
+    of Tertiary period, relation of to existing forms in same region, 174
+
+  MAMMALS, NAMES OF:--
+    Antelope, 148;
+    Armadillo, 174;
+    Ass, 79, 107, 172;
+    Bat, 38, 123, 128 _n._, 131, 132, 214;
+    Bear, sterile in captivity, 100;
+     --whale-like habit, 128 _n._;
+    Bizcacha, 168, 203, 212;
+    Bull, mammae of, 232;
+    Carnivora, law of compensation in, 106;
+    Cats, run wild at Ascension, 172;
+     --tailless, 60;
+    Cattle, horns of, 75, 207;
+     --increase in S. America, 90;
+     --Indian, 205;
+     --Niata, 61, 73;
+     --suffering in parturition from too large calves, 75;
+    Cheetah, sterility of, 100 and _n._;
+    Chironectes, 199;
+    Cow, abortive mammae, 232;
+    Ctenomys, _see_ Tuco-tuco;
+    Dog, 106, 114;
+     --in Cuba, 113 and _n._;
+     --mongrel breed in oceanic islands, 70;
+     --difference in size a bar to crossing, 97;
+     --domestic, parentage of, 71, 72, 73;
+     --drooping ears, 236;
+     --effects of selection, 66;
+     --inter-fertile, 14;
+     --long-legged breed produced to catch hares, 9, 10, 91, 92;
+     --of savages, 67;
+     --races of resembling genera, 106, 204;
+     --Australian, change of colour in, 61;
+     --bloodhound, Cuban, 204;
+     --bull-dog, 113;
+     --foxhound, 114, 116;
+     --greyhound and bull-dog, young of resembling each other, 43,
+       44 _n._, 225;
+     --pointer, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118;
+     --retriever, 118 _n._;
+     --setter, 114;
+     --shepherd-dog and harrier crossed, instinct of, 118, 119;
+     --tailless, 60;
+     --turnspit, 66;
+    Echidna, 82 _n._;
+    Edentata, fossil and living in S. America, 174;
+    Elephant, sterility of, 12, 100;
+    Elk, 125;
+    Ferret, fertility of, 12, 102;
+    Fox, 82, 173, 181;
+    Galeopithecus, 131 _n._;
+    Giraffe, fossil, 177;
+     --tail, 128 _n._;
+    Goat, run wild at Tahiti, 172;
+    Guanaco, 175;
+    Guinea-pig, 69;
+    Hare, S. American, 158 _n._;
+    Hedgehog, 82 _n._;
+    Horse, 67, 113, 115, 148, 149;
+     --checks to increase, 148, 149;
+     --increase in S. America, 90;
+     --malconformations and lameness inherited, 58;
+     --parentage, 71, 72;
+     --stripes on, 107;
+     --young of cart-horse and racehorse resembling each other, 43;
+    Hyena, fossil, 177;
+    Jaguar, catching fish, 132;
+    Lemur, flying, 131 _n._;
+    Macrauchenia, 137;
+    Marsupials, fossil in Europe, 175 _n._, 177;
+     --pouch bones, 232, 237;
+    Mastodon, 177;
+    Mouse, 153, 155;
+     --enormous rate of increase, 89, 90;
+    Mule, occasionally breeding, 97, 102;
+    Musk-deer, fossil, 177;
+    _Mustela vison_, 128 _n._, 132 _n._;
+    Mydas, 170;
+    Mydaus, 170;
+    Nutria, _see_ Otter;
+    Otter, 131, 132, 170;
+     --marsupial, 199, 205, 211;
+    Pachydermata, 137;
+    Phascolomys, 203, 212;
+    Pig, 115, 217;
+     --in oceanic islands, 70;
+     --run wild at St Helena, 172;
+    Pole-cat, aquatic, 128 _n._, 132 _n._;
+    Porpoise, paddle of, 38, 214;
+    Rabbit, 74, 113, 236;
+    Rat, Norway, 153;
+    Reindeer, 125;
+    Rhinoceros, 148;
+     --abortive teeth of, 45, 231;
+     --three oriental species of, 48, 249;
+    Ruminantia, 137 and _n._;
+    Seal, 93 _n._, 131;
+    Sheep, 68, 78, 117, 205;
+     --Ancon variety, 59, 66, 73;
+     --inherited habit of returning home to lamb, 115;
+     --transandantes of Spain, their migratory instinct, 114, 117,
+       124 _n._;
+    Squirrel, flying, 131;
+    Tapir, 135, 136;
+    Tuco-tuco, blindness of, 46, 236;
+    Whale, rudimentary teeth, 45, 229;
+    Wolf, 71, 72, 82;
+    Yak, 72
+
+  Metamorphosis, literal not metaphorical, 41, 217
+
+  Metamorphosis, _e.g._ leaves into petals, 215
+
+  Migrants to new land, struggle among, 33, 185
+
+  Migration, taking the place of variation, 188
+
+  Monstrosities, as starting-points of breeds, 49, 59;
+    their relation to rudimentary organs, 46, 234
+
+  Morphology, 38, 215;
+    terminology of, no longer metaphorically used, 41, 217
+
+  Mutation, _see_ Sports
+
+
+  Natural selection, _see_ Selection
+
+  Nest, bird's, _see_ Instinct
+
+
+  Ocean, depth of, and fossils, 25, 195
+
+  Organisms, gradual introduction of new, 23, 144;
+    extinct related to, existing in the same manner as representative
+       existing ones to each other, 33, 192;
+    introduced, beating indigenes, 153;
+    dependent on other organisms rather than on physical surroundings, 185;
