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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Old Fort Snelling
+       1819-1858
+
+Author: Marcus L. Hansen
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22719]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD FORT SNELLING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by K Nordquist, Sigal Alon, Leonard Johnson and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Book Cover]
+
+
+
+OLD FORT SNELLING
+
+From a painting by Captain Seth Eastman, reproduced in Mrs. Eastman's
+_Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_
+
+[Illustration: OLD FORT SNELLING]
+
+
+
+OLD FORT SNELLING
+
+1819-1858
+
+
+BY
+MARCUS L. HANSEN
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's Logo.]
+
+PUBLISHED AT IOWA CITY IOWA IN 1918 BY
+THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA
+
+
+
+THE TORCH PRESS
+CEDAR RAPIDS
+IOWA
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The establishment in 1917 of a camp at Fort Snelling for the training of
+officers for the army has aroused curiosity in the history of Old Fort
+Snelling. Again as in the days of the pioneer settlement of the
+Northwest the Fort at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi
+rivers has become an object of more than ordinary interest.
+
+Old Fort Snelling was established in 1819 within the Missouri Territory
+on ground which later became a part of the Territory of Iowa. Not until
+1849 was it included within Minnesota boundaries. Linked with the early
+annals of Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the
+Northwest, the history of Old Fort Snelling is the common heritage of
+many commonwealths in the Upper Mississippi Valley.
+
+The period covered in this volume begins with the establishment of the
+Fort in 1819 and ends with the temporary abandonment of the site as a
+military post in 1858.
+
+BENJ. F. SHAMBAUGH
+
+OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT AND EDITOR
+THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA
+IOWA CITY IOWA
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+The position which the military post holds in western history is
+sometimes misunderstood. So often has a consideration of it been left to
+the novelist's pen that romantic glamour has obscured the permanent
+contribution made by many a lonely post to the development of the
+surrounding region. The western fort was more than a block-house or a
+picket. Being the home of a handful of soldiers did not give it its real
+importance: it was an institution and should be studied as such. Old
+Fort Snelling is a type of the many remote military stations which were
+scattered throughout the West upon the upper waters of the rivers or at
+intermediate places on the interminable stretches of the westward
+trails.
+
+This study of the history and influence of Old Fort Snelling was first
+undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Louis Pelzer of the State University
+of Iowa, and was carried on under his supervision. The results of the
+investigation were accepted as a thesis in the Graduate College of the
+State University of Iowa in June, 1917. Upon the suggestion of Dr. Benj.
+F. Shambaugh, Superintendent of The State Historical Society of Iowa,
+the plan of the work was changed, its scope enlarged, many new sources
+of information were consulted, and the entire manuscript
+rewritten.
+
+Connected with so many of the aspects of western history, Old Fort
+Snelling is pictured in accounts both numerous and varied. The reports
+of government officials, the relations of travellers and explorers, and
+the reminiscences of fur traders, pioneer settlers, and missionaries
+show the Fort as each author, looking at it from the angle of his
+particular interest, saw it. These published accounts are found in the
+_Annual Reports_ of the Secretary of War, in the _Annual Reports_ of the
+Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and in the works of travellers and
+pioneers. Many of the most important sources are the briefer accounts
+printed in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_. The author's
+dependence upon these sources of information is evident upon every page
+of this volume.
+
+But not alone from these sources, which are readily accessible, is this
+account of the Old Fort drawn. A half-burned diary, the account books of
+the post sutler, letter books filled with correspondence dealing with
+matters which are often trivial, and statistical returns of men and
+equipment are sources which from their nature may never be printed. But
+in them reposes much of the material upon which this book is based. The
+examination of all the documents which offered any prospect of throwing
+light upon the subject was made possible for the author as Research
+Assistant in The State Historical Society of Iowa. And in this
+connection I wish to express my appreciation for the many courtesies
+which I have received from those in whose custody these sources are
+kept. To Dr. Solon J. Buck, Superintendent of the Minnesota Historical
+Society and the members of the library staff of that Society I am
+indebted for many kindnesses. Dr. M. M. Quaife, Superintendent of the
+State Historical Society of Wisconsin, placed at my disposal thousands
+of sheets of transcripts made from the records of the Indian Department
+at Washington and kept in the library of the Historical Society at
+Madison. At the Historical Department of Iowa at Des Moines, and in the
+library of the Kansas State Historical Society at Topeka opportunity was
+granted to examine valuable manuscripts. General H. P. McCain,
+Adjutant-General of the United States, had a search made of the records
+on file in the archives of the War Department at Washington, and such
+papers as dealt with Fort Snelling were consulted by the author.
+
+My fellow workers on the staff of The State Historical Society of Iowa
+have often aided me with suggestions and criticisms. To the
+Superintendent of the Society, Dr. Benj. F. Shambaugh, I wish to express
+my appreciation not only for the advice, encouragement, and inspiration
+which he freely gave, but also for the willingness with which he made
+possible the investigation of every clue to sources of information by
+correspondence or by personal visit.  Moreover, the manuscript has
+been carefully edited by him. The task of seeing the work through the
+press has been performed by Associate Editor Dr. Dan E. Clark, who also
+carefully read the manuscript and compiled the index. Miss Helen Otto
+assisted in the verification of the manuscript.
+
+MARCUS L. HANSEN
+
+THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA
+IOWA CITY IOWA
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+
+           Editor's Introduction                         v
+
+           Author's Preface                            vii
+
+      I.   A Century and a Half of Foreign Rule          1
+
+     II.   The Evolution of Fort Snelling               18
+
+    III.   Forty Years of Frontier Duty                 31
+
+     IV.   Lords of the North                           54
+
+      V.   A Soldier's World                            73
+
+     VI.   Glimpses of Garrison Life                    84
+
+    VII.   The Fort and Indian Life                    103
+
+   VIII.   The Sioux-Chippewa Feuds                    119
+
+     IX.   The Fur Trade                               135
+
+      X.   Soldiers of the Cross                       146
+
+     XI.   The Fashionable Tour                        159
+
+    XII.   The Chippewa Treaty of 1837                 176
+
+   XIII.   Citizens and Soldiers                       187
+
+           Notes and References                        205
+
+           Index                                       251
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+A CENTURY AND A HALF OF FOREIGN RULE
+
+
+On an autumn day in 1766 Captain Jonathan Carver stood upon the bluff
+which rises at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers and
+viewed the wonderful landscape of prairie and wooded valleys that lay
+before him. As a captain in the colonial troops of Connecticut he had
+served his king faithfully in the late war with France; and now in the
+days of peace which followed the glorious victory he sought to continue
+his usefulness by exploring the vast regions which had been added to the
+domains of Great Britain and Spain. Three years of travel in the
+wilderness taught him that those wild lands would not always be the
+haunt of savage animals and wandering tribes.
+
+"To what power or authority this new world will become dependent, after
+it has arisen from its present uncultivated state, time alone can
+discover", he later wrote. "But as the seat of Empire, from time
+immemorial has been gradually progressive towards the West, there is no
+doubt but that at some future period, mighty kingdoms will emerge from
+these wildernesses, and stately palaces and solemn temples, with gilded
+spires reaching the skies, supplant the Indian huts, whose only
+decorations are the barbarous trophies of their vanquished enemies."[1]
+
+Not until the twenty-fourth day of August, 1819, when less than a
+hundred soldiers of the Fifth United States Infantry disembarked
+opposite the towering height where a few years later rose the white
+walls of Fort Snelling, did the nation which was to rule assert its
+power. The event was, indeed, epochal. It not only marked a change in
+the sovereignty over the vast region, but it also made possible the
+development of those factors which were to bring about the great
+transformation.
+
+It was for the "upper country" that this fort was built--a country
+stretching from the Great Lakes across the wooded headwaters of the
+Mississippi and Minnesota rivers to the plains of the Missouri. The
+history of this region is marked by several distinct periods: the coming
+of the French traders, the supremacy of the English companies, the
+establishment of military posts of the United States, and the building
+of American communities.
+
+Although at the opening of the second decade of the nineteenth century
+the American troops quartered on the west banks of the Mississippi River
+were on soil that, in name, had been American for sixteen years, and
+although they looked over the river to land that had since 1783 belonged
+to their country, yet they had in fact taken possession of a foreign
+land. English, French, and Spanish flags had at various times waved over
+certain parts of it.  Foreign influence, during a century and a
+half, had become widespread and deeply rooted.
+
+When in 1634 Jean Nicollet visited the Wisconsin country the French
+advance into the upper Northwest had begun.[2] From 1658 to 1660
+Radisson and Groseilliers wandered among the tribes and brought the
+first canoe loads of furs to Canada from the far West. Then along with
+the missionaries, Hennepin and Marquette, came the _coureurs des bois_,
+Nicholas Perrot and Daniel Greyloson Duluth. It is unnecessary to recite
+in detail the exploits of these Frenchmen and their successors.[3] For a
+century the songs of unknown boatmen rose from the waters of the western
+rivers; unknown traders smoked in the lodges of Sioux and Chippewas; and
+hardy wanderers whose feats of discovery are unrecorded, leaving behind
+the Missouri River, saw from afar the wonders of the "Shining
+Mountains".[4] But if no record of them remains, their influence was
+lasting. Living with the natives, supplying their needs by barter, and
+marrying the Indian girls, the French gained a remarkable power over the
+northwestern tribes, which caused them to consider whoever came from
+Canada their friend, even after the English government had supplanted
+the French in power.
+
+West of the lakes the transition from the French to the English rule
+created no disturbances, such as Pontiac's conspiracy which so
+completely disrupted the trade in the East.[5] Continuing the French
+policy and also their posts and voyageurs, the Scottish merchants
+of Montreal, organized in 1784 as the North West Company, pushed
+westward from Green Bay and southward from Lake Winnipeg. This advance
+was continued until the opening years of the next century. Although on
+nominally Spanish territory, the tribes on the upper Missouri were won
+from the Spanish traders at St. Louis by such severe cutting in prices
+that the latter could not compete. The posts of the North West Company
+on the Red River of the North became the resort for many of the western
+tribes.[6]
+
+The diverting of the trade of these natives, who would naturally have
+come down the Missouri where American traders could meet them and be
+benefited, was noticed by President Jefferson, who, on January 18, 1803,
+wrote to Congress: "It is, however, understood, that the country on that
+river is inhabited by numerous tribes, who furnish great supplies of
+furs and peltry to the trade of another nation, carried on in a high
+latitude, through an infinite number of portages and lakes, shut up by
+ice through a long season." In this same message was included a
+recommendation that a small expedition be sent up to confer with the
+tribes with respect to the admission of American traders.[7]
+
+But the purchase of Louisiana altered matters. It was not only a matter
+of trade, but one of sovereignty. A double movement was initiated: one
+to ascend the Mississippi under Zebulon M. Pike, and the other the
+Missouri under Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark.
+The reports of these two expeditions indicate how firm a grip the
+English traders had upon the Indians of the upper Northwest.
+
+The expedition of Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri and passed over
+the mountains to the Columbia River which was followed to the coast. The
+first winter, from late in October, 1804, to early in April, 1805, was
+spent in a fort which was constructed in the village of the Mandans,
+near the location of the present city of Mandan in North Dakota. Here
+was abundant opportunity to investigate the fur trade. Nor had they long
+to wait. On the 27th of November, seven British traders arrived from the
+North West Company's post on the Assiniboine River to barter with the
+river tribes. The next day, in council with the Mandan chiefs, the
+Americans warned the Indians not to receive medals or flags from the
+foreigners if they wished to be friends with the "Great American
+Father". A day later this warning was communicated to the traders
+themselves who promised to refrain from any such acts.[8] How well they
+kept their promises later events showed. The Lewis and Clark expedition
+was only a passing pageant; for by the time of the War of 1812, the only
+American traders who ventured to do business on the upper waters were
+practically driven off by the foreign companies.[9]
+
+The report of Zebulon M. Pike indicates that conditions were much worse
+on the upper Mississippi. Leaving St. Louis on August 9, 1805, he
+returned to that place on April 30, 1806. About two months were
+spent at a fort erected near the site of Little Falls, where he left a
+few men and pushed on with the rest of the company to Leech Lake.
+Conversation with the fur traders and councils with the Indians revealed
+the extent of the commerce of the North West Company. He heard of
+permanent trading posts on the south side of Lake Superior and at the
+headwaters of the St. Croix River; and he saw at Lower Red Cedar Lake,
+Sandy Lake, and Leech Lake the rude stockades and log buildings which
+were called forts.[10] These three posts were included in the
+"Department of Fond du Lac" and were the centers from which in the year
+1805, trade with the Indians was carried on by one hundred and nine
+men.[11] By means of the rivers and portages of the wilderness the furs
+were brought to Canada without passing a custom house, and thus the
+United States was defrauded of duties which, it was estimated, would
+amount to $26,000 annually.[12]
+
+Pike objected to many of the evident signs of British sovereignty: the
+British flag flying above the headquarters of the department of Fond du
+Lac was shot down;[13] many of the Indians were induced to give up their
+British medals and flags;[14] and Hugh M'Gillis, agent of the company
+for the district, in response to Pike's letter of complaint, promised in
+the future to refrain from displaying the British flag, presenting
+medals, or talking politics to the Indians.[15] But his promises were no
+more seriously given than those of his brethren on the Missouri.
+
+Little of permanent value would have been accomplished if the
+acts of the explorer on September 23, 1805, had been omitted. The
+instructions issued to Pike on July 30, 1805, stated: "You will be
+pleased to obtain permission from the Indians who claim the ground, for
+the erection of military posts and trading-houses at the mouth of the
+river St. Pierre [the Minnesota River], the falls of St. Anthony, and
+every other critical point which may fall under your observation; these
+permissions to be granted in formal conferences, regularly recorded, and
+the ground marked off."[16]
+
+When Pike reached the mouth of the Minnesota River, the natural features
+of the locality convinced him of the advantages which would arise from a
+fort located at that point. From the high bluff lying between the
+Minnesota and the Mississippi rivers the course of both streams would be
+under the sweep of the guns. Sheer walls of stone rising from the
+Mississippi could prevent invasion; and the fur trading business could
+be regulated, as all boats entering or leaving the Indian country must
+use one or the other of the two rivers.
+
+A "bower" was constructed of sails, and on September 23rd Pike spoke to
+the Sioux Indians there assembled concerning the transfer of Louisiana,
+the futility of their wars with the Chippewas, and the evils of rum. He
+asked them to cede to the United States lands for military posts, and
+dwelt on the value of these posts to the Indians. To this the chiefs
+assented, receiving in return presents valued at $200 and sixty gallons
+of liquor. The terms of the treaty provided that the Sioux should
+cede to the United States tracts "for the purpose of establishment of
+military posts," at the mouth of the Minnesota and at the mouth of the
+St. Croix. A money consideration was also mentioned, but a blank was
+left which was later filled in by the Senate with $2000.[17]
+
+The government, busy with distressing foreign affairs, neglected to make
+a permanent occupation of the explored region. A struggle between the
+American and British governments was arising over events far remote from
+the northern lakes and woods. But the Canadian authorities saw the
+necessity of having Indian allies for the approaching struggle. As early
+as 1807 reports from the West indicated hostile feelings on the part of
+the Indians toward the Americans, and an official at Mackinac wrote on
+August 30, 1807, that this condition "is principally to be attributed to
+the influence of foreigners trading in the country."[18] Captain A.
+Gray, who was sent to inquire into the aid which the Hudson's Bay
+Company and the North West Company could furnish, reported to Sir George
+Prevost, commander of the British forces in Canada, on January 12, 1812:
+"By means of these Companies, we might let loose the Indians upon them
+throughout the whole extent of their Western frontier, as they have a
+most commanding influence over them." In a memorandum of plans for the
+defence of Canada, General Brock noted that "the Co-operation of the
+Indians will be attended with great expence in presents
+provisions &c."[19]
+
+To this alliance the Indians gave willing ears. Their interests lay with
+the British rather than with the Americans. The economic stability of
+Canada rested upon the fur trade, which in turn could survive only if
+the free life of the hunt and the chase, which the Indians loved so
+well, was left them. But with the Americans were associated the making
+of treaties and the ceding of land. The Indians preferred to see upon
+their rivers the canoe of the trader rather than the flatboat of the
+pioneer.[20]
+
+The coming of hostilities was received joyfully by all the inhabitants
+of the Northwest. To the Indian it meant an opportunity to avenge past
+wrongs; the Canadian hoped to make secure his present condition; and the
+American settler saw a chance to drive out both enemies--Indians and
+foreign traders alike. The news of the declaration of war reached the
+great rendezvous of the North West Company at Fort William on the
+northern shore of Lake Superior on the sixteenth of July, 1812, and the
+next day one of the traders left for the interior to rouse the natives.
+The agent of the company at this post wrote enthusiastically: "I have
+not the least doubt but our force, will in ten days hence, amount to at
+least five thousand effective men."[21]
+
+But already a sufficient number of Indians had come to the aid of the
+English to render service. On the very next day the English flag
+replaced the American above the fort at Mackinac. No sooner had
+the news of the beginning of hostilities become known at the neighboring
+British post at St. Joseph's than immediate preparations were made. The
+Indians were marshalled for the attack, and a vessel belonging to the
+North West Company was requisitioned. The morning of July 17th revealed
+the American fort surrounded by Indians and commanded by a cannon which
+had been dragged upon a height of land. Seeing the futility of
+resistance the garrison surrendered and marched out before noon. Of the
+total attacking force of 1021 there were Indians to the number of 715,
+of whom the British leader wrote, "although these people's minds were
+much heated, yet as soon as they heard the Capitulation was signed they
+all returned to their Canoes, and not one drop either of Man's or
+Animal's Blood was Spilt, till I gave an Order for a certain number of
+Bullocks to be purchased for them".[22] The ease with which the capture
+was made had the effect of bringing to the English standards all the
+Indians of the Northwest, except a part of the Miamis and Delawares, in
+spite of the fact that they had earlier made promises of neutrality.[23]
+
+Although the capture of the fort at Mackinac was accomplished without
+any Indian atrocities, the success of that day was to precipitate a
+massacre, long to rankle in the minds of the pioneers of the West.
+Immediately upon hearing of the capture of the fort, General Hull wrote
+to Captain Heald in command at Fort Dearborn ordering the evacuation of
+that post.  On the morning of August 15th, as the small garrison
+of fifty-five regulars and twelve militia were leaving the fort with
+their women and children, they were fallen upon by a force of five
+hundred Indians. Twenty-six regulars, all the militiamen, two women, and
+twelve children were murdered on the spot. An unknown number of wounded
+prisoners were that evening victims at what the Indians termed a
+"general frolic".[24]
+
+In the meantime Robert Dickson, who for many years had been a Prairie du
+Chien fur trader, was continuing his activities as recruiter of Indians
+for British service. This was the same Dickson who had in 1802 received
+an American commission as a justice of the peace,[25] and had later
+entertained Pike and his men "with a supper and a dram", impressing the
+American explorer as a man of "open, frank manners."[26] Now, in
+January, 1813, he was appointed by Great Britain "agent for the Indians
+of the several Nations to the Westward of Lake Huron".[27]
+
+By June 23, 1813, he had already sent eight hundred Indians to Detroit
+and had collected six hundred at Mackinac.[28] The summer of 1813 was
+spent in operations about Detroit, but in the winter he was again active
+in the West.[29] Great alarm was felt at St. Louis when rumors came
+telling of the great force he was collecting.[30] Accordingly, late in
+the spring of 1814, Governor William Clark of Missouri Territory
+proceeded up the Mississippi and at Prairie du Chien built a stockade
+named Fort Shelby.  It was garrisoned by about sixty men.[31] News
+of this movement soon came to Mackinac, and prompted the British
+commandant to prepare a counter-expedition. On the seventeenth of July
+the force composed of five hundred and fifty men, of whom four hundred
+were Indians, arrived outside the post. Immediately a summons to
+surrender was sent. The American commander at first refused, but two
+days later agreed to capitulate providing the Indians would be kept in
+check. The surrender took place on July 20th, and the captor christened
+the stockade Fort McKay in honor of himself.[32]
+
+Thus, the Indians about the Mississippi had been present at the
+surrender of two posts and had participated in a massacre. British arms
+had been successful, and the close of the war found British prestige
+very high.
+
+The Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, closed the war; and Article IX
+of that treaty provided that the United States should make peace with
+the Indian tribes and restore to them the "possessions, rights and
+privileges" which they had enjoyed before hostilities.[33] President
+Madison accordingly appointed William Clark, Ninian Edwards, and Auguste
+Chouteau as commissioners to enter into treaties of peace with the
+warring tribes of the upper Mississippi and the upper Missouri. Only
+with extreme difficulty was word of the negotiations sent to the tribes.
+The hostility of the Indians living about the mouth of the Rock River
+made it necessary that the messenger proceed to Prairie du Chien
+by way of the Missouri River, and then across country.[34]
+
+Although treaties were concluded with those who did come to the council,
+none were eager to negotiate. The Chippewas, Menominees, and Winnebagoes
+even refused to send delegations; and the Sacs of Rock River not only
+refused to attend, but also showed their contempt by continually
+harassing the frontier settlements during the time of the
+negotiations.[35] This opposition, the commissioners reported, was due
+to the presence of an unusual number of British traders among the
+Indians. The report closed with the opinion that "the exertion of the
+military power of the Government will be necessary to secure the peace
+and safety of this country."[36]
+
+For some years it had been customary for the British authorities to send
+presents to the Indians on the Mississippi, and Robert Dickson had
+promised the natives that the practice would be continued. But with the
+coming of peace this custom was not allowed by the Americans.
+Accordingly, in June, 1815, word was sent to the river tribes, that all
+who came to the British headquarters at Drummond Island in Lake Huron,
+would be supplied. By June 19th of the next year four hundred Indians
+had arrived at the post--mainly Sioux. To sympathetic ears they reported
+that they feared that the Americans were planning their extinction, and
+a confederation was being formed to resist the building of American
+forts on the Indian lands. As late as 1825, of the four thousand
+Indians in the habit of visiting Drummond Island, three thousand came
+from the region west and southwest of Lake Huron--that is from American
+territory.[37] These motley processions which trailed through the
+American woods, stopping to beg at the American posts, were not slow in
+being reported. It did not take a vivid imagination to see that the
+renewal of border warfare was inevitable.[38]
+
+This danger was increased by the rapid development of the West following
+the war. Just as over the mountain trails and down the rivers, Kentucky
+and Tennessee had been settled before the war, now the States of the Old
+Northwest received their pioneers. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who made his
+first trip down the Ohio at this time (1818), remarked: "I mingled in
+this crowd, and, while listening to the anticipations indulged in, it
+seemed to me that the war had not, in reality, been fought for 'free
+trade and sailors' rights' where it had commenced, but to gain a
+knowledge of the world beyond the Alleghanies.... To judge by the tone
+of general conversation, they meant, in their generation, to plow the
+Mississippi Valley from its head to its foot."[39]
+
+The flatboats on the rivers, the crowded ferries, and the caravans
+crossing the prairies were familiar scenes. In _The Legend of Sleepy
+Hollow_, which appeared in 1819, Washington Irving puts this fondest
+dream into the mind of his hero, Ichabod: "Nay, his busy fancy already
+realized his hopes, and presented to him the blooming Katrina with a
+whole family of children, mounted on the top of a wagon loaded
+with household trumpery, with pots and kettles dangling beneath; and he
+beheld himself bestriding a pacing mare, with a colt at her heels,
+setting out for Kentucky, Tennessee, or the Lord knows where." When he
+wrote this the author was not using his imagination: it was a picture he
+saw daily.[40]
+
+The extent of this westward movement is indicated by the provisions made
+for the political organization of these growing settlements. Indiana
+achieved statehood in 1816 and Illinois in 1818. Across the river in
+Missouri the population had grown from 20,000 in 1810 to 66,000 in
+1820,[41] and the weighty questions concerning her admission were being
+discussed in Washington.
+
+With an expanding frontier brought into contact with hostile Indians,
+trouble was bound to result. Various plans were proposed to deal with
+the problem. It was reported that General Jackson would take charge of
+active military operations against the Indians of the upper
+Mississippi.[42] One agent suggested that "three or four months' full
+feeding on meat and bread, even without ardent spirit, will bring on
+disease, and, in six or eight months, great mortality.... I believe more
+Indians might be killed with the expense of $100,000 in this way, than
+$1,000,000 expended in the support of armies to go against them."[43]
+
+Fortunately, wiser counsels than either of these prevailed to control
+the Indians: the control of the fur trade was necessary. It was felt,
+and rightly, that much of the trouble in the West was due to the
+power of the British traders. Accordingly, by an act of Congress of
+April 29, 1816, it was provided that "licenses to trade with the Indians
+within the territorial limits of the United States shall not be granted
+to any but citizens of the United States, unless by the express
+direction of the President of the United States, and upon such terms and
+conditions as the public interest may, in his opinion, require." To
+carry this act into effect the president was authorized to call upon the
+military force.[44]
+
+This legislation was most opportune, since by the commercial convention
+of October 20, 1818, the northern boundary was definitely agreed upon as
+the forty-ninth parallel westward from the Lake of the Woods to the
+Rocky Mountains.[45] Ever since the negotiators of the Treaty of Paris
+of 1783 had inserted a geographical impossibility by declaring that the
+boundary should extend due west from the Lake of the Woods to the
+Mississippi, there had existed a vagueness as to where the actual line
+should be drawn.[46] In 1806 the British traders thought it would be run
+from the lake to the source of the river;[47] and as late as 1818
+Benjamin O'Fallon wrote from Prairie du Chien that Robert Dickson "is
+directed to build a fort on the highest land between Lac du Travers and
+Red river, which he supposes will be the established line between the
+two countries."[48] But with the boundary now defined, the area where
+the trade laws were to be enforced was evident.
+
+The method of Indian trade by foreigners was to be supplanted by
+an extension of the United States trading house system. This was a group
+of trading houses, conducted by the government, where the Indians could
+exchange their furs for goods at cost price and thus avoid both the
+deceit and whiskey of the private merchant, although they were often
+willing to submit to the one for the sake of the other.[49] As early as
+1805 Pike had promised the Indians, in council assembled, that the
+government intended to build a trading house at the mouth of the
+Minnesota River.[50] The commissioners at Portage des Sioux, in 1815,
+had been instructed to inform the tribes that "it is intended to
+establish strong posts very high up the Mississippi, and from the
+Mississippi to Lake Michigan, and to open trading-houses at those posts,
+or other suitable places for their accommodation."[51] In 1818 T. L.
+McKenny, Superintendent of Indian Trade, recommended the building of
+seven additional trading houses, one of which was to be located on the
+"River St. Peters, at or about its junction with the Mississippi."[52]
+
+Thus, through the Indian department steps were being taken to inaugurate
+a new régime in the upper Northwest. But Indian agents and trading
+houses needed the protection and administrative arm of the military
+department in order to be effective. The forward movement of the
+military frontier during the years succeeding the war is significant as
+marking a trend towards the Americanization of a great region.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF FORT SNELLING
+
+
+When the War of 1812 broke out in the Northwest, the Americans had only
+two advanced posts--Mackinac and Fort Dearborn. Of these, one was
+captured during the hostilities, and the other was evacuated. An attempt
+was made to build a post at Prairie du Chien, but it quickly passed into
+English hands and remained in their possession until the news of peace
+had reached that frontier station. But after the Treaty of Ghent was
+signed the line of the military frontier was quickly advanced in order
+to safeguard the Indian agents, the trading houses, and the advancing
+settlements.
+
+Fort Dearborn was re-occupied on July 4, 1815. Mackinac was transferred
+to American hands on July 18, 1815. In the fall of the same year Colonel
+R. C. Nichols of the Eighth United States Infantry attempted to ascend
+the Mississippi to Rock Island, but was compelled to pass the winter in
+the vicinity of the mouth of the Des Moines River. On May 10, 1816,
+however, he reached Rock Island, where the construction of Fort
+Armstrong was undertaken. June 21st of the same year saw the
+re-occupation of the site of Fort McKay at Prairie du Chien; and Fort
+Crawford soon protected this important point at the junction of
+the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers. One other point, vital in all
+western transportation was at the head of Green Bay at the mouth of the
+Fox River. Colonel John Miller of the Third Infantry arrived at this
+place on August 7, 1816, and soon began the erection of Fort Howard.[53]
+
+But the government was not content with these movements. In a report
+dated December 22, 1817, the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, wrote to
+the House of Representatives that "a board of the most skilful officers
+in our service has been constituted to examine the whole line of our
+frontier, and to determine on the position and extent of works that may
+be necessary to the defence of the country."[54] Plans had already been
+made. During the summer of 1817 Major Stephen H. Long, a topographical
+engineer in the United States Army, had made a journey to the Falls of
+St. Anthony in a six-oared skiff and had approved the position at the
+mouth of the Minnesota River as a location for a fort.[55] Other plans
+were soon announced. In the spring of 1818 _The Washington City Gazette_
+stated that a fort would be built on the Missouri River at the mouth of
+the Yellowstone River;[56] and a second report of the Secretary of War
+on December 11, 1818, indicated that the site at the mouth of the
+Minnesota would soon be occupied.[57]
+
+On the tenth of February, 1819, the War Department ordered the Fifth
+Infantry to concentrate at Detroit, after which it would be transported
+across Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, up the Fox River,  and down
+the Wisconsin River to Prairie du Chien, where a part would garrison
+Fort Crawford, a part would proceed to Fort Armstrong, and the remainder
+would ascend the Mississippi and near the Falls of St. Anthony erect a
+post which would be the headquarters of the regiment.[58] This movement
+was closely associated with that on the Missouri River called the
+Yellowstone Expedition. Both movements were part of one system--a
+comprehensive attempt to possess the northwestern frontier. The
+thoroughness of the plan is shown by the program outlined for the troops
+for the year 1820: three forts were to be built on the Missouri River;
+the navigation of that river was to be improved; roads were to be opened
+between the two diverging lines of posts (those on the Missouri and
+those on the Mississippi); and the Fox and Wisconsin rivers were to be
+connected by a canal. Thus the transportation of supplies would be
+facilitated, and in case of hostilities the forts could coöperate in the
+military operations.[59]
+
+The western part of this general movement was a failure. Indeed, the
+only result was the construction of a post at the point then known as
+Council Bluff (now Fort Calhoun, Nebraska), which after an existence of
+eight years was abandoned. Congress, disgusted with the management of
+the undertaking, refused to vote the funds necessary for the complete
+fulfillment of the project.[60] Accordingly, no permanent military post
+existed upon the upper Missouri until 1855, when the United States
+government purchased from the American Fur Company their station
+called Fort Pierre and transformed it into a military establishment.[61]
+The failure of the Yellowstone Expedition made more difficult the work
+of Fort Snelling. The range of its influence extended to the Missouri,
+and for forty years it was of more importance than even its originators
+had planned.
