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diff --git a/22719-8.txt b/22719-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf45c53 --- /dev/null +++ b/22719-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9378 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Old Fort Snelling + 1819-1858 + +Author: Marcus L. Hansen + +Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22719] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD FORT SNELLING *** + + + + +Produced by K Nordquist, Sigal Alon, Leonard Johnson and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +[Illustration: Book Cover] + + + +OLD FORT SNELLING + +From a painting by Captain Seth Eastman, reproduced in Mrs. Eastman's +_Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_ + +[Illustration: OLD FORT SNELLING] + + + +OLD FORT SNELLING + +1819-1858 + + +BY +MARCUS L. HANSEN + +[Illustration: Publisher's Logo.] + +PUBLISHED AT IOWA CITY IOWA IN 1918 BY +THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA + + + +THE TORCH PRESS +CEDAR RAPIDS +IOWA + + + + +EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION + + +The establishment in 1917 of a camp at Fort Snelling for the training of +officers for the army has aroused curiosity in the history of Old Fort +Snelling. Again as in the days of the pioneer settlement of the +Northwest the Fort at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi +rivers has become an object of more than ordinary interest. + +Old Fort Snelling was established in 1819 within the Missouri Territory +on ground which later became a part of the Territory of Iowa. Not until +1849 was it included within Minnesota boundaries. Linked with the early +annals of Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the +Northwest, the history of Old Fort Snelling is the common heritage of +many commonwealths in the Upper Mississippi Valley. + +The period covered in this volume begins with the establishment of the +Fort in 1819 and ends with the temporary abandonment of the site as a +military post in 1858. + +BENJ. F. SHAMBAUGH + +OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT AND EDITOR +THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA +IOWA CITY IOWA + + + + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + + +The position which the military post holds in western history is +sometimes misunderstood. So often has a consideration of it been left to +the novelist's pen that romantic glamour has obscured the permanent +contribution made by many a lonely post to the development of the +surrounding region. The western fort was more than a block-house or a +picket. Being the home of a handful of soldiers did not give it its real +importance: it was an institution and should be studied as such. Old +Fort Snelling is a type of the many remote military stations which were +scattered throughout the West upon the upper waters of the rivers or at +intermediate places on the interminable stretches of the westward +trails. + +This study of the history and influence of Old Fort Snelling was first +undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Louis Pelzer of the State University +of Iowa, and was carried on under his supervision. The results of the +investigation were accepted as a thesis in the Graduate College of the +State University of Iowa in June, 1917. Upon the suggestion of Dr. Benj. +F. Shambaugh, Superintendent of The State Historical Society of Iowa, +the plan of the work was changed, its scope enlarged, many new sources +of information were consulted, and the entire manuscript +rewritten. + +Connected with so many of the aspects of western history, Old Fort +Snelling is pictured in accounts both numerous and varied. The reports +of government officials, the relations of travellers and explorers, and +the reminiscences of fur traders, pioneer settlers, and missionaries +show the Fort as each author, looking at it from the angle of his +particular interest, saw it. These published accounts are found in the +_Annual Reports_ of the Secretary of War, in the _Annual Reports_ of the +Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and in the works of travellers and +pioneers. Many of the most important sources are the briefer accounts +printed in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_. The author's +dependence upon these sources of information is evident upon every page +of this volume. + +But not alone from these sources, which are readily accessible, is this +account of the Old Fort drawn. A half-burned diary, the account books of +the post sutler, letter books filled with correspondence dealing with +matters which are often trivial, and statistical returns of men and +equipment are sources which from their nature may never be printed. But +in them reposes much of the material upon which this book is based. The +examination of all the documents which offered any prospect of throwing +light upon the subject was made possible for the author as Research +Assistant in The State Historical Society of Iowa. And in this +connection I wish to express my appreciation for the many courtesies +which I have received from those in whose custody these sources are +kept. To Dr. Solon J. Buck, Superintendent of the Minnesota Historical +Society and the members of the library staff of that Society I am +indebted for many kindnesses. Dr. M. M. Quaife, Superintendent of the +State Historical Society of Wisconsin, placed at my disposal thousands +of sheets of transcripts made from the records of the Indian Department +at Washington and kept in the library of the Historical Society at +Madison. At the Historical Department of Iowa at Des Moines, and in the +library of the Kansas State Historical Society at Topeka opportunity was +granted to examine valuable manuscripts. General H. P. McCain, +Adjutant-General of the United States, had a search made of the records +on file in the archives of the War Department at Washington, and such +papers as dealt with Fort Snelling were consulted by the author. + +My fellow workers on the staff of The State Historical Society of Iowa +have often aided me with suggestions and criticisms. To the +Superintendent of the Society, Dr. Benj. F. Shambaugh, I wish to express +my appreciation not only for the advice, encouragement, and inspiration +which he freely gave, but also for the willingness with which he made +possible the investigation of every clue to sources of information by +correspondence or by personal visit. Moreover, the manuscript has +been carefully edited by him. The task of seeing the work through the +press has been performed by Associate Editor Dr. Dan E. Clark, who also +carefully read the manuscript and compiled the index. Miss Helen Otto +assisted in the verification of the manuscript. + +MARCUS L. HANSEN + +THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA +IOWA CITY IOWA + + + + + CONTENTS + + + Editor's Introduction v + + Author's Preface vii + + I. A Century and a Half of Foreign Rule 1 + + II. The Evolution of Fort Snelling 18 + + III. Forty Years of Frontier Duty 31 + + IV. Lords of the North 54 + + V. A Soldier's World 73 + + VI. Glimpses of Garrison Life 84 + + VII. The Fort and Indian Life 103 + + VIII. The Sioux-Chippewa Feuds 119 + + IX. The Fur Trade 135 + + X. Soldiers of the Cross 146 + + XI. The Fashionable Tour 159 + + XII. The Chippewa Treaty of 1837 176 + + XIII. Citizens and Soldiers 187 + + Notes and References 205 + + Index 251 + + + + + + +I + +A CENTURY AND A HALF OF FOREIGN RULE + + +On an autumn day in 1766 Captain Jonathan Carver stood upon the bluff +which rises at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers and +viewed the wonderful landscape of prairie and wooded valleys that lay +before him. As a captain in the colonial troops of Connecticut he had +served his king faithfully in the late war with France; and now in the +days of peace which followed the glorious victory he sought to continue +his usefulness by exploring the vast regions which had been added to the +domains of Great Britain and Spain. Three years of travel in the +wilderness taught him that those wild lands would not always be the +haunt of savage animals and wandering tribes. + +"To what power or authority this new world will become dependent, after +it has arisen from its present uncultivated state, time alone can +discover", he later wrote. "But as the seat of Empire, from time +immemorial has been gradually progressive towards the West, there is no +doubt but that at some future period, mighty kingdoms will emerge from +these wildernesses, and stately palaces and solemn temples, with gilded +spires reaching the skies, supplant the Indian huts, whose only +decorations are the barbarous trophies of their vanquished enemies."[1] + +Not until the twenty-fourth day of August, 1819, when less than a +hundred soldiers of the Fifth United States Infantry disembarked +opposite the towering height where a few years later rose the white +walls of Fort Snelling, did the nation which was to rule assert its +power. The event was, indeed, epochal. It not only marked a change in +the sovereignty over the vast region, but it also made possible the +development of those factors which were to bring about the great +transformation. + +It was for the "upper country" that this fort was built--a country +stretching from the Great Lakes across the wooded headwaters of the +Mississippi and Minnesota rivers to the plains of the Missouri. The +history of this region is marked by several distinct periods: the coming +of the French traders, the supremacy of the English companies, the +establishment of military posts of the United States, and the building +of American communities. + +Although at the opening of the second decade of the nineteenth century +the American troops quartered on the west banks of the Mississippi River +were on soil that, in name, had been American for sixteen years, and +although they looked over the river to land that had since 1783 belonged +to their country, yet they had in fact taken possession of a foreign +land. English, French, and Spanish flags had at various times waved over +certain parts of it. Foreign influence, during a century and a +half, had become widespread and deeply rooted. + +When in 1634 Jean Nicollet visited the Wisconsin country the French +advance into the upper Northwest had begun.[2] From 1658 to 1660 +Radisson and Groseilliers wandered among the tribes and brought the +first canoe loads of furs to Canada from the far West. Then along with +the missionaries, Hennepin and Marquette, came the _coureurs des bois_, +Nicholas Perrot and Daniel Greyloson Duluth. It is unnecessary to recite +in detail the exploits of these Frenchmen and their successors.[3] For a +century the songs of unknown boatmen rose from the waters of the western +rivers; unknown traders smoked in the lodges of Sioux and Chippewas; and +hardy wanderers whose feats of discovery are unrecorded, leaving behind +the Missouri River, saw from afar the wonders of the "Shining +Mountains".[4] But if no record of them remains, their influence was +lasting. Living with the natives, supplying their needs by barter, and +marrying the Indian girls, the French gained a remarkable power over the +northwestern tribes, which caused them to consider whoever came from +Canada their friend, even after the English government had supplanted +the French in power. + +West of the lakes the transition from the French to the English rule +created no disturbances, such as Pontiac's conspiracy which so +completely disrupted the trade in the East.[5] Continuing the French +policy and also their posts and voyageurs, the Scottish merchants +of Montreal, organized in 1784 as the North West Company, pushed +westward from Green Bay and southward from Lake Winnipeg. This advance +was continued until the opening years of the next century. Although on +nominally Spanish territory, the tribes on the upper Missouri were won +from the Spanish traders at St. Louis by such severe cutting in prices +that the latter could not compete. The posts of the North West Company +on the Red River of the North became the resort for many of the western +tribes.[6] + +The diverting of the trade of these natives, who would naturally have +come down the Missouri where American traders could meet them and be +benefited, was noticed by President Jefferson, who, on January 18, 1803, +wrote to Congress: "It is, however, understood, that the country on that +river is inhabited by numerous tribes, who furnish great supplies of +furs and peltry to the trade of another nation, carried on in a high +latitude, through an infinite number of portages and lakes, shut up by +ice through a long season." In this same message was included a +recommendation that a small expedition be sent up to confer with the +tribes with respect to the admission of American traders.[7] + +But the purchase of Louisiana altered matters. It was not only a matter +of trade, but one of sovereignty. A double movement was initiated: one +to ascend the Mississippi under Zebulon M. Pike, and the other the +Missouri under Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark. +The reports of these two expeditions indicate how firm a grip the +English traders had upon the Indians of the upper Northwest. + +The expedition of Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri and passed over +the mountains to the Columbia River which was followed to the coast. The +first winter, from late in October, 1804, to early in April, 1805, was +spent in a fort which was constructed in the village of the Mandans, +near the location of the present city of Mandan in North Dakota. Here +was abundant opportunity to investigate the fur trade. Nor had they long +to wait. On the 27th of November, seven British traders arrived from the +North West Company's post on the Assiniboine River to barter with the +river tribes. The next day, in council with the Mandan chiefs, the +Americans warned the Indians not to receive medals or flags from the +foreigners if they wished to be friends with the "Great American +Father". A day later this warning was communicated to the traders +themselves who promised to refrain from any such acts.[8] How well they +kept their promises later events showed. The Lewis and Clark expedition +was only a passing pageant; for by the time of the War of 1812, the only +American traders who ventured to do business on the upper waters were +practically driven off by the foreign companies.[9] + +The report of Zebulon M. Pike indicates that conditions were much worse +on the upper Mississippi. Leaving St. Louis on August 9, 1805, he +returned to that place on April 30, 1806. About two months were +spent at a fort erected near the site of Little Falls, where he left a +few men and pushed on with the rest of the company to Leech Lake. +Conversation with the fur traders and councils with the Indians revealed +the extent of the commerce of the North West Company. He heard of +permanent trading posts on the south side of Lake Superior and at the +headwaters of the St. Croix River; and he saw at Lower Red Cedar Lake, +Sandy Lake, and Leech Lake the rude stockades and log buildings which +were called forts.[10] These three posts were included in the +"Department of Fond du Lac" and were the centers from which in the year +1805, trade with the Indians was carried on by one hundred and nine +men.[11] By means of the rivers and portages of the wilderness the furs +were brought to Canada without passing a custom house, and thus the +United States was defrauded of duties which, it was estimated, would +amount to $26,000 annually.[12] + +Pike objected to many of the evident signs of British sovereignty: the +British flag flying above the headquarters of the department of Fond du +Lac was shot down;[13] many of the Indians were induced to give up their +British medals and flags;[14] and Hugh M'Gillis, agent of the company +for the district, in response to Pike's letter of complaint, promised in +the future to refrain from displaying the British flag, presenting +medals, or talking politics to the Indians.[15] But his promises were no +more seriously given than those of his brethren on the Missouri. + +Little of permanent value would have been accomplished if the +acts of the explorer on September 23, 1805, had been omitted. The +instructions issued to Pike on July 30, 1805, stated: "You will be +pleased to obtain permission from the Indians who claim the ground, for +the erection of military posts and trading-houses at the mouth of the +river St. Pierre [the Minnesota River], the falls of St. Anthony, and +every other critical point which may fall under your observation; these +permissions to be granted in formal conferences, regularly recorded, and +the ground marked off."[16] + +When Pike reached the mouth of the Minnesota River, the natural features +of the locality convinced him of the advantages which would arise from a +fort located at that point. From the high bluff lying between the +Minnesota and the Mississippi rivers the course of both streams would be +under the sweep of the guns. Sheer walls of stone rising from the +Mississippi could prevent invasion; and the fur trading business could +be regulated, as all boats entering or leaving the Indian country must +use one or the other of the two rivers. + +A "bower" was constructed of sails, and on September 23rd Pike spoke to +the Sioux Indians there assembled concerning the transfer of Louisiana, +the futility of their wars with the Chippewas, and the evils of rum. He +asked them to cede to the United States lands for military posts, and +dwelt on the value of these posts to the Indians. To this the chiefs +assented, receiving in return presents valued at $200 and sixty gallons +of liquor. The terms of the treaty provided that the Sioux should +cede to the United States tracts "for the purpose of establishment of +military posts," at the mouth of the Minnesota and at the mouth of the +St. Croix. A money consideration was also mentioned, but a blank was +left which was later filled in by the Senate with $2000.[17] + +The government, busy with distressing foreign affairs, neglected to make +a permanent occupation of the explored region. A struggle between the +American and British governments was arising over events far remote from +the northern lakes and woods. But the Canadian authorities saw the +necessity of having Indian allies for the approaching struggle. As early +as 1807 reports from the West indicated hostile feelings on the part of +the Indians toward the Americans, and an official at Mackinac wrote on +August 30, 1807, that this condition "is principally to be attributed to +the influence of foreigners trading in the country."[18] Captain A. +Gray, who was sent to inquire into the aid which the Hudson's Bay +Company and the North West Company could furnish, reported to Sir George +Prevost, commander of the British forces in Canada, on January 12, 1812: +"By means of these Companies, we might let loose the Indians upon them +throughout the whole extent of their Western frontier, as they have a +most commanding influence over them." In a memorandum of plans for the +defence of Canada, General Brock noted that "the Co-operation of the +Indians will be attended with great expence in presents +provisions &c."[19] + +To this alliance the Indians gave willing ears. Their interests lay with +the British rather than with the Americans. The economic stability of +Canada rested upon the fur trade, which in turn could survive only if +the free life of the hunt and the chase, which the Indians loved so +well, was left them. But with the Americans were associated the making +of treaties and the ceding of land. The Indians preferred to see upon +their rivers the canoe of the trader rather than the flatboat of the +pioneer.[20] + +The coming of hostilities was received joyfully by all the inhabitants +of the Northwest. To the Indian it meant an opportunity to avenge past +wrongs; the Canadian hoped to make secure his present condition; and the +American settler saw a chance to drive out both enemies--Indians and +foreign traders alike. The news of the declaration of war reached the +great rendezvous of the North West Company at Fort William on the +northern shore of Lake Superior on the sixteenth of July, 1812, and the +next day one of the traders left for the interior to rouse the natives. +The agent of the company at this post wrote enthusiastically: "I have +not the least doubt but our force, will in ten days hence, amount to at +least five thousand effective men."[21] + +But already a sufficient number of Indians had come to the aid of the +English to render service. On the very next day the English flag +replaced the American above the fort at Mackinac. No sooner had +the news of the beginning of hostilities become known at the neighboring +British post at St. Joseph's than immediate preparations were made. The +Indians were marshalled for the attack, and a vessel belonging to the +North West Company was requisitioned. The morning of July 17th revealed +the American fort surrounded by Indians and commanded by a cannon which +had been dragged upon a height of land. Seeing the futility of +resistance the garrison surrendered and marched out before noon. Of the +total attacking force of 1021 there were Indians to the number of 715, +of whom the British leader wrote, "although these people's minds were +much heated, yet as soon as they heard the Capitulation was signed they +all returned to their Canoes, and not one drop either of Man's or +Animal's Blood was Spilt, till I gave an Order for a certain number of +Bullocks to be purchased for them".[22] The ease with which the capture +was made had the effect of bringing to the English standards all the +Indians of the Northwest, except a part of the Miamis and Delawares, in +spite of the fact that they had earlier made promises of neutrality.[23] + +Although the capture of the fort at Mackinac was accomplished without +any Indian atrocities, the success of that day was to precipitate a +massacre, long to rankle in the minds of the pioneers of the West. +Immediately upon hearing of the capture of the fort, General Hull wrote +to Captain Heald in command at Fort Dearborn ordering the evacuation of +that post. On the morning of August 15th, as the small garrison +of fifty-five regulars and twelve militia were leaving the fort with +their women and children, they were fallen upon by a force of five +hundred Indians. Twenty-six regulars, all the militiamen, two women, and +twelve children were murdered on the spot. An unknown number of wounded +prisoners were that evening victims at what the Indians termed a +"general frolic".[24] + +In the meantime Robert Dickson, who for many years had been a Prairie du +Chien fur trader, was continuing his activities as recruiter of Indians +for British service. This was the same Dickson who had in 1802 received +an American commission as a justice of the peace,[25] and had later +entertained Pike and his men "with a supper and a dram", impressing the +American explorer as a man of "open, frank manners."[26] Now, in +January, 1813, he was appointed by Great Britain "agent for the Indians +of the several Nations to the Westward of Lake Huron".[27] + +By June 23, 1813, he had already sent eight hundred Indians to Detroit +and had collected six hundred at Mackinac.[28] The summer of 1813 was +spent in operations about Detroit, but in the winter he was again active +in the West.[29] Great alarm was felt at St. Louis when rumors came +telling of the great force he was collecting.[30] Accordingly, late in +the spring of 1814, Governor William Clark of Missouri Territory +proceeded up the Mississippi and at Prairie du Chien built a stockade +named Fort Shelby. It was garrisoned by about sixty men.[31] News +of this movement soon came to Mackinac, and prompted the British +commandant to prepare a counter-expedition. On the seventeenth of July +the force composed of five hundred and fifty men, of whom four hundred +were Indians, arrived outside the post. Immediately a summons to +surrender was sent. The American commander at first refused, but two +days later agreed to capitulate providing the Indians would be kept in +check. The surrender took place on July 20th, and the captor christened +the stockade Fort McKay in honor of himself.[32] + +Thus, the Indians about the Mississippi had been present at the +surrender of two posts and had participated in a massacre. British arms +had been successful, and the close of the war found British prestige +very high. + +The Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, closed the war; and Article IX +of that treaty provided that the United States should make peace with +the Indian tribes and restore to them the "possessions, rights and +privileges" which they had enjoyed before hostilities.[33] President +Madison accordingly appointed William Clark, Ninian Edwards, and Auguste +Chouteau as commissioners to enter into treaties of peace with the +warring tribes of the upper Mississippi and the upper Missouri. Only +with extreme difficulty was word of the negotiations sent to the tribes. +The hostility of the Indians living about the mouth of the Rock River +made it necessary that the messenger proceed to Prairie du Chien +by way of the Missouri River, and then across country.[34] + +Although treaties were concluded with those who did come to the council, +none were eager to negotiate. The Chippewas, Menominees, and Winnebagoes +even refused to send delegations; and the Sacs of Rock River not only +refused to attend, but also showed their contempt by continually +harassing the frontier settlements during the time of the +negotiations.[35] This opposition, the commissioners reported, was due +to the presence of an unusual number of British traders among the +Indians. The report closed with the opinion that "the exertion of the +military power of the Government will be necessary to secure the peace +and safety of this country."[36] + +For some years it had been customary for the British authorities to send +presents to the Indians on the Mississippi, and Robert Dickson had +promised the natives that the practice would be continued. But with the +coming of peace this custom was not allowed by the Americans. +Accordingly, in June, 1815, word was sent to the river tribes, that all +who came to the British headquarters at Drummond Island in Lake Huron, +would be supplied. By June 19th of the next year four hundred Indians +had arrived at the post--mainly Sioux. To sympathetic ears they reported +that they feared that the Americans were planning their extinction, and +a confederation was being formed to resist the building of American +forts on the Indian lands. As late as 1825, of the four thousand +Indians in the habit of visiting Drummond Island, three thousand came +from the region west and southwest of Lake Huron--that is from American +territory.[37] These motley processions which trailed through the +American woods, stopping to beg at the American posts, were not slow in +being reported. It did not take a vivid imagination to see that the +renewal of border warfare was inevitable.[38] + +This danger was increased by the rapid development of the West following +the war. Just as over the mountain trails and down the rivers, Kentucky +and Tennessee had been settled before the war, now the States of the Old +Northwest received their pioneers. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who made his +first trip down the Ohio at this time (1818), remarked: "I mingled in +this crowd, and, while listening to the anticipations indulged in, it +seemed to me that the war had not, in reality, been fought for 'free +trade and sailors' rights' where it had commenced, but to gain a +knowledge of the world beyond the Alleghanies.... To judge by the tone +of general conversation, they meant, in their generation, to plow the +Mississippi Valley from its head to its foot."[39] + +The flatboats on the rivers, the crowded ferries, and the caravans +crossing the prairies were familiar scenes. In _The Legend of Sleepy +Hollow_, which appeared in 1819, Washington Irving puts this fondest +dream into the mind of his hero, Ichabod: "Nay, his busy fancy already +realized his hopes, and presented to him the blooming Katrina with a +whole family of children, mounted on the top of a wagon loaded +with household trumpery, with pots and kettles dangling beneath; and he +beheld himself bestriding a pacing mare, with a colt at her heels, +setting out for Kentucky, Tennessee, or the Lord knows where." When he +wrote this the author was not using his imagination: it was a picture he +saw daily.[40] + +The extent of this westward movement is indicated by the provisions made +for the political organization of these growing settlements. Indiana +achieved statehood in 1816 and Illinois in 1818. Across the river in +Missouri the population had grown from 20,000 in 1810 to 66,000 in +1820,[41] and the weighty questions concerning her admission were being +discussed in Washington. + +With an expanding frontier brought into contact with hostile Indians, +trouble was bound to result. Various plans were proposed to deal with +the problem. It was reported that General Jackson would take charge of +active military operations against the Indians of the upper +Mississippi.[42] One agent suggested that "three or four months' full +feeding on meat and bread, even without ardent spirit, will bring on +disease, and, in six or eight months, great mortality.... I believe more +Indians might be killed with the expense of $100,000 in this way, than +$1,000,000 expended in the support of armies to go against them."[43] + +Fortunately, wiser counsels than either of these prevailed to control +the Indians: the control of the fur trade was necessary. It was felt, +and rightly, that much of the trouble in the West was due to the +power of the British traders. Accordingly, by an act of Congress of +April 29, 1816, it was provided that "licenses to trade with the Indians +within the territorial limits of the United States shall not be granted +to any but citizens of the United States, unless by the express +direction of the President of the United States, and upon such terms and +conditions as the public interest may, in his opinion, require." To +carry this act into effect the president was authorized to call upon the +military force.[44] + +This legislation was most opportune, since by the commercial convention +of October 20, 1818, the northern boundary was definitely agreed upon as +the forty-ninth parallel westward from the Lake of the Woods to the +Rocky Mountains.[45] Ever since the negotiators of the Treaty of Paris +of 1783 had inserted a geographical impossibility by declaring that the +boundary should extend due west from the Lake of the Woods to the +Mississippi, there had existed a vagueness as to where the actual line +should be drawn.[46] In 1806 the British traders thought it would be run +from the lake to the source of the river;[47] and as late as 1818 +Benjamin O'Fallon wrote from Prairie du Chien that Robert Dickson "is +directed to build a fort on the highest land between Lac du Travers and +Red river, which he supposes will be the established line between the +two countries."[48] But with the boundary now defined, the area where +the trade laws were to be enforced was evident. + +The method of Indian trade by foreigners was to be supplanted by +an extension of the United States trading house system. This was a group +of trading houses, conducted by the government, where the Indians could +exchange their furs for goods at cost price and thus avoid both the +deceit and whiskey of the private merchant, although they were often +willing to submit to the one for the sake of the other.[49] As early as +1805 Pike had promised the Indians, in council assembled, that the +government intended to build a trading house at the mouth of the +Minnesota River.[50] The commissioners at Portage des Sioux, in 1815, +had been instructed to inform the tribes that "it is intended to +establish strong posts very high up the Mississippi, and from the +Mississippi to Lake Michigan, and to open trading-houses at those posts, +or other suitable places for their accommodation."[51] In 1818 T. L. +McKenny, Superintendent of Indian Trade, recommended the building of +seven additional trading houses, one of which was to be located on the +"River St. Peters, at or about its junction with the Mississippi."[52] + +Thus, through the Indian department steps were being taken to inaugurate +a new régime in the upper Northwest. But Indian agents and trading +houses needed the protection and administrative arm of the military +department in order to be effective. The forward movement of the +military frontier during the years succeeding the war is significant as +marking a trend towards the Americanization of a great region. + + + + +II + +THE EVOLUTION OF FORT SNELLING + + +When the War of 1812 broke out in the Northwest, the Americans had only +two advanced posts--Mackinac and Fort Dearborn. Of these, one was +captured during the hostilities, and the other was evacuated. An attempt +was made to build a post at Prairie du Chien, but it quickly passed into +English hands and remained in their possession until the news of peace +had reached that frontier station. But after the Treaty of Ghent was +signed the line of the military frontier was quickly advanced in order +to safeguard the Indian agents, the trading houses, and the advancing +settlements. + +Fort Dearborn was re-occupied on July 4, 1815. Mackinac was transferred +to American hands on July 18, 1815. In the fall of the same year Colonel +R. C. Nichols of the Eighth United States Infantry attempted to ascend +the Mississippi to Rock Island, but was compelled to pass the winter in +the vicinity of the mouth of the Des Moines River. On May 10, 1816, +however, he reached Rock Island, where the construction of Fort +Armstrong was undertaken. June 21st of the same year saw the +re-occupation of the site of Fort McKay at Prairie du Chien; and Fort +Crawford soon protected this important point at the junction of +the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers. One other point, vital in all +western transportation was at the head of Green Bay at the mouth of the +Fox River. Colonel John Miller of the Third Infantry arrived at this +place on August 7, 1816, and soon began the erection of Fort Howard.[53] + +But the government was not content with these movements. In a report +dated December 22, 1817, the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, wrote to +the House of Representatives that "a board of the most skilful officers +in our service has been constituted to examine the whole line of our +frontier, and to determine on the position and extent of works that may +be necessary to the defence of the country."[54] Plans had already been +made. During the summer of 1817 Major Stephen H. Long, a topographical +engineer in the United States Army, had made a journey to the Falls of +St. Anthony in a six-oared skiff and had approved the position at the +mouth of the Minnesota River as a location for a fort.[55] Other plans +were soon announced. In the spring of 1818 _The Washington City Gazette_ +stated that a fort would be built on the Missouri River at the mouth of +the Yellowstone River;[56] and a second report of the Secretary of War +on December 11, 1818, indicated that the site at the mouth of the +Minnesota would soon be occupied.[57] + +On the tenth of February, 1819, the War Department ordered the Fifth +Infantry to concentrate at Detroit, after which it would be transported +across Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, up the Fox River, and down +the Wisconsin River to Prairie du Chien, where a part would garrison +Fort Crawford, a part would proceed to Fort Armstrong, and the remainder +would ascend the Mississippi and near the Falls of St. Anthony erect a +post which would be the headquarters of the regiment.[58] This movement +was closely associated with that on the Missouri River called the +Yellowstone Expedition. Both movements were part of one system--a +comprehensive attempt to possess the northwestern frontier. The +thoroughness of the plan is shown by the program outlined for the troops +for the year 1820: three forts were to be built on the Missouri River; +the navigation of that river was to be improved; roads were to be opened +between the two diverging lines of posts (those on the Missouri and +those on the Mississippi); and the Fox and Wisconsin rivers were to be +connected by a canal. Thus the transportation of supplies would be +facilitated, and in case of hostilities the forts could coöperate in the +military operations.[59] + +The western part of this general movement was a failure. Indeed, the +only result was the construction of a post at the point then known as +Council Bluff (now Fort Calhoun, Nebraska), which after an existence of +eight years was abandoned. Congress, disgusted with the management of +the undertaking, refused to vote the funds necessary for the complete +fulfillment of the project.[60] Accordingly, no permanent military post +existed upon the upper Missouri until 1855, when the United States +government purchased from the American Fur Company their station +called Fort Pierre and transformed it into a military establishment.[61] +The failure of the Yellowstone Expedition made more difficult the work +of Fort Snelling. The range of its influence extended to the Missouri, +and for forty years it was of more importance than even its originators +had planned. + +The Fifth Infantry, to which the difficult task of establishing a fort +at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers was assigned was +stationed at various places. Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth, who +was the commanding officer of the regiment, had been located at Prairie +du Chien as Superintendent of Indian Affairs.[62] Lieutenant Nathan +Clark was living at Hartford, Connecticut.[63] But by May 14th the main +part of the regiment was ready to leave Detroit. Schooners brought them +through Lake Huron, the Straits of Mackinac, and across Lake Michigan to +Fort Howard on Green Bay. Captain Whistler of the Third United States +Infantry, then stationed at this post, had prepared bateaux for the use +of the troops, and on June 7th the ascent of the Fox River was +commenced.[64] The Winnebago chief "Four Legs", whose village was at the +outlet of Lake Winnebago, had the custom of exacting tribute from +travellers using the Fox-Wisconsin route. When the troops of the Fifth +Infantry came to the site, "Four Legs" sent the message, "The Lake is +locked." Whereupon Colonel Leavenworth, showing the messenger his rifle, +replied: "tell him, that this is the key, and I shall unlock it and go +on." Upon receiving this belligerent reply, the chief allowed the +troops to pass; and finally on June 30th the bateaux were moored near +Fort Crawford and Prairie du Chien.[65] + +At Fort Crawford there was a tedious wait. Provisions, ordnance, +ammunition, and recruits were expected from St. Louis. On July 5th Major +Thomas Forsyth arrived from St. Louis. He had been ordered by the War +Department to bring two thousand dollars worth of goods to the Sioux +Indians in payment for the reservation ceded by them to Pike.[66] Day +after day passed. Finally, on July 17th a certain Mr. Shaw came with +news that the recruits could be expected soon. On July 31st this curt +entry is made in Forsyth's journal: "no boats, no recruits, no news, nor +anything else from St. Louis." The next day Major Marston was sent with +twenty-seven troops to garrison Fort Armstrong at Rock Island; and on +August 2nd Forsyth recorded: "Thank God a boat loaded with ordnance and +stores of different kinds arrived to-day, and said a provision boat +would arrive to-morrow, but no news of the recruits."[67] + +Colonel Leavenworth at once made preparations to ascend the river. The +two large boats that had brought up supplies were engaged, and at eight +o'clock on the morning of Sunday, August 8th, the flotilla set out--the +two large boats, fourteen bateaux, the boat of Major Forsyth, and the +barge of Colonel Leavenworth. In the party were ninety-eight soldiers +and twenty boatmen. There were others also whose presence in that wild +region would not be expected: Mrs. Gooding, the wife of one of +the captains; Mrs. Nathan Clark, the wife of the commissary; and little +Charlotte Ouisconsin Clark, who had been born scarcely an hour after the +regiment reached Fort Crawford. The knowledge that they were upon the +last stage of their journey caused a feeling of cheerfulness among the +soldiers, and the first day they proceeded a distance of eighteen +miles.[68] + +For sixteen days the boatmen poled their bateaux up the river. Once when +there was a "Great appearance of wind" the sails were hoisted. At other +times the heavily loaded boats were moved with difficulty through the +shallow water. Occasionally fog and rain impeded their progress. Bad +water made half of the soldiers sick before the journey was ended; and +to avoid the mosquitoes on the river, the men preferred to sleep on the +banks, although every morning there was a heavy dew. On August 17th the +lower end of Lake Pepin was reached and here a delay of several hours +occurred while the men drew provisions from the supply boats, and washed +their dirty linen.[69] + +Major Forsyth stopped at the Indian villages to distribute presents and +to announce to the natives the object of the coming of the troops, and +the value they would derive from having a fort in their midst. On +Sunday, August 22nd, he encamped a few miles ahead of the main body of +the expedition, but by eight o'clock the next morning all the boats had +come up. Impatient to reach the end of the journey, Major Forsyth +again pushed forward and at four o'clock in the afternoon reached the +mouth of the Minnesota River. On the morning of Tuesday, August 24, +1819, Colonel Leavenworth arrived in his barge ahead of the troops and +spent almost the entire day in looking over the sites available for a +camp. Finally, he decided upon a spot on the right bank of the Minnesota +River, just above its mouth. There was no rest for the troops when their +boats reached the chosen place. "They were immediately set to work in +making roads up the bank of the river, cutting down trees, etc."[70] + +If the soldiers had any spare time in their labors in which to become +interested in their surroundings, there was novelty in everything about +them. During the next few days all the nearby chiefs came to call upon +their new neighbors: they left satisfied with the presents and the +whiskey which they had received. On Saturday a party ascended to the +Falls of St. Anthony; and on Sunday a visit was made to the Indian +villages up the Minnesota River. It was on Monday that Major Forsyth +began his return trip, and as the supplies in store were few and the +long-expected recruits were needed for the erection of the camp +buildings, Colonel Leavenworth set out with him for Prairie du Chien. On +September 1st they met on Lake Pepin two boats and a bateau with one +hundred and twenty soldiers on board. But Colonel Leavenworth continued +to Prairie du Chien, where he remained some time to urge on any boats +which might arrive. On September 5th the one hundred and twenty +recruits landed at the new camp.[71] + +Log cabins and a stockade were erected while the party still lived in +the boats on the river. By November the temporary barracks were ready +for occupation. Looking forward to a pleasant winter, the name +"Cantonment New Hope" was applied to the embryo fort. The more +scientific among the men examined the country round about, and saw in +the hills visions of mines of precious metals. "Would not the employment +of the troops in the manufacture of Copper and Iron be advantageous to +the government?", wrote one of these energetic soldiers. But the +succeeding months were not to give an opportunity for such +occupations.[72] + +Added to the natural monotony of a wilderness post, there was +homesickness and suffering during the first winter. The quarters that +had been built were inadequate for protection from the cold of that +climate. "Once during that memorable six months", runs the account of +one of the inhabitants of Cantonment New Hope, "the roof of our cabin +blew off, and the walls seemed about to fall in. My father, sending my +mother and brother to a place of safety, held up the chimney to prevent +a total downfall; while the baby, who had been pushed under the bed in +her cradle, lay there.... until the wind subsided, when, upon being +drawn out from her hiding-place, she evinced great pleasure at the +commotion, and seemed to take it all as something designed especially +for her amusement." That baby lived to recall the incident almost +seventy years later.[73] + +Toward the close of the winter there came sickness, chiefly on account +of a lack of proper provisions. Late in the fall Lieutenant Oliver had +left Prairie du Chien with supplies in a keel boat. But the river froze +and the boat was unable to progress farther than the vicinity of +Hastings, Minnesota. Here it was necessary to keep a guard all winter to +protect the food from the Indians and the wolves. The Indians refused to +sell them game; no vegetables could be purchased; and the bread was "two +inches in the barrels thick with mould".[74] With such food it is no +wonder that scurvy, the dreaded disease of all frontier posts, broke out +among the troops. Forty soldiers died before the progress of the disease +was arrested by home-made remedies and groceries brought up by the +sutler.[75] + +This visitation of disease left a profound impression upon the +survivors. Henry H. Sibley, who had often spoken with those who passed +through the weary months of suffering and sickness, wrote that "scurvy +broke out in a most malignant form, and raged so violently that, for a +few days, garrison duty was suspended, there being barely well men +enough in the command to attend to the sick, and to the interment of the +dead. So sudden were the attacks, that soldiers in apparent good health +when they went to bed, were found dead in the morning. One man who was +relieved from his tour of sentinel duty, and stretched himself upon the +bench of the guard room, four hours after, when he was called +upon to resume his post, was discovered to be lifeless."[76] + +Thinking that much of the sickness was caused by the unhealthful +location, Colonel Leavenworth, on May 5, 1820, moved the soldiers to a +place on the west bank of the Mississippi north of the Minnesota where +there was a great spring of cold water. Here the troops were quartered +in tents--naming their community "Camp Cold Water".[77] The immediate +need was the erection of the permanent post. Colonel Leavenworth chose +for the site a position three hundred yards west of the crest of the +cliff. Some material was brought to this place, but no building was +done. In August Colonel Leavenworth was superseded in command by Colonel +Josiah Snelling, who located the position at the extreme point of land +between the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers.[78] The work of erecting +the buildings was done by the soldiers, it being customary at that time +to pay the soldiers fifteen cents a day in addition to their regular pay +for this extra work.[79] + +Steps were taken during the summer of 1820 to obtain the necessary +material. A saw mill was needed to make the lumber with which the +interior of the buildings would be finished and the furniture +constructed. As the water in Minnehaha Creek was very low that year, it +was decided to erect the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. Some men were +sent up the Mississippi River to Rum River to examine the timber, and +during the winter of 1820-1821 a party of soldiers was employed in +cutting logs and dragging them to the river bank. With the coming +of spring the logs were floated down to the Falls of St. Anthony, where +they were sawed into lumber and then hauled to the fort by teams.[80] + +The progress made on the building was slow. On the tenth of September, +1820, the cornerstone was laid.[81] More than a year later, on November +7, 1821, Colonel Snelling wrote to the Indian agent, Lawrence +Taliaferro, that "nothing new has occurred since my return excepting +that the other stone barrack is up & the rafters on."[82] The fort was +partially occupied, probably in the fall of 1822, before all the +surrounding wall had been completed.[83] But it is evident that most of +the fort was finished by July, 1823, for at that time the troops erected +the Indian Council House.[84] + +In the meantime other events had been occurring. On July 31, 1820, +Governor Cass of Michigan Territory, who had been on an exploring +expedition to the upper Mississippi, passed down the river and remained +with the troops until the morning of August 2nd. A council was held with +the Indians, during which a peace was made between the Sioux and the +Chippewas. That the garrison had been busy at duties other than erecting +buildings is evident from the fact that Governor Cass found ninety acres +planted with corn and potatoes and wheat. From the garden green peas had +been obtained as early as June 15th, and green corn on July 20th.[85] + +In accordance with the plans outlined for the year 1820 it was proposed +to open a road between Council Bluff and the new post on the +upper Mississippi. To survey the route Captain Stephen Watts Kearny led +a party which consisted of four other officers, fifteen soldiers, four +servants, an Indian guide and his wife and papoose, eight mules, and +seven horses. The route led from Council Bluff across what is now the +northern and northwestern part of the State of Iowa to Lake Pepin, and +then along the Mississippi to the new post. From July 25th to July 29th +they remained with Leavenworth's men, visiting the Falls of St. Anthony, +examining the country, and on July 26th going with Lieutenant Green and +Miss Gooding to the east side of the Mississippi. Here Lieutenant Green +and Miss Gooding were married by Colonel Leavenworth, who as Indian +agent for the "Northwest Territory" could perform his duties on the east +bank of the river, but not on the west, which was in the Missouri +Territory.[86] + +The fact that the Falls of St. Anthony constituted the most noticeable +landmark of the vicinity led to the application of its name to the +military works. The first official inspection of Fort St. Anthony +occurred some time between May 13, 1824, and June 13, 1824. General +Winfield Scott, as the inspector, was received with all the honor and +entertainment that the frontier post could provide. He left favorably +impressed with the work that had been done. + +"I wish to suggest to the general-in-chief," wrote General Scott in his +report, "and through him to the War Department, the propriety of calling +this work _Fort Snelling_, as a just compliment to the meritorious + officer under whom it has been erected. The present name is +foreign to all our associations, and is, besides, geographically +incorrect, as the work stands at the junction of the Mississippi and +Saint Peter's rivers, eight miles below the great falls of the +Mississippi, called after Saint Anthony. Some few years since the +Secretary of War directed that the work at the Council Bluffs should be +called Fort Atkinson in compliment to the valuable services of General +Atkinson on the upper Missouri. The above proposition is made on the +same principle." + +A general order on January 7, 1825, directed that the suggested change +should be made. Thereupon Fort Snelling began its career as the guardian +of the Northwest.[87] + + + + +III + +FORTY YEARS OF FRONTIER DUTY + + +It was not the intention of the War Department that the influence of the +frontier military post should be limited by the range of the guns +mounted upon its walls. The post was to be the center of the Indian life +for those tribes that dwelt in the vicinity. At the same time +expeditions, the base of which was to be at the fort, were to carry the +authority of the government out upon the wild Indian lands, and the +frontier settlements were to look to the soldiers for protection.[88] + +How, in its origin, Fort Snelling became part of a comprehensive system +for the protection of the frontier, has been detailed. The events of the +forty years that followed indicate very clearly the wisdom of the men +who chose the site. Every phase of frontier duty was performed by the +troops stationed at the mouth of the Minnesota River; and although these +tasks often took them hundreds of miles from the post, and although they +often coöperated with men from other forts, yet these expeditions may +well be considered as part of the history of Fort Snelling. They were a +test of the training received on the parade ground, and the successful +accomplishment of many a difficult duty shows that the post was +fulfilling the objects of those who built it. + +Prior to 1848 the governmental organization in the jurisdiction of which +Fort Snelling was located was very weak. When first erected in 1819 the +fort was in the Territory of Missouri (1812-1821). Then followed a +number of years in which it was in unorganized territory (1821-1834). +The Territory of Michigan (1834-1836), the Territory of Wisconsin +(1836-1838), and the Territory of Iowa (1838-1846) successively had +jurisdiction over it; while in 1849 it fell within the newly-organized +Territory of Minnesota. Lying far from the seats of government, in a +region of wandering traders and red men, the fort became the exponent of +the government--the only symbol of governmental restriction in a region +almost entirely without law. + +During the first years of its existence while the buildings were being +erected and the fort was making its place in the Indian life and the fur +trade of the surrounding region, the frontier was comparatively quiet. +The first outbreak occurred in Illinois and Wisconsin, where the +Winnebagoes were constantly coming into contact with the lead miners +about Galena. During the summer of 1826 rumors came to Fort Snelling of +the hostility of this tribe, and Colonel Snelling thought it prudent to +reënforce the garrison of Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien. Three +companies of the Fifth Infantry were sent away from Fort Snelling on the +afternoon of August 18th under the command of Captain Wilcox.[89] +Although no actual conflict occurred, the continued uneasiness +felt because of the presence of the Winnebagoes led the authorities to +remove all the troops from Fort Crawford to the upper post in the fall +of that year.[90] + +The lack of soldiers among them intensified the unruly spirit in the +Winnebagoes. In June of the next year two keel boats, the "General +Ashley" and the "O. H. Perry", which were carrying supplies to Fort +Snelling noticed an unfriendly feeling among the Sioux at Wabasha's +village. Fifty warriors with their faces painted black and with black +streaks on their blankets visited the "O. H. Perry", but refused to +shake hands. Apprehensive of danger on the return journey, Colonel +Snelling furnished the crews with guns and cartridges before the descent +was commenced.[91] + +There soon arrived at Fort Snelling a letter from John Marsh, the +sub-agent at Prairie du Chien. It stated that rumors were current that +Prairie du Chien was to be attacked and that the Sioux and Winnebagoes +threatened to kill Taliaferro "and any American that they can find at a +distance from the Fort". The letter closed with the request that steps +be taken for the defense of Prairie du Chien.[92] No doubt preparations +were commenced immediately; but they were hastened by news which soon +came up the river. On June 26th the Winnebago chief, Red Bird, with +three of his men had attacked a farm house near Prairie du Chien and +obtained the scalp of a child. Returning to their village, they had seen + the keel boats coming down the river. With their fighting blood +up they attacked the "O. H. Perry", and in a battle which lasted several +hours they killed two of the crew and lost seven of their own warriors. +The report of this attack, together with the murder near Prairie du +Chien, spread consternation among the white men.[93] + +Without delay Colonel Snelling with four companies started down the +river.