+    graduated complexity in the great classes, 227;
+    immature, how subject to natural selection, 42, 220, 228;
+    all descended from a few parent-forms, 52, 252
+
+  Organs, perfect, objection to their evolution, 15, 128;
+    distinct in adult life, indistinguishable in embryo, 42, 218;
+    rudimentary, 45, 231, 232, 233;
+    rudimentary, compared to monstrosities, 46, 234;
+    rudimentary, caused by disuse, 46, 235;
+    rudimentary, adapted to new ends, 47, 237
+
+  Orthogenesis, 241 _n._
+
+  Oscillation of level in relation to continents, 33, 34 _n._, 189
+
+
+  Pallas, on parentage of domestic animals, 71
+
+  Pampas, imaginary case of farmer on, 32, 184
+
+  Perfection, no inherent tendency towards, 227
+
+  Plants, _see also_ Flora;
+    fertilisation, 70;
+    migration of, to arctic and antarctic regions, 167;
+    alpine and arctic, migration of, 31, 166;
+    alpine, characters common to, 162;
+    alpine, sterility of, 13, 101
+
+  PLANTS, NAMES OF:--AEgilops, 58 _n._;
+    Artichoke (Jerusalem), 79;
+    Ash, weeping, seeds of, 61;
+    Asparagus, 79;
+    Azalea, 13, 59, 97;
+    Cabbage, 109, 135, 204;
+    Calceolaria, 11, 99;
+    Cardoon, 153;
+    Carrot, variation of, 58 _n._;
+    Chrysanthemum, 59;
+    Crinum, 11, 99;
+    Crocus, 96, 99 _n._;
+    Cucubalus, crossing, 232;
+    Dahlia, 21, 59, 63, 69, 74, 110;
+    Foxglove, 82;
+    Gentian, colour of flower, 107 _n._;
+    Geranium, 102;
+    Gladiolus, crossed, ancestry of, 11;
+    Grass, abortive flowers, 233;
+    Heath, sterility, 96;
+    Hyacinth, colours of, 106;
+     --feather-hyacinth, 229;
+    Juniperus, hybridised, 97;
+    Laburnum, peculiar hybrid, 108;
+    Lilac, sterility of, 13, 100;
+    Marigold, style of, 47, 233, 237;
+    Mistletoe, 6, 86, 87, 90 _n._;
+    Nectarines on peach trees, 59;
+    Oxalis, colour of flowers of, 107 _n._;
+    Phaseolus, cultivated form suffers from frost, 109;
+    Pine-apple, 207;
+    Poppy, Mexican, 154;
+    Potato, 69, 74, 110;
+    Rhododendron, 97, 99;
+    Rose, moss, 59;
+     --Scotch, 69;
+    Seakale, 79;
+    Sweet-william, 59;
+    Syringa, persica and chinensis, _see_ Lilac;
+    Teazle, 129;
+    Thuja, hybridised, 97;
+    Tulips, "breaking" of, 58;
+    Turnip, Swedish and common, 205;
+    Vine, peculiar hybrid, 108;
+    Yew, weeping, seeds of, 61
+
+  Plasticity, produced by domestication, 1, 63
+
+  Plesiosaurus, loss of unity of type in, 41, 217
+
+  Pteropods, embryology, 218
+
+
+  Quadrupeds, extinction of large, 147
+
+  Quinary System, 202
+
+
+  Race, the word used as equivalent to variety, 94
+
+  Races, domestic, classification of, 204
+
+  Rarity, 28, 148;
+    and extinction, 28, 149, 210
+
+  Recapitulation theory, 42, 219, 230, 239
+
+  Record, geological, imperfection of, 26, 140
+
+  Regions, geographical, of the world, 29, 152, 174;
+    formerly less distinct as judged by fossils, 177
+
+  Resemblance, analogical, 36, 199
+
+  Reversion, 3, 64, 69, 74
+
+  "Roguing," 65
+
+  Rudimentary organs, _see_ Organs
+
+
+  Savages, domestic animals of, 67, 68, 96
+
+  Selection, human, 3, 63;
+    references to the practice of, in past times, 67;
+    great effect produced by, 3, 91;
+    necessary for the formation of breeds, 64;
+    methodical, effects of, 3, 65;
+    unconscious, 3, 67
+
+  Selection, natural, xvi, 7, 87;
+    natural compared to human, 85, 94, 224;
+    of instincts, 19, 120;
+    difficulty of believing, 15, 121, 128
+
+  Selection, sexual, two types of, 10, 92
+
+  Silk-worms, variation in larval state, 44 _n._, 223
+
+  Skull, morphology of, 39, 215
+
+  Species, representative, seen in going from N. to S. in a continent,
+      31 _n._, 156;
+    representative in archipelagoes, 187;
+    wide-ranging, 34 _n._, 146;
+    and varieties, difficulty of distinguishing, 4, 81, 197;
+    sterility of crosses between, supposed to be criterion, 11, 134;
+    gradual appearance and disappearance of, 23, 144;
+    survival of a few among many extinct, 146
+
+  Species, not created more than once, 168, 171, 191;
+    evolution of, compared to birth of individuals, 150, 198, 253;
+    small number in New Zealand as compared to the Cape, 171, 191;
+    persistence of, unchanged, 192, 199
+
+  Sports, 1, 58, 59, 64, 74, 95, 129, 186, 206, 224
+
+  Sterility, due to captivity, 12, 77 _n._, 100;
+    of various plants, 13, 101;