+
+The Fifth Infantry, to which the difficult task of establishing a fort
+at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers was assigned was
+stationed at various places. Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth, who
+was the commanding officer of the regiment, had been located at Prairie
+du Chien as Superintendent of Indian Affairs.[62] Lieutenant Nathan
+Clark was living at Hartford, Connecticut.[63] But by May 14th the main
+part of the regiment was ready to leave Detroit. Schooners brought them
+through Lake Huron, the Straits of Mackinac, and across Lake Michigan to
+Fort Howard on Green Bay. Captain Whistler of the Third United States
+Infantry, then stationed at this post, had prepared bateaux for the use
+of the troops, and on June 7th the ascent of the Fox River was
+commenced.[64] The Winnebago chief "Four Legs", whose village was at the
+outlet of Lake Winnebago, had the custom of exacting tribute from
+travellers using the Fox-Wisconsin route. When the troops of the Fifth
+Infantry came to the site, "Four Legs" sent the message, "The Lake is
+locked." Whereupon Colonel Leavenworth, showing the messenger his rifle,
+replied: "tell him, that this is the key, and I shall unlock it and go
+on."  Upon receiving this belligerent reply, the chief allowed the
+troops to pass; and finally on June 30th the bateaux were moored near
+Fort Crawford and Prairie du Chien.[65]
+
+At Fort Crawford there was a tedious wait. Provisions, ordnance,
+ammunition, and recruits were expected from St. Louis. On July 5th Major
+Thomas Forsyth arrived from St. Louis. He had been ordered by the War
+Department to bring two thousand dollars worth of goods to the Sioux
+Indians in payment for the reservation ceded by them to Pike.[66] Day
+after day passed. Finally, on July 17th a certain Mr. Shaw came with
+news that the recruits could be expected soon. On July 31st this curt
+entry is made in Forsyth's journal: "no boats, no recruits, no news, nor
+anything else from St. Louis." The next day Major Marston was sent with
+twenty-seven troops to garrison Fort Armstrong at Rock Island; and on
+August 2nd Forsyth recorded: "Thank God a boat loaded with ordnance and
+stores of different kinds arrived to-day, and said a provision boat
+would arrive to-morrow, but no news of the recruits."[67]
+
+Colonel Leavenworth at once made preparations to ascend the river. The
+two large boats that had brought up supplies were engaged, and at eight
+o'clock on the morning of Sunday, August 8th, the flotilla set out--the
+two large boats, fourteen bateaux, the boat of Major Forsyth, and the
+barge of Colonel Leavenworth. In the party were ninety-eight soldiers
+and twenty boatmen. There were others also whose presence in that wild
+region would not be expected: Mrs. Gooding, the wife of one of
+the captains; Mrs. Nathan Clark, the wife of the commissary; and little
+Charlotte Ouisconsin Clark, who had been born scarcely an hour after the
+regiment reached Fort Crawford. The knowledge that they were upon the
+last stage of their journey caused a feeling of cheerfulness among the
+soldiers, and the first day they proceeded a distance of eighteen
+miles.[68]
+
+For sixteen days the boatmen poled their bateaux up the river. Once when
+there was a "Great appearance of wind" the sails were hoisted. At other
+times the heavily loaded boats were moved with difficulty through the
+shallow water. Occasionally fog and rain impeded their progress. Bad
+water made half of the soldiers sick before the journey was ended; and
+to avoid the mosquitoes on the river, the men preferred to sleep on the
+banks, although every morning there was a heavy dew. On August 17th the
+lower end of Lake Pepin was reached and here a delay of several hours
+occurred while the men drew provisions from the supply boats, and washed
+their dirty linen.[69]
+
+Major Forsyth stopped at the Indian villages to distribute presents and
+to announce to the natives the object of the coming of the troops, and
+the value they would derive from having a fort in their midst. On
+Sunday, August 22nd, he encamped a few miles ahead of the main body of
+the expedition, but by eight o'clock the next morning all the boats had
+come up. Impatient to reach the end of the journey,  Major Forsyth
+again pushed forward and at four o'clock in the afternoon reached the
+mouth of the Minnesota River. On the morning of Tuesday, August 24,
+1819, Colonel Leavenworth arrived in his barge ahead of the troops and
+spent almost the entire day in looking over the sites available for a
+camp. Finally, he decided upon a spot on the right bank of the Minnesota
+River, just above its mouth. There was no rest for the troops when their
+boats reached the chosen place. "They were immediately set to work in
+making roads up the bank of the river, cutting down trees, etc."[70]
+
+If the soldiers had any spare time in their labors in which to become
+interested in their surroundings, there was novelty in everything about
+them. During the next few days all the nearby chiefs came to call upon
+their new neighbors: they left satisfied with the presents and the
+whiskey which they had received. On Saturday a party ascended to the
+Falls of St. Anthony; and on Sunday a visit was made to the Indian
+villages up the Minnesota River. It was on Monday that Major Forsyth
+began his return trip, and as the supplies in store were few and the
+long-expected recruits were needed for the erection of the camp
+buildings, Colonel Leavenworth set out with him for Prairie du Chien. On
+September 1st they met on Lake Pepin two boats and a bateau with one
+hundred and twenty soldiers on board. But Colonel Leavenworth continued
+to Prairie du Chien, where he remained some time to urge on any boats
+which might arrive. On September 5th the one hundred and twenty
+recruits landed at the new camp.[71]
+
+Log cabins and a stockade were erected while the party still lived in
+the boats on the river. By November the temporary barracks were ready
+for occupation. Looking forward to a pleasant winter, the name
+"Cantonment New Hope" was applied to the embryo fort. The more
+scientific among the men examined the country round about, and saw in
+the hills visions of mines of precious metals. "Would not the employment
+of the troops in the manufacture of Copper and Iron be advantageous to
+the government?", wrote one of these energetic soldiers. But the
+succeeding months were not to give an opportunity for such
+occupations.[72]
+
+Added to the natural monotony of a wilderness post, there was
+homesickness and suffering during the first winter. The quarters that
+had been built were inadequate for protection from the cold of that
+climate. "Once during that memorable six months", runs the account of
+one of the inhabitants of Cantonment New Hope, "the roof of our cabin
+blew off, and the walls seemed about to fall in. My father, sending my
+mother and brother to a place of safety, held up the chimney to prevent
+a total downfall; while the baby, who had been pushed under the bed in
+her cradle, lay there.... until the wind subsided, when, upon being
+drawn out from her hiding-place, she evinced great pleasure at the
+commotion, and seemed to take it all as something designed especially
+for her amusement." That baby lived to recall the incident almost
+seventy years later.[73]
+
+Toward the close of the winter there came sickness, chiefly on account
+of a lack of proper provisions. Late in the fall Lieutenant Oliver had
+left Prairie du Chien with supplies in a keel boat. But the river froze
+and the boat was unable to progress farther than the vicinity of
+Hastings, Minnesota. Here it was necessary to keep a guard all winter to
+protect the food from the Indians and the wolves. The Indians refused to
+sell them game; no vegetables could be purchased; and the bread was "two
+inches in the barrels thick with mould".[74] With such food it is no
+wonder that scurvy, the dreaded disease of all frontier posts, broke out
+among the troops. Forty soldiers died before the progress of the disease
+was arrested by home-made remedies and groceries brought up by the
+sutler.[75]
+
+This visitation of disease left a profound impression upon the
+survivors. Henry H. Sibley, who had often spoken with those who passed
+through the weary months of suffering and sickness, wrote that "scurvy
+broke out in a most malignant form, and raged so violently that, for a
+few days, garrison duty was suspended, there being barely well men
+enough in the command to attend to the sick, and to the interment of the
+dead. So sudden were the attacks, that soldiers in apparent good health
+when they went to bed, were found dead in the morning. One man who was
+relieved from his tour of sentinel duty, and stretched himself upon the
+bench of the guard room,  four hours after, when he was called
+upon to resume his post, was discovered to be lifeless."[76]
+
+Thinking that much of the sickness was caused by the unhealthful
+location, Colonel Leavenworth, on May 5, 1820, moved the soldiers to a
+place on the west bank of the Mississippi north of the Minnesota where
+there was a great spring of cold water. Here the troops were quartered
+in tents--naming their community "Camp Cold Water".[77] The immediate
+need was the erection of the permanent post. Colonel Leavenworth chose
+for the site a position three hundred yards west of the crest of the
+cliff. Some material was brought to this place, but no building was
+done. In August Colonel Leavenworth was superseded in command by Colonel
+Josiah Snelling, who located the position at the extreme point of land
+between the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers.[78] The work of erecting
+the buildings was done by the soldiers, it being customary at that time
+to pay the soldiers fifteen cents a day in addition to their regular pay
+for this extra work.[79]
+
+Steps were taken during the summer of 1820 to obtain the necessary
+material. A saw mill was needed to make the lumber with which the
+interior of the buildings would be finished and the furniture
+constructed. As the water in Minnehaha Creek was very low that year, it
+was decided to erect the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. Some men were
+sent up the Mississippi River to Rum River to examine the timber, and
+during the winter of 1820-1821 a party of soldiers was employed in
+cutting logs and dragging them to the river bank. With the coming
+of spring the logs were floated down to the Falls of St. Anthony, where
+they were sawed into lumber and then hauled to the fort by teams.[80]
+
+The progress made on the building was slow. On the tenth of September,
+1820, the cornerstone was laid.[81] More than a year later, on November
+7, 1821, Colonel Snelling wrote to the Indian agent, Lawrence
+Taliaferro, that "nothing new has occurred since my return excepting
+that the other stone barrack is up & the rafters on."[82] The fort was
+partially occupied, probably in the fall of 1822, before all the
+surrounding wall had been completed.[83] But it is evident that most of
+the fort was finished by July, 1823, for at that time the troops erected
+the Indian Council House.[84]
+
+In the meantime other events had been occurring. On July 31, 1820,
+Governor Cass of Michigan Territory, who had been on an exploring
+expedition to the upper Mississippi, passed down the river and remained
+with the troops until the morning of August 2nd. A council was held with
+the Indians, during which a peace was made between the Sioux and the
+Chippewas. That the garrison had been busy at duties other than erecting
+buildings is evident from the fact that Governor Cass found ninety acres
+planted with corn and potatoes and wheat. From the garden green peas had
+been obtained as early as June 15th, and green corn on July 20th.[85]
+
+In accordance with the plans outlined for the year 1820 it was proposed
+to open a road between Council Bluff and the new post on the
+upper Mississippi. To survey the route Captain Stephen Watts Kearny led
+a party which consisted of four other officers, fifteen soldiers, four
+servants, an Indian guide and his wife and papoose, eight mules, and
+seven horses. The route led from Council Bluff across what is now the
+northern and northwestern part of the State of Iowa to Lake Pepin, and
+then along the Mississippi to the new post. From July 25th to July 29th
+they remained with Leavenworth's men, visiting the Falls of St. Anthony,
+examining the country, and on July 26th going with Lieutenant Green and
+Miss Gooding to the east side of the Mississippi. Here Lieutenant Green
+and Miss Gooding were married by Colonel Leavenworth, who as Indian
+agent for the "Northwest Territory" could perform his duties on the east
+bank of the river, but not on the west, which was in the Missouri
+Territory.[86]
+
+The fact that the Falls of St. Anthony constituted the most noticeable
+landmark of the vicinity led to the application of its name to the
+military works. The first official inspection of Fort St. Anthony
+occurred some time between May 13, 1824, and June 13, 1824. General
+Winfield Scott, as the inspector, was received with all the honor and
+entertainment that the frontier post could provide. He left favorably
+impressed with the work that had been done.
+
+"I wish to suggest to the general-in-chief," wrote General Scott in his
+report, "and through him to the War Department, the propriety of calling
+this work _Fort Snelling_, as a just compliment to the meritorious
+ officer under whom it has been erected. The present name is
+foreign to all our associations, and is, besides, geographically
+incorrect, as the work stands at the junction of the Mississippi and
+Saint Peter's rivers, eight miles below the great falls of the
+Mississippi, called after Saint Anthony. Some few years since the
+Secretary of War directed that the work at the Council Bluffs should be
+called Fort Atkinson in compliment to the valuable services of General
+Atkinson on the upper Missouri. The above proposition is made on the
+same principle."
+
+A general order on January 7, 1825, directed that the suggested change
+should be made. Thereupon Fort Snelling began its career as the guardian
+of the Northwest.[87]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+FORTY YEARS OF FRONTIER DUTY
+
+
+It was not the intention of the War Department that the influence of the
+frontier military post should be limited by the range of the guns
+mounted upon its walls. The post was to be the center of the Indian life
+for those tribes that dwelt in the vicinity. At the same time
+expeditions, the base of which was to be at the fort, were to carry the
+authority of the government out upon the wild Indian lands, and the
+frontier settlements were to look to the soldiers for protection.[88]
+
+How, in its origin, Fort Snelling became part of a comprehensive system
+for the protection of the frontier, has been detailed. The events of the
+forty years that followed indicate very clearly the wisdom of the men
+who chose the site. Every phase of frontier duty was performed by the
+troops stationed at the mouth of the Minnesota River; and although these
+tasks often took them hundreds of miles from the post, and although they
+often coöperated with men from other forts, yet these expeditions may
+well be considered as part of the history of Fort Snelling. They were a
+test of the training received on the parade ground, and the successful
+accomplishment of many a difficult duty shows that the post was
+fulfilling the objects of those who built it.
+
+Prior to 1848 the governmental organization in the jurisdiction of which
+Fort Snelling was located was very weak. When first erected in 1819 the
+fort was in the Territory of Missouri (1812-1821). Then followed a
+number of years in which it was in unorganized territory (1821-1834).
+The Territory of Michigan (1834-1836), the Territory of Wisconsin
+(1836-1838), and the Territory of Iowa (1838-1846) successively had
+jurisdiction over it; while in 1849 it fell within the newly-organized
+Territory of Minnesota. Lying far from the seats of government, in a
+region of wandering traders and red men, the fort became the exponent of
+the government--the only symbol of governmental restriction in a region
+almost entirely without law.
+
+During the first years of its existence while the buildings were being
+erected and the fort was making its place in the Indian life and the fur
+trade of the surrounding region, the frontier was comparatively quiet.
+The first outbreak occurred in Illinois and Wisconsin, where the
+Winnebagoes were constantly coming into contact with the lead miners
+about Galena. During the summer of 1826 rumors came to Fort Snelling of
+the hostility of this tribe, and Colonel Snelling thought it prudent to
+reënforce the garrison of Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien. Three
+companies of the Fifth Infantry were sent away from Fort Snelling on the
+afternoon of August 18th under the command of Captain Wilcox.[89]
+Although no actual conflict occurred, the continued uneasiness
+felt because of the presence of the Winnebagoes led the authorities to
+remove all the troops from Fort Crawford to the upper post in the fall
+of that year.[90]
+
+The lack of soldiers among them intensified the unruly spirit in the
+Winnebagoes. In June of the next year two keel boats, the "General
+Ashley" and the "O. H. Perry", which were carrying supplies to Fort
+Snelling noticed an unfriendly feeling among the Sioux at Wabasha's
+village. Fifty warriors with their faces painted black and with black
+streaks on their blankets visited the "O. H. Perry", but refused to
+shake hands. Apprehensive of danger on the return journey, Colonel
+Snelling furnished the crews with guns and cartridges before the descent
+was commenced.[91]
+
+There soon arrived at Fort Snelling a letter from John Marsh, the
+sub-agent at Prairie du Chien. It stated that rumors were current that
+Prairie du Chien was to be attacked and that the Sioux and Winnebagoes
+threatened to kill Taliaferro "and any American that they can find at a
+distance from the Fort". The letter closed with the request that steps
+be taken for the defense of Prairie du Chien.[92] No doubt preparations
+were commenced immediately; but they were hastened by news which soon
+came up the river. On June 26th the Winnebago chief, Red Bird, with
+three of his men had attacked a farm house near Prairie du Chien and
+obtained the scalp of a child. Returning to their village, they had seen
+ the keel boats coming down the river. With their fighting blood
+up they attacked the "O. H. Perry", and in a battle which lasted several
+hours they killed two of the crew and lost seven of their own warriors.
+The report of this attack, together with the murder near Prairie du
+Chien, spread consternation among the white men.[93]
+
+Without delay Colonel Snelling with four companies started down the
+river.[94] A few days after reaching Prairie du Chien, he was reënforced
+by troops brought up from St. Louis by Colonel Atkinson. It was thought
+necessary that Fort Snelling should be maintained during the critical
+period, and as it was short of provisions, Colonel Snelling was ordered
+back to his post with a supply of flour, and directed to procure boats
+which could be used in the pursuit of the Winnebagoes up the Wisconsin
+River. On the 16th of August Colonel Snelling arrived at his post, and
+on the following day Major Fowle started downstream with four other
+companies of the Fifth Infantry in two keel boats and nine mackinac
+boats, arriving at Fort Crawford on August 21st. The Indians, overawed
+by the rapidity of these military movements and the size of the force
+sent against them, immediately became peaceable. As a precaution,
+however, Major Fowle was kept at Fort Crawford, and the post was
+provisioned for a year.[95]
+
+During the next twenty years the force maintained at Fort Snelling was
+small, and the garrison was occupied in routine tasks, the regulation of
+Indian affairs, and the fur trade. At the time of the Black Hawk
+War there was quiet about Fort Snelling, and Major Taliaferro offered
+his services and those of the Sioux warriors in the campaign against the
+Sacs and Foxes. But the government did not think it advisable to
+formally accept the proffered help, although a number of the Sioux did
+take part in pursuing the remnants of Sacs who succeeded in crossing the
+river.[96]
+
+In June, 1848, the company of infantry stationed at Fort Snelling
+received an urgent call to come to Wabasha's Prairie--near Winona,
+Minnesota. The Winnebago Indians were being transferred from their
+former home in the Turkey Valley region in Iowa to a new reservation
+obtained for them from the Chippewas. But when the Prairie was reached,
+the Winnebagoes visited with Wabasha and he sold it to them for a home.
+When Captain Seth Eastman arrived from Fort Snelling he was put in
+charge of the military forces which had been hastily brought together to
+force the Winnebagoes to continue their march. There were volunteers
+from Crawford County, Wisconsin, dragoons from Fort Atkinson, Iowa, and
+the infantry from Fort Snelling, besides sixty armed teamsters.
+
+These military forces lay encamped, separated from the Indians by a
+slough. In the morning a deputation of Indians came to ask the meaning
+of the martial appearance of the whites when all _they_ desired was a
+council. This suggestion of a council was quickly assented to, but the
+Indians approached with such a rush and with such blood-curdling
+yells that the cannon were loaded and the soldiers stood ready to fire.
+During the council the Winnebagoes refused to move until one small band
+gave in to the entreaties of the agent and were taken up to Fort
+Snelling. This was an opening wedge, for when the steamboat returned
+1700 were ready to move. The total journey of three hundred and ten
+miles from the old to the new home occupied the time from June 8th to
+July 30th, 1848.[97]
+
+By the next summer they were ready to return--anywhere, but especially
+to Wisconsin, their earliest home.[98] In July the whole tribe,
+stimulated by whiskey, started; but Governor Ramsey called on Colonel
+Loomis of Fort Snelling for aid, and a force under Captain Monroe
+proceeded to the north where their presence aided in quieting the
+disturbers. Again, on September 9th about a hundred had approached
+within sixteen miles of St. Paul, when Captain Page and forty men from
+Fort Snelling frightened them so much that they fled into the swamps and
+returned home quietly. Smaller parties were captured on the river and
+sent back under a military guard.[99] Not all the efforts, however, were
+successful. It was reported that one evening in November over a hundred
+red men floated down quietly under the very guns of Fort Snelling, and
+two weeks later the newspaper accounts tell of three hundred Winnebagoes
+in camp near the mouth of the Black River.[100] The need for a company
+of dragoons at Fort Snelling was imperative. The next summer it was
+obtained,  and in 1851 this military force was described as being
+"an indispensable and invaluable auxiliary."[101] Not until 1855 was the
+Winnebago spirit of migration broken, and then only after a new
+reservation had been obtained for them at the mouth of the Blue Earth
+River.[102]
+
+In his report of November 25, 1844, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
+called attention to the fact that no longer was there any need of
+entertaining fears on account of the visits made by American Indians to
+the Canadian posts, as these pilgrimages were indulged in only by a few
+"worthless vagrants". But an evil of a different character was imminent.
+Twice a year hundreds of Red River half-breeds--_bois brulés_--left
+their homes on the British side of the international boundary to hunt
+buffalo on the American plains which bordered on the Missouri River.
+Here they came into contact with Indians who naturally resented this
+intrusion upon their hunting grounds. During the summer of 1844 a
+half-breed had been killed by a party of Yankton Sioux, and the invaders
+had retaliated by killing eight Sioux of another band. This so inflamed
+the Indians that they went upon the war path and without stopping to
+reason about the matter, they attacked a party of whites whom they met
+on Otter Tail Lake.[103]
+
+To hunt the buffalo freely, even on foreign soil, seemed to the _bois
+brulés_ to be their natural right. On the pemmican which they made from
+these buffaloes they depended for their winter's food. Five
+hundred and forty carts trailed out of Pembina on the summer hunt of
+1820, and from year to year the number increased until in 1840 there
+were 1210 carts, accompanied by 1630 people. Nowhere else in the new
+world at least, was there such a hunting party. Thirteen hundred and
+seventy-five buffalo tongues were counted as the result of one day's
+hunt in 1840.[104] It was estimated that every year these Red River
+hunters killed twenty thousand buffaloes on American soil.[105]
+
+In this there was a real grievance. Though small in itself the incident
+could easily develop into a war when there were other factors urging in
+the same direction.[106] The exact condition of affairs on the border
+was so confused that the United States made occasional military displays
+in order to impress the invaders and also to satisfy its own curiosity.
+The first of these expeditions occurred in 1845. Captain Edwin V.
+Sumner, then in command at Fort Atkinson, in the Iowa country, visited
+the Red River of the North during the summer of that year with Companies
+B and I of the First Regiment of Dragoons. But the difficulty was that
+while the invaders would promise to remain off American soil and would
+retire as soon as a military force appeared, yet no sooner would the
+troops depart than they would be back again on the hunting grounds.[107]
+
+When complaints continued to come in the Adjutant General proposed to
+establish a post on the Red River. As a preliminary movement Brevet
+Major Samuel Woods, Captain of the Sixth Infantry located at Fort
+Snelling, was ordered to proceed with Company D of the dragoons to the
+border and make recommendations to the War Department in regard to a
+suitable site. On June 6, 1849, the start was made from Fort Snelling,
+and the weary march directed to the northwest over the swollen rivers
+and the marshy swamps with the mosquitoes a constant torment, until on
+August 1st the soldiers reached the collection of Indian lodges and the
+trading establishment that was known as Pembina. During the twenty-five
+days spent at this point observations were made of the topographical
+features of the land, the character of the Indians, and the pursuits of
+the half-breeds.
+
+Major Woods urged the American Indians and half-breeds to prevent by
+force the invasions, promising that the United States would support
+them. But it would be useless, he reported, to build a fort at Pembina
+unless at least two hundred fifty men were stationed there. It would be
+better to concentrate a large force at Fort Snelling, from whence
+expeditions could be made into the Indian country in all directions as
+necessity might arise. The return to the fort occupied twenty-three and
+a half days, and on September 18th the total journey of almost a
+thousand miles was completed with the loss of only one horse and one
+mule.[108]
+
+During the next few years conditions remained unchanged, and as the
+settlement of the Minnesota and Mississippi valleys was pushing the
+Indian tribes farther to the westward, more and bitter conflicts
+with the half-breeds would be liable to occur. In order to give a final
+warning to the foreign hunters and to select a site for a post which
+could serve the double purpose of protecting the frontier settlements
+from the Indians and the Indians from the foreigners, Lieutenant Colonel
+C. F. Smith of the Tenth Infantry was ordered on June 9, 1856, to tour
+the region with Companies B and F. As far as the Goose River, in the
+North Dakota country, the route followed from Fort Snelling was
+practically the same as that of Major Woods; but instead of proceeding
+by the usual route northward to Pembina, a detour was made to Lake
+Mini-Waken (Devil's Lake). On the return the less travelled and more
+difficult road on the east side of the Red River was followed.
+
+On August 19th the trail of the annual hunting party was crossed; but
+the nine hundred men, women, and children who had made the trip had
+returned to their homes three weeks before, and kept away from the
+military party. Since no warning could be given to them in person, a
+notice written in both English and French was circulated in Pembina and
+in the British settlements to the north. But the natives obtained sweet
+revenge when Colonel Smith attempted to buy from the farmers in the
+vicinity of the principal trading post--Fort Garry--a sufficient supply
+of oats for his troops. The half-breeds declined to bring the grain,
+giving as their excuse that they did not desire to trespass on American
+soil when warned to keep off.[109]
+
+Not only to the north did the troops from Fort Snelling make
+expeditions. The wide range of its influence is illustrated by the task
+which occupied the attention of its soldiers during the summer of 1850.
+On August 8, 1849, Governor Ansel Briggs of Iowa forwarded to the
+Secretary of War a petition, signed by over a hundred citizens of Iowa
+County, in which they complained of the presence of a great number of
+Indians who were destroying the timber, removing the section corners,
+and even demanding rent from some of the settlers--claiming that they
+owned the land on the Iowa River.[110]
+
+To investigate conditions and to report upon what steps would be
+necessary to remove the cause of complaint, Brevet Major Samuel Woods,
+stationed at Fort Snelling, was ordered to proceed to the State of Iowa.
+On the twenty-fifth of September he left for Prairie du Chien, and
+arriving here set out for Fort Atkinson, thinking that probably the
+Winnebagoes were the Indians causing the trouble. But he discovered that
+many of them had just set out for the upper Mississippi, and those
+remaining behind were so few in number that they could cause little
+inconvenience to the frontier. From Fort Atkinson Major Woods passed
+southward through Fayette, Buchanan, Linn, and Johnson counties to Iowa
+City. At this time the region traversed was sparsely settled. For a
+hundred miles south of Fort Atkinson there were only two
+settlements--one, consisting of a few families, high upon the Volga
+River, and the other larger in numbers clustered about some mills
+on the Wapsipinicon River. About fifteen miles north of Marion the
+inhabitants became more numerous. Here were found Indians--Sacs and
+Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes--but they were not hostile and
+their presence caused no objection.
+
+It was at Iowa City that Major Woods heard that the inhabitants on the
+Iowa, English, and Skunk Rivers had been making the loudest complaints.
+Accordingly he started up the Iowa River to the vicinity of Marengo.
+Here he learned that a few days before the settlers near the town,
+becoming tired of having Indians about them, armed themselves and by
+force broke up the Indian encampment. Only one lodge remained, that on
+the lands of a farmer who gave permission to three of the red men to
+live under his protection.
+
+The total number of Indians, Major Woods reported, consisted of five or
+six hundred Sacs and Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes. Among these
+the Sacs and Foxes were the most numerous. They had by treaty sold their
+lands some years earlier and had been removed to the Missouri River; but
+they preferred their old home, and so had returned in straggling bands,
+sometimes going back to the Missouri to get their annuities. The
+Winnebagoes were those who had escaped when the tribe was being
+transferred to the new reservation north of Fort Snelling.
+
+The complaints against these Indians were that they destroyed a great
+deal of timber, removed the surveyors' landmarks, killed the game,
+annoyed the settlers, and that when intoxicated they were an
+actual source of danger. Believing that these reasons were well founded,
+Major Woods advised that the Indians be removed as soon as possible.
+Conditions did not demand a winter campaign, but preparations should be
+made for the removal during the early summer.[111]
+
+In the early part of April of the next year it was known that two
+companies of infantry from Fort Snelling, and one company of dragoons
+from Fort Gaines had been detailed for this task.[112] On the twelfth of
+May the "Highland Mary" left Fort Snelling, having on board the infantry
+and cavalry and part of the equipment, while in tow was a barge full of
+horses and mules.[113] The soldiers were disembarked at Dubuque, whence
+they followed the trail to Iowa City, along which they "saw nothing
+except the ravages of California emigration." Proceeding to the vicinity
+of Marengo, a council was held with the Indians. But the latter marched
+into the council ten abreast carrying their war clubs and manifesting
+such a hostile disposition that it was impossible for Major Woods to
+accomplish anything.[114]
+
+For a while it seemed that active military operations would be
+necessary. The Indians becoming convinced that this would be the result,
+and fearing that all the expenses of the campaign would be deducted from
+the annuities of the tribe, suggested to two men of the neighborhood--a
+Mr. Steen and a Mr. Greenly--that they would go back to their homes if
+these two men could be appointed their guides. When Mr. Steen and
+Mr. Greenly broached the subject to Major Woods he considered it
+thoughtfully, and finally an arrangement was made. For every Indian who
+left the Iowa River and was turned over to their agent west of the
+Missouri River, the government was to pay three dollars and fifty cents.
+Five hundred dollars was to be advanced to pay for the provisions of the
+party. Upon June 6th a second council was held with the Indians, during
+which Major Woods impressed upon Chief Poweshiek and his men the
+necessity of their returning and the advisability of their doing it
+peaceably.[115]
+
+During the month of July the Indians started upon their journey. For
+several days they encamped near Fort Des Moines, and on July 16th
+seventy of the warriors, armed and painted, paraded on horseback through
+the streets of the town to the public square where for an hour they
+danced for the amusement of the two or three hundred interested
+spectators in the frontier town.[116]
+
+These events made necessary a change in the plans of the troops. Company
+E of the Sixth Infantry remained at their camp on the Iowa River for
+some time, but upon the last day of July set out under the command of
+Major Woods for a site on the Des Moines River which had been chosen by
+the War Department as the location of a new military post. On August 23,
+1850, the troops arrived at the designated place and began the erection
+of a fort which they named Fort Clarke in honor of Colonel Clarke
+the commanding officer of the Sixth Infantry. The name, however, was
+soon changed to Fort Dodge.