[94] A few days after reaching Prairie du Chien, he was reënforced +by troops brought up from St. Louis by Colonel Atkinson. It was thought +necessary that Fort Snelling should be maintained during the critical +period, and as it was short of provisions, Colonel Snelling was ordered +back to his post with a supply of flour, and directed to procure boats +which could be used in the pursuit of the Winnebagoes up the Wisconsin +River. On the 16th of August Colonel Snelling arrived at his post, and +on the following day Major Fowle started downstream with four other +companies of the Fifth Infantry in two keel boats and nine mackinac +boats, arriving at Fort Crawford on August 21st. The Indians, overawed +by the rapidity of these military movements and the size of the force +sent against them, immediately became peaceable. As a precaution, +however, Major Fowle was kept at Fort Crawford, and the post was +provisioned for a year.[95] + +During the next twenty years the force maintained at Fort Snelling was +small, and the garrison was occupied in routine tasks, the regulation of +Indian affairs, and the fur trade. At the time of the Black Hawk +War there was quiet about Fort Snelling, and Major Taliaferro offered +his services and those of the Sioux warriors in the campaign against the +Sacs and Foxes. But the government did not think it advisable to +formally accept the proffered help, although a number of the Sioux did +take part in pursuing the remnants of Sacs who succeeded in crossing the +river.[96] + +In June, 1848, the company of infantry stationed at Fort Snelling +received an urgent call to come to Wabasha's Prairie--near Winona, +Minnesota. The Winnebago Indians were being transferred from their +former home in the Turkey Valley region in Iowa to a new reservation +obtained for them from the Chippewas. But when the Prairie was reached, +the Winnebagoes visited with Wabasha and he sold it to them for a home. +When Captain Seth Eastman arrived from Fort Snelling he was put in +charge of the military forces which had been hastily brought together to +force the Winnebagoes to continue their march. There were volunteers +from Crawford County, Wisconsin, dragoons from Fort Atkinson, Iowa, and +the infantry from Fort Snelling, besides sixty armed teamsters. + +These military forces lay encamped, separated from the Indians by a +slough. In the morning a deputation of Indians came to ask the meaning +of the martial appearance of the whites when all _they_ desired was a +council. This suggestion of a council was quickly assented to, but the +Indians approached with such a rush and with such blood-curdling +yells that the cannon were loaded and the soldiers stood ready to fire. +During the council the Winnebagoes refused to move until one small band +gave in to the entreaties of the agent and were taken up to Fort +Snelling. This was an opening wedge, for when the steamboat returned +1700 were ready to move. The total journey of three hundred and ten +miles from the old to the new home occupied the time from June 8th to +July 30th, 1848.[97] + +By the next summer they were ready to return--anywhere, but especially +to Wisconsin, their earliest home.[98] In July the whole tribe, +stimulated by whiskey, started; but Governor Ramsey called on Colonel +Loomis of Fort Snelling for aid, and a force under Captain Monroe +proceeded to the north where their presence aided in quieting the +disturbers. Again, on September 9th about a hundred had approached +within sixteen miles of St. Paul, when Captain Page and forty men from +Fort Snelling frightened them so much that they fled into the swamps and +returned home quietly. Smaller parties were captured on the river and +sent back under a military guard.[99] Not all the efforts, however, were +successful. It was reported that one evening in November over a hundred +red men floated down quietly under the very guns of Fort Snelling, and +two weeks later the newspaper accounts tell of three hundred Winnebagoes +in camp near the mouth of the Black River.[100] The need for a company +of dragoons at Fort Snelling was imperative. The next summer it was +obtained, and in 1851 this military force was described as being +"an indispensable and invaluable auxiliary."[101] Not until 1855 was the +Winnebago spirit of migration broken, and then only after a new +reservation had been obtained for them at the mouth of the Blue Earth +River.[102] + +In his report of November 25, 1844, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs +called attention to the fact that no longer was there any need of +entertaining fears on account of the visits made by American Indians to +the Canadian posts, as these pilgrimages were indulged in only by a few +"worthless vagrants". But an evil of a different character was imminent. +Twice a year hundreds of Red River half-breeds--_bois brulés_--left +their homes on the British side of the international boundary to hunt +buffalo on the American plains which bordered on the Missouri River. +Here they came into contact with Indians who naturally resented this +intrusion upon their hunting grounds. During the summer of 1844 a +half-breed had been killed by a party of Yankton Sioux, and the invaders +had retaliated by killing eight Sioux of another band. This so inflamed +the Indians that they went upon the war path and without stopping to +reason about the matter, they attacked a party of whites whom they met +on Otter Tail Lake.[103] + +To hunt the buffalo freely, even on foreign soil, seemed to the _bois +brulés_ to be their natural right. On the pemmican which they made from +these buffaloes they depended for their winter's food. Five +hundred and forty carts trailed out of Pembina on the summer hunt of +1820, and from year to year the number increased until in 1840 there +were 1210 carts, accompanied by 1630 people. Nowhere else in the new +world at least, was there such a hunting party. Thirteen hundred and +seventy-five buffalo tongues were counted as the result of one day's +hunt in 1840.[104] It was estimated that every year these Red River +hunters killed twenty thousand buffaloes on American soil.[105] + +In this there was a real grievance. Though small in itself the incident +could easily develop into a war when there were other factors urging in +the same direction.[106] The exact condition of affairs on the border +was so confused that the United States made occasional military displays +in order to impress the invaders and also to satisfy its own curiosity. +The first of these expeditions occurred in 1845. Captain Edwin V. +Sumner, then in command at Fort Atkinson, in the Iowa country, visited +the Red River of the North during the summer of that year with Companies +B and I of the First Regiment of Dragoons. But the difficulty was that +while the invaders would promise to remain off American soil and would +retire as soon as a military force appeared, yet no sooner would the +troops depart than they would be back again on the hunting grounds.[107] + +When complaints continued to come in the Adjutant General proposed to +establish a post on the Red River. As a preliminary movement Brevet +Major Samuel Woods, Captain of the Sixth Infantry located at Fort +Snelling, was ordered to proceed with Company D of the dragoons to the +border and make recommendations to the War Department in regard to a +suitable site. On June 6, 1849, the start was made from Fort Snelling, +and the weary march directed to the northwest over the swollen rivers +and the marshy swamps with the mosquitoes a constant torment, until on +August 1st the soldiers reached the collection of Indian lodges and the +trading establishment that was known as Pembina. During the twenty-five +days spent at this point observations were made of the topographical +features of the land, the character of the Indians, and the pursuits of +the half-breeds. + +Major Woods urged the American Indians and half-breeds to prevent by +force the invasions, promising that the United States would support +them. But it would be useless, he reported, to build a fort at Pembina +unless at least two hundred fifty men were stationed there. It would be +better to concentrate a large force at Fort Snelling, from whence +expeditions could be made into the Indian country in all directions as +necessity might arise. The return to the fort occupied twenty-three and +a half days, and on September 18th the total journey of almost a +thousand miles was completed with the loss of only one horse and one +mule.[108] + +During the next few years conditions remained unchanged, and as the +settlement of the Minnesota and Mississippi valleys was pushing the +Indian tribes farther to the westward, more and bitter conflicts +with the half-breeds would be liable to occur. In order to give a final +warning to the foreign hunters and to select a site for a post which +could serve the double purpose of protecting the frontier settlements +from the Indians and the Indians from the foreigners, Lieutenant Colonel +C. F. Smith of the Tenth Infantry was ordered on June 9, 1856, to tour +the region with Companies B and F. As far as the Goose River, in the +North Dakota country, the route followed from Fort Snelling was +practically the same as that of Major Woods; but instead of proceeding +by the usual route northward to Pembina, a detour was made to Lake +Mini-Waken (Devil's Lake). On the return the less travelled and more +difficult road on the east side of the Red River was followed. + +On August 19th the trail of the annual hunting party was crossed; but +the nine hundred men, women, and children who had made the trip had +returned to their homes three weeks before, and kept away from the +military party. Since no warning could be given to them in person, a +notice written in both English and French was circulated in Pembina and +in the British settlements to the north. But the natives obtained sweet +revenge when Colonel Smith attempted to buy from the farmers in the +vicinity of the principal trading post--Fort Garry--a sufficient supply +of oats for his troops. The half-breeds declined to bring the grain, +giving as their excuse that they did not desire to trespass on American +soil when warned to keep off.[109] + +Not only to the north did the troops from Fort Snelling make +expeditions. The wide range of its influence is illustrated by the task +which occupied the attention of its soldiers during the summer of 1850. +On August 8, 1849, Governor Ansel Briggs of Iowa forwarded to the +Secretary of War a petition, signed by over a hundred citizens of Iowa +County, in which they complained of the presence of a great number of +Indians who were destroying the timber, removing the section corners, +and even demanding rent from some of the settlers--claiming that they +owned the land on the Iowa River.[110] + +To investigate conditions and to report upon what steps would be +necessary to remove the cause of complaint, Brevet Major Samuel Woods, +stationed at Fort Snelling, was ordered to proceed to the State of Iowa. +On the twenty-fifth of September he left for Prairie du Chien, and +arriving here set out for Fort Atkinson, thinking that probably the +Winnebagoes were the Indians causing the trouble. But he discovered that +many of them had just set out for the upper Mississippi, and those +remaining behind were so few in number that they could cause little +inconvenience to the frontier. From Fort Atkinson Major Woods passed +southward through Fayette, Buchanan, Linn, and Johnson counties to Iowa +City. At this time the region traversed was sparsely settled. For a +hundred miles south of Fort Atkinson there were only two +settlements--one, consisting of a few families, high upon the Volga +River, and the other larger in numbers clustered about some mills +on the Wapsipinicon River. About fifteen miles north of Marion the +inhabitants became more numerous. Here were found Indians--Sacs and +Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes--but they were not hostile and +their presence caused no objection. + +It was at Iowa City that Major Woods heard that the inhabitants on the +Iowa, English, and Skunk Rivers had been making the loudest complaints. +Accordingly he started up the Iowa River to the vicinity of Marengo. +Here he learned that a few days before the settlers near the town, +becoming tired of having Indians about them, armed themselves and by +force broke up the Indian encampment. Only one lodge remained, that on +the lands of a farmer who gave permission to three of the red men to +live under his protection. + +The total number of Indians, Major Woods reported, consisted of five or +six hundred Sacs and Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes. Among these +the Sacs and Foxes were the most numerous. They had by treaty sold their +lands some years earlier and had been removed to the Missouri River; but +they preferred their old home, and so had returned in straggling bands, +sometimes going back to the Missouri to get their annuities. The +Winnebagoes were those who had escaped when the tribe was being +transferred to the new reservation north of Fort Snelling. + +The complaints against these Indians were that they destroyed a great +deal of timber, removed the surveyors' landmarks, killed the game, +annoyed the settlers, and that when intoxicated they were an +actual source of danger. Believing that these reasons were well founded, +Major Woods advised that the Indians be removed as soon as possible. +Conditions did not demand a winter campaign, but preparations should be +made for the removal during the early summer.[111] + +In the early part of April of the next year it was known that two +companies of infantry from Fort Snelling, and one company of dragoons +from Fort Gaines had been detailed for this task.[112] On the twelfth of +May the "Highland Mary" left Fort Snelling, having on board the infantry +and cavalry and part of the equipment, while in tow was a barge full of +horses and mules.[113] The soldiers were disembarked at Dubuque, whence +they followed the trail to Iowa City, along which they "saw nothing +except the ravages of California emigration." Proceeding to the vicinity +of Marengo, a council was held with the Indians. But the latter marched +into the council ten abreast carrying their war clubs and manifesting +such a hostile disposition that it was impossible for Major Woods to +accomplish anything.[114] + +For a while it seemed that active military operations would be +necessary. The Indians becoming convinced that this would be the result, +and fearing that all the expenses of the campaign would be deducted from +the annuities of the tribe, suggested to two men of the neighborhood--a +Mr. Steen and a Mr. Greenly--that they would go back to their homes if +these two men could be appointed their guides. When Mr. Steen and +Mr. Greenly broached the subject to Major Woods he considered it +thoughtfully, and finally an arrangement was made. For every Indian who +left the Iowa River and was turned over to their agent west of the +Missouri River, the government was to pay three dollars and fifty cents. +Five hundred dollars was to be advanced to pay for the provisions of the +party. Upon June 6th a second council was held with the Indians, during +which Major Woods impressed upon Chief Poweshiek and his men the +necessity of their returning and the advisability of their doing it +peaceably.[115] + +During the month of July the Indians started upon their journey. For +several days they encamped near Fort Des Moines, and on July 16th +seventy of the warriors, armed and painted, paraded on horseback through +the streets of the town to the public square where for an hour they +danced for the amusement of the two or three hundred interested +spectators in the frontier town.[116] + +These events made necessary a change in the plans of the troops. Company +E of the Sixth Infantry remained at their camp on the Iowa River for +some time, but upon the last day of July set out under the command of +Major Woods for a site on the Des Moines River which had been chosen by +the War Department as the location of a new military post. On August 23, +1850, the troops arrived at the designated place and began the erection +of a fort which they named Fort Clarke in honor of Colonel Clarke +the commanding officer of the Sixth Infantry. The name, however, was +soon changed to Fort Dodge. + +The company of dragoons was occupied during August and September in +making a tour of the western part of the State of Iowa, and it was not +until October that the cavalry company and the other infantry company +returned to their station at Fort Snelling.[117] + +Occupation for the company of dragoons was furnished during the next +summer when Governor Ramsey was sent to Pembina to draw up a treaty with +the Pillager band of Chippewa Indians. On August 18, 1851, the party set +out from Fort Snelling. Besides the Governor and a number of gentlemen +who accompanied him, the party consisted of twenty-five dragoons, and +eight French-Canadian and half-breed drivers who had charge of six +baggage wagons and several light Red River carts. The march was very +difficult and the dragoons were kept busy repairing the roads over the +swamp lands and dragging with ropes the heavy wagons over the quickly +made causeways. The treaty which was made after this difficult journey +was not ratified by the Senate.[118] + +The wonderful expansion of the Nation, which occurred in the latter half +of the fifth decade of the century, turned all eyes toward the fertile +valleys and the mountains of fabulous wealth on the Pacific Coast. Even +before the acquisition of this territory some visionary minds had +pictured it bound to the United States, if not by political ties, at +least by bonds of steel.[119] The Oregon treaty of 1846 brought +part of the coveted land under the jurisdiction of the United States, +and the necessity of a railroad to the Pacific was soon realized. But +sectional interests prevented agreement upon any certain route, and it +was decided to survey the most promising and choose the one agreed upon +by the engineers. Accordingly, the army appropriation bill of 1853 +provided $150,000 for this purpose.[120] + +Isaac I. Stevens, the newly appointed Governor of Washington Territory, +led the party which examined the country between the parallels of +forty-seven and forty-nine degrees north latitude--called the Northern +Pacific Survey. He left Washington, D. C, on May 9, 1853, and reached +St. Paul on May 27th. According to his instructions he was authorized to +call upon one sergeant, two corporals, one musician, and sixteen +privates of Company D First Dragoons, who were still stationed at Fort +Snelling.[121] Captain Gardiner, who had preceded his leader up the +river, had selected the escort and collected the party on May 24th in +Camp Pierce--a temporary encampment located three miles northwest of the +fort.[122] Early in June camp was broken and the start for the far West +was made, at first, over the Red River Trail, and then across the +prairies to Fort Union, where on August 1st they were joined by others +who had been sent up the Missouri with supplies. Fort Benton was reached +on September 1st There they remained until the twelfth of the month when +Lieutenant Saxton, leading a similar party eastward from +Vancouver, arrived. Thus a survey from the Mississippi to the Pacific +had been completed.[123] + +On the journey the entire party had been divided into small groups, who +conducted surveys and explorations in various directions. To each of +these groups were detailed a few of the dragoons, who were in all +respects an integral part of the expedition and not merely a guard for +protection. Accordingly, no special mention of their work was made in +the report.[124] + +After thirty years, the distinction of being the most northwestern post +in the upper Mississippi region was lost by Fort Snelling. Other +military stations were erected, and thereafter many of its former +activities were conducted from these stations on the extreme frontier. +Yet in everything contributed by these newer posts, the older had a +part; accounts of them reveal their dependence on Fort Snelling, the +parent post. + +As early as 1844 the Secretary of War had reported that plans were being +made to erect two new forts between Lake Superior and the River St. +Peter's.[125] But nothing was done at this time. By a treaty of October +13, 1846, the Winnebagoes living on the "Neutral Ground" in the Turkey +River Valley of the Iowa country agreed to exchange this reservation for +one "north of St. Peter's and west of the Mississippi Rivers".[126] By +treaties in the following August, the Chippewas ceded to the government +a tract lying south of the Crow Wing River and west of the +Mississippi River, and north and east of the so-called Sioux-Chippewa +boundary line.[127] This was the area agreed on by the government as +being suitable for the Winnebagoes. In view of the reputation of +unruliness possessed by this tribe, and the fact that they were to be +placed between the warring tribes--the Sioux and the Chippewas--the +establishment of a post on the reservation was thought desirable. + +The transfer of the tribe took place during the summer of 1848; and in +the same fall Brigadier General George M. Brooke of St. Louis, +accompanied by a squadron of dragoons, chose a point opposite the Nokay +River as a desirable location.[128] This company and a company of the +Sixth Infantry from Fort Snelling were employed in building the fort, +and when cold weather prevented further operations, they were withdrawn +to Fort Snelling, where the winter was passed.[129] In the spring the +troops returned, and Fort Gaines--rechristened Fort Ripley--was occupied +on the thirteenth of April, 1849.[130] + +But this post alone was unable to keep the Winnebagoes in check. They +celebrated the first fourth of July by attacking a frontier store and +"causing one gentleman to escape _en dishabille_ to the woods, where he +danced to the tune of the mosquitoes during some three days and +nights."[131] Again and again reports of riotous revels and rumors of +impending outbreaks caused help to be sent from Fort Snelling to assist +the troops higher up the river.[132] In the spring of 1857 the fort was +abandoned, but Indian disturbances during the summer caused a +detachment to be sent from the older post. These troops remained at that +point until in the summer of 1858 they were transferred to the newly +founded Fort Abercrombie.[133] + +The treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, concluded in 1851, +concentrated the Sioux Indians on a long irregular reservation along the +upper Minnesota River.[134] The Indians were not transferred until the +summer of 1853, but in the fall of the previous year the need of a post +among so many half civilized people, placed in a small territory, was +obvious. Accordingly, Colonel Francis Lee, commandant at Fort Snelling, +and Captain Dana of the quartermaster's department, escorted by a troop +of dragoons, selected a suitable site on the north side of the Minnesota +River, a dozen miles upstream from the town of New Ulm. + +On February 24, 1853, seven privates of Company D of the First Dragoons, +and two sergeants and thirteen privates of the Sixth Infantry were sent +to the location to begin the erection of the fort. In April the dragoons +were ordered to return to Fort Snelling and Companies C and K of the +Sixth Infantry went up the river under the command of Captain James +Monroe and became part of the permanent garrison of newly-founded Fort +Ridgely. One other company came up from Fort Dodge--the post in Iowa +which was abandoned with this withdrawal.[135] + +Colonel C. F. Smith, who led the expedition from Fort Snelling to the +Red River during the summer of 1856, was instructed to recommend +a site for a post. His choice of Graham's Point on the Red River was +accepted; and here, in the fall of 1857, Colonel John J. Abercrombie +constructed the fort which was named in his honor. Colonel Smith, +writing from Fort Snelling, gave among his reasons for the choice of +Graham's Point "the additional advantage of greater facility for +receiving stores from the depot here".[136] + +With the building of these posts, Fort Snelling lost much of its +importance. The garrison was small and the fort was almost nothing more +than a depot for supplying the more advanced forts with food, clothing, +and ammunition.[137] With the decline of its military position, the idea +became prevalent that some day it would be abandoned entirely, and the +land thrown open to settlement. + +The neighboring cities of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Anthony were in +the throes of real estate speculation. There were some who saw in Fort +Snelling a site more advantageous than any of these. "It is a position +which has attracted also a good deal of attention on account of its +superior beauty of location, its agricultural advantages, and its more +notable advantages for a town site", said Mr. Morrill during a debate on +the floor of the House of Representatives. "Whatever witnesses in this +case may have differed upon as to other matters, they nearly all agree +that, as a point for a town site, it possesses superior advantages over +any other in that part of the country."[138] + +Successful efforts were made to secure this site. On June 6, 1857, Mr. +William King Heiskell, a commissioner appointed by the Secretary of War, +sold to Mr. Franklin Steele, who was acting for himself and three +others, the entire reservation for $90,000. The President approved the +act on the second of July. Other parties who were interested in securing +the site were not aware that the sale was to be made until everything +had been accomplished.[139] + +Immediately there arose the cry of graft: the Republicans saw in the +transaction the corruption of the existing Democratic régime. A +committee was appointed by the House of Representatives to investigate +the matter, and the testimony which they took covers three hundred and +seven pages. Some witnesses said that the post should have been retained +for military purposes; others insisted that there was no such need. Some +said that the site was admirable for a city; a few stated that it +possessed no such advantages. Some said that it was necessary as a +supply station for the upper posts; others insisted that these posts +could be supplied more cheaply by a direct route.[140] + +Bitter debates marked the consideration of the report. The objects, +character, and ability of the witnesses were questioned. One member of +the House said that "Fort Snelling is a very elegant appanage to very +elegant gentlemen, who have a very elegant place for parade and +show."[141] Another remarked that "the officers at Fort Snelling were +opposed to the sale and it was natural that they should be. They +had a beautiful place of residence, they had the most comfortable +quarters, and a superabundance of stores for their subsistence. There +they were living upon the fat of the land, without anything under God's +heaven to do. Society was near at hand in a city populous, and +furnishing all the luxuries of life. They of course did not want to +surrender such quarters and such comforts for the hardships and trials +of a frontier station."[142] + +Finally, on June second the whole matter was laid on the table. On May +27, 1858, the troops had been withdrawn,[143] and on July 19, 1858, the +quartermaster turned the buildings over to Mr. Steele. But with the +opening of the Civil War Fort Snelling was used by the government as a +training station, and after the war it was continued as a permanent +post. Mr. Steele had been unable to pay the entire $90,000, and as he +claimed rent at the rate of $2000 a month for the time it had been used +by the government, the matter was again taken up. It was finally +adjusted in an agreement whereby Mr. Steele retained the greater part of +the land, and the government kept the buildings and 1521.20 acres +surrounding the fort. Later some of the land was re-purchased from Mr. +Steele.[144] + +The history of Old Fort Snelling closes with the removal of the troops +in 1858. The story of its use during the Civil War, of the part it +played during the Sioux massacre of 1862, of its influence throughout +the West during the years when the headquarters of the Department of +Dakota were located within its walls, of the Officers' Training +Camp established during the summer of 1917, lies outside the scope of +this volume. The life of the new Fort Snelling revives the traditions of +patriotism, loyalty, and sacrifice, which have centered about the post +since that day in August, 1819, which witnessed its beginning. + + + + +IV + +LORDS OF THE NORTH + + +An old settler, speaking of the expulsion of the squatters on the +military reservation remarked: "At that time, and both before and since, +the commanding officers of the fort were the lords of the north. They +ruled supreme. The citizens in the neighborhood of the fort were liable +at any time to be thrust into the guard-house. While the chief of the +fort was the king, the subordinate officers were the princes, and +persons have been deprived of their liberty and imprisoned by those +tyrants for the most trivial wrong, or some imaginary offense."[145] +This statement is doubtless rather extreme; but the fact remains that +the fort was the only agency of government in the region, and so the +commanding officer was indeed the supreme ruler in so far as he directed +the policy and activities of the post. + +Interest in Old Fort Snelling is not primarily in the logs and stones +which made up its building, but in the men and women who lived within +its walls. Many were the lives influenced by a residence in its +barracks. Characters were formed by the stern rigors of frontier +service. Far from busy cities, in the tiresome routine of army life, men +were being trained who were to be leaders in the political and +military life of the Nation. Others never rose to a higher position; but +they command attention because in their faithful performance of daily +duties, year after year, they were quietly helping to make the history +of the Northwest. It is impossible to consider every man who might be +classed among the "Lords of the North", but a review of the careers of a +few of them indicates the type of men whose natural ability was +supplemented by the self-confidence and the grim determination which are +the products of frontier service.[146] + + +The memory of the man who led the troops to the mouth of the Minnesota +River in 1819 is commemorated by a fort and a city in another State. The +trials which he endured during that first winter at Cantonment New Hope +were only harbingers of greater difficulties which were to bring to him +the death of a frontier martyr. Although he had been educated for the +lawyer's profession, Henry Leavenworth raised a company of volunteers in +Delaware County, New York, in 1812, and was elected its captain. He +served under General Winfield Scott and won honors for distinguished +service at the Battle of Chippewa and at Niagara Falls. After the war he +continued in the army, being appointed lieutenant colonel of the Fifth +United States Infantry on February 10, 1818. After conducting the troops +up the Mississippi River in 1819 and remaining through the winter, he +was superseded by Colonel Snelling. + +Expeditions and Indian duties occupied his attention during the +next few years, and in May, 1827, he established "Cantonment +Leavenworth" on the west bank of the Missouri River. On February 8, +1832, the name was changed to Fort Leavenworth. During a campaign +against the Pawnee Indians, who were harassing the caravans of the Santa +Fé traders, Colonel Leavenworth was taken sick with fever and died on +July 21, 1834, in a hospital wagon at Cross Timbers in Indian Territory. +The body was wrapped in spices and sent by way of St. Louis, New +Orleans, and New York City, to Delhi, New York, where it remained until +in 1902 it was reinterred in the national cemetery at Fort Leavenworth. +A granite shaft some twelve feet high marks his resting-place.[147] + + +The monument to the man under whose direction the fort was built is the +modern military establishment named Fort Snelling. The erection of this +fort was the last achievement of a life which, though comparatively +brief, had already accomplished much. Josiah Snelling was born in +Boston, Massachusetts, in 1782. His first commission was as a first +lieutenant in the Fourth Infantry and bears the date of May 3, 1808. In +the Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811, he commanded one of the +companies that were attacked in their camp in the early morning. An +attempt was made by a company of dragoons to drive off the groups of +Indians whose fire was the heaviest, but the officer who was leading was +wounded and the attempt failed. "The Indians", reported General +Harrison, "were, however, immediately and gallantly dislodged from their +advantageous position by Captain Snelling, at the head of his +company."[148] During the War of 1812 he served with Hull's army about +Detroit, and when the fort was surrendered he was taken a prisoner and +brought to Canada. But he was exchanged and ordered to Plattsburg, and +later was sent to Fort Erie on the staff of General George Izard. At the +close of the war he was retained as lieutenant colonel of the Sixth +Infantry and was stationed at Plattsburg for four years.[149] + +Bravery and impetuosity were two of Colonel Snelling's traits. During +the campaign about Detroit he was married to Abigail Hunt by the +chaplain of General Hull's army. The general and other officers were +present. An account of the life of his wife states that "the ceremony +had been performed but a few moments when the drum beat to arms; and +Capt. Snelling instantly started up to go in search of his sword. All +rushed to the door except Gen. Hull, who laying his hand on the young +officer's shoulder as he was about leaving the house, said, 'Snelling, +you need not go, I will excuse you.' 'By no means,' was the reply, 'I +feel more like doing my duty now than ever.' 'Stay, it is a false alarm +by my order,' said the General."[150] The ignoble surrender of Detroit +by General Hull was deplored by many of the men under him. The story is +told that while General Hull's aid was trying to place the white flag in +position he called, "Snelling, come and help me fix this flag." +Whereupon that officer replied, "No, sir; I will not soil my hands with +that flag."[151] + +On June 1, 1819, he was appointed colonel of the Fifth Infantry, and +ordered to St. Louis, where the following winter was passed. In the +summer he started up the Mississippi, but was detained at Prairie du +Chien by a court-martial of which he was the president, and it was not +until August that he reached the troops at Camp Cold Water. From that +time until the fall of 1827 Colonel Snelling was in command of the post, +when not absent on official business. Except when he had been drinking +too much, he was a favorite with the troops, and as he had red hair and +was somewhat bald, they nicknamed him the "prairie-hen".[152] + +In the fall of 1827 the Fifth Infantry was withdrawn from the post and +was succeeded by the First Infantry. The Snelling family located at St. +Louis, while Colonel Snelling proceeded to Washington to settle some +accounts. While here he was suddenly taken sick and died on August 20, +1828.[153] + +The man whose name was applied to the post which has become so historic +was a typical soldier of his day. Along with the bravery and zeal of the +army, he possessed also its failings. "Of myself I have little to say", +he wrote on one occasion. "I entered the army a subaltern, almost +eighteen years ago. From obscurity I have passed through every grade to +the command of a regiment. I owe nothing to executive patronage, for I +have neither friend or relation connected with the government: I +have obtained my rank in the ordinary course of promotion, and have +retained it by doing my duty; and I really flatter myself that I still +possess the confidence of the government, and the respect of those who +serve with and under me."[154] + + +Daniel Webster, speaking in the Senate on July 9, 1850, remarked that it +was not in Indian wars that heroes were celebrated, but it was there +that they were formed.[155] The occasion of this speech was the death of +the President, Zachary Taylor, who had served for many years upon the +Indian frontier. As lieutenant colonel of the First Infantry, he came to +Fort Snelling during the summer of 1828 and remained there for a year, +when he established his headquarters at Fort Crawford. His achievements +on the frontier and in the Mexican War, which finally brought him to the +presidency are a familiar story, and the training which he received in +Old Fort Snelling was only a part of that which gave him the name of +"Rough and Ready". It is a remarkable fact that at Fort Snelling he was +remembered less for his own actions than for those of his four pretty +daughters whose presence spread commotion in the hearts of the homesick +young officers.[156] + + +In 1837 the First Infantry was withdrawn and part of the Fifth Infantry +returned to its former station. Among the familiar faces seen about the +garrison again was that of a man whose eccentricities and +personality are closely associated with the life of the fort.[157] In +reporting the casualties of the battle of Molino del Rey, September 8, +1847, the general commanding the American forces applied an adjective to +only one of the dead. The report reads, "the service mourns the +high-souled Scott, brevet lieutenant colonel 5th infantry".[158] This +was Martin Scott, one of the most human, most lovable, and most +energetic men who ever reviewed troops on the parade ground of Old Fort +Snelling. Only from July 15, 1837, until August 20, 1837, was he in +command, but for many years he was a familiar figure around the barracks +and in the surrounding country. + +Hunting was his favorite pastime, and many a time the prairie rang with +the yelping of the twenty or twenty-five dogs which he kept under the +care of a special negro servant at the fort. His deadly aim was known to +all. An army officer who insulted him was severely wounded in a duel; he +often played the part of William Tell by shooting with his pistol +through an apple placed upon the head of his negro; and if credence is +to be given to the stories which are told, even the animals were aware +that from him there was no escape. A coon sitting high on a tree was +shot at by several hunters in succession, but still remained in its +position. Captain Scott came along and took aim, whereupon the coon +asked, "Who is that?" The reply was, "My name is Scott." "Scott? what +Scott?" continued the coon. "Captain Martin Scott." "Are you Captain +Martin Scott?" There was a pause before the voice in the tree-top +continued, "Then hold on--don't shoot; I may as well come down."[159] + +Martin Scott was born in Bennington, Vermont, on January 17, 1788. His +family was extremely poor, but because of his freedom from army +vices--gambling and drinking--he was able in later years to do them many +favors. His kindness was equalled only by his bravery. For gallant +conduct during the Mexican War he received several promotions, and held +a commission as lieutenant colonel when he met death leading his +regiment in the battle of Molino del Rey.[160] + +A newspaper correspondent who went over the field of battle, saw a +gray-headed soldier spreading the blanket over the corpse of a fallen +comrade. "I rode up to him", wrote the reporter to his newspaper, "and +asked him whether that was an officer. He looked up, and every lineament +of his face betokening the greatest grief, replied, 'you never asked a +question sir, more easily answered, it is an officer.' I then asked him +who he was. He again replied, 'The best soldier of the 5th infantry, +sir.' I then alighted from my horse and uncovering the face, found it +was Col. Martin Scott. As I again covered the face, the soldier +continued, without apparently addressing himself to any person in +particular--'They have killed him--they will be paid for this--if it had +only been me--I have served with him almost four enlistments but what +will his poor family say?' And as he concluded thus the tears coursed +down his furrowed cheeks, and the swelling of his bosom showed +how deeply he was affected by the death of his veteran and gallant +commander."[161] + +When the Fifth Infantry was transferred in 1840 there was a second +home-coming at Fort Snelling in that it was succeeded by parts of the +First Infantry which remained until the year 1848. Captain Seth Eastman +was in command at four different times during this period, and it was +through his eyes that we can see Old Fort Snelling as it was.[162] After +his graduation from the Military Academy he was an assistant teacher of +drawing at West Point. Following this he served in the Florida War and +on the frontier until 1850, when he was called to Washington to +illustrate the _History, Condition, and Future Prospects of the Indian +Tribes of the United States_. Active service on the frontier and in the +Civil War followed, and in 1866 he was breveted a brigadier +general.[163] + +Mary Henderson Eastman, his wife, also commands attention. The intimate +association of the fort with the surrounding Indians brought to her +knowledge many incidents connected with their life which she embodied in +a volume published in 1849 and entitled: _Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends +of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_. In this volume Longfellow read of +the Falls of Minnehaha, which he describes so picturesquely in +_Hiawatha_.[164] Other literary work was done by Mrs. Eastman, one of +her volumes being _Aunt Phyllis's Cabin_, a reply to Mrs. Stowe's _Uncle +Tom's Cabin_.[165] + +Parts of the Sixth Infantry were garrisoned in Fort Snelling from 1848 +to 1852, and beginning in 1850 there was also a company of the First +Dragoons who engaged in many of the expeditions narrated in the +preceding chapter. Among the officers who commanded during this period +was Lieutenant William T. Magruder, who was killed on July 3, 1863, at +the Battle of Gettysburg while serving in the ranks of the Confederate +army.[166] One company of the Third Artillery was located at the post +from 1853 to 1856. At the head of this company was Captain W. T. Sherman +who, after serving in the Indian wars and the Mexican War, rose to +prominence in the Civil War during which he was brevetted a major +general. After the Civil War he was appointed commander of the +Department of the East.[167] + +Among the last troops which occupied Fort Snelling before it was +abandoned in 1858 was a part of the Tenth Infantry. Major E. R. S. Canby +of this regiment was in command of the fort during the summer and autumn +of 1856. His was a wonderful record of achievement upon the frontier and +in the Civil War, and like Colonel Leavenworth he met his death in +service. Born in Kentucky the year that Fort Snelling was founded, he +moved to Indiana as a boy. He was appointed to the Military Academy at +West Point in 1835 and graduated in 1839. For the next three years he +was engaged as a second lieutenant in the Second Infantry in the Florida +War, and upon the successful termination of the campaigns he was +employed in removing the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Creeks to +Indian Territory. After a few years in garrison duty and the recruiting +service he participated in the Mexican War, being promoted "for gallant +and meritorious service" at Contreras, Cherubusco, and the Belen Gate of +the City of Mexico. On March 3, 1855, a promotion made him major in the +Tenth Infantry; and it was while holding this position that he served at +Fort Snelling. + +In 1858 Major Canby was transferred to Fort Bridger, Utah, where he +commanded an expedition against the Navajo Indians. While stationed at +Fort Defiance, New Mexico, during the early years of the Civil War, he +repelled the Confederate general, Sibley, who left one-half of his force +behind him in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On March 31, 1862, he was +made a brigadier general of volunteers and summoned to Washington to +assist Secretary of War Stanton. While here General Canby was called +upon to take charge of a difficult position. Draft riots in New York +City from July 13th to July 16th resulted in the killing and wounding of +about a thousand people and the destruction of about one and a half +million dollars worth of property.[168] On July 17th General Canby was +put in charge of the Federal troops in the city, and he was later able +to enforce the provisions of the draft without difficulties.[169] +Following this came an appointment as commander of the military division +of West Mississippi, where he was wounded by Confederate guerrillas. + +At the close of the war, Edward Canby, then a major general of +volunteers was sent to the far West as commander of the Department of +the Columbia. Here the United States was engaged in a war with the Modoc +Indians led by their chief "Captain Jack". On April 11, 1873, General +Canby held a peace parley with the Indians. It had been agreed that both +parties should be unarmed, but in the middle of the negotiations +"Captain Jack" suddenly drew a revolver from his breast, and shot Canby +through the head killing him instantly.[170] + + +Other officers at the post who had real power were the garrison +physicians. One of these, Dr. John Emerson was a giant in body and +impulsive in spirit. On a certain day in early winter when the +quartermaster was distributing stoves to the officers, Dr. Emerson asked +for one for his negro servant. This the quartermaster refused, saying +that there were not enough in store; whereupon the doctor insinuated +that the statement was a lie. Upon being insulted thus the quartermaster +struck his companion between the eyes. Emerson turned on his heels +immediately, but he returned in a few minutes with a brace of pistols +which he pointed at his assailant. The fighting spirit of the +quartermaster fell at the appearance of these weapons, and he started +across the parade ground on a run followed by the doctor. A third +character appeared in the person of Major Plympton, the commanding +officer, who arrested Dr. Emerson. This episode gave rise to a great +commotion in the garrison. One group who wanted some excitement +urged that only in blood could the quarrel be settled; while the other +group sought for peace, knowing that there was no other physician nearer +than Prairie du Chien. Not for several days was the quarrel patched up, +and then the terms were never made public.[171] + +The cause of all this trouble was Dred Scott, man of color, and the +slave of Dr. Emerson. He had been brought to Fort Snelling by his master +in 1836, and here he was married to Harriet, also colored, who had been +sold by Major Taliaferro to the doctor. When Dr. Emerson was transferred +to Missouri, he took Dred Scott with him. After the death of his master, +Scott began proceedings in the courts for his freedom on the ground that +his residence at the military post made him free--Fort Snelling being +located on soil where slavery was prohibited by the Missouri Compromise +of 1820. Mrs. Emerson, who wanted to avoid an appearance in the courts, +made over the control of Scott to John F. A. Sanford, and the case was +finally brought to the Supreme Court of the United States. Thus Old Fort +Snelling was connected with the case of _Scott vs. Sanford_, which was +so important among the events leading up to the Civil War.[172] + + +Were battles and military operations alone considered, the annals of +Fort Snelling would comprise few pages; and were only military men +characterized one of the most potent factors in the life of the fort +would be omitted. The influence of the fort on the Indians was +felt more through the quiet daily work of the Indian agent who was their +official friend. Although he was an officer entirely distinct from the +military organization at the fort, his work may legitimately be +accredited among the other activities of the post. He was, in fact, an +army official. The act of August 7, 1789, which organized the War +Department, placed Indian affairs in the hands of the Secretary;[173] on +July 9, 1832, a commissioner of Indian affairs was authorized;[174] and +on June 30, 1834, the relations of the Indian agents to the military +department were more clearly defined. The Superintendent of Indian +Affairs, the Indian agents, and the sub-agents were given the right to +call upon the military forces to remove all trespassers in the Indian +country, to procure the arrest and trial of all Indians accused of +committing any crime, and to break up any distillery set up in the +Indian country.[175] + +By the act of March 3, 1849, the Department of the Interior was +organized. Section Five of the act stipulated that "the Secretary of the +Interior shall exercise the supervisory and appellate powers now +exercised by the Secretary of the War Department, in relation to all the +acts of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs".[176] On the whole this law +did not disturb the coöperation between the two branches of the +government service, although the commander at Fort Snelling intimated to +the agent that his privileges were "not of right but by courtesy".[177] + +One name more than any other is associated with the agency at Fort +Snelling--usually called the agency of St. Peter's. From 1820 to +1840 regiments came and went, and the officers who ruled as "Lords of +the North" were soon transferred to other posts. The military +establishment was itself known by several different names in succession, +but the Indian agent remained the same--Lawrence Taliaferro. His was a +lasting influence--lasting because of the position he held in the +memories of his wards and his associates, and lasting because of the +records that he left. + +To the Indians he was a real "Father". Americans, Scotch, Sioux, and +French could all find within his breast, they said, a kindred spirit, +and they bestowed upon him the name of "Four Hearts" because of the +impartiality of his actions to all nationalities.[178] In June, 1858, a +number of Sioux chiefs were in Washington and came to see him. "My old +Father," said Little Crow, "we have called upon you; we love you; we +respect you.... Since you left us a dark cloud has hung over our nation. +We have lost confidence in the promises of our Great Father, and his +people; bad men have nearly destroyed us.... We failed to get a friend +in anyone like you; they all joined the traders. We know your heart, it +feels for your old children."[179] + +Those who were associated with him at the fort also had kind words for +him. "He belonged to a class more common then than now", remarked the +son of Colonel Bliss. "He imagined it to be his imperative duty to see +that every Indian under his charge had the enjoyment of all his rights, +and never seemed to realize his opportunities for arranging with +contractors for the supply of inferior goods and for dividing the +profits."[180] Of this honesty Taliaferro wrote: "I have the Sad +Consolation of leaving after twenty Seven years--the public Service as +poor as when first I entered--The only evidence of my integrity".[181] + +No one can write of Fort Snelling without using the papers which +Lawrence Taliaferro left. The diary kept by him during these twenty +years shows the meager pleasures and grim duties of his task. Of this +diary only a few fragmentary pages are extant--three roughly bound +collections of sheets, many of them torn, many of them half-burned, and +their writing faded. But from almost every page that is legible some +information is gleaned, concerning the life of the soldiers, the visits +of the Indians, the state of the weather, and reflections on Indian +relations and the best time for planting potatoes.[182] His wide +acquaintance and the great extent of territory which his agency covered +led to correspondence with many men. These letters also passed through a +fire, and those that were rescued are now bound in four volumes.[183] + +His reports to General William Clark, Superintendent of Indian Affairs +at St. Louis, were forwarded to Washington where they are now kept in +the files of the Indian office.[184] With methodical care Governor Clark +copied the letters which he received into letter books. The existence of +these letter books was not known until a few years ago, when some +of them were found in the hands of a junk dealer in Lawrence, Kansas, +and were rescued--a great gain to the history of the West.[185] + +Many years after he closed his connection with the agency Lawrence +Taliaferro wrote an "Autobiography"--a narrative that shows all the +quaintness and egotism of the man. "Not until after the year 1840", he +wrote "did the government become unfortunate in the selection of their +agents for Indian affairs."[186] From this account can be gleaned +information to supplement the bare facts usually given about his life. +His ancestors had come to England from Genoa, Italy, and later they +emigrated to Virginia. Here Lawrence Taliaferro was born on February 28, +1794. At the age of eighteen he joined the army and served through the +War of 1812, being a first lieutenant when it closed. Although he +received no other promotion he was always known among his associates as +"Major".[187] + +He was appointed Indian agent for St. Peter's on March 27, 1819, and on +April 1, 1819, he accepted--resigning the same day from the army.[188] +He reached his new station probably in the summer of 1820, and was +immediately engaged in the duties connected with Indian affairs.[189] +During his term of office he was continually troubled by ill-health +which resulted from his campaigns in the late war. In 1824 he resigned +because of this ill-health, and although he continued in service, +Governor Clark at one time wrote to the Secretary of War that "his fate +is considered as very doubtful."[190] + +As early as 1831 he confided to his diary that "there is something of a +Combination of Persons at work day after day to pick at my Actions both +public and private".[191] His resignation finally came in 1839, and he +closed his connection with the Department on January 1, 1840, because he +could no longer endure the machinations of the traders.[192] Thereafter +he made his home at Bedford, Pennsylvania, serving as a military +storekeeper from 1857 to 1863, when he was put on the retired list. Mr. +Taliaferro visited his old home at Fort Snelling in 1856 and wrote +characteristically: "We were in St. Paul on the twenty-fourth of June, +the 'widow's son' was Irving's Rip Van Winkle; after a nap of fifteen +years, we awoke in the midst of _fast_ times. We truly felt bewildered +when we found all the haunts and resting-places of the once noble sons +of the forest, covered by cities, towns, and hamlets. We asked but few +questions, being to our mind received as a strange animal; if nothing +worse."[193] + + +Among the others who served before 1858 as Indian agent were Amos J. +Bruce, R. G. Murphy, and Nathaniel McLean. The influx of whites had +greatly increased the difficulties of their position, and the memory of +their former agent made the Indians suspicious of their new advisers. +The Governor of the Territory became the Superintendent of Indian +Affairs, and his presence so near the agency took from the agent much of +his power.[194] + +Scott Campbell, the interpreter at Fort Snelling, was the +intermediary between the Indians and their lords. He was a half-breed +whom Meriwether Lewis had met on his expedition up the Missouri River. +He took the boy with him back to St. Louis; and when Lewis died, +Campbell returned to his Sioux relatives and finally drifted to the +agency at Fort Snelling.[195] Having a knowledge of four languages, and +possessing the confidence of all the tribes within four hundred miles of +the post, he was indispensable. From August, 1825, to April, 1826, he +was engaged in the fur trade, but was lured back into service by a +salary of thirty-four dollars per month and one ration per day. By 1843, +however, he had become such a drunkard that he had to be dismissed.