+    of species when crossed, 11, 23, 96, 99, 103;
+    produced by conditions, compared to sterility due to crossing, 101, 102
+
+  Struggle for life, 7, 91, 92, 148, 241
+
+  Subsidence, importance of, in relation to fossils, 25, 35 _n._, 195;
+    of continent leading to isolation of organisms, 190;
+    not favourable to birth of new species, 196
+
+  Swimming bladder, 16, 129
+
+  System, natural, is genealogical, 36, 208
+
+
+  Telegony, 108
+
+  Tibia and fibula, 48, 137
+
+  Time, enormous lapse of, in geological epochs, 25, 140
+
+  Tortoise, 146
+
+  Transitional forms, _see_ Forms
+
+  Trigonia, 147 _n._, 199
+
+  Tree-frogs in treeless regions, 131
+
+  Type, unity of, 38, 214;
+    uniformity of, lost in Plesiosaurus, 217;
+    persistence of, in continents, 158, 178
+
+
+  Uniformitarian views of Lyell, bearing on evolution, 249
+
+  Use, inherited effects of, _see_ Characters, acquired
+
+
+  Variability, as specific character, 83;
+    produced by change and also by crossing, 105
+
+  Variation, by Sports, _see_ Sports;
+    under domestication, 1, 57, 63, 78;
+    due to causes acting on reproductive system, _see_ Variation, germinal;
+     --germinal, 2, 43, 62, 222;
+    individual, 57 _n._;
+    causes of, 1, 4, 57, 61;
+    due to crossing, 68, 69;
+    limits of, 74, 75, 82, 109;
+    small in state of nature, 4, 59 _n._, 81, 83;
+    results of _without_ selection, 84;
+     --minute, value of, 91;
+    analogous in species of same genus, 107;
+    of mental attributes, 17, 112;
+    in mature life, 59, 224, 225
+
+  Varieties, minute, in birds, 82;
+    resemblance of to species, 81 _n._, 82, 105
+
+  Vertebrate skull, morphology of, 215
+
+
+  Wildness, hereditary, 113, 119
+
+
+CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Notes & Errata                                 |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Inline transcriber's notes are enclosed in curly brackets.   |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Footnote anchors and labels are enclosed in curly brackets.  |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The footnotes have been renumbered consecutively.            |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Because of this, the changed footnote numbers are appended   |
+  | in curly brackets to the internal cross-references.          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | Superscript letters are denoted by a preceding caret e.g.,   |
+  | d^o                                                          |
+  |                                                              |
+  | 'oe' ligatures have been rendered as separate letters.       |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following typographical errors have been corrected.      |
+  |                                                              |
+  |  |simplication |simplification  |                            |
+  |  |care         |case            |                            |
+  |  |apparant     |apparent        |                            |
+  |                                                              |
+  | The following words were found in both hyphenated and        |
+  | unhyphenated forms. The figures in parentheses are the       |
+  | number of instances of each.                                 |
+  |                                                              |
+  |  |after-thought (1)    |afterthought (2)     |               |
+  |  |blood-hound (2)      |bloodhound (1)       |               |
+  |  |bull-dog (7)         |bulldog (2)          |               |
+  |  |co-descendants (1)   |codescendants (1)    |               |
+  |  |feather-hyacinth (2) |feather hyacinth (1) |               |
+  |  |grey-hound (2)       |greyhound (10)       |               |
+  |  |high-lands (3)       |highlands (2)        |               |
+  |  |long-legged (2)      |long legged (1)      |               |
+  |  |race-horse (2)       |racehorse (4)        |               |
+  |  |shepherd-dog (3)     |shepherd dog (1)     |               |
+  |  |sub-divisions (3)    |subdivisions (4)     |               |
+  |  |table-land (2)       |tableland (1)        |               |
+  |                                                              |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Foundations of the Origin of
+Species, by Charles Darwin
+
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