+
+The company of dragoons was occupied during August and September in
+making a tour of the western part of the State of Iowa, and it was not
+until October that the cavalry company and the other infantry company
+returned to their station at Fort Snelling.[117]
+
+Occupation for the company of dragoons was furnished during the next
+summer when Governor Ramsey was sent to Pembina to draw up a treaty with
+the Pillager band of Chippewa Indians. On August 18, 1851, the party set
+out from Fort Snelling. Besides the Governor and a number of gentlemen
+who accompanied him, the party consisted of twenty-five dragoons, and
+eight French-Canadian and half-breed drivers who had charge of six
+baggage wagons and several light Red River carts. The march was very
+difficult and the dragoons were kept busy repairing the roads over the
+swamp lands and dragging with ropes the heavy wagons over the quickly
+made causeways. The treaty which was made after this difficult journey
+was not ratified by the Senate.[118]
+
+The wonderful expansion of the Nation, which occurred in the latter half
+of the fifth decade of the century, turned all eyes toward the fertile
+valleys and the mountains of fabulous wealth on the Pacific Coast. Even
+before the acquisition of this territory some visionary minds had
+pictured it bound to the United States, if not by political ties, at
+least by bonds of steel.[119] The Oregon treaty of 1846 brought
+part of the coveted land under the jurisdiction of the United States,
+and the necessity of a railroad to the Pacific was soon realized. But
+sectional interests prevented agreement upon any certain route, and it
+was decided to survey the most promising and choose the one agreed upon
+by the engineers. Accordingly, the army appropriation bill of 1853
+provided $150,000 for this purpose.[120]
+
+Isaac I. Stevens, the newly appointed Governor of Washington Territory,
+led the party which examined the country between the parallels of
+forty-seven and forty-nine degrees north latitude--called the Northern
+Pacific Survey. He left Washington, D. C, on May 9, 1853, and reached
+St. Paul on May 27th. According to his instructions he was authorized to
+call upon one sergeant, two corporals, one musician, and sixteen
+privates of Company D First Dragoons, who were still stationed at Fort
+Snelling.[121] Captain Gardiner, who had preceded his leader up the
+river, had selected the escort and collected the party on May 24th in
+Camp Pierce--a temporary encampment located three miles northwest of the
+fort.[122] Early in June camp was broken and the start for the far West
+was made, at first, over the Red River Trail, and then across the
+prairies to Fort Union, where on August 1st they were joined by others
+who had been sent up the Missouri with supplies. Fort Benton was reached
+on September 1st There they remained until the twelfth of the month when
+Lieutenant Saxton, leading a similar party eastward from
+Vancouver, arrived. Thus a survey from the Mississippi to the Pacific
+had been completed.[123]
+
+On the journey the entire party had been divided into small groups, who
+conducted surveys and explorations in various directions. To each of
+these groups were detailed a few of the dragoons, who were in all
+respects an integral part of the expedition and not merely a guard for
+protection. Accordingly, no special mention of their work was made in
+the report.[124]
+
+After thirty years, the distinction of being the most northwestern post
+in the upper Mississippi region was lost by Fort Snelling. Other
+military stations were erected, and thereafter many of its former
+activities were conducted from these stations on the extreme frontier.
+Yet in everything contributed by these newer posts, the older had a
+part; accounts of them reveal their dependence on Fort Snelling, the
+parent post.
+
+As early as 1844 the Secretary of War had reported that plans were being
+made to erect two new forts between Lake Superior and the River St.
+Peter's.[125] But nothing was done at this time. By a treaty of October
+13, 1846, the Winnebagoes living on the "Neutral Ground" in the Turkey
+River Valley of the Iowa country agreed to exchange this reservation for
+one "north of St. Peter's and west of the Mississippi Rivers".[126] By
+treaties in the following August, the Chippewas ceded to the government
+a tract lying south of the Crow Wing River and west of the
+Mississippi River, and north and east of the so-called Sioux-Chippewa
+boundary line.[127] This was the area agreed on by the government as
+being suitable for the Winnebagoes. In view of the reputation of
+unruliness possessed by this tribe, and the fact that they were to be
+placed between the warring tribes--the Sioux and the Chippewas--the
+establishment of a post on the reservation was thought desirable.
+
+The transfer of the tribe took place during the summer of 1848; and in
+the same fall Brigadier General George M. Brooke of St. Louis,
+accompanied by a squadron of dragoons, chose a point opposite the Nokay
+River as a desirable location.[128] This company and a company of the
+Sixth Infantry from Fort Snelling were employed in building the fort,
+and when cold weather prevented further operations, they were withdrawn
+to Fort Snelling, where the winter was passed.[129] In the spring the
+troops returned, and Fort Gaines--rechristened Fort Ripley--was occupied
+on the thirteenth of April, 1849.[130]
+
+But this post alone was unable to keep the Winnebagoes in check. They
+celebrated the first fourth of July by attacking a frontier store and
+"causing one gentleman to escape _en dishabille_ to the woods, where he
+danced to the tune of the mosquitoes during some three days and
+nights."[131] Again and again reports of riotous revels and rumors of
+impending outbreaks caused help to be sent from Fort Snelling to assist
+the troops higher up the river.[132] In the spring of 1857 the fort was
+abandoned, but Indian disturbances during the summer caused a
+detachment to be sent from the older post. These troops remained at that
+point until in the summer of 1858 they were transferred to the newly
+founded Fort Abercrombie.[133]
+
+The treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, concluded in 1851,
+concentrated the Sioux Indians on a long irregular reservation along the
+upper Minnesota River.[134] The Indians were not transferred until the
+summer of 1853, but in the fall of the previous year the need of a post
+among so many half civilized people, placed in a small territory, was
+obvious. Accordingly, Colonel Francis Lee, commandant at Fort Snelling,
+and Captain Dana of the quartermaster's department, escorted by a troop
+of dragoons, selected a suitable site on the north side of the Minnesota
+River, a dozen miles upstream from the town of New Ulm.
+
+On February 24, 1853, seven privates of Company D of the First Dragoons,
+and two sergeants and thirteen privates of the Sixth Infantry were sent
+to the location to begin the erection of the fort. In April the dragoons
+were ordered to return to Fort Snelling and Companies C and K of the
+Sixth Infantry went up the river under the command of Captain James
+Monroe and became part of the permanent garrison of newly-founded Fort
+Ridgely. One other company came up from Fort Dodge--the post in Iowa
+which was abandoned with this withdrawal.[135]
+
+Colonel C. F. Smith, who led the expedition from Fort Snelling to the
+Red River during the summer of 1856, was instructed to recommend
+a site for a post. His choice of Graham's Point on the Red River was
+accepted; and here, in the fall of 1857, Colonel John J. Abercrombie
+constructed the fort which was named in his honor. Colonel Smith,
+writing from Fort Snelling, gave among his reasons for the choice of
+Graham's Point "the additional advantage of greater facility for
+receiving stores from the depot here".[136]
+
+With the building of these posts, Fort Snelling lost much of its
+importance. The garrison was small and the fort was almost nothing more
+than a depot for supplying the more advanced forts with food, clothing,
+and ammunition.[137] With the decline of its military position, the idea
+became prevalent that some day it would be abandoned entirely, and the
+land thrown open to settlement.
+
+The neighboring cities of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Anthony were in
+the throes of real estate speculation. There were some who saw in Fort
+Snelling a site more advantageous than any of these. "It is a position
+which has attracted also a good deal of attention on account of its
+superior beauty of location, its agricultural advantages, and its more
+notable advantages for a town site", said Mr. Morrill during a debate on
+the floor of the House of Representatives. "Whatever witnesses in this
+case may have differed upon as to other matters, they nearly all agree
+that, as a point for a town site, it possesses superior advantages over
+any other in that part of the country."[138]
+
+Successful efforts were made to secure this site. On June 6, 1857, Mr.
+William King Heiskell, a commissioner appointed by the Secretary of War,
+sold to Mr. Franklin Steele, who was acting for himself and three
+others, the entire reservation for $90,000. The President approved the
+act on the second of July. Other parties who were interested in securing
+the site were not aware that the sale was to be made until everything
+had been accomplished.[139]
+
+Immediately there arose the cry of graft: the Republicans saw in the
+transaction the corruption of the existing Democratic régime. A
+committee was appointed by the House of Representatives to investigate
+the matter, and the testimony which they took covers three hundred and
+seven pages. Some witnesses said that the post should have been retained
+for military purposes; others insisted that there was no such need. Some
+said that the site was admirable for a city; a few stated that it
+possessed no such advantages. Some said that it was necessary as a
+supply station for the upper posts; others insisted that these posts
+could be supplied more cheaply by a direct route.[140]
+
+Bitter debates marked the consideration of the report. The objects,
+character, and ability of the witnesses were questioned. One member of
+the House said that "Fort Snelling is a very elegant appanage to very
+elegant gentlemen, who have a very elegant place for parade and
+show."[141] Another remarked that "the officers at Fort Snelling were
+opposed to the sale and it was natural that they should be. They
+had a beautiful place of residence, they had the most comfortable
+quarters, and a superabundance of stores for their subsistence. There
+they were living upon the fat of the land, without anything under God's
+heaven to do. Society was near at hand in a city populous, and
+furnishing all the luxuries of life. They of course did not want to
+surrender such quarters and such comforts for the hardships and trials
+of a frontier station."[142]
+
+Finally, on June second the whole matter was laid on the table. On May
+27, 1858, the troops had been withdrawn,[143] and on July 19, 1858, the
+quartermaster turned the buildings over to Mr. Steele. But with the
+opening of the Civil War Fort Snelling was used by the government as a
+training station, and after the war it was continued as a permanent
+post. Mr. Steele had been unable to pay the entire $90,000, and as he
+claimed rent at the rate of $2000 a month for the time it had been used
+by the government, the matter was again taken up. It was finally
+adjusted in an agreement whereby Mr. Steele retained the greater part of
+the land, and the government kept the buildings and 1521.20 acres
+surrounding the fort. Later some of the land was re-purchased from Mr.
+Steele.[144]
+
+The history of Old Fort Snelling closes with the removal of the troops
+in 1858. The story of its use during the Civil War, of the part it
+played during the Sioux massacre of 1862, of its influence throughout
+the West during the years when the headquarters of the Department of
+Dakota were located within its walls, of the Officers' Training
+Camp established during the summer of 1917, lies outside the scope of
+this volume. The life of the new Fort Snelling revives the traditions of
+patriotism, loyalty, and sacrifice, which have centered about the post
+since that day in August, 1819, which witnessed its beginning.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+LORDS OF THE NORTH
+
+
+An old settler, speaking of the expulsion of the squatters on the
+military reservation remarked: "At that time, and both before and since,
+the commanding officers of the fort were the lords of the north. They
+ruled supreme. The citizens in the neighborhood of the fort were liable
+at any time to be thrust into the guard-house. While the chief of the
+fort was the king, the subordinate officers were the princes, and
+persons have been deprived of their liberty and imprisoned by those
+tyrants for the most trivial wrong, or some imaginary offense."[145]
+This statement is doubtless rather extreme; but the fact remains that
+the fort was the only agency of government in the region, and so the
+commanding officer was indeed the supreme ruler in so far as he directed
+the policy and activities of the post.
+
+Interest in Old Fort Snelling is not primarily in the logs and stones
+which made up its building, but in the men and women who lived within
+its walls. Many were the lives influenced by a residence in its
+barracks. Characters were formed by the stern rigors of frontier
+service. Far from busy cities, in the tiresome routine of army life, men
+were being trained who were to be leaders in the political and
+military life of the Nation. Others never rose to a higher position; but
+they command attention because in their faithful performance of daily
+duties, year after year, they were quietly helping to make the history
+of the Northwest. It is impossible to consider every man who might be
+classed among the "Lords of the North", but a review of the careers of a
+few of them indicates the type of men whose natural ability was
+supplemented by the self-confidence and the grim determination which are
+the products of frontier service.[146]
+
+
+The memory of the man who led the troops to the mouth of the Minnesota
+River in 1819 is commemorated by a fort and a city in another State. The
+trials which he endured during that first winter at Cantonment New Hope
+were only harbingers of greater difficulties which were to bring to him
+the death of a frontier martyr. Although he had been educated for the
+lawyer's profession, Henry Leavenworth raised a company of volunteers in
+Delaware County, New York, in 1812, and was elected its captain. He
+served under General Winfield Scott and won honors for distinguished
+service at the Battle of Chippewa and at Niagara Falls. After the war he
+continued in the army, being appointed lieutenant colonel of the Fifth
+United States Infantry on February 10, 1818. After conducting the troops
+up the Mississippi River in 1819 and remaining through the winter, he
+was superseded by Colonel Snelling.
+
+Expeditions and Indian duties occupied his attention during the
+next few years, and in May, 1827, he established "Cantonment
+Leavenworth" on the west bank of the Missouri River. On February 8,
+1832, the name was changed to Fort Leavenworth. During a campaign
+against the Pawnee Indians, who were harassing the caravans of the Santa
+Fé traders, Colonel Leavenworth was taken sick with fever and died on
+July 21, 1834, in a hospital wagon at Cross Timbers in Indian Territory.
+The body was wrapped in spices and sent by way of St. Louis, New
+Orleans, and New York City, to Delhi, New York, where it remained until
+in 1902 it was reinterred in the national cemetery at Fort Leavenworth.
+A granite shaft some twelve feet high marks his resting-place.[147]
+
+
+The monument to the man under whose direction the fort was built is the
+modern military establishment named Fort Snelling. The erection of this
+fort was the last achievement of a life which, though comparatively
+brief, had already accomplished much. Josiah Snelling was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, in 1782. His first commission was as a first
+lieutenant in the Fourth Infantry and bears the date of May 3, 1808. In
+the Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811, he commanded one of the
+companies that were attacked in their camp in the early morning. An
+attempt was made by a company of dragoons to drive off the groups of
+Indians whose fire was the heaviest, but the officer who was leading was
+wounded and the attempt failed. "The Indians",  reported General
+Harrison, "were, however, immediately and gallantly dislodged from their
+advantageous position by Captain Snelling, at the head of his
+company."[148] During the War of 1812 he served with Hull's army about
+Detroit, and when the fort was surrendered he was taken a prisoner and
+brought to Canada. But he was exchanged and ordered to Plattsburg, and
+later was sent to Fort Erie on the staff of General George Izard. At the
+close of the war he was retained as lieutenant colonel of the Sixth
+Infantry and was stationed at Plattsburg for four years.[149]
+
+Bravery and impetuosity were two of Colonel Snelling's traits. During
+the campaign about Detroit he was married to Abigail Hunt by the
+chaplain of General Hull's army. The general and other officers were
+present. An account of the life of his wife states that "the ceremony
+had been performed but a few moments when the drum beat to arms; and
+Capt. Snelling instantly started up to go in search of his sword. All
+rushed to the door except Gen. Hull, who laying his hand on the young
+officer's shoulder as he was about leaving the house, said, 'Snelling,
+you need not go, I will excuse you.' 'By no means,' was the reply, 'I
+feel more like doing my duty now than ever.' 'Stay, it is a false alarm
+by my order,' said the General."[150] The ignoble surrender of Detroit
+by General Hull was deplored by many of the men under him. The story is
+told that while General Hull's aid was trying to place the white flag in
+position he called, "Snelling, come and help me fix this flag."
+Whereupon that officer replied, "No, sir; I will not soil my hands with
+that flag."[151]
+
+On June 1, 1819, he was appointed colonel of the Fifth Infantry, and
+ordered to St. Louis, where the following winter was passed. In the
+summer he started up the Mississippi, but was detained at Prairie du
+Chien by a court-martial of which he was the president, and it was not
+until August that he reached the troops at Camp Cold Water. From that
+time until the fall of 1827 Colonel Snelling was in command of the post,
+when not absent on official business. Except when he had been drinking
+too much, he was a favorite with the troops, and as he had red hair and
+was somewhat bald, they nicknamed him the "prairie-hen".[152]
+
+In the fall of 1827 the Fifth Infantry was withdrawn from the post and
+was succeeded by the First Infantry. The Snelling family located at St.
+Louis, while Colonel Snelling proceeded to Washington to settle some
+accounts. While here he was suddenly taken sick and died on August 20,
+1828.[153]
+
+The man whose name was applied to the post which has become so historic
+was a typical soldier of his day. Along with the bravery and zeal of the
+army, he possessed also its failings. "Of myself I have little to say",
+he wrote on one occasion. "I entered the army a subaltern, almost
+eighteen years ago. From obscurity I have passed through every grade to
+the command of a regiment. I owe nothing to executive patronage, for I
+have neither friend or relation connected with the government: I
+have obtained my rank in the ordinary course of promotion, and have
+retained it by doing my duty; and I really flatter myself that I still
+possess the confidence of the government, and the respect of those who
+serve with and under me."[154]
+
+
+Daniel Webster, speaking in the Senate on July 9, 1850, remarked that it
+was not in Indian wars that heroes were celebrated, but it was there
+that they were formed.[155] The occasion of this speech was the death of
+the President, Zachary Taylor, who had served for many years upon the
+Indian frontier. As lieutenant colonel of the First Infantry, he came to
+Fort Snelling during the summer of 1828 and remained there for a year,
+when he established his headquarters at Fort Crawford. His achievements
+on the frontier and in the Mexican War, which finally brought him to the
+presidency are a familiar story, and the training which he received in
+Old Fort Snelling was only a part of that which gave him the name of
+"Rough and Ready". It is a remarkable fact that at Fort Snelling he was
+remembered less for his own actions than for those of his four pretty
+daughters whose presence spread commotion in the hearts of the homesick
+young officers.[156]
+
+
+In 1837 the First Infantry was withdrawn and part of the Fifth Infantry
+returned to its former station. Among the familiar faces seen about the
+garrison again was that of a man whose eccentricities and
+personality are closely associated with the life of the fort.[157] In
+reporting the casualties of the battle of Molino del Rey, September 8,
+1847, the general commanding the American forces applied an adjective to
+only one of the dead. The report reads, "the service mourns the
+high-souled Scott, brevet lieutenant colonel 5th infantry".[158] This
+was Martin Scott, one of the most human, most lovable, and most
+energetic men who ever reviewed troops on the parade ground of Old Fort
+Snelling. Only from July 15, 1837, until August 20, 1837, was he in
+command, but for many years he was a familiar figure around the barracks
+and in the surrounding country.
+
+Hunting was his favorite pastime, and many a time the prairie rang with
+the yelping of the twenty or twenty-five dogs which he kept under the
+care of a special negro servant at the fort. His deadly aim was known to
+all. An army officer who insulted him was severely wounded in a duel; he
+often played the part of William Tell by shooting with his pistol
+through an apple placed upon the head of his negro; and if credence is
+to be given to the stories which are told, even the animals were aware
+that from him there was no escape. A coon sitting high on a tree was
+shot at by several hunters in succession, but still remained in its
+position. Captain Scott came along and took aim, whereupon the coon
+asked, "Who is that?" The reply was, "My name is Scott." "Scott? what
+Scott?" continued the coon. "Captain Martin Scott." "Are you Captain
+Martin Scott?" There was a pause before the voice in the tree-top
+continued, "Then hold on--don't shoot; I may as well come down."[159]
+
+Martin Scott was born in Bennington, Vermont, on January 17, 1788. His
+family was extremely poor, but because of his freedom from army
+vices--gambling and drinking--he was able in later years to do them many
+favors. His kindness was equalled only by his bravery. For gallant
+conduct during the Mexican War he received several promotions, and held
+a commission as lieutenant colonel when he met death leading his
+regiment in the battle of Molino del Rey.[160]
+
+A newspaper correspondent who went over the field of battle, saw a
+gray-headed soldier spreading the blanket over the corpse of a fallen
+comrade. "I rode up to him", wrote the reporter to his newspaper, "and
+asked him whether that was an officer. He looked up, and every lineament
+of his face betokening the greatest grief, replied, 'you never asked a
+question sir, more easily answered, it is an officer.' I then asked him
+who he was. He again replied, 'The best soldier of the 5th infantry,
+sir.' I then alighted from my horse and uncovering the face, found it
+was Col. Martin Scott. As I again covered the face, the soldier
+continued, without apparently addressing himself to any person in
+particular--'They have killed him--they will be paid for this--if it had
+only been me--I have served with him almost four enlistments but what
+will his poor family say?' And as he concluded thus the tears coursed
+down his furrowed cheeks, and the swelling of his bosom showed
+how deeply he was affected by the death of his veteran and gallant
+commander."[161]
+
+When the Fifth Infantry was transferred in 1840 there was a second
+home-coming at Fort Snelling in that it was succeeded by parts of the
+First Infantry which remained until the year 1848. Captain Seth Eastman
+was in command at four different times during this period, and it was
+through his eyes that we can see Old Fort Snelling as it was.[162] After
+his graduation from the Military Academy he was an assistant teacher of
+drawing at West Point. Following this he served in the Florida War and
+on the frontier until 1850, when he was called to Washington to
+illustrate the _History, Condition, and Future Prospects of the Indian
+Tribes of the United States_. Active service on the frontier and in the
+Civil War followed, and in 1866 he was breveted a brigadier
+general.[163]
+
+Mary Henderson Eastman, his wife, also commands attention. The intimate
+association of the fort with the surrounding Indians brought to her
+knowledge many incidents connected with their life which she embodied in
+a volume published in 1849 and entitled: _Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends
+of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_. In this volume Longfellow read of
+the Falls of Minnehaha, which he describes so picturesquely in
+_Hiawatha_.[164] Other literary work was done by Mrs. Eastman, one of
+her volumes being _Aunt Phyllis's Cabin_, a reply to Mrs. Stowe's _Uncle
+Tom's Cabin_.[165]
+
+Parts of the Sixth Infantry were garrisoned in Fort Snelling from 1848
+to 1852, and beginning in 1850 there was also a company of the First
+Dragoons who engaged in many of the expeditions narrated in the
+preceding chapter. Among the officers who commanded during this period
+was Lieutenant William T. Magruder, who was killed on July 3, 1863, at
+the Battle of Gettysburg while serving in the ranks of the Confederate
+army.[166] One company of the Third Artillery was located at the post
+from 1853 to 1856. At the head of this company was Captain W. T. Sherman
+who, after serving in the Indian wars and the Mexican War, rose to
+prominence in the Civil War during which he was brevetted a major
+general. After the Civil War he was appointed commander of the
+Department of the East.[167]
+
+Among the last troops which occupied Fort Snelling before it was
+abandoned in 1858 was a part of the Tenth Infantry. Major E. R. S. Canby
+of this regiment was in command of the fort during the summer and autumn
+of 1856. His was a wonderful record of achievement upon the frontier and
+in the Civil War, and like Colonel Leavenworth he met his death in
+service. Born in Kentucky the year that Fort Snelling was founded, he
+moved to Indiana as a boy. He was appointed to the Military Academy at
+West Point in 1835 and graduated in 1839. For the next three years he
+was engaged as a second lieutenant in the Second Infantry in the Florida
+War, and upon the successful termination of the campaigns he was
+employed in removing the Cherokees,  Choctaws, and Creeks to
+Indian Territory. After a few years in garrison duty and the recruiting
+service he participated in the Mexican War, being promoted "for gallant
+and meritorious service" at Contreras, Cherubusco, and the Belen Gate of
+the City of Mexico. On March 3, 1855, a promotion made him major in the
+Tenth Infantry; and it was while holding this position that he served at
+Fort Snelling.
+
+In 1858 Major Canby was transferred to Fort Bridger, Utah, where he
+commanded an expedition against the Navajo Indians. While stationed at
+Fort Defiance, New Mexico, during the early years of the Civil War, he
+repelled the Confederate general, Sibley, who left one-half of his force
+behind him in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On March 31, 1862, he was
+made a brigadier general of volunteers and summoned to Washington to
+assist Secretary of War Stanton. While here General Canby was called
+upon to take charge of a difficult position. Draft riots in New York
+City from July 13th to July 16th resulted in the killing and wounding of
+about a thousand people and the destruction of about one and a half
+million dollars worth of property.[168] On July 17th General Canby was
+put in charge of the Federal troops in the city, and he was later able
+to enforce the provisions of the draft without difficulties.[169]
+Following this came an appointment as commander of the military division
+of West Mississippi, where he was wounded by Confederate guerrillas.
+
+At the close of the war, Edward Canby, then a major general of
+volunteers was sent to the far West as commander of the Department of
+the Columbia. Here the United States was engaged in a war with the Modoc
+Indians led by their chief "Captain Jack". On April 11, 1873, General
+Canby held a peace parley with the Indians. It had been agreed that both
+parties should be unarmed, but in the middle of the negotiations
+"Captain Jack" suddenly drew a revolver from his breast, and shot Canby
+through the head killing him instantly.[170]
+
+
+Other officers at the post who had real power were the garrison
+physicians. One of these, Dr. John Emerson was a giant in body and
+impulsive in spirit. On a certain day in early winter when the
+quartermaster was distributing stoves to the officers, Dr. Emerson asked
+for one for his negro servant. This the quartermaster refused, saying
+that there were not enough in store; whereupon the doctor insinuated
+that the statement was a lie. Upon being insulted thus the quartermaster
+struck his companion between the eyes. Emerson turned on his heels
+immediately, but he returned in a few minutes with a brace of pistols
+which he pointed at his assailant. The fighting spirit of the
+quartermaster fell at the appearance of these weapons, and he started
+across the parade ground on a run followed by the doctor. A third
+character appeared in the person of Major Plympton, the commanding
+officer, who arrested Dr. Emerson. This episode gave rise to a great
+commotion in the garrison. One group who wanted some excitement
+urged that only in blood could the quarrel be settled; while the other
+group sought for peace, knowing that there was no other physician nearer
+than Prairie du Chien. Not for several days was the quarrel patched up,
+and then the terms were never made public.[171]
+
+The cause of all this trouble was Dred Scott, man of color, and the
+slave of Dr. Emerson. He had been brought to Fort Snelling by his master
+in 1836, and here he was married to Harriet, also colored, who had been
+sold by Major Taliaferro to the doctor. When Dr. Emerson was transferred
+to Missouri, he took Dred Scott with him. After the death of his master,
+Scott began proceedings in the courts for his freedom on the ground that
+his residence at the military post made him free--Fort Snelling being
+located on soil where slavery was prohibited by the Missouri Compromise
+of 1820. Mrs. Emerson, who wanted to avoid an appearance in the courts,
+made over the control of Scott to John F. A. Sanford, and the case was
+finally brought to the Supreme Court of the United States. Thus Old Fort
+Snelling was connected with the case of _Scott vs. Sanford_, which was
+so important among the events leading up to the Civil War.[172]
+
+
+Were battles and military operations alone considered, the annals of
+Fort Snelling would comprise few pages; and were only military men
+characterized one of the most potent factors in the life of the fort
+would be omitted. The influence of the fort on the Indians was
+felt more through the quiet daily work of the Indian agent who was their
+official friend. Although he was an officer entirely distinct from the
+military organization at the fort, his work may legitimately be
+accredited among the other activities of the post. He was, in fact, an
+army official. The act of August 7, 1789, which organized the War
+Department, placed Indian affairs in the hands of the Secretary;[173] on
+July 9, 1832, a commissioner of Indian affairs was authorized;[174] and
+on June 30, 1834, the relations of the Indian agents to the military
+department were more clearly defined. The Superintendent of Indian
+Affairs, the Indian agents, and the sub-agents were given the right to
+call upon the military forces to remove all trespassers in the Indian
+country, to procure the arrest and trial of all Indians accused of
+committing any crime, and to break up any distillery set up in the
+Indian country.[175]
+
+By the act of March 3, 1849, the Department of the Interior was
+organized. Section Five of the act stipulated that "the Secretary of the
+Interior shall exercise the supervisory and appellate powers now
+exercised by the Secretary of the War Department, in relation to all the
+acts of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs".[176] On the whole this law
+did not disturb the coöperation between the two branches of the
+government service, although the commander at Fort Snelling intimated to
+the agent that his privileges were "not of right but by courtesy".[177]
+
+One name more than any other is associated with the agency at Fort
+Snelling--usually called the agency of St. Peter's. From 1820 to
+1840 regiments came and went, and the officers who ruled as "Lords of
+the North" were soon transferred to other posts. The military
+establishment was itself known by several different names in succession,
+but the Indian agent remained the same--Lawrence Taliaferro. His was a
+lasting influence--lasting because of the position he held in the
+memories of his wards and his associates, and lasting because of the
+records that he left.
+
+To the Indians he was a real "Father". Americans, Scotch, Sioux, and
+French could all find within his breast, they said, a kindred spirit,
+and they bestowed upon him the name of "Four Hearts" because of the
+impartiality of his actions to all nationalities.[178] In June, 1858, a
+number of Sioux chiefs were in Washington and came to see him. "My old
+Father," said Little Crow, "we have called upon you; we love you; we
+respect you.... Since you left us a dark cloud has hung over our nation.
+We have lost confidence in the promises of our Great Father, and his
+people; bad men have nearly destroyed us.... We failed to get a friend
+in anyone like you; they all joined the traders. We know your heart, it
+feels for your old children."[179]
+
+Those who were associated with him at the fort also had kind words for
+him. "He belonged to a class more common then than now", remarked the
+son of Colonel Bliss. "He imagined it to be his imperative duty to see
+that every Indian under his charge had the enjoyment of all his rights,
+and never seemed to realize his opportunities for arranging with
+contractors for the supply of inferior goods and for dividing the
+profits."[180] Of this honesty Taliaferro wrote: "I have the Sad
+Consolation of leaving after twenty Seven years--the public Service as
+poor as when first I entered--The only evidence of my integrity".[181]
+
+No one can write of Fort Snelling without using the papers which
+Lawrence Taliaferro left. The diary kept by him during these twenty
+years shows the meager pleasures and grim duties of his task. Of this
+diary only a few fragmentary pages are extant--three roughly bound
+collections of sheets, many of them torn, many of them half-burned, and
+their writing faded. But from almost every page that is legible some
+information is gleaned, concerning the life of the soldiers, the visits
+of the Indians, the state of the weather, and reflections on Indian
+relations and the best time for planting potatoes.[182] His wide
+acquaintance and the great extent of territory which his agency covered
+led to correspondence with many men. These letters also passed through a
+fire, and those that were rescued are now bound in four volumes.[183]
+
+His reports to General William Clark, Superintendent of Indian Affairs
+at St. Louis, were forwarded to Washington where they are now kept in
+the files of the Indian office.[184] With methodical care Governor Clark
+copied the letters which he received into letter books. The existence of
+these letter books was not known until a few years ago, when some
+of them were found in the hands of a junk dealer in Lawrence, Kansas,
+and were rescued--a great gain to the history of the West.[185]
+
+Many years after he closed his connection with the agency Lawrence
+Taliaferro wrote an "Autobiography"--a narrative that shows all the
+quaintness and egotism of the man. "Not until after the year 1840", he
+wrote "did the government become unfortunate in the selection of their
+agents for Indian affairs."[186] From this account can be gleaned
+information to supplement the bare facts usually given about his life.
+His ancestors had come to England from Genoa, Italy, and later they
+emigrated to Virginia. Here Lawrence Taliaferro was born on February 28,
+1794. At the age of eighteen he joined the army and served through the
+War of 1812, being a first lieutenant when it closed. Although he
+received no other promotion he was always known among his associates as
+"Major".[187]
+
+He was appointed Indian agent for St. Peter's on March 27, 1819, and on
+April 1, 1819, he accepted--resigning the same day from the army.[188]
+He reached his new station probably in the summer of 1820, and was
+immediately engaged in the duties connected with Indian affairs.[189]
+During his term of office he was continually troubled by ill-health
+which resulted from his campaigns in the late war. In 1824 he resigned
+because of this ill-health, and although he continued in service,
+Governor Clark at one time wrote to the Secretary of War that "his fate
+is considered as very doubtful."[190]
+
+As early as 1831 he confided to his diary that "there is something of a
+Combination of Persons at work day after day to pick at my Actions both
+public and private".[191] His resignation finally came in 1839, and he
+closed his connection with the Department on January 1, 1840, because he
+could no longer endure the machinations of the traders.[192] Thereafter
+he made his home at Bedford, Pennsylvania, serving as a military
+storekeeper from 1857 to 1863, when he was put on the retired list. Mr.