[196] + +The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, in recalling early days wrote that +"Scott Campbell no longer sits smoking his long pipe, and conversing in +low tones with the listless loungers around the old Agency House; but +who that resided in this country thirty or forty years ago can pass by +the old stone houses near Fort Snelling and not think of Major +Taliaferro and of his interpreter?"[197] + +And who can pass the Old Round Tower without thinking of those men who +as officers at Fort Snelling ruled supreme over a vast region, and who +left the fort for places of greater trust and greater influence? + + + + +V + +A SOLDIER'S WORLD + + +Instead of a world of city streets and country towns, of tilled fields +and rivers busy with commerce, the raw recruit at Old Fort Snelling +entered upon a world of stone barracks and Indian tepees, of tangled +prairies and rushing rivers.[198] The landing was directly under the +cliff which towered above to a height which to many a wanderer in a +frail canoe seemed twice the one hundred and six feet which the +scientist's instruments ascribed to it.[199] In later years a stairway +led to the quarters of the commanding officer, but the wagon road which +crept upwards along the sandstone wall--"nearly as white as +loaf-sugar"[200]--where the swallows flew in and out from their holes, +gained the summit at the rear of the fort. + +Following the road through the gate, and passing between the buildings +to the center of the parade ground, the recruit probably paused to look +about him.[201] Visible in the openings between the buildings was the +stone wall about ten feet high which surrounded the barracks, quarters, +and storehouses. This wall took the place of the picket-stockade which +was so prominent a feature in earlier and ruder fortifications. +Conforming to the arrangement of the buildings which it enclosed, the +wall was diamond-shaped, one point being at the edge of the +promontory where the valley of the Minnesota River met that of the +Mississippi River. A second point was on the edge of the steep bluff +which rose from the Mississippi. A third point, at a distance of about +four hundred and fifty feet directly opposite the second, was on the +summit of the Minnesota bluff. The fourth point was situated on the +level ground of the plateau, at a distance of about seven hundred feet +from the first point. + +As he stood in the middle of the parade ground and gazed beyond the pump +and the magazine at the western or fourth point, the recruit saw rising +to a height twice that of the wall, the Old Round Tower. To-day this +tower is a vine-clad relic--a vestige remaining from the days of the +past. But to the soldier of Old Fort Snelling it was a more practical +structure--a place of lookout from which he was often to scan the swells +of the prairie for approaching Indians or returning comrades. At the +second and third points were blockhouses--buildings of stone, each +giving a view of the river below it. At the first point there was also a +tower--a wooden lookout platform at the very edge of the precipice from +which was visible the landscape surrounding the fort. + +But the soldier was doubtless more interested in the buildings in which +he was to live. The barracks for the men were under the north wall and +consisted of two buildings one story in height. The larger of these, +which was intended to accommodate two companies was divided +into sets, each set having on the main floor an orderly-room and three +squad-rooms, while below in the basement were a mess-room and a kitchen. +The other barrack was intended to be occupied by one company only; and +the orderly-room, squad-rooms, mess-rooms, and a kitchen were on the +same floor. The cellars below were damp and were used only for storage +purposes. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF OLD FORT SNELLING + +From a survey by Captain Arthur Williams, reproduced in the _Collections +of the Minnesota Historical Society_, Vol. VIII, opposite p. 430] + +Occupying the same position under the south wall, and facing the +barracks, were two other buildings, similar in appearance. In one of +these the officers' quarters were located. It was divided into twelve +sets, each consisting of two rooms, the front one sixteen by fourteen +feet, and the back one, eight by fifteen and a half feet. In the +basement were located kitchens for each set. The other building +contained the offices of the commanding officer, the paymaster, the +quartermaster, and the commissary. Here was a room used by the post +school, and another filled with harness. An ordnance sergeant and five +laundresses found quarters in the same structure. + +The quarters of the commanding officer with the flag staff directly in +front, faced the parade ground and the Old Round Tower. There were four +rooms on the main floor and in the basement were kitchens and pantries. +Other buildings were also included within the fort. The storehouse of +the commissary department was located near the southern blockhouse; and +on either side of the gate were two buildings, shunned by all--the +guardhouse and the hospital. + +Such was the plan of the fort, convenient in arrangement and beautiful +in appearance; but the report of an official inspection in 1827 +complained that "the main points of _defence against an enemy_ appear to +have been in some respects sacrificed in the effort to secure the +comfort and convenience of the troops in peace. These are important +considerations; but at an exposed frontier post the primary object must +be _security against the attack of an enemy_. Health and comfort come +next. The buildings are too large, too numerous, and extending over a +space entirely too great; enclosing a uselessly large parade, five times +greater than is at all desirable in that climate."[202] + +A traveller who at a later day was entertained within the fort wrote of +it facetiously in these words: "The idea is further suggested, that the +strong stone wall was rather erected to keep the garrison in, than the +enemy out. Though adapted for mounting cannon if needful, the walls were +unprovided with those weapons; and the only piece of ordnance that I +detected out of the magazine, was an old churn thrust gallantly through +one of the embrasures. We were however far from complaining of the extra +expense and taste which the worthy officer whose name it bears had +expended on the erection of Fort Snelling, as it is in every way an +addition to the sublime landscape in which it is situated."[203] + +But an examination of the contents of the magazine would have revealed +weapons more formidable than churns. Among the equipment reported in + 1834 one reads of two iron twelve-pounder cannon of the garrison +type; three six-pounder iron cannon of the field type; and two five and +eight-tenths inch iron howitzers. There was also equipment for these +pieces of artillery--carriages, sponges and rammers, lead aprons, dark +lanterns, gunners' belts, gunners' haversacks, and tarpaulins. There +were stored ready for service, 440 balls for the twelve-pounders, 1255 +balls for the six-pounders, 546 pounds of mixed loose grapeshot, and +many other sizes of strapped and canister shot. For the use of the +infantry there were 7749 musket flints, 1825 pounds of musket powder, +1513 pounds of rifle powder, 31,390 cartridges, and 2047 blank +cartridges.[204] + +Other structures closely connected with the work of the fort were +located outside the wall. The buildings of the Indian agency were +situated a quarter of a mile west, on the prairie.[205] These consisted +of a council house, the agent's house, and an armorer's shop. The +original council house was built by the troops in 1823, but Agent +Taliaferro claimed that most of the inside work was done at his own +expense. The building was of logs and stone, eighty-two feet long, +eighteen feet wide, and presenting in the front a piazza of seventy +feet. Within, there were six rooms, lined with pine planking and +separated from each other by panel doors.[206] + +At one o'clock on the morning of August 14, 1830, the sentinels at the +fort discovered that the council house was on fire. But the flames had +gained so much headway that it was impossible to save any of the +contents. The interpreter and his family who lived in this building +barely escaped with their lives. In reporting the loss to the +superintendent, Major Taliaferro wrote that "the general impression here +is that fire was put to the house by Some drunken Indians & +circumstances are strong in justifying such a conclusion."[207] This +surmise was right, for on April 7, 1831, the Indians delivered at the +fort one of their number who they claimed was guilty of the act.[208] + +That steps were taken to build a new council house is evident from the +record in Taliaferro's diary under date of March 8, 1831, that four men +had been hired "at $12 per Month to cut & carry timber out of the pine +Swamp for the Agency Council House."[209] But in 1839 Taliaferro +recommended that the agency be moved to a point seven miles up the +river; and in 1841 there was a movement on foot to buy Baker's stone +trading house for the same purpose.[210] + +Near the location of the old council house were two other buildings. One +of these was the agent's house. This was made entirely of stone, and was +one and a half stories high. It contained four rooms and a passage on +the lower floor and two rooms above.[211] Hastily built by troops at an +early day, its comforts were few. "Since the Rainy Season Set in", +complained the agent in 1834, "both the hired Men and Myself have not +had a Spot in our houses that Could be called dry, Not even our +beds".[212] An armorer's shop, where blacksmith work was done for the +Indians, was made of logs and measured sixteen by eighteen feet. +Nearer the fort was the home of Franklin Steele, the sutler of the +post.[213] + +At Camp Cold Water, B. F. Baker had erected a large stone trading house, +which in 1841 was valued at six thousand dollars. While he had no legal +title to the land on which this house was built, the officers at the +post allowed him to remain. Later it was sold to Kenneth McKenzie, who +in 1853 built an addition, renovated the entire building, and used it as +a hotel. In the vicinity of this structure were several small huts which +had been the homes of some squatters on the reservation. But after their +expulsion these huts rapidly fell into decay.[214] + +In his duties and recreations the soldier was often brought into touch +with other features of the world about him--the points of scenic +interest and the Indian villages. From the wooden lookout tower near the +commanding officer's quarters a glimpse of the surrounding land was +revealed. + +"The view from the angle of the wall at the extreme point, is highly +romantic", wrote one who saw the wild scene before civilization had left +its traces on the landscape. "To your left lies the broad deep valley of +the Mississippi, with the opposite heights, descending precipitously to +the water's edge; and to the right and in front, the St. Peter's, a +broad stream, worthy from its size, length of course, and the number of +tributaries which it receives, to be called the Western Fork of the +Great River itself. It is seen flowing through a comparatively open +vale, with swelling hills and intermingling forest and prairie, +for many miles above the point of junction. As it approaches the +Mississippi, the volume of water divides into two branches; that on the +right pursues the general course of the river above, and enters the +Mississippi, at an angle of perhaps fifty degrees, directly under the +walls of the fort; while the other, keeping to the base of the high +prairie lands which rise above it to a notable summit called the Pilot +Knob, enters the Mississippi lower down. The triangular island thus +formed between the rivers lies immediately under the fort. Its level +surface is partially cultivated, but towards the lower extremity thickly +covered with wood. Beyond their junction, the united streams are seen +gliding at the base of high cliffs into the narrowing valley below. +Forests, and those of the most picturesque character, interspersed with +strips of prairie, clothe a great portion of the distant view. + +"A little cluster of trading houses is situated on the right branch of +the St. Peter's, and here and there on the shores, and on the island, +you saw the dark conical tents of the wandering Sioux. A more striking +scene we had not met with in the United States, and hardly any that +could vie with it for picturesque beauty, even at this unfavourable +season. What must it be in spring, when the forests put forth their +young leaves, and the prairies are clothed in verdure!"[215] + +This "little cluster of trading houses" was the town of Mendota. Here +was the stone house of Henry H. Sibley, and that of J. B. Faribault. +Near the river was the ferry house and the home of Mr. Finley the +ferryman.[216] Upon the hillside lay the little Catholic chapel, +surrounded by the graves in the cemetery. But the center of interest was +in the warehouse and store of the American Fur Company, where the skins +of buffalo, elk, deer, fox, beaver, otter, muskrat, mink, martin, +raccoon, and other animals were sorted and divided into packs weighing +about a hundred pounds. Indians, Frenchmen, half-breeds, and restless +wanderers from the East were always loitering about the +establishment.[217] + +From the fort a road led along the Mississippi to the Falls of St. +Anthony, on the way crossing Minnehaha Creek on the bridge built in +early days by the soldiers. Here a stop was made to view the beauty of +the cascade then known as Little Falls or Brown's Falls. It was the +common practice for travellers to descend to the foot of the falls, +clinging to the shrubs along the slippery pathway, and then go behind +the sheet of falling water.[218] Continuing, at a distance of eight +miles up the Mississippi from the fort, the Falls of St. Anthony was +reached. Although only sixteen feet high, the breadth of almost six +hundred yards, broken in the middle by a rocky island gave to it an +impressive majesty, and the thick vegetation on the island and banks +returned a gloomy reflection from the whirling waters.[219] + +It is no wonder that in that wild and picturesque locality the Indians +saw things ghostly and supernatural. "They tell you that here a young +Dacota mother, goaded by jealousy,--the husband [sic] of her +children having taken another wife,--unmoored her canoe above the Great +Fall, and seating herself and her children in it,--sang her death song, +and went over the foaming acclivity in the face and amid the shrieks of +her tribe. And often, the Indian believes, when the nights are calm, and +the sky serene,--and the dew-drops are hanging motionless on the sprays +of the weeping birch on the island,--and the country far and wide is +vibrating to the murmur of the cataract,--that then the misty form of +the young mother may be seen moving down the deceitful current above, +while her song is heard mingling its sad notes with the lulling sound of +'the Laughing Water!'"[220] + +Here at the Falls, on the west bank of the river, were three buildings: +a saw mill, a grist mill, and a one-story frame dwelling, where a +detachment of soldiers always remained to guard the property. The saw +mill had provided much of the lumber used in the construction of the +fort, and in the grist mill the corn was cracked that was fed during the +winter to the cattle--a drove being delivered every fall for the use of +the garrison. These buildings were still standing in 1858, although they +were then in a bad state of decay.[221] + +Among the lakes on the prairie the most important were the Lake of the +Isles, Lake Calhoun, and Lake Harriet. These were favorite picnic and +hunting grounds for the men and women of the garrison. An old map made +in 1823 shows "Green's Villa" on Lake Calhoun--probably a hunting lodge +or shelter built by Lieutenant Platt Rogers Green.[222] Here on +Lake Calhoun was located the missionary establishment which was so +closely connected with the life of the fort.[223] + +There were other Indian villages near the fort. Nine miles below, on the +bank of the Mississippi was the Sioux village of Kaposia. Here +Wakinyantanka, or Big Thunder, reigned over his band which numbered one +hundred and eighty-three in 1834. Two or three miles upstream from its +mouth on the banks of the Minnesota was the group of wigwams called +Black Dog's village, although the chief was Wamditanka or Big Eagle. +About nine miles from Fort Snelling was Pinisha, reported as having one +hundred and forty-eight inhabitants ruled over by Good Road. The largest +group, three hundred and sixty-eight souls, was that of the Tintatonwan +band, located twenty-four miles from Fort Snelling and near the present +town of Shakopee. Shapaydan or Shakpay was the chief, the father of the +warrior of the same name who was executed at Fort Snelling for +participating in the Sioux massacre of 1862.[224] + +These villages were very much the same in appearance, large bark lodges +being occupied by the Indians in the summer. The villages swarmed with +children, squaws, painted warriors, and yelping dogs. About the lodges +were the corn fields, the scaffolds where the corn was dried, and the +more mournful scaffolds where, wrapped in buffalo skins, reposed the +bones of the hunters who had followed the milky way to the "Land of the +Ghosts".[225] + + + + +VI + +GLIMPSES OF GARRISON LIFE + + +What sort of a life did the soldier live in the barracks and on the +parade ground, and in the world of prairies, rivers, and woods that lay +about him? No person who was ever quartered within the walls of Old Fort +Snelling seems to have left an account of what was included in the tasks +and recreations of a day. Doubtless the routine duties repeated day +after day were thought too ordinary to be worth recording. The pleasures +were so simple and came so much as a matter of course that they also +receive scant mention in the annals of the fort. It is from the _General +Regulations for the Army_ that one gets the daily program of a military +post; and the few fragmentary pages of Taliaferro's diary and letters, +together with the stray remarks of travellers and pioneers, indicate the +joys and sorrows of a very human garrison.[226] + +No sooner was dawn visible over the Mississippi bluffs than the +musicians of the post were summoned to the parade ground and five +minutes later the _reveille_ was sounded. At the signal both officers +and men arose. Soon the rolls of the companies were called in front of +the quarters; the quarters were put in order; the ground in front swept; +and the horses fed and watered. At eight-thirty the sick in the +barracks were taken to the hospital, and at nine o'clock breakfast was +served, preceded by a second roll-call. Then the various tasks of the +day were performed under the direction of a captain or subaltern daily +detailed as the "officer of the day". + +A party termed the "General Fatigue" swept the entire parade +ground--unless there were enough prisoners in the guard house to perform +this unpleasant duty. A police guard furnished sentinels to watch over +the prisoners, the colors, the quarters of the commanding officer, and +the arms of the regiment. Other soldiers were posted at the front and +the rear of the fort. Certain detachments were formed for reconnoitering +and foraging--the nature of the tasks depending on the season of the +year and the needs of the garrison. + +At three o'clock in the afternoon the third roll-call was followed by +dinner; and thirty minutes before sunset the music called out the +regiment for dress parade, where various maneuvers were gone through and +orders were read. After the parade, when the regiment was again in its +quarters, the arms were placed in the arm-racks, the horses attended to, +a fifth roll-call endured, and tattoo sounded. Then the lights were +extinguished and all were expected to be quiet for the night. + +This monotony of the daily program was equalled only by the monotony of +the meals. The regulation diet prescribed by Congress in 1802 consisted +of a pound and a quarter of beef, or three-quarters of a pound of +pork; eighteen ounces of bread or flour; one gill of rum, whiskey, or +brandy; and for every hundred rations were supplied two quarts of salt, +four quarts of vinegar, four pounds of soap, and one pound and a half of +candles. In 1832 coffee and sugar were substituted for the liquor.[227] + +During the early years of Fort Snelling these supplies were brought from +St. Louis in flatboats. With the development of steamboat traffic, the +steamboat was utilized, but it did not entirely displace the earlier +method. Difficulties often hindered the transportation of supplies. The +summer of 1829 was extremely dry. The average monthly rainfall was less +than an inch, and steamboat navigation was impossible. Even keelboats +found difficulty in ascending the river; sixty days were spent by +Lieutenant Reynolds in bringing up a load of supplies. A sand bar at +Pine Bend was impassable, so half of the load was taken off and the rest +hurried up the river. When the crew arrived the garrison was upon its +last barrel of flour.[228] + +"Bread and soup", runs a clause in the _General Regulations for the +Army_, "are the great items of a soldier's diet, in every +situation".[229] The bread was made from the wheat grown by the +soldiers, and was ground in the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. For +some reason the crop of 1823 had become mouldy and the bread was black +and bitter. When forced to eat it, the troops almost mutinied, bringing +it out upon the parade ground and throwing it down.[230] Nor does it +seem likely that the soup was more appetizing when one reads the +following recipe which guided the company cooks: "To make soup, put into +the vessel at the rate of five pints of water to a pound of fresh meat; +apply a quick heat to make it boil promptly; skim off the foam, and then +moderate the fire; salt is then put in, according to the palate. Add the +vegetables of the season one or two hours, and sliced bread some +minutes, before the simmering is ended. When the broth is sensibly +reduced in quantity, that is, after five or six hours cooking, the +process will be complete."[231] + +Fortunately the soldier did not have to depend entirely on these +rations. Out of his modest cash income of six dollars per month he could +buy at the sutler's store small necessities and some luxuries. The +sutler was the authorized merchant of the post, and in order that his +monopoly might not lead him to demand unreasonable sums for his wares, +the prices were fixed by a "council of administration" composed of three +officers. For every officer and enlisted soldier serving at the post the +sutler paid into the "post fund", from ten to fifteen cents per month. +This sum was to be used for the relief of the widows or orphans of +soldiers, the maintenance of a post school and band, and the purchase of +books for a library.[232] + +The books of Franklin Steele, who was the sutler at Fort Snelling from +1838 to 1858, may still be examined; and from their dreary lists of +accounts, the human wants of a soldier at Old Fort Snelling are clearly +indicated.[233] On March 12, 1849, Private Brown bought a pound +of currants and a pound of raisins for fifty cents. Shoes, soap, and +currants totalled $1.50 on April 7th; and on March 20th, two pounds of +butter sold for thirty cents and a pound of cheese for forty-two cents. +Private Ryerson had more varied needs. On March 7th, 1849, he purchased +indigo; on March 16th, paper; on April 9th, alcohol and suspenders; five +days later, needles and sugar; and on April 23rd, apples, butter, and a +tin cup. The quiet waters in the neighboring lakes tempted Eli Pettijohn +on a spring day in 1855 to invest $2.50 in "Fishing Tackel". + +That the officers did not live upon the same fare as the soldiers is +indicated by the entries under the title "Officers Mess". On July 31, +1855, there was purchased ten cents worth of cloves, ten cents worth of +pepper, and ninety-five cents worth of cheese. Under the date of August +8th "Bread tickets" were purchased to the amount of one dollar; and on +August 30th, fifty cents worth of "Yeast Powd'r" was charged to their +account. + +Saint and sinner both patronized this store. The Reverend Ezekiel Gear, +who was the chaplain at the fort, evidently believed that cleanliness +was next to godliness, for on July 31, 1855, he paid thirty cents for a +scrub brush; on August 4th, he bought a broom for fifty cents; on August +30th, he purchased twenty-five cents worth of starch, and on October +19th, a large broom. Indulging in some luxuries, on August 2nd, 1855, he +bought five cents worth of candy. Probably this was a treat for those + two boys, his son and his grandson, whom a visitor two years +later found sleeping in the little cemetery at Morgan's Bluff near the +fort, their resting place marked by a rude slab with a Latin +inscription: "Lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in death not +divided."[234] + +None the less clearly is the character of Sergeant Mahoney portrayed in +these accounts. On July 31, 1855, it is recorded under his name: "1 +Flask $.75". On August 20th, the same officer paid seventy-five cents +for a bottle of cider. And the chaplain would have had an excellent +illustration for his next sermon on intemperance if he could have read, +as we can to-day, this melancholy note made in the sutler's book on +October 17th: "Sergeant Mahoney, Cash Loaned 20.00". + +There was need for sermons on intemperance. During the early years +whiskey was issued as a part of the soldier's ration, and this only +served to stimulate the desire for more. The class of men in the army +was not always of the highest, and there were enough civilians who were +willing to pander to their appetites. The following extract from +Taliaferro's diary for March 22, 1831, is undoubtedly characteristic of +many a forgotten episode: "Nothing of importance transpired this day. +Two drunken Soldiers in crossing the SPeters broke through the Ice & +were near being drowned. They were exceeding alarmed & made a hedious +Noise & yelling for Assistance--the men from the Fort relieved them +although late at night." Not always was assistance on hand in +such circumstances. A report was made in March, 1840, of a certain +officer who "disappeared on the evening of the 5th of March, supposed to +have been drowned by falling through the ice."[235] + +Drunkenness and absence from roll-call were among the infractions of +rules for which punishment was most often inflicted. The character and +severity of the punishment depended upon the mood of the commanding +officer. Colonel Snelling, who was usually a very gentle man, was +particularly severe in his treatment of offenders. "He would take them +to his room", wrote one who spent several years in the Snelling +household, "and compel them to strip, when he would flog them +unmercifully. I have heard them beg him to spare them, 'for God's +sake.'"[236] This punishment by flogging was often performed with a +"cat"--an instrument made of nine thongs about eighteen inches long, +knotted in every inch, and attached to a small stick. When the culprit +was stripped to the waist and tied to the flagstaff, the drummers took +turns in applying the "cat" to the bare back.[237] + +Other officers used less painful methods. Thus, Major Loomis was known +as "Old Ring", since his favorite punishment was to place a log of wood +upon the prisoner's shoulder and compel him to walk around and around in +a circle under the vigilant eye of a sentinel. To Major John Bliss, who +was in command at Fort Snelling from 1833 to 1836, the name "Black +Starvation" might well have been applied. The negro servant, Hannibal, +who clandestinely sold spruce beer to the soldiers was confined +in the Black Hole for forty-eight hours; and Private Kelly, who refused +to do his part in the fatigue party spent more than seventy-two hours in +the Black Hole before the pangs of starvation persuaded him to promise +Major Bliss to be good in the future.[238] On one occasion, which may be +taken as typical of usual conditions, out of a total garrison of three +hundred and twenty-nine, twenty-six were confined in prison. But at +another time the commanding officer could report: "No Convicts at this +Post".[239] + +The severity of the military rules and the monotony of the life led to +two undesirable consequences--mutinies and desertions. Of the former +there is apparently no description, and the brief entry in Taliaferro's +diary for February 3, 1831, leaves much to the imagination: "Mutiny of +Most of the Troops of the 1st Infantry, Stationed at Fort Snelling this +Morning".[240] What grievances led to the uprising on that wintry day, +and by what diplomacy or by what punishments it was put down, are +unrecorded. + +Concerning the extent of desertions there is specific information +regarding three years. Desertion was prevalent in the army at this time, +and in order to provide methods of combating it the Secretary of War +presented to Congress a great deal of information covering the years +from 1823 to 1825.[241] During these three years there were stationed at +Fort Snelling an aggregate of two hundred and fifty-one soldiers in +1823; three hundred and thirty-five in 1824; and two hundred and +forty-six in 1825.[242] Of these, six deserted in 1823, eight in 1824, +and twenty-nine in 1825. In this total of forty-three desertions, +fifteen left in their first year of service, seventeen in the second, +eighteen in the third, one in the fourth, and two in the fifth. +Interesting facts regarding the kind of men who lived at the old +frontier post can be gleaned from the data presented. Most of them were +between the ages of twenty-one and thirty. In occupation there were +laborers, farmers, painters, shoemakers, papermakers, wheelwrights, +jewellers, and brewers. Among these forty-three, twenty-six were born in +the United States, five in Ireland, two in Scotland, one in France, one +in Holland, and one in Canada. + +The soldier who sought freedom by stealthily climbing over the stone +wall of Fort Snelling and appropriating some canoe drawn up on the river +bank, left monotony and discipline behind him; but in doing so he faced +many dangers. There was no settlement nearer than Prairie du Chien--a +military establishment. Indians were not afraid to injure those whom +they knew to be deserters. A certain man by the name of Dixon who +deserted was captured by Indians who brought him back to Fort Snelling +and received a reward of twenty dollars. Dixon was court-martialed and +sentenced to receive fifty lashes from the "cat" and then to be drummed +out of the Fort.[243] Four soldiers who escaped were killed by the +Indians of Red Wing's band, and their bodies were left on the +shores of Lake Pepin, where they were later found half-eaten by the +birds.[244] + +Sickness and death reduced the number on duty at the post. From the +doctor the sick received professional aid. In 1826 when the force at +Fort Snelling amounted to three hundred and twenty-nine men there were +in the hospital one subaltern, one non-commissioned officer, one +musician, and fifteen privates. That Fort Snelling was at a healthful +location is indicated by the fact that during the same period at Fort +Atkinson, with a force of only one hundred more, there was a total of +one hundred and twenty-five sick persons.[245] + +The number of deaths was proportionately small. In the year ending on +September 30, 1823, there was only one death; the next year the toll was +the same; and in 1825 it amounted to five.[246] On the occasion of a +funeral six men, detailed from those of the same rank as the deceased, +carried the coffin to the little cemetery outside the fort. A salute was +fired over the grave and the band played solemn music, the drums being +covered with black crepe. The mounds in the cemetery, unmarked by any +stones, were soon obliterated; but if the departed soldier had been a +cheerful companion his barrack-songs were missed by his comrades, and +many friends, half-way across a continent, would mourn for one who was +lying in an unknown grave, "somewhere in the West".[247] + +On account of monotonous drills and tedious routine, any pretext to go +into the Indian country was hailed with delight. The bustle, +excitement, and troubles connected with the departure of these +expeditions are best described by Mrs. Seth Eastman, who as the wife of +the commanding officer had often waved farewell to the departing +company.[248] + +"Now for excitement, the charm of garrison life. Officers are of course +always ready to 'go where glory waits' them, but who ever heard of one +being ready to go when the order came? + +"Alas! for the young officer who has a wife to leave; it will be weeks +before he meets again her gentle smile! + +"Still more--alas for him who has no wife at all! for he has not a shirt +with buttons on it, and most of what he has are in the wash. He will +have to borrow of Selden; but here's the difficulty, Selden is going +too, and is worse off than himself. But no matter! What with pins and +twine and trusting to chance, they will get along. + +"Then the married men are inquiring for tin reflectors, for hard bread, +though healthy, is never tempting. India rubber cloaks are in +requisition too. + +"Those who are going, claim the doctor in case of accidents. Those who +stay, their wives at least, want him for fear of measles; while the +disciple of Esculapius, though he knows there will be better cooking if +he remain at home, is certain there will be food for fun if he go. It is +soon decided--the doctor goes. + +"Then the privates share in the pleasure of the day. How should a +soldier be employed but in active service? besides, what a capital +chance to desert! One, who is tired of calling 'All's well' through the +long night, with only the rocks and trees to hear him, hopes that it +will be his happy fate to find out there is danger near, and to give the +alarm. Another vows, that if trouble wont come, why he will bring it by +quarrelling with the first rascally Indian he meets. All is ready. +Rations are put up for the men;--hams, buffalo tongues, pies and cake +for the officers. The batallion marches out to the sound of the drum and +fife;--they are soon down the hill--they enter their boats; +handkerchiefs are waved from the fort, caps are raised and flourished +over the water--they are almost out of sight--they are gone." + +Apart from these trips abroad and the stated drills and terms of guard +duty the tasks which occupied the time of the soldiers depended upon the +season of the year. A general order of September 11, 1818, had commanded +the making of gardens at all the military posts.[249] In the fall of +1819 when the temporary cabins at New Hope Cantonment had been built, +the soldiers began ploughing for the crop of the next summer.[250] Major +Long, in 1823, found two hundred and ten acres under cultivation--one +hundred of wheat, sixty of maize, fifteen of oats, fourteen of potatoes, +and twenty acres in gardens.[251] All through the history of Old Fort +Snelling the soldiers were employed as farmers. A visitor in 1852 +observed that "its garrison is rather deficient in active +employment, and we noticed a number of the rank and file taking exercise +in a large corn and vegetable field attached to the Fort. It was +certainly not exactly soldierly employment, but it was more manly, to +our mind, than shooting and stabbing at $8 a month, and no question +asked."[252] + +For the horses and cattle kept at the fort a great deal of hay was +necessary for the winter months. This was obtained from the broad +prairies of the military reservation. A group of men called the "Hay +Party" were employed during the summer in cutting and stacking the long +grass. But one officer was of the opinion that this task caused +discontent--the enlisted man was no more than a common laborer and hence +he lost the pride of a soldier. + +The diverse tasks at which a soldier might be called to labor are +indicated by a summary of the employment of the troops in 1827. Seven +soldiers were acting as teamsters, five were performing carpenters' +duties, two were quarrying stone, two men and a sergeant composed the +party guarding the mills at the Falls of St. Anthony, and eight others +were "Procuring forage by order of Col. Snelling".[253] + +Summer brought its own pleasures as well as duties. At Lake Calhoun, +Lake Harriet, Lake of the Isles, and Minnehaha Falls, many were the +picnics held when visitors came to the garrison.[254] Swan, geese, and +ducks were numerous about the lakes and swamps, and with the famous +hunter H. H. Sibley as a guide, the game bags were soon filled. During + a period of three years, Mr. Sibley, alone, shot 1798 ducks--a +fact which indicates what success a soldier-sportsman could have in his +few hours of recreation.[255] + +But it was when the prairies were impassable because of drifts of snow +from six to fifteen feet high,[256] and when the course of the river +could be traced only by a streak of white between the gray of its wooded +banks that there appeared those features which are peculiar to the life +of a remote garrison. The isolation was almost complete. There was no +traffic upon the frozen river, and the traders were wintering in the +Indian villages. Only through the mail was communication with the +outside world possible. It was planned to have a monthly mail service, +soldiers being sent to Prairie du Chien with the letters. Here they +delivered about two-thirds of the mail to the persons to whom it was +addressed and the rest was deposited in the post office.[257] + +In summer the mail was carried by the soldiers in canoes, but in winter +the journey had to be made on foot. In summer the labor was lightened +when a passing steamer overtook the rowing soldiers and picked up the +canoe with its crew. In winter no such aid was possible. A hard day's +tramp was followed by a night among the drifts, unless the tepee of some +friendly Indian gave a temporary respite for a few hours.[258] + +Nor was this task free from perils. A system was arranged whereby a +courier from Fort Snelling and one from Prairie du Chien set out at +about the same time, meeting at Wabasha's village where the packs +were exchanged and each returned to his own post. On one occasion a +spring thaw overtook the carrier from Prairie du Chien, who had +proceeded beyond the meeting place because the messenger from the north +was late. Suddenly the ice groaned and cracked, and the postman with +difficulty found safety on a small island where, to his great surprise, +he found the postman from Fort Snelling who had been caught in the same +manner. Their provisions soon gave out; for a while they had only +rose-apples to eat. It was not until almost two weeks later that the two +half-starved messengers were picked up by the canoes of some friendly +Sioux.[259] + +Such accidents rendered the mail service uncertain, and it was with +impatience that the watchers at the fort looked down the river for the +coming of the news-carriers. On April 2, 1831, Taliaferro wrote: "The +Express departed--4 men in a Skiff--to convey the Mail to the Post +Office at Prairie du Chiens--our return Express daily expected." But +they hoped too early and on April 5th it was recorded that "Our +Express--1st which left for Prairie du Chiens on the 2d of March--has +now been Absent more than a Month & progressing in the Seccond. We have +not had inteligence from Washington City--since the 6th of December +last". Not until April 10th did the mail arrive. But even when the +messengers were safe in the fort it was not certain that they brought +what was so eagerly looked for, as the entry on February 27th clearly +shows: "Lieut Williams & Mr Bailly returned this eveng from +Prairie du Chiens but brought no Mail there having been no arrival since +December."[260] It was during this winter that even Prairie du Chien was +shut off from the outside, the amount of snow between Peoria and Prairie +du Chien stopping the mail service for two months. Again and again +during the winter months the commanding officer complained to +headquarters that "no Orders have been received within the Month".[261] + +The duties of the soldiers during the winter were few. From the time it +was built up to 1833 the quarters at Fort Snelling were heated by +fireplaces. At that time, however, stoves were substituted.[262] Wood +was used for fuel--to obtain which was a never-ending task in winter. +When Captain Seth Eastman was in command at various periods from 1844 to +1848 the garrison had to go from eight to ten miles for wood. The banks +of the Minnesota River were bordered by a forest varying from one +hundred to three hundred yards wide; but by 1858 all of this for a +distance of twelve miles had been cleared off.[263] + +Colonel John H. Bliss, who was a boy at Fort Snelling when his father +was in command during the thirties, wrote that the winters "were +undeniably tedious, but had their uses; we had a good library, and I +read a great deal, which has stood by me well; then there was of course +much sociability among the officers, and a great deal of playing of +cards, dominoes, checkers, and chess. The soldiers, too, would +get up theatrical performances every fortnight or so, those taking +female parts borrowing dresses from the soldiers' wives, and making a +generous sacrifice to art of their cherished whiskers and +mustaches."[264] + +During October, 1836, Inspector General George Croghan visited Fort +Snelling, and on the evening of the seventh of the month the Thespian +Players presented _Monsieur Tonson_ in his honor. And here, far from +city streets and French barbers, on a rude stage, Jack Ardourly fell in +love with the beautiful Adolphine de Courcy--who probably only a few +hours before had been hurrying to finish a task of cleaning guns so that +she could call on the generous women of the garrison and beg from them +capes and bonnets and hoops skirts![265] + +Many of the officers were graduates of West Point, and their wives were +from the best families of the East and South. On January 20, 1831, the +ladies and gentlemen of the garrison had a party at the fort. "The room +was tastefully decorated--- and the evening passed pleasantly". On +February 22nd of the same year the quarters of the commanding officer +were the scene of another party in commemoration of Washington's +birthday.[266] + +Efforts were made to provide for the education of the children of the +fort. Mrs. Snelling at first taught her own children; but it is evident +that there was soon a tutor, as the correspondence of Colonel Snelling +shows that John Marsh received his board and seventy-five dollars for +acting as tutor during the winter of 1823-1824. This schoolmaster +also carried the mail to Prairie du Chien in return for forty +dollars.[267] Soon after the appointment of a regular chaplain in 1838 +the post school was more thoroughly organized.[268] + +Occasionally there was some excitement at the fort. During the month of +February in 1831 there was an epidemic of fires. First, the officers row +of buildings caught on fire in the room of Lieutenant Greenough on +February 10th. On the next day a second fire broke out; and on February +24th the agency house took fire both from the inside and the outside in +such a manner that it was evident that an incendiary had been at +work.[269] + +But such events were of unusual occurrence. A letter written at Fort +Snelling on February 11, 1842, pictures the usual winter life. "We of +the garrison are as usual at this season rather dull, stale & +unprofitable--small parties for Tea are a good deal the fashion, & +tattle is used as formerly. Indian Ball plays are coming in season. One +comes off today in which stacks of property are to be invested. The +Sioux have been hunting about Rum River this winter and have killed +great numbers of Dear--Our winter has been mild, one day only 30 below +zero, and the rest comfortable.... Tonight Mumford gives a Soiree to the +good folks of the garrison and this is the most exciting event of the +week. What is the use of writing to you as I cannot find enough +wherewith to fill two pages."[270] + +Such close confinement was tolerable when the garrison was +composed of congenial spirits, but occasionally it brought about +dissensions and quarrels. Taliaferro on one occasion wrote that the +"Society here is not in the most pleasant State from a System of tatling +which has been reduced to a Science--not to be envied."[271] +Occasionally open encounters took place. One soldier stabbed another +with a butcher's knife, and the victim died.[272] In February, 1826, two +officers of the garrison engaged in a duel.[273] Even those in authority +were not free from participation in these "affairs of honor". A certain +young officer challenged Colonel Snelling, and upon his refusing, his +son, William Joseph Snelling, accepted and was slightly wounded. When +the officer was court-martialed he accused one of the witnesses of being +an infidel. Whereupon the latter challenged the officer in his turn, and +a second duel was fought--which was bloodless.[274] + +With such conditions prevailing during the winter months it is no wonder +that from day to day spring was eagerly looked for. Undoubtedly it was a +happy occasion when the agent could record on the evening of Sunday, +March 27, 1831, that the weather was "more pleasant--Wild geese seen +this day--gentlemen generally [illegible] out and Walking--The Ladies +also".[275] It meant a speedy return of summer pleasures and summer +visitors. For when, even at a remote military post did these fail as +three sure signs of spring--pleasant weather, flocks of geese, and +ladies and gentlemen out walking together? + +They were very human, those men and women of Old Fort Snelling. + + + + +VII + +THE FORT AND INDIAN LIFE + + +It was a humane but visionary plan which Reverend Jedidiah Morse in 1822 +presented to the Secretary of War as the correct method of procedure in +the task of civilizing the Indians. At various centers in the Indian +country were to be established "Education Families"--groups of honest, +industrious whites who were to have houses and farms, where the natives +could observe their activities. And without any forcing it was expected +that the red men, seeing the superior advantages of civilization, would +be themselves gradually transformed.[276] + +To the north and east of Fort Snelling was the home of the Chippewa or +Ojibway Indians--extending from the Mississippi to the Great Lakes. To +the west, on the great prairies, the Dakota, or Sioux Indians lived and +hunted. The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, estimated that the five +bands of Sioux, which most often came into direct touch with the +government at Fort Snelling, numbered in 1834, seven thousand, and +wandered over southern Minnesota and South Dakota, near the lakes of Big +Stone and Traverse.[277] Major Taliaferro reported in 1834 that the +number of Indians in his agency was 6721, and that they extended as far +as the Sheyenne fork of the Red River.[278] To one man, the agent, was +given the task of civilizing these thousands of Sioux. While it +was for this tribe that the agency at Fort Snelling was established, yet +the Chippewas often frequented its headquarters. One hundred and seventy +warriors of these northern Indians arrived at the agent's house on the +evening of August 4, 1830.[279] The presence of these red men more than +doubled the work of the agent, because there was now the difficulty of +keeping peace between two warring tribes. + +Indian life was not so worthless as sometimes pictured. It is true that +one could see laziness and poverty during the months of January and +February, if he came upon an Indian village pitched near a wooded slope +and above a frozen stream. There could be seen the smoke curling from +the dingy tepee, the women dragging home wood for the ever-diminishing +pile outside the door, and a few of the hardier men fishing through +holes in the ice. About the tepee the snow was banked, and within the +air was warm and heavy from the open fire and the long pipes of the +reclining braves, who gambled with their neighbors at the game of "the +shot and the mitten". + +Thus through the two stormy months the Indians frittered away the time, +eating their corn and wild rice seasoned with tallow. But when the first +thaws of spring caused the sap in the maple trees to run, and when some +of the more venturesome came back from a winter visit to the trading +house with the word that the trader was waiting for skins in return for +the blankets and ammunition he had given them the preceding fall, +the village divided--part going to the sugar bush, and part going to the +prairie lakes and swamps for muskrats. In May they returned on the +swollen streams with heavily freighted canoes to their villages of bark +houses. During the summer there were many tasks--blue berries to be +gathered in the woods, canoes to be built, tepees to be repaired, +turnips to be dug, and pipestone to be brought from the far distant +quarry. All through the hot months the women toiled in the corn fields; +and when the corn was in the milk, all the village children screamed and +waved their arms to frighten away the blackbirds. When the harvest had +been carefully placed in bark barrels and buried, part of the village +had already left to hunt the fox or gather wild rice along the lakes and +cranberries in the marshes. + +And now came October and the deer hunt. There were only the extremely +old people and the invalids to wave good-bye as the procession set out +over the prairie--old men who could scarcely walk, bands of shouting +children, hunters already on the alert, women with their bundles, and +horses and dogs dragging on two poles the provisions and the skins of +the tepees. For more than two months the program was the same: the march +through the drifts and across the icy rivers, the morning council about +a blazing fire before scattering over the prairie, and the triumphal +return of the successful hunter at evening with the carcass of a bear, +deer, or elk, across his shoulders and his name shouted through +the camp by the children gathered to welcome him. By January they were +all back again at their villages.[280] + +It was this scheme of life which was to be gradually transformed. There +were, of course, variations when war parties crept against the +Chippewas, when drunken debaucheries resulted from a keg of whiskey that +had escaped the vigilant eyes of the soldiers, and when migrations to +the Canadian posts were prompted by the hope that there they could +obtain enough supplies to support them without work and that there they +could enjoy some ceremony to break the monotony of life. But these +migrations were few on the part of the Sioux: they could enjoy councils +just as good near home. + +On the occasion of a visit to Old Fort Snelling and the agency near by, +the authorities were careful to see that there was a due amount of +ceremony. Probably a whole band of Indians would come down from the +headwaters of the Minnesota River. Their chiefs and braves gathered in +the log Council Hall, and there took place the scene so picturesquely +described by the eccentric traveller, J. C. Beltrami. + +"The council-hall is, as it ought to be, a great room built of trunks of +trees. The flag of the United States waves in the centre, surrounded by +English colours, and medals hung to the walls. They are presented by the +Indians to their _Father_, the agent, as a proof that they abjure all +cabal or alliance with the English. Pipes, or calumets and other little +Indian presents, offered by the various tribes as pledges of +their friendship, decorate the walls and give a remarkable and +characteristic air to the room." The dignitaries of the post are seated +about a table and the braves recline upon the ground during the council. + +"The _séance_ opens with a speech of the chief, who rises and addresses +the agent. He generally begins with the Great Spirit, or the sun, or the +moon 'whose purity is equalled by that of his own heart,' &c. &c. always +finishing with a petition for presents;--_whiskey_ is sure to find +honourable mention: these are what English lawyers call the _common +counts_."[281] + +After the reply of the agent the peace pipe was solemnly passed from one +to another, and the council ended with the distribution of presents. +These presents were of tobacco, gunpowder, vermilion, pipes, kettles, +blankets, snuff-boxes, armbands, looking-glasses, horse bells, +jews'-harps, ivory combs, and shawls.[282] Not the least popular of +these were the jews'-harps, which had their uses--in spite of the +sarcastic invective delivered against them by Senator Benton in 1822 +when the abolition of the Factory System was being considered. "They +were innocent", observed the Senator, "and on that account precisely +adapted to the purposes of the superintendent, in reclaiming the savage +from the hunter state. The first state after that, in the road to +refined life, is the pastoral, and without music the tawny-colored +Corydons and the red-skinned Amaryllises, '_recubans sub tegmine fagi_,' +upon the banks of the Missouri and Mississippi, could make no +progress in the delightful business of love and sentiment."[283] + +These councils were frequent occurrences, and their importance lies in +the fact that through them certain principles could be instilled into +the minds of the natives under the most favorable circumstances. The +words spoken by the agent on these occasions had probably as much effect +in controlling the Indians as a like number of bullets would have had. +Major Taliaferro has recorded one of the orations which he delivered to +his listening wards. He referred to the presence of the Great Spirit, +told of his long service among them, eulogized their departed +elders--"the old branches which have fallen from the Trunk of the old +oak of your Nation"--and then inserted a few wise admonitions as to the +futility of their wars with the Chippewas. + +"Your Great Father", he said, "has had much to do with war--but his +heart is changed for peace & he wishes all his red children as well as +his white ones to follow his good example--he knows this course to be +best for all--we should endeavor to please him--for by doing so we shall +please the Great Spirit also--You will see your children growing up +around you and your wives smiling as you approach from your days hunt." + +The speech ended with the announcement of the coming of "something good +from below" and an approaching visit to the village of the Red +Head.[284] + +During these meetings at the agency the sound of the fort's cannon and +the sight of the well-uniformed guards impressed the Indians even +more than did the words of the agent. There they became acquainted with +white men other than traders, and when exploring and scientific +expeditions came over the plains with a guard of soldiers, they were +wise enough not to interfere. These visits in themselves were pleasant, +and the rations of bread and pork offered an agreeable respite from +their usual fare.[285] + +At the time of the treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1825 one ration +consisted of one pound of bread or one pint of corn and either one pound +of beef or three-quarters of a pound of pork. This may be taken as a +fair standard of the kind of rations issued at the agency.[286] It was +during the winter months especially when starvation or suffering would +otherwise result that this aid was given to the Indians. During the +summer when other means of subsistence were present, all appeals for +food were refused.[287] This custom of granting rations was formally +incorporated in the law of June 30, 1834, with the only restriction that +they were to be given only if "they can be spared from the army +provisions without injury to the service".[288] + +The condition of the tribes was often appalling, and many deaths would +have occurred without this aid. At one time Taliaferro wrote that "400 +Indians encamped near the Agency--many from a distance and in a starving +condition."