+Taliaferro visited his old home at Fort Snelling in 1856 and wrote
+characteristically: "We were in St. Paul on the twenty-fourth of June,
+the 'widow's son' was Irving's Rip Van Winkle; after a nap of fifteen
+years, we awoke in the midst of _fast_ times. We truly felt bewildered
+when we found all the haunts and resting-places of the once noble sons
+of the forest, covered by cities, towns, and hamlets. We asked but few
+questions, being to our mind received as a strange animal; if nothing
+worse."[193]
+
+
+Among the others who served before 1858 as Indian agent were Amos J.
+Bruce, R. G. Murphy, and Nathaniel McLean. The influx of whites had
+greatly increased the difficulties of their position, and the memory of
+their former agent made the Indians suspicious of their new advisers.
+The Governor of the Territory became the Superintendent of Indian
+Affairs, and his presence so near the agency took from the agent much of
+his power.[194]
+
+Scott Campbell, the interpreter at Fort Snelling,  was the
+intermediary between the Indians and their lords. He was a half-breed
+whom Meriwether Lewis had met on his expedition up the Missouri River.
+He took the boy with him back to St. Louis; and when Lewis died,
+Campbell returned to his Sioux relatives and finally drifted to the
+agency at Fort Snelling.[195] Having a knowledge of four languages, and
+possessing the confidence of all the tribes within four hundred miles of
+the post, he was indispensable. From August, 1825, to April, 1826, he
+was engaged in the fur trade, but was lured back into service by a
+salary of thirty-four dollars per month and one ration per day. By 1843,
+however, he had become such a drunkard that he had to be dismissed.[196]
+
+The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, in recalling early days wrote that
+"Scott Campbell no longer sits smoking his long pipe, and conversing in
+low tones with the listless loungers around the old Agency House; but
+who that resided in this country thirty or forty years ago can pass by
+the old stone houses near Fort Snelling and not think of Major
+Taliaferro and of his interpreter?"[197]
+
+And who can pass the Old Round Tower without thinking of those men who
+as officers at Fort Snelling ruled supreme over a vast region, and who
+left the fort for places of greater trust and greater influence?
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+A SOLDIER'S WORLD
+
+
+Instead of a world of city streets and country towns, of tilled fields
+and rivers busy with commerce, the raw recruit at Old Fort Snelling
+entered upon a world of stone barracks and Indian tepees, of tangled
+prairies and rushing rivers.[198] The landing was directly under the
+cliff which towered above to a height which to many a wanderer in a
+frail canoe seemed twice the one hundred and six feet which the
+scientist's instruments ascribed to it.[199] In later years a stairway
+led to the quarters of the commanding officer, but the wagon road which
+crept upwards along the sandstone wall--"nearly as white as
+loaf-sugar"[200]--where the swallows flew in and out from their holes,
+gained the summit at the rear of the fort.
+
+Following the road through the gate, and passing between the buildings
+to the center of the parade ground, the recruit probably paused to look
+about him.[201] Visible in the openings between the buildings was the
+stone wall about ten feet high which surrounded the barracks, quarters,
+and storehouses. This wall took the place of the picket-stockade which
+was so prominent a feature in earlier and ruder fortifications.
+Conforming to the arrangement of the buildings which it enclosed, the
+wall was diamond-shaped,  one point being at the edge of the
+promontory where the valley of the Minnesota River met that of the
+Mississippi River. A second point was on the edge of the steep bluff
+which rose from the Mississippi. A third point, at a distance of about
+four hundred and fifty feet directly opposite the second, was on the
+summit of the Minnesota bluff. The fourth point was situated on the
+level ground of the plateau, at a distance of about seven hundred feet
+from the first point.
+
+As he stood in the middle of the parade ground and gazed beyond the pump
+and the magazine at the western or fourth point, the recruit saw rising
+to a height twice that of the wall, the Old Round Tower. To-day this
+tower is a vine-clad relic--a vestige remaining from the days of the
+past. But to the soldier of Old Fort Snelling it was a more practical
+structure--a place of lookout from which he was often to scan the swells
+of the prairie for approaching Indians or returning comrades. At the
+second and third points were blockhouses--buildings of stone, each
+giving a view of the river below it. At the first point there was also a
+tower--a wooden lookout platform at the very edge of the precipice from
+which was visible the landscape surrounding the fort.
+
+But the soldier was doubtless more interested in the buildings in which
+he was to live. The barracks for the men were under the north wall and
+consisted of two buildings one story in height. The larger of these,
+which was intended to accommodate two companies was divided
+into sets, each set having on the main floor an orderly-room and three
+squad-rooms, while below in the basement were a mess-room and a kitchen.
+The other barrack was intended to be occupied by one company only; and
+the orderly-room, squad-rooms, mess-rooms, and a kitchen were on the
+same floor. The cellars below were damp and were used only for storage
+purposes.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF OLD FORT SNELLING
+
+From a survey by Captain Arthur Williams, reproduced in the _Collections
+of the Minnesota Historical Society_, Vol. VIII, opposite p. 430]
+
+Occupying the same position under the south wall, and facing the
+barracks, were two other buildings, similar in appearance. In one of
+these the officers' quarters were located. It was divided into twelve
+sets, each consisting of two rooms, the front one sixteen by fourteen
+feet, and the back one, eight by fifteen and a half feet. In the
+basement were located kitchens for each set. The other building
+contained the offices of the commanding officer, the paymaster, the
+quartermaster, and the commissary. Here was a room used by the post
+school, and another filled with harness. An ordnance sergeant and five
+laundresses found quarters in the same structure.
+
+The quarters of the commanding officer with the flag staff directly in
+front, faced the parade ground and the Old Round Tower. There were four
+rooms on the main floor and in the basement were kitchens and pantries.
+Other buildings were also included within the fort. The storehouse of
+the commissary department was located near the southern blockhouse; and
+on either side of the gate were two buildings, shunned by all--the
+guardhouse and the hospital.
+
+Such was the plan of the fort, convenient in arrangement and beautiful
+in appearance; but the report of an official inspection in 1827
+complained that "the main points of _defence against an enemy_ appear to
+have been in some respects sacrificed in the effort to secure the
+comfort and convenience of the troops in peace. These are important
+considerations; but at an exposed frontier post the primary object must
+be _security against the attack of an enemy_. Health and comfort come
+next. The buildings are too large, too numerous, and extending over a
+space entirely too great; enclosing a uselessly large parade, five times
+greater than is at all desirable in that climate."[202]
+
+A traveller who at a later day was entertained within the fort wrote of
+it facetiously in these words: "The idea is further suggested, that the
+strong stone wall was rather erected to keep the garrison in, than the
+enemy out. Though adapted for mounting cannon if needful, the walls were
+unprovided with those weapons; and the only piece of ordnance that I
+detected out of the magazine, was an old churn thrust gallantly through
+one of the embrasures. We were however far from complaining of the extra
+expense and taste which the worthy officer whose name it bears had
+expended on the erection of Fort Snelling, as it is in every way an
+addition to the sublime landscape in which it is situated."[203]
+
+But an examination of the contents of the magazine would have revealed
+weapons more formidable than churns. Among the equipment reported in
+ 1834 one reads of two iron twelve-pounder cannon of the garrison
+type; three six-pounder iron cannon of the field type; and two five and
+eight-tenths inch iron howitzers. There was also equipment for these
+pieces of artillery--carriages, sponges and rammers, lead aprons, dark
+lanterns, gunners' belts, gunners' haversacks, and tarpaulins. There
+were stored ready for service, 440 balls for the twelve-pounders, 1255
+balls for the six-pounders, 546 pounds of mixed loose grapeshot, and
+many other sizes of strapped and canister shot. For the use of the
+infantry there were 7749 musket flints, 1825 pounds of musket powder,
+1513 pounds of rifle powder, 31,390 cartridges, and 2047 blank
+cartridges.[204]
+
+Other structures closely connected with the work of the fort were
+located outside the wall. The buildings of the Indian agency were
+situated a quarter of a mile west, on the prairie.[205] These consisted
+of a council house, the agent's house, and an armorer's shop. The
+original council house was built by the troops in 1823, but Agent
+Taliaferro claimed that most of the inside work was done at his own
+expense. The building was of logs and stone, eighty-two feet long,
+eighteen feet wide, and presenting in the front a piazza of seventy
+feet. Within, there were six rooms, lined with pine planking and
+separated from each other by panel doors.[206]
+
+At one o'clock on the morning of August 14, 1830, the sentinels at the
+fort discovered that the council house was on fire. But the flames had
+gained so much headway that it was impossible to save any of the
+contents. The interpreter and his family who lived in this building
+barely escaped with their lives. In reporting the loss to the
+superintendent, Major Taliaferro wrote that "the general impression here
+is that fire was put to the house by Some drunken Indians &
+circumstances are strong in justifying such a conclusion."[207] This
+surmise was right, for on April 7, 1831, the Indians delivered at the
+fort one of their number who they claimed was guilty of the act.[208]
+
+That steps were taken to build a new council house is evident from the
+record in Taliaferro's diary under date of March 8, 1831, that four men
+had been hired "at $12 per Month to cut & carry timber out of the pine
+Swamp for the Agency Council House."[209] But in 1839 Taliaferro
+recommended that the agency be moved to a point seven miles up the
+river; and in 1841 there was a movement on foot to buy Baker's stone
+trading house for the same purpose.[210]
+
+Near the location of the old council house were two other buildings. One
+of these was the agent's house. This was made entirely of stone, and was
+one and a half stories high. It contained four rooms and a passage on
+the lower floor and two rooms above.[211] Hastily built by troops at an
+early day, its comforts were few. "Since the Rainy Season Set in",
+complained the agent in 1834, "both the hired Men and Myself have not
+had a Spot in our houses that Could be called dry, Not even our
+beds".[212] An armorer's shop, where blacksmith work was done for the
+Indians, was made of logs and measured sixteen by eighteen feet.
+Nearer the fort was the home of Franklin Steele, the sutler of the
+post.[213]
+
+At Camp Cold Water, B. F. Baker had erected a large stone trading house,
+which in 1841 was valued at six thousand dollars. While he had no legal
+title to the land on which this house was built, the officers at the
+post allowed him to remain. Later it was sold to Kenneth McKenzie, who
+in 1853 built an addition, renovated the entire building, and used it as
+a hotel. In the vicinity of this structure were several small huts which
+had been the homes of some squatters on the reservation. But after their
+expulsion these huts rapidly fell into decay.[214]
+
+In his duties and recreations the soldier was often brought into touch
+with other features of the world about him--the points of scenic
+interest and the Indian villages. From the wooden lookout tower near the
+commanding officer's quarters a glimpse of the surrounding land was
+revealed.
+
+"The view from the angle of the wall at the extreme point, is highly
+romantic", wrote one who saw the wild scene before civilization had left
+its traces on the landscape. "To your left lies the broad deep valley of
+the Mississippi, with the opposite heights, descending precipitously to
+the water's edge; and to the right and in front, the St. Peter's, a
+broad stream, worthy from its size, length of course, and the number of
+tributaries which it receives, to be called the Western Fork of the
+Great River itself. It is seen flowing through a comparatively open
+vale, with swelling hills and intermingling forest and prairie,
+for many miles above the point of junction. As it approaches the
+Mississippi, the volume of water divides into two branches; that on the
+right pursues the general course of the river above, and enters the
+Mississippi, at an angle of perhaps fifty degrees, directly under the
+walls of the fort; while the other, keeping to the base of the high
+prairie lands which rise above it to a notable summit called the Pilot
+Knob, enters the Mississippi lower down. The triangular island thus
+formed between the rivers lies immediately under the fort. Its level
+surface is partially cultivated, but towards the lower extremity thickly
+covered with wood. Beyond their junction, the united streams are seen
+gliding at the base of high cliffs into the narrowing valley below.
+Forests, and those of the most picturesque character, interspersed with
+strips of prairie, clothe a great portion of the distant view.
+
+"A little cluster of trading houses is situated on the right branch of
+the St. Peter's, and here and there on the shores, and on the island,
+you saw the dark conical tents of the wandering Sioux. A more striking
+scene we had not met with in the United States, and hardly any that
+could vie with it for picturesque beauty, even at this unfavourable
+season. What must it be in spring, when the forests put forth their
+young leaves, and the prairies are clothed in verdure!"[215]
+
+This "little cluster of trading houses" was the town of Mendota. Here
+was the stone house of Henry H. Sibley, and that of J. B. Faribault.
+Near the river was the ferry house and the home of Mr. Finley the
+ferryman.[216] Upon the hillside lay the little Catholic chapel,
+surrounded by the graves in the cemetery. But the center of interest was
+in the warehouse and store of the American Fur Company, where the skins
+of buffalo, elk, deer, fox, beaver, otter, muskrat, mink, martin,
+raccoon, and other animals were sorted and divided into packs weighing
+about a hundred pounds. Indians, Frenchmen, half-breeds, and restless
+wanderers from the East were always loitering about the
+establishment.[217]
+
+From the fort a road led along the Mississippi to the Falls of St.
+Anthony, on the way crossing Minnehaha Creek on the bridge built in
+early days by the soldiers. Here a stop was made to view the beauty of
+the cascade then known as Little Falls or Brown's Falls. It was the
+common practice for travellers to descend to the foot of the falls,
+clinging to the shrubs along the slippery pathway, and then go behind
+the sheet of falling water.[218] Continuing, at a distance of eight
+miles up the Mississippi from the fort, the Falls of St. Anthony was
+reached. Although only sixteen feet high, the breadth of almost six
+hundred yards, broken in the middle by a rocky island gave to it an
+impressive majesty, and the thick vegetation on the island and banks
+returned a gloomy reflection from the whirling waters.[219]
+
+It is no wonder that in that wild and picturesque locality the Indians
+saw things ghostly and supernatural. "They tell you that here a young
+Dacota mother, goaded by jealousy,--the husband [sic] of her
+children having taken another wife,--unmoored her canoe above the Great
+Fall, and seating herself and her children in it,--sang her death song,
+and went over the foaming acclivity in the face and amid the shrieks of
+her tribe. And often, the Indian believes, when the nights are calm, and
+the sky serene,--and the dew-drops are hanging motionless on the sprays
+of the weeping birch on the island,--and the country far and wide is
+vibrating to the murmur of the cataract,--that then the misty form of
+the young mother may be seen moving down the deceitful current above,
+while her song is heard mingling its sad notes with the lulling sound of
+'the Laughing Water!'"[220]
+
+Here at the Falls, on the west bank of the river, were three buildings:
+a saw mill, a grist mill, and a one-story frame dwelling, where a
+detachment of soldiers always remained to guard the property. The saw
+mill had provided much of the lumber used in the construction of the
+fort, and in the grist mill the corn was cracked that was fed during the
+winter to the cattle--a drove being delivered every fall for the use of
+the garrison. These buildings were still standing in 1858, although they
+were then in a bad state of decay.[221]
+
+Among the lakes on the prairie the most important were the Lake of the
+Isles, Lake Calhoun, and Lake Harriet. These were favorite picnic and
+hunting grounds for the men and women of the garrison. An old map made
+in 1823 shows "Green's Villa" on Lake Calhoun--probably a hunting lodge
+or shelter built by Lieutenant Platt Rogers Green.[222] Here on
+Lake Calhoun was located the missionary establishment which was so
+closely connected with the life of the fort.[223]
+
+There were other Indian villages near the fort. Nine miles below, on the
+bank of the Mississippi was the Sioux village of Kaposia. Here
+Wakinyantanka, or Big Thunder, reigned over his band which numbered one
+hundred and eighty-three in 1834. Two or three miles upstream from its
+mouth on the banks of the Minnesota was the group of wigwams called
+Black Dog's village, although the chief was Wamditanka or Big Eagle.
+About nine miles from Fort Snelling was Pinisha, reported as having one
+hundred and forty-eight inhabitants ruled over by Good Road. The largest
+group, three hundred and sixty-eight souls, was that of the Tintatonwan
+band, located twenty-four miles from Fort Snelling and near the present
+town of Shakopee. Shapaydan or Shakpay was the chief, the father of the
+warrior of the same name who was executed at Fort Snelling for
+participating in the Sioux massacre of 1862.[224]
+
+These villages were very much the same in appearance, large bark lodges
+being occupied by the Indians in the summer. The villages swarmed with
+children, squaws, painted warriors, and yelping dogs. About the lodges
+were the corn fields, the scaffolds where the corn was dried, and the
+more mournful scaffolds where, wrapped in buffalo skins, reposed the
+bones of the hunters who had followed the milky way to the "Land of the
+Ghosts".[225]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+GLIMPSES OF GARRISON LIFE
+
+
+What sort of a life did the soldier live in the barracks and on the
+parade ground, and in the world of prairies, rivers, and woods that lay
+about him? No person who was ever quartered within the walls of Old Fort
+Snelling seems to have left an account of what was included in the tasks
+and recreations of a day. Doubtless the routine duties repeated day
+after day were thought too ordinary to be worth recording. The pleasures
+were so simple and came so much as a matter of course that they also
+receive scant mention in the annals of the fort. It is from the _General
+Regulations for the Army_ that one gets the daily program of a military
+post; and the few fragmentary pages of Taliaferro's diary and letters,
+together with the stray remarks of travellers and pioneers, indicate the
+joys and sorrows of a very human garrison.[226]
+
+No sooner was dawn visible over the Mississippi bluffs than the
+musicians of the post were summoned to the parade ground and five
+minutes later the _reveille_ was sounded. At the signal both officers
+and men arose. Soon the rolls of the companies were called in front of
+the quarters; the quarters were put in order; the ground in front swept;
+and the horses fed and watered. At eight-thirty the sick in the
+barracks were taken to the hospital, and at nine o'clock breakfast was
+served, preceded by a second roll-call. Then the various tasks of the
+day were performed under the direction of a captain or subaltern daily
+detailed as the "officer of the day".
+
+A party termed the "General Fatigue" swept the entire parade
+ground--unless there were enough prisoners in the guard house to perform
+this unpleasant duty. A police guard furnished sentinels to watch over
+the prisoners, the colors, the quarters of the commanding officer, and
+the arms of the regiment. Other soldiers were posted at the front and
+the rear of the fort. Certain detachments were formed for reconnoitering
+and foraging--the nature of the tasks depending on the season of the
+year and the needs of the garrison.
+
+At three o'clock in the afternoon the third roll-call was followed by
+dinner; and thirty minutes before sunset the music called out the
+regiment for dress parade, where various maneuvers were gone through and
+orders were read. After the parade, when the regiment was again in its
+quarters, the arms were placed in the arm-racks, the horses attended to,
+a fifth roll-call endured, and tattoo sounded. Then the lights were
+extinguished and all were expected to be quiet for the night.
+
+This monotony of the daily program was equalled only by the monotony of
+the meals. The regulation diet prescribed by Congress in 1802 consisted
+of a pound and a quarter of beef, or three-quarters of a pound of
+pork; eighteen ounces of bread or flour; one gill of rum, whiskey, or
+brandy; and for every hundred rations were supplied two quarts of salt,
+four quarts of vinegar, four pounds of soap, and one pound and a half of
+candles. In 1832 coffee and sugar were substituted for the liquor.[227]
+
+During the early years of Fort Snelling these supplies were brought from
+St. Louis in flatboats. With the development of steamboat traffic, the
+steamboat was utilized, but it did not entirely displace the earlier
+method. Difficulties often hindered the transportation of supplies. The
+summer of 1829 was extremely dry. The average monthly rainfall was less
+than an inch, and steamboat navigation was impossible. Even keelboats
+found difficulty in ascending the river; sixty days were spent by
+Lieutenant Reynolds in bringing up a load of supplies. A sand bar at
+Pine Bend was impassable, so half of the load was taken off and the rest
+hurried up the river. When the crew arrived the garrison was upon its
+last barrel of flour.[228]
+
+"Bread and soup", runs a clause in the _General Regulations for the
+Army_, "are the great items of a soldier's diet, in every
+situation".[229] The bread was made from the wheat grown by the
+soldiers, and was ground in the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. For
+some reason the crop of 1823 had become mouldy and the bread was black
+and bitter. When forced to eat it, the troops almost mutinied, bringing
+it out upon the parade ground and throwing it down.[230] Nor does it
+seem likely that the soup was more appetizing when one reads the
+following recipe which guided the company cooks: "To make soup, put into
+the vessel at the rate of five pints of water to a pound of fresh meat;
+apply a quick heat to make it boil promptly; skim off the foam, and then
+moderate the fire; salt is then put in, according to the palate. Add the
+vegetables of the season one or two hours, and sliced bread some
+minutes, before the simmering is ended. When the broth is sensibly
+reduced in quantity, that is, after five or six hours cooking, the
+process will be complete."[231]
+
+Fortunately the soldier did not have to depend entirely on these
+rations. Out of his modest cash income of six dollars per month he could
+buy at the sutler's store small necessities and some luxuries. The
+sutler was the authorized merchant of the post, and in order that his
+monopoly might not lead him to demand unreasonable sums for his wares,
+the prices were fixed by a "council of administration" composed of three
+officers. For every officer and enlisted soldier serving at the post the
+sutler paid into the "post fund", from ten to fifteen cents per month.
+This sum was to be used for the relief of the widows or orphans of
+soldiers, the maintenance of a post school and band, and the purchase of
+books for a library.[232]
+
+The books of Franklin Steele, who was the sutler at Fort Snelling from
+1838 to 1858, may still be examined; and from their dreary lists of
+accounts, the human wants of a soldier at Old Fort Snelling are clearly
+indicated.[233] On March 12, 1849, Private Brown bought a pound
+of currants and a pound of raisins for fifty cents. Shoes, soap, and
+currants totalled $1.50 on April 7th; and on March 20th, two pounds of
+butter sold for thirty cents and a pound of cheese for forty-two cents.
+Private Ryerson had more varied needs. On March 7th, 1849, he purchased
+indigo; on March 16th, paper; on April 9th, alcohol and suspenders; five
+days later, needles and sugar; and on April 23rd, apples, butter, and a
+tin cup. The quiet waters in the neighboring lakes tempted Eli Pettijohn
+on a spring day in 1855 to invest $2.50 in "Fishing Tackel".
+
+That the officers did not live upon the same fare as the soldiers is
+indicated by the entries under the title "Officers Mess". On July 31,
+1855, there was purchased ten cents worth of cloves, ten cents worth of
+pepper, and ninety-five cents worth of cheese. Under the date of August
+8th "Bread tickets" were purchased to the amount of one dollar; and on
+August 30th, fifty cents worth of "Yeast Powd'r" was charged to their
+account.
+
+Saint and sinner both patronized this store. The Reverend Ezekiel Gear,
+who was the chaplain at the fort, evidently believed that cleanliness
+was next to godliness, for on July 31, 1855, he paid thirty cents for a
+scrub brush; on August 4th, he bought a broom for fifty cents; on August
+30th, he purchased twenty-five cents worth of starch, and on October
+19th, a large broom. Indulging in some luxuries, on August 2nd, 1855, he
+bought five cents worth of candy. Probably this was a treat for those
+ two boys, his son and his grandson, whom a visitor two years
+later found sleeping in the little cemetery at Morgan's Bluff near the
+fort, their resting place marked by a rude slab with a Latin
+inscription: "Lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in death not
+divided."[234]
+
+None the less clearly is the character of Sergeant Mahoney portrayed in
+these accounts. On July 31, 1855, it is recorded under his name: "1
+Flask $.75". On August 20th, the same officer paid seventy-five cents
+for a bottle of cider. And the chaplain would have had an excellent
+illustration for his next sermon on intemperance if he could have read,
+as we can to-day, this melancholy note made in the sutler's book on
+October 17th: "Sergeant Mahoney, Cash Loaned 20.00".
+
+There was need for sermons on intemperance. During the early years
+whiskey was issued as a part of the soldier's ration, and this only
+served to stimulate the desire for more. The class of men in the army
+was not always of the highest, and there were enough civilians who were
+willing to pander to their appetites. The following extract from
+Taliaferro's diary for March 22, 1831, is undoubtedly characteristic of
+many a forgotten episode: "Nothing of importance transpired this day.
+Two drunken Soldiers in crossing the SPeters broke through the Ice &
+were near being drowned. They were exceeding alarmed & made a hedious
+Noise & yelling for Assistance--the men from the Fort relieved them
+although late at night." Not always was assistance on hand in
+such circumstances. A report was made in March, 1840, of a certain
+officer who "disappeared on the evening of the 5th of March, supposed to
+have been drowned by falling through the ice."[235]
+
+Drunkenness and absence from roll-call were among the infractions of
+rules for which punishment was most often inflicted. The character and
+severity of the punishment depended upon the mood of the commanding
+officer. Colonel Snelling, who was usually a very gentle man, was
+particularly severe in his treatment of offenders. "He would take them
+to his room", wrote one who spent several years in the Snelling
+household, "and compel them to strip, when he would flog them
+unmercifully. I have heard them beg him to spare them, 'for God's
+sake.'"[236] This punishment by flogging was often performed with a
+"cat"--an instrument made of nine thongs about eighteen inches long,
+knotted in every inch, and attached to a small stick. When the culprit
+was stripped to the waist and tied to the flagstaff, the drummers took
+turns in applying the "cat" to the bare back.[237]
+
+Other officers used less painful methods. Thus, Major Loomis was known
+as "Old Ring", since his favorite punishment was to place a log of wood
+upon the prisoner's shoulder and compel him to walk around and around in
+a circle under the vigilant eye of a sentinel. To Major John Bliss, who
+was in command at Fort Snelling from 1833 to 1836, the name "Black
+Starvation" might well have been applied. The negro servant, Hannibal,
+who clandestinely sold spruce beer to the soldiers was confined
+in the Black Hole for forty-eight hours; and Private Kelly, who refused
+to do his part in the fatigue party spent more than seventy-two hours in
+the Black Hole before the pangs of starvation persuaded him to promise
+Major Bliss to be good in the future.[238] On one occasion, which may be
+taken as typical of usual conditions, out of a total garrison of three
+hundred and twenty-nine, twenty-six were confined in prison. But at
+another time the commanding officer could report: "No Convicts at this
+Post".[239]
+
+The severity of the military rules and the monotony of the life led to
+two undesirable consequences--mutinies and desertions. Of the former
+there is apparently no description, and the brief entry in Taliaferro's
+diary for February 3, 1831, leaves much to the imagination: "Mutiny of
+Most of the Troops of the 1st Infantry, Stationed at Fort Snelling this
+Morning".[240] What grievances led to the uprising on that wintry day,
+and by what diplomacy or by what punishments it was put down, are
+unrecorded.
+
+Concerning the extent of desertions there is specific information
+regarding three years. Desertion was prevalent in the army at this time,
+and in order to provide methods of combating it the Secretary of War
+presented to Congress a great deal of information covering the years
+from 1823 to 1825.[241] During these three years there were stationed at
+Fort Snelling an aggregate of two hundred and fifty-one soldiers in
+1823; three hundred and thirty-five in 1824;  and two hundred and
+forty-six in 1825.[242] Of these, six deserted in 1823, eight in 1824,
+and twenty-nine in 1825. In this total of forty-three desertions,
+fifteen left in their first year of service, seventeen in the second,
+eighteen in the third, one in the fourth, and two in the fifth.
+Interesting facts regarding the kind of men who lived at the old
+frontier post can be gleaned from the data presented. Most of them were
+between the ages of twenty-one and thirty. In occupation there were
+laborers, farmers, painters, shoemakers, papermakers, wheelwrights,
+jewellers, and brewers. Among these forty-three, twenty-six were born in
+the United States, five in Ireland, two in Scotland, one in France, one
+in Holland, and one in Canada.
+
+The soldier who sought freedom by stealthily climbing over the stone
+wall of Fort Snelling and appropriating some canoe drawn up on the river
+bank, left monotony and discipline behind him; but in doing so he faced
+many dangers. There was no settlement nearer than Prairie du Chien--a
+military establishment. Indians were not afraid to injure those whom
+they knew to be deserters. A certain man by the name of Dixon who
+deserted was captured by Indians who brought him back to Fort Snelling
+and received a reward of twenty dollars. Dixon was court-martialed and
+sentenced to receive fifty lashes from the "cat" and then to be drummed
+out of the Fort.[243] Four soldiers who escaped were killed by the
+Indians of Red Wing's band, and their bodies were left on the
+shores of Lake Pepin, where they were later found half-eaten by the
+birds.[244]
+
+Sickness and death reduced the number on duty at the post. From the
+doctor the sick received professional aid. In 1826 when the force at
+Fort Snelling amounted to three hundred and twenty-nine men there were
+in the hospital one subaltern, one non-commissioned officer, one
+musician, and fifteen privates. That Fort Snelling was at a healthful
+location is indicated by the fact that during the same period at Fort
+Atkinson, with a force of only one hundred more, there was a total of
+one hundred and twenty-five sick persons.[245]
+
+The number of deaths was proportionately small. In the year ending on
+September 30, 1823, there was only one death; the next year the toll was
+the same; and in 1825 it amounted to five.[246] On the occasion of a
+funeral six men, detailed from those of the same rank as the deceased,
+carried the coffin to the little cemetery outside the fort. A salute was
+fired over the grave and the band played solemn music, the drums being
+covered with black crepe. The mounds in the cemetery, unmarked by any
+stones, were soon obliterated; but if the departed soldier had been a
+cheerful companion his barrack-songs were missed by his comrades, and
+many friends, half-way across a continent, would mourn for one who was
+lying in an unknown grave, "somewhere in the West".[247]
+
+On account of monotonous drills and tedious routine, any pretext to go
+into the Indian country was hailed with delight. The bustle,
+excitement, and troubles connected with the departure of these
+expeditions are best described by Mrs. Seth Eastman, who as the wife of
+the commanding officer had often waved farewell to the departing
+company.[248]
+
+"Now for excitement, the charm of garrison life. Officers are of course
+always ready to 'go where glory waits' them, but who ever heard of one
+being ready to go when the order came?
+
+"Alas! for the young officer who has a wife to leave; it will be weeks
+before he meets again her gentle smile!
+
+"Still more--alas for him who has no wife at all! for he has not a shirt
+with buttons on it, and most of what he has are in the wash. He will
+have to borrow of Selden; but here's the difficulty, Selden is going
+too, and is worse off than himself. But no matter! What with pins and
+twine and trusting to chance, they will get along.
+
+"Then the married men are inquiring for tin reflectors, for hard bread,
+though healthy, is never tempting. India rubber cloaks are in
+requisition too.
+
+"Those who are going, claim the doctor in case of accidents. Those who
+stay, their wives at least, want him for fear of measles; while the
+disciple of Esculapius, though he knows there will be better cooking if
+he remain at home, is certain there will be food for fun if he go. It is
+soon decided--the doctor goes.
+
+"Then the privates share in the pleasure of the day. How should a
+soldier be employed but in active service? besides, what a capital
+chance to desert! One, who is tired of calling 'All's well' through the
+long night, with only the rocks and trees to hear him, hopes that it
+will be his happy fate to find out there is danger near, and to give the
+alarm. Another vows, that if trouble wont come, why he will bring it by
+quarrelling with the first rascally Indian he meets. All is ready.
+Rations are put up for the men;--hams, buffalo tongues, pies and cake
+for the officers. The batallion marches out to the sound of the drum and
+fife;--they are soon down the hill--they enter their boats;
+handkerchiefs are waved from the fort, caps are raised and flourished
+over the water--they are almost out of sight--they are gone."
+
+Apart from these trips abroad and the stated drills and terms of guard
+duty the tasks which occupied the time of the soldiers depended upon the
+season of the year. A general order of September 11, 1818, had commanded
+the making of gardens at all the military posts.[249] In the fall of
+1819 when the temporary cabins at New Hope Cantonment had been built,
+the soldiers began ploughing for the crop of the next summer.[250] Major
+Long, in 1823, found two hundred and ten acres under cultivation--one
+hundred of wheat, sixty of maize, fifteen of oats, fourteen of potatoes,
+and twenty acres in gardens.[251] All through the history of Old Fort
+Snelling the soldiers were employed as farmers. A visitor in 1852
+observed that "its garrison is rather deficient in active
+employment, and we noticed a number of the rank and file taking exercise
+in a large corn and vegetable field attached to the Fort. It was
+certainly not exactly soldierly employment, but it was more manly, to
+our mind, than shooting and stabbing at $8 a month, and no question
+asked."[252]
+
+For the horses and cattle kept at the fort a great deal of hay was
+necessary for the winter months. This was obtained from the broad
+prairies of the military reservation. A group of men called the "Hay
+Party" were employed during the summer in cutting and stacking the long
+grass. But one officer was of the opinion that this task caused
+discontent--the enlisted man was no more than a common laborer and hence
+he lost the pride of a soldier.
+
+The diverse tasks at which a soldier might be called to labor are
+indicated by a summary of the employment of the troops in 1827. Seven
+soldiers were acting as teamsters, five were performing carpenters'
+duties, two were quarrying stone, two men and a sergeant composed the
+party guarding the mills at the Falls of St. Anthony, and eight others
+were "Procuring forage by order of Col. Snelling".[253]
+
+Summer brought its own pleasures as well as duties. At Lake Calhoun,
+Lake Harriet, Lake of the Isles, and Minnehaha Falls, many were the
+picnics held when visitors came to the garrison.[254] Swan, geese, and
+ducks were numerous about the lakes and swamps, and with the famous
+hunter H. H. Sibley as a guide, the game bags were soon filled. During
+ a period of three years, Mr. Sibley, alone, shot 1798 ducks--a
+fact which indicates what success a soldier-sportsman could have in his
+few hours of recreation.[255]
+
+But it was when the prairies were impassable because of drifts of snow
+from six to fifteen feet high,[256] and when the course of the river
+could be traced only by a streak of white between the gray of its wooded
+banks that there appeared those features which are peculiar to the life
+of a remote garrison. The isolation was almost complete. There was no
+traffic upon the frozen river, and the traders were wintering in the
+Indian villages. Only through the mail was communication with the
+outside world possible. It was planned to have a monthly mail service,
+soldiers being sent to Prairie du Chien with the letters. Here they
+delivered about two-thirds of the mail to the persons to whom it was
+addressed and the rest was deposited in the post office.[257]
+
+In summer the mail was carried by the soldiers in canoes, but in winter
+the journey had to be made on foot. In summer the labor was lightened
+when a passing steamer overtook the rowing soldiers and picked up the
+canoe with its crew. In winter no such aid was possible. A hard day's
+tramp was followed by a night among the drifts, unless the tepee of some
+friendly Indian gave a temporary respite for a few hours.[258]
+
+Nor was this task free from perils. A system was arranged whereby a
+courier from Fort Snelling and one from Prairie du Chien set out at
+about the same time, meeting at Wabasha's village where the packs
+were exchanged and each returned to his own post. On one occasion a
+spring thaw overtook the carrier from Prairie du Chien, who had
+proceeded beyond the meeting place because the messenger from the north
+was late. Suddenly the ice groaned and cracked, and the postman with
+difficulty found safety on a small island where, to his great surprise,
+he found the postman from Fort Snelling who had been caught in the same
+manner. Their provisions soon gave out; for a while they had only
+rose-apples to eat. It was not until almost two weeks later that the two
+half-starved messengers were picked up by the canoes of some friendly
+Sioux.[259]
+
+Such accidents rendered the mail service uncertain, and it was with
+impatience that the watchers at the fort looked down the river for the
+coming of the news-carriers. On April 2, 1831, Taliaferro wrote: "The
+Express departed--4 men in a Skiff--to convey the Mail to the Post
+Office at Prairie du Chiens--our return Express daily expected." But
+they hoped too early and on April 5th it was recorded that "Our
+Express--1st which left for Prairie du Chiens on the 2d of March--has
+now been Absent more than a Month & progressing in the Seccond. We have
+not had inteligence from Washington City--since the 6th of December
+last". Not until April 10th did the mail arrive. But even when the
+messengers were safe in the fort it was not certain that they brought
+what was so eagerly looked for, as the entry on February 27th clearly
+shows:  "Lieut Williams & Mr Bailly returned this eveng from
+Prairie du Chiens but brought no Mail there having been no arrival since
+December."[260] It was during this winter that even Prairie du Chien was
+shut off from the outside, the amount of snow between Peoria and Prairie
+du Chien stopping the mail service for two months. Again and again
+during the winter months the commanding officer complained to
+headquarters that "no Orders have been received within the Month".[261]
+
+The duties of the soldiers during the winter were few. From the time it
+was built up to 1833 the quarters at Fort Snelling were heated by
+fireplaces. At that time, however, stoves were substituted.[262] Wood
+was used for fuel--to obtain which was a never-ending task in winter.
+When Captain Seth Eastman was in command at various periods from 1844 to
+1848 the garrison had to go from eight to ten miles for wood. The banks
+of the Minnesota River were bordered by a forest varying from one
+hundred to three hundred yards wide; but by 1858 all of this for a
+distance of twelve miles had been cleared off.[263]
+
+Colonel John H. Bliss, who was a boy at Fort Snelling when his father
+was in command during the thirties, wrote that the winters "were
+undeniably tedious, but had their uses; we had a good library, and I
+read a great deal, which has stood by me well; then there was of course
+much sociability among the officers, and a great deal of playing of
+cards, dominoes, checkers, and chess. The soldiers, too, would
+get up theatrical performances every fortnight or so, those taking
+female parts borrowing dresses from the soldiers' wives, and making a
+generous sacrifice to art of their cherished whiskers and
+mustaches."[264]
+
+During October, 1836, Inspector General George Croghan visited Fort
+Snelling, and on the evening of the seventh of the month the Thespian
+Players presented _Monsieur Tonson_ in his honor. And here, far from
+city streets and French barbers, on a rude stage, Jack Ardourly fell in
+love with the beautiful Adolphine de Courcy--who probably only a few
+hours before had been hurrying to finish a task of cleaning guns so that
+she could call on the generous women of the garrison and beg from them
+capes and bonnets and hoops skirts![265]
+
+Many of the officers were graduates of West Point, and their wives were
+from the best families of the East and South. On January 20, 1831, the
+ladies and gentlemen of the garrison had a party at the fort. "The room
+was tastefully decorated--- and the evening passed pleasantly". On
+February 22nd of the same year the quarters of the commanding officer
+were the scene of another party in commemoration of Washington's
+birthday.[266]
+
+Efforts were made to provide for the education of the children of the
+fort. Mrs. Snelling at first taught her own children; but it is evident
+that there was soon a tutor, as the correspondence of Colonel Snelling
+shows that John Marsh received his board and seventy-five dollars for
+acting as tutor during the winter of 1823-1824. This schoolmaster
+also carried the mail to Prairie du Chien in return for forty
+dollars.[267] Soon after the appointment of a regular chaplain in 1838
+the post school was more thoroughly organized.[268]
+
+Occasionally there was some excitement at the fort. During the month of
+February in 1831 there was an epidemic of fires. First, the officers row
+of buildings caught on fire in the room of Lieutenant Greenough on
+February 10th. On the next day a second fire broke out; and on February
+24th the agency house took fire both from the inside and the outside in
+such a manner that it was evident that an incendiary had been at
+work.[269]
+
+But such events were of unusual occurrence. A letter written at Fort
+Snelling on February 11, 1842, pictures the usual winter life. "We of
+the garrison are as usual at this season rather dull, stale &
+unprofitable--small parties for Tea are a good deal the fashion, &
+tattle is used as formerly. Indian Ball plays are coming in season. One
+comes off today in which stacks of property are to be invested. The
+Sioux have been hunting about Rum River this winter and have killed
+great numbers of Dear--Our winter has been mild, one day only 30 below
+zero, and the rest comfortable.... Tonight Mumford gives a Soiree to the
+good folks of the garrison and this is the most exciting event of the
+week. What is the use of writing to you as I cannot find enough
+wherewith to fill two pages."[270]
+
+Such close confinement was tolerable when the garrison was
+composed of congenial spirits, but occasionally it brought about
+dissensions and quarrels. Taliaferro on one occasion wrote that the
+"Society here is not in the most pleasant State from a System of tatling
+which has been reduced to a Science--not to be envied."[271]
+Occasionally open encounters took place. One soldier stabbed another
+with a butcher's knife, and the victim died.[272] In February, 1826, two
+officers of the garrison engaged in a duel.[273] Even those in authority
+were not free from participation in these "affairs of honor". A certain
+young officer challenged Colonel Snelling, and upon his refusing, his
+son, William Joseph Snelling, accepted and was slightly wounded. When
+the officer was court-martialed he accused one of the witnesses of being
+an infidel. Whereupon the latter challenged the officer in his turn, and
+a second duel was fought--which was bloodless.[274]
+
+With such conditions prevailing during the winter months it is no wonder
+that from day to day spring was eagerly looked for. Undoubtedly it was a
+happy occasion when the agent could record on the evening of Sunday,
+March 27, 1831, that the weather was "more pleasant--Wild geese seen
+this day--gentlemen generally [illegible] out and Walking--The Ladies
+also".[275] It meant a speedy return of summer pleasures and summer
+visitors. For when, even at a remote military post did these fail as
+three sure signs of spring--pleasant weather, flocks of geese, and
+ladies and gentlemen out walking together?
+
+They were very human, those men and women of Old Fort Snelling.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+THE FORT AND INDIAN LIFE
+
+
+It was a humane but visionary plan which Reverend Jedidiah Morse in 1822
+presented to the Secretary of War as the correct method of procedure in
+the task of civilizing the Indians. At various centers in the Indian
+country were to be established "Education Families"--groups of honest,
+industrious whites who were to have houses and farms, where the natives
+could observe their activities. And without any forcing it was expected
+that the red men, seeing the superior advantages of civilization, would
+be themselves gradually transformed.[276]
+
+To the north and east of Fort Snelling was the home of the Chippewa or
+Ojibway Indians--extending from the Mississippi to the Great Lakes. To
+the west, on the great prairies, the Dakota, or Sioux Indians lived and
+hunted. The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, estimated that the five
+bands of Sioux, which most often came into direct touch with the
+government at Fort Snelling, numbered in 1834, seven thousand, and
+wandered over southern Minnesota and South Dakota, near the lakes of Big
+Stone and Traverse.[277] Major Taliaferro reported in 1834 that the
+number of Indians in his agency was 6721, and that they extended as far
+as the Sheyenne fork of the Red River.[278] To one man, the agent, was
+given the task of civilizing these thousands of Sioux. While it
+was for this tribe that the agency at Fort Snelling was established, yet
+the Chippewas often frequented its headquarters. One hundred and seventy
+warriors of these northern Indians arrived at the agent's house on the
+evening of August 4, 1830.[279] The presence of these red men more than
+doubled the work of the agent, because there was now the difficulty of
+keeping peace between two warring tribes.
+
+Indian life was not so worthless as sometimes pictured. It is true that
+one could see laziness and poverty during the months of January and
+February, if he came upon an Indian village pitched near a wooded slope
+and above a frozen stream. There could be seen the smoke curling from
+the dingy tepee, the women dragging home wood for the ever-diminishing
+pile outside the door, and a few of the hardier men fishing through
+holes in the ice. About the tepee the snow was banked, and within the
+air was warm and heavy from the open fire and the long pipes of the
+reclining braves, who gambled with their neighbors at the game of "the
+shot and the mitten".
+
+Thus through the two stormy months the Indians frittered away the time,
+eating their corn and wild rice seasoned with tallow. But when the first
+thaws of spring caused the sap in the maple trees to run, and when some
+of the more venturesome came back from a winter visit to the trading
+house with the word that the trader was waiting for skins in return for
+the blankets and ammunition he had given them the preceding fall,
+the village divided--part going to the sugar bush, and part going to the
+prairie lakes and swamps for muskrats. In May they returned on the
+swollen streams with heavily freighted canoes to their villages of bark
+houses. During the summer there were many tasks--blue berries to be
+gathered in the woods, canoes to be built, tepees to be repaired,
+turnips to be dug, and pipestone to be brought from the far distant
+quarry. All through the hot months the women toiled in the corn fields;
+and when the corn was in the milk, all the village children screamed and
+waved their arms to frighten away the blackbirds. When the harvest had
+been carefully placed in bark barrels and buried, part of the village
+had already left to hunt the fox or gather wild rice along the lakes and
+cranberries in the marshes.
+
+And now came October and the deer hunt. There were only the extremely
+old people and the invalids to wave good-bye as the procession set out
+over the prairie--old men who could scarcely walk, bands of shouting
+children, hunters already on the alert, women with their bundles, and
+horses and dogs dragging on two poles the provisions and the skins of
+the tepees. For more than two months the program was the same: the march
+through the drifts and across the icy rivers, the morning council about
+a blazing fire before scattering over the prairie, and the triumphal
+return of the successful hunter at evening with the carcass of a bear,
+deer, or elk, across his shoulders and his name shouted through
+the camp by the children gathered to welcome him. By January they were
+all back again at their villages.[280]
+
+It was this scheme of life which was to be gradually transformed. There
+were, of course, variations when war parties crept against the
+Chippewas, when drunken debaucheries resulted from a keg of whiskey that
+had escaped the vigilant eyes of the soldiers, and when migrations to
+the Canadian posts were prompted by the hope that there they could
+obtain enough supplies to support them without work and that there they
+could enjoy some ceremony to break the monotony of life. But these
+migrations were few on the part of the Sioux: they could enjoy councils
+just as good near home.
+
+On the occasion of a visit to Old Fort Snelling and the agency near by,
+the authorities were careful to see that there was a due amount of
+ceremony. Probably a whole band of Indians would come down from the
+headwaters of the Minnesota River. Their chiefs and braves gathered in
+the log Council Hall, and there took place the scene so picturesquely
+described by the eccentric traveller, J. C. Beltrami.
+
+"The council-hall is, as it ought to be, a great room built of trunks of
+trees. The flag of the United States waves in the centre, surrounded by
+English colours, and medals hung to the walls. They are presented by the
+Indians to their _Father_, the agent, as a proof that they abjure all
+cabal or alliance with the English. Pipes, or calumets and other little
+Indian presents, offered by the various tribes as pledges of
+their friendship, decorate the walls and give a remarkable and
+characteristic air to the room." The dignitaries of the post are seated
+about a table and the braves recline upon the ground during the council.
+
+"The _séance_ opens with a speech of the chief, who rises and addresses
+the agent. He generally begins with the Great Spirit, or the sun, or the
+moon 'whose purity is equalled by that of his own heart,' &c. &c. always
+finishing with a petition for presents;--_whiskey_ is sure to find
+honourable mention: these are what English lawyers call the _common
+counts_."[281]
+
+After the reply of the agent the peace pipe was solemnly passed from one
+to another, and the council ended with the distribution of presents.
+These presents were of tobacco, gunpowder, vermilion, pipes, kettles,
+blankets, snuff-boxes, armbands, looking-glasses, horse bells,
+jews'-harps, ivory combs, and shawls.[282] Not the least popular of
+these were the jews'-harps, which had their uses--in spite of the
+sarcastic invective delivered against them by Senator Benton in 1822
+when the abolition of the Factory System was being considered. "They
+were innocent", observed the Senator, "and on that account precisely
+adapted to the purposes of the superintendent, in reclaiming the savage
+from the hunter state. The first state after that, in the road to
+refined life, is the pastoral, and without music the tawny-colored
+Corydons and the red-skinned Amaryllises, '_recubans sub tegmine fagi_,'
+upon the banks of the Missouri and Mississippi, could make no
+progress in the delightful business of love and sentiment."[283]
+
+These councils were frequent occurrences, and their importance lies in
+the fact that through them certain principles could be instilled into
+the minds of the natives under the most favorable circumstances. The
+words spoken by the agent on these occasions had probably as much effect
+in controlling the Indians as a like number of bullets would have had.
+Major Taliaferro has recorded one of the orations which he delivered to
+his listening wards. He referred to the presence of the Great Spirit,
+told of his long service among them, eulogized their departed
+elders--"the old branches which have fallen from the Trunk of the old
+oak of your Nation"--and then inserted a few wise admonitions as to the
+futility of their wars with the Chippewas.
+
+"Your Great Father", he said, "has had much to do with war--but his
+heart is changed for peace & he wishes all his red children as well as
+his white ones to follow his good example--he knows this course to be
+best for all--we should endeavor to please him--for by doing so we shall
+please the Great Spirit also--You will see your children growing up
+around you and your wives smiling as you approach from your days hunt."
+
+The speech ended with the announcement of the coming of "something good
+from below" and an approaching visit to the village of the Red
+Head.[284]
+
+During these meetings at the agency the sound of the fort's cannon and
+the sight of the well-uniformed guards impressed the Indians even
+more than did the words of the agent. There they became acquainted with
+white men other than traders, and when exploring and scientific
+expeditions came over the plains with a guard of soldiers, they were
+wise enough not to interfere. These visits in themselves were pleasant,
+and the rations of bread and pork offered an agreeable respite from
+their usual fare.[285]
+
+At the time of the treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1825 one ration
+consisted of one pound of bread or one pint of corn and either one pound
+of beef or three-quarters of a pound of pork. This may be taken as a
+fair standard of the kind of rations issued at the agency.[286] It was
+during the winter months especially when starvation or suffering would
+otherwise result that this aid was given to the Indians. During the
+summer when other means of subsistence were present, all appeals for
+food were refused.[287] This custom of granting rations was formally
+incorporated in the law of June 30, 1834, with the only restriction that
+they were to be given only if "they can be spared from the army
+provisions without injury to the service".[288]
+
+The condition of the tribes was often appalling, and many deaths would
+have occurred without this aid. At one time Taliaferro wrote that "400
+Indians encamped near the Agency--many from a distance and in a starving
+condition."[289] Often he had to take from his own private funds, after
+he had drawn all he could from the public stores.[290] The winter of
+1842-1843 was particularly severe. On the first of November the
+ground was covered with snow which as late as April still lay from two
+to two and a half feet deep. No hunting was possible because of the
+drifts, and fishing through the ice was impracticable, the wind blowing
+the holes full of snow as soon as they were cut. The Indians living
+about Lac qui Parle, about two hundred miles up the Minnesota River,
+came with the missionary Dr. Thomas Williamson to winter on the site of
+old Camp Cold Water, knowing that only from the fort could they obtain
+relief.
+
+Everything that was possible was done. Blankets, guns, and ammunition to
+the value of $2500 were granted the Indians. Indeed, so many provisions
+were distributed that on April 3rd it was computed that there was only
+enough left to supply the garrison until the opening of navigation. The
+officers and soldiers saved all the remains from the tables and once a
+day the squaws and children were allowed to enter and receive these
+crumbs. The Indians who were away from the post were not neglected.
+Sixty bushels of corn and several barrels of pork were furnished by
+Major Dearborn to Mr. H. H. Sibley who sent them to destitute Indians on
+the Minnesota River. Still there was much suffering, for not enough food
+could be spared to satisfy all. Before spring arrived many of the
+Indians lived upon a syrup made of hickory chips and the boiled bark of
+the bitter sweet. All became greatly emaciated and some were unable to
+walk.[291]
+
+From time to time a solitary Indian on a business visit to the
+trader would drop in to chat with the "Father". Here he could make any
+complaints which he had to offer and be sure of a sympathetic if not
+satisfactory answer. "I have had more than fourteen hundred Indians on
+visits from all Sections of this Agency during the Month past--and all
+with Grieveances of Some Sort to redress", wrote Taliaferro on June 30,
+1838.[292] In all matters concerning lands, hunting, treaties,
+annuities, and the like, the Indian looked only to the agent for advice
+or explanation. Instigated by the traders, many of whom were hostile to
+him, the Indians considered him responsible for the acts of the
+soldiers.[293] If a provision of a treaty was not carried out, the
+Indians thought it was Taliaferro's fault "for they know nothing of
+Congress or of their Multifarious and protracted debates, and
+proceedings."[294]
+
+A personal present was due the visitor at these "shake hands" occasions.
+If he were a headman or a brave he received a pound of powder, two
+pounds of lead, a fish line, a knife, four fish hooks, and six plugs of
+tobacco. If he were "any respectable Individual" he was sure of a knife,
+four fish hooks, and six plugs of tobacco.[295] These individual visits
+did much to acquaint the natives personally with the agent, in the same
+way that the council impressed them with the agent's great power.
+
+But even more appreciated was the help offered in time of sickness. On
+December 25, 1830, Taliaferro records in his diary: "I rode up the
+SPeters to See an Indian.... Doctor Wood went up also--I dressed
+her wound--I Sent my Interpreter up with other restoratives--she being
+delerious."[296] On Saturday, June 28, 1834, there came to him a brave
+saying that both his son and daughter were ill. "Sent a message to Doct
+Jarvis to call & see the girl." The Sioux boy died two days later. But
+there the ministration did not end. To the mourners were given cotton
+and calico, or a blanket in order that the body might be decently
+covered.[297]
+
+The dread scourge of smallpox raged in the vicinity of Fort Snelling
+during the summer of 1832. Two Indians coming from the Missouri River
+were suffering from violent attacks. Immediately the disease spread. But
+Dr. Wood, the post's physician, was called upon by Major Taliaferro and
+at the end of five days three hundred and thirty Sioux had been
+vaccinated. It is interesting to notice that in case the Indians came to
+the agency Dr. Wood received six dollars for every hundred he treated,
+but if he went to their villages he received six dollars per day.[298]
+
+Besides these services the visits to the fort offered direct opportunity
+for the giving of tangible evidence of American supremacy. The English
+government had lavishly distributed signs of authority. During the first
+two years of his term of service, Taliaferro collected no less than
+thirty-six medals of George the Third, twenty-eight British flags, and
+eighteen gorgets.[299] Some of these were presented to the agent as
+direct evidence of submission to American authority. In 1820 two
+employees of the Missouri Fur Company were murdered on the
+Missouri River. The surrender of the murderers was demanded by
+Taliaferro, and while he was away the tribe came to Fort Snelling with
+one of the culprits and a hostage. Colonel Snelling, then acting as
+agent, described the scene in a letter.
+
+"These unfortunate wretches were delivered up last evening with a great
+deal of ceremony, & I assure you with affecting solemnity; the guards
+being first put under arms, they formed a procession in the road beyond
+the bake house; in front marched a Sussitong bearing a British flag,
+next came the Murderer & the devoted chief, their arms pinioned & large
+splinters of wood thrust through them above the elbows, intended as I
+understood to show us that they did not fear pain & were not afraid to
+die. the Murderer wore a large British medal suspended to his neck &
+both of the prisoners bore offerings of skins, &c. in their hands. last
+came the chiefs of the Sussitongs, in this order they moved, the
+prisoners singing their death song & the Sussitongs joining in chorus
+until they arrived in front of the guard house where a fire being
+previously prepared, the British flag was burnt, and the medal worn by
+the murderer given up."[300]
+
+In return for these greatly coveted signs of respect the agent delivered
+to the most prominent chiefs the medals and certificates of the United
+States. And thus by flattering the leaders control over the Indians was
+assured. What chief was not proud to carry with him this certificate,
+even if he could not read it himself? "The bearer _The Whole in
+the day_ is a respectable Man, and wears a Seccond Size Monroe Medal
+Presented to him for his uniform Good Conduct and great attachment to
+the United States--His Residence is at Sandy Lake Law Taliaferro Indian
+Agent at St. Peters".[301]
+
+But the memory of the days of English rule was still alive, the
+suggestion being made to the government that "the gordgets would be More
+Acceptable were they to be fashioned after those introduced formerly by
+the British Government--with the difference only of the Eagle engraved
+upon each."[302] To counteract this feeling it was necessary that the
+government should be lavish in the distribution of presents. British
+influence and example, wrote Taliaferro to Clark in 1831, were not yet
+"fairly purged of their baneful effects".[303] Even as late as 1834 a
+few extracts from the reports of Major Bliss indicate that this feeling
+was still noticeable. "The Sioux Indians expecting and favourable to an
+English war with the U. States", he wrote in April. The next month he
+reported "Sioux and Chippewas pacific but dissatisfied with U. States",
+and in July 1835 he informed headquarters that "the Chippewas & Sioux
+are dissatisfied & both exhibit symptoms of hostility to the U. States &
+to each other. The Sioux the most decided."[304]
+
+English visitors at a much later period congratulated their government
+because the Indians, as they said, still had a greater fondness for the
+British than for the Americans.[305] Except, however, along the
+border, among the tribes outside of the sphere of the agent at Fort
+Snelling, this feeling manifested itself only as a sentiment which could
+lead to trouble if a break between the two nations should occur.
+
+To emphasize the power of the Nation, the agent brought to Washington in
+1824, and again in 1837, delegations of chiefs.[306] On these occasions
+they were taken to the largest and busiest cities, entertained in the
+most delightful manner, and shown the most impressive sights. As crowds
+were always drawn together to see the Indians, the latter received a
+lasting opinion as to the numbers of the Americans.[307] Previously the
+Sioux bands had thought that if ever they should unite their forces,
+they would be able to win in a war against all the whites; but now they
+were disillusioned.[308]
+
+Undoubtedly the Indians were pleased with their journey. "Since the
+treaty was signed", stated a contemporary newspaper, "each of them has
+received a coat, hat, blanket, leggins, epaulettes, bands, and scarfs,
+and when dressed in full uniform, they exhibit more lively pleasure than
+would have been expected from the apathy of Indian character."[309] The
+magnificence which they had seen was described amid the squalor of their
+home villages. "The effect produced by the visit of their chiefs to
+Washington is wonderful, since their return, the power, wealth, and
+numbers of the American people have been their constant themes, many of
+their stories approach so near the marvellous as to be discredited, such
+for example is the account of casting a cannon which they
+witnessed, and the magnitude of our ships. Old _black dog_ shakes his
+head & says 'all travellers are liars'."[310] The memory of these trips
+lingered long. Little Crow came to call upon the agent in 1831. "The old
+chief left much delighted with his reception and my Talk--he departed
+singing the song which was often repeated when on his trip to Washington
+City in 1824."[311]
+
+The Indians touched by these relations with the fort were not only its
+immediate neighbors. The surrender of murderers from the tribes on the
+Missouri has been noted. On March 11, 1831, Taliaferro wrote that "I
+observe Indians from the Missouri & various sections of the Sioux
+country."[312] During the entire winter of 1831, a party of Missouri
+River Indians encamped about Fort Snelling.[313] The Indians on the
+prairies were wide travellers. "There are a good many Indians about
+here", says a letter from Lac qui Parle. "There have arrived 120 lodges
+of Missouri at Lake Traverse and 200 lodges at James River."[314] By
+this continual movement, the influence of Fort Snelling was enlarged.
+
+How great was this influence? No one has contradicted the statement of
+Mr. Taliaferro that "it is due the Sioux of your territory to record one
+fact as to them, and that is, from the commencement of our agency to its
+close, our frontier pioneers were never even molested in their homes,
+nor did they shed one drop of American blood".[315] It was when this
+frontier encroached on their lands that hostility broke out. If
+the Indians had been left in peace by covetous land-seekers, their
+civilization might in time have been accomplished.
+
+There was practically no hostility manifested against the garrison by
+the surrounding Indians. In January, 1822, Colonel McNeil, who was in
+command at Fort Dearborn, received word from John Kinzie, the pioneer
+Chicago trader, that the Sioux and Fox Indians were planning an attack
+on Fort Snelling. Lieutenant James Webb immediately volunteered to bring
+the news to Fort Armstrong on Rock Island, from whence it could be sent
+to the upper post. After a journey rendered terrible by the extreme cold
+and the danger from hostile Indians, he was successful in reaching Fort
+Armstrong.[316]
+
+In due time the letter was delivered to Colonel Snelling. "When I first
+received Col McNeils letter," he wrote later, "I was disposed to smile
+at the absurdity of connecting the Sioux & Foxes, in a design to attack
+this post". But he later found out that the Foxes had sent wampum and
+tobacco to the bands of Wabasha and Little Crow, asking them not to
+stand in the way of any movements they might make. Wabasha accepted the
+wampum but Little Crow came to the fort to make known the danger. The
+vagueness of the rumors, however, made it impossible to act, and later
+developments showed that there was no truth in the report--at least no
+violence was attempted.[317]
+
+Fear of the strength of the fort prevented hostilities.  It was
+the Indian fashion to attack by ambush. They did not have the patience
+to endure a protracted siege. The Americans did not belittle the
+strength of the military works. Little Thunder and White Head, two
+Indians who had escaped from the jail at Mackinac by cutting through the
+log walls, met an American, George Johnson, at Lac du Flambeau. They
+were very inquisitive about the strength of Fort Snelling and the number
+of Americans stationed there. Regarding this incident the white man
+wrote: "I answered saying, that the fort at River St. Peters was as
+strong as Quebec, and more Americans there than in any other post."[318]
+
+The government did not adopt Dr. Morse's plan for civilizing the
+Indians, but the agent tried to carry out the policy therein suggested.
+The colony at Eatonville, located on Lake Calhoun, and the Indian
+schools soon passed into the hands of the missionaries. After the making
+of treaties a blacksmith shop was added to the agency. In line with his
+policy of providing for all classes of Indians, Taliaferro urged the
+erection of an orphan asylum where "all poor blind, and helpless women"
+would also be accommodated.[319]
+
+If time had been given doubtless a new form of Indian life would have
+arisen about the fort; but the coming of the land-seekers destroyed the
+plan. The failure was to result in a great massacre in 1862. This much
+at least can be said for Old Fort Snelling; it kept the Indians friendly
+while the foundations of American life were being laid in the Northwest.