[289] Often he had to take from his own private funds, after +he had drawn all he could from the public stores.[290] The winter of +1842-1843 was particularly severe. On the first of November the +ground was covered with snow which as late as April still lay from two +to two and a half feet deep. No hunting was possible because of the +drifts, and fishing through the ice was impracticable, the wind blowing +the holes full of snow as soon as they were cut. The Indians living +about Lac qui Parle, about two hundred miles up the Minnesota River, +came with the missionary Dr. Thomas Williamson to winter on the site of +old Camp Cold Water, knowing that only from the fort could they obtain +relief. + +Everything that was possible was done. Blankets, guns, and ammunition to +the value of $2500 were granted the Indians. Indeed, so many provisions +were distributed that on April 3rd it was computed that there was only +enough left to supply the garrison until the opening of navigation. The +officers and soldiers saved all the remains from the tables and once a +day the squaws and children were allowed to enter and receive these +crumbs. The Indians who were away from the post were not neglected. +Sixty bushels of corn and several barrels of pork were furnished by +Major Dearborn to Mr. H. H. Sibley who sent them to destitute Indians on +the Minnesota River. Still there was much suffering, for not enough food +could be spared to satisfy all. Before spring arrived many of the +Indians lived upon a syrup made of hickory chips and the boiled bark of +the bitter sweet. All became greatly emaciated and some were unable to +walk.[291] + +From time to time a solitary Indian on a business visit to the +trader would drop in to chat with the "Father". Here he could make any +complaints which he had to offer and be sure of a sympathetic if not +satisfactory answer. "I have had more than fourteen hundred Indians on +visits from all Sections of this Agency during the Month past--and all +with Grieveances of Some Sort to redress", wrote Taliaferro on June 30, +1838.[292] In all matters concerning lands, hunting, treaties, +annuities, and the like, the Indian looked only to the agent for advice +or explanation. Instigated by the traders, many of whom were hostile to +him, the Indians considered him responsible for the acts of the +soldiers.[293] If a provision of a treaty was not carried out, the +Indians thought it was Taliaferro's fault "for they know nothing of +Congress or of their Multifarious and protracted debates, and +proceedings."[294] + +A personal present was due the visitor at these "shake hands" occasions. +If he were a headman or a brave he received a pound of powder, two +pounds of lead, a fish line, a knife, four fish hooks, and six plugs of +tobacco. If he were "any respectable Individual" he was sure of a knife, +four fish hooks, and six plugs of tobacco.[295] These individual visits +did much to acquaint the natives personally with the agent, in the same +way that the council impressed them with the agent's great power. + +But even more appreciated was the help offered in time of sickness. On +December 25, 1830, Taliaferro records in his diary: "I rode up the +SPeters to See an Indian.... Doctor Wood went up also--I dressed +her wound--I Sent my Interpreter up with other restoratives--she being +delerious."[296] On Saturday, June 28, 1834, there came to him a brave +saying that both his son and daughter were ill. "Sent a message to Doct +Jarvis to call & see the girl." The Sioux boy died two days later. But +there the ministration did not end. To the mourners were given cotton +and calico, or a blanket in order that the body might be decently +covered.[297] + +The dread scourge of smallpox raged in the vicinity of Fort Snelling +during the summer of 1832. Two Indians coming from the Missouri River +were suffering from violent attacks. Immediately the disease spread. But +Dr. Wood, the post's physician, was called upon by Major Taliaferro and +at the end of five days three hundred and thirty Sioux had been +vaccinated. It is interesting to notice that in case the Indians came to +the agency Dr. Wood received six dollars for every hundred he treated, +but if he went to their villages he received six dollars per day.[298] + +Besides these services the visits to the fort offered direct opportunity +for the giving of tangible evidence of American supremacy. The English +government had lavishly distributed signs of authority. During the first +two years of his term of service, Taliaferro collected no less than +thirty-six medals of George the Third, twenty-eight British flags, and +eighteen gorgets.[299] Some of these were presented to the agent as +direct evidence of submission to American authority. In 1820 two +employees of the Missouri Fur Company were murdered on the +Missouri River. The surrender of the murderers was demanded by +Taliaferro, and while he was away the tribe came to Fort Snelling with +one of the culprits and a hostage. Colonel Snelling, then acting as +agent, described the scene in a letter. + +"These unfortunate wretches were delivered up last evening with a great +deal of ceremony, & I assure you with affecting solemnity; the guards +being first put under arms, they formed a procession in the road beyond +the bake house; in front marched a Sussitong bearing a British flag, +next came the Murderer & the devoted chief, their arms pinioned & large +splinters of wood thrust through them above the elbows, intended as I +understood to show us that they did not fear pain & were not afraid to +die. the Murderer wore a large British medal suspended to his neck & +both of the prisoners bore offerings of skins, &c. in their hands. last +came the chiefs of the Sussitongs, in this order they moved, the +prisoners singing their death song & the Sussitongs joining in chorus +until they arrived in front of the guard house where a fire being +previously prepared, the British flag was burnt, and the medal worn by +the murderer given up."[300] + +In return for these greatly coveted signs of respect the agent delivered +to the most prominent chiefs the medals and certificates of the United +States. And thus by flattering the leaders control over the Indians was +assured. What chief was not proud to carry with him this certificate, +even if he could not read it himself? "The bearer _The Whole in +the day_ is a respectable Man, and wears a Seccond Size Monroe Medal +Presented to him for his uniform Good Conduct and great attachment to +the United States--His Residence is at Sandy Lake Law Taliaferro Indian +Agent at St. Peters".[301] + +But the memory of the days of English rule was still alive, the +suggestion being made to the government that "the gordgets would be More +Acceptable were they to be fashioned after those introduced formerly by +the British Government--with the difference only of the Eagle engraved +upon each."[302] To counteract this feeling it was necessary that the +government should be lavish in the distribution of presents. British +influence and example, wrote Taliaferro to Clark in 1831, were not yet +"fairly purged of their baneful effects".[303] Even as late as 1834 a +few extracts from the reports of Major Bliss indicate that this feeling +was still noticeable. "The Sioux Indians expecting and favourable to an +English war with the U. States", he wrote in April. The next month he +reported "Sioux and Chippewas pacific but dissatisfied with U. States", +and in July 1835 he informed headquarters that "the Chippewas & Sioux +are dissatisfied & both exhibit symptoms of hostility to the U. States & +to each other. The Sioux the most decided."[304] + +English visitors at a much later period congratulated their government +because the Indians, as they said, still had a greater fondness for the +British than for the Americans.[305] Except, however, along the +border, among the tribes outside of the sphere of the agent at Fort +Snelling, this feeling manifested itself only as a sentiment which could +lead to trouble if a break between the two nations should occur. + +To emphasize the power of the Nation, the agent brought to Washington in +1824, and again in 1837, delegations of chiefs.[306] On these occasions +they were taken to the largest and busiest cities, entertained in the +most delightful manner, and shown the most impressive sights. As crowds +were always drawn together to see the Indians, the latter received a +lasting opinion as to the numbers of the Americans.[307] Previously the +Sioux bands had thought that if ever they should unite their forces, +they would be able to win in a war against all the whites; but now they +were disillusioned.[308] + +Undoubtedly the Indians were pleased with their journey. "Since the +treaty was signed", stated a contemporary newspaper, "each of them has +received a coat, hat, blanket, leggins, epaulettes, bands, and scarfs, +and when dressed in full uniform, they exhibit more lively pleasure than +would have been expected from the apathy of Indian character."[309] The +magnificence which they had seen was described amid the squalor of their +home villages. "The effect produced by the visit of their chiefs to +Washington is wonderful, since their return, the power, wealth, and +numbers of the American people have been their constant themes, many of +their stories approach so near the marvellous as to be discredited, such +for example is the account of casting a cannon which they +witnessed, and the magnitude of our ships. Old _black dog_ shakes his +head & says 'all travellers are liars'."[310] The memory of these trips +lingered long. Little Crow came to call upon the agent in 1831. "The old +chief left much delighted with his reception and my Talk--he departed +singing the song which was often repeated when on his trip to Washington +City in 1824."[311] + +The Indians touched by these relations with the fort were not only its +immediate neighbors. The surrender of murderers from the tribes on the +Missouri has been noted. On March 11, 1831, Taliaferro wrote that "I +observe Indians from the Missouri & various sections of the Sioux +country."[312] During the entire winter of 1831, a party of Missouri +River Indians encamped about Fort Snelling.[313] The Indians on the +prairies were wide travellers. "There are a good many Indians about +here", says a letter from Lac qui Parle. "There have arrived 120 lodges +of Missouri at Lake Traverse and 200 lodges at James River."[314] By +this continual movement, the influence of Fort Snelling was enlarged. + +How great was this influence? No one has contradicted the statement of +Mr. Taliaferro that "it is due the Sioux of your territory to record one +fact as to them, and that is, from the commencement of our agency to its +close, our frontier pioneers were never even molested in their homes, +nor did they shed one drop of American blood".[315] It was when this +frontier encroached on their lands that hostility broke out. If +the Indians had been left in peace by covetous land-seekers, their +civilization might in time have been accomplished. + +There was practically no hostility manifested against the garrison by +the surrounding Indians. In January, 1822, Colonel McNeil, who was in +command at Fort Dearborn, received word from John Kinzie, the pioneer +Chicago trader, that the Sioux and Fox Indians were planning an attack +on Fort Snelling. Lieutenant James Webb immediately volunteered to bring +the news to Fort Armstrong on Rock Island, from whence it could be sent +to the upper post. After a journey rendered terrible by the extreme cold +and the danger from hostile Indians, he was successful in reaching Fort +Armstrong.[316] + +In due time the letter was delivered to Colonel Snelling. "When I first +received Col McNeils letter," he wrote later, "I was disposed to smile +at the absurdity of connecting the Sioux & Foxes, in a design to attack +this post". But he later found out that the Foxes had sent wampum and +tobacco to the bands of Wabasha and Little Crow, asking them not to +stand in the way of any movements they might make. Wabasha accepted the +wampum but Little Crow came to the fort to make known the danger. The +vagueness of the rumors, however, made it impossible to act, and later +developments showed that there was no truth in the report--at least no +violence was attempted.[317] + +Fear of the strength of the fort prevented hostilities. It was +the Indian fashion to attack by ambush. They did not have the patience +to endure a protracted siege. The Americans did not belittle the +strength of the military works. Little Thunder and White Head, two +Indians who had escaped from the jail at Mackinac by cutting through the +log walls, met an American, George Johnson, at Lac du Flambeau. They +were very inquisitive about the strength of Fort Snelling and the number +of Americans stationed there. Regarding this incident the white man +wrote: "I answered saying, that the fort at River St. Peters was as +strong as Quebec, and more Americans there than in any other post."[318] + +The government did not adopt Dr. Morse's plan for civilizing the +Indians, but the agent tried to carry out the policy therein suggested. +The colony at Eatonville, located on Lake Calhoun, and the Indian +schools soon passed into the hands of the missionaries. After the making +of treaties a blacksmith shop was added to the agency. In line with his +policy of providing for all classes of Indians, Taliaferro urged the +erection of an orphan asylum where "all poor blind, and helpless women" +would also be accommodated.[319] + +If time had been given doubtless a new form of Indian life would have +arisen about the fort; but the coming of the land-seekers destroyed the +plan. The failure was to result in a great massacre in 1862. This much +at least can be said for Old Fort Snelling; it kept the Indians friendly +while the foundations of American life were being laid in the Northwest. + + + + + +VIII + +THE SIOUX-CHIPPEWA FEUDS + + +One of the reasons given for the building of Fort Snelling was that it +would prevent the disastrous wars existing between the Sioux and +Chippewa Indians.[320] Beginning so far in the past that no cause could +be ascribed for the hostility, each encounter was in itself both the +result of preceding conflicts and the excuse for further warfare. Pierre +Esprit de Radisson, who was the first writer to leave an account of the +Chippewas, said that even at the time of his visit in about 1660 they +were carrying on "a cruell warre against the Nadoueseronoms +[Sioux]."[321] + +Lurking in the bushes to waylay their enemies on the woodland paths, +hiding on the river banks to intercept hostile canoes, pretending peace +and enjoying hospitality in order to have an opportunity for treachery +were the military tactics of the Sioux and Chippewa warriors. To prevent +such warfare, a military post was almost powerless. In fact, so +insidious was the hostility that even the very grounds of Fort Snelling +were the scene of bloody encounters. + +Attempts were made to keep the Chippewas away from Fort Snelling by +attaching them to the agency of H. R. Schoolcraft at Sault Ste. +Marie.[322] But the distance was so great and the route so +difficult that the Chippewas did not make the journey to consult that +agent. On the other hand, Fort Snelling was so close, and the +Mississippi such a natural outlet from their country, that a trader +declared that "you might as well try to Stop the Water in the +Mississippi from going to St Louis, as attempt to keep the Chippeway +Indians from St Peters."[323] + +During the last days of the month of May, 1827, Flat Mouth, chief of the +Sandy Lake band of Chippewa Indians was encamped near Fort Snelling. A +number of men, women, and children were with him, bringing maple sugar, +which they had gathered in the northern woods during the winter, and +other articles to sell to the garrison. Major Taliaferro was away at the +time, but on May 24th the steamboat "Pilot" landed him safely at Fort +Snelling. To welcome their "Father" home, and perchance to see if he had +any presents or promises for them, a large number of Sioux came from +their villages to the fort, as was usual on such occasions. The agent +took the opportunity presented by the presence of both Sioux and +Chippewas to deliberate with them in regard to peace, and also to +request the Chippewas not to visit Fort Snelling again, in accordance +with instructions which he had received from the Indian Department. To +this Flat Mouth replied sorrowfully: "I feel myself now like a Dog +driven away from your door to find another--I am ashamed of this--but I +know you are doing this not by your wish."[324] + +The twenty-eighth day of the month proved the value of the advice +Major Taliaferro had given. Several Sioux came to visit at a Chippewa +lodge pitched directly under and in front of the agency house on the +flats that border the Minnesota River. The guns of the fort could easily +have been trained upon the spot. There was feasting and friendly revelry +at the lodge that afternoon and evening. Meat, corn, and sugar were +served in wooden platters; a dog was roasted and eaten. The peace pipe +was smoked, and the conversation was peaceful regarding exploits in the +hunt and the chase. + +At nine o'clock when the party broke up, as the Chippewas were calling +friendly good-byes to the departing Sioux who had advanced a few steps, +the latter turned and fired into the midst of the unsuspecting +inhabitants of the tepee. There was instant confusion. With a shout of +triumph the Sioux ran off. The sentinel on the hill above heard the +shots and cries and called for the guard. In a few moments there was at +the gate of the fort a crowd of panic-stricken Chippewas carrying their +wounded and crying for protection. Six men, one woman, and a girl about +eight years old were handed over to the surgeon of the post, Doctor +McMahon. + +Immediately Major Taliaferro notified the Sioux that they had insulted +the flag that waved over the land, and that ample satisfaction must be +made to the Chippewas who had been treated in such a cowardly manner. In +council with the agent, Strong Earth, a chief of the Chippewas, +complained of the lack of protection: "Father: You know that two +Summers ago we attended a Great Council at Prairie du Chien, when by the +advice of Our White Friends, we made Peace with the Sioux--We were then +told, that the Americans would Guarantee our Safety under their +Flags--We have Come here under that Assurance. But Father, look at Your +Floor it is stained with the blood of our people shed while under Your +Walls. If you are great and powerful why do You not protect us? _If +Not_, of what use are Your Soldiers?"[325] + +On the morning following the massacre a large body of Sioux--estimated +at about three hundred and fifty--appeared on the prairie west of the +fort. Brevet Major Fowle was ordered to march against them with two +companies. Upon his appearance they fled, but he followed and was +successful in capturing some of them. Nine Sioux--one of whom Major +Taliaferro reports was given up voluntarily--were delivered up to the +Chippewas. Identifying two of these as being among the murderers, they +requested permission to execute them immediately. + +Upon the broad prairie the two prisoners were given their freedom. They +were told to run, and when a few paces away the Chippewa warriors fired, +and the Sioux fell dead. Then followed a hideous scene which a spectator +described many years later. "The bodies, all warm and limp, are dragged +to the brow of the hill. Men who at the sight of blood, become almost +fiends, tear off the reeking scalps and hand them to the chief, who +hangs them around his neck. Women and children with tomahawks and +knives cut deep gashes in the poor dead bodies, and scooping up the hot +blood with their hands, eagerly drink it; then, grown frantic, they +dance, and yell, and sing their horrid scalp songs, recounting deeds of +valor on the part of their brave men, and telling off the Sioux scalps, +taken in different battles, until tired and satiated at last with their +horrid feast, they leave the mutilated bodies--festering in the +sun."[326] At evening the bodies were thrown over the cliff into the +river below. + +On the morning of the thirty-first the Sioux delivered up to the +Chippewas two others who, they claimed, had been the principal men in +the affair. If the Chippewas did not shoot them, they said, they would +do it themselves, as trouble had come to their nation on their account. +But the Chippewas were willing. + +About this second execution there has grown up an interesting story. One +of the offenders, Toopunkah Zeze, was a favorite among the children of +the fort. Tall and handsome and athletic and brave, he was the ideal of +Indian manhood. The other, called the Split Upper Lip, was well known as +a thief, and was as much detested as his companion was respected. He +cried and begged for his life, saying that his gun had missed fire--he +had killed no one. The other calmly distributed his clothes among his +friends, upbraiding his companion for his cowardice. "You lie, dog. +Coward, old woman, you know that you lie. You know that you are as +guilty as I am. Hold your peace and die like a man--die like me." + +The two were brought out upon the prairie. Again the thirty yards were +allowed; again the Chippewa guns were fired. For once it seemed that +this Indian punishment of "running the gantlet" would lose a victim. For +Toopunkah Zeze was still running. The bullet had cut the rope that bound +him to his falling companion. With new hope he leaped forward. There was +a shout of triumph from a group of Sioux hidden in the bushes; and the +children of the fort, who had climbed upon the buildings to view the +bloody scene from afar, clapped their hands. But the Chippewas were cool +in their vengeance. Guns were reloaded and deliberate aim taken. The +flints struck, and Toopunkah Zeze, now a hundred and fifty yards away +and a second's distance from a place where the straggling groves of the +prairie offered life, fell dead. Two more bodies were thrown over the +precipice into the river.[327] + +For ten years the hostility continued, but the environs of the fort were +sacred places. An effective lesson had been taught in 1827. But on +August 2, 1838, Hole-in-the-Day, a Chippewa chief, and five of his band +came to Fort Snelling on a visit. That spring there had been a +treacherous massacre by Hole-in-the-Day at a Sioux camp. It was true, as +he said in the poetic simplicity of Indian style: "You See I cannot keep +my face Clean--as fast as it is Washed--I am Compelled to black it +Again.--but My heart towards you is the Same.--My Fathers Bones Sleep by +your house--My Daughter at the Falls Near the Grave of my +Uncle--My Wife lies at the Mouth of Sauk River--and a few days past I +buried My Son."[328] + +On the following evening some Sioux of Mud Lake, hearing of the presence +of the Chippewas, rode over to Baker's trading house where the Chippewas +were encamped. Major Taliaferro had heard of the departure of the war +party and had hurried to the scene. Just as he arrived the Sioux fired +upon their enemies, killing one outright and wounding another in the +knee. All but one of the Chippewas had laid aside their guns, thinking +that they were upon neutral ground. This one, seeing a Sioux in the act +of scalping the fallen Chippewa, fired upon him and wounded him +mortally. But aided by the dusk the wounded Sioux was able to run more +than a mile before he fell from loss of blood. + +The Chippewas were immediately brought into the fort for protection. On +the next day Major Plympton and the Indian agent called together the +chiefs of the neighboring villages. There was a long council until Major +Plympton broke it up by saying peremptorily: "It is unnecessary to talk +much. I have demanded the guilty--they must be brought." + +At half past five that evening the Sioux were delivered up. Three +brothers had been accused of being guilty of the murder. One of them +could not be brought because he was dying of the wound received the +evening before. Much ceremony attended the proceedings as the Indian +mother led her sons to the officers saying: "Of seven sons three only +are left; one of them is wounded, and soon will die, and if the +two now given up are shot, my all is gone. I called on the head men to +follow me to the Fort. I started with the prisoners, singing their death +song, and have delivered them at the gate of the Fort. Have mercy on +them for their youth and folly."[329] + +Because of the attack which Hole-in-the-Day had made on the Sioux a +short time before, Major Plympton decided not to execute the prisoners. +They were turned over to their own people to be flogged in the presence +of the officers. More humiliating than death was their punishment. Their +blankets, leggins, and breech-cloths were cut into small pieces, and +finally the braves whipped them with long sticks while the women stood +about crying.[330] + +Although there was now a deep desire for revenge in each of the tribes, +they manifested outward friendliness when they met at the fort. During +the month of June, 1839, there came to Fort Snelling over twelve hundred +Chippewas thinking that there they would be paid their annuities for the +land they had ceded in 1837. There were two main groups--one which came +down from the headwaters of the Mississippi, and the other which came up +the river from the vicinity of the St. Croix. At the same time Sioux +numbering eight hundred and seventy were encamped near the agency. This +was considered an opportune time to conclude a peace, and so the long +calumet with its mixture of tobacco and bark of the willow tree was +smoked while friendly athletic contests were held on the prairie. +On July 1st the two parties of Chippewas started for home. But in one of +the bands were the two sons of the man who had been murdered the year +before. In the evening before beginning their homeward journey, they +visited the graveyard of the fort to cry over the grave of their father. +Here the thought of vengeance came to them, and morning found them +hidden in the bushes near the trail that skirted the shore of Lake +Harriet. The Badger, a Sioux warrior, was the first to pass that way as +he went out in the early morning to hunt pigeons. A moment later he was +shot and scalped. The murderers then hurried away and hid behind the +water at Minnehaha Falls. + +A few hours later, when the news had spread throughout all the Sioux +villages, two bands set out to take revenge upon the departing +Chippewas. The old men, the women, and the children remained at home, +eagerly awaiting the result of the coming battle and cutting their arms +and legs with their knives in grief over the losses which they knew +their bands would have to undergo. + +It happened that at that time the Right Reverend Mathias Loras, the +first Bishop of Dubuque, was at Fort Snelling. He had been an interested +spectator at the Sioux-Chippewa peace parleys, had watched the departure +of the determined avengers, and now was anxiously awaiting the result of +the conflict. On the morning of July 4th as he was praying at his altar +for the prosperity of his country he was startled by the shrill notes of +the Sioux death-song, and gazing through the window saw a bloody +throng, dancing about the long poles from which dangled scalps with +parts of the skulls still attached. Two terrible struggles had taken +place the day before. On the Rum River seventy Chippewa scalps had been +taken, and on the banks of Lake St. Croix twenty-five more were +obtained. In both cases the losses of the Sioux were smaller. These +trophies were brought to the villages, where they were danced about +nightly until the leaves began to fall in the autumn, when they were +buried.[331] + +These incidents which centered about Fort Snelling have led to the +charge made against it, that instead of preventing the conflicts the +fort intensified them. The fort was a convenient meeting place, it is +argued, whither both parties resorted only to become involved in +altercations and disputes which resulted in a flaring-up of old +flames.[332] But it must be remembered that the murders away from the +fort were more numerous;[333] and it is easier to recall the spectacular +encounters which occurred at the fort, than the many occasions when the +two tribes met peacefully as the guests of the officials. + +A military officer who was stationed there wrote: "At Fort Snelling I +have seen the Sioux and Chippeways in friendly converse, and passing +their pipes in the most amicable manner when if they had met away from +the post each would have been striving for the other's scalp."[334] The +Indian agent, whose success depended upon the continuation of peace, +noted with pleasure these friendly gatherings. "The Crane and the +Hole in the Day--and other Chippeways at the Agency this day--Several +Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency."[335] These visits were often +protracted for several weeks without trouble. "Chippeways--a number of +these people also at the agency--some have been here for nearly 30 +days--fishing & liveing better & more independently than the +Sioux."[336] On the 29th and 30th of June, 1831, Chippewas to the number +of one hundred and fifty met five villages of Sioux.[337] + +Efforts to combat the evil were made in council with the Indians. "Your +wars with the Chippeways can never be of service to anyone", reasoned +their "Father", "for as fast as you destroy one--two or three more young +men are ready to take the track of their deceased friends--The old +people among you ought to know this--after the long wars between +you".[338] Most of the encounters took place either when the warriors +were emboldened by liquor, or when the rival hunting parties met on the +plains. The strict enforcement of the law of 1832 prohibiting the +introduction of spirits had a tranquilizing effect in the country of the +Chippewas. Indeed, the principal object of all efforts to suppress the +liquor traffic was the prevention of inter-tribal wars.[339] + +Constant watching of the hunting parties and admonition as to their +conduct were among the duties of the agent. "Sent my interpreter up the +Mississippi among the Indians", he writes, "to see how they are +progressing in their hunts and as to the present hunting grounds of the +Chippeways." Eight days later record is made of the fact that +"the Rum River Chippeways left for their camp this morning--Sent word to +their people to hunt on their own Lands & not by any Means to intrude +upon the Soil of the Sioux." When the interpreter returned he reported +that everything was quiet between the two tribes.[340] The sending of +"runners" to the camps was a frequent occurrence during the winter of +1831, the region covered being eighty miles to the east and two hundred +miles to the north.[341] + +In the treaty of Prairie du Chien of 1825 a dividing line between the +two tribes, beyond which neither should pass, was agreed upon.[342] But +this provision was for many years a dead letter. As long as the line was +unsurveyed the natives could urge indefiniteness of territory as an +excuse for murder and depredations--claiming that the other party was +the trespasser. When Schoolcraft met the chiefs of the Chippewas in +council at Leech Lake in 1832, the latter complained that the provisions +of the treaty had not been carried out. "The words of the Long-knives +have passed through our forests as a rushing wind, but they have been +words merely. They have only _shaken_ the trees, but have not stopped to +break them down, nor even to make the rough places smooth."[343] As a +result Mr. Schoolcraft urged upon the Secretary of War the necessity of +marking the line.[344] + +Seven thousand dollars were appropriated by the act of June 26, 1834, +for the purpose of running this line,[345] and the next spring Major J. +L. Bean, accompanied by Duncan Campbell, the Sioux interpreter of +the agency, commenced the survey.[346] Later an escort of troops from +Fort Snelling was sent him under the command of Lieutenant William +Storer, with the result that the reduced garrison was unable to enforce +order.[347] When the survey had been completed from the Chippewa River +to Otter Tail Lake the return of the military escort put an end to the +work, but the agent was of the opinion that the most important part had +been marked.[348] + +Efforts were made by the government to keep down the warlike spirit of +the tribes. Thus, when Captain Gale allowed the Indians to come into the +fort and dance the scalp dance in June, 1830, his act was disapproved +of, and he had to stand trial.[349] Likewise peace conferences were +fostered in order to put the seal of the authority of the government +upon the transactions. During the winter of 1831 truces were made +between several of the bands through the efforts of Agent +Taliaferro.[350] On August 2, 1843, a great gathering of the two nations +was held at the fort, where a treaty of peace was drawn up under the +auspices of the civil and military authorities.[351] During the first +year it was kept inviolate, "if we except two or three individual cases +of outrage."[352] + +Even as late as June, 1850, an assemblage of both tribes was called +together by Governor Ramsey. The Chippewas were encamped north of the +fort on the bluff above the Mississippi. In front of them a detachment +of infantry was drawn up. Within the fort the artillery was in +readiness. When word was sent to the Sioux that all things were ready, +they approached, about three hundred strong, on horseback, all armed and +painted, their whoops mingling with the jingling of their arms, +ornaments, and the bells of their horses. Making a feint as if to rush +around the soldiers, they suddenly wheeled to one side and became quiet; +while the Chippewas on the other side of the line of infantry continued +to dance and wave their weapons. It was amid such stirring war-like +scenes that attempts for peace were made.[353] + +The earliest policy of the government had been to interfere as little as +possible, and to allow retribution to be made by one tribe on another. +But such inactivity did not appeal to a red-blooded officer like Colonel +Snelling, who wrote after the trouble in 1827: "I have no hesitation in +Saying that the Military on this frontier are useless for want of +discretionary power, and that if it is not intrusted to the Commander, +Men of Straw with Wooden Guns and Swords will answer the purpose as well +as a Regt of Infantry."[354] + +But later the policy was adopted of confining in the "Black Hole" of the +fort any culprits who were captured. Thirteen of the Sioux who +participated in a massacre at Apple River were imprisoned;[355] and on +one occasion Little Crow's band performed the scalp dance near Fort +Snelling in commemoration of the murder of two Chippewas, while the +murderers themselves languished in the fort.[356] Probably this method +of dealing with the problem would have been adopted earlier; but +"the force at this point", wrote an officer, "has been too small to send +a sufficient force to take the offenders, even should an order to that +effect be issued."[357] + +To determine how influential Fort Snelling was in maintaining order is +impossible. As was the case with the liquor traffic, conditions were bad +but could have been worse. From time to time there were events that +indicated some success. After a peace had been concluded on the fourth +of June, 1823, a small quarrel almost precipitated a general conflict on +the sixth. Much to the chagrin of the Italian traveller, J. C. Beltrami, +who was then a guest at the fort, the officers were successful in +preventing bloodshed. "Everything conspired against my poor notes", he +wrote, "I had already perched myself on an eminence for the purpose of +enriching them with an Indian battle, and behold I have nothing to write +but this miserable article!... I almost suspected that the savages were +in a league with the gentlemen of the fort to disappoint me."[358] + +Peace was maintained during the winter of 1831 on a line of three +hundred and forty miles above and below Fort Snelling, and on one +occasion there occurred the pleasant sight of Sioux and Chippewas +departing in company for their hunting grounds on the Sauk River.[359] +Man-of-the-sky, who was chief of the Lake Calhoun band of Sioux, boasted +that although he was only twenty-five years old at the time, he had +already killed six Chippewas when Fort Snelling was erected, and added: +"Had it not been for that I should have killed many more, or have +been myself killed ere this."[360] It is interesting to note in +connection with the sacredness of these treaties the comment of Major +Taliaferro that "much more reliance is to be placed in the good faith of +the Chippeways than in that of the Sioux."[361] + +These spasmodic successes at least acquainted the Indians with +governmental restraint. A paragraph from the manuscript diary of the +agent refutes the argument that Fort Snelling intensified rather than +alleviated these struggles. "From January 1833 up to this day", wrote +Taliaferro, "there has been no difficulty between the Sioux and +Chippeways--I once kept these tribes at peace for two years and Six +Months lacking 15 days. And this between the years 1821 & 1825 till June +8th of the latter year. Colonel Robert Dickson remarked to me that Such +a thing had never occurred before even when he headed the tribes against +Us in the War of 1812."[362] + + + + +IX + +THE FUR TRADE + + +The Indian trading-house which had been planned for the agency at Fort +Snelling never materialized. Failure of the houses in operation to pay +expenses and the opposition of the private traders led to their +abolition in 1822. Thereafter, whatever attention the government +directed toward the trade was influenced by the desire to prevent +tampering with the allegiance of the Indians on the part of foreigners +and to control this traffic which could contribute so much good or so +much evil to the lives of the government's wards.[363] + +With the Indian trade left to the private traders, great trading +companies developed, since the fur trade easily lent itself to the +corporation system. Coöperation in the marketing of furs and in the +buying of goods eliminated many of the difficulties which a single +individual would meet. The American Fur Company, so long guided by John +Jacob Astor, had a practical monopoly of the trade during the time that +Old Fort Snelling was in existence. Mendota was the headquarters of a +vast region which extended from the Mississippi to the headwaters of the +streams flowing into the Missouri. At various places throughout this +territory were trading posts called "forts", although they +consisted of no more than a few huts within a stockade. These were all +subsidiary to the post at Mendota. + +Goods for the Indian trade were much the same as those given as presents +by the government officials--blankets, trinkets, tobacco, knives, and +the like. These goods were sent in great Mackinac boats from the East to +be distributed among the posts. Each Indian hunter received on credit +goods valued at forty or fifty dollars in payment for which he pledged +the spoils of his winter's hunt. If the trader did not go with his band, +he visited them occasionally or sent his engagés to see that they were +hunting and that no other trader was tampering with them to secure their +furs. In the spring the Indian would deliver furs valued at twice the +amount of the goods received. The trading company's profit was, +accordingly, about one hundred per cent. To carry out the details of the +traffic there grew up within the company a complicated system of +factors, clerks, voyageurs, and hivernants.[364] + +With the entire system of the fur trade the military officials had +little to do except in the matter of regulation. Not much military +protection was necessary as the Indian looked upon the trader more as a +friend than an enemy.[365] Care in respect to the character of the men +engaged and supervision of the method of carrying on trade were the two +things necessary. According to the act of March 30, 1802, which was +supplemented by the acts of April 29, 1816, and June 30, 1834, no one +could carry on trade with the Indians without obtaining a license +from an Indian agent, which was subject to revocation by the +superintendent of the district.[366] + +Many were the problems which Major Taliaferro was obliged to consider +when he granted a license. A license was valid for trade only at a +certain place and among a certain tribe. The trader must be an American +citizen. He was not allowed to carry with him any insignia of a foreign +power. An invoice of his goods was presented to the agent, who had to +certify to its correctness. Liquor was prohibited, and the trader was +responsible for the conduct of all the members of his party in this +matter. To guarantee the fulfillment of all these requirements, bond had +to be given at the time of obtaining the permit.[367] + +To examine all the applicants, to keep in touch with them in the field, +and to obtain the truth in regard to their conduct was enough to keep +both agent and officers at Fort Snelling busy. In 1826 twenty-five +licenses were granted; in 1827, eleven; in 1830, thirteen; and in 1831, +fourteen.[368] The amount of this trade was very large, as is indicated +by the case of Mr. Faribault who traded on the Cannon River. One year he +marketed 50 buffalo-robes, 39,080 muskrats, 2050 pounds of deer skins, +125 pounds of beaver, 130 martin, 1100 mink, 663 raccoons, 331 otter, 25 +lynx, and 5 foxes.[369] + +There was a great deal of vagueness as to the application of the trade +laws--"a mist of uncertainty" as Taliaferro called it.[370] Governor +Cass of Michigan Territory allowed foreigners to enter into +expeditions as interpreters or boatmen, who upon entering the wilderness +took active charge of the crew and all operations.[371] As far as Fort +Snelling was concerned there was little call for the ejection of +foreigners by force. In 1833 it was rumored that a foreigner was trading +on the Sheyenne River--a tributary of the Red River. But with the +despatch of a company of troops and the rumor of their approach, the +culprit immediately decamped.[372] + +The building of the fort was in itself enough to impress British +subjects with the firmness of the United States government. Joseph +Renville, Kenneth McKenzie, and William Laidlaw, former employees of the +English companies, in 1822 organized the Columbia Fur Company, and +obtained a license from Major Taliaferro. In five years they had posts +from Green Bay to the Missouri River, with their headquarters at Land's +End, a short distance up the Minnesota River from Fort Snelling. But in +1827 a union with the American Fur Company was brought about.[373] + +Traders licensed by the agent at Fort Snelling covered the territory as +far west as the Missouri River. No post could be established without his +approval; and he even attempted to regulate the form in which the +establishment should be built.[374] On the whole, coöperation between +the factors of the fur companies and the officials at the post was +desired by both parties. The most notable disagreement is that which +existed between Alexis Bailly, the chief factor at Mendota, and +Major Taliaferro. This disagreement continued until September 15, 1834, +when the agent reported that he had refused to allow Bailly to hold +further intercourse with the natives, "not only in Consequence of his +bad tongue, but on account also of his frequent Violations of the +intercourse laws". In this action he was seconded by the authorities of +the fur company, who sent Mr. H. H. Sibley to fill Mr. Bailly's +place.[375] The pleasant relations which existed between Mr. Sibley and +all the government officials--civil and military--is one of the charming +chapters in the history of the fort.[376] + +Intimately connected with the fur trade was the liquor traffic. Not that +the traders were always responsible for the introduction of the tabooed +commodity, but they were connected with it to such an extent as to be +always under suspicion. Nor was the attitude of the government +consistent. When Pike ascended the Mississippi he spoke of the evil +effects of rum to the chiefs who ceded to the United States the military +reservation; but the explorer closed with the words: "before my +departure I will give you some liquor to clear your throats."[377] Even +Taliaferro, foe that he was of liquor, knew its power. When a +neighboring chief and thirty of his men visited the agency, he recorded: +"After council--gave him 30 Rats Bread--50 Rats Pork--10 lbs Tobacco--3 +gallons of whiskey--the last for good Conduct towards the +Chippeways."[378] + +Liquor was an important asset in carrying on the fur trade. The object +was to please the red man, not to stupefy him to such an extent +that he could be swindled. With the growth of the great companies and +the influx of numbers of private traders there were many bidders for +each Indian's furs. Complaint was continual that the British traders +about the Lake of the Woods successfully offered whiskey as an +inducement to get the trade of the American Indians.[379] Governor Cass, +thinking it would be worse to lose the trade than admit the liquor, +allowed its introduction, in "limited quantities", by those engaged in +business along the boundary.[380] But the act of July 9, 1832, provided, +that "no ardent spirits shall be hereafter introduced, under any +pretence, into the Indian country."[381] This put an end to the stock +excuse. At the same time Americans suffered to such an extent that Mr. +Norman W. Kittson at Pembina wanted permission to destroy all liquor and +punish all offenders, promising "that very little would be introduced +after a short time".[382] So acute was the difficulty that it became the +subject of diplomatic correspondence with Great Britain; but the +authorities of the Hudson's Bay Company retorted that "spirits are even +clandestinely introduced into the Company's territories by citizens of +the United States."[383] + +During the first years stringent measures were in force at the mouth of +the Minnesota River. At Prairie du Chien, Taliaferro had seen the +barrels rolled out from the river vessels and they foretold to him +coming murders and depredations. His coöperating friend, Colonel +Snelling, graphically described its evil effects. "Herds of +Indians", he said, "are drawn together by the fascinations of whisky, +and they exhibit the most degraded picture of human nature I ever +witnessed."[384] The drunken Indian did not molest the trader; his +peaceful fellow-tribesman suffered more. "An Indian killed at Al [?] +Faribault's Trading house--whiskey was given the Indian for his furs--by +Mr. F.--The deceased then invited one of his friends to drink with +him--the invitation was accepted--when this friend becoming inflamed +with the Liquor very inhospitably sunk his Tomahawk into the head of his +host--whiskey it is said does no harm in the Trade by persons +interested--but the foregoing is only one of the many hundred fatal +occurrences from its use in procuring furs unlawfully."[385] + +In fact, the Indians were continually agitated. If they received the +spirits they naturally revelled. When their supply was exhausted they +raged and fumed until they secured more. Sometimes the disease was more +desirable than the cure. "I have thus far seen but few of the indians of +this place and I am in hopes of passing on North without much trouble +there has just arrived a fresh supply of whiskey which will keep them +busy for a few days and by that time my carts will be almost out of +their reach."[386] + +The eagerness for liquor on the part of the Indians made its +introduction all the more easy. For it they were willing to pay much: +eight horses were at one time exchanged for eight kegs of whiskey,[387] +and the current rate at which it sold is indicated by the +complaint which a Chippewa chief poured into the ears of the agent: "My +Father--Is it right for our traders to make us pay 200 Musk Rats, and 3 +otters for a 3 gallon keg of mixed whiskey?"[388] They would undergo +extreme physical suffering, lying out in the rain and wading rivers and +swamps, to bring the precious liquid to their villages.[389] + +The officers were never successful in entirely banishing the prohibited +article. Conditions depended upon the eagerness of the military and +civil agents, on the number of soldiers stationed at the fort, and on +the wiliness of the culprits. On one occasion liquor "was found secreted +in barrels of corn, buried on the beach and in other secret places, and +destroyed."[390] + +Major Taliaferro was not lax in enforcing the laws. Every boat passing +Fort Snelling was searched, and no liquor was allowed to enter the +Indian country.[391] A few stray references seem to indicate what was a +usual occupation of the troops. "The Sub Agent Mr. Grooms left with 10 +men on his 2d expedition below Lake Pepin in quest of whiskey +Smuglers--as our Indians even entering the country with it from Prairie +du Chiens and the Traders of the Am Fur Cpy are geting whiskey over the +country by land and water".[392] During May, 1827, the agent called the +attention of Colonel Josiah Snelling to the fact that in Mr. Bailly's +store at Mendota there was whiskey which had been introduced into the +Indian country contrary to law. Accordingly a detachment of +soldiers was sent under the command of Lieutenant J. B. F. Rupel, who +succeeded in finding two barrels which were taken away and stored in the +fort.[393] + +The year 1832 saw especial activity in the destruction of liquor. The +boat of one trader passed up the Mississippi during April, having on +board eighteen barrels of whiskey.[394] Later in the season the +vigilance of the officers had direct results. In July eleven kegs of +high wines, very strong in quality, and in quantity amounting to one +hundred and ten gallons, were taken from the boat of Hazen Moores by +Captain J. Vail. The value of this liquor was $330. In October of the +same year, five kegs of high wines and one keg of whiskey were found by +Lieutenant I. K. Greenough in the boat of Louis Provencalle. These +confiscated kegs were stored in the fort, and an interesting side-light +on their ultimate fate is contained in the report of Major Taliaferro "I +am of opinion", he wrote, "from what I hear that the High Wines, and +Whiskey Seized by Lieuts Vail and Greenough, and in Store here will soon +be of little account in Consequence of loss by leakage, and the property +Not in charge of any responsible person--Other than its mere deposite +in the public store." Whether any efforts were made to stop the leaks is +not mentioned.[395] + +These energetic movements caused "consternation among those natives who +have not yet joined the temperance Societties".[396] But they also +caused violent opposition from the men whose goods had been +seized. These traders commenced a suit in the courts at Prairie du Chien +against the commanding officer at Fort Snelling, arguing that while the +law prohibited the introduction of liquor into the Indian country, this +seizure had been made on the Mississippi River--"a common highway open +to all the Citizens of the United States".[397] + +It is impossible to follow the course of the whiskey traffic through its +ups and downs. Numerous cases are recorded where the soldiers "knocked +in the head" the whiskey barrels.[398] But it was probably true, as the +missionary S. R. Riggs wrote from Lac qui Parle on June 15, 1847, to the +Indian agent: "The whiskey destroyed by the efforts of yourself and the +commanding officer at Fort Snelling forms the glorious exception, and +not the rule."[399] + +Under the regulations existing in 1830 the traders were allowed to take +with them into the Indian country one gallon per month for every person +engaged in the party. Under plea of this they brought in high wines +which were later diluted with water and distributed among the Indians. +Of the amount brought in, the employees actually saw only one-third, and +this they paid for at the rate of from eight to sixteen dollars per +gallon.[400] Accordingly, Major Taliaferro issued a circular letter in +which he stated that high wines and whiskey would be allowed to be +brought in "in no case whatever".[401] Actions such as these by the +agent, who was still a young man, brought about the remark which Mr. +Aitkin, a trader among the Chippewas, is reported to have made to +some chiefs: "The Medals and Flags which you received at St Peters are +nothing more than pewter and dish rags, and were given to you by a boy, +and with a boys paw."[402] + +Much of the good which should have resulted from the activities of the +officers was lost because the Indian could not be punished. If liquor +was found in his possession and seized there was nothing to prevent his +going back and obtaining more, taking the chance of being more +successful in evading the authorities the second time.[403] Accordingly +prevention as well as cure was tried, and Captain Eastman, Mr. Sibley, +and others sought, with some success, to persuade the Indians to refuse +to accept liquor.[404] Two years later the Indian agent, R. G. Murphy, +organized a temperance society among the Sioux, who, an observer stated, +were careful in living up to the pledge when once taken; and added, "One +such man as Major Murphy does more _real, practical good_ than all the +missionary societies of New York and Boston."[405] + + + + +X + +SOLDIERS OF THE CROSS + + +Since the days of Father Marquette the Mississippi Valley has owed much +to the missionaries. Parkman has recounted their sufferings and their +glorious achievements in discovery, in exploration, and in inspiring +others with their stories of the wonderful West. But when the +black-robed Jesuit departed, and mass was no longer said in the log +chapels about the lakes and tributary streams, the influence of +Christianity still abided. There came a new generation of soldiers of +the cross who served the great valley in a later stage of development as +unselfishly and as thoroughly as their predecessors had done in the +earlier days. + +The Indian in the Northwest in 1830 was not unacquainted with or hostile +to the whites; he did not fall down in awe to worship one of a different +color. His grandfather had traded with the wandering traveller who often +lived a whole winter in the village, and with his tribe had visited the +great commercial center at Mackinac. His father remembered the day when +the second class of strangers entered--the uniformed soldiers led by +Pike--and now the sound of the big gun in the fort at the mouth of the +Minnesota was no longer a dread portent. + +But the missionary was a novelty. His purpose was unknown. He did not +ask for furs; he did not stealthily give them whiskey; he did not come +to summon them to councils at the agent's house; and he did not ask for +cessions of land. If they would respect the white man's "medicine +day"[406] and let their boys and girls attend the school, if they would +listen patiently while he talked to them of things they did not +understand, this newcomer was content. Out in the woods he cleared a +patch of ground and grew corn. If the red men wanted to help he was very +glad. When the winter storms came, and game was scarce, and the small +supply of corn that the squaws had safely cached in the fall was eaten, +then the missionary helped them in their difficulty. He often went with +them on their hunts, shared all their privations, and eased their pain +if accident or sickness befell them. As the activities of the mission +broadened and its personnel enlarged, the Indian became more and more +acquainted with whites who lived on farms and tilled the soil. So when +at last the land was opened to settlement, the transition from the +missionary's establishment to that of the American farmer was not +sudden. + +Much has been written of the degeneration which came to the Indians +about a fort through their association with the soldiers. That such +degeneration did result is true, but it came about in spite of the +efforts of the officers. On the other hand, distinct steps were taken to +improve the condition of the neighboring tribes; and although these +efforts were soon transferred to the missionaries, yet these +missionaries depended so much on support and encouragement from the +soldiers that their enterprises may be considered as part of the history +of Fort Snelling. The freedom from annoyance enjoyed by the missionaries +living near the fort as compared with those at a distance indicates the +influence of the post.[407] + +Soon after Fort Snelling was established, Taliaferro attempted to +persuade some Indians to undertake farming in order to supplement their +hunting. But they preferred leaving this work to the rather desultory +efforts of the squaws. One chief, however, remembered the advice during +the next winter. Far out on the plains that border on the Missouri River +he and his party were overtaken by a blizzard. Each one wrapped himself +in his blanket and let the snow drift about and over him. With a little +dried buffalo meat which they divided among them, they kept alive until +the storm was over. While lying here, knowing not whether his companions +were dead or alive, expecting himself to be a victim of either the cold +or hunger or both, Chief Cloud Man resolved that if he ever returned to +the vicinity of Fort Snelling he would not depend entirely upon the hunt +for his living, but would also engage in farming under the direction of +the Indian agent. This was no mere death-bed conversion. Many of his +companions refused to follow him in the movement; other chiefs openly +opposed him; but in the spring eight Indians settled upon the shores of +Lake Calhoun to begin the life of agriculturists. This community +was named Eatonville in honor of Secretary of War John H. Eaton.[408] + +On September 1, 1829, there arrived at the fort, the Reverend Alvan Coe +and the Reverend Jedediah I. Stevens, two missionaries on a religious +exploring expedition to locate a site for an establishment. They bore +with them letters of introduction from Joseph M. Street, the agent at +Prairie du Chien, who commended them to Taliaferro's care with a +convincing array of scriptural quotations.[409] The agent offered them +the use of the buildings connected with the grist mill and the saw mill +at the Falls and his own colony at Eatonville. After preaching a few +times to the garrison, the ministers left. It was not until 1835 that +Mr. Stevens located permanently near the post.[410] + +Major Taliaferro was left alone to carry on the difficult enterprise of +civilizing the natives. In 1830 he wrote to the Secretary of War telling +of the progress he had made and of his plans for a log village in which +the Indians could live, instead of in the flimsy bark houses, and a log +house for the protection of the Indians' property. He begged for +financial aid, saying that "Six or eight hundred dollars would mature +what has happily been begun, and this sum from the Civilization fund +would enable me to progress with great efficiency, and without further +tax on the Government."[411] The need for his supervision was constant. +From his diary can be seen how continual was his interest in the +experiment. On April 18, 1831, he ordered the hoes and plows +repaired, and on May 1 he went to the colony taking the implements with +him. Here he found "most of them at work--Cuting down trees, Grubbing +out the roots &c--What was more encouraging some few of the Men were at +this unusual kind of labour for them--they laughed when they saw Me--I +praised them, in every agreable way that could be conveyed to them in +their language." Again on June 8th he was pleased to see the Indians all +at work hoeing their corn and potatoes.[412] + +The success of the colony was gratifying. In 1833 they raised from eight +hundred to a thousand bushels of corn, and the population of the village +was one hundred and twenty-five. Only one death had occurred in three +years.[413] There was much to contend with, however, since the traders +were "violently opposed to Indians commencing to seek a living in this +way."[414] One trader stated that it was a loss to him of five hundred +dollars whenever an Indian learned to read and write.[415] + +With all his duties it is no wonder that the agent was anxious to +receive the help of the missionaries, and although he was himself "a +Deacon in the 'Old School Presbyterian Church'",[416] his basis for +aiding the red men, as he expressed it in a report, was that he had +"endeavored to impress all missionaries with the true fact that +Christianity must be preceded by civilization among the wild tribes. I +hazard nothing in this, for an Indian must be taught all the _temporal_ +benefits of this life first, before you ask him to seek for eternal +happiness; teach him to worship the true and living God through +the self-evident developments of his mother earth. In fine, let +agriculture and the arts precede the preaching of the gospel, after +which, Christianity inculcate if practicable."[417] + +The men who were to be Taliaferro's first helpers were living in the +little village of Washington, Connecticut--two brothers, one +twenty-three years old and the other twenty-one. Here a great revival +occurred and among those whose lives were changed were Samuel Pond and +Gideon Pond. The next year the older of the two went to the West and +drifted into the frontier town of Galena. Hearing from a traveller from +Red River of the Sioux about Fort Snelling he decided to dedicate his +life to uplifting them. Upon broaching the subject to his brother the +latter agreed, and on May 1, 1834, they left Galena on the "Warrior". No +missionary society was supporting them; they had only a little money; +they did not know a word of the "Dakota" tongue; they were uneducated +for missionary work. Living the roving life of the Indians as members of +the tribe, they hoped to be able to gradually influence their lives and +religion.[418] + +On May 6, 1834, the "Warrior" reached Fort Snelling. At the agency +house, Mr. Grooms, who was the acting agent in the absence of Major +Taliaferro, rented them a room. Major Bliss, then in command at the +fort, immediately summoned them to appear before him and explain their +presence in the Indian country without permission.[419] When he heard of + their plans, they fitted immediately into a problem that had been +puzzling him. Big Thunder, chief of the Kaposia village, wanted to raise +more corn. But by using the customary Indian method of hoeing up the +ground before planting, it was impossible to get much land under +cultivation. At Fort Snelling were oxen and a plow, but there was no one +to do the plowing or teach the art to the Indians. Accordingly Samuel +Pond volunteered to take charge of the proposition. + +The plow was taken down the river in a canoe, while the oxen were driven +by land. But the warriors were reluctant about touching the plow until +Big Thunder, chief of the band, had seized the handles himself. For a +week Samuel Pond continued the work. But the dogs had stolen the +provisions he had taken from the fort, and so he was obliged not only to +sleep in the Indian tepee, but also to live upon the ordinary Indian +fare.[420] + +This task of plowing had just been performed when Major Taliaferro +returned from the East. The success of the work done by Big Thunder led +him to ask the Ponds to take charge of the Eatonville colony. As this +would give them an opportunity of carrying out their plans, the brothers +accepted. Their position is indicated by the following entry in +Taliaferro's diary: "I am to furnish out of my private funds--Hay for +the Oxen--belonging to the Indians, & those young men are to have Charge +of them for the Winter--They will plough some this fall and again in the +Spring for the Indians, & go on thereafter to instruct them in +the arts & habits of civilized life."[421] + +Cloud Man, chief of the Calhoun band of Indians, chose a site near the +lake, where a cabin was erected which cost a shilling--for nails. The +walls were of tamarack logs from a neighboring grove; slabs obtained at +the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony furnished a roof; and Major +Taliaferro presented the missionaries with a window. Major Bliss gave +them some potatoes, and Mrs. Bliss presented them with a ham. Knowing +the thievishness of the natives, the Indian agent also added a padlock +to the newly-finished cabin.[422] + +Near the house about four acres of land were cleared and fenced with +logs. A quarter of a mile distant was the Indian village of fourteen +bark lodges, each containing two or three families. This village was +surrounded by corn fields and was reached through a narrow lane made by +putting up posts and tying poles to them with strips of bark.[423] +According to Featherstonhaugh, who visited the establishment a year +later, thirty acres were under cultivation and the yield of corn +amounted to eight hundred bushels. It is interesting to note that this +critical traveller found only one thing about Fort Snelling to commend +and that was the self-sacrifice of the two Pond brothers.[424] + +They entered immediately into the life of the Indians. An extract from a +letter written by one of the brothers shows the wide variety of their +duties. "One Indian," he said, "has been here to borrow my axe, +another to have me help him split a stick; another now interrupts me to +borrow my hatchet; another has been here after a trap which he left with +me; another is now before my window at work with his axe, while the +women and children are screaming to drive the black-birds from their +corn. Again I am interrupted by one who tells me that the Indians are +going to play ball near our house to-day. Hundreds assemble on such +occasions."[425] + +The work that was thus started soon expanded. In the spring of 1835 Rev. +Thomas Smith Williamson arrived at Fort Snelling with his wife, a child, +Miss Sarah Poage, and Alexander G. Huggins. At about the same time Rev. +Jedediah I. Stevens returned to the post he had visited in 1829, and +with the help of the Pond brothers built a mission school at Lake +Harriet. Dr. Williamson went up the Minnesota River to Lac qui Parle, +where another station was established. On May 19, 1837, Rev. Alfred +Brunson came to Fort Snelling for a similar purpose, and after +consulting with the agent and the commandant he chose the village of +Kaposia for his headquarters. But these mission stations and their +personnel were not permanent. The work of the Ponds was soon amalgamated +with that of Mr. Stevens. In 1839 when the Sioux-Chippewa feuds were at +their height and the Indians were afraid to remain at Lake Calhoun, Mr. +Stevens tore down the little cabin the Ponds had built and used the +material for breastworks and moved down the river to Wabasha's +village--outside the influence of Fort Snelling. At the same time +the Ponds moved nearer the fort, where they remained until in 1842 they +established a mission at Oak Grove, eight miles up the Minnesota River. +This same war spirit and the hostility to the missionaries who preached +against it led to the abandonment of the Kaposia enterprise in 1841. In +1846, however, Little Crow asked for a school, and Dr. Williamson came +from Lac qui Parle to take charge of it. These missions remained in +existence throughout the period of Old Fort Snelling.[426] + +The activities of the missions took on two forms--industrial and +educational. By the treaty of 1837 a farmer was provided for the Sioux +about the fort. This position was offered to Gideon Pond who in 1838 +accepted. In return for his salary of six hundred dollars he had to plow +the cornfields, cut hay for the cattle and feed them during the winter, +and build such shelters as the animals might need. As he could not do +all this work alone--and he wanted it thoroughly done--much of his +salary was spent in hiring others to help him. His services were offered +in the same spirit of sacrifice which first brought him to the +region.[427] + +Blacksmiths were maintained at some of the villages. In 1849 Mr. Chatel, +blacksmith for Good Road's village, made among other things, 73 chains +to hang kettles on for cooking, 23 traps, 230 axes, 50 rat spears, 208 +pairs of fish spears, 24 pairs of stirrups, 63 crooked knives, and 199 +hoes. During the same year, Mr. Robertson, the farmer for Little Crow's +village, ploughed 75 acres of land, made 500 yards of fence, put +up 20 tons of hay, and hauled corn for seventeen days. To be sure, +Robertson and Chatel were not missionaries, but they were part of the +movement for civilizing the Indians which was fostered and encouraged by +the officers of the fort.[428] + +In 1837 at Lake Harriet there was an Indian boarding-school, where some +half dozen half-breed girls were learning to read, write, and sew.[429] +The Pond brothers had made the beginnings of an alphabet of the Sioux +language, and books and primers for the use of the scholars were soon +printed.[430] At all the stations surrounding Fort Snelling schools were +maintained, but here as elsewhere "the children in pleasant weather +prefer playing to reading".[431] Some progress was made, however, as is +indicated by the school reports. In 1851 at the school maintained at +Kaposia it is reported that Daniel Renville, Gustavus A. Robertson, +Rosalie Renville, and Fat Duty Win can spell and read in English in +_McGuffy's Eclectic Primer_, and can spell and read in the Sioux +language in _Wowape Metawa_.[432] + +The success of these pioneer efforts depended much on the encouragement +received at the beginning; and by a coincidence this encouragement was +brought about the second summer that the Ponds were in the vicinity. +During the winter Major Gustavus Loomis initiated "a red-hot revival +among the soldiers", and although many of the converts backslid with the +simultaneous appearance of spring and whiskey,[433] yet there were so +many that remained faithful that on June 11, 1835, when Dr. +Williamson arrived, a church was organized in one of the company rooms +at Fort Snelling. This church was composed of soldiers, missionaries, +and fur traders and was a basis of support in the difficult task of +civilizing the Indians.[434] The officers protected and encouraged the +workers under all circumstances, the post doctor gave his services to +them free, and once a month Mr. Stevens preached at the fort.[435] + +In 1838 the church was strengthened by the appointment of a chaplain, +Rev. Ezekiel Gear of Galena. But on December 11, 1838, as he was leaving +Fort Crawford in a sleigh, the horse started up sooner than was expected +and he was thrown out, breaking his right thigh bone. He was kept at the +hospital at Fort Crawford for some months and did not arrive at Fort +Snelling until April 28, 1839.[436] As there was no room large enough to +hold all the soldiers, they were at first not compelled to attend the +services. In 1841, however, the chaplain reported that all the soldiers +attended regularly, but answered feebly to the responses, although the +chaplain believed they were attentive to what was said. These movements, +which were undertaken to elevate the character of the soldiers, could +not but have an effect upon the success of the missionaries.[437] + +Under the protection of Fort Snelling efforts were also made to do +religious work among the fur traders. The inhabitants of Mendota were +old voyageurs and traders, French and half-breeds, and most of them, +having lived long without the ministrations of the church, remembered +the faith of their childhood days in Canada. When in 1838 the +Minnesota country west of the Mississippi was made a part of the +Territory of Iowa, the Diocese of Dubuque was extended to correspond +with the political area. In the following summer Bishop Loras of Dubuque +visited the upper Mississippi and was entertained at the fort and by the +faithful Catholics at Mendota. These amounted in number to one hundred +and eighty-five, fifty-six of whom were baptized, eight were confirmed, +and four couples were given the nuptial benediction. The need for +permanent work was great. Plans were made to bring one or two Sioux to +Dubuque to pass the winter and teach the language to some worker. In the +spring of 1840 Rev. Lucian Galtier was sent up to be the pastor of this +flock.[438] + +It was often with despair that the missionaries saw the Indians still +clinging to their heathen rites, and the few additions to the churches +do not indicate any great transformation of an Indian nation. But if the +lives of the natives were not elevated by their contact with the whites +it was not because they had no opportunity. The forces which led to +their degeneration had the start of the civilizing forces, and they also +appealed more to the Indian's nature. At the same time both romance and +lustre is added to the relations of Old Fort Snelling with the +surrounding Indians by the story of the attempts of the men who had a +vision of what Indian life could be, and who unselfishly tried to make +that vision a reality, encouraged and supported by the military men at +the fort. + + + + +XI + +THE FASHIONABLE TOUR + + +George Catlin, whose wanderings in the West had acquainted him with the +most beautiful and the most accessible scenic spots of the country, +urged upon his readers the adoption of a trip to the Falls of St. +Anthony as the "Fashionable Tour".[439] Primitive life and unspoiled +landscapes could be seen from the comfortable decks of the steamboat. +The objective point of these trips was the Falls of St. Anthony, but it +was at Fort Snelling that the passengers were dropped. Only because of +the necessity of bringing supplies to the troops at the post did the +steamboats make the journey. It is in the writings of these visitors +that there have been preserved many pictures of life in and about Fort +Snelling. Moreover, these visits from the outside world brought pleasure +and satisfaction to the smaller world about the fort. + +In the month of May, 1823, occurred an event which was epochal, not only +in regard to the commercial development of the Northwest, but also in +respect to the growth of the upper Mississippi as a Mecca for +travellers. The steamboat "Virginia", one hundred and twenty feet long +with a twenty foot beam, commanded by Captain Crawford, left St. Louis +with supplies for Fort Snelling; on the tenth of May it was +received by the soldiers at the fort with a salute of cannon and by the +assembled Indians with awe and consternation.[440] "I know not what +impression the first sight of the Phoenician vessels might make on the +inhabitants of the coasts of Greece," wrote one who was a passenger on +that eventful voyage, "or the Triremi of the Romans on the natives of +Iberia, Gaul, or Britain; but I am sure it could not be stronger than +that which I saw on the countenances of these savages at the arrival of +our steam-boat."[441] + +The man who wrote these words was J. C. Beltrami, an Italian refugee, +who for political reasons had fled from his native land. In 1823 he met +Major Taliaferro at Pittsburgh and requested permission to accompany him +to the Falls of St. Anthony. This was granted, and in company with the +Indian agent he arrived at Fort Snelling on the first steamboat to brave +the current of the upper Mississippi.[442] Here for almost two months he +was entertained by the officials at the post, visiting the Indian bands, +attending their councils, writing letters to "My Dear Countess",[443] +and conversing with Mrs. Snelling who alone could speak French with +him.[444] He was on the point of setting out overland for Council Bluffs +when another party arrived at the post. + +In the list of the exploring expeditions which traversed the region +about the head of Lake Superior, by far the most important was the one +led by Stephen H. Long and conducted under the auspices of the War +Department. The permanent members of the party were Major Long of +the Topographical Engineers, Thomas Say, zoölogist and antiquary, +William H. Keating, mineralogist and geologist, Samuel Seymour, +landscape painter and designer, and James E. Colhoun, astronomer and +assistant topographer. The start was made at Philadelphia on April 30, +1823, and the route led by way of Wheeling and Chicago to Fort Crawford +at Prairie du Chien. From this point Major Long and Mr. Colhoun +travelled by land and the others by water, the two parties arriving at +the fort on July 2nd and July 3rd respectively. After a few days wait +the journey was again resumed late on the afternoon of July 9th.[445] + +In the meantime much had been done. The orders issued to Major Long had +authorized him to call upon the commanding officer at any post for men, +horses, camp equipage, provisions, boats, clothing, medicines, and goods +to the value of three hundred dollars to be distributed among the +Indians.[446] Biscuits were baked in the ovens of the fort; Joseph +Renville was engaged as an interpreter; and the detachment of troops +which had accompanied them from Prairie du Chien was exchanged for a new +guard, consisting of a sergeant, two corporals, and eighteen soldiers +under the command of Lieutenant St. Clair Denny.[447] + +But these preparations did not prevent them from enjoying the scenic +views about Fort Snelling. On the sixth of July a walk was taken to the +Falls of St. Anthony. An island in the river which divided the falls +into two parts tempted Mr. Say, Mr. Colhoun, and Mr. Keating to +cross, the water being only two feet deep. But the ford was located only +a few feet above the ledge of the rock, and the slippery footing +rendered the exploit extremely dangerous. When this had been safely +accomplished, Mr. Say and Mr. Colhoun crossed in the same way the +eastern half of the falls, while Mr. Keating with great difficulty +returned to the western bank. Later when the others were crossing the +dangerous passage, they were seen to be in great difficulties whereupon +one of the soldiers went out and aided them to the shore. Only after +they had been strengthened by a dinner, prepared by the old sergeant who +was in charge of the government mills, were they able to return to the +fort.[448] + +The expedition went up the Minnesota River to its source, then down the +Red River to Lake Winnipeg and returned to the East by way of the fur +trader's route along the international boundary and Lake Superior. Fear +of the Indians living about the mouth of the Blue Earth River, one of +whose number had been arrested and sent to St. Louis for murder, had +suggested the necessity of the military escort. But when the place was +reached no trouble resulted, as the Indians had gone on their summer +hunt. Accordingly nine of the soldiers were sent back with canoes--some +of the supplies having been destroyed by accidents. Those who remained +had no easy task. There were only nine horses, and these were reserved +for the officers and "gentlemen" of the company, so that the privates +were obliged to walk.[449] + +On August 9th when the party left Pembina behind, their number had +dwindled. Joseph Snelling, son of Colonel Snelling, who had gone with +them thus far, returned by the same route with three soldiers. J. C. +Beltrami, who had been allowed to cast his lot with theirs, and who had +been equipped and supplied by the Indian agent, who had presented him +with the "noble steed 'Cadmus'",[450] also left them. In company with +two Chippewas and a _bois-brulé_ of Red River, he set out for the +southeast with the purpose of there finding the source of the +Mississippi. Upon a small lake, which he named Lake Julia, he conferred +the honor of being the head of the great river, while it seemed to him +that the "shades of Marco Polo, of Columbus, of Americus Vespucius, of +the Cabots, of Verazani, of the Zenos, and various others, appeared +present, and joyfully assisting at this high and solemn ceremony".[451] +After a journey of great suffering he was welcomed at Fort +Snelling--wearing a hat made of the bark of a tree, and clothes of +skins.[452] + +Not until late in the fall did the connection of Fort Snelling with this +expedition cease, when the soldiers who had accompanied the party as far +as Sault Ste. Marie returned to their post by the Fox-Wisconsin route +after a journey rendered exceedingly disagreeable by the cold.[453] + +In the summer of 1835 George Catlin and his wife spent several months at +Fort Snelling. Mr. Catlin was an artist who made a specialty of Indian +scenes, and his time was occupied in painting scenes of Indian +life and portraits of Indian chiefs. His studio was a room in the +officers' quarters, and his models were the natives who lingered about +the agency. + +Mr. Catlin was extremely desirous of painting some pictures of Indian +dances and ball-plays. In order to persuade the Indians to do their +part, Lawrence Taliaferro told them on July 3rd that if they would come +the next day and entertain the visitors, the great gun at the fort would +be fired twenty-one times for their amusement. As this was the salute +for the national holiday, he was safe in making the prophecy. +Accordingly, on the fourth of July the prairie near the fort, for two +hours, rang with the excited shouts of the ball-players; and when this +pastime was finished the "beggar's-dance", the "buffalo-dance", the +"bear-dance", the "eagle-dance", and the "dance-of-the-braves" furnished +entertainment for three hours more.[454] + +On the sixteenth of July General Robert Patterson of Philadelphia with +his sister and daughter arrived on the steamboat "Warrior". For their +amusement the Indians staged the "dog-dance", using for their victims +two dogs which were presented to them by the officers of the garrison. +Accompanied by a soldier George Catlin left for Prairie du Chien on July +27th. "About this lovely spot", he wrote, "I have whiled away a few +months with great pleasure, and having visited all the curiosities, and +all the different villages of Indians in the vicinity, I close my +notebook and start in a few days for Prairie du Chien, which is three +hundred miles below this; where I shall have new subjects for my +brush and new themes for my pen, when I may continue my epistles."[455] + +In the thirties began that series of geological surveys which has +continued ever since, under both the national and State governments. In +the fall of 1835 George William Featherstonhaugh and William Williams +Mather, geologists in the service of the government, made a survey of +the Minnesota Valley. The detailed scientific report of the survey was +published by the government;[456] while a popular description of the +trip, written by Mr. Featherstonhaugh, appeared in London in 1847 +entitled, "A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor". + +From September 12th to September 15th on the up-journey and from October +16th to October 22nd on the return, the scientist was entertained at the +fort. The reception which he received did not impress him with its +cordiality. "I could not but reflect upon the contrast betwixt the very +kind attentions I had received at the other American posts, and the want +of them I experienced here."[457] But the feeling was mutual. The keen +Indian agent characterized him by saying: "He attempted to pass current +for that which he possessed not--superior talent and modesty in his +profession."[458] Mr. Featherstonhaugh was an Englishman in whose +narrative American institutions were not praised. Even the presence of +his American co-laborer, Mr. Mather, is not suspected by reading the +entertaining story, for his name is not mentioned once. + +It is difficult, therefore, to judge how accurate the account of +his stay at Fort Snelling really is. The room which was given to him for +his use was "an old dirty, ill-smelling, comfortless store-room", and +Major L---- (Loomis?) who was asked by the commandant to provide +accommodations for the visitor bored him with his psalm-singing and +exhortations, being "a living rod in soak to tickle up sluggish +Christians". But, probably unwittingly, Featherstonhaugh admitted that +Fort Snelling was of some service to him. For the supplies and +vegetables taken from the post gardens brought the gunwale of the canoe +to within four inches of the water![459] + +Further exploration of the upper Mississippi was made by Joseph N. +Nicollet during the summer of the next year. This French scientist was +aided in part by the War Department, and in part by the fur traders, P. +Chouteau, Jr., & Co., of St. Louis.[460] While at Fort Snelling he +determined to visit the sources of the great river, and in his +enterprises he was greatly assisted by Lawrence Taliaferro, H. H. +Sibley, and the officers at the fort. Some of the soldiers wished to +accompany him, but the absence of many of the garrison at Prairie du +Chien made their presence at the post necessary. Some Chippewa Indians, +some half-breeds, and a Frenchman, Desiré Fronchet, were his only +companions when the ascent of the river was commenced. But at the first +stopping place, near the Falls of St. Anthony, a band of thieving Sioux +robbed him of many of his supplies, and the attempt would have been +given up had not Major Taliaferro made good the loss from his own +means.[461] Nicollet visited Lake Itasca and indicated its principal +tributary, so that some authors have credited him with being the +discoverer of the true source of the Mississippi.[462] + +After the return from this perilous journey, the winter was spent at +Fort Snelling in working over the notes and a map. For the kindness +shown him Mr. Nicollet expressed great appreciation, though the rude +hospitality of the frontier post could provide no supper better than +wild rice, mush, and milk, and no sleeping quarters better than the +storehouse. But here he was entertained, as the agent wrote, in Virginia +fashion where a call lasts six months and a visit one year; and the +nights were made merry with the music of the violin and piano, and with +the animated conversation of Taliaferro and Nicollet. For many hours on +cold winter nights he studied through his telescope the stars in the +clear heavens.[463] + +Mr. Nicollet devoted two more seasons to examining the country between +the Mississippi and Missouri rivers in company with John C. Frémont. In +1838 a trip was made from Fort Snelling to the pipestone quarry; and in +1839 his party ascended the Missouri River to Fort Pierre, and then +passed over the prairies to the Mississippi.[464] The accounts of these +journeys were widely read, and coming from the pen of such an able +scientist and pleasing writer, the interest of the country was turned to +the rich possibilities of this new Northwest.[465] + +In addition to these well-known travellers there was a host of +people who made the trip as a vacation jaunt. On June 1, 1836, the +"Palmyra" arrived with thirty passengers. The steamboat "Burlington" +tied up at Fort Snelling on June 13, 1838, having among its many +passengers Captain Frederick Marryat, the popular English novelist. Only +two days later the "Brazil" was moored near the "Burlington", the +presence of two boats at the same time being considered a novel sight. +The family of Governor Henry Dodge was on this second boat.[466] + +On June 26, 1838, the "Burlington" was again at Fort Snelling. Among the +tourists on this trip was Mrs. Alexander Hamilton who had embarked at +Galena where she had been visiting her son, W. S. Hamilton, who was +connected with lead mining enterprises in Wisconsin. The fact that Mrs. +Hamilton had been a belle in society during the time of George +Washington, and the general sympathy felt for her ever since the tragic +death of her husband in 1804, caused her to be received with more +attention than was usually bestowed on tourists. At nine o'clock she was +taken in a carriage to the Falls of St. Anthony, and when she returned +to the fort in the afternoon the officers met her at the gate and led +her to a chair placed upon a carpet in the center of the parade ground. +After the troops had been reviewed she was entertained at the +headquarters of the fort until the "Burlington" left that same +evening.[467] + +The extent of this tourist traffic is well illustrated in the newspapers +of the time. Advertisements tell of the interesting features to +be seen on a trip to the upper Mississippi, of the pleasures of +steamboat travel, and promise that "A first rate band of music will be +on board."[468] An editor paused long enough in the exciting +presidential "Log Cabin" campaign of 1840 to remark that "Pleasure trips +to these Falls appear to be quite the go. Large parties of ladies and +gentlemen have passed up on the steamboats Loyal Hanna and Malta. And we +noticed in a late St. Louis paper, the advertisements of the Valley +Forge, Ione, Brazil and Monsoon, all for 'pleasure excursions to St. +Peters'. We see also in the same paper, that the steamboat Fayette is +advertised 'for Harrison and Reform'--rather an extensive country we +should think, at the present time."[469] Even as far away as Louisville, +Kentucky, steamboats were chartered for trips to the upper waters of the +Mississippi River.[470] + +The pleasures of such a journey, the scenery enjoyed, the people met, +the events of the day spent at Fort Snelling are well illustrated by two +letters written by the Right Reverend Jackson Kemper, who was the +missionary bishop of the Northwest of the Episcopal Church.[471] In the +month of August, 1843, he was the guest of Captain Throckmorton on the +steamboat "General Brooke"; and he made the trip to Fort Snelling to +confer with Rev. Ezekiel Gear who was the chaplain at the post. The +first letter was dated August 25, 1843, and was written to his daughter. + +"Here we are snug and almost dry on a sand bar and not more than +13 miles below St. Peters", he wrote. "While the Captain and his men are +using all kinds of methods to get us off--the chief of which is to put +our freight into a large barge aside of us--I will write you a few +lines. It is now past 8 o'c. P. M. We still hope to get to the fort +before night (mid-night I mean). Then the Captain says he will give us +an early breakfast tomorrow and send us off to see the falls (5 Miles +distant) and we must return so as to start down the river by noon. This +is too bad in many respects; but what can we do? I have not time to stay +with Mr. Gear until the next boat arrives; that may not be for a week or +two; so I will say to Mr. G. when I see him: Here I am, & I have come +not to see the falls but you, and I am at your disposal as long as I am +here. If you choose to take me to the falls, it is well; if you prefer +that I should remain in your house I am content. It is still probable +that I shall be at Potosi next tuesday Morning. To travel on Sunday, and +particularly to do so without an opportunity of preaching, will be very +hard. There will probably be only 4 passengers besides myself on the +return. There was a little boat the other [day?] a-head of us, and I +hoped she might be detained at the fort until Monday--but that prospect +has vanished, for she has just past us descending to Galena. + +"It is supposed to be 500 miles from St. Louis to Prairie du Chien and +300 from there to St. Peters. We stopt at Prairie du Chien for some +hours and a Judge Lockwood came on board who with his wife is an +Episcopalian. He told me there are several in and about the town & he +thought the prospect of organizing a church a fair one if a Missionary +could be obtained (We are off the sand bar). From the prairie our voyage +has been delightful. At the distance of a mile or two from the river on +each side are ranges of lofty hills, in a great variety of shapes. Many +of them appeared as if the river had flowed for ages near to their tops. +Some of them looked as if they had been cut in two; and on the peaks of +several were large blocks of rock. As we were woodding I spoke of going +up to one of them but was told it was dangerous on account of +rattle-snakes. There is a curious fact connected with that reptile. +Cannon river flows into the Mis^i from the west--it is a long & narrow +stream--nine miles above Lake Pepin. They are never found north of that +stream, although they abound below it. One of the hills we saw yesterday +had 3 or 4 large blocks of rock upon it, called the pot and kettles from +their resemblance to those useful utensils. The prairies were frequent & +some peculiarly attractive. On Wabasa's we saw a Sioux village--and a +farmer's establishment--he being sent there by the U. S. to civilize the +Indians. This morning we passed another village called Red Wings but saw +very few of the inhabitants. The corn field was very ... [illegible] and +there were in it elevated frames where the boys are kept to scare away +the blackbirds. I saw smoke near the frames, the boys having kindled a +fire to roast ears of corn for their comfort. The Sioux have winter & +summer houses. The latter are conical made of buffalo robes +covering poles. The summer lodges looked something like poor log huts & +are made of poles & elm bark. Near Red Wings village there is a Miss^y +establishment from Switzerland.--Lake Pepin is a beautiful sheet of +water thro wh the M. flows or is an expanse of the M. & is 25 miles by +3. It apparently abounded in large fish, for they were constantly +jumping out of the water. Its banks you know are celebrated for +agates--but we have not time to stop a moment.--The settlements above P. +du Chien are very few--now and then a solitary dwelling & a wood yard. +At one of these places the man told me his nearest neighbor was 20 miles +off. In winter there is a good deal of travelling on the river in +sleighs. About half way up Lake Pepin is the lover's rock of which you +have heard, the Chippeway river enters from the East just below the +commencement of the Lake, & its Mouth is 100 Miles below St. Peters. Up +it & like wise up the St. Croix are saw mills, as that country abounds +with Pine. The Mouth of the St. Croix is 30 miles below St. Peters. Here +is a beautiful lake as large as L. Pepin thro' which the St. C. flows +just before it joins the M.--We have a Mr. Akin on board whose trading +establishment is 300 Miles north of the St. Peters & 60 west of Lake +Superior. Then he has been among the Chippeways 33 yrs. He has been +thro' Lake Superior 30 times to New York for goods & returned as often; +and now for the first time he has traded with St. Louis. He knows +perfectly all the languages around him. The most copious is the +Chippeway. He says they have some what of a written language, and he has +frequently seen an Indian write off a ... [illegible] for another on a +piece of bark. He thinks the characters are something like those of the +Mexicans.--Now I suppose you would like to receive a letter with the S. +Peter's post Mark; and if I ascertain it will not take more than a Month +on its journey you shall receive this thro that channel; otherwise I +will reserve it for the p. o. of P. du Chien".[472] + +The narrative is continued in a letter of August 29, 1843, written from +Potosi, Wisconsin, to his son: + +"Although you may not have a very high opinion of the West, yet I think +you would have liked to be with me in my late trip to St. Peters. The +weather was delightful and the scenery grand and very novel. You have +probably seen my letter to your sister; I will therefore say, we arrived +at the end of our voyage last friday night, and as the fog was very +thick the next morning we could not see where we were until 8 oclock. +Then the fort on a high hill, with its flag flying, had a fine +appearance. Mr. Gear the chaplain soon called at the boat and appeared +greatly rejoiced to see me. I accompanied him to his quarters and saw +his family and some of the officers and ladies of the garrison, and then +he and I rode out 8 miles to the falls of St. Anthony. Though very +inferior to those of Niagara, they are still well worth seeing. The +scenery is wild--there are many immense rocks in the river, evidently +broken off from the precipice over which the water is dashed with +considerable noise--the water in its fall is frequently broken--but even +when it is not so, the height is not more than 17-1/2 feet. Returning we +went to a hill from whence we could see the whole of the fall for there +is an island in the middle of the river which hides one half of it when +you are near. A mile or two further brought us to a most beautiful and +lofty cascade on Nine Mile river. The quantity of water was not large, +but it fell amidst the wildest scene, unbroken, over a ledge of rock +which extended far beyond its foundation.--There were not many Indians. +The few I saw were Sioux who looked much degenerated by their contact +with the Whites. The families of the officers appeared very happy; the +ladies told me they were like sisters. For months they have no visitors +but wild Indians--Sioux or Chippeways. An old Scotchman who had been in +this country 50 years told me that all the tribes to the North and West +speak the Chippeway language or its dialects; that the Sioux is entirely +different from it, but that a dialect of it is spoken by the +Winnebagoes, with this difference that the Sioux language has not the +sound of the letter R in it while almost every word of the Winnebago +abounds with Rs. He thinks that a person knowing the two languages--the +C. and S. could travel through the indian country from Mexico to the N. +Pole and make himself understood.--We had to return to the boat by one +oclock, and soon after we started down the river. Near the Mouth of the +St. Croix--about 45 miles below St. Peters, I saw on a prairie a +large stone painted a bright red, to which the Indians offer sacrifices +of tobacco &c. and consider a _Wa-Kon_ or Spirit.--As we were on our +journey sunday afternoon I saw a bark canoe paddling towards us with +great rapidity containing as I first thought an Indian and a white Man. +The steamer was stopt, and soon the chattels (kettle, coffee-pot, &c) +then the men afterwards the boat itself were on board. They proved to be +a miner who had gone from Galena and a stout lad. Eight months ago a +number of persons were induced by offers of land from Government to go +to Lake Superior in search of copper; and a large party had lately been +occupied in removing an immense block of copper from the bed of a river +which empties into the Lake. This miner had been thus occupied; and he +informed me that the task was done--that the block weighed three +tons--that it was to be taken to New York &c as an object of curiosity. +A fortnight ago he had started from the spot--skirted the Lake to a +certain river, ascended that to its source, then carried the canoe with +its contents 2 or 3 miles on their shoulders until they met the head +waters of the St. Croix, and descended that river to the +Mississippi."[473] + + + + +XII + +THE CHIPPEWA TREATY OF 1837 + + +The relations of the United States government to the Indians prior to +1871 shows a dual attitude. On the one hand, the Indians were the +government's wards. By the ninth of the Articles of Confederation, +Congress was given the right of "regulating the trade and managing all +affairs with the Indians who were not members of any of the +states";[474] and by the act regulating Indian trade no cession of land +could be valid unless made by treaty or convention.[475] On the other +hand, these treaties were negotiated and proclaimed with all the pomp +and ceremony which would appeal to the Indian's mind and impress him +with his importance as a member of a sovereign nation. This was +distinctly a "legal fiction", but it continued as the customary method +of procedure until the act of March 3, 1871, abolished the practice of +considering the tribes as independent nations.[476] + +As the nation increased in strength and the agricultural and commercial +forces of the country were pushing westward and coming into contact with +the distant tribes, the treaties increased in number and importance. +Urged by the cries of hungry land-seekers the cession of land by the +natives gradually became the most important phase of all treaties; and + in order that the new settlements might be protected from +vengeful Indians the title to the land rested on legal cession rather +than on conquest. It is stated on the authority of the Commissioner of +Indian Affairs that "Except only in the case of the Sioux Indians in +Minnesota, after the outbreak of 1862, the Government has never +extinguished an Indian title as by right of conquest; and in this case +the Indians were provided with another reservation, and subsequently +were paid the net proceeds arising from the sale of the land +vacated."[477] + +The negotiation of a treaty was not an easy affair. There were no +recognized representatives of the tribe. In order that a treaty might be +satisfactory it was necessary that all factions be consulted; and the +braves who gathered often numbered into the hundreds. Thus, in planning +the negotiations a satisfactory place and an opportune time must be +selected, while the red men must be supported while away from home and +protected from lurking enemies. It was in these phases of treaty-making +that the military posts showed their importance. + +The first important treaty with which the tribes living about Fort +Snelling were concerned was that made at Prairie du Chien in 1825. The +little frontier village presented a gala appearance during the month of +August when the great convocation was held. There were Chippewas, Sioux, +Sacs and Foxes, Menomonies, Iowas, Winnebagoes, and a portion of the +Ottawa, Chippewa, and Pottawattomie tribes living on the Illinois River +gathered to consult with Governor Lewis Cass of Michigan and +General William Clark, the government's commissioners. Of the 1054 +drawing rations on the last day, 386 were of the delegation of Sioux and +Chippewas gathered by Major Taliaferro at Fort Snelling and brought down +in safety to make a triumphal entry in true Indian style with flags +flying, drums beating, and guns firing.[478] + +Although there was no cession of land, distinct progress was made in +that the territories of the various tribes were defined, thus making +negotiations easier for the future. Of especial importance was the +Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, which made clear the territory of each +tribe, so that when the year 1837 arrived and treaties were made to +obtain the lands east of the Mississippi, the areas with which each was +concerned were clearly understood.[479] + +By the year 1837 many conditions called for the cession of these lands. +The forests, the water-power, the mines of lead and other ores aroused +the desires of speculators. Settlers were thronging to Wisconsin, and it +was felt that if the land could be purchased and the Indians removed, +the people would be safe from any attacks, and the Indians would be +removed from the contaminating influence of many of the undesirable +whites.[480] There were also the traders who for years past had given +credit to many worthless Indians who had never brought back from the +hunt furs sufficient to pay for the goods advanced them; and they hoped +that in the payment for the lands certain sums would be reserved +for the liquidation of these debts.[481] + +In the early summer of 1837 Major Taliaferro was ordered to organize a +delegation of Sioux Indians who could be taken to Washington, where the +Sioux negotiations would take place. At the same time orders were issued +to summon the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi to a council to be held +at Fort Snelling. To both of these groups the subject of the purchase of +the Indian lands east of the Mississippi would be broached.[482] + +Miles Vineyard, who was the sub-agent at Fort Snelling, was immediately +sent to the villages of the Chippewas. Early in July the red men began +to arrive, and by July 20th about a thousand men, women, and children +had pitched their tepees near the fort. Many were the notable chiefs +gathered there with their warriors. With the Pillager band from Leech +Lake was Chief Flat Mouth, who had twenty-five times been on the warpath +without receiving a wound, who had delivered his English medal to Pike +in 1806, and whose band had been attacked by the Sioux under the walls +of Fort Snelling in 1827. The most famous of the Chippewa chiefs, he was +still living in 1852, being then seventy-eight years old.[483] + +The chief of the bands from Gull Lake and Swan River was +Hole-in-the-Day. Energetic, brave, and intelligent, he gained a great +influence over the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi. His name, which +literally meant a bright spot in the sky, is often written +Hole-in-the-Sky. He was a frequent visitor at Fort Snelling and came to +his death at that place in 1847 when he fell from a wagon, breaking his +neck and dying instantly.[484] His brother Strong Ground or Strong Earth +was also present at the council. He had been a member of Flat Mouth's +band at the time of the massacre in 1827. Thirty-six eagle plumes waved +from his head-dress at the time of his death, each of them representing +the scalp of an enemy. The first of these he obtained when as a small +boy he dashed into the ranks of the Sioux during a conflict and scalped +a fallen warrior.[485] Chiefs and warriors from the St. Croix River, +Mille Lac, and Sandy Lake, with their followers, were also encamped near +the fort. + +There were also notables among the white men gathered there. The United +States commissioner was Henry Dodge, known as an Indian fighter, and at +that time Governor of Wisconsin Territory. General William R. Smith of +Pennsylvania, who had been appointed by the President to serve as a +commissioner with Governor Dodge, was unable to come. Lawrence +Taliaferro, the Indian agent, was busied with many duties connected with +the safety of the visitors. Four hundred Sioux hovered about, and these +had to be kept at a safe distance to avoid conflicts. Verplanck Van +Antwerp, the secretary of the commission; J. N. Nicollet, the explorer; +H. H. Sibley; and many other fur traders watched the negotiations and +put their names to the treaty as witnesses.[486] + +The council began on July 20th. It was with the chiefs that Governor +Dodge parleyed, but the warriors and braves felt that they also should +have some part in the proceedings. On one occasion several hundred of +them, streaked with their brightest paint, waving their tomahawks and +spears and carrying the war flag of the Chippewas, together with the +flag of the United States, interrupted the council with their whoops and +drums; and when they had approached the chair of the Governor, paused +while two of the warriors harangued the crowd on the kindness of the +traders and the debts owed them.[487] + +The negotiations were carried on in a bower near the house of the agent. +The chiefs were assembled daily; the peace pipe was smoked; and the red +men, dressed only in leggings and breech cloths, with their long hair +hanging over their shoulders under the eagle feathers upon their heads, +and medals dangling from their necks, spoke of lands, of the traders, +and of wars. The speeches of the Indians seemed interminable. From day +to day action was postponed as they were waiting for other bands to +arrive. + +To prolong the council as long as possible was satisfying to the +appetite of the Indian. The rations issued by the commissary at Fort +Snelling were not to be eagerly exchanged for the fare of a Chippewa +lodge in the northern woods. But at first the menu was not satisfactory. +Nadin (the Wind) complained on July 24th: "You have everything around +you, and can give us some of the cattle that are around us on the +prairie. At the treaty of Prairie du Chien, the case was as +difficult as this. The great Chief then fed us well with cattle."[488] +Evidently this hint was acted upon, as the old records show that by July +30th ten beeves weighing 6123 pounds had been furnished the Chippewas +who were assembled to the number of 1400.[489] The amount of supplies +used on such an occasion is indicated by instructions given to Alexander +Ramsey and John Chambers who in 1849 were commissioned to treat with the +Sioux Indians at Fort Snelling. They were authorized to obtain from the +commissary at Fort Snelling 15,000 rations of flour, 10,000 of pork, +10,000 of salt, 10,000 of beans, and 5000 of soap.[490] + +At the first meeting Governor Dodge spoke to the Chippewas of the +purpose of the council. Their lands east of the Mississippi, he informed +them, were not valuable in game and were not suited for agricultural +purposes. They were said to be covered with pine trees, which the white +men were eager to obtain, and accordingly the government was willing to +pay the Chippewa nation for them. Thus, by selling the land they could +obtain money for that which actually was of little value to them.[491] + +There evidently was no intention on the part of the Indians not to sell +the lands, but the council was protracted, pending the arrival of other +bands. Not until July 27th did they make any movement to close the deal. +On that day, Ma-ghe-ga-bo, a warrior of the Pillager band, dressed in +his most fantastic costume, covered a map of the land in question with a +piece of paper, remarking that when the paper was removed the +land would be considered sold. He added a final request: "My father, in +all the country we sell you, we wish to hold on to that which gives us +life--the streams and lakes where we fish, and the trees from which we +make sugar." + +Finally he asked all the chiefs who agreed to sell the land to rise. +About thirty arose at his word. Immediately Ma-ghe-ga-bo raised the +paper from the map and seized the hand of Governor Dodge. The sale was +made. There remained only to agree upon the terms of the cession.[492] + +During the negotiations, reference had been made continually by the +Indians to the traders and the payment of the debts owed them. Pe-she-ke +said: "I have been supported by the trader, and without his aid, could +not get through the winter with naked skin. The grounds where your +children have to hunt are as bare as that on which I now stand, and have +no game upon them.... We have not much to give the traders, as our lands +and hunting grounds are so destitute. Do us a kindness by paying our old +debts." That he was coached to make the remark is evident from his +statement that "No-body--no trader has instructed me what to say to +you."[493] + +On July 29th the terms were finally agreed upon, and while the secretary +was writing out the treaty the braves of the Chippewas held a dance +under the walls of Fort Snelling. This indicated not only their +satisfaction at the successful conclusion of the council, but was also +intended as a compliment to the commissioner. Three hundred +warriors circled about in their gaudy costumes, recounting during the +pauses of the dance the deeds of bravery they had done and the number of +Sioux scalps they had obtained. At a distance a great number of Sioux +looked upon the scene, not daring to interfere when the troops of the +fort were so near.[494] + +By this treaty the Chippewas ceded an immense tract of land east of the +Mississippi. In return the United States agreed to pay annually for +twenty years $9500 in money, $19,000 in goods, $3000 for blacksmiths, +$1000 for farmers, $2000 in provisions, and $500 in tobacco. One hundred +thousand dollars was to be paid to the half-breeds, and $70,000 was set +aside to pay the claims of the fur traders. The privilege of hunting, +fishing, and gathering wild rice along the lakes and rivers of the ceded +territory was reserved for the Indians.[495] + +This cession of land by the Chippewas had its counterpart in a treaty +concluded by Sioux chiefs on September 29, 1837, in Washington, whither +they had been taken by Major Taliaferro. All their lands east of the +Mississippi--the land between the Black River and the Mississippi River +as far north as the Sioux-Chippewa boundary line was given up for +various considerations amounting in total to almost one million +dollars.