+
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE SIOUX-CHIPPEWA FEUDS
+
+
+One of the reasons given for the building of Fort Snelling was that it
+would prevent the disastrous wars existing between the Sioux and
+Chippewa Indians.[320] Beginning so far in the past that no cause could
+be ascribed for the hostility, each encounter was in itself both the
+result of preceding conflicts and the excuse for further warfare. Pierre
+Esprit de Radisson, who was the first writer to leave an account of the
+Chippewas, said that even at the time of his visit in about 1660 they
+were carrying on "a cruell warre against the Nadoueseronoms
+[Sioux]."[321]
+
+Lurking in the bushes to waylay their enemies on the woodland paths,
+hiding on the river banks to intercept hostile canoes, pretending peace
+and enjoying hospitality in order to have an opportunity for treachery
+were the military tactics of the Sioux and Chippewa warriors. To prevent
+such warfare, a military post was almost powerless. In fact, so
+insidious was the hostility that even the very grounds of Fort Snelling
+were the scene of bloody encounters.
+
+Attempts were made to keep the Chippewas away from Fort Snelling by
+attaching them to the agency of H. R. Schoolcraft at Sault Ste.
+Marie.[322] But the distance was so great and the route so
+difficult that the Chippewas did not make the journey to consult that
+agent. On the other hand, Fort Snelling was so close, and the
+Mississippi such a natural outlet from their country, that a trader
+declared that "you might as well try to Stop the Water in the
+Mississippi from going to St Louis, as attempt to keep the Chippeway
+Indians from St Peters."[323]
+
+During the last days of the month of May, 1827, Flat Mouth, chief of the
+Sandy Lake band of Chippewa Indians was encamped near Fort Snelling. A
+number of men, women, and children were with him, bringing maple sugar,
+which they had gathered in the northern woods during the winter, and
+other articles to sell to the garrison. Major Taliaferro was away at the
+time, but on May 24th the steamboat "Pilot" landed him safely at Fort
+Snelling. To welcome their "Father" home, and perchance to see if he had
+any presents or promises for them, a large number of Sioux came from
+their villages to the fort, as was usual on such occasions. The agent
+took the opportunity presented by the presence of both Sioux and
+Chippewas to deliberate with them in regard to peace, and also to
+request the Chippewas not to visit Fort Snelling again, in accordance
+with instructions which he had received from the Indian Department. To
+this Flat Mouth replied sorrowfully: "I feel myself now like a Dog
+driven away from your door to find another--I am ashamed of this--but I
+know you are doing this not by your wish."[324]
+
+The twenty-eighth day of the month proved the value of the advice
+Major Taliaferro had given. Several Sioux came to visit at a Chippewa
+lodge pitched directly under and in front of the agency house on the
+flats that border the Minnesota River. The guns of the fort could easily
+have been trained upon the spot. There was feasting and friendly revelry
+at the lodge that afternoon and evening. Meat, corn, and sugar were
+served in wooden platters; a dog was roasted and eaten. The peace pipe
+was smoked, and the conversation was peaceful regarding exploits in the
+hunt and the chase.
+
+At nine o'clock when the party broke up, as the Chippewas were calling
+friendly good-byes to the departing Sioux who had advanced a few steps,
+the latter turned and fired into the midst of the unsuspecting
+inhabitants of the tepee. There was instant confusion. With a shout of
+triumph the Sioux ran off. The sentinel on the hill above heard the
+shots and cries and called for the guard. In a few moments there was at
+the gate of the fort a crowd of panic-stricken Chippewas carrying their
+wounded and crying for protection. Six men, one woman, and a girl about
+eight years old were handed over to the surgeon of the post, Doctor
+McMahon.
+
+Immediately Major Taliaferro notified the Sioux that they had insulted
+the flag that waved over the land, and that ample satisfaction must be
+made to the Chippewas who had been treated in such a cowardly manner. In
+council with the agent, Strong Earth, a chief of the Chippewas,
+complained of the lack of protection: "Father: You know that two
+Summers ago we attended a Great Council at Prairie du Chien, when by the
+advice of Our White Friends, we made Peace with the Sioux--We were then
+told, that the Americans would Guarantee our Safety under their
+Flags--We have Come here under that Assurance. But Father, look at Your
+Floor it is stained with the blood of our people shed while under Your
+Walls. If you are great and powerful why do You not protect us? _If
+Not_, of what use are Your Soldiers?"[325]
+
+On the morning following the massacre a large body of Sioux--estimated
+at about three hundred and fifty--appeared on the prairie west of the
+fort. Brevet Major Fowle was ordered to march against them with two
+companies. Upon his appearance they fled, but he followed and was
+successful in capturing some of them. Nine Sioux--one of whom Major
+Taliaferro reports was given up voluntarily--were delivered up to the
+Chippewas. Identifying two of these as being among the murderers, they
+requested permission to execute them immediately.
+
+Upon the broad prairie the two prisoners were given their freedom. They
+were told to run, and when a few paces away the Chippewa warriors fired,
+and the Sioux fell dead. Then followed a hideous scene which a spectator
+described many years later. "The bodies, all warm and limp, are dragged
+to the brow of the hill. Men who at the sight of blood, become almost
+fiends, tear off the reeking scalps and hand them to the chief, who
+hangs them around his neck. Women and children with tomahawks and
+knives cut deep gashes in the poor dead bodies, and scooping up the hot
+blood with their hands, eagerly drink it; then, grown frantic, they
+dance, and yell, and sing their horrid scalp songs, recounting deeds of
+valor on the part of their brave men, and telling off the Sioux scalps,
+taken in different battles, until tired and satiated at last with their
+horrid feast, they leave the mutilated bodies--festering in the
+sun."[326] At evening the bodies were thrown over the cliff into the
+river below.
+
+On the morning of the thirty-first the Sioux delivered up to the
+Chippewas two others who, they claimed, had been the principal men in
+the affair. If the Chippewas did not shoot them, they said, they would
+do it themselves, as trouble had come to their nation on their account.
+But the Chippewas were willing.
+
+About this second execution there has grown up an interesting story. One
+of the offenders, Toopunkah Zeze, was a favorite among the children of
+the fort. Tall and handsome and athletic and brave, he was the ideal of
+Indian manhood. The other, called the Split Upper Lip, was well known as
+a thief, and was as much detested as his companion was respected. He
+cried and begged for his life, saying that his gun had missed fire--he
+had killed no one. The other calmly distributed his clothes among his
+friends, upbraiding his companion for his cowardice. "You lie, dog.
+Coward, old woman, you know that you lie. You know that you are as
+guilty as I am.  Hold your peace and die like a man--die like me."
+
+The two were brought out upon the prairie. Again the thirty yards were
+allowed; again the Chippewa guns were fired. For once it seemed that
+this Indian punishment of "running the gantlet" would lose a victim. For
+Toopunkah Zeze was still running. The bullet had cut the rope that bound
+him to his falling companion. With new hope he leaped forward. There was
+a shout of triumph from a group of Sioux hidden in the bushes; and the
+children of the fort, who had climbed upon the buildings to view the
+bloody scene from afar, clapped their hands. But the Chippewas were cool
+in their vengeance. Guns were reloaded and deliberate aim taken. The
+flints struck, and Toopunkah Zeze, now a hundred and fifty yards away
+and a second's distance from a place where the straggling groves of the
+prairie offered life, fell dead. Two more bodies were thrown over the
+precipice into the river.[327]
+
+For ten years the hostility continued, but the environs of the fort were
+sacred places. An effective lesson had been taught in 1827. But on
+August 2, 1838, Hole-in-the-Day, a Chippewa chief, and five of his band
+came to Fort Snelling on a visit. That spring there had been a
+treacherous massacre by Hole-in-the-Day at a Sioux camp. It was true, as
+he said in the poetic simplicity of Indian style: "You See I cannot keep
+my face Clean--as fast as it is Washed--I am Compelled to black it
+Again.--but My heart towards you is the Same.--My Fathers Bones Sleep by
+your house--My Daughter at the Falls Near the Grave of my
+Uncle--My Wife lies at the Mouth of Sauk River--and a few days past I
+buried My Son."[328]
+
+On the following evening some Sioux of Mud Lake, hearing of the presence
+of the Chippewas, rode over to Baker's trading house where the Chippewas
+were encamped. Major Taliaferro had heard of the departure of the war
+party and had hurried to the scene. Just as he arrived the Sioux fired
+upon their enemies, killing one outright and wounding another in the
+knee. All but one of the Chippewas had laid aside their guns, thinking
+that they were upon neutral ground. This one, seeing a Sioux in the act
+of scalping the fallen Chippewa, fired upon him and wounded him
+mortally. But aided by the dusk the wounded Sioux was able to run more
+than a mile before he fell from loss of blood.
+
+The Chippewas were immediately brought into the fort for protection. On
+the next day Major Plympton and the Indian agent called together the
+chiefs of the neighboring villages. There was a long council until Major
+Plympton broke it up by saying peremptorily: "It is unnecessary to talk
+much. I have demanded the guilty--they must be brought."
+
+At half past five that evening the Sioux were delivered up. Three
+brothers had been accused of being guilty of the murder. One of them
+could not be brought because he was dying of the wound received the
+evening before. Much ceremony attended the proceedings as the Indian
+mother led her sons to the officers saying: "Of seven sons three only
+are left; one of them is wounded, and soon will die, and if the
+two now given up are shot, my all is gone. I called on the head men to
+follow me to the Fort. I started with the prisoners, singing their death
+song, and have delivered them at the gate of the Fort. Have mercy on
+them for their youth and folly."[329]
+
+Because of the attack which Hole-in-the-Day had made on the Sioux a
+short time before, Major Plympton decided not to execute the prisoners.
+They were turned over to their own people to be flogged in the presence
+of the officers. More humiliating than death was their punishment. Their
+blankets, leggins, and breech-cloths were cut into small pieces, and
+finally the braves whipped them with long sticks while the women stood
+about crying.[330]
+
+Although there was now a deep desire for revenge in each of the tribes,
+they manifested outward friendliness when they met at the fort. During
+the month of June, 1839, there came to Fort Snelling over twelve hundred
+Chippewas thinking that there they would be paid their annuities for the
+land they had ceded in 1837. There were two main groups--one which came
+down from the headwaters of the Mississippi, and the other which came up
+the river from the vicinity of the St. Croix. At the same time Sioux
+numbering eight hundred and seventy were encamped near the agency. This
+was considered an opportune time to conclude a peace, and so the long
+calumet with its mixture of tobacco and bark of the willow tree was
+smoked while friendly athletic contests were held on the prairie.
+On July 1st the two parties of Chippewas started for home. But in one of
+the bands were the two sons of the man who had been murdered the year
+before. In the evening before beginning their homeward journey, they
+visited the graveyard of the fort to cry over the grave of their father.
+Here the thought of vengeance came to them, and morning found them
+hidden in the bushes near the trail that skirted the shore of Lake
+Harriet. The Badger, a Sioux warrior, was the first to pass that way as
+he went out in the early morning to hunt pigeons. A moment later he was
+shot and scalped. The murderers then hurried away and hid behind the
+water at Minnehaha Falls.
+
+A few hours later, when the news had spread throughout all the Sioux
+villages, two bands set out to take revenge upon the departing
+Chippewas. The old men, the women, and the children remained at home,
+eagerly awaiting the result of the coming battle and cutting their arms
+and legs with their knives in grief over the losses which they knew
+their bands would have to undergo.
+
+It happened that at that time the Right Reverend Mathias Loras, the
+first Bishop of Dubuque, was at Fort Snelling. He had been an interested
+spectator at the Sioux-Chippewa peace parleys, had watched the departure
+of the determined avengers, and now was anxiously awaiting the result of
+the conflict. On the morning of July 4th as he was praying at his altar
+for the prosperity of his country he was startled by the shrill notes of
+the Sioux death-song,  and gazing through the window saw a bloody
+throng, dancing about the long poles from which dangled scalps with
+parts of the skulls still attached. Two terrible struggles had taken
+place the day before. On the Rum River seventy Chippewa scalps had been
+taken, and on the banks of Lake St. Croix twenty-five more were
+obtained. In both cases the losses of the Sioux were smaller. These
+trophies were brought to the villages, where they were danced about
+nightly until the leaves began to fall in the autumn, when they were
+buried.[331]
+
+These incidents which centered about Fort Snelling have led to the
+charge made against it, that instead of preventing the conflicts the
+fort intensified them. The fort was a convenient meeting place, it is
+argued, whither both parties resorted only to become involved in
+altercations and disputes which resulted in a flaring-up of old
+flames.[332] But it must be remembered that the murders away from the
+fort were more numerous;[333] and it is easier to recall the spectacular
+encounters which occurred at the fort, than the many occasions when the
+two tribes met peacefully as the guests of the officials.
+
+A military officer who was stationed there wrote: "At Fort Snelling I
+have seen the Sioux and Chippeways in friendly converse, and passing
+their pipes in the most amicable manner when if they had met away from
+the post each would have been striving for the other's scalp."[334] The
+Indian agent, whose success depended upon the continuation of peace,
+noted with pleasure these friendly gatherings.  "The Crane and the
+Hole in the Day--and other Chippeways at the Agency this day--Several
+Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency."[335] These visits were often
+protracted for several weeks without trouble. "Chippeways--a number of
+these people also at the agency--some have been here for nearly 30
+days--fishing & liveing better & more independently than the
+Sioux."[336] On the 29th and 30th of June, 1831, Chippewas to the number
+of one hundred and fifty met five villages of Sioux.[337]
+
+Efforts to combat the evil were made in council with the Indians. "Your
+wars with the Chippeways can never be of service to anyone", reasoned
+their "Father", "for as fast as you destroy one--two or three more young
+men are ready to take the track of their deceased friends--The old
+people among you ought to know this--after the long wars between
+you".[338] Most of the encounters took place either when the warriors
+were emboldened by liquor, or when the rival hunting parties met on the
+plains. The strict enforcement of the law of 1832 prohibiting the
+introduction of spirits had a tranquilizing effect in the country of the
+Chippewas. Indeed, the principal object of all efforts to suppress the
+liquor traffic was the prevention of inter-tribal wars.[339]
+
+Constant watching of the hunting parties and admonition as to their
+conduct were among the duties of the agent. "Sent my interpreter up the
+Mississippi among the Indians", he writes, "to see how they are
+progressing in their hunts and as to the present hunting grounds of the
+Chippeways."  Eight days later record is made of the fact that
+"the Rum River Chippeways left for their camp this morning--Sent word to
+their people to hunt on their own Lands & not by any Means to intrude
+upon the Soil of the Sioux." When the interpreter returned he reported
+that everything was quiet between the two tribes.[340] The sending of
+"runners" to the camps was a frequent occurrence during the winter of
+1831, the region covered being eighty miles to the east and two hundred
+miles to the north.[341]
+
+In the treaty of Prairie du Chien of 1825 a dividing line between the
+two tribes, beyond which neither should pass, was agreed upon.[342] But
+this provision was for many years a dead letter. As long as the line was
+unsurveyed the natives could urge indefiniteness of territory as an
+excuse for murder and depredations--claiming that the other party was
+the trespasser. When Schoolcraft met the chiefs of the Chippewas in
+council at Leech Lake in 1832, the latter complained that the provisions
+of the treaty had not been carried out. "The words of the Long-knives
+have passed through our forests as a rushing wind, but they have been
+words merely. They have only _shaken_ the trees, but have not stopped to
+break them down, nor even to make the rough places smooth."[343] As a
+result Mr. Schoolcraft urged upon the Secretary of War the necessity of
+marking the line.[344]
+
+Seven thousand dollars were appropriated by the act of June 26, 1834,
+for the purpose of running this line,[345] and the next spring Major J.
+L. Bean, accompanied by Duncan Campbell, the Sioux interpreter of
+the agency, commenced the survey.[346] Later an escort of troops from
+Fort Snelling was sent him under the command of Lieutenant William
+Storer, with the result that the reduced garrison was unable to enforce
+order.[347] When the survey had been completed from the Chippewa River
+to Otter Tail Lake the return of the military escort put an end to the
+work, but the agent was of the opinion that the most important part had
+been marked.[348]
+
+Efforts were made by the government to keep down the warlike spirit of
+the tribes. Thus, when Captain Gale allowed the Indians to come into the
+fort and dance the scalp dance in June, 1830, his act was disapproved
+of, and he had to stand trial.[349] Likewise peace conferences were
+fostered in order to put the seal of the authority of the government
+upon the transactions. During the winter of 1831 truces were made
+between several of the bands through the efforts of Agent
+Taliaferro.[350] On August 2, 1843, a great gathering of the two nations
+was held at the fort, where a treaty of peace was drawn up under the
+auspices of the civil and military authorities.[351] During the first
+year it was kept inviolate, "if we except two or three individual cases
+of outrage."[352]
+
+Even as late as June, 1850, an assemblage of both tribes was called
+together by Governor Ramsey. The Chippewas were encamped north of the
+fort on the bluff above the Mississippi. In front of them a detachment
+of infantry was drawn up. Within the fort the artillery was in
+readiness. When word was sent to the Sioux that all things were ready,
+they approached, about three hundred strong, on horseback, all armed and
+painted, their whoops mingling with the jingling of their arms,
+ornaments, and the bells of their horses. Making a feint as if to rush
+around the soldiers, they suddenly wheeled to one side and became quiet;
+while the Chippewas on the other side of the line of infantry continued
+to dance and wave their weapons. It was amid such stirring war-like
+scenes that attempts for peace were made.[353]
+
+The earliest policy of the government had been to interfere as little as
+possible, and to allow retribution to be made by one tribe on another.
+But such inactivity did not appeal to a red-blooded officer like Colonel
+Snelling, who wrote after the trouble in 1827: "I have no hesitation in
+Saying that the Military on this frontier are useless for want of
+discretionary power, and that if it is not intrusted to the Commander,
+Men of Straw with Wooden Guns and Swords will answer the purpose as well
+as a Regt of Infantry."[354]
+
+But later the policy was adopted of confining in the "Black Hole" of the
+fort any culprits who were captured. Thirteen of the Sioux who
+participated in a massacre at Apple River were imprisoned;[355] and on
+one occasion Little Crow's band performed the scalp dance near Fort
+Snelling in commemoration of the murder of two Chippewas, while the
+murderers themselves languished in the fort.[356] Probably this method
+of dealing with the problem would have been adopted earlier; but
+"the force at this point", wrote an officer, "has been too small to send
+a sufficient force to take the offenders, even should an order to that
+effect be issued."[357]
+
+To determine how influential Fort Snelling was in maintaining order is
+impossible. As was the case with the liquor traffic, conditions were bad
+but could have been worse. From time to time there were events that
+indicated some success. After a peace had been concluded on the fourth
+of June, 1823, a small quarrel almost precipitated a general conflict on
+the sixth. Much to the chagrin of the Italian traveller, J. C. Beltrami,
+who was then a guest at the fort, the officers were successful in
+preventing bloodshed. "Everything conspired against my poor notes", he
+wrote, "I had already perched myself on an eminence for the purpose of
+enriching them with an Indian battle, and behold I have nothing to write
+but this miserable article!... I almost suspected that the savages were
+in a league with the gentlemen of the fort to disappoint me."[358]
+
+Peace was maintained during the winter of 1831 on a line of three
+hundred and forty miles above and below Fort Snelling, and on one
+occasion there occurred the pleasant sight of Sioux and Chippewas
+departing in company for their hunting grounds on the Sauk River.[359]
+Man-of-the-sky, who was chief of the Lake Calhoun band of Sioux, boasted
+that although he was only twenty-five years old at the time, he had
+already killed six Chippewas when Fort Snelling was erected, and added:
+"Had it not been for that I should have killed many more, or have
+been myself killed ere this."[360] It is interesting to note in
+connection with the sacredness of these treaties the comment of Major
+Taliaferro that "much more reliance is to be placed in the good faith of
+the Chippeways than in that of the Sioux."[361]
+
+These spasmodic successes at least acquainted the Indians with
+governmental restraint. A paragraph from the manuscript diary of the
+agent refutes the argument that Fort Snelling intensified rather than
+alleviated these struggles. "From January 1833 up to this day", wrote
+Taliaferro, "there has been no difficulty between the Sioux and
+Chippeways--I once kept these tribes at peace for two years and Six
+Months lacking 15 days. And this between the years 1821 & 1825 till June
+8th of the latter year. Colonel Robert Dickson remarked to me that Such
+a thing had never occurred before even when he headed the tribes against
+Us in the War of 1812."[362]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE FUR TRADE
+
+
+The Indian trading-house which had been planned for the agency at Fort
+Snelling never materialized. Failure of the houses in operation to pay
+expenses and the opposition of the private traders led to their
+abolition in 1822. Thereafter, whatever attention the government
+directed toward the trade was influenced by the desire to prevent
+tampering with the allegiance of the Indians on the part of foreigners
+and to control this traffic which could contribute so much good or so
+much evil to the lives of the government's wards.[363]
+
+With the Indian trade left to the private traders, great trading
+companies developed, since the fur trade easily lent itself to the
+corporation system. Coöperation in the marketing of furs and in the
+buying of goods eliminated many of the difficulties which a single
+individual would meet. The American Fur Company, so long guided by John
+Jacob Astor, had a practical monopoly of the trade during the time that
+Old Fort Snelling was in existence. Mendota was the headquarters of a
+vast region which extended from the Mississippi to the headwaters of the
+streams flowing into the Missouri. At various places throughout this
+territory were trading posts called "forts", although they
+consisted of no more than a few huts within a stockade. These were all
+subsidiary to the post at Mendota.
+
+Goods for the Indian trade were much the same as those given as presents
+by the government officials--blankets, trinkets, tobacco, knives, and
+the like. These goods were sent in great Mackinac boats from the East to
+be distributed among the posts. Each Indian hunter received on credit
+goods valued at forty or fifty dollars in payment for which he pledged
+the spoils of his winter's hunt. If the trader did not go with his band,
+he visited them occasionally or sent his engagés to see that they were
+hunting and that no other trader was tampering with them to secure their
+furs. In the spring the Indian would deliver furs valued at twice the
+amount of the goods received. The trading company's profit was,
+accordingly, about one hundred per cent. To carry out the details of the
+traffic there grew up within the company a complicated system of
+factors, clerks, voyageurs, and hivernants.[364]
+
+With the entire system of the fur trade the military officials had
+little to do except in the matter of regulation. Not much military
+protection was necessary as the Indian looked upon the trader more as a
+friend than an enemy.[365] Care in respect to the character of the men
+engaged and supervision of the method of carrying on trade were the two
+things necessary. According to the act of March 30, 1802, which was
+supplemented by the acts of April 29, 1816, and June 30, 1834, no one
+could carry on trade with the Indians without obtaining a license
+from an Indian agent, which was subject to revocation by the
+superintendent of the district.[366]
+
+Many were the problems which Major Taliaferro was obliged to consider
+when he granted a license. A license was valid for trade only at a
+certain place and among a certain tribe. The trader must be an American
+citizen. He was not allowed to carry with him any insignia of a foreign
+power. An invoice of his goods was presented to the agent, who had to
+certify to its correctness. Liquor was prohibited, and the trader was
+responsible for the conduct of all the members of his party in this
+matter. To guarantee the fulfillment of all these requirements, bond had
+to be given at the time of obtaining the permit.[367]
+
+To examine all the applicants, to keep in touch with them in the field,
+and to obtain the truth in regard to their conduct was enough to keep
+both agent and officers at Fort Snelling busy. In 1826 twenty-five
+licenses were granted; in 1827, eleven; in 1830, thirteen; and in 1831,
+fourteen.[368] The amount of this trade was very large, as is indicated
+by the case of Mr. Faribault who traded on the Cannon River. One year he
+marketed 50 buffalo-robes, 39,080 muskrats, 2050 pounds of deer skins,
+125 pounds of beaver, 130 martin, 1100 mink, 663 raccoons, 331 otter, 25
+lynx, and 5 foxes.[369]
+
+There was a great deal of vagueness as to the application of the trade
+laws--"a mist of uncertainty" as Taliaferro called it.[370] Governor
+Cass of Michigan Territory allowed foreigners to enter into
+expeditions as interpreters or boatmen, who upon entering the wilderness
+took active charge of the crew and all operations.[371] As far as Fort
+Snelling was concerned there was little call for the ejection of
+foreigners by force. In 1833 it was rumored that a foreigner was trading
+on the Sheyenne River--a tributary of the Red River. But with the
+despatch of a company of troops and the rumor of their approach, the
+culprit immediately decamped.[372]
+
+The building of the fort was in itself enough to impress British
+subjects with the firmness of the United States government. Joseph
+Renville, Kenneth McKenzie, and William Laidlaw, former employees of the
+English companies, in 1822 organized the Columbia Fur Company, and
+obtained a license from Major Taliaferro. In five years they had posts
+from Green Bay to the Missouri River, with their headquarters at Land's
+End, a short distance up the Minnesota River from Fort Snelling. But in
+1827 a union with the American Fur Company was brought about.[373]
+
+Traders licensed by the agent at Fort Snelling covered the territory as
+far west as the Missouri River. No post could be established without his
+approval; and he even attempted to regulate the form in which the
+establishment should be built.[374] On the whole, coöperation between
+the factors of the fur companies and the officials at the post was
+desired by both parties. The most notable disagreement is that which
+existed between Alexis Bailly, the chief factor at Mendota, and
+Major Taliaferro. This disagreement continued until September 15, 1834,
+when the agent reported that he had refused to allow Bailly to hold
+further intercourse with the natives, "not only in Consequence of his
+bad tongue, but on account also of his frequent Violations of the
+intercourse laws". In this action he was seconded by the authorities of
+the fur company, who sent Mr. H. H. Sibley to fill Mr. Bailly's
+place.[375] The pleasant relations which existed between Mr. Sibley and
+all the government officials--civil and military--is one of the charming
+chapters in the history of the fort.[376]
+
+Intimately connected with the fur trade was the liquor traffic. Not that
+the traders were always responsible for the introduction of the tabooed
+commodity, but they were connected with it to such an extent as to be
+always under suspicion. Nor was the attitude of the government
+consistent. When Pike ascended the Mississippi he spoke of the evil
+effects of rum to the chiefs who ceded to the United States the military
+reservation; but the explorer closed with the words: "before my
+departure I will give you some liquor to clear your throats."[377] Even
+Taliaferro, foe that he was of liquor, knew its power. When a
+neighboring chief and thirty of his men visited the agency, he recorded:
+"After council--gave him 30 Rats Bread--50 Rats Pork--10 lbs Tobacco--3
+gallons of whiskey--the last for good Conduct towards the
+Chippeways."[378]
+
+Liquor was an important asset in carrying on the fur trade. The object
+was to please the red man,  not to stupefy him to such an extent
+that he could be swindled. With the growth of the great companies and
+the influx of numbers of private traders there were many bidders for
+each Indian's furs. Complaint was continual that the British traders
+about the Lake of the Woods successfully offered whiskey as an
+inducement to get the trade of the American Indians.[379] Governor Cass,
+thinking it would be worse to lose the trade than admit the liquor,
+allowed its introduction, in "limited quantities", by those engaged in
+business along the boundary.[380] But the act of July 9, 1832, provided,
+that "no ardent spirits shall be hereafter introduced, under any
+pretence, into the Indian country."[381] This put an end to the stock
+excuse. At the same time Americans suffered to such an extent that Mr.
+Norman W. Kittson at Pembina wanted permission to destroy all liquor and
+punish all offenders, promising "that very little would be introduced
+after a short time".[382] So acute was the difficulty that it became the
+subject of diplomatic correspondence with Great Britain; but the
+authorities of the Hudson's Bay Company retorted that "spirits are even
+clandestinely introduced into the Company's territories by citizens of
+the United States."[383]
+
+During the first years stringent measures were in force at the mouth of
+the Minnesota River. At Prairie du Chien, Taliaferro had seen the
+barrels rolled out from the river vessels and they foretold to him
+coming murders and depredations. His coöperating friend, Colonel
+Snelling, graphically described its evil effects. "Herds of
+Indians", he said, "are drawn together by the fascinations of whisky,
+and they exhibit the most degraded picture of human nature I ever
+witnessed."[384] The drunken Indian did not molest the trader; his
+peaceful fellow-tribesman suffered more. "An Indian killed at Al [?]
+Faribault's Trading house--whiskey was given the Indian for his furs--by
+Mr. F.--The deceased then invited one of his friends to drink with
+him--the invitation was accepted--when this friend becoming inflamed
+with the Liquor very inhospitably sunk his Tomahawk into the head of his
+host--whiskey it is said does no harm in the Trade by persons
+interested--but the foregoing is only one of the many hundred fatal
+occurrences from its use in procuring furs unlawfully."[385]
+
+In fact, the Indians were continually agitated. If they received the
+spirits they naturally revelled. When their supply was exhausted they
+raged and fumed until they secured more. Sometimes the disease was more
+desirable than the cure. "I have thus far seen but few of the indians of
+this place and I am in hopes of passing on North without much trouble
+there has just arrived a fresh supply of whiskey which will keep them
+busy for a few days and by that time my carts will be almost out of
+their reach."[386]
+
+The eagerness for liquor on the part of the Indians made its
+introduction all the more easy. For it they were willing to pay much:
+eight horses were at one time exchanged for eight kegs of whiskey,[387]
+and the current rate at which it sold is indicated by the
+complaint which a Chippewa chief poured into the ears of the agent: "My
+Father--Is it right for our traders to make us pay 200 Musk Rats, and 3
+otters for a 3 gallon keg of mixed whiskey?"[388] They would undergo
+extreme physical suffering, lying out in the rain and wading rivers and
+swamps, to bring the precious liquid to their villages.[389]
+
+The officers were never successful in entirely banishing the prohibited
+article. Conditions depended upon the eagerness of the military and
+civil agents, on the number of soldiers stationed at the fort, and on
+the wiliness of the culprits. On one occasion liquor "was found secreted
+in barrels of corn, buried on the beach and in other secret places, and
+destroyed."[390]
+
+Major Taliaferro was not lax in enforcing the laws. Every boat passing
+Fort Snelling was searched, and no liquor was allowed to enter the
+Indian country.[391] A few stray references seem to indicate what was a
+usual occupation of the troops. "The Sub Agent Mr. Grooms left with 10
+men on his 2d expedition below Lake Pepin in quest of whiskey
+Smuglers--as our Indians even entering the country with it from Prairie
+du Chiens and the Traders of the Am Fur Cpy are geting whiskey over the
+country by land and water".[392] During May, 1827, the agent called the
+attention of Colonel Josiah Snelling to the fact that in Mr. Bailly's
+store at Mendota there was whiskey which had been introduced into the
+Indian country contrary to law. Accordingly a detachment of
+soldiers was sent under the command of Lieutenant J. B. F. Rupel, who
+succeeded in finding two barrels which were taken away and stored in the
+fort.[393]
+
+The year 1832 saw especial activity in the destruction of liquor. The
+boat of one trader passed up the Mississippi during April, having on
+board eighteen barrels of whiskey.[394] Later in the season the
+vigilance of the officers had direct results. In July eleven kegs of
+high wines, very strong in quality, and in quantity amounting to one
+hundred and ten gallons, were taken from the boat of Hazen Moores by
+Captain J. Vail. The value of this liquor was $330. In October of the
+same year, five kegs of high wines and one keg of whiskey were found by
+Lieutenant I. K. Greenough in the boat of Louis Provencalle. These
+confiscated kegs were stored in the fort, and an interesting side-light
+on their ultimate fate is contained in the report of Major Taliaferro "I
+am of opinion", he wrote, "from what I hear that the High Wines, and
+Whiskey Seized by Lieuts Vail and Greenough, and in Store here will soon
+be of little account in Consequence of loss by leakage, and the property
+Not in charge of any responsible person--Other than its mere deposite
+in the public store." Whether any efforts were made to stop the leaks is
+not mentioned.[395]
+
+These energetic movements caused "consternation among those natives who
+have not yet joined the temperance Societties".[396] But they also
+caused violent opposition from the men whose goods had been
+seized. These traders commenced a suit in the courts at Prairie du Chien
+against the commanding officer at Fort Snelling, arguing that while the
+law prohibited the introduction of liquor into the Indian country, this
+seizure had been made on the Mississippi River--"a common highway open
+to all the Citizens of the United States".[397]
+
+It is impossible to follow the course of the whiskey traffic through its
+ups and downs. Numerous cases are recorded where the soldiers "knocked
+in the head" the whiskey barrels.[398] But it was probably true, as the
+missionary S. R. Riggs wrote from Lac qui Parle on June 15, 1847, to the
+Indian agent: "The whiskey destroyed by the efforts of yourself and the
+commanding officer at Fort Snelling forms the glorious exception, and
+not the rule."[399]
+
+Under the regulations existing in 1830 the traders were allowed to take
+with them into the Indian country one gallon per month for every person
+engaged in the party. Under plea of this they brought in high wines
+which were later diluted with water and distributed among the Indians.