[496] + +By these two treaties all the lands east of Fort Snelling were opened to +settlement and commercial exploitation. As soon as the news of their +ratification came, developments immediately began--developments +which had an important bearing upon the future history of Old Fort +Snelling. The days when the Chippewa treaty was being drawn up are +important, not only because they present an interesting sight of the +picturesque features of an Indian council, but also because they show +how Fort Snelling was assisting in the opening up of the rich timber +lands and fertile prairies that border the Mississippi River. + +For many years the payment of annuities that had been promised the Sioux +was an annual reminder of these treaties. It was necessary that each +Indian receive his portion of the goods and money in person in order to +prevent fraud. In the late summer of each year all the warriors of Red +Wing's and Wabasha's villages would leave their homes for the fort. In +the agency building the United States officers, with the roll of the +Sioux nation before them, called the names of the individuals, who one +by one stepped up, touched the pen of the secretary, received the money, +and deposited it in the box of his band. Outside was the typical Indian +group--squaws, children, dogs, and braves smoking their pipes and +talking of past achievements. And in order that the Indians might always +be conscious of the presence of the soldiers of the "Great Father", the +band of the fort played patriotic and thrilling airs.[497] + +With the transfer of the Indians to reservations higher up on the +Minnesota River the payment of these annuities became a task which could +no longer be performed at the fort. But the guarding of the funds +was a necessity. Captain James Monroe spent the latter half of the month +of November, 1852, at Traverse des Sioux with one subaltern and +forty-seven men of the dragoons and infantry, protecting the money from +bandits and Indians. William T. Magruder was ordered on October 23, +1853, to proceed in command of a detachment of troops to escort the +money being sent to Fort Ridgely; and exactly a year later, an officer +and thirteen men were detailed to perform a similar task.[498] + + + + +XIII + +CITIZENS AND SOLDIERS + + +"The frontier army post," writes Professor F. J. Turner, "serving to +protect the settlers from the Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open +the Indian country, and has been a nucleus for settlement."[499] When +the Fifth Infantry built its cantonment on the Minnesota River there +were no other habitations in the neighborhood. Traders yearly frequented +the region and wintered on the banks of the Mississippi and Minnesota +rivers, but their headquarters were located at Prairie du Chien. +Immediately after the beginning of the military establishment, however, +the movement mentioned by Professor Turner was initiated. + +In the spring of 1820 J. B. Faribault came up with cattle for the +garrison and decided to locate in the vicinity as a fur trader. On +August 9th the Indians granted Pike's Island to his wife, Pelagi +Faribault, who was the daughter of a Frenchman and a Sioux woman. +Faribault immediately built houses upon the island, but high water +washed them away. Thereupon he removed to the east side of the +Mississippi. It is probably to this establishment that Beltrami referred +in 1823 when he wrote that "there are no buildings round the fort, +except three or four log-houses on the banks of the river, in +which some subaltern agents of the Southwest Company live among the +frogs."[500] This position was also upon low land, and on April 21, +1826, when the ice began to move, Faribault's houses were carried away, +while he and his family escaped in canoes.[501] After this second +disaster Faribault's establishment was erected at Mendota, where Alexis +Bailly had already located.[502] The growth of this village was very +slow. But gradually old fur traders settled about it with their +families; voyageurs, when not employed on the rivers, lounged about the +trading house; and the agents and clerks of the American Fur Company had +their permanent homes in the rude log cabins which were clustered about. + +In the meantime a new element had been added to the surroundings of the +fort. It was already three-quarters of a century since the traders had +erected the first trading post upon the Red River of the North. The +early French voyageurs had left a race of half-breeds, popularly called +_bois-brulés_, who were the vassals of the two great companies. When +their strength had been spent in the labors of hunting and trapping, +they retired to the vicinity of some post--the largest of these +settlements being Fort Garry, the germ of the modern city of Winnipeg, +which as early as 1823 boasted of a population of about six +hundred.[503] + +But not all of these half-breeds were traders. Thomas Douglas, the fifth +Lord Selkirk had secured from the Hudson's Bay Company the grant of an + immense tract of land on the Red River, and in 1811 he began the +colonization of the region with poor immigrants from Scotland and +Ireland. But the knowledge of the internal troubles of the company put +an end to the immigration from these two countries, and Lord Selkirk +turned to Switzerland for new recruits. In 1821 a ship full of Swiss +sailed for Fort York on Hudson's Bay, and late in the fall the party +reached the Red River after a toilsome journey up the Nelson River and +across Lake Winnipeg. Being artisans and city-dwellers they were unable +to endure the rough agricultural labors in the bleak north. Cold, +floods, grasshoppers, and uncongenial neighbors rendered the location +unpleasant.[504] + +Travellers from the south brought news of a better locality, and towards +this place there soon began a movement which, while not great in any one +year, was long continued. In 1821 five families made the journey to Fort +Snelling, and their success inspired others. In 1823 thirteen families +made the perilous journey of four hundred miles. From year to year, as +families became discouraged they left the colony. Four hundred and +eighty-nine persons had arrived at Fort Snelling up to 1835.[505] + +The many hardships endured by these travellers, and their pitiful +condition, appealed to the sympathy of the Americans,[506] and they were +welcomed and aided by the officers at Fort Snelling. During their stay +one party was granted the use of the old barracks at Camp Cold Water. +Employment was given the men upon the reservation, and those who +preferred to remain were allowed to settle upon the military +grounds. Comparatively few, however, made their homes here, the greater +number proceeding to Galena, Illinois, and Vevay, Indiana. On one +occasion provisions for the down-river journey in government keel-boats +were issued by Colonel Snelling.[507] + +A third class of settlers around the fort was composed of discharged +soldiers. Men stationed at Fort Snelling saw the agricultural value of +the surrounding lands, or the possibility of riches in the fur trade. +Joseph R. Brown, who came as a drummer boy with Colonel Leavenworth in +1819, entered the employ of the post sutler when he ceased his +connection with the army, and later he became an Indian trader.[508] +Edward Phelan, John Hays, and William Evans, whose terms of service at +Fort Snelling expired about this time were among the first settlers on +the land ceded in the treaty of 1837.[509] + +In the fall of 1837 it was revealed by a survey that there were one +hundred and fifty-seven white persons, not connected with the fort, +living on the reservation. Of these, eighty-two had their homes in the +vicinity of Camp Cold Water and seventy-five at the fur trading +establishments. Approximately two hundred horses and cattle were owned +by these persons.[510] + +For many years pleasant relations existed between the officers at the +post and the civilians. The physician of the garrison willingly +responded to calls for his aid made by the people living outside the +fort. + +"I am compelled", wrote Joseph Renville to H. H. Sibley, "to ask you for +some assistance in regard to a disease which is very bad here--the +whooping cough. I pray you to ask the doctor for some medicine, +particularly for some camphor."[511] Many a time Lawrence Taliaferro +presided at a frontier wedding, when in one of the rude huts on the +reservation the picturesque figure of the fur trader mingled with the +glittering uniform of the officer, and dusky faces peered in at the +windows awaiting the end of the ceremony when they also could partake of +such a feast as only the prairies, lakes, and sutler's store could +provide.[512] + +In the troubles which naturally arose between the settlers and the +Indians, the agent was the mediator. Thirty of Peter Musick's cattle +were killed by Indians who, wanting only powder horns, left the +carcasses to the wolves.[513] On July 13, 1834, Jacob Falstrom came to +the agency bringing the feet and hams of an ox which he claimed had been +shot by a Sioux Indian at Mud Lake. He claimed thirty-five dollars from +the Indian Department for the loss which he had sustained. As he was a +poor man and had a large family to support Major Taliaferro was moved to +make an effort to aid him. "I proposed", he wrote in his diary the same +evening, "to contribute $5 for the benefit of J. Faustram to Several of +the Gentlemen of the Post--but not meeting with a corresponding +Sentiment--the poor fellow must be informed of my bad success in his +behalf".[514] + +Only a week later Joseph R. Brown asked to be paid for a hog +which the Indians had killed.[515] During the summer of 1837 Louis Massy +claimed $150; Abraham Perry $50; and Benjamin F. Baker $750 for similar +damages.[516] Many years later the agent wrote of these unpleasant +duties: "The traders would make a detective of the agent if practicable. +All thefts on each other were reported to the agent for justice. +Deserting boatmen (fed on corn and tallow) must be forced to proceed up +the St. Peter's with their outfits for the trade, right or wrong. Every +ox, cow, calf or hog lost by persons on the Indian lands, the agents +were expected to find the culprits or pay for these often fictitious +losses."[517] + +A new era in the history of these settlers began when the treaties of +1837 opened the lands east of the Mississippi to settlement. Some time +before they had heard rumors of the coming negotiations at Washington, +and those living west of the Mississippi sent a memorial to the +President stating that they had settled upon the land thinking it was +part of the public domain and believing that they would have the right +of preëmption upon their claims. But now, if a new treaty was made and +the land west of the Mississippi purchased for a military reservation, +they asked that they be allowed reasonable compensation for the +improvements they had made. However, in the treaty no mention was made +of a military reservation, the title to the land around the fort being +allowed to rest upon Pike's treaty of 1805.[518] + +But to Major J. Plympton, who became the commanding officer at Fort +Snelling during the summer of 1837, the presence of these people +was undesirable, and so in a letter written to the Adjutant-General he +called attention to the settlement and complained of the difficulty of +obtaining fuel for the garrison when the squatters were also engaged in +the same task. In his reply on November 17, 1837, the Adjutant-General +directed that a reservation be marked off--the extent of Pike's purchase +being indefinite.[519] + +On March 26, 1838, Major Plympton sent a map of the territory which he +chose to have considered as a military reservation. This reservation, +contrary to the expectations of many, included land on the east side of +the Mississippi. Thus there were many who thought that they had been +using their legal rights of preëmption when in reality they were only +squatters. Order No. 65 issued at the post on July 26, 1838, forbade the +erection of any buildings or fences upon the reservation, and prohibited +the cutting of timber except for public use.[520] During this same time +there seems to have been, on the part of those living on the west bank +of the Mississippi, a movement to the east side. Mrs. Abraham Perry came +to Agent Taliaferro on October 18, 1838, and complained that the Indians +had killed three of her cattle "just below the stone cave"--that is, +Fountain Cave which was on the east bank of the river.[521] Yet her +husband was among those who had signed the petition of August 16, 1837, +as residents on the west side. + +Within these lands were also a number of shacks along the river +bank a few miles below Fort Snelling. Here whiskey was clandestinely +transferred from the boats before they proceeded upstream. During the +winter of 1839 the presence of these resorts had a deteriorating effect +upon the garrison. Surgeon Emerson wrote to the Surgeon General of the +United States on April 23, 1839: "Since the middle of winter we have +been completely inundated with ardent spirits, and consequently the most +beastly scenes of intoxication among the soldiers of this garrison and +the Indians in its vicinity, which no doubt will add many cases to our +sick-list.... I feel grieved to witness such scenes of drunkenness and +dissipation where I have spent many days of happiness, when we had no +ardent spirits among us, and consequently sobriety and good conduct +among the command."[522] + +Brigadier General John E. Wool inspected Fort Snelling on June 2nd, and +in a letter on June 28th he urged that the settlers be driven off the +reservation. "Such is the character of the white inhabitants of that +country", he wrote, "that if they cannot be permitted to carry on their +nefarious traffic with the Indians, it will sooner or later involve them +in a war with the United States."[523] + +Influenced by these letters and reports Secretary of War J. R. Poinsett +determined to compel all the settlers to leave. It is, however, wrong to +suppose that all were guilty of whiskey-peddling. In a letter in which +he commented on the number of persons present at the Sunday services in +the fort the chaplain wrote that "Some of the inhabitants also in +the vicinity who were regular in their attendance have removed."[524] + +The instructions for the removal were made out on October 21, 1839, and +sent to Edward James, Marshal of the Territory of Wisconsin. They stated +that if force should prove necessary to compel the people to leave, the +Marshal should call upon the commanding officer at Fort Snelling for +such aid. In that case he was instructed to act "with as much +forbearance, consideration, and delicacy as may be consistent with the +prompt and faithful performance of the duties hereby assigned to +you".[525] + +The orders were not received by Marshal James until February 18, 1840, +and he immediately forwarded them to his deputy, Ira B. Brunson of +Prairie du Chien. As soon as navigation opened in the spring he left for +Fort Snelling. Notice was at once given to the settlers to move, and +when they refused a detachment of soldiers was called out on May 6th and +under the direction of a lieutenant and Marshal Brunson the household +goods of the settlers were carried out and their cabins destroyed.[526] + +These ejected settlers found new homes a few miles down the river. In +the midst of their rude homes a log chapel was dedicated in November, +1841, to the Apostle St. Paul by the Reverend Lucian Galtier.[527] As +the ceded lands were more and more occupied, the little village enjoyed +a corresponding growth. Gradually the name of the chapel was adopted as +the name of the settlement. In 1849 the Territory of Minnesota +was organized with the seat of the legislature at St. Paul. The new +community prospered, and the town swarmed with settlers, Indians, +travellers, and adventurers who lived in tents or slept in barns in lieu +of better accommodations. There were also capitalists, tradesmen, and +officials who here made their homes.[528] + +It was inevitable that between this new community and Fort Snelling +close relations should exist. The Territorial government was weak; to +enforce order it was necessary for the Governor to make requisition on +the fort for troops.[529] The jail at Fort Snelling was also utilized +for the punishment of many undesirable characters always drawn to a new +region. James Higby who sold a promissory note which had already been +paid, and Jacob Shipler who was arrested on a charge of assault and +battery were both given terms in the jail at the fort. John R. McGregor, +who became angry and threw his wife against a cooking stove, was +separated from his help-meet for a period of three months while he +languished in the fort.[530] + +The soldiers, in return, visited the frontier town, conducting +themselves in the eyes of one observer "with much dignity and +sobriety".[531] Not always, however, could their actions be thus +described. Two soldiers who had just returned from an expedition to the +Indian country, started for St. Paul on the evening of their return, +carrying with them their blankets which they meant to sell for +"refreshment". But their birch canoe upset and before aid could +reach them they were drowned.[532] + +But relations of a more innocent and more desirable sort also existed. +In the officials of the Territory the officers at the fort found +congenial spirits. One of the popular pastimes of the little city was to +ride out upon the frozen Mississippi in sleighs to Fort Snelling. "This +command", narrates an official report, "had the honor of receiving His +Excellency W. A. Gorman Gov. of Minnesota and the Hon. James Shields +late of the U. S. Senate, on the 9th inst. by whom the Command was +reviewed &c. in presence of a large concourse of Citizens."[533] The +band of the Sixth Regiment which had paraded through the streets of +Mexico City playing "Yankee Doodle" now found occupation in playing for +the balls and parties of the frontier town. Even the inhabitants of +Stillwater, twenty-five miles distant, called on the fort to furnish the +music for the Valentine Ball on February 14, 1850.[534] During the same +month a concert was given, the proceeds going to the Washington Monument +Association. A year later the ladies who had arranged to give a tea +party to raise money for the benefit of the poor children of the +community changed their plans and accepted the offer of the band who +volunteered to give a concert for the purpose.[535] The value of this +association of citizens with the soldiers led to the remark of an editor +that "We consider this band as well as the whole garrison, with its high +intelligence--but especially the band, of infinite value to St. +Paul--in fact, it is the most powerful element of influence amongst us, +for our good, next to the pulpit and the press."[536] + +The tourists who for many years had been frequenting the upper +Mississippi now increased in numbers. In the "Drive of All Visitors" +were included the Falls of St. Anthony, Lake Harriet, Minnehaha Falls, +and Fort Snelling.[537] From the lookout tower of the fort on the edge +of the cliff, could be viewed the same scenery which had charmed Carver +a hundred years before. Undoubtedly many thought as did the newspaper +man who wrote: "In the contemplation of this scene from Ft. Snelling, +one is ravished with a desire to get upon it; and to appropriate a +little domain for his home. It has the look of home. How can the Sioux +ever consent to part with these lands?"[538] + +But two years later they did part with them. The two treaties in which +the cession was acknowledged were brought about without military +aid.[539] This was in itself prophetic of the new status of the fort. +With the growth of the Territorial organization, one by one the duties +connected with Indian affairs, liquor troubles, and the protection of +life and property were taken over by the civil officers, with the +military men as the executors of their laws only when the regular forces +of administration were unable to handle the difficulties. + +And now the fort which had so long looked down upon the canoes of the +Indians and traders saw on its two rivers a new procession. +Flatboats, steamboats, and canoes bore upstream the hardy pioneers and +their families, and returned loaded with the products of the farm and +the forest. The post which could have successfully resisted the attack +of Indian warriors, or even the siege of a civilized enemy was to fall +before the invasion of the pioneers. The frontier had suddenly leaped +far to the westward. In 1858, when the troops were withdrawn, there was +no need of an establishment such as had existed during the first forty +years. It was the passing of Old Fort Snelling which for so many years +had been the remotest outpost of American law. + +The development of the Northwest was not brought about by the +spectacular and romantic incidents which the chroniclers loved to +record. So gradual was its progress that the factors contributing to it +can be seen only in the perspective of fifty years. It was the result of +the monotonous details of the life of the fur trader who was the +unwitting explorer of the Northwest, and the forerunner of the permanent +resident. The routine duties of garrison life and expeditions to the +Indian country, often barren of any visible result, added to its +progress, as also did the weary marches of the explorer and the minute +notations of the scientist who accompanied him. The patient sacrifices +of the missionary who toiled at unaccustomed labors in the half-cleared +cornfield and taught his primitive pupils in the log mission-house, +introduced a new civilization. The daily contact of the Indian +and the white man at the fort and agency were prophetic of a new +relationship between the two races. + +But because these events were so commonplace the contemporary +chroniclers have bequeathed only a brief though eloquent epitome of this +old Mississippi River post. It was the exception and not the rule to +note that a company of soldiers was up the river watching the movements +of the Indians, that a missionary had been presented with a ham, or that +an explorer took with him so many vegetables from the gardens of the +fort that the gunwale of his boat was brought within four inches of the +water. But such are the stray references which indicate the almost +complete dependence upon the fort of all the factors in the development +of the Northwest. + + +In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to gather together from +all sources the references which bear upon each particular phase of the +process. In most cases they are few, not because the military men were +not concerned with them, but because at every post in the Mississippi +Valley conditions were practically the same and the public, being +acquainted with these routine duties, was more interested in the +picturesque Indian legends or in the duels between the officers. Of +these latter incidents the pages of the history of Fort Snelling are +full and in this respect it was typical of the American army post. But +it is also an example of that which is of more importance--the +contribution of the army to the transformation of the Mississippi +Valley. + +In many ways Fort Snelling is unique in the list of American forts. The +British flag was borne in triumph to wave from the flagstaff of Fort +Ticonderoga after it had been evacuated by the colonial patriots during +the dark days of 1777; but never was a foreign flag borne into Fort +Snelling except to be burned in the sight of awestruck Indians. The guns +of Fort Sumter announced the opening of the Civil War; never were the +cannon at Fort Snelling fired at a foe. Mackinac was successively +garrisoned by French, English, and American soldiers; whenever occupied +by troops Fort Snelling flew the stars and stripes. The stockades at +Boonesborough and Harrodstown were besieged by hundreds of savages who +fought to gain entrance and obtain the scalps of the pioneer men and +women there gathered for safety; no hostile demonstration was ever +staged near Fort Snelling. Its history was not made by the rifles and +sabers of the soldiers; the axe and the plow of the pioneer who worked +in safety beneath its potential protection have left their history upon +the landscape of the great Northwest. + + + + +NOTES AND REFERENCES + + +CHAPTER I + +[1] Carver's _Travels through the Interior Parts of North-America_, pp. +vii, viii. + +[2] To the region lying on the upper waters of three great river +systems--the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the Red River of the +North--the writer has applied the name "Upper Northwest" to distinguish +it from the "Old Northwest" and the "Pacific Northwest". + +[3] For a summary of the French explorations see Folwell's _Minnesota_, +pp. 1-29. Thwaites's _France in America_, p. 74, contains an excellent +map of the French operations in the West. + +[4] The report of Louis Antoine Bougainville, written in 1757 and based +on the reports of Canadian officials, shows the extent of French +commerce at the close of the period of French control. At Green Bay (La +Baye) trade was carried on with the Folles-Avoines, Sacs, Foxes, Sioux, +and other tribes, the annual output being from five to six hundred +packages of furs. In the North, extending westward along what is now the +international boundary to the Lake of the Woods and then along the lakes +and rivers of the Lake Winnipeg system, was the territory of the post +known as "The Sea of the West". This included seven forts and produced a +yearly supply of from three to four hundred packages. "These regions are +everywhere vast prairies; this is the route to take for the upper +Missouri."--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XVIII, pp. 167-195. +A picturesque account of the life of the French traders is given in +Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 115-119. + +[5] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XVIII, p. 251; Turner's +_The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin_ in the +_Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science_, +Vol. IX, pp. 584, 585. + +[6] Thwaites's _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_, +Vol. VII, p. 373. In 1792, Peter Grant built a trading house on the site +of St. Vincent, Minnesota, on the east bank of the Red River, and in +1800-1801 the fort of Pembina was erected by the great traveller, +Alexander Henry, the younger.--_South Dakota Historical Collections_, +Vol. I, p. 138. + +[7] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 684. + +[8] Thwaites's _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_, +Vol. I, pp. 227, 228. Traders of the Hudson's Bay Company also +frequented the spot. Sergeant John Ordway records in his journal for +December 1, 1804, that "a Scotsman who is tradeing at the Mandens came +to visit us. he belonged to the hudson bay company.... he brought over +Tobacco Beeds & other kinds of Goods. & traded with the Mandens for +their furs & buffalow Robes. they bring Some Guns to trade for horses &. +C. this hudsons bay comp^y lay Garrisoned near the N. W. Comp^y.... +Eight or 10 days travel by land a North course from this."--_Wisconsin +Historical Collections_, Vol. XXII, p. 169. + +[9] Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far +West_, Vol. II, p. 556. + +[10] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 279, 280. + +[11] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 286. + +[12] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 280. + +[13] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 156. + +[14] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 171. + +[15] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 252. + +[16] Wilkinson's instructions to Pike are printed in Coues's _The +Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. II, pp. 842-844. Before the +founding of Fort Snelling the Minnesota River was called by the French +voyageurs the "St. Pierre". When the Americans were established on its +banks they anglicized this name into "St. Peter's". The fort, the +agency, and the fur traders' establishment are commonly referred to in +early literature as "St. Peter's". By a joint resolution of Congress on +June 19, 1852, the name Minnesota was ordered to be used in all public +documents in which the river was mentioned. This was the Indian name for +the river.--_United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. X, p. 147. In +mentioning this river use is made in this volume of the modern name, +except when quoting. + +[17] The account of the treaty is given in Coues's _The Expeditions of +Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 83, 84. The treaty itself is printed on +page 231 and Pike's speech on pages 226-230. Article I contains the land +cession: "That the Sioux nation grant unto the United States, for the +purpose of establishment of military posts, nine miles square at the +mouth of the St. Croix, also from below the confluence of the +Mississippi and St. Peters up the Mississippi to include the falls of +St. Anthony, extending nine miles on each side of the river, that the +Sioux nation grants to the United States the full sovereignty and power +over said district forever." The meaning of all this is extremely vague. + +[18] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 798. + +[19] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating +to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp. 11, +13. + +[20] A petition of the London merchants to the English government stated +that before the war the annual export of furs from Canada amounted to +£250,000. Updyke's _The Diplomacy of the War of 1812_, p. 204. + +[21] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating +to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp. 72, +73. + +[22] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating +to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp. +66-69. The figures are given on page 69. + +[23] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating +to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, p. 184. + +[24] The best account of the massacre at Fort Dearborn is given in +Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest_, 1673-1835, pp. 211-231. + +[25] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIX, p. 323. + +[26] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 120, 194. + + +[27] _Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, p. 219. It +must be stated that the British in no way sought intentionally to use +the Indians for the purpose of massacreing the whites. The instructions +to Dickson declared that he "should restrain them by all the means in +your power from acts of Cruelty and inhumanity". On March 16, 1813, +Dickson reported to the military secretary at Quebec that he had taken +steps to redeem the soldiers, women, and children of the ill-fated Fort +Dearborn garrison, who were still captives.--_Michigan Pioneer and +Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, pp. 258, 259. + +[28] _Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, pp. 321, +322. + +[29] There is a summary of Dickson's activities in the _Wisconsin +Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 133-153. + +[30] _Niles' Register_, Vol. VI, p. 176. + +[31] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, p. 10; _Niles' +Register_, Vol. VI, p. 242. + +[32] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XI, pp. 254-270. + +[33] _Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of +America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, pp. 404, 405. + +[34] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 10, 11; +Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West_, +Vol. II, p. 561. + +[35] These treaties were concluded: on July 18th with the Pottawattomies +and Piankashaws; on July 19th with the Tetons and Sioux of the Lakes, +Sioux of St. Peter's River, and Yankton Sioux; September 2nd with the +Kickapoos; September 8th with the Wyandots; September 12th with the +Osages; September 13th with the Sacs of the Missouri; September 14th +with the Foxes; September 16th with the Iowas. The treaties are +published in Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. +110-123. The reports of the commissioners and also the treaties are +printed in the _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. +1-11. + +[36] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 9. + +[37] For these migrations see the _Michigan Pioneer and Historical +Collections_, Vol. XXIII, pp. 97, 443; Kingsford's _The History of +Canada_, Vol. IX, p. 69; _Report on Canadian Archives_, 1896, p. 157. + During the negotiations at Ghent the British commissioners had +sought to have established a permanent Indian territory to be a barrier +state between the two powers.--Updyke's _The Diplomacy of the War of +1812_, p. 204. + +The Indians felt they had been abandoned by the English. Hence the +liberality in gift distribution was an attempt to appease them. + +[38] See the reports of W. H. Puthuff in the _Wisconsin Historical +Collections_, Vol. XIX, pp. 430-433, 472-474. + +[39] Schoolcraft's _Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with +the Indian Tribes_, p. 19. + +[40] Irving's _The Sketch-Book_ (Hudson Edition), p. 489. + +[41] Carr's _Missouri_, p. 121. + +[42] _Niles' Register_, Vol. VIII, p. 436, August 19, 1815. + +[43] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 86. + +[44] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. III, p. 332. John Jacob +Astor of the American Fur Company has received the credit for the +passage of this law.--Folwell's _Minnesota_, p. 54; Coman's _Economic +Beginnings of the Far West_, Vol. I, pp. 344, 345. This is neglecting +the fact that there was a unanimous outcry against foreign traders--one +of the signs that the War of 1812 marks the rise of American +nationality. The legislation of April 29, 1816, was not wholly +satisfactory to Astor. "I have seen a letter", wrote William H. Puthuff, +Indian agent at Mackinac, "addressed by J. J. Astor to a Mr. Franks a +British trader now at this place in which Mr. Astor expresses surprise +and regret at the passage of a law forbidding British subjects from +trading with Indians, within the American limits etc."--_Wisconsin +Historical Collections_, Vol. XIX, p. 423. What Mr. Astor wanted was the +prohibition of trade by American private citizens as well as by British +private citizens. If his American Fur Company were given a monopoly as +he desired, he also wanted to be free to employ such persons--American +or British--as he needed. + +[45] Or, more correctly from the point where a north and south line +drawn through the most northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods would +intersect this parallel.--_Treaties and Conventions concluded between +the United States of America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, p. +416. + +[46] _Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of +America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, p. 377. + +[47] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 279. + +[48] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XIV, pp. 387-389. + +[49] There is an excellent account of the United States trading house +system in Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, pp. +289-309. + +[50] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 228. + +[51] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 6. + +[52] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 39. + + +CHAPTER II + +[53] For the erection of these posts see Quaife's _Chicago and the Old +Northwest, 1673-1835_, p. 265; Thwaites's _Wisconsin_, pp. 180-182; +Gue's _History of Iowa_, Vol. I, pp. 137, 138. + +[54] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 669. + +[55] Major Long's journal is printed in the _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 9-88. + +[56] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XIV, p. 192. + +[57] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 779. + +[58] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 319. + +[59] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 32. + +[60] The story of the Yellowstone Expedition is narrated in detail in +Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West_, +Vol. II, pp. 562-587. See also the preface to James's _Account of an +Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_ in Thwaites's _Early +Western Travels_, Vol. XIV, pp. 9-26. For the site of this fort see +Thwaites's _Early Western Travels_, Vol. XXII, p. 275, note 231. + +[61] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 34th Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 2, +Document No. 1, p. 21. + +[62] Leavenworth's _A Genealogy of the Leavenworth Family in the United +States_, p. 152. + +[63] Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of +Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 7. + +[64] In the _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820, Vol. III, No. 135, +there is reprinted from the _National Intelligencer_ an "Extract of a +letter from a gentleman of the expedition to the Falls of St. Anthony, +to his friend in Washington, dated Cantonment of the 5th regt. U. S. +Infantry, St. Peter's River, Nov. 10, 1819." It is from this letter that +the dates of arriving at and leaving the various places are taken. The +Adjutant General in an order praised the garrison at Fort Howard "for +the economy and expedition with which the command constructed transport +boats for the accommodation of the 5th regiment in its passage to the +Mississippi."--_Detroit Gazette_, September 10, 1819. + +[65] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 96, note. Mrs. Van +Cleve gives another version of this affair: "When all was in order, +Colonel Leavenworth stepped forth, and, through an interpreter, formally +requested of the Chief permission to pass peaceably through their +country. The Chief, a very handsome young brave, advanced, and, with his +right arm uncovered, said, with most expressive gestures: 'My brother, +do you see the calm, blue sky above us? Do you see the lake that lies so +peacefully at our feet? So calm, so peaceful are our hearts towards you. +Pass on!'"--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories +of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 11. + +That these Indians were not so friendly as this account would indicate +is apparent from the statement in Major Forsyth's narrative that Captain +Whistler of Fort Howard had been fired at, at different times during the +summer of 1819 by these Winnebagoes.--_Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. III, p. 167. + +[66] Major Forsyth's narrative, covering the time from his departure +from St. Louis on June 7th until his arrival there again on September +17th, is published in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, +pp. 139-167; also in the _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, +pp. 188-219. It is from this narrative that the facts regarding the +progress of the expedition were obtained. + +[67] Major Forsyth's narrative in the _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 147, 148, 149. + +[68] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 149; Van Cleve's + _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort +Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 15. + +[69] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 149-153, 159. +Mrs. Van Cleve says that a few days were spent on the shores of Lake +Pepin.--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of +Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 16. Mrs. Ellet in her sketch of Mrs. Clark +says a week was spent at this place.--Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the +West_, p. 350. + +[70] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 153, 154. Neill +records that the troops did not reach the Minnesota River "until +September".--Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. +320. But in Appendix L., p. 891, he gives the same dates as Forsyth. In +Folwell's _Minnesota_, p. 55, the statement is made that "the command +arrived at Mendota August 23". As the main body of soldiers did not +arrive until August 24th, this latter date should be taken as the +birthday of Fort Snelling. + +[71] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 154-157; _Detroit +Gazette_, October 22, 1819, February 18, 1820. + +[72] _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820. + +[73] Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of +Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp. 18, 19. The baby was Charlotte Ouisconsin +Clark who married General Horatio P. Van Cleve. In 1888 she published a +book of reminiscences. It possesses all the merits and defects of a book +of reminiscences--vividness of pictures--inaccuracy in regard to +specific facts. + +[74] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 351; _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 48. + +[75] Mrs. Van Cleve, who received her information from her father, gives +the number as forty.--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," +Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 19. James Doty, who +kept the official journal of the Cass Expedition of 1820, and who +received his information from the officers at Camp Cold Water, gives the +number as forty.--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, p. 214. +Philander Prescott in his reminiscences states that "Some fifty or sixty +had died, and some ten men died after I arrived".--_Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 478. L. Grignon wrote on April 3, 1820, that +"They tell me that fifty Soldiers of the river St. Pierre have +died of Scurvy".--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 161. + +In writing of the attack of scurvy Mr. H. H. Sibley remarks: "It was +doubtless caused by the bad quality of the provisions, especially of the +pork, which was spoiled by the villany of the contractors, or their +agents, in drawing the brine from the barrels that contained it, after +leaving St. Louis, in order to lighten the load, and causing the barrels +to be refilled with river water, before their delivery at the post, +to avoid detection. The troops were compelled to live on this +unwholesome fare for two successive seasons, before the fraud was +discovered."--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 473, 474. +Nowhere else is this explanation given. Sickness could easily come at a +frontier post without such villainy. During the same winter at Camp +Missouri over half of the garrison of seven hundred men were sick, and +nearly one hundred of them died. At Council Bluff there was also a great +deal of sickness.--_Detroit Gazette_, July 21, September 1, 1820. + +[76] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 473. + +[77] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 103. + +[78] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479. + +[79] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, +Report No. 351, p. 136. + +[80] These facts are from the reminiscences of Philander Prescott in the +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479. + +[81] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 105. + +[82] Snelling to Taliaferro, November 7, 1821.--_Taliaferro Letters_, +Vol. I, No. 30. + +[83] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 107. Mrs. Van Cleve +states that the fort was occupied in the fall of 1821.--Van Cleve's +_"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, +Minnesota_, p. 32. + +[84] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153. + +[85] Schoolcraft's _Narrative Journal of Travels from Detroit Northwest +through the Great Chain of American Lakes to the sources of the +Mississippi River_, pp. 292-315. The official journal was kept by James +Doty. The time spent with Leavenworth's troops is described in the +_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, pp. 212-216. + +[86] Captain Kearny's journal is printed in the _Missouri Historical +Society Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 8-29, 99-131. Pages 104-110 are +devoted to the time spent at Camp Cold Water. + +[87] These facts regarding the change of the name are taken from Upham's +_The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, Later named Fort Snelling_ +in the _Magazine of History_, Vol. XXI, pp. 38, 39. Dr. Upham received +his information from a letter from the Adjutant General of the United +States. + + +CHAPTER III + +[88] See Miss Gallaher's article on _The Military-Indian Frontier +1830-1835_ in _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. XV, pp. +393-428. + +[89] Langham to Taliaferro, August 19, 1820.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. +I, No. 62. + +[90] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 117. + +[91] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 901. + +[92] Marsh to Taliaferro, June 26, 1827.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, +No. 76. + +[93] This was the opening of the Winnebago War, often called the "Red +Bird War". Accounts of it are given in William Joseph Snelling's _Early +Days at Prairie du Chien_ in the _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, +Vol. V, pp. 144-153; and _State Papers_, 1st Session, 20th Congress, +Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150-163. + +[94] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 118. + +[95] For the movement of troops see _State Papers_, 1st Session, 20th +Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150-163. + +[96] Taliaferro to Cass, October 4, 1832.--_Indian Office Files_, 1832, +No. 226. + +[97] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, pp. 439, 440, 459; Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth +Edition), pp. 483-487. + +[98] For an account of the Winnebagoes and their many migrations see +Jackson's _A Century of Dishonor_, pp. 218-256. + +[99] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt. 2, +Document No. 5, pp. 1028, 1029; _The Minnesota Pioneer_, September 13, +1849. + +[100] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 28, December 12, 1849. + +[101] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3, +Document No. 2, p. 421. "The recent arrival at Fort Snelling of a +company of dragoons, so long wanted, will greatly assist in intercepting +the migration southward of this discontented people."--Report of +Alexander Ramsey, October 21, 1850, in _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, +31st Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 81. + +[102] This reservation was agreed upon by the treaty concluded at +Washington, D. C., on February 27, 1855; Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws +and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 690-693. + +[103] _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, pp. 316, 423. + +[104] Bryce's _The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, pp. +365-372. A description of a hunt, written in French by Rev. M. Belcourt, +is given in _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. +VIII, Document No. 51, pp. 44-52. + +[105] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII, +Document No. 51, p. 4. + +[106] This was during the period that Professor William A. Dunning +describes as "The Roaring Forties". "And the far flung interests of the +British Empire need no more striking illustration than the fact that in +whatever direction the Americans sought to expand their bounds, whether +on the Atlantic or on the Pacific, in the Gulf of the tropics or under +the Arctic circle, they found subjects of the Queen, with vested rights, +opposing the movement."--Dunning's _The British Empire and the United +States_, pp. 96, 97. + +[107] Captain Sumner's report is printed in the _Executive Documents_, +1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 2, pp. 217-220. It is +reprinted with explanatory notes in _The Iowa Journal of History and +Politics_, Vol. XI, pp. 258-267. + +[108] The report of Major Woods is printed in _Executive Documents_, 1st +Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII, Document No. 51. It contains +fifty-five pages. Accompanying the expedition was John Pope, Brevet + Captain of the Topographical Engineers. His report is published +in _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. X, Document No. +42. There is an excellent map attached to the report. + +[109] Colonel Smith's report is printed in the _Executive Documents_, +2nd Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Pt. II, Document No. 1, pp. +426-454. + +[110] Ansel Briggs to the Secretary of War.--_Indian Office Files_, +1849, No. 206. The petition was dated Washington, Iowa, July 31, +1849.--_Indian Office Files_, 1849, No. 208. + +[111] Major Woods's report is found in the _Indian Office Files_, 1849, +No. 174. + +[112] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, April 3, 1850. + +[113] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 16, 1850. + +[114] See the letter of William Hutchinson, who was one of the party. It +is published in _The Minnesota Pioneer_, June 13, 1850. "Iowa City looks +as it did five years ago", he wrote. "A few houses were built since that +time; but evidently were not the capitol located at this place, it would +be no _great shakes_, though in time it is bound to come out. Some years +since, Uncle Sam erected expensive bridges for the good citizens of +Iowa, betwixt Dubuque and Iowa City; and strange to say the people are +suffering them to rot down without covering them. Iowa City has grown in +ten years as large as Saint Paul, which is not 2 years old. Steamboats +often get up to this place, but all will not suffice." + +[115] Report of Major Woods.--_Indian Office Files_, 1850, No. 363. + +[116] _The Iowa Star_ (Fort Des Moines), July 18, 1850. + +[117] _The Annals of Iowa_ (First Series), Vol. VII, pp. 284, 285. + +"Part of Company D. 1st regiment of U. S. Dragoons under command of +Lieut. Gardner passed through here on their way to the Missouri river. +We understand they intend to pay a visit to the Indian tribes on the +upper Missouri and from thence across Minnesota Territory to their +quarters at Ft. Snelling."--Quoted from the _Fort Des Moines Gazette_ in +the _Miners' Express_ (Dubuque), September 4, 1850. The return of the +troops to Fort Snelling is noted in _The Minnesota Pioneer_, October 3, +1850. + +[118] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3, +Document No. 2, p. 284. An account of the journey is printed in _The +Minnesota Pioneer_, February 12, 1852. + +[119] Asa Whitney, a New York merchant, petitioned Congress in January, +1845, for a franchise and a grant of land to make this dream a +reality.--_Congressional Globe_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, pp. 218, +219. + +[120] Act of March 3, 1853.--_United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. X, +p. 219. + +[121] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. +91, pp. 1, 13, 74. + +[122] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 36th Congress, Document No. +56, p. 36; _Post Returns_, May, 1853, in the archives of the War +Department, Washington, D. C. + +[123] A brief account of the expedition is given in Paxson's _The Last +American Frontier_, pp. 197-203. The reports of all the surveys were +published by the government. That of Governor Stevens consists of 651 +pages, added to the report of the Secretary of War, published in +_Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91. In +1859 Governor Stevens submitted a _Narrative and Final Report_, +published in two parts in the _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 36th +Congress, Document No. 56. The various reports of all the explorers are +bound in a set of twelve volumes, in which Governor Stevens's first +account may be found in Vol. I, and the later narrative in Vol. XII, +Pts. I and II. + +[124] Order No. 7 stated: "It is considered of great consequence that +the several trains should not be intermingled; and the dragoons attached +to the several parties will continue with them, camping and working with +them, receiving their orders only from their particular chiefs, even +when the whole force is brought together."--_Executive Documents_, 2nd +Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91, p. 46. + +[125] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, +Document No. 2, p. 112. + +[126] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, p. 566. + +[127] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. +567-570. + +[128] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. X, Pt. I, p. 181. + +[129] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, +Document No. 1, p. 161. + +[130] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, pp. 180-183. + +[131] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, July 19, 1849. + +[132] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, September 6, 1849, July 11, November 21, +1850. + +[133] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. X, Pt. I, pp. 193, 199. + +[134] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. +588-593. + +[135] Holcombe's _Minnesota in Three Centuries_, Vol. II, pp. 327, 328; +_Annals of Iowa_ (First Series), Vol. VII, p. 290; _Post Returns_, +March, April, 1853, in the archives of the War Department, Washington, +D. C. + +[136] For Colonel Smith's expedition see above, Note 109. For the +building of Fort Abercrombie see the _Collections of the State +Historical Society of North Dakota_, Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 7. + +[137] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, +Report No. 351, pp. 10-12. + +[138] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p. +2595. + +[139] For the sale of Fort Snelling see Dr. Folwell's paper on _The Sale +of Fort Snelling_, 1857, in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. +XV, pp. 393-410. + +[140] The report of the committee may be found in _Reports of +Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351. + +[141] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p. +2614. + +[142] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p. +2618. + +[143] Minnesota Historical Collections, Vol. VIII, p. 431. + +[144] For papers relating to the readjustment see _Executive Documents_, +3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9. + + +CHAPTER IV + +[145] Quoted in Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp. +58, 59. + +[146] In the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, pp. 430, +431, there is a list of the commanding officers from September, 1819 to +May, 1858. + +[147] For the life of Henry Leavenworth see the _Kansas Historical +Collections_, Vol. VII, pp. 577, 578, Vol. IX, p. 569, Vol. XI, p. xxi; +Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from 1779 +to 1900_, p. 428; Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of +the Far West_, Vol. II, pp. 630-632; Leavenworth's _A Genealogy of the +Leavenworth Family in the United States_, pp. 150-154. + +[148] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 777. + +[149] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, pp. 310-323, contains a +sketch of the activities of Captain Snelling during the war. + +[150] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, pp. 313, 314. + +[151] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 316. + +[152] From the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 96, 97. Mrs. Adams, as a child, +lived several years in the Snelling household. + +[153] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from +1779 to 1900_, p. 599; Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 334. + +[154] From a manuscript entitled "Remarks on General Wm. Hull's Memoirs +of the Campaign of the Northwestern Army, 1812", by Josiah +Snelling.--_Draper Collection_, 8 U. 114, pp. 42, 43. + +[155] _The Works of Daniel Webster_, Vol. V, p. 410. + +[156] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, pp. 440, 441. + +[157] See the sketch of Captain Scott in Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years +and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp. 28, 29. + +[158] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, p. 367. + +[159] There is a sketch of Martin Scott in the _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 180-187, from which this story is taken. + +[160] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from +1779 to 1900_, p. 577. + +[161] _Niles' Register_, Vol. 73, p. 130. + +[162] The frontispiece of Mrs. Eastman's _Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends +of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_ was painted by Captain Eastman. + +[163] Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. II, p. 292. + +[164] In his notes to _Hiawatha_ Longfellow quotes from the introduction +of Mrs. Eastman's book, p. ii.--_Longfellow's Complete Poetical Works_ +(Cambridge Edition), p. 666. + +[165] Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. II, p. 292. + +[166] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from +1779 to 1900_, p. 449; _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p. +441. + +[167] _The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. VIII, pp. +89, 90. + +[168] Rhodes's _History of the United States_, Vol. IV, p. 328. + +[169] _The American Annual Cyclopaedia_, 1863, p. 816. + +[170] Bancroft's _History of Oregon_, Vol. II, pp. 611, 612. For the +career of General Canby see Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American +Biography_, Vol. I, pp. 517, 518. + +[171] This incident is taken from Folsom's _Fifty Years in the +Northwest_, pp. 755, 756. Mr. Folsom says he took it "from a St. Paul +paper of 1887". + +[172] For the Dred Scott case see McMaster's _A History of the People of +the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 278, 279. + +[173] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. I, p. 50. + +[174] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 564. + +[175] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, pp. 729-739. + +[176] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IX, p. 395. + +[177] Quoted from the complaint of the agent, Nathaniel McLean, +September 25, 1850, in _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 31st Congress, +Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 106. + +[178] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 249. + +[179] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 253, 254. + +[180] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 353. + +[181] Taliaferro to Crawford, July 15, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_, +1839, No. 512. + +[182] These papers are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical +Society. The dates covered in these diaries are from December, 1830, to +June, 1831; May 25 to September 21, 1833; May 23 to August 28, 1834. + +[183] These letters are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical +Society. In Volume I of these letters is the following notice: "These +326 letters, are part of the great mass of correspondence received by +Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro, Indian Agent at Fort Snelling, 1819-1840. They +constitute but a small part of his accumulations in twenty years. The +rest were burned in his house at Bedford, Pa., in 18__. It was a great +loss to us, as, had they been spared, we would have received all of +them. But even these 326 contain a large amount of valuable material for +Minnesota history. Even as autographs they are valuable, [see +autobiography of Taliaferro, Vol. 6, Coll.] These letters were given by +Maj. T. in March, 1868. Arranged, bound and indexed (by J. F. W.) 1891." + +[184] Photostatic copies of many of these letters were taken and are to +be found in the library of the Wisconsin Historical Society, where they +were consulted. + +[185] These letter books are now in the possession of the Kansas State +Historical Society at Topeka, where they were consulted. The only volume +containing letters from Major Taliaferro is referred to as the _William +Clark Papers, Correspondence, 1830-1832_. + +[186] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 253. + +[187] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from +1779 to 1900_, p. 620. In the _Taliaferro Letters_ are many letters from +William Clark and Elbert Herring in which they address Mr. Taliaferro as +"major". + +[188] _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 11. A note on this letter gives +these dates. + +[189] Nowhere is the date of his arrival at Fort Snelling given. In his +autobiography he writes of his journey: "Jean Baptiste Faribault and +family, had gone through by land, in charge of Colonel Leavenworth's +horses and cows".--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 198. +It was in the spring of 1820 that Faribault performed this +service.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 103. + +[190] Clark to the Secretary of War, August 20, 1832.--_Indian Office +Files_, 1832, No. 285. For his resignation see _Indian Office Files_, +1824, No. 39. + +[191] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 24, 1831. + +[192] Taliaferro to Crawford, December 12, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_, +1839, No. 516. + +[193] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 337-339. + +[194] In the report for 1850 the agency at St. Peter's is designated a +"Sub-Agency".--_Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I, +Document No. 1, p. 103. + +[195] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 339, 340. + +[196] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 213, 1827, No. 54, 1843, No. 222. + +[197] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, p. 341. + + +CHAPTER V + +[198] See _Notes on Canada and the North-West States of America_ in +_Blackwood's Magazine_, Vol. LXXVIII, p. 323, September, 1855. These +articles by Laurence Oliphant were later published in book form under +the title of _Minnesota and the Far West_. + +[199] This is the height given in Nicollet's _Report intended to +illustrate a Map of the Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi +River_, p. 69. + +[200] Seymour's _Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West_, p. +103. + +[201] This sketch of the fort is obtained from the map of Fort Snelling +in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p. 431; and from a +_Report of the capacity and condition of the barracks, quarters, +hospital, storehouses, &c., at Fort Snelling, Minnesota Territory, made +to the Quartermaster General_. This report was made on August 23, 1856. +It is printed in _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, +Vol. II, Report No. 351, pp. 407-409. + +[202] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. IV, p. 122. + +[203] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, p. 295. + +[204] A statement of the equipment at the various posts during the +fourth quarter of 1834 is printed in the _American State Papers, +Military Affairs_, Vol. V, p. 853-900. + +[205] Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_, +1839, No. 492. + +[206] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153. + +[207] Taliaferro to William Clark, August 17, 1830.--_Indian Office +Files_, 1830, No. 139. + +[208] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 7, 1831. + +[209] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 8, 1831. + +[210] Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_, +1839, No. 492; _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. +VII, Document No. 9, p. 19. + +[211] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153. + +[212] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 207. + +[213] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153. In the Sibley House at +Mendota is hung an oil painting of Fort Snelling made by Sergeant Thomas +who was stationed at Fort Snelling sometime between 1836 and 1842. This +painting, which was made from the hill behind Sibley House, shows the +location of these various buildings. + +[214] For Baker's house see _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th +Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9, pp. 19, 33, 34; also _Reports of +Committees_, 1st session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p. +400. + +[215] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, pp. 295, 296. +Charles Joseph Latrobe visited the post in the fall of 1833. + +[216] These buildings are shown in the picture mentioned in note 213, +above. + +[217] There is a description of Mendota given in Seymour's _Sketches of +Minnesota, the New England of the West_, pp. 101, 102. + +[218] Seymour's _Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West_, p. +117; Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, pp. 156, 157. + +[219] These figures are taken from Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition +to the Source of St. Peter's River_, Vol. I, p. 309. + +[220] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, p. 302. + +[221] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, pp. 37, 38; _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th +Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p. 148. + +[222] Upham's _The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, later named +Fort Snelling_ in _The Magazine of History_, Vol. XXI, p. 37. + +[223] See below, the chapter entitled _Soldiers of the Cross_. + +[224] This enumeration of the Indian villages is from Pond's _The +Dakotas or Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 320-330. The spelling of the +names follows that used by Pond, although they were all written in many +ways. The population figures are from Taliaferro's report in 1834, found +in _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 203. + +[225] See the description of an Indian village in Latrobe's _The Rambler +in North America_, Vol. II, pp. 288, 289; also, Keating's _Narrative of +an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River_, Vol. I, pp. 342, 343. + + +CHAPTER VI + +[226] On December 22, 1819, the House of Representatives passed a +resolution directing the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, to prepare a +system of martial law and field service. His report was communicated to +the House on December 26, 1820, and was entitled _Systems of Martial +Law, and Field Service, and Police_. It is composed of two parts, +namely, _General Regulations for the Army_, and _A System of Martial +Law_. It is from these regulations that the following sketch of the +routine life at a military post is built up. The report is +published in the _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. +201-274. + +[227] Ingersoll's _A History of the War Department of the United +States_, pp. 205, 206. + +[228] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 119. + +[229] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 210. + +[230] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 95. + +[231] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 210. + +[232] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 217, 218. + +[233] These account books are in the possession of the Minnesota +Historical Society. + +[234] Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, p. 161. + +[235] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 22, 1831; _Post Returns_, March, 1840, +in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C. + +[236] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 97. + +[237] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 345. + +[238] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 336, 344. + +[239] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342; +_Post Returns_, September, 1828, in the archives of the War Department, +Washington, D. C. + +[240] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 3, 1831. + +[241] This report is published in _the American State Papers, Military +Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 273-277. + +[242] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 558, 706, +Vol. III, p. 115. + +[243] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 345. + +[244] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 476. + +[245] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342. + +[246] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, p. 277. + +[247] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 205; +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 101. + +[248] Eastman's _Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort +Snelling_, pp. 144, 145. + +[249] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 265. + +[250] _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820. + +[251] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's +River_, Vol. I, p. 305. + +[252] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, July 15, 1852. + +[253] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, p. 26; _Post Returns_, July, 1827, in the archives of +the War Department, Washington, D. C. + +[254] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 340. + +[255] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p. 432. + +[256] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 115. + +[257] Joseph M. Street to Postmaster General Barry, April 27, +1831.--_Street Papers_, No. 15, Historical Department, Des Moines, Iowa. + +[258] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 44. + +[259] _Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin_, 1913, +pp. 116, 117. + +[260] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 2, 5, 10, February 27, 1831. + +[261] Street to Clark, March 10, 1831.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 132; _Post Returns_, March, 1830. See +also _Post Returns_, December, 1829, December, 1830, in the archives of +the War Department, Washington, D. C. + +[262] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 342. + +[263] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, +Report No. 351, p. 131. + +[264] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 342. + +[265] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 130. "Monsieur +Tonson" was a very popular farce written by W. T. Moncrief in 1821. The +French barber, Morbleu, is greatly troubled by a steady stream of +visitors who come to make inquiries regarding a certain fictitious Mr. +Thompson, hoping thereby to gain information regarding Adolphine de +Courcy who has been traced to his door.--Walsh's _Heroes and Heroines of +Fiction_, p. 360. + +[266] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 20, February 22, 1831. + +[267] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, July 25, 1824.--_Taliaferro +Letters_, Vol. I, Nos. 50, 56. + +[268] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 28, 1849. + +[269] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 10, 11, 24, 1831. + +[270] George F. Turner to H. H. Sibley, February 11, 1842.--_Sibley +Papers, 1840-1850_. + +[271] Taliaferro to Street, March 30, 1831.--_Street Papers_, No. 12. + +[272] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 100. + +[273] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 112. + +[274] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 920. +General Edmund P. Gaines inspected the post shortly afterwards and +reported: "From a conversation with the colonel, I can have no doubt +that he has erred in the course pursued by him in reference to some of +those controversies, inasmuch as he has intimated to his officers his +willingness to sanction, in certain cases, and even to participate in +_personal conflicts_, contrary to the twenty-fifth article of +war."--_American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. IV, p. 123. + +[275] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 27, 1831. + + +CHAPTER VII + +[276] Morse's _A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on +Indian Affairs_, pp. 78, 79. + +[277] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 321, 322. + +[278] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 203. + +[279] Taliaferro to Clark, August 5, 1830.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 2. + +[280] This description of Indian life is based on Pond's _The Dakotas or +Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834_ in the _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 319-501. + +[281] The quotations are taken from Beltrami's description of an Indian +council which he attended at Fort Snelling in 1823.--Beltrami's _A +Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, pp. 217-219. + +[282] These are taken from a list which is typical of the character of +the presents, among the papers of Thomas Forsyth.--_Draper Manuscripts_, +2T2. + +[283] _Annals of Congress_, 1st session, 17th Congress, Vol. I, pp. 319, +320. + +[284] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 19, 1831. The speech of the chief +closes thus: "We know you have nothing on hand for your children, but we +hope you will give us some Pork & Bread & a little Tobacco--as our pipes +are out & have been for some time our old men will be pleased." The +village of the Red Head was St. Louis, the Red Head being General +William Clark, the superintendent of Indian affairs. + +[285] "The Crane and the Hole in the Day--and other Chippeways at the +Agency this day--Several Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency. Issued 24 +Rats Bread 20 pounds of Pork--15 lbs. of tobacco."--_Taliaferro's +Diary_, January 23, 1831. See also the diary under the dates of December +24, 1830, January 13, 17, 1831. + +[286] Cass to Taliaferro, July 28, 1825.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, +No. 57. + +[287] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 19, 1834. + +[288] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 738. + +[289] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 4, 1831. + +[290] Taliaferro to Harris, February 21, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_, +1838, No. 631. + +[291] For the suffering during the winter of 1842-1843 and the steps +taken to relieve it see the letter from Dr. Williamson in the +_Missionary Herald_, Vol. 39, p. 355, September, 1843; and Bruce to +Chambers, April 3, 1843, in _Indian Office Files_, 1843, No. 222. + +[292] Taliaferro to Dodge, June 30, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_, 1838, +No. 690. + +[293] Taliaferro to Clark, March 3, 1831.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 129. + +[294] Taliaferro to Clark, September 14, 1834.--_Indian Office Files_, +1834, No. 206. + +[295] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 7, 1834. + +[296] _Taliaferro's Diary_, December 25, 1830. + +[297] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 28, 30, 1834. On January 17, 1831, he +gave a blanket in which to bury a woman. + +[298] _Indian Office Files_, 1832, Nos. 287, 294, 295, 296. + +[299] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 236. + +[300] Snelling to Taliaferro, November 13, 1820.--_Taliaferro Letters_, +Vol. I, No. 21. + +[301] Found among the _Sibley Papers, 1830-1840_. + +[302] Taliaferro to Cass, March 3, 1832.--_Indian Office Files_, 1832, +No. 289. + +[303] Taliaferro to Clark, July 15, 1831.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 235. + +[304] _Post Returns_, April, May, 1834, July, 1835, in the archives of +the War Department, Washington, D. C. + +[305] "These warriors of Mr. Rainville's were constantly with me, for +they knew that I was an English warrior, as they called me, and they are +very partial to the English."--Marryat's _A Diary in America_, Vol. II, +p. 91. Captain Marryat, the English novelist, visited the upper +Mississippi region in 1837. + +"Many and strong are the recollections of the Sioux and other tribes, of +their alliance with the British in the last and revolutionary wars, of +which I have met many curious instances".--Catlin's _Letters and Notes +on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians_, +Vol. II, p. 657, footnote. + +[306] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XXVI, p. 363, July 31, 1824; Vol. LIII, p. +33, September 16, 1837. + +[307] Marryat'a _A Diary in America_, Vol. III, pp. 221, 222. + +[308] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, p. 320. + +[309] _Niles' Register_, Vol. LIII, p. 82, October 7, 1837. + +[310] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--_Taliaferro Letters_, +Vol. I, No. 50. + +[311] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 18, 1831. + +[312] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 11, 1831. + +[313] Taliaferro to Clark, April 3, 1831.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence_, 1830-1832, p. 161. + +[314] Renville to Sibley, August 21, 1840.--_Sibley Papers, 1830-1840_. + +[315] Quoted in Neill's _The History of Minnesota_, pp. 338, 339. The +two men murdered on the Missouri River in 1820 were Isadore Poupon, a +French half-breed, and Joseph F. Andrews, a Canadian. + +[316] Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, p. 283. + +[317] Snelling to Taliaferro, March 19, 1822.--_Taliaferro Letters_, +Vol. I, No. 32. The quotation is taken from this letter. See also +Calhoun to Snelling, September 18, 1822.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, +No. 40. + +[318] Letter of George Johnson, November 2, 1825.--_Indian Office +Files_, 1825-1826, No. 4. + +[319] Taliaferro to Harris, September 10, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_, +1838, No. 663. + + +CHAPTER VIII + +[320] Morse's _A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on +Indian Affairs_, p. 28. + +[321] Kellogg's _Early Narratives of the Northwest, 1634-1699_, p. 50. + +[322] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 209. + +[323] Baker to Taliaferro, May 19, 1829.--_Indian Office Files_, 1829, +No. 64. + +[324] Speech of Flat Mouth, May 27, 1827.--_Indian Office Files_, 1827, +No. 14. + +[325] _Indian Office Files_, 1827, No. 9. + +[326] From Mrs. Van Cleve's reminiscences in the _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. III, p. 80. + +[327] The information upon which the entire incident is built is +contained in the letter of Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827, in +_Indian Office Files_, 1827, No. 10; the letter of Taliaferro to Clark, +May 31, 1827, in Indian Office Files, 1827, No. 12; Neill's _The History +of Minnesota_, pp. 391-394; _Reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams_ in the +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 107-110; _A +Reminiscence_ _of Ft. Snelling_, by Mrs. Charlotte O. Van Cleve, +in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 76-81; _Running +the Gantlet_ by William J. Snelling (the son of Colonel Snelling) in the +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 439-456. + +The last mentioned account was originally published as a magazine +article, and much of it is undoubtedly the product of the author's +imagination. It is from this that the writer drew the story of Toopunkah +Zeze. The article by Mrs. Van Cleve is full of errors and there are some +mistakes in Mrs. Adams's reminiscences. For the facts of the attack the +writer depended upon the two reports in the _Indian Office Files_. In a +letter written from Prairie du Chien the next winter Joseph Street says +that a hostage, an innocent man, was among the Sioux who were +executed.--Street to Dr. Alexander Posey, December 11, 1827, in the +_Street Papers_, No. 7. + +Of those who were shot, says Sibley in his reminiscences, all +recovered.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 475. On the +other hand Flat Mouth complained to Schoolcraft in 1832 that four of the +number died.--Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the +Upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 85. + +[328] _Indian Office Files_, 1829, No. 63. + +[329] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 135. As here given +the mother's speech is partly direct, and partly indirect discourse. The +writer has changed it all to the direct discourse. + +[330] The attack on Hole-in-the-Day's band is narrated in the letter of +Plympton to General Jones, August 13, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_, +1838, No. 618. See also _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. +134-136; Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 136, +137. + +[331] The particulars of the encounter in 1839 are given in a letter +written by the Right Reverend Mathias Loras in July 1839, and published +in _Acta et Dicta: A Collection of historical data regarding the origin +and growth of the Catholic Church in the Northwest_, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. +18-21; and Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. +139-147. + +[332] "Instead of lessening the disasters of Indian warfare, the +building of Fort Snelling in the heart of the Indian country and upon +the line dividing the ranges of the Dakotas and the Chippewas, had the +direct effect of vastly increasing the horrors of that warfare. +Depending upon the protection of the military, both tribes brought their +women and children into the disputed territory, where before the coming +of the soldiers they would never have dared to expose them, and it soon +developed that the fort afforded no protection to the children of the +forest against the savagery of their hereditary enemies, who made +treaties of peace only to thereby gain better opportunity for +butchery."--Robinson's _A History of the Dakota or Sioux Indians_, p. +154. This is Part II of the _South Dakota Historical Collections_, Vol. +II. + +[333] At the forks of the Chippewa River in 1838, eleven Sioux were +killed while asleep, by Chippewas whom they were entertaining. The +mission at Lake Pokegama was attacked in 1840. In 1842, a battle was +fought at Pine Coulie near the Indian village of Kaposia. In 1850, on +Apple River in Wisconsin, fourteen Chippewas were scalped. See the +article by Rev. S. W. Pond on _Indian Warfare in Minnesota_ in the +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 129-138. As late as +1854, D. B. Herriman, the Chippewa agent, reported that during the +preceding year nearly one hundred Chippewas had been killed and scalped +by the Sioux. But none of these massacres took place at the +fort.--_Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 1, +Document No. 1, p. 260. + +[334] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII, +Document No. 51, p. 31. + +[335] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 23, 1831. + +[336] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 4, 1831. For other occasions during the +winter and spring of 1831 when the agent records the presence of both +Sioux and Chippewas see the diary under date of January 31, March 5, May +2, June 15. + +[337] Taliaferro to Clark, July 6, 1831.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 231. + +[338] Speech of Taliaferro to the Sioux.--_Taliaferro's Diary_, February +19, 1831. + +[339] Report of J. N. Nicollet in _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, +28th Congress, Vol. II, Document No. 52, p. 66. + +[340] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 10, 18, 26, 1831. + +[341] Taliaferro to Clark, February 8, 1831.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 121. + +[342] The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's _Indian Affairs, +Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 250-255. The treaty was signed on +August 19, 1825. + +[343] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. XXX, p. 223, June, 1834. Reverend W. T. +Boutwell accompanied Mr. Schoolcraft on this journey, and his account of +it is published in the religious paper. + +[344] Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper +Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 265. + +[345] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 684. + +[346] Taliaferro to William Clark, May 31, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_, +Vol. III, No. 234. + +[347] Taliaferro to Herring, July 16, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. +III, No. 238. + +[348] Taliaferro to William Clark, September 2, 1835; Taliaferro to E. +Herring, September 20, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. III, Nos. 251, +252. + +[349] Taliaferro to William Clark, May 26, 1831.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 195. + +[350] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 25, 1831. + +[351] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, p. 269. + +[352] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, p. 490. + +[353] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 2, 1851. + +[354] Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827.--_Indian Office Files_, 1827, +No. 10. + +[355] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 16, 1850. Other occasions when +Indians were imprisoned for similar causes are mentioned in _The +Minnesota Pioneer_, September 23, 1852, April 20, 1854. + +[356] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, October 14, 1852. + +[357] Report of Agent A. J. Bruce, September 1, 1846.--_Executive +Documents_, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 4, p. 246. + + +[358] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, pp. 233, +234. + +[359] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 31, 1831; Taliaferro to Captain W. +R. Lovett, June 30, 1831, in _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. II, No. 150. + +[360] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 138. + +[361] Taliaferro to Clark, October 4, 1830.--_William Clark Papers, +Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 68. + +[362] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 29, 1834. + + +CHAPTER IX + +[363] For an account of the attack on the trading house system see +Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, pp. 301-309; also +_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, pp. xiii-xviii. + +[364] This account of the fur trade is based upon the reminiscences of +Mr. H. H. Sibley in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, +pp. 245-247; and Turner's _The Character and Influence of the Indian +Trade in Wisconsin_ in the _Johns Hopkins University Studies in +Historical and Political Science_, Vol. IX, pp. 601-607. + +[365] If an Indian failed continually in paying up his credits, the +trader would refuse him any more goods. This would bring on the enmity +of the hunter and his whole family. Such was the case of Joseph R. Brown +mentioned in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 247. + +[366] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. II, pp. 139-146, Vol. III, +pp. 332, 333, Vol. IV, pp. 729-735. + +[367] A copy of an American trading license is published in the _Report +from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company_, p. 282. + +[368] _Indian Office Files_, 1831, No. 70. + +[369] _Indian Office Files_, 1831, No. 82. + +[370] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 200. + +[371] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 43 + +[372] Sibley to Featherstonhaugh.--_Sibley Papers_. This letter is +printed in Holcombe's _Minnesota in Three Centuries_, Vol. II, p. 57. + + +[373] Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far +West_, Vol. I, p. 323. + +[374] A list of the posts in the agency in 1826 is given in the +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 113, 114. + +"The Secretary of War directs that the traders in the St Peters Agency, +who have been directed by you to build their houses in a particular +form, as designated by you, be informed that they are at liberty to +adapt the shape of their building to their own convenience. He moreover +directs that the term of Forts, by which they are designated, be changed +into Posts."--William Clark to Taliaferro, March 26, 1827, in +_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 72. + +[375] Taliaferro to Herring, September 15, 1834, in _Indian Office +Files_, 1834, No. 210; _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 74. + +[376] See Sibley's story of a tea party given to a number of traders at +Fort Snelling.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 248, +249. + +[377] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 230. + +[378] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 22, 1831. + +[379] Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper +Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 44. + +[380] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, pp. 306, 307. + +[381] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 564. + +[382] Norman W. Kittson to Sibley, March 2, 1846.--_Sibley Papers, +1840-1850_. Mr. Kittson was the manager of the American Fur Company's +business along the international boundary, with his headquarters at +Pembina. He, with the late James J. Hill, was one of the promoters of +the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railroad Company. + +[383] _Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company_, p. +370. + +[384] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 383. + +[385] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 30, 1831. + +[386] Kittson to Sibley, August 7, 1846.--_Sibley Papers, 1840-1850_. + +Mr. Kittson was the organizer of the picturesque caravans of Red River +carts (at one time called "Kittson's carts") which carried on the +extensive commerce between the Canadian and American settlements. At an +early date this trade assumed large proportions. "The van of the Red +River train numbering from an hundred to two hundred carts made entirely +of wood and green hides and drawn by oxen and ponies in harness, reached +St. Paul on Sunday with furs, hides, buffalo robes, dried buffalo +tongues, pemmican, etc. They have been forty days on the route."--_The +Minnesota Pioneer_, July 26, 1849. + +[387] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 38, p. 58, February, 1842. + +[388] _Indian Office Files_, 1839, No. 62. + +[389] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 40, p. 281, August, 1844. + +[390] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, +Document No. 1, p. 563. + +[391] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 383. + +[392] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 23, 1834. + +[393] _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 74. + +[394] Marsh to Street, April 28, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 20. + +[395] _Indian Office Files_, 1835, No. 326. + +[396] Bailly to Street, August 3, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 28. + +[397] Street to Cass, October 3, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 69. + +[398] "Several persons have been arrested near Crow Wing for selling +whiskey to the Winnebago Indians; and twelve or fifteen barrels of +whiskey have been overtaken and knocked in the head, by Capt. Monroe's +troops."--_The Minnesota Pioneer_, August 9, 1849. + +[399] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, p. 922. + +[400] Taliaferro to Clark, August 17, 1830.--_Indian Office Files_, +1830, No. 143. + +[401] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 140. + +[402] Taliaferro to Clark, August 2, 1829.--_Indian Office Files_, 1829, +No. 65. + +[403] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, +Document No. 1, p. 444. + +[404] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, p. 919. + +[405] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 12, 1849. + + +CHAPTER X + +[406] Taliaferro writes: "It was some length of time before he could +induce the Indians to respect the Sabbath-day--all days being alike to +them. It so happened that hundreds of important peace conventions were +made and confirmed by the hostile tribes on the Lord's day. But time and +patience brought them to reason, and for many years they respected the +white man's great 'medicine day.' The sign given for the day of rest was +the agency flag floating from the flagstaff, at the agency council +house."--_Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 236. + +[407] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 45, p. 429, December, 1849. + +[408] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 326, 327; +_Taliaferro's Diary_, August 14, 1833. + +[409] Street to Taliaferro, August 12, 1829.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. +II, No. 108. + +[410] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 119-121. + +[411] Taliaferro to Eaton.--_Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 151. + +[412] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 18, May 1, June 8, 1831. + +[413] _Taliaferro's Diary_, August 14, 1833. + +[414] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 18, 1831. + +[415] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. iv. + +[416] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 255. + +[417] _Senate Documents_, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, Vol. I, Document +No. 1, p. 523. + +[418] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 12-30. +This volume, written by the son of Samuel Pond, tells of the work of his +father and uncle. + +[419] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 30. +Among the _Kemper Papers_ (Vol. XX, No. 34) the writer found the +following permit to enter the Indian country: + +"The Right Reverend, Jackson Kemper, Missionary Bishop of the Protestant +Episcopal Church, having signified to this Department, his desire to +visit and remain sometime in the Indian country, and requested the +permission required by law to enable him to do so, such permission is +hereby granted; and he is commended to the friendly attention of civil +and military officers and agents, and of citizens, and if at any time it +shall be necessary to their protection. + + Given under my hand and + the Seal of the War Department + this 1st day of October 1838. + + S. Cooper. + Acting Secretary of War." + +[420] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 31, 32; +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 324, 325. + +[421] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 7, 1834. + +[422] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 38-42. + +[423] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 47. + +[424] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. II, +p. 11. + +[425] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 43. + +[426] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 127-146. + +[427] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 127, +133. + +[428] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt. +II, Document No. 5, pp. 1054, 1055. + +[429] Riggs's _Mary and I, Forty Years with the Sioux_, pp. 41, 42. + +[430] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 49-59. + +[431] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, +Document No. 4, p. 315. + +[432] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol II, Pt. +III, p. 439. + +[433] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 343. + +[434] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 63, 64. + +[435] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 41, p. 281, August, 1845; Vol. 32, pp. +188, 189, May, 1836. + +[436] _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. IV, p. 61, February, 1839; Tanner's +_History of the Diocese of Minnesota_, p. 24; _Post Returns_, April, +1839, in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C. + +[437] Gear to Kemper, Nov. 29, 1841.--_Kemper Letters_, Vol. 25, No. +103. See also _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. 5, p. 68, March, 1840. + +[438] _Acta et Dicta_, Vol. I, No. 1, July, 1907, pp. 14-21; _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 222-230. + + +CHAPTER XI + +[439] Catlin's _Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition +of the North American Indians_, Vol. II, p. 592. + +[440] Merrick's _Old Times on the Upper Mississippi_, p. 187. The +following description was given by Philander Prescott, a fur trader: + +"The Indians say they had dreamed of seeing some monster of the deep the +night before, which frightened them very much. It appears they did not +discover the boat until it had got into the mouth of the St. Peter's, +below Mr. Sibley's. They stood and gazed with astonishment at what they +saw approaching, taking the boat to be some angry god of the water, +coughing and spouting water upwards, sideways and forward. They had not +courage enough to stand until the boat came near them. The women and +children took to the woods, with their hair floating behind them in the +breeze, from the speed they were going, in running from supposed danger. +Some of the men had a little more courage, and only moved off to a short +distance from the shore, and the boat passed along and landed. +Everything being quiet for a moment, the Indians came up to the boat +again, and stood looking at the monster of the deep. All at once the +boat began to blow off steam, and the bravest warriors could not stand +this awful roaring, but took to the woods, men, women and children, with +their blankets flying in the wind; some tumbling in the brush +which entangled their feet as they ran away--some hallooing, some +crying, to the great amusement of the people on board the +steamboat."--Quoted in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, +p. 104, note 1. + +[441] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 199. + +[442] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 191-193. + +[443] Beltrami published an account of his travels in French in New +Orleans in 1824. The English version is entitled _A Pilgrimage in Europe +and America, leading to the Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi +and Bloody River_, and was published in London in two volumes in 1828. +It is composed of twenty-two letters addressed to "My Dear Countess" and +dedicated "to the Fair Sex". + +[444] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 101. + +[445] The story of this exploration was published under the title of +_Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, Lake +Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, Etc. performed in the year 1823, by order +of the Hon. J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, under the command of +Stephen H. Long, U. S. T. E._ It was written by Professor Keating from +the notes of the party. An English edition appeared in London in 1825. +The references given are to this publication. + +[446] J. C. Calhoun to Major Long.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. +41. + +[447] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's +River_, Vol. I, p. 324, Vol. II, p. 112. + +[448] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's +River_, Vol. I, pp. 306-310. + +[449] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's +River_, Vol. I, p. 356. + +[450] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 241. + +[451] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 414. + + +[452] "My head was covered with the bark of a tree, formed into the +shape of a hat and sewed with threads of bark; and shoes, a coat, and +pantaloons, such as are used by Canadians in the Indian territories, and +formed of original skins sewed together by thread made of the +muscles of that animal, completed the grotesque appearance of my +person."--Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. +481. For a short summary of Beltrami's work see the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 183-196. + +[453] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's +River_, Vol. II, p. 200. + +[454] Catlin's _North American Indians_, Vol. II, pp. 599-602. + +[455] Catlin's _North American Indians_, Vol. II, pp. 602-607. This +quotation is from page 607. + +[456] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Vol. IV, Document +No. 333. + +[457] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. I, +p. 262. + +[458] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 246. + +[459] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. I, +pp. 261, 266, 288. + +[460] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 187, 188. + +[461] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. II, +Document No. 52, p. 53. + +[462] Brower's _The Mississippi River and its Source_ which comprises +Vol. VII of the _Minnesota Historical Collections_. See p. 162. + +[463] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 242-245; _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. I, p. 189. + +[464] In his reminiscences John C. Frémont has left a very interesting +account of these two expeditions.--Frémont's _Memoirs of My Life_, Vol. +I, pp. 30-54. + +[465] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 183. + +[466] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 129, 133, 134. + + +[467] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 914, 915. + +[468] _North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser_, June 26, 1840. + +[469] _North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser_, June 5, 1840. + +[470] _Louisville Journal_ quoted in the _North Western Gazette and +Galena Advertiser_, June 14, 1838. + +[471] Jackson Kemper was appointed missionary bishop of the Northwest in +1835 and held the position until 1859 when he accepted the bishopric of +Wisconsin. His papers and diaries are in the archives of the Wisconsin +Historical Society. For an account of his work see Tiffany's _A History +of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States_, pp. 448, 493. + +[472] _Kemper Papers_, Vol. XXVII, No. 113. + +[473] _Kemper Papers_, Vol. XXVII, No. 116. + + +CHAPTER XII + +[474] _Journals of Congress_, Vol. III, p. 589. + +[475] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. I, p. 138. + +[476] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. XVI, p. 566. + +[477] _Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs_, 1890, p. xxix. + +[478] These figures are taken from an account of the proceedings of the +council published in _Niles' Register_, Vol. XXIX, pp. 187-192. +Taliaferro gives the number of his party as being 385 "Sioux and +Chippewas, including the interpreters and attendants."--_Auto-biography +of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, +Vol. VI, p. 206. + +[479] The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's _Indian Affairs, +Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 250-255. + +[480] These are the reasons given by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs +in his report on December 1, 1837.--_Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, +25th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 526, 527. + +[481] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 129. + +[482] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 131; Vol. VI, p. +214. + +[483] For an account of the life of Flat Mouth see Coues's _The +Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 169, note 10. + +[484] Sketches of the life of Hole-in-the-Day are given in _The Spirit +of Missions_, Vol. VIII, p. 461, December, 1843; _North Western Gazette +and Galena Advertiser_, August 3, 1839; _Prairie du Chien Patriot_, June +8, 1847. + +[485] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 353. + +[486] The names of the witnesses of the treaty are given in Kappler's +_Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, p. 493. + +[487] A contemporary account of the proceedings of the council published +in the _Iowa News_ (Dubuque), Vol. I, Nos. 11 and 14, is reprinted in +_The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 408-433. + +[488] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, p. 420. + +[489] Dodge to Harris, July 30, 1837.--_Indian Office Files_, 1837, No. +226. + +[490] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt. +2, Document No. 5, p. 985. The Indians desired whiskey at the councils. +In order to prove that it was not refused because of stinginess, two +barrels were opened at Prairie du Chien and the whiskey allowed to run +on the ground. The old Indian Wakh-pa-koo-tay mourned the loss: "It was +a great pity, there was enough wasted to have kept me drunk all the days +of my life."--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 124. + +[491] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 409, 410. + +[492] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 424-426. + +[493] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 416, 417. + +Taliaferro was violently opposed to granting any funds to the +traders.--_Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 215, 216. + +[494] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 431, 432. + + +[495] The text of the treaty is to be found in Kappler's _Indian +Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 491-493. + +[496] _Niles' Register_, Vol. LIII, pp. 81, 82; Kappler's _Indian +Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 493, 494. + +[497] See an account of the payment in 1849 at Fort Snelling in _The +Minnesota Pioneer_, September 27, 1849. + +[498] _Post Returns_, November, 1852, October, 1853, October, 1854, in +the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C. + + +CHAPTER XIII + +[499] Turner's _The Significance of the Frontier in American History_ in +the _Annual Report of the American Historical Association_, 1893, p. +211. + +[500] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 202. + +[501] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 453; +_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 468. + +[502] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 319. + +[503] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's +River_, Vol. II, p. 60. + +[504] Much has been written on the founding of this colony and the +romantic events connected with the struggle between the Hudson's Bay +Company and the North West Company, in which many of the colonists were +the innocent victims. Interesting accounts are given in Kingsford's _The +History of Canada_, Vol. IX, pp. 108-150; Bryce's _The Remarkable +History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, pp. 202-257; Bryce's _Lord +Selkirk_ in _The Makers of Canada_, Vol. V, pp. 115-206; Laut's _The +Conquest of the Great Northwest_, pp. 113-202; _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 75-89. + +[505] There is a summary of the early trading relations of the Red River +Colony with the American settlements in the _Collections of the State +Historical Society of North Dakota_, Vol. IV, pp. 251, 252. The arrival +of these people at Fort Snelling is noted in the _Minnesota Historical +Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 124, 127; VI, p. 350. + +[506] "Two families of Swiss emigrants who arrived here yesterday were +robbed of almost everything they possessed".--Snelling to +Taliaferro, October 19, 1824, in _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 50. +See also the story of the Tully children in Van Cleve's _"Three Score +Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp. +49-61. + +[507] The facts concerning the migrations of these Red River refugees +are taken from the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams who was herself one +of the travellers.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. +75-95. See also Chetlain's _The Red River Colony_. This is a small +pamphlet written by the son of one of the refugees. + +[508] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XIV, p. 84. + +[509] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp. 70, 71. + +[510] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, p. 16. + +[511] Renville to Sibley, February 22, 1835.--_Sibley Papers, +1830-1840_. A story is told of a certain "Simple-hearted, honest fellow" +named Sinclair. "One time he was sick, at Mendota, and Surgeon Emerson, +at the fort, sent by some one, a box of pills, for him to take a dose +from. N. W. Kittson called on him a little while after this, and found +that Sinclair had not only swallowed all the pills, but was then chewing +up the box!"--Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 123. + +[512] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 127, 129. + +[513] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--_Taliaferro Letters_, +Vol. I, No. 50. + +[514] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 13, 14, 1834; _Indian Office Files_, +1834, No. 239. + +[515] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 21, 1834. + +[516] _Indian Office Files_, 1837, Nos. 448, 447, 445. + +[517] _The Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota +Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 231. + +[518] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, pp. 14, 15. + +[519] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, pp. 16, 17. + +[520] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, pp. 18, 23. + +[521] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 136; Williams's _A +History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp. 66, 67. + +[522] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, pp. 23, 24. + +[523] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, +Document No. 9, pp. 26, 27. + +[524] _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. V, p. 335, November, 1840. A recent +sketch of Fort Snelling states that there were "no white neighbors +except traders, agents of fur companies, refugees from civilization and +disreputable hangers-on."--Hammond's _Quaint and Historic Forts of North +America_, p. 272. Many of the evicted settlers can not be classed among +these. + +[525] This order is published in Williams's _A History of the City of +Saint Paul_, p. 94. + +[526] For the expulsion of the settlers see Williams's _A History of the +City of Saint Paul_, pp. 99, 100; also, Neill's _The History of +Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 459. Williams (p. 100) says that in 1849 +and 1852 memorials were presented to Congress by those who had been +expelled, in which they stated that "the soldiery fell upon them without +warning, treated them with unjustifiable rudeness, broke and destroyed +furniture wantonly, insulted the women, and, in one or two instances, +fired at and killed cattle." + +Father Galtier, who was there at the time, wrote: "Consequently a deputy +marshall from Prairie du Chien was ordered to remove the houses. He went +to work, assisted by some soldiers, and, one after another, unroofed the +cottages, extending about five miles along the river. The settlers were +forced to seek new homes." He makes no mention of personal +violence.--_Acta et Dicta_, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 64. + +[527] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 111. + +[528] See the description of St. Paul in 1849 in Seymour's _Sketches of +Minnesota, the New England of the West_, pp. 94-100. + +[529] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 30, 1850. + +[530] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 23, February 27, June 27, 1850. + + +[531] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 27, 1851. + +[532] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, April 17, 1851. + +[533] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, p. 534; _Post +Returns_, July, 1855, in the archives of the War Department, Washington, +D. C. + +[534] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 20, 27, 1850. + +[535] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 6, 13, 1850; _Minnesota +Chronicle and Register_, February 10, 1851. + +[536] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 13, 1850. + +[537] Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, pp. 152-163. + +[538] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, August 23, 1849. + +[539] These two treaties were the treaty with the Sisseton and Wahpeton +bands of Sioux at Traverse des Sioux, July 23, 1851; and with the +Mdewakanton and Wahpakoota bands of Sioux at Mendota on August 5, +1851.--Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. +588-593. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abercrombie, John J., fort built by, 50 + Adams, Mrs. Ann, 245 + Agency house, fire in, 101 + Agriculture (see Farming) + Aitkin, Mr., 144 + Akin, Mr., information furnished by, 172 + Alcohol, purchase of, 88 + American Fur Company, + fort purchased from, 21; + warehouse and store of, 81; + monopoly of, 135; + reference to, 138, 142, 188, 209 + Americans, hostility of Indians to, + during War of 1812, 8-12; + Indians impressed by supremacy of, 112-118; + protection promised by, 122 + Ammunition, giving of, to Indians, 110 + Andrews, Joseph F., 230 + Annuities, 42, 43, 111, 126; + payment of, to Indians, 184, 185 + Apple River, massacre on, 132, 232 + Apples, purchase of, 88 + Ardourly, Jack, 100 + Armorer's shop, 77, 78, 79 + Articles of Confederation, 176 + Assiniboine River, 5 + Astor, John Jacob, 135, 209 + Atkinson, Henry, fort named in honor of, 30; + reference to, 34 + _Aunt Phyllis's Cabin_, 62 + + Badger, The, murder of, 127 + Bailly, Alexis, 99, 188; + disagreement between Taliaferro and, 138, 139; + whiskey in store of, 142, 143 + Baker, Benjamin, trading house of, 78, 79, 125, 192 + Ball-plays, 101; + holding of, for Catlin, 164 + Balls, music for, 197 + Band, fund for maintenance of, 87; + music by, 197 + Barracks, + building of, 25; + reference to, 73; + description of, 74, 75; + taking of sick soldiers from, 85 + Bean, J. L., boundary line surveyed by, 130, 131 + Bear, hunting of, 105 + Bear dance, 164 + Bedford (Pennsylvania), 71 + Beef, 85; + ration of, 109 + Beggars' dance, 164 + Belen Gate of City of Mexico, 64 + Beltrami, J. C., + description of council by, 106, 107; + reference to, 133, 187; + visit of, to Fort Snelling, 160-163 + Bennington (Vermont), 61 + Benton, Thomas H., 107 + Berries, gathering of, 105 + Big Eagle, 83 + Big Stone Lake, 103 + Big Thunder, 83; + desire of, to raise corn, 152 + Birthplace of soldiers, 92 + Black Dog, village of, 83 + Black Hawk War, position of Fort Snelling during, 35 + Black Hole, confinement of offenders in, 91, 132 + Black River, 36, 184 + Blacksmith shop, 118 + Blacksmiths, work of, 78, 155 + Blankets, giving of, to Indians, 110; + reference to, 136 + Bliss, John H., 68, 114, 151, 153; + punishment inflicted by, 90, 91; + statement by, 99, 100 + Bliss, Mrs. John H., 153 + Blockhouses, 74 + Blue Earth River, Winnebago reservation on, 37; + reference to, 162 + + Boarding-school, success of, among Indians, 156 + Boatmen, foreigners as, 138 + _Bois brulés_, + difficulties with, 37-40; + location of, around fort, 188, 189 + Books, fund for purchase of, 87 + Boonesborough (Kentucky), 201 + Boston, 56, 145 + Bougainville, Louis Antoine, report of, 205 + Boundary line of 1825, 130, 131, 178, 184 + Brandy, 86 + Braves, desire of, to take part in council, 181 + "Brazil" (steamboat), 168, 169 + Bread, character of, 86 + Bread tickets, 88 + Breakfast, 85 + Brewers, 92 + Briggs, Ansel, 41 + Brock, General, 8 + Brooke, George M., site for fort chosen by, 48 + Broom, purchase of, 88 + Brown, Joseph R., 190, 191 + Brown, Private, purchases by, 88 + Brown's Falls, 81 + Bruce, Amos J., 71 + Brunson, Alfred, work of, among Indians, 154 + Brunson, Ira B., 195 + Buchanan County (Iowa), 41 + Buck, Solon J., acknowledgments to, ix + Buffalo, hunting of, by half-breeds, 37, 38, 40 + Buffalo dance, 164 + "Burlington" (steamboat), 168 + Butter, purchase of, 88 + + Calhoun, John C., 19, 224 + California, emigration to, 43 + Camp Cold Water, + establishment of, 27; + reference to, 58, 110, 189, 190, 212 + Camp Missouri, sickness at, 213 + Camp Pierce, 46 + Campbell, Duncan, 131 + Campbell, Scott, service of, as interpreter, 71, 72 + Canada, 3, 8, 57, 92, 158; + taking of furs to, 6; + importance of fur trade to, 9; + visits of Indians to, 37, 106; + difficulties with half-breeds from, 37-40; + export of furs from, 207 + Canal, 20 + Canby, Edward R. S., sketch of life of, 63-65 + Candles, 86 + Candy, purchase of, 88 + Canister shot, 77 + Cannon, description of, 77 + Cannon River, 137 + Canoes, 199 + Cantonment Leavenworth, establishment of, 56 + Cantonment New Hope, establishment of, 25; + removal of troops from, 27; + reference to, 55 + Cards, playing of, 99 + Carpenters, employment of soldiers as, 96 + Cartridges, stock of, 77 + Carver, Jonathan, exploration by, 1; + statement by, 1, 2; + reference to, 198 + Cass, Lewis, visit of, at Fort Snelling, 28; + reference to, 137, 140, 178; + expedition of, 212 + Cat'o'nine tails, 90 + Catholic chapel, 81 + Catholics, religious work among, 158 + Catlin, George, visit of, at Fort Snelling, 163, 164 + Catlin, Mrs. George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 163, 164 + Cattle, feeding of, 82, 96 + Cellars, 75 + Cemetery, 81, 89, 93 + Certificates, giving of, to Indians, 113, 114 + Chambers, John, 182 + Chapel, 81, 195 + Chaplain, 88, 101, 194, 195; + service of Gear as, 157 + Chatel, Mr., work of, 155, 156 + Checkers, playing of, 99 + + Cheese, purchase of, 88 + Cherokee Indians, removal of, 63, 64 + Cherubusco, Battle of, 64 + Chess, playing of, 99 + Chicago, 161 + Chiefs, giving of certificates to, 113, 114; + visit of, to Washington, 115, 116; + council with, 181 + Children, education of, at fort, 100, 101 + Chippewa, Battle of, 55 + Chippewa Indians, + early traders among, 3; + reference to, 7, 48, 104, 108, 139, 142, 144, + 163, 177, 178, 228, 231, 242; + unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13; + treaty between Sioux and, 28; + treaty with, 45, 176-186; + land ceded by, 47, 48; + home of, 103; + war parties against, 106; + hostility of, 114; + feuds between Sioux and, 119-134; + killing of, by Sioux, 121, 125; + murderers killed by, 122-124; + murder of Sioux warrior by, 127; + battle between Sioux and, 127, 128, 232; + boundary line between Sioux and, 130, 131, 178; + trustworthiness of, 134; + language of, 172, 173, 174; + summoning of, to council, 179 + Chippewa River, 131, 172; + murder of Sioux on, 232 + Choctaw Indians, removal of, 63, 64 + Chouteau, Auguste, activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13 + Christianity, influence of, 146; + method of preaching, 150, 151 + Church, organization of, at Fort Snelling, 157; + attendance at, 194, 195 + Churns, 76 + Civil War, + use of Fort Snelling during, 52; + service of Eastman in, 62; + reference to, 63, 201; + service of Canby in, 64 + Clark, Charlotte Ouisconsin, 23, 212 + Clark, Dan E., acknowledgments to, x + Clark, Nathan, 21 + Clark, Mrs. Nathan, 23 + Clark, William, expedition under, 4, 5; + Fort Shelby established by, 11; + activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13; + reference to, 69, 70, 114, 178, 221, 228 + Clarke, Colonel, 44 + Clerks, 136 + Cloud Man, + resolution of, to become farmer, 148; + reference to, 153 + Cloves, purchase of, 88 + Coe, Alvan, coming of, to Fort Snelling, 149 + Coffee, 86 + Colhoun, James E., 161, 162 + Colors, guarding of, 85 + Columbia, Department of, 65 + Columbia Fur Company, 138 + Columbia River, 5 + Commanders of Fort Snelling, + influence of, 54; + sketches of lives of, 54-65 + Commanding officer, quarters of, 75 + Commerce, extent of, 205 + Commissary, office of, 75 + Commissary department, storehouse of, 75 + Commissioner of Indian Affairs, + report of, 37; + reference to, 67, 177 + Confederation, forming of, among Indians, 13 + Congress, right of, + to regulate Indian affairs, 176; + memorials to, 246 + Connecticut, 1 + Contreras, Battle of, 64 + Coon, story about Scott and, 60, 61 + Cooper, S., 238 + Coöperation in fur trade, 135 + Copper, mining of, 25; block of, 175 + Corn, feeding of, to cattle, 82; + raising of, by Indians, 105; + giving of, to Indians, 110 + Council, holding of, with Indians, 35, 36, 43, 106-109, 129, 179-183 + Council Bluff (Nebraska), + fort at, 20; + route of road to Fort Snelling from, 28, 29; + naming of fort at, 30; + reference to, 160; + sickness at, 213 + Council Hall, description of, 106, 107 + Council House, erection of, 28; + + description of, 77; + burning of, 77, 78; + rebuilding of, 78 + _Coureurs des bois_, activities of, 3 + Court-martial, 102 + Crane, The, 129, 228 + Crawford, Captain, 159 + Crawford County (Wisconsin) volunteers from, 35 + Credit, fur trade carried on by means of, 136 + Creek Indians, removal of, 63, 64 + Croghan, George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 100 + Cross Timbers (Indian Territory), 56 + Crow Wing, 236 + Crow Wing River, 47 + Currants, purchase of, 88 + + _Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_, + 62 + Dana, Captain, 49 + Dance of the braves, 164 + Dances, holding of, by Indians, 164 + Dakota, Department of, 52 + Dakota Indians (see Sioux Indians) + Dearborn, Major, 110 + Deaths, number of, at Fort Snelling, 93 + Debts, payment of, to traders, 183, 184 + De Courcy, Adolphine, 100 + Deer, hunting of, 105 + Delaware County (New York), 55 + Delhi (New York), 56 + Democrats, charges of graft against, 51 + Denny, St. Clair, 161 + Des Moines River, 18, 44 + Deserters, dangers faced by, 92 + Desertions, causes of, 91; + prevalence of, 91, 92 + Details, duties of, 85 + Detroit, 11, 19; + departure of troops from, 21; + surrender of, 57 + Devil's Lake, 40 + Dickson, Robert, activities of, in behalf of English, 11; + reference to, 13, 16, 134; + instructions to, 208 + Diet, description of, 85 + Dinner, 85 + Dixon, Private, desertion of, 92 + Dodge, Henry, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168; + council of, with Indians, 180-183 + Dog dance, 164 + Dominoes, playing of, 99 + Doty, James D., 212 + Douglas, Thomas, settlement of, 188, 189 + Draft riots, 64 + Dragoons, expedition of, 38, 39, 45, 216; + activities of, in Iowa, 44, 45; + service of, on survey, 46, 47; + reference to, 48, 56, 63, 186, 217; + frontier service of, 49; + arrival of, 215 + Dress parade, 85 + Drummond Island, visits of Indians to, 13, 14 + Drunkenness, prevalence of, in garrison, 89, 90, 194; + punishment for, 90 + Dubuque, 43, 158, 216 + Dubuque, Diocese of, 158 + Ducks, 96, 97 + Dueling, 102 + Duluth, Daniel Greyloson, 3 + Dunning, William A., 215 + + Eagle dance, 164 + Eastman, Mary Henderson, writings of, 62 + Eastman, Seth, 35, 99, 145; + sketch of life of, 62 + Eastman, Mrs. Seth, description by, 94 + Eaton, John H., 149 + Eatonville (Minnesota), colony at, 118, 149; + success of colony at, 150; + Pond brothers in charge of, 152 + Education, work of, among Indians, 156 + "Education Families", 103 + Education of children, 100, 101 + Edwards, Ninian, activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13 + Eighth United States Infantry, 18 + + Elk, hunting of, 105 + Emerson, John, sketch of life of, 65, 66; + reference to, 194, 245 + Emerson, Mrs. John, 66 + Emigration, 14, 15 + England, 70 + English, rule of, in West, 2, 3; + activities of, in fur trade, 3, 4, 140; + power of, over Indians, 5-17; + support of, by Indians in War of 1812, 8-12; + medals given by, 112; + persistence of influence of, 114, 115; + use of Indians by, 208 + English River, 42 + English trading companies, 2 + Episcopal Church, 169 + Evans, William, 190 + Exploring expeditions, 109 + + Factors, 136; + relations of, with officers of fort, 138, 139 + Factory System, 107 + Fall, activities of Indians during, 105, 106 + Falls of St. Anthony, 7, 24, 29, 30, 86, 96, 149, 153, 198, 207; + journey of Long to, 19; + plan to establish fort near, 20; + saw mill at, 27, 28; + fort named for, 29; + road to, 81; + description of, 81, 173, 174; + legend concerning, 81, 82; + visits of travelers to, 159-175; + attempt to cross, 161, 162 + Falstrom, Jacob, 191 + Faribault, Jean Baptiste, house of, 80; + reference to, 137, 141, 222; + trading post of, 187, 188 + Faribault, Pelagi, 187 + Farmers, 92; + employment of soldiers as, 95; + work of, among Indians, 155, 156 + Farming, efforts to introduce, among Indians, 148-150; + work of Indians at, 150; + assistance to Indians in, 152, 153; + instruction of Indians in, 155 + "Fashionable Tour", 159-175 + Fat Duty Win (Indian), 156 + "Fayette" (steamboat), 169 + Fayette County (Iowa), 41 + Featherstonhaugh, George William, visit of, to Fort Snelling, + 153, 165, 166 + Ferries, 14 + Ferry house, 81 + Ferryman, 81 + Fifth United States Infantry, disembarkment of, 2; + orders to, 19, 20; + location of parts of, 21: + journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, 21-24; + companies of, taken to Fort Crawford, 32; + reference to, 55, 58, 59, 62, 187 + Finley, Mr., home of, 81 + Fireplaces, heating by means of, 99 + Fires, epidemic of, 101 + First United States Infantry, 58, 59, 62 + Fishing tackle, purchase of, 88 + Flag staff, 75 + Flags, giving up of, by Indians, 6; + reference to, 112; + slur against, 145 + Flat Mouth, 120; + career of, 179 + Flatboats, 14, 86, 199 + Flogging, 90 + Florida War, service of Eastman in, 62; + service of Canby in, 63 + Flour, 86 + Food, character of, 26, 85-87 + Folles-Avoine Indians, 205 + Fond du Lac, Department of, 6 + Foraging, 85, 96 + Foreigners, permission to, to engage in fur trade, 138 + Forests, 178 + Forsyth, Thomas, journey of, up Mississippi, 22; + presents distributed by, 23; + arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, 24; + return trip of, 24; + reference to, 211, 228 + Fort Abercrombie, facts concerning early history of, 49, 50 + Fort Armstrong, construction of, 18; + reference to, 20; + garrison for, 22; + journey of Webb to, 117 + Fort Atkinson (Iowa), dragoons from, 35; + expedition from, 38; + Major Woods at, 41 + + Fort Atkinson (Nebraska), naming of, 30; + sickness at, 93 + Fort Benton, 46 + Fort Bridger, 64 + Fort Calhoun (Nebraska), 20 + Fort Clarke, establishment of, 44, 45 + Fort Crawford, establishment of, 18; + reference to, 20, 23, 59, 157, 161; + arrival of troops at, 22; + reënforcement of garrison of, 32, 34; + removal of troops from, 33 + Fort Dearborn, massacre at, 10, 11, 208; + reference to, 18, 117; + re-occupation of, 18 + Fort Defiance, 64 + Fort Des Moines, 44 + Fort Dodge, establishment of, 44, 45; + reference to, 49 + Fort Erie, 57 + Fort Gaines, 43, 48 + Fort Garry, 40, 188 + Fort Howard, erection of, 19; + reference to, 21, 211 + Fort Leavenworth, establishment of, 56 + Fort McKay, name of Fort Shelby changed to, 12; + re-occupation of site of, 18 + Fort Pierre, purchase of, 21; + reference to, 167 + Fort Ridgely, 49, 186 + Fort Ripley, 48 + Fort St. Anthony, 29 + Fort Shelby, establishment of, 11, 12; + capture of, by English, 12 + Fort Snelling, significance of establishment of, 2; + establishment and early history of, 18-30; + range of influence of, 21; + erection of, 27, 28; + garden at, 28; + route of road to, 28, 29; + naming of, 29, 30; + service of, in protection of frontier, 31-53; + attitude of War Department toward, 31; + Territorial jurisdictions over site of, 32; + activities of troops at, during Winnebago outbreak, 32-34; + character and duties of garrison of, 34, 35; + service of troops from, in removal of Winnebagoes, 35-37; + expeditions from, 39-45; + surveying party escorted by dragoons from, 46, 47; + relation of, to other forts, 47; + fort built by troops from, 48, 49, 50; + history of later years of, 50-53; + desire to locate town on site of, 50-52; + officers' training camp at, 53; + biographical sketches of men connected with, 54-72; + Dred Scott at, 66; + service of Indian agent at, 66-72; + description of, 73-83; + view from, 79, 80; + glimpses of garrison life at, 84-102; + relation of, to Indian affairs, 103-118; + efforts of authorities at, to keep peace between Sioux and Chippewas, + 119-134; + regulation of fur trade by officers at, 135-139; + regulation of liquor traffic by officers at, 139-145; + work of missionaries at, 146-158; + religious activities at, 156-158; + visits of travelers to, 159-175, 198; + Indian treaty made at, 176-186; + part of, in opening country to settlement, 184, 185; + part of, in settlement of West, 187-201; + settlements around, 187-190; + removal of settlers from vicinity of, 192-195; + relations between St. Paul and, 196-198; + withdrawal of troops from, 199; + unique facts concerning, 201; + arrival of troops at, 212, 215; + oil painting of, 223; + effect of, on Indian affairs, 231, 232 + Fort Sumter, 201 + Fort Ticonderoga, 201 + Fort Union, 46 + Fort William, 9 + Fort York, 189 + Forts, resistance to building of, 13; + location of, 18; + building of, 18-20, 47; + reference to, 136; + degeneration of Indians in vicinity of, 147 + "Four Hearts", 68 + Four Legs, attempt of, to delay troops, 21 + Fourth United States Infantry, 56 + Fowle, Major, 34, 122 + + Fox Indians, rumor of attack by, 117; + reference to, 205; + treaty with, 208 + (see Sac and Fox Indians) + Fox River, 19, 163; + canal between Wisconsin River and, 20; + ascent of, by troops, 21, 22 + France, 1, 92 + Franks, Mr., 209 + Frémont, John C., 167, 241 + French, rule of, in West, 2, 3; + influence of, over Indians, 3; + extent of trade during control of, 205 + French traders, 2 + Frontier, difficulties on, 15; + plan for protection of, 19; + service of Fort Snelling in protection of, 31-53; + service of Taylor on, 59 + Fuel, use of wood for, 99 + Funerals, conduct of, 93 + Fur trade, 2, 3, 35; + activities of English in, 3, 4, 5-17; + importance of, to Canada, 9; + regulation of, 15-17, 135-139; + quantity of furs secured in, 137; + use of liquor in, 139, 140; + extent of, 205 + Fur traders (see Traders) + Furs, taking of, to Canada, 6; + sorting and packing of, 81; + quantity and kind of, secured by traders, 137; + annual export of, from Canada, 207 + + Gaines, Edmund P., 227 + Gale, Captain, 131 + Galena (Illinois), 32, 151, 168, 170, 175, 190 + Galtier, Lucian, 158, 195 + Game, killing of, 42 + Garden, products of, 28; + making of, 95, 96 + Gardiner, Captain, 46 + Gardner, Lieutenant, 216 + Garrison, life of, at Fort Snelling, 84-102 + Gear, Ezekiel, purchases made by, 88, 89; + service of, as chaplain, 157; + reference to, 169, 170, 173 + Geese, 96 + "General Ashley" (keel boat), 33 + "General Brooke" (steamboat), 169 + "General Fatigue", 85 + Genoa (Italy), 70 + Geological surveys, beginning of, 165 + George the Third, medals of, 112 + Gettysburg, Battle of, 63 + Ghent, negotiations at, 209 + Good Road (Chief), 83; village of, 155 + Gooding, Mrs., 23 + Gooding, Miss, 29 + Goods for Indian trade, 136 + Goose River, 40 + Gorgets, 112, 114 + Gorman, W. A., 197 + Graft, charges of, 51 + Graham's Point, 50 + Grant, Peter, trading post of, 206 + Grapeshot, 77 + Gray, A., report by, 8 + Great Britain, exploration of domain of, 1; + diplomatic correspondence with, 140 + Great Lakes, 2, 103 + Green, Platt Rogers, marriage of, 29; + reference to, 83 + Green Bay, 4, 21, 138; + fort on, 19; + fur trade at, 205 + Greenly, Mr., 43, 44 + Greenough, I. K., 101, 143 + Green's Villa, 82 + Grist mill, 82 + Grooms, Mr., 142, 151 + Groseilliers, Medard Chuart, exploration by, 3 + Guardhouse, 75 + Gull Lake, 179 + Guns, giving of, to Indians, 110 + + Half-breeds, difficulties with, 37-40; + reference to, 157, 184; + location of, around fort, 188, 189 + Hamilton, Mrs. Alexander, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168 + Hannibal (negro servant), 90 + Harness, 75 + Harriet (negro woman), 66 + Harriman, D. B., 232 + Harrison, William H., 57 + + Harrodstown (Kentucky), 201 + Hartford (Connecticut), 21 + Hastings (Minnesota), 26 + Hay, raising of, 96 + Hays, John, 190 + Heald, Nathan, 10 + Heiskell, William King, Fort Snelling reservation sold by, 51 + Hennepin, Louis, 3 + Henry, Alexander, 206 + Herring, Elbert, 221 + _Hiawatha_, 62 + Higby, James, 196 + "Highland Mary", 43 + Hill, James J., 235 + Hivernants, 136 + Hole-in-the-Day, 124, 126, 129, 228, 231; + career of, 179, 180 + Holland, 92 + Homesickness, 25 + Horses, feeding of, 85; + raising of hay for, 96; + exchange of, for liquor, 141 + Hospital, 75; + taking of sick soldiers to, 85; + number of soldiers in, 93 + Howitzers, 77 + Hudson's Bay, 189 + Hudson's Bay Company, 8, 140, 188, 206, 244 + Huggins, Alexander G., 154 + Hull, William, 10, 57; + surrender of Detroit by, 57, 58 + Hunt, Abigail, marriage of, 57 + Hunting, skill of Scott in, 60, 61; + success of soldiers in, 96, 97; + activities of Indians in, 105, 106; + reference to, 111, 188; + efforts to supplement, by farming, 148 + Hunting grounds, 82 + Hunting parties, size of, 38; + encounters by, 129; + watching of, by Indian agent, 129, 130 + + Illinois, admission of, 15; + Indian outbreak in, 32-34 + Illinois River, 177 + Indian affairs, regulation of, 34, 35, 67; + relation of Fort Snelling to, 103-118, 231 + Indian agency, buildings of, 77; + proposed removal of, 78; + councils with Indians at, 106-109 + Indian agent, protection for, 18; + service of Taliaferro as, 66-71; + relation between military authorities and, 67; + house of, 77, 78; + task of, 103, 104; + visit of Indians to, 111; + aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112; + efforts of, to promote peace between Sioux and Chippewas, 119-134; + service of, as mediator, 191, 192; + reference to, 220 + Indian ball, 101 + Indian country, preparations for march into, 93-95 + Indian dances, holding of, for Catlin, 164 + Indian schools, 118 + Indian Territory, removal of Indians to, 63, 64 + _Indian Tribes of the United States, History, Conditions, and Future + Prospects of the_, 62 + Indian villages, 83 + Indiana, admission of, 15; + reference to, 63 + Indians, influence of French traders over, 3; + trade of English with, 4; + power of English over, 5-17, 114, 115; + support of British by, in War of 1812, 8-12; + treaties with, 12, 13; + sending of presents to, 13, 23; + visits of, to Drummond Island, 13, 14; + proposals for dealing with, 15; + regulation of trade with, 15-17; + refusal of, to supply troops with food, 26; + relation of Fort Snelling to, 31; + hostility of, 32-34; + opposition of, to half-breeds, 37; + power of agents over, 67; + tepees of, 73; + blacksmith work for, 78; + legend of, concerning Falls of St. Anthony, 81, 82; + treatment of deserters by, 92, 93; + plan for civilization of, 103; + number of, around Fort Snelling, 103, 104; + character of life among, 104-106; + councils with, at Fort Snelling, 106-109; + + effect of military display on, 108, 109; + relief of sufferings of, 109, 110; + visit of, to agent, 111; + help to, in sickness, 111, 112; + vaccination of, 112; + evidence of power of government given to, by Fort Snelling, 112-118; + medals and certificates given to, 113, 114; + influence of Fort Snelling over, 116-118; + regulation of fur trade with, 135-139; + goods used in trade with, 136; + efforts to suppress liquor traffic with, 139-145; + evil effects of liquor on, 141; + work of missionaries among, 146-158; + degeneration among, 147; + log village for, 149; + work of, at farming, 150; + assistance to, in farming, 152, 153; + boarding-school for, 156; + effect of religious work among, 158; + paintings of, by Catlin, 163, 164; + relations of United States with, 176-178; + speeches by, 181, 182; + disputes between settlers and, 191, 192; + drunkenness among, 194; + use of, by British, 208; + plans for permanent territory for, 209; + respect of, for Sabbath, 237; + steamboats feared by, 239, 240 + Indigo, purchase of, 88 + Intemperance, prevalence of, in garrison, 89, 90 + Interior, Department of, Indian affairs placed under control of, 67 + Interpreter, service of Campbell as, 71, 72; + danger to, from fire, 78; + activities of, 129, 130, 131; + service of Renville as, 161 + Interpreters, foreigners as, 138 + "Ione" (steamboat), 169 + Iowa, journey of Kearny across, 29; + removal of Winnebagoes from, 35, 36, 47; + expeditions from Fort Snelling into, 41-45 + Iowa, Territory of, 32, 158 + Iowa City, Major Woods at, 41, 42; + reference to, 43; + description of, 216 + Iowa County, petition from, 41 + Iowa Indians, 177; + treaty with, 208 + Iowa River, difficulties with Indians along, 41, 42-44; + departure of Indians from, 44 + Ireland, 92; + immigrants from, 189 + Iron, mining of, 25 + Irving, Washington, 14 + Izard, George, 57 + + Jack, Captain, war with, 65 + Jackson, Andrew, 15 + Jail, use of, 196 + James, Edward, settlers removed by, 195 + James River, 116 + Jarvis, Doctor, 112 + Jefferson, Thomas, statement of, concerning trade, 4 + Jesuits, work of, 146 + Jewellers, 92 + Jews' harps, giving of, to Indians, 107 + Johnson, George, 118 + Johnson County (Iowa), 41 + + Kansas State Historical Society, 221 + Kaposia, 83, 152; + missionary at, 154; + abandonment of mission at, 155; + school at, 156; + battle near, 232 + Kearny, Stephen Watts, survey of route for military road by, 29 + Keating, William H., 161, 162 + Keelboats, 86 + Kemper, Jackson, letters describing visit of, to Fort Snelling, 169-175; + reference to, 238, 242 + Kentucky, settlement of, 14; + reference to, 15, 63 + Kickapoo Indians, treaty with, 208 + Kinzie, John, 117 + Kitchens, 75 + Kittson, Norman W., 140, 235, 245 + Knives, 136 + + La Baye, 205 + Laborers, 92 + Lac du Flambeau, 118 + Lac du Traverse, 16 + Lac qui Parle, 110, 116, 144, 154, 155 + Laidlaw, William, 138 + + Lake Calhoun, 82, 96, 118, 133, 148, 153, 154; + mission on, 83 + Lake Harriet, 82, 96, 127, 154, 198; + Indian boarding-school at, 156 + Lake Huron, 13, 14, 19, 21 + Lake Itasca, 167 + Lake Julia, 163 + Lake Michigan, 17, 19, 21 + Lake Mini-Waken, 40 + Lake of the Isles, 82, 96 + Lake of the Woods, 16, 140, 209 + Lake Pepin, 23, 24, 29, 93, 142, 171, 172, 212 + Lake Pokegama, 232 + Lake St. Croix, 128 + Lake Superior, trading posts on, 6; + reference to, 9, 47, 160, 162, 172 + Lake Traverse, 103, 116 + Lake Winnebago, 21 + Lake Winnipeg, 4, 162, 189, 205 + Lakes, hunting in region of, 82, 83 + Landing at Fort Snelling, description of, 73 + Lands, questions concerning, 111 + Land's End, 138 + Land-seekers, effect of coming of, 117, 118; + land cessions urged by, 176 + Latrobe, Charles Joseph, 223 + "Laughing Water," 82 + Laundresses, quarters of, 75 + Lead mines, 178 + Leavenworth, Henry, 21, 29, 63, 190, 211; + message of, to Indian chief, 21, 22; + journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, 22-24; + arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, 24; + return of, to Prairie du Chien, 24; + camp moved by, 27; + successor to, 27; + sketch of life of, 55, 56 + Lee, Francis, 49 + Leech Lake, Pike at, 6; + trading post on, 6; + reference to, 130, 179 + Legend concerning Falls of St. Anthony, 81, 82 + _Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The_, 14 + Lewis, Meriwether, expedition under, 4, 5; + reference to, 72 + Library, purchase of books for, 87; + reference to, 99 + Licenses, granting of, to traders, 16, 137, 138 + Linn County (Iowa), 41 + Liquor, 86; + effect of, on Indians, 129, 141; + suppression of traffic in, 129; + power of, among Indians, 139, 140; + prices charged for, 141, 142; + destruction of, 143, 144 + Liquor traffic, regulation of, 139-145 + Little Crow, 68, 116, 117, 132, 155 + Little Falls (Minnesota), 6, 81 + Little Thunder, 118 + Lockwood, Judge, 170 + Log cabins, erection of, 25 + Log village for Indians, 149 + Long, Stephen H., site for fort approved by, 19; + reference to, 95; + expedition of, to upper Mississippi, 160-163 + Longfellow, Henry W., 62 + Lookout platform, 74 + Loomis, Gustavus, 36, 156, 166; + punishment inflicted by, 90 + Loras, Mathias, 127, 231; + activities of, at Mendota, 158 + Lords of the North, 54-72 + Louisiana, transfer of, 7 + Louisiana Purchase, effect of, 4 + Louisville (Kentucky), 169 + Lover's rock, 172 + Lower Red Cedar Lake, trading post on, 6 + "Loyal Hanna" (steamboat), 169 + Lumber, making of, 27, 28, 82 + + McCain, H. P., acknowledgments to, ix + M'Gillis, Hugh, 6 + McGregor, John R., 196 + McKenny, T. L., 17 + McKenzie, Kenneth, trading house bought by, 79; + reference to, 138 + McLean, Nathaniel, 71, 220 + McMahon, Doctor, 121 + McNeil, Colonel, 117 + Mackinac, capture of, by British, 9, 10; + reference to, 11, 12, 18, 118, 146, 201, 209; + transfer of, to Americans, 18 + Madison, James, 12 + + Magazine, 74; + contents of, 76, 77 + Ma-ghe-ga-bo, 182, 183 + Magruder, William T., 63, 186 + Mahoney, Sergeant, purchases made by, 89 + Mail, carrying of, to Fort Snelling, 97-99, 101 + Maize, raising of, 95 + "Malta" (steamboat), 169 + Man-of-the-sky, 133 + Mandan (North Dakota), 5 + Mandan Indians, Lewis and Clark among, 5; + reference to, 206 + Maple sugar, 120 + March, preparations for, 93-95 + Marengo (Iowa), difficulties with Indians near, 42, 43 + Marion (Iowa), 42 + Marquette, Jacques, 3, 146 + Marryat, Frederick, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168, 229 + Marsh, John, letter from, 33; + service of, as tutor, 100, 101 + Marston, Major, 22 + Massacre of 1862, 118 + Massy, Louis, 192 + Mather, William Williams, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 165 + Mdewakanton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247 + Meals, character of, 85-87 + Medals, giving up of, by Indians, 6; + giving of, by English, 112; + giving of, by United States, 113, 114; + slur against, 145 + Mendota, treaty of, 49, 247; + settlement at, 80, 81; + headquarters of fur trade at, 135, 136; + factor at, 139; + reference to, 142, 212, 223, 245; + religious activities at, 157, 158; + traders at, 188 + Menominee Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13; + reference to, 177 + Mess-rooms, 75 + Mexican War, services of Taylor in, 59; + services of Scott in, 61; + reference to, 63; + service of Canby in, 64 + Mexico, City of, 64, 197 + Michigan, Territory of, 32 + Military frontier, forward movement of, 17, 18 + Military posts, establishment of, 2; + permission for establishment of, 7 + Military reservation, 192; + removal of settlers from, 192-195 + Military road, survey of route for, 28, 29 + Military rules, severity of, 91 + Mille Lac, 180 + Miller, John, 19 + Mills, 82, 149; + guarding of, 96 + Minneapolis, real estate speculation at, 50 + Minnehaha Creek, 27 + Minnehaha Falls, 62, 96, 127, 198 + Minnesota, Indians in, 103; + diocese of Dubuque extended over, 158; + reference to, 177 + Minnesota, Territory of, 32, 216; + organization of, 196 + Minnesota River, Carver on, 1; + reference to, 2, 21, 30, 31, 47, 55, 74, 106, 110, 111, 118, 121, 138, + 140, 146, 154, 155, 185, 187, 207; + cession of land at mouth of, secured by Pike, 7, 8; + promise of trading house at mouth of, 17; + selection of site for fort at mouth of, 19; + arrival of troops at mouth of, 24, 212; + fort located at junction of Mississippi River and, 27; + concentration of Sioux Indians along, 49; + scenery at mouth of, 79, 80; + Indian villages on, 83; + clearing of timber from banks of, 99; + expedition up, 162; + name of, 206 + Minnesota Valley, settlement of, 39; + geological survey in, 165 + Mission, 83 + Missionaries, 3, 118, 146-158; + methods of, suggested by Taliaferro, 150, 151; + service of, 199 + Missionary societies, 145 + Missions, activities at, 155 + Mississippi River, Carver on, 1; + reference to, 2, 13, 15, 21, 30, 48, 55, 58, 74, 103, 107, 120, 126, + 129, 131, 135, 143, 158, 167, 179, 187, 205, 207; + + foreign jurisdictions over country west of, 2, 3; + expedition of Pike up, 4; + activities of British traders on, 5-8; + cession of land on, secured by Pike, 7, 8; + treaties with Indians on, 12, 13; + proposed trading posts on, 17; + forts on, 18, 19; + fort located at junction of Minnesota River and, 27; + exploration of, by Cass, 28; + scenery along, 79, 80; + road along, 81; + Indian villages on, 83; + low water in, 86; + seizure of liquor on, 144; + first steamboat on upper, 159, 160; + attempt to find source of, 163; + discovery of source of, 167; + advertisements of trip on, 168, 169; + description of journey up, 169-175; + reasons for cession of land east of, 178, 179; + cession of land east of, 182-185, 192; + military reservation on, 193 + Mississippi Valley, settlement of, 39; + erection of military posts in, 47; + work of missionaries in, 146; + opening of, to settlement, 185; + reference to, 200 + Missouri, increase in population of, 15; + reference to, 66 + Missouri, Territory of, 29, 32 + Missouri Compromise, 66 + Missouri Fur Company, murder of employees of, 113 + Missouri Indians, 116 + Missouri River, 2, 3, 6, 13, 21, 30, 37, 46, 56, 72, 107, 112, 113, 116, + 135, 138, 148, 167, 205, 216, 230; + English traders on, 4; + Lewis and Clark expedition on, 4, 5; + treaties with Indians on, 12, 13; + forts on, 19, 20; + return of Sacs and Foxes from, 42; + removal of Indians to, 44 + Modoc Indians, war with, 65 + Molino del Rey, Battle of, death of Scott in, 60, 61, 62 + Moncrief, W. T., 226 + Monroe, James, 36, 49, 186, 236 + _Monsieur Tonson_, 100 + "Monsoon" (steamboat), 169 + Montreal, activities of merchants of, 4 + Moores, Hazen, 143 + Morgan's Bluff, 89 + Morrill, Mr., 50 + Morse, Jedidiah, plan of, for civilizing Indians, 103, 118 + Mud Lake, 125, 191 + Mumford, Mr., 101 + Murderers, surrender of, by Indians, 113; + killing of, by Chippewas, 122-124; + punishment of, 125, 126, 132 + Murphy, R. G., 71, 145 + Musick, Peter, killing of cattle of, 191 + Musket flints, 77 + Muskrat furs, exchange of, for liquor, 142 + Muskrats, trapping of, 105 + Mutinies, causes of, 91 + + Nadin, complaint of, 181 + Nadoueseronoms, 119 + Navajo Indians, expedition against, 64 + Needles, purchase of, 88 + Nelson River, 189 + Neutral Ground, removal of Winnebagoes from, 47 + New Mexico, 64 + New Orleans, 56 + New Ulm (Minnesota), 49 + New York City, 56, 145, 172, 175; + draft riots in, 64 + Niagara Falls, 55, 173 + Nichols, R. C., building of Fort Armstrong by, 18 + Nicollet, Jean, exploration by, 3 + Nicollet, Joseph N., explorations by, 166, 167; + reference to, 180 + Nine Mile River, 174 + Nokay River, 48 + North, Lords of, 54-72 + North Dakota, 40 + North West Company, activities of, 4; + traders of, 5; + extent of commerce of, 6; + reference to, 8, 9, 10, 244 + + Northern Pacific Survey, 46 + Northwest, period of foreign rule in, 1-17; + reference to, 18; + importance of Fort Snelling in, 55, 118; + guardian of, 30; + work of missionaries in, 146-158; + coming of first steamboat to, 159, 160; + missionary bishop of, 169, 242; + part of Fort Snelling in development of, 199, 200; + meaning of term, 205 + + Oak Grove, mission at, 155 + Oats, raising of, 95 + O'Fallon, Benjamin, 16 + Officer of the day, 85 + Officers' Mess, 88 + Officers' quarters, description of, 75; + fire in, 101 + Officers' Training Camp, 53 + "O. H. Perry" (keelboat), 33, 34 + Ojibway Indians, home of, 103 + Old Northwest, settlement of, 14; + reference to, 205 + Oliphant, Laurence, 222 + Oliver, Lieutenant, experiences of, 26 + Orderly-room, 75 + Ordnance, alleged lack of, 76; + stock of, 76, 77 + Ordnance sergeant, quarters of, 75 + Ordway, John, 206 + Oregon treaty, 46 + Orphan asylum, 118 + Orphans, fund for relief of, 87 + Osage Indians, treaty with, 208 + Ottawa Indians, 177 + Otter furs, exchange of, for liquor, 142 + Otter Tail Lake, 37, 131 + Otto, Helen, acknowledgments to, x + + Pacific Coast, emigration to, 45; + necessity of railroad to, 46; + survey of route for railroad to, 46, 47 + Pacific Northwest, 205 + Page, Captain, 36 + Painted rock, 175 + Painters, 92 + "Palmyra" (steamboat), 168 + Paper, purchase of, 88 + Papermakers, 92 + Parade ground, 73; + sweeping of, 85 + Parkman, Francis, 146 + Parties, holding of, 100, 101 + Pattern farms, 103 + Patterson, Robert, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 164 + Pawnee Indians, campaign against, 56 + Paymaster, office of, 75 + Peace conferences between Indians, 131 + Peace pipe, 107; + smoking of, 126 + Pelzer, Louis, vii + Pembina, hunting party from, 38; + expedition to, 39, 40, 45; + reference to, 140, 163 + Pemmican, making of, 37 + Peoria (Illinois), 99 + Pepper, purchase of, 88 + Perrot, Nicholas, 3 + Perry, Abraham, 192 + Perry, Mrs. Abraham, 193 + Pe-she-ke, speech by, 183 + Pettijohn, Eli, purchase made by, 88 + Phelan, Edward, 190 + Philadelphia, 161, 164 + Physician at Fort Snelling, sketch of life of, 65, 66; + service of, to settlers, 190, 191 + Piankashaw Indians, treaty with, 208 + Picnic grounds, 82 + Picnics, 96 + Pike, Zebulon M., expedition under, 4; + activities of English traders investigated by, 5-8; + cession of land secured by, 7, 8; + reference to, 11, 22, 139, 146, 179, 192, 193; + promise made by, 17 + Pike's Island, 187 + Pillager band of Chippewas, treaty with, 45; + reference to, 179, 182 + Pilot Knob, 80 + Pine Bend, 86 + Pine Coulie, 232 + Pine timber, 172 + Pinisha, 83 + Pipestone quarry, trip to, 167 + Pioneers, protection of, against Indians, 116; + + coming of, 199 + (see Settlers) + Pittsburgh, 160 + Plattsburg, 57 + Pleasures of soldiers, 96, 97 + Plympton, J., 65, 125, 126, 192, 193 + Poage, Sarah, 154 + Poinsett, J. R., 194 + Police guard, 85 + Pond, Gideon, coming of, to Fort Snelling, 151; + work of, among Indians, 152-156 + Pond, S. W., 72, 103; + coming of, to Fort Snelling, 151; + work of, among Indians, 152-156 + Pontiac's conspiracy, 3 + Pope, John, 215 + Pork, 86; + ration of, 109; + giving of, to Indians, 110 + Portage des Sioux, 17 + Post fund, 87 + Post school, 75; + fund for maintenance of, 87; + organization of, 101 + Potatoes, raising of, 95 + Potosi (Wisconsin), 170, 173 + Pottawattamie Indians, 42, 177; + treaty with, 208 + Poupon, Isadore, 230 + Powder, stock of, 77 + Poweshiek (Chief), 44 + Prairie du Chien, 11, 16, 20, 21, 26, 32, 33, 34, 41, 58, 66, 92, 122, + 140, 142, 149, 161, 164, 170, 172, 173, 181, 187, 195, 243, + 246; + establishment of Fort Shelby at, 11, 12; + capture of, by British, 12; + round-about route to, 13; + Fort Crawford at, 18; + arrival of troops at, 22; + return of Leavenworth to, 24; + carrying of mail between Fort Snelling and, 97-99, 101; + treaty made at, in 1825, 130, 177, 178 + Preëmption, 192 + Prescott, Philander, 212 + Presents, giving of, to Indians, 13, 23, 107, 111 + President of United States, 16 + Prevost, George, 8 + Prices, fixing of, 87 + Prison, number of soldiers in, 91 + Prisoners, guarding of, 85 + Provencalle, Louis, 143 + Provisions, distribution of, to Indians, 110; + character of, 213 + Pump, 74 + Punishments, character of, 90, 91 + Puthuff, William H., 209 + + Quaife, Milo M., acknowledgments to, ix + Quarrels in garrison, 102 + Quarrying, employment of soldiers at, 96 + Quartermaster, trouble between physician and, 65, 66; + office of, 75 + Quebec, 118, 208 + + Radisson, Pierre Esprit, exploration by, 3; + reference to, 119 + Railroad, survey of route for, 46, 47 + Rainville, Mr., 229 + Raisins, purchase of, 88 + Ramsey, Alexander, 36, 182; + treaty made by, 45; + council called by, 131, 132 + Rations, character of, 85-87, 109; + reference to, 95; + issuance of, to Indians, 181, 182 + Real estate speculation, 50 + Reconnoitering, 85 + Red Bird, hostility of Indians under, 33, 34 + Red Bird War, 214 + "Red Head," 108, 228 + Red River carts, caravans of, 235, 236 + Red River of the North, trading posts on, 4, 206; + reference to, 16, 49, 50, 103, 138, 151, 188, 205, 236; + difficulties with half-breeds from, 37-40; + expeditions to, 38-40, 162; + Lord Selkirk's colony on, 188 + Red River Trail, 46 + Red Wing (Chief), 92; + village of, 171, 172; + payment of annuities to Indians under, 185 + _Regulations for the Army, General_, 84, 86 + + Renville, Daniel, 156 + Renville, Joseph, 138, 191; + service of, as interpreter, 161 + Renville, Rosalie, 156 + Republicans, charges of graft made by, 51 + _Reveille_, 84 + Revival, success of, 156 + Reynolds, Lieutenant, 86 + Riggs, S. R., 144 + Road to Fort Snelling, 73, 81 + Robertson, Mr., work of, 155, 156 + Robertson, Gustavus A., 156 + Rock Island, building of fort on, 18; + garrison for fort on, 22; + reference to, 117 + Rock River, hostility of Indians on, 12, 13 + Rocky Mountains, 16 + Roll call, 84, 85; + punishment for absence from, 90 + Round Tower, Old, 72; + description of, 74 + Routine duties, description of, 84, 85 + Rum, 86; + evil effect of, 139 + Rum River, 27, 101, 130; + battle on, 128 + Runners, sending of, to Indian camps, 130 + Rupel, J. B. F., 143 + Ryerson, Private, purchases by, 88 + + Sabbath, respect of Indians for, 237 + Sac Indians, hostility of, 13; + pursuit of, 35; + reference to, 205; + treaty with, 208 + Sac and Fox Indians, 35, 42, 177; + return of, to Iowa, 42 + St. Anthony (Minnesota), real estate speculation at, 50 + St. Croix River, trading posts on, 6; + cession of land at mouth of, 8; + reference to, 126, 172, 174, 175, 180, 207 + St. Joseph's, 10 + St. Lawrence River, 205 + St. Louis, 4, 5, 11, 22, 48, 56, 58, 69, 72, 120, 159, 162, 169, 170, + 172, 213, 228; + troops from, 34; + bringing of supplies from, 86 + St. Paul, 36, 46, 71, 216, 236; + real estate speculation at, 50; + founding of, 195, 196; + relations between fort and, 196-198 + St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad Company, 235 + St. Peter's, 170, 172, 173, 175, 206 + St. Peter's agency, service of Taliaferro at, 68-71 + St. Peter's River (see Minnesota River) + St. Vincent (Minnesota), 206 + Salt, 86 + Sandy Lake, trading post on, 6; + reference to, 114, 120, 180 + Sanford, John F. A., Dred Scott bought by, 66 + Santa Fe Trail, dangers on, 56 + Sauk River, 133 + Sault Ste. Marie, 119, 163 + Saw mill, erection of, 27; + reference to, 82, 172 + Saxton, Lieutenant, 46 + Say, Thomas, 161, 162 + Scalp dance, 123, 128, 131, 132 + Scalps, taking of, 128 + Scenery, description of, around Fort Snelling, 79, 80 + School, organization of, 101 + Schoolcraft, Henry R., statement by, 14; + reference to, 119, 130 + Schools, success of, among Indians, 156 + Scientific expeditions, 109 + Scotland, 92; + immigrants from, 189 + Scott, Dred, fugitive slave case of, 66 + Scott, Martin, sketch of life of, 59-62 + Scott, Winfield, naming of Fort Snelling suggested by, 29, 30; + reference to, 55 + _Scott vs. Sanford_, 66 + Scrub brush, purchase of, 88 + Scurvy, ravages of, 26, 213 + Second United States Infantry, 63 + Secretary of War, 19, 103, 130, 149 + Selkirk, Lord, colony of, 188, 189 + Settlement, opening up country to, 184, 185 + + Settlements, protection for, 18 + Settlers, annoyance of, by Indians, 42, 43; + desire of, for land cession, 178; + service of Fort Snelling to, 187-201; + disputes between Indians and, 191, 192; + memorial of, 192; + efforts to exclude from reservation, 192-195; + ejection of, 195, 246 + Seymour, Samuel, 161 + Shakopee (Minnesota), 83 + Shakpay, 83 + Shambaugh, Benj. F., introduction by, v; + acknowledgments to, vii, ix + Shapaydan, 83 + Shaw, Mr., 22 + Sherman, W. T., military career of, 63 + Sheyenne River, 103, 138 + Shields, James, 197 + Shining Mountains, 3 + Shipler, Jacob, 196 + Shoemakers, 92 + Shoes, purchase of, 88 + Shot, stock of, 77 + Sibley, General, 64 + Sibley, Henry H., description by, 26, 27; + house of, 80; + hunting by, 96, 97; + reference to, 110, 145, 180, 213, 231, 239; + relations between officers of fort and, 139 + Sibley House, 223 + Sick, taking of, to hospital, 85 + Sickness, prevalence of, among troops, 26, 213; + losses because of, 93; + help to Indians in case of, 111, 112 + Sinclair, Mr., 245 + Sioux Indians, early traders among, 3; + land at mouth of Minnesota ceded by, 7, 8; + visits of, to Drummond Island, 13, 14; + goods sent to, 22; + treaty between Chippewas and, 28; + unfriendliness of, 33; + part of, in Black Hawk War, 35; + hostility between half-breeds and, 37; + reference to, 48, 98, 101, 151, 158, 171, 177, 178, 179, 180, 184, + 198, 205, 229, 231, 242; + concentration of, 49: + massacre by, 52, 83; + visit of, to Washington, 68; + + villages of, 83; + home of, 103; + number of, 103, 104; + migrations of, to Canada, 106; + vaccination of, 112; + hostility of, 114; + disillusionment of, 115; + influence of Fort Snelling over, 116-118; + rumor of attack by, 117; + feuds between Chippewas and, 119-134; + killing of Chippewas by, 121, 125; + surrender of murderers by, 122, 125, 126; + battle between Chippewas and, 127, 128, 232; + boundary line between Chippewas and, 130, 131, 178; + imprisonment of, 132; + untrustworthiness of, 134; + temperance society among, 145; + farmer for, 155; + language of, 174; + delegation of, to Washington, 179; + treaty made by, 184, 247; + payment of annuities to, 185, 186; + amount of land ceded by, in 1805, 207 + Sioux of the Lakes, treaty with, 208 + Sioux of St. Peter's River, treaty with, 208 + Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, 48 + Sioux language, school books in, 156 + Sisseton Sioux Indians, 113, 129, 228; + treaty with, 247 + Sixth United States Infantry, company of, in Iowa, 44; + reference to, 48, 57, 63, 197; + frontier service of, 49 + Skunk River, 42 + Smallpox, efforts to check, 112 + Smith, C. F., expedition under, 40; + site for fort recommended by, 49, 50 + Smith, William R., 180 + Smuggling of whiskey, 142, 143 + Snelling, Josiah, building of fort by, 27, 28; + letter by, 28; + activities of, during Winnebago outbreak, 32-34; + reference to, 55, 96, 100, 102, 117, 132, 142, 163, 190; + sketch of life of, 56-59; + punishments inflicted by, 90; + description by, 113; + evil effects of liquor described by, 140, 141 + Snelling, Mrs. Josiah, 100, 160 + + Snelling, William J., 102, 163 + Soap, 86; + purchase of, 88 + Social life, 99-102 + Soiree, 101 + Soldiers, building of fort by, 27; + surroundings of, at Fort Snelling, 73-83; + life of, at Fort Snelling, 84-102; + occupation of, 92; + birthplace of, 92; + journeys into Indian country enjoyed by, 93-95; + employments of, 95, 96; + pleasures of, 96, 97; + carrying of mail by, 97, 98; + social life among, 100-102; + quarrels among, 102; + dependence of missionaries on, 148; + revival among, 156; + church services for, 157; + expedition escorted by, 162, 163; + drunkenness among, 194; + arrival of, at Fort Snelling, 212; + ejection of settlers by, 246 + Soup, character of, 86, 87 + South Dakota, Indians in, 103 + Southwest Company, 188 + Spain, exploration of domain of, 1 + Spanish, rule of, in West, 2, 3; + Indian trade won from, by English, 4 + Speculators, desire of, for land cession, 178 + Speeches, making of, by Indians, 181, 182 + Split Upper Lip, 123 + Spring, eagerness for coming of, 102; + activities of Indians in, 104, 105 + Squad-rooms, 75 + Squatters, huts of, 79 + (see Settlers) + Starch, purchase of, 88 + Stairway, 73 + Stanton, Edwin M., 64 + Steamboating, beginning of, on upper Mississippi, 159, 160 + Steamboats, use of, to bring supplies, 86; + mail carried by, 97; + reference to, 159, 199; + advertisements of, 169; + attitude of Indians toward, 239, 240 + Steele, Franklin, Fort Snelling reservation sold to, 51, 52; + adjustment with, 52; + home of, 79; + account books of, 87 + Steen, Mr., 43, 44 + Stevens, Isaac I., survey of route for railroad by, 46; + reference to, 217 + Stevens, Jedediah I., coming of, to Fort Snelling, 149; + work of, among Indians, 154; + preaching by, 157 + Stillwater (Minnesota), 197 + Stockade, erection of, 25; + reference to, 73, 136 + Store, purchase of goods at, 87-89 + Storehouse, 75 + Storer, William, 131 + Stoves, use of, for heating, 99 + Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 62 + Straits of Mackinac, 21 + Street, Joseph M., 149, 231 + Strong Earth, complaint of, 121; + career of, 180 + Strong Ground, career of, 180 + Sugar, 86; + purchase of, 88 + Sugar bush, 105 + Summer, activities of Indians during, 105 + Sumner, Edwin V., expedition under, 38 + Superintendent of Indian Affairs, 67, 71 + Supplies, character of, 26; + bringing of, to Fort Snelling, 86; + amount of, furnished to Indians, 182 + Supreme Court of United States, 66 + Surveyors, destruction of landmarks of, 42 + Suspenders, purchase of, 88 + Sutler, home of, 79; + purchase of goods from, 87-89; + service of Brown as, 190 + Swan, 96 + Swan River, 179 + Switzerland, immigrants from, 172, 189 + + Taliaferro, Lawrence, 28, 35, 66, 72, 77, 78, 84, 89, 91, 98, 102, 103, + 114, 116, 139, 140, 160, 167, 178, 179, 180, 184, 193, 221; + threat against, 33; + service of, as Indian agent, 68-71; + letters and papers of, 69, 70; + + speech by, 108; + suffering of Indians relieved by, 109, 110; + visit of Indians to, 111; + aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112; + murderers demanded by, 113; + efforts of, to civilize Indians, 118; + difficulties of, with Sioux and Chippewas, 120-134; + traders' licenses granted by, 137, 138; + disagreement between Bailly and, 138, 139; + liquor laws enforced by, 142-144; + efforts of, to induce Indians to farm, 148-150; + coöperation of, with missionaries, 149-158; + wedding ceremony performed by, 191; + service of, as mediator, 191, 192 + Tatling, results of, 102 + Tattoo, 85 + Taylor, Zachary, service of, at Fort Snelling, 59 + Tea party, 197 + Teamsters, employment of soldiers as, 96 + Temperance societies, 143, 145 + Tennessee, settlement of, 14; + reference to, 15 + Tenth United States Infantry, expedition of companies of, 40; + reference to, 63, 64 + Tepees, repairing of, 105 + Teton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 208 + Theatrical performances, 100 + Thespian Players, 100 + Third Artillery, 63 + Third United States Infantry, 19, 21 + Thomas, Sergeant, 223 + Throckmorton, Captain, 169 + Timber, destruction of, 42 + Timber lands, opening up of, 185 + Tintatonwan village, 83 + Tippecanoe, Battle of, 56 + Toopunkah Zeze, killing of, 123, 124, 231 + Tourist traffic, extent of, 168, 169 + Tourists, increase in number of, 198 + (see Travelers) + Traders, activities of, 3, 4; + regulation of activities of, 135-145; + granting of licenses to, 137, 138; + law suit begun by, 144; + opposition of, to farming, 150; + religious work among, 157, 158; + desire of, for treaty, 178, 179; + presence of, at council, 180; + speeches of Indians concerning, 181; + payment of debts to, 183, 184; + reference to, 187, 192; + location of, at Mendota, 188; + service of, 199 + Trading companies, development of, 135; + profit of, 136 + Trading house, 78, 79, 135 + Trading houses, establishment of, 17; + protection for, 18; + cluster of, 80 + Trading posts, location of, 6, 135, 136, 138; + permission for establishment of, 7; + reference to, 187, 188 + Training camp, use of Fort Snelling as, 52, 53 + Travelers, visits of, to Fort Snelling, 159-175 + Traverse des Sioux, treaty of, 49, 247 + Treaties, making of, with Indians, 12, 13, 28, 47, 48, 176-186, + 208, 247; + making of, between tribes, 131, 132 + Treaty of Ghent, terms of, 12, 18 + Treaty of Paris (1783), 16 + Trinkets, 136 + Troops, proposed employment of, in mining, 25; + troubles of, during first winter, 25-27; + ravages of scurvy among, 26; + new camp for, 27; + service of, in protection of frontier, 31-53; + withdrawal of, from Fort Snelling, 52, 199 + (also see Soldiers) + Truces, making of, between tribes, 131 + Turkey River, removal of Winnebagoes from, 35, 36; + reference to, 47 + Turner, F. J., 187 + Tutor, service of Marsh as, 100, 101 + + _Uncle Tom's Cabin_, 62 + United States, establishment of military posts by, 2; + + agreement of, to make peace with Indians, 12; + northern boundary of, 16; + expansion of, 45, 46; + hostility of Indians to, 114; + relations of, with Indians, 176-178; + agreement of, with Chippewas, 184; + land ceded to, by Sioux in 1805, 207 + Upper country, extent of, 2 + Utah, 64 + + Vaccination of Indians, 112 + Vail, J., 143 + Valentine Ball, 197 + "Valley Forge" (steamboat), 169 + Van Antwerp, Ver Planck, 180 + Van Cleve, Horatio P., 212 + Van Cleve, Mrs., 231 + Vancouver (Washington), 47 + Vevay (Indiana), 190 + Vinegar, 86 + Vineyard, Miles, 179 + Virginia, 70 + "Virginia" (steamboat), trip of, up Mississippi River, 159, 160 + Volga River, 41 + Voyageurs, 136, 157, 188 + + Wabasha (Chief), 33, 117; + land sold by, 35; + meeting of couriers at village of, 98; + missionary at village of, 154; + village of, 171; + payment of annuities to Indians under, 185 + Wabasha's Prairie, 35 + Wahpakoota Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247 + Wahpeton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247 + Wall around Fort Snelling, description of, 73, 74, 76 + Wakh-pa-koo-tay, 243 + Wakinyantanka, 83 + Wamditanka, 83 + Wapsipinicon River, 42 + War Department, 19, 22, 39, 44, 160; + naming of Fort Snelling by, 29, 30; + attitude of, toward Fort Snelling, 31; + Indian affairs placed under control of, 67 + War of 1812, English supported by Indians during, 8-12; + reference to, 18, 209; + service of Snelling during, 57; + service of Taliaferro in, 70 + War parties, 106 + Warfare, history of, between Sioux and Chippewas, 119-134 + "Warrior" (steamboat), 151, 164 + Warriors, desire of, to take part in council, 181 + Washington, George, 168 + Washington (Connecticut), 151 + Washington, D. C., 46, 58, 62, 64, 98, 192; + visit of Indians to, 68, 115, 116, 179; + treaty with Sioux at, 184 + Washington Monument Association, 197 + Washington Territory, 46 + Washington's birthday, celebration of, 100 + Water power, 178 + Weapons, stock of, 76, 77 + Webb, James, journey of, to Fort Armstrong, 117 + Webster, Daniel, statement by, 59 + Weddings, 191 + West, prediction of Carver concerning, 1, 2; + foreign jurisdictions in, 2, 3; + English supported by Indians in, 8-12; + rapid development of, 14; + cause of trouble in, 15; + influence of Fort Snelling in, 52; + service of Canby in, 65; + work of missionaries in, 146 + West Point Military Academy, 62, 63, 100 + Westward movement, 14, 15 + Wheat, spoiling of, 86; raising of, 95 + Wheeling (West Virginia), 161 + Wheelwrights, 92 + Whiskey, 86; + drinking of, by soldiers, 89; + efforts to suppress traffic in, 139-145; + smuggling of, 142, 143; + destruction of, 143, 144, 243; + traffic in, 194, 236 + Whistler, Captain, 21, 211 + White Head, 118 + Whitney, Asa, 217 + + Whooping cough, epidemic of, 191 + Widows, fund for relief of, 87 + Wilcox, Captain, 32 + Williams, Lieutenant, 99 + Williamson, Thomas S., 110; + work of, among Indians, 154-157 + Williamson, Mrs. Thomas S., 154 + Wines, seizure of, 143; + giving of, to Indians, 144 + Winnebago Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13; + attempt of, to delay troops, 21, 22; + outbreak of, 32-34; + removal of, to new reservation, 35-37, 48; + reference to, 41, 42, 177, 211, 236; + treaty with, 47; + new reservation for, 48; + disturbances among, 48, 49; + language of, 174 + Winnebago War, 214 + Winnipeg, 188 + Winona (Minnesota), 35 + Winter, difficulty in securing mail during, 97-99; + life at Fort Snelling during, 99-102; + life among Indians during, 104, 109, 110 + Wisconsin, Nicollet in, 3; + Indian outbreak in, 32-34; + desire of Winnebagoes to return to, 36; + reference to, 168; + desire for land cession in, 178; + bishop of, 242 + Wisconsin, Territory of, 32, 180; + marshal of, 195 + Wisconsin Historical Society, 242 + Wisconsin River, 19, 20, 34; + canal between Fox River and, 20 + Women, social life of, at fort, 100-102 + Wood, Doctor, aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112 + Wood, securing of, for fuel, 99 + Woods, Samuel, expedition under, 38, 41-45; + reference to, 40; + fort established by, 44, 45 + Wool, John E., 194 + Wyandot Indians, treaty with, 208 + + Yankton Sioux Indians, half-breed killed by, 37; + treaty with, 208 + Yeast powder, purchase of, 88 + Yellowstone Expedition, 20; + failure of, 21 + Yellowstone River, fort at mouth of, 19 + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Note: There are a number of inconsistencies in spelling and +hyphenation which are left as in the original, as they were +copied directly from various sources, such as personal journals. + +Page 12, para, 3: Treaty of Ghent, 1914, changed to 1814. + +Page 13: 'Menominees' spelled as in original. + +Page 98: 'inteligence' spelled as in original. + +Page 101: 'great numbers of Dear--Our' spelled as in original. + +Page 113: 'afraid to die. the Murderer' as in original. Note: This +writer/source doesn't capitalize normally. + +Page 128: Chippeways spelled as in original. + +Page 129: 'liveing' spelled as in original. + +Page 134: 'Chippeways' spelled as in original. + +Page 143: 'Societties' spelled as in original. + +Page 156: 'revival among the the soldiers, and' (Removed extra 'the'). + +Page 170: 'a-head' spelled as in original. + +Page 172: 'The Sioux have winter & summer houses. The latter are +conical made....' apparently refers to winter, even though the +phrase is 'winter & summer'. + +Page 177: 'Menomonies' spelled as in original. + +Page 191: Falstrom also spelled Faustram on same page. + +Footnote 8: 'tradeing' spelled as in original. + +Footnote 8: 'visit us. he' as in original. + +Footnote 8: 'Mandens' spelled as in original. + +Footnote 27: 'massacreing' spelled as in original. + +Footnote 183: Part of year missing from original. Changed +from '18 ' to '18__'. + +Index: Warfare, history of: Siuox changed to Sioux. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD FORT SNELLING *** + +***** This file should be named 22719-8.txt or 22719-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/7/1/22719/ + +Produced by K Nordquist, Sigal Alon, Leonard Johnson and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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