+Of the amount brought in, the employees actually saw only one-third, and
+this they paid for at the rate of from eight to sixteen dollars per
+gallon.[400] Accordingly, Major Taliaferro issued a circular letter in
+which he stated that high wines and whiskey would be allowed to be
+brought in "in no case whatever".[401] Actions such as these by the
+agent, who was still a young man, brought about the remark which Mr.
+Aitkin, a trader among the Chippewas, is reported to have made to
+some chiefs: "The Medals and Flags which you received at St Peters are
+nothing more than pewter and dish rags, and were given to you by a boy,
+and with a boys paw."[402]
+
+Much of the good which should have resulted from the activities of the
+officers was lost because the Indian could not be punished. If liquor
+was found in his possession and seized there was nothing to prevent his
+going back and obtaining more, taking the chance of being more
+successful in evading the authorities the second time.[403] Accordingly
+prevention as well as cure was tried, and Captain Eastman, Mr. Sibley,
+and others sought, with some success, to persuade the Indians to refuse
+to accept liquor.[404] Two years later the Indian agent, R. G. Murphy,
+organized a temperance society among the Sioux, who, an observer stated,
+were careful in living up to the pledge when once taken; and added, "One
+such man as Major Murphy does more _real, practical good_ than all the
+missionary societies of New York and Boston."[405]
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+SOLDIERS OF THE CROSS
+
+
+Since the days of Father Marquette the Mississippi Valley has owed much
+to the missionaries. Parkman has recounted their sufferings and their
+glorious achievements in discovery, in exploration, and in inspiring
+others with their stories of the wonderful West. But when the
+black-robed Jesuit departed, and mass was no longer said in the log
+chapels about the lakes and tributary streams, the influence of
+Christianity still abided. There came a new generation of soldiers of
+the cross who served the great valley in a later stage of development as
+unselfishly and as thoroughly as their predecessors had done in the
+earlier days.
+
+The Indian in the Northwest in 1830 was not unacquainted with or hostile
+to the whites; he did not fall down in awe to worship one of a different
+color. His grandfather had traded with the wandering traveller who often
+lived a whole winter in the village, and with his tribe had visited the
+great commercial center at Mackinac. His father remembered the day when
+the second class of strangers entered--the uniformed soldiers led by
+Pike--and now the sound of the big gun in the fort at the mouth of the
+Minnesota was no longer a dread portent.
+
+But the missionary was a novelty. His purpose was unknown. He did not
+ask for furs; he did not stealthily give them whiskey; he did not come
+to summon them to councils at the agent's house; and he did not ask for
+cessions of land. If they would respect the white man's "medicine
+day"[406] and let their boys and girls attend the school, if they would
+listen patiently while he talked to them of things they did not
+understand, this newcomer was content. Out in the woods he cleared a
+patch of ground and grew corn. If the red men wanted to help he was very
+glad. When the winter storms came, and game was scarce, and the small
+supply of corn that the squaws had safely cached in the fall was eaten,
+then the missionary helped them in their difficulty. He often went with
+them on their hunts, shared all their privations, and eased their pain
+if accident or sickness befell them. As the activities of the mission
+broadened and its personnel enlarged, the Indian became more and more
+acquainted with whites who lived on farms and tilled the soil. So when
+at last the land was opened to settlement, the transition from the
+missionary's establishment to that of the American farmer was not
+sudden.
+
+Much has been written of the degeneration which came to the Indians
+about a fort through their association with the soldiers. That such
+degeneration did result is true, but it came about in spite of the
+efforts of the officers. On the other hand, distinct steps were taken to
+improve the condition of the neighboring tribes; and although these
+efforts were soon transferred to the missionaries, yet these
+missionaries depended so much on support and encouragement from the
+soldiers that their enterprises may be considered as part of the history
+of Fort Snelling. The freedom from annoyance enjoyed by the missionaries
+living near the fort as compared with those at a distance indicates the
+influence of the post.[407]
+
+Soon after Fort Snelling was established, Taliaferro attempted to
+persuade some Indians to undertake farming in order to supplement their
+hunting. But they preferred leaving this work to the rather desultory
+efforts of the squaws. One chief, however, remembered the advice during
+the next winter. Far out on the plains that border on the Missouri River
+he and his party were overtaken by a blizzard. Each one wrapped himself
+in his blanket and let the snow drift about and over him. With a little
+dried buffalo meat which they divided among them, they kept alive until
+the storm was over. While lying here, knowing not whether his companions
+were dead or alive, expecting himself to be a victim of either the cold
+or hunger or both, Chief Cloud Man resolved that if he ever returned to
+the vicinity of Fort Snelling he would not depend entirely upon the hunt
+for his living, but would also engage in farming under the direction of
+the Indian agent. This was no mere death-bed conversion. Many of his
+companions refused to follow him in the movement; other chiefs openly
+opposed him; but in the spring eight Indians settled upon the shores of
+Lake Calhoun to begin the life of agriculturists. This community
+was named Eatonville in honor of Secretary of War John H. Eaton.[408]
+
+On September 1, 1829, there arrived at the fort, the Reverend Alvan Coe
+and the Reverend Jedediah I. Stevens, two missionaries on a religious
+exploring expedition to locate a site for an establishment. They bore
+with them letters of introduction from Joseph M. Street, the agent at
+Prairie du Chien, who commended them to Taliaferro's care with a
+convincing array of scriptural quotations.[409] The agent offered them
+the use of the buildings connected with the grist mill and the saw mill
+at the Falls and his own colony at Eatonville. After preaching a few
+times to the garrison, the ministers left. It was not until 1835 that
+Mr. Stevens located permanently near the post.[410]
+
+Major Taliaferro was left alone to carry on the difficult enterprise of
+civilizing the natives. In 1830 he wrote to the Secretary of War telling
+of the progress he had made and of his plans for a log village in which
+the Indians could live, instead of in the flimsy bark houses, and a log
+house for the protection of the Indians' property. He begged for
+financial aid, saying that "Six or eight hundred dollars would mature
+what has happily been begun, and this sum from the Civilization fund
+would enable me to progress with great efficiency, and without further
+tax on the Government."[411] The need for his supervision was constant.
+From his diary can be seen how continual was his interest in the
+experiment. On April 18, 1831, he ordered the hoes and plows
+repaired, and on May 1 he went to the colony taking the implements with
+him. Here he found "most of them at work--Cuting down trees, Grubbing
+out the roots &c--What was more encouraging some few of the Men were at
+this unusual kind of labour for them--they laughed when they saw Me--I
+praised them, in every agreable way that could be conveyed to them in
+their language." Again on June 8th he was pleased to see the Indians all
+at work hoeing their corn and potatoes.[412]
+
+The success of the colony was gratifying. In 1833 they raised from eight
+hundred to a thousand bushels of corn, and the population of the village
+was one hundred and twenty-five. Only one death had occurred in three
+years.[413] There was much to contend with, however, since the traders
+were "violently opposed to Indians commencing to seek a living in this
+way."[414] One trader stated that it was a loss to him of five hundred
+dollars whenever an Indian learned to read and write.[415]
+
+With all his duties it is no wonder that the agent was anxious to
+receive the help of the missionaries, and although he was himself "a
+Deacon in the 'Old School Presbyterian Church'",[416] his basis for
+aiding the red men, as he expressed it in a report, was that he had
+"endeavored to impress all missionaries with the true fact that
+Christianity must be preceded by civilization among the wild tribes. I
+hazard nothing in this, for an Indian must be taught all the _temporal_
+benefits of this life first, before you ask him to seek for eternal
+happiness; teach him to worship the true and living God through
+the self-evident developments of his mother earth. In fine, let
+agriculture and the arts precede the preaching of the gospel, after
+which, Christianity inculcate if practicable."[417]
+
+The men who were to be Taliaferro's first helpers were living in the
+little village of Washington, Connecticut--two brothers, one
+twenty-three years old and the other twenty-one. Here a great revival
+occurred and among those whose lives were changed were Samuel Pond and
+Gideon Pond. The next year the older of the two went to the West and
+drifted into the frontier town of Galena. Hearing from a traveller from
+Red River of the Sioux about Fort Snelling he decided to dedicate his
+life to uplifting them. Upon broaching the subject to his brother the
+latter agreed, and on May 1, 1834, they left Galena on the "Warrior". No
+missionary society was supporting them; they had only a little money;
+they did not know a word of the "Dakota" tongue; they were uneducated
+for missionary work. Living the roving life of the Indians as members of
+the tribe, they hoped to be able to gradually influence their lives and
+religion.[418]
+
+On May 6, 1834, the "Warrior" reached Fort Snelling. At the agency
+house, Mr. Grooms, who was the acting agent in the absence of Major
+Taliaferro, rented them a room. Major Bliss, then in command at the
+fort, immediately summoned them to appear before him and explain their
+presence in the Indian country without permission.[419] When he heard of
+ their plans, they fitted immediately into a problem that had been
+puzzling him. Big Thunder, chief of the Kaposia village, wanted to raise
+more corn. But by using the customary Indian method of hoeing up the
+ground before planting, it was impossible to get much land under
+cultivation. At Fort Snelling were oxen and a plow, but there was no one
+to do the plowing or teach the art to the Indians. Accordingly Samuel
+Pond volunteered to take charge of the proposition.
+
+The plow was taken down the river in a canoe, while the oxen were driven
+by land. But the warriors were reluctant about touching the plow until
+Big Thunder, chief of the band, had seized the handles himself. For a
+week Samuel Pond continued the work. But the dogs had stolen the
+provisions he had taken from the fort, and so he was obliged not only to
+sleep in the Indian tepee, but also to live upon the ordinary Indian
+fare.[420]
+
+This task of plowing had just been performed when Major Taliaferro
+returned from the East. The success of the work done by Big Thunder led
+him to ask the Ponds to take charge of the Eatonville colony. As this
+would give them an opportunity of carrying out their plans, the brothers
+accepted. Their position is indicated by the following entry in
+Taliaferro's diary: "I am to furnish out of my private funds--Hay for
+the Oxen--belonging to the Indians, & those young men are to have Charge
+of them for the Winter--They will plough some this fall and again in the
+Spring for the Indians, & go on thereafter to instruct them in
+the arts & habits of civilized life."[421]
+
+Cloud Man, chief of the Calhoun band of Indians, chose a site near the
+lake, where a cabin was erected which cost a shilling--for nails. The
+walls were of tamarack logs from a neighboring grove; slabs obtained at
+the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony furnished a roof; and Major
+Taliaferro presented the missionaries with a window. Major Bliss gave
+them some potatoes, and Mrs. Bliss presented them with a ham. Knowing
+the thievishness of the natives, the Indian agent also added a padlock
+to the newly-finished cabin.[422]
+
+Near the house about four acres of land were cleared and fenced with
+logs. A quarter of a mile distant was the Indian village of fourteen
+bark lodges, each containing two or three families. This village was
+surrounded by corn fields and was reached through a narrow lane made by
+putting up posts and tying poles to them with strips of bark.[423]
+According to Featherstonhaugh, who visited the establishment a year
+later, thirty acres were under cultivation and the yield of corn
+amounted to eight hundred bushels. It is interesting to note that this
+critical traveller found only one thing about Fort Snelling to commend
+and that was the self-sacrifice of the two Pond brothers.[424]
+
+They entered immediately into the life of the Indians. An extract from a
+letter written by one of the brothers shows the wide variety of their
+duties. "One Indian," he said, "has been here to borrow my axe,
+another to have me help him split a stick; another now interrupts me to
+borrow my hatchet; another has been here after a trap which he left with
+me; another is now before my window at work with his axe, while the
+women and children are screaming to drive the black-birds from their
+corn. Again I am interrupted by one who tells me that the Indians are
+going to play ball near our house to-day. Hundreds assemble on such
+occasions."[425]
+
+The work that was thus started soon expanded. In the spring of 1835 Rev.
+Thomas Smith Williamson arrived at Fort Snelling with his wife, a child,
+Miss Sarah Poage, and Alexander G. Huggins. At about the same time Rev.
+Jedediah I. Stevens returned to the post he had visited in 1829, and
+with the help of the Pond brothers built a mission school at Lake
+Harriet. Dr. Williamson went up the Minnesota River to Lac qui Parle,
+where another station was established. On May 19, 1837, Rev. Alfred
+Brunson came to Fort Snelling for a similar purpose, and after
+consulting with the agent and the commandant he chose the village of
+Kaposia for his headquarters. But these mission stations and their
+personnel were not permanent. The work of the Ponds was soon amalgamated
+with that of Mr. Stevens. In 1839 when the Sioux-Chippewa feuds were at
+their height and the Indians were afraid to remain at Lake Calhoun, Mr.
+Stevens tore down the little cabin the Ponds had built and used the
+material for breastworks and moved down the river to Wabasha's
+village--outside the influence of Fort Snelling. At the same time
+the Ponds moved nearer the fort, where they remained until in 1842 they
+established a mission at Oak Grove, eight miles up the Minnesota River.
+This same war spirit and the hostility to the missionaries who preached
+against it led to the abandonment of the Kaposia enterprise in 1841. In
+1846, however, Little Crow asked for a school, and Dr. Williamson came
+from Lac qui Parle to take charge of it. These missions remained in
+existence throughout the period of Old Fort Snelling.[426]
+
+The activities of the missions took on two forms--industrial and
+educational. By the treaty of 1837 a farmer was provided for the Sioux
+about the fort. This position was offered to Gideon Pond who in 1838
+accepted. In return for his salary of six hundred dollars he had to plow
+the cornfields, cut hay for the cattle and feed them during the winter,
+and build such shelters as the animals might need. As he could not do
+all this work alone--and he wanted it thoroughly done--much of his
+salary was spent in hiring others to help him. His services were offered
+in the same spirit of sacrifice which first brought him to the
+region.[427]
+
+Blacksmiths were maintained at some of the villages. In 1849 Mr. Chatel,
+blacksmith for Good Road's village, made among other things, 73 chains
+to hang kettles on for cooking, 23 traps, 230 axes, 50 rat spears, 208
+pairs of fish spears, 24 pairs of stirrups, 63 crooked knives, and 199
+hoes. During the same year, Mr. Robertson, the farmer for Little Crow's
+village, ploughed 75 acres of land, made 500 yards of fence, put
+up 20 tons of hay, and hauled corn for seventeen days. To be sure,
+Robertson and Chatel were not missionaries, but they were part of the
+movement for civilizing the Indians which was fostered and encouraged by
+the officers of the fort.[428]
+
+In 1837 at Lake Harriet there was an Indian boarding-school, where some
+half dozen half-breed girls were learning to read, write, and sew.[429]
+The Pond brothers had made the beginnings of an alphabet of the Sioux
+language, and books and primers for the use of the scholars were soon
+printed.[430] At all the stations surrounding Fort Snelling schools were
+maintained, but here as elsewhere "the children in pleasant weather
+prefer playing to reading".[431] Some progress was made, however, as is
+indicated by the school reports. In 1851 at the school maintained at
+Kaposia it is reported that Daniel Renville, Gustavus A. Robertson,
+Rosalie Renville, and Fat Duty Win can spell and read in English in
+_McGuffy's Eclectic Primer_, and can spell and read in the Sioux
+language in _Wowape Metawa_.[432]
+
+The success of these pioneer efforts depended much on the encouragement
+received at the beginning; and by a coincidence this encouragement was
+brought about the second summer that the Ponds were in the vicinity.
+During the winter Major Gustavus Loomis initiated "a red-hot revival
+among the soldiers", and although many of the converts backslid with the
+simultaneous appearance of spring and whiskey,[433] yet there were so
+many that remained faithful that on June 11, 1835, when Dr.
+Williamson arrived, a church was organized in one of the company rooms
+at Fort Snelling. This church was composed of soldiers, missionaries,
+and fur traders and was a basis of support in the difficult task of
+civilizing the Indians.[434] The officers protected and encouraged the
+workers under all circumstances, the post doctor gave his services to
+them free, and once a month Mr. Stevens preached at the fort.[435]
+
+In 1838 the church was strengthened by the appointment of a chaplain,
+Rev. Ezekiel Gear of Galena. But on December 11, 1838, as he was leaving
+Fort Crawford in a sleigh, the horse started up sooner than was expected
+and he was thrown out, breaking his right thigh bone. He was kept at the
+hospital at Fort Crawford for some months and did not arrive at Fort
+Snelling until April 28, 1839.[436] As there was no room large enough to
+hold all the soldiers, they were at first not compelled to attend the
+services. In 1841, however, the chaplain reported that all the soldiers
+attended regularly, but answered feebly to the responses, although the
+chaplain believed they were attentive to what was said. These movements,
+which were undertaken to elevate the character of the soldiers, could
+not but have an effect upon the success of the missionaries.[437]
+
+Under the protection of Fort Snelling efforts were also made to do
+religious work among the fur traders. The inhabitants of Mendota were
+old voyageurs and traders, French and half-breeds, and most of them,
+having lived long without the ministrations of the church, remembered
+the faith of their childhood days in Canada. When in 1838 the
+Minnesota country west of the Mississippi was made a part of the
+Territory of Iowa, the Diocese of Dubuque was extended to correspond
+with the political area. In the following summer Bishop Loras of Dubuque
+visited the upper Mississippi and was entertained at the fort and by the
+faithful Catholics at Mendota. These amounted in number to one hundred
+and eighty-five, fifty-six of whom were baptized, eight were confirmed,
+and four couples were given the nuptial benediction. The need for
+permanent work was great. Plans were made to bring one or two Sioux to
+Dubuque to pass the winter and teach the language to some worker. In the
+spring of 1840 Rev. Lucian Galtier was sent up to be the pastor of this
+flock.[438]
+
+It was often with despair that the missionaries saw the Indians still
+clinging to their heathen rites, and the few additions to the churches
+do not indicate any great transformation of an Indian nation. But if the
+lives of the natives were not elevated by their contact with the whites
+it was not because they had no opportunity. The forces which led to
+their degeneration had the start of the civilizing forces, and they also
+appealed more to the Indian's nature. At the same time both romance and
+lustre is added to the relations of Old Fort Snelling with the
+surrounding Indians by the story of the attempts of the men who had a
+vision of what Indian life could be, and who unselfishly tried to make
+that vision a reality, encouraged and supported by the military men at
+the fort.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE FASHIONABLE TOUR
+
+
+George Catlin, whose wanderings in the West had acquainted him with the
+most beautiful and the most accessible scenic spots of the country,
+urged upon his readers the adoption of a trip to the Falls of St.
+Anthony as the "Fashionable Tour".[439] Primitive life and unspoiled
+landscapes could be seen from the comfortable decks of the steamboat.
+The objective point of these trips was the Falls of St. Anthony, but it
+was at Fort Snelling that the passengers were dropped. Only because of
+the necessity of bringing supplies to the troops at the post did the
+steamboats make the journey. It is in the writings of these visitors
+that there have been preserved many pictures of life in and about Fort
+Snelling. Moreover, these visits from the outside world brought pleasure
+and satisfaction to the smaller world about the fort.
+
+In the month of May, 1823, occurred an event which was epochal, not only
+in regard to the commercial development of the Northwest, but also in
+respect to the growth of the upper Mississippi as a Mecca for
+travellers. The steamboat "Virginia", one hundred and twenty feet long
+with a twenty foot beam, commanded by Captain Crawford, left St. Louis
+with supplies for Fort Snelling; on the tenth of May it was
+received by the soldiers at the fort with a salute of cannon and by the
+assembled Indians with awe and consternation.[440] "I know not what
+impression the first sight of the Phoenician vessels might make on the
+inhabitants of the coasts of Greece," wrote one who was a passenger on
+that eventful voyage, "or the Triremi of the Romans on the natives of
+Iberia, Gaul, or Britain; but I am sure it could not be stronger than
+that which I saw on the countenances of these savages at the arrival of
+our steam-boat."[441]
+
+The man who wrote these words was J. C. Beltrami, an Italian refugee,
+who for political reasons had fled from his native land. In 1823 he met
+Major Taliaferro at Pittsburgh and requested permission to accompany him
+to the Falls of St. Anthony. This was granted, and in company with the
+Indian agent he arrived at Fort Snelling on the first steamboat to brave
+the current of the upper Mississippi.[442] Here for almost two months he
+was entertained by the officials at the post, visiting the Indian bands,
+attending their councils, writing letters to "My Dear Countess",[443]
+and conversing with Mrs. Snelling who alone could speak French with
+him.[444] He was on the point of setting out overland for Council Bluffs
+when another party arrived at the post.
+
+In the list of the exploring expeditions which traversed the region
+about the head of Lake Superior, by far the most important was the one
+led by Stephen H. Long and conducted under the auspices of the War
+Department. The permanent members of the party were Major Long of
+the Topographical Engineers, Thomas Say, zoölogist and antiquary,
+William H. Keating, mineralogist and geologist, Samuel Seymour,
+landscape painter and designer, and James E. Colhoun, astronomer and
+assistant topographer. The start was made at Philadelphia on April 30,
+1823, and the route led by way of Wheeling and Chicago to Fort Crawford
+at Prairie du Chien. From this point Major Long and Mr. Colhoun
+travelled by land and the others by water, the two parties arriving at
+the fort on July 2nd and July 3rd respectively. After a few days wait
+the journey was again resumed late on the afternoon of July 9th.[445]
+
+In the meantime much had been done. The orders issued to Major Long had
+authorized him to call upon the commanding officer at any post for men,
+horses, camp equipage, provisions, boats, clothing, medicines, and goods
+to the value of three hundred dollars to be distributed among the
+Indians.[446] Biscuits were baked in the ovens of the fort; Joseph
+Renville was engaged as an interpreter; and the detachment of troops
+which had accompanied them from Prairie du Chien was exchanged for a new
+guard, consisting of a sergeant, two corporals, and eighteen soldiers
+under the command of Lieutenant St. Clair Denny.[447]
+
+But these preparations did not prevent them from enjoying the scenic
+views about Fort Snelling. On the sixth of July a walk was taken to the
+Falls of St. Anthony. An island in the river which divided the falls
+into two parts tempted Mr. Say, Mr. Colhoun,  and Mr. Keating to
+cross, the water being only two feet deep. But the ford was located only
+a few feet above the ledge of the rock, and the slippery footing
+rendered the exploit extremely dangerous. When this had been safely
+accomplished, Mr. Say and Mr. Colhoun crossed in the same way the
+eastern half of the falls, while Mr. Keating with great difficulty
+returned to the western bank. Later when the others were crossing the
+dangerous passage, they were seen to be in great difficulties whereupon
+one of the soldiers went out and aided them to the shore. Only after
+they had been strengthened by a dinner, prepared by the old sergeant who
+was in charge of the government mills, were they able to return to the
+fort.[448]
+
+The expedition went up the Minnesota River to its source, then down the
+Red River to Lake Winnipeg and returned to the East by way of the fur
+trader's route along the international boundary and Lake Superior. Fear
+of the Indians living about the mouth of the Blue Earth River, one of
+whose number had been arrested and sent to St. Louis for murder, had
+suggested the necessity of the military escort. But when the place was
+reached no trouble resulted, as the Indians had gone on their summer
+hunt. Accordingly nine of the soldiers were sent back with canoes--some
+of the supplies having been destroyed by accidents. Those who remained
+had no easy task. There were only nine horses, and these were reserved
+for the officers and "gentlemen" of the company, so that the privates
+were obliged to walk.[449]
+
+On August 9th when the party left Pembina behind, their number had
+dwindled. Joseph Snelling, son of Colonel Snelling, who had gone with
+them thus far, returned by the same route with three soldiers. J. C.
+Beltrami, who had been allowed to cast his lot with theirs, and who had
+been equipped and supplied by the Indian agent, who had presented him
+with the "noble steed 'Cadmus'",[450] also left them. In company with
+two Chippewas and a _bois-brulé_ of Red River, he set out for the
+southeast with the purpose of there finding the source of the
+Mississippi. Upon a small lake, which he named Lake Julia, he conferred
+the honor of being the head of the great river, while it seemed to him
+that the "shades of Marco Polo, of Columbus, of Americus Vespucius, of
+the Cabots, of Verazani, of the Zenos, and various others, appeared
+present, and joyfully assisting at this high and solemn ceremony".[451]
+After a journey of great suffering he was welcomed at Fort
+Snelling--wearing a hat made of the bark of a tree, and clothes of
+skins.[452]
+
+Not until late in the fall did the connection of Fort Snelling with this
+expedition cease, when the soldiers who had accompanied the party as far
+as Sault Ste. Marie returned to their post by the Fox-Wisconsin route
+after a journey rendered exceedingly disagreeable by the cold.[453]
+
+In the summer of 1835 George Catlin and his wife spent several months at
+Fort Snelling. Mr. Catlin was an artist who made a specialty of Indian
+scenes, and his time was occupied in painting scenes of Indian
+life and portraits of Indian chiefs. His studio was a room in the
+officers' quarters, and his models were the natives who lingered about
+the agency.
+
+Mr. Catlin was extremely desirous of painting some pictures of Indian
+dances and ball-plays. In order to persuade the Indians to do their
+part, Lawrence Taliaferro told them on July 3rd that if they would come
+the next day and entertain the visitors, the great gun at the fort would
+be fired twenty-one times for their amusement. As this was the salute
+for the national holiday, he was safe in making the prophecy.
+Accordingly, on the fourth of July the prairie near the fort, for two
+hours, rang with the excited shouts of the ball-players; and when this
+pastime was finished the "beggar's-dance", the "buffalo-dance", the
+"bear-dance", the "eagle-dance", and the "dance-of-the-braves" furnished
+entertainment for three hours more.[454]
+
+On the sixteenth of July General Robert Patterson of Philadelphia with
+his sister and daughter arrived on the steamboat "Warrior". For their
+amusement the Indians staged the "dog-dance", using for their victims
+two dogs which were presented to them by the officers of the garrison.
+Accompanied by a soldier George Catlin left for Prairie du Chien on July
+27th. "About this lovely spot", he wrote, "I have whiled away a few
+months with great pleasure, and having visited all the curiosities, and
+all the different villages of Indians in the vicinity, I close my
+notebook and start in a few days for Prairie du Chien, which is three
+hundred miles below this; where I shall have new subjects for my
+brush and new themes for my pen, when I may continue my epistles."[455]
+
+In the thirties began that series of geological surveys which has
+continued ever since, under both the national and State governments. In
+the fall of 1835 George William Featherstonhaugh and William Williams
+Mather, geologists in the service of the government, made a survey of
+the Minnesota Valley. The detailed scientific report of the survey was
+published by the government;[456] while a popular description of the
+trip, written by Mr. Featherstonhaugh, appeared in London in 1847
+entitled, "A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor".
+
+From September 12th to September 15th on the up-journey and from October
+16th to October 22nd on the return, the scientist was entertained at the
+fort. The reception which he received did not impress him with its
+cordiality. "I could not but reflect upon the contrast betwixt the very
+kind attentions I had received at the other American posts, and the want
+of them I experienced here."[457] But the feeling was mutual. The keen
+Indian agent characterized him by saying: "He attempted to pass current
+for that which he possessed not--superior talent and modesty in his
+profession."[458] Mr. Featherstonhaugh was an Englishman in whose
+narrative American institutions were not praised. Even the presence of
+his American co-laborer, Mr. Mather, is not suspected by reading the
+entertaining story, for his name is not mentioned once.
+
+It is difficult, therefore, to judge how accurate the account of
+his stay at Fort Snelling really is. The room which was given to him for
+his use was "an old dirty, ill-smelling, comfortless store-room", and
+Major L---- (Loomis?) who was asked by the commandant to provide
+accommodations for the visitor bored him with his psalm-singing and
+exhortations, being "a living rod in soak to tickle up sluggish
+Christians". But, probably unwittingly, Featherstonhaugh admitted that
+Fort Snelling was of some service to him. For the supplies and
+vegetables taken from the post gardens brought the gunwale of the canoe
+to within four inches of the water![459]
+
+Further exploration of the upper Mississippi was made by Joseph N.
+Nicollet during the summer of the next year. This French scientist was
+aided in part by the War Department, and in part by the fur traders, P.
+Chouteau, Jr., & Co., of St. Louis.[460] While at Fort Snelling he
+determined to visit the sources of the great river, and in his
+enterprises he was greatly assisted by Lawrence Taliaferro, H. H.
+Sibley, and the officers at the fort. Some of the soldiers wished to
+accompany him, but the absence of many of the garrison at Prairie du
+Chien made their presence at the post necessary. Some Chippewa Indians,
+some half-breeds, and a Frenchman, Desiré Fronchet, were his only
+companions when the ascent of the river was commenced. But at the first
+stopping place, near the Falls of St. Anthony, a band of thieving Sioux
+robbed him of many of his supplies, and the attempt would have been
+given up had not Major Taliaferro made good the loss from his own
+means.[461] Nicollet visited Lake Itasca and indicated its principal
+tributary, so that some authors have credited him with being the
+discoverer of the true source of the Mississippi.[462]
+
+After the return from this perilous journey, the winter was spent at
+Fort Snelling in working over the notes and a map. For the kindness
+shown him Mr. Nicollet expressed great appreciation, though the rude
+hospitality of the frontier post could provide no supper better than
+wild rice, mush, and milk, and no sleeping quarters better than the
+storehouse. But here he was entertained, as the agent wrote, in Virginia
+fashion where a call lasts six months and a visit one year; and the
+nights were made merry with the music of the violin and piano, and with
+the animated conversation of Taliaferro and Nicollet. For many hours on
+cold winter nights he studied through his telescope the stars in the
+clear heavens.[463]
+
+Mr. Nicollet devoted two more seasons to examining the country between
+the Mississippi and Missouri rivers in company with John C. Frémont. In
+1838 a trip was made from Fort Snelling to the pipestone quarry; and in
+1839 his party ascended the Missouri River to Fort Pierre, and then
+passed over the prairies to the Mississippi.[464] The accounts of these
+journeys were widely read, and coming from the pen of such an able
+scientist and pleasing writer, the interest of the country was turned to
+the rich possibilities of this new Northwest.[465]
+
+In addition to these well-known travellers there was a host of
+people who made the trip as a vacation jaunt. On June 1, 1836, the
+"Palmyra" arrived with thirty passengers. The steamboat "Burlington"
+tied up at Fort Snelling on June 13, 1838, having among its many
+passengers Captain Frederick Marryat, the popular English novelist. Only
+two days later the "Brazil" was moored near the "Burlington", the
+presence of two boats at the same time being considered a novel sight.
+The family of Governor Henry Dodge was on this second boat.[466]
+
+On June 26, 1838, the "Burlington" was again at Fort Snelling. Among the
+tourists on this trip was Mrs. Alexander Hamilton who had embarked at
+Galena where she had been visiting her son, W. S. Hamilton, who was
+connected with lead mining enterprises in Wisconsin. The fact that Mrs.
+Hamilton had been a belle in society during the time of George
+Washington, and the general sympathy felt for her ever since the tragic
+death of her husband in 1804, caused her to be received with more
+attention than was usually bestowed on tourists. At nine o'clock she was
+taken in a carriage to the Falls of St. Anthony, and when she returned
+to the fort in the afternoon the officers met her at the gate and led
+her to a chair placed upon a carpet in the center of the parade ground.
+After the troops had been reviewed she was entertained at the
+headquarters of the fort until the "Burlington" left that same
+evening.[467]
+
+The extent of this tourist traffic is well illustrated in the newspapers
+of the time. Advertisements tell of the interesting features to
+be seen on a trip to the upper Mississippi, of the pleasures of
+steamboat travel, and promise that "A first rate band of music will be
+on board."[468] An editor paused long enough in the exciting
+presidential "Log Cabin" campaign of 1840 to remark that "Pleasure trips
+to these Falls appear to be quite the go. Large parties of ladies and
+gentlemen have passed up on the steamboats Loyal Hanna and Malta. And we
+noticed in a late St. Louis paper, the advertisements of the Valley
+Forge, Ione, Brazil and Monsoon, all for 'pleasure excursions to St.
+Peters'. We see also in the same paper, that the steamboat Fayette is
+advertised 'for Harrison and Reform'--rather an extensive country we
+should think, at the present time."[469] Even as far away as Louisville,
+Kentucky, steamboats were chartered for trips to the upper waters of the
+Mississippi River.[470]
+
+The pleasures of such a journey, the scenery enjoyed, the people met,
+the events of the day spent at Fort Snelling are well illustrated by two
+letters written by the Right Reverend Jackson Kemper, who was the
+missionary bishop of the Northwest of the Episcopal Church.[471] In the
+month of August, 1843, he was the guest of Captain Throckmorton on the
+steamboat "General Brooke"; and he made the trip to Fort Snelling to
+confer with Rev. Ezekiel Gear who was the chaplain at the post. The
+first letter was dated August 25, 1843, and was written to his daughter.
+
+"Here we are snug and almost dry on a sand bar and not more than
+13 miles below St. Peters", he wrote. "While the Captain and his men are
+using all kinds of methods to get us off--the chief of which is to put
+our freight into a large barge aside of us--I will write you a few
+lines. It is now past 8 o'c. P. M. We still hope to get to the fort
+before night (mid-night I mean). Then the Captain says he will give us
+an early breakfast tomorrow and send us off to see the falls (5 Miles
+distant) and we must return so as to start down the river by noon. This
+is too bad in many respects; but what can we do? I have not time to stay
+with Mr. Gear until the next boat arrives; that may not be for a week or
+two; so I will say to Mr. G. when I see him: Here I am, & I have come
+not to see the falls but you, and I am at your disposal as long as I am
+here. If you choose to take me to the falls, it is well; if you prefer
+that I should remain in your house I am content. It is still probable
+that I shall be at Potosi next tuesday Morning. To travel on Sunday, and
+particularly to do so without an opportunity of preaching, will be very
+hard. There will probably be only 4 passengers besides myself on the
+return. There was a little boat the other [day?] a-head of us, and I
+hoped she might be detained at the fort until Monday--but that prospect
+has vanished, for she has just past us descending to Galena.
+
+"It is supposed to be 500 miles from St. Louis to Prairie du Chien and
+300 from there to St. Peters. We stopt at Prairie du Chien for some
+hours and a Judge Lockwood came on board who with his wife is an
+Episcopalian. He told me there are several in and about the town & he
+thought the prospect of organizing a church a fair one if a Missionary
+could be obtained (We are off the sand bar). From the prairie our voyage
+has been delightful. At the distance of a mile or two from the river on
+each side are ranges of lofty hills, in a great variety of shapes. Many
+of them appeared as if the river had flowed for ages near to their tops.
+Some of them looked as if they had been cut in two; and on the peaks of
+several were large blocks of rock. As we were woodding I spoke of going
+up to one of them but was told it was dangerous on account of
+rattle-snakes. There is a curious fact connected with that reptile.
+Cannon river flows into the Mis^i from the west--it is a long & narrow
+stream--nine miles above Lake Pepin. They are never found north of that
+stream, although they abound below it. One of the hills we saw yesterday
+had 3 or 4 large blocks of rock upon it, called the pot and kettles from
+their resemblance to those useful utensils. The prairies were frequent &
+some peculiarly attractive. On Wabasa's we saw a Sioux village--and a
+farmer's establishment--he being sent there by the U. S. to civilize the
+Indians. This morning we passed another village called Red Wings but saw
+very few of the inhabitants. The corn field was very ... [illegible] and
+there were in it elevated frames where the boys are kept to scare away
+the blackbirds. I saw smoke near the frames, the boys having kindled a
+fire to roast ears of corn for their comfort. The Sioux have winter &
+summer houses. The latter are conical made of buffalo robes
+covering poles. The summer lodges looked something like poor log huts &
+are made of poles & elm bark. Near Red Wings village there is a Miss^y
+establishment from Switzerland.--Lake Pepin is a beautiful sheet of
+water thro wh the M. flows or is an expanse of the M. & is 25 miles by
+3. It apparently abounded in large fish, for they were constantly
+jumping out of the water. Its banks you know are celebrated for
+agates--but we have not time to stop a moment.--The settlements above P.
+du Chien are very few--now and then a solitary dwelling & a wood yard.
+At one of these places the man told me his nearest neighbor was 20 miles
+off. In winter there is a good deal of travelling on the river in
+sleighs. About half way up Lake Pepin is the lover's rock of which you
+have heard, the Chippeway river enters from the East just below the
+commencement of the Lake, & its Mouth is 100 Miles below St. Peters. Up
+it & like wise up the St. Croix are saw mills, as that country abounds
+with Pine. The Mouth of the St. Croix is 30 miles below St. Peters. Here
+is a beautiful lake as large as L. Pepin thro' which the St. C. flows
+just before it joins the M.--We have a Mr. Akin on board whose trading
+establishment is 300 Miles north of the St. Peters & 60 west of Lake
+Superior. Then he has been among the Chippeways 33 yrs. He has been
+thro' Lake Superior 30 times to New York for goods & returned as often;
+and now for the first time he has traded with St. Louis. He knows
+perfectly all the languages around him. The most copious is the
+Chippeway. He says they have some what of a written language, and he has
+frequently seen an Indian write off a ... [illegible] for another on a
+piece of bark. He thinks the characters are something like those of the
+Mexicans.--Now I suppose you would like to receive a letter with the S.
+Peter's post Mark; and if I ascertain it will not take more than a Month
+on its journey you shall receive this thro that channel; otherwise I
+will reserve it for the p. o. of P. du Chien".[472]
+
+The narrative is continued in a letter of August 29, 1843, written from
+Potosi, Wisconsin, to his son:
+
+"Although you may not have a very high opinion of the West, yet I think
+you would have liked to be with me in my late trip to St. Peters. The
+weather was delightful and the scenery grand and very novel. You have
+probably seen my letter to your sister; I will therefore say, we arrived
+at the end of our voyage last friday night, and as the fog was very
+thick the next morning we could not see where we were until 8 oclock.
+Then the fort on a high hill, with its flag flying, had a fine
+appearance. Mr. Gear the chaplain soon called at the boat and appeared
+greatly rejoiced to see me. I accompanied him to his quarters and saw
+his family and some of the officers and ladies of the garrison, and then
+he and I rode out 8 miles to the falls of St. Anthony. Though very
+inferior to those of Niagara, they are still well worth seeing. The
+scenery is wild--there are many immense rocks in the river, evidently
+broken off from the precipice over which the water is dashed with
+considerable noise--the water in its fall is frequently broken--but even
+when it is not so, the height is not more than 17-1/2 feet. Returning we
+went to a hill from whence we could see the whole of the fall for there
+is an island in the middle of the river which hides one half of it when
+you are near. A mile or two further brought us to a most beautiful and
+lofty cascade on Nine Mile river. The quantity of water was not large,
+but it fell amidst the wildest scene, unbroken, over a ledge of rock
+which extended far beyond its foundation.--There were not many Indians.
+The few I saw were Sioux who looked much degenerated by their contact
+with the Whites. The families of the officers appeared very happy; the
+ladies told me they were like sisters. For months they have no visitors
+but wild Indians--Sioux or Chippeways. An old Scotchman who had been in
+this country 50 years told me that all the tribes to the North and West
+speak the Chippeway language or its dialects; that the Sioux is entirely
+different from it, but that a dialect of it is spoken by the
+Winnebagoes, with this difference that the Sioux language has not the
+sound of the letter R in it while almost every word of the Winnebago
+abounds with Rs. He thinks that a person knowing the two languages--the
+C. and S. could travel through the indian country from Mexico to the N.
+Pole and make himself understood.--We had to return to the boat by one
+oclock, and soon after we started down the river. Near the Mouth of the
+St. Croix--about 45 miles below St. Peters, I saw on a prairie a
+large stone painted a bright red, to which the Indians offer sacrifices
+of tobacco &c. and consider a _Wa-Kon_ or Spirit.--As we were on our
+journey sunday afternoon I saw a bark canoe paddling towards us with
+great rapidity containing as I first thought an Indian and a white Man.
+The steamer was stopt, and soon the chattels (kettle, coffee-pot, &c)
+then the men afterwards the boat itself were on board. They proved to be
+a miner who had gone from Galena and a stout lad. Eight months ago a
+number of persons were induced by offers of land from Government to go
+to Lake Superior in search of copper; and a large party had lately been
+occupied in removing an immense block of copper from the bed of a river
+which empties into the Lake. This miner had been thus occupied; and he
+informed me that the task was done--that the block weighed three
+tons--that it was to be taken to New York &c as an object of curiosity.
+A fortnight ago he had started from the spot--skirted the Lake to a
+certain river, ascended that to its source, then carried the canoe with
+its contents 2 or 3 miles on their shoulders until they met the head
+waters of the St. Croix, and descended that river to the
+Mississippi."[473]
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE CHIPPEWA TREATY OF 1837
+
+
+The relations of the United States government to the Indians prior to
+1871 shows a dual attitude. On the one hand, the Indians were the
+government's wards. By the ninth of the Articles of Confederation,
+Congress was given the right of "regulating the trade and managing all
+affairs with the Indians who were not members of any of the
+states";[474] and by the act regulating Indian trade no cession of land
+could be valid unless made by treaty or convention.[475] On the other
+hand, these treaties were negotiated and proclaimed with all the pomp
+and ceremony which would appeal to the Indian's mind and impress him
+with his importance as a member of a sovereign nation. This was
+distinctly a "legal fiction", but it continued as the customary method
+of procedure until the act of March 3, 1871, abolished the practice of
+considering the tribes as independent nations.[476]
+
+As the nation increased in strength and the agricultural and commercial
+forces of the country were pushing westward and coming into contact with
+the distant tribes, the treaties increased in number and importance.
+Urged by the cries of hungry land-seekers the cession of land by the
+natives gradually became the most important phase of all treaties; and
+ in order that the new settlements might be protected from
+vengeful Indians the title to the land rested on legal cession rather
+than on conquest. It is stated on the authority of the Commissioner of
+Indian Affairs that "Except only in the case of the Sioux Indians in
+Minnesota, after the outbreak of 1862, the Government has never
+extinguished an Indian title as by right of conquest; and in this case
+the Indians were provided with another reservation, and subsequently
+were paid the net proceeds arising from the sale of the land
+vacated."[477]
+
+The negotiation of a treaty was not an easy affair. There were no
+recognized representatives of the tribe. In order that a treaty might be
+satisfactory it was necessary that all factions be consulted; and the
+braves who gathered often numbered into the hundreds. Thus, in planning
+the negotiations a satisfactory place and an opportune time must be
+selected, while the red men must be supported while away from home and
+protected from lurking enemies. It was in these phases of treaty-making
+that the military posts showed their importance.
+
+The first important treaty with which the tribes living about Fort
+Snelling were concerned was that made at Prairie du Chien in 1825. The
+little frontier village presented a gala appearance during the month of
+August when the great convocation was held. There were Chippewas, Sioux,
+Sacs and Foxes, Menomonies, Iowas, Winnebagoes, and a portion of the
+Ottawa, Chippewa, and Pottawattomie tribes living on the Illinois River
+gathered to consult with Governor Lewis Cass of Michigan and
+General William Clark, the government's commissioners. Of the 1054
+drawing rations on the last day, 386 were of the delegation of Sioux and
+Chippewas gathered by Major Taliaferro at Fort Snelling and brought down
+in safety to make a triumphal entry in true Indian style with flags
+flying, drums beating, and guns firing.[478]
+
+Although there was no cession of land, distinct progress was made in
+that the territories of the various tribes were defined, thus making
+negotiations easier for the future. Of especial importance was the
+Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, which made clear the territory of each
+tribe, so that when the year 1837 arrived and treaties were made to
+obtain the lands east of the Mississippi, the areas with which each was
+concerned were clearly understood.[479]
+
+By the year 1837 many conditions called for the cession of these lands.
+The forests, the water-power, the mines of lead and other ores aroused
+the desires of speculators. Settlers were thronging to Wisconsin, and it
+was felt that if the land could be purchased and the Indians removed,
+the people would be safe from any attacks, and the Indians would be
+removed from the contaminating influence of many of the undesirable
+whites.[480] There were also the traders who for years past had given
+credit to many worthless Indians who had never brought back from the
+hunt furs sufficient to pay for the goods advanced them; and they hoped
+that in the payment for the lands certain sums would be reserved
+for the liquidation of these debts.[481]
+
+In the early summer of 1837 Major Taliaferro was ordered to organize a
+delegation of Sioux Indians who could be taken to Washington, where the
+Sioux negotiations would take place. At the same time orders were issued
+to summon the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi to a council to be held
+at Fort Snelling. To both of these groups the subject of the purchase of
+the Indian lands east of the Mississippi would be broached.[482]
+
+Miles Vineyard, who was the sub-agent at Fort Snelling, was immediately
+sent to the villages of the Chippewas. Early in July the red men began
+to arrive, and by July 20th about a thousand men, women, and children
+had pitched their tepees near the fort. Many were the notable chiefs
+gathered there with their warriors. With the Pillager band from Leech
+Lake was Chief Flat Mouth, who had twenty-five times been on the warpath
+without receiving a wound, who had delivered his English medal to Pike
+in 1806, and whose band had been attacked by the Sioux under the walls
+of Fort Snelling in 1827. The most famous of the Chippewa chiefs, he was
+still living in 1852, being then seventy-eight years old.[483]
+
+The chief of the bands from Gull Lake and Swan River was
+Hole-in-the-Day. Energetic, brave, and intelligent, he gained a great
+influence over the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi. His name, which
+literally meant a bright spot in the sky, is often written
+Hole-in-the-Sky. He was a frequent visitor at Fort Snelling and came to
+his death at that place in 1847 when he fell from a wagon, breaking his
+neck and dying instantly.[484] His brother Strong Ground or Strong Earth
+was also present at the council. He had been a member of Flat Mouth's
+band at the time of the massacre in 1827. Thirty-six eagle plumes waved
+from his head-dress at the time of his death, each of them representing
+the scalp of an enemy. The first of these he obtained when as a small
+boy he dashed into the ranks of the Sioux during a conflict and scalped
+a fallen warrior.[485] Chiefs and warriors from the St. Croix River,
+Mille Lac, and Sandy Lake, with their followers, were also encamped near
+the fort.
+
+There were also notables among the white men gathered there. The United
+States commissioner was Henry Dodge, known as an Indian fighter, and at
+that time Governor of Wisconsin Territory. General William R. Smith of
+Pennsylvania, who had been appointed by the President to serve as a
+commissioner with Governor Dodge, was unable to come. Lawrence
+Taliaferro, the Indian agent, was busied with many duties connected with
+the safety of the visitors. Four hundred Sioux hovered about, and these
+had to be kept at a safe distance to avoid conflicts. Verplanck Van
+Antwerp, the secretary of the commission; J. N. Nicollet, the explorer;
+H. H. Sibley; and many other fur traders watched the negotiations and
+put their names to the treaty as witnesses.[486]
+
+The council began on July 20th. It was with the chiefs that Governor
+Dodge parleyed, but the warriors and braves felt that they also should
+have some part in the proceedings. On one occasion several hundred of
+them, streaked with their brightest paint, waving their tomahawks and
+spears and carrying the war flag of the Chippewas, together with the
+flag of the United States, interrupted the council with their whoops and
+drums; and when they had approached the chair of the Governor, paused
+while two of the warriors harangued the crowd on the kindness of the
+traders and the debts owed them.[487]
+
+The negotiations were carried on in a bower near the house of the agent.
+The chiefs were assembled daily; the peace pipe was smoked; and the red
+men, dressed only in leggings and breech cloths, with their long hair
+hanging over their shoulders under the eagle feathers upon their heads,
+and medals dangling from their necks, spoke of lands, of the traders,
+and of wars. The speeches of the Indians seemed interminable. From day
+to day action was postponed as they were waiting for other bands to
+arrive.
+
+To prolong the council as long as possible was satisfying to the
+appetite of the Indian. The rations issued by the commissary at Fort
+Snelling were not to be eagerly exchanged for the fare of a Chippewa
+lodge in the northern woods. But at first the menu was not satisfactory.
+Nadin (the Wind) complained on July 24th: "You have everything around
+you, and can give us some of the cattle that are around us on the
+prairie. At the treaty of Prairie du Chien,  the case was as
+difficult as this. The great Chief then fed us well with cattle."[488]
+Evidently this hint was acted upon, as the old records show that by July
+30th ten beeves weighing 6123 pounds had been furnished the Chippewas
+who were assembled to the number of 1400.[489] The amount of supplies
+used on such an occasion is indicated by instructions given to Alexander
+Ramsey and John Chambers who in 1849 were commissioned to treat with the
+Sioux Indians at Fort Snelling. They were authorized to obtain from the
+commissary at Fort Snelling 15,000 rations of flour, 10,000 of pork,
+10,000 of salt, 10,000 of beans, and 5000 of soap.[490]
+
+At the first meeting Governor Dodge spoke to the Chippewas of the
+purpose of the council. Their lands east of the Mississippi, he informed
+them, were not valuable in game and were not suited for agricultural
+purposes. They were said to be covered with pine trees, which the white
+men were eager to obtain, and accordingly the government was willing to
+pay the Chippewa nation for them. Thus, by selling the land they could
+obtain money for that which actually was of little value to them.[491]
+
+There evidently was no intention on the part of the Indians not to sell
+the lands, but the council was protracted, pending the arrival of other
+bands. Not until July 27th did they make any movement to close the deal.
+On that day, Ma-ghe-ga-bo, a warrior of the Pillager band, dressed in
+his most fantastic costume, covered a map of the land in question with a
+piece of paper, remarking that when the paper was removed the
+land would be considered sold. He added a final request: "My father, in
+all the country we sell you, we wish to hold on to that which gives us
+life--the streams and lakes where we fish, and the trees from which we
+make sugar."
+
+Finally he asked all the chiefs who agreed to sell the land to rise.
+About thirty arose at his word. Immediately Ma-ghe-ga-bo raised the
+paper from the map and seized the hand of Governor Dodge. The sale was
+made. There remained only to agree upon the terms of the cession.[492]
+
+During the negotiations, reference had been made continually by the
+Indians to the traders and the payment of the debts owed them. Pe-she-ke
+said: "I have been supported by the trader, and without his aid, could
+not get through the winter with naked skin. The grounds where your
+children have to hunt are as bare as that on which I now stand, and have
+no game upon them.... We have not much to give the traders, as our lands
+and hunting grounds are so destitute. Do us a kindness by paying our old
+debts." That he was coached to make the remark is evident from his
+statement that "No-body--no trader has instructed me what to say to
+you."[493]
+
+On July 29th the terms were finally agreed upon, and while the secretary
+was writing out the treaty the braves of the Chippewas held a dance
+under the walls of Fort Snelling. This indicated not only their
+satisfaction at the successful conclusion of the council, but was also
+intended as a compliment to the commissioner. Three hundred
+warriors circled about in their gaudy costumes, recounting during the
+pauses of the dance the deeds of bravery they had done and the number of
+Sioux scalps they had obtained. At a distance a great number of Sioux
+looked upon the scene, not daring to interfere when the troops of the
+fort were so near.[494]
+
+By this treaty the Chippewas ceded an immense tract of land east of the
+Mississippi. In return the United States agreed to pay annually for
+twenty years $9500 in money, $19,000 in goods, $3000 for blacksmiths,
+$1000 for farmers, $2000 in provisions, and $500 in tobacco. One hundred
+thousand dollars was to be paid to the half-breeds, and $70,000 was set
+aside to pay the claims of the fur traders. The privilege of hunting,
+fishing, and gathering wild rice along the lakes and rivers of the ceded
+territory was reserved for the Indians.[495]
+
+This cession of land by the Chippewas had its counterpart in a treaty
+concluded by Sioux chiefs on September 29, 1837, in Washington, whither
+they had been taken by Major Taliaferro. All their lands east of the
+Mississippi--the land between the Black River and the Mississippi River
+as far north as the Sioux-Chippewa boundary line was given up for
+various considerations amounting in total to almost one million
+dollars.[496]
+
+By these two treaties all the lands east of Fort Snelling were opened to
+settlement and commercial exploitation. As soon as the news of their
+ratification came, developments immediately began--developments
+which had an important bearing upon the future history of Old Fort
+Snelling. The days when the Chippewa treaty was being drawn up are
+important, not only because they present an interesting sight of the
+picturesque features of an Indian council, but also because they show
+how Fort Snelling was assisting in the opening up of the rich timber
+lands and fertile prairies that border the Mississippi River.
+
+For many years the payment of annuities that had been promised the Sioux
+was an annual reminder of these treaties. It was necessary that each
+Indian receive his portion of the goods and money in person in order to
+prevent fraud. In the late summer of each year all the warriors of Red
+Wing's and Wabasha's villages would leave their homes for the fort. In
+the agency building the United States officers, with the roll of the
+Sioux nation before them, called the names of the individuals, who one
+by one stepped up, touched the pen of the secretary, received the money,
+and deposited it in the box of his band. Outside was the typical Indian
+group--squaws, children, dogs, and braves smoking their pipes and
+talking of past achievements. And in order that the Indians might always
+be conscious of the presence of the soldiers of the "Great Father", the
+band of the fort played patriotic and thrilling airs.[497]
+
+With the transfer of the Indians to reservations higher up on the
+Minnesota River the payment of these annuities became a task which could
+no longer be performed at the fort. But the guarding of the funds
+was a necessity. Captain James Monroe spent the latter half of the month
+of November, 1852, at Traverse des Sioux with one subaltern and
+forty-seven men of the dragoons and infantry, protecting the money from
+bandits and Indians. William T. Magruder was ordered on October 23,
+1853, to proceed in command of a detachment of troops to escort the
+money being sent to Fort Ridgely; and exactly a year later, an officer
+and thirteen men were detailed to perform a similar task.[498]
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+CITIZENS AND SOLDIERS
+
+
+"The frontier army post," writes Professor F. J. Turner, "serving to
+protect the settlers from the Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open
+the Indian country, and has been a nucleus for settlement."[499] When
+the Fifth Infantry built its cantonment on the Minnesota River there
+were no other habitations in the neighborhood. Traders yearly frequented
+the region and wintered on the banks of the Mississippi and Minnesota
+rivers, but their headquarters were located at Prairie du Chien.
+Immediately after the beginning of the military establishment, however,
+the movement mentioned by Professor Turner was initiated.
+
+In the spring of 1820 J. B. Faribault came up with cattle for the
+garrison and decided to locate in the vicinity as a fur trader. On
+August 9th the Indians granted Pike's Island to his wife, Pelagi
+Faribault, who was the daughter of a Frenchman and a Sioux woman.
+Faribault immediately built houses upon the island, but high water
+washed them away. Thereupon he removed to the east side of the
+Mississippi. It is probably to this establishment that Beltrami referred
+in 1823 when he wrote that "there are no buildings round the fort,
+except three or four log-houses on the banks of the river, in
+which some subaltern agents of the Southwest Company live among the
+frogs."[500] This position was also upon low land, and on April 21,
+1826, when the ice began to move, Faribault's houses were carried away,
+while he and his family escaped in canoes.[501] After this second
+disaster Faribault's establishment was erected at Mendota, where Alexis
+Bailly had already located.[502] The growth of this village was very
+slow. But gradually old fur traders settled about it with their
+families; voyageurs, when not employed on the rivers, lounged about the
+trading house; and the agents and clerks of the American Fur Company had
+their permanent homes in the rude log cabins which were clustered about.
+
+In the meantime a new element had been added to the surroundings of the
+fort. It was already three-quarters of a century since the traders had
+erected the first trading post upon the Red River of the North. The
+early French voyageurs had left a race of half-breeds, popularly called
+_bois-brulés_, who were the vassals of the two great companies. When
+their strength had been spent in the labors of hunting and trapping,
+they retired to the vicinity of some post--the largest of these
+settlements being Fort Garry, the germ of the modern city of Winnipeg,
+which as early as 1823 boasted of a population of about six
+hundred.[503]
+
+But not all of these half-breeds were traders. Thomas Douglas, the fifth
+Lord Selkirk had secured from the Hudson's Bay Company the grant of an
+ immense tract of land on the Red River, and in 1811 he began the
+colonization of the region with poor immigrants from Scotland and
+Ireland. But the knowledge of the internal troubles of the company put
+an end to the immigration from these two countries, and Lord Selkirk
+turned to Switzerland for new recruits. In 1821 a ship full of Swiss
+sailed for Fort York on Hudson's Bay, and late in the fall the party
+reached the Red River after a toilsome journey up the Nelson River and
+across Lake Winnipeg. Being artisans and city-dwellers they were unable
+to endure the rough agricultural labors in the bleak north. Cold,
+floods, grasshoppers, and uncongenial neighbors rendered the location
+unpleasant.[504]
+
+Travellers from the south brought news of a better locality, and towards
+this place there soon began a movement which, while not great in any one
+year, was long continued. In 1821 five families made the journey to Fort
+Snelling, and their success inspired others. In 1823 thirteen families
+made the perilous journey of four hundred miles. From year to year, as
+families became discouraged they left the colony. Four hundred and
+eighty-nine persons had arrived at Fort Snelling up to 1835.[505]
+
+The many hardships endured by these travellers, and their pitiful
+condition, appealed to the sympathy of the Americans,[506] and they were
+welcomed and aided by the officers at Fort Snelling. During their stay
+one party was granted the use of the old barracks at Camp Cold Water.
+Employment was given the men upon the reservation, and those who
+preferred to remain were allowed to settle upon the military
+grounds. Comparatively few, however, made their homes here, the greater
+number proceeding to Galena, Illinois, and Vevay, Indiana. On one
+occasion provisions for the down-river journey in government keel-boats
+were issued by Colonel Snelling.[507]
+
+A third class of settlers around the fort was composed of discharged
+soldiers. Men stationed at Fort Snelling saw the agricultural value of
+the surrounding lands, or the possibility of riches in the fur trade.
+Joseph R. Brown, who came as a drummer boy with Colonel Leavenworth in
+1819, entered the employ of the post sutler when he ceased his
+connection with the army, and later he became an Indian trader.[508]
+Edward Phelan, John Hays, and William Evans, whose terms of service at
+Fort Snelling expired about this time were among the first settlers on
+the land ceded in the treaty of 1837.[509]
+
+In the fall of 1837 it was revealed by a survey that there were one
+hundred and fifty-seven white persons, not connected with the fort,
+living on the reservation. Of these, eighty-two had their homes in the
+vicinity of Camp Cold Water and seventy-five at the fur trading
+establishments. Approximately two hundred horses and cattle were owned
+by these persons.[510]
+
+For many years pleasant relations existed between the officers at the
+post and the civilians. The physician of the garrison willingly
+responded to calls for his aid made by the people living outside the
+fort.
+
+"I am compelled", wrote Joseph Renville to H. H. Sibley, "to ask you for
+some assistance in regard to a disease which is very bad here--the
+whooping cough. I pray you to ask the doctor for some medicine,
+particularly for some camphor."[511] Many a time Lawrence Taliaferro
+presided at a frontier wedding, when in one of the rude huts on the
+reservation the picturesque figure of the fur trader mingled with the
+glittering uniform of the officer, and dusky faces peered in at the
+windows awaiting the end of the ceremony when they also could partake of
+such a feast as only the prairies, lakes, and sutler's store could
+provide.[512]
+
+In the troubles which naturally arose between the settlers and the
+Indians, the agent was the mediator. Thirty of Peter Musick's cattle
+were killed by Indians who, wanting only powder horns, left the
+carcasses to the wolves.[513] On July 13, 1834, Jacob Falstrom came to
+the agency bringing the feet and hams of an ox which he claimed had been
+shot by a Sioux Indian at Mud Lake. He claimed thirty-five dollars from
+the Indian Department for the loss which he had sustained. As he was a
+poor man and had a large family to support Major Taliaferro was moved to
+make an effort to aid him. "I proposed", he wrote in his diary the same
+evening, "to contribute $5 for the benefit of J. Faustram to Several of
+the Gentlemen of the Post--but not meeting with a corresponding
+Sentiment--the poor fellow must be informed of my bad success in his
+behalf".[514]
+
+Only a week later Joseph R. Brown asked to be paid for a hog
+which the Indians had killed.[515] During the summer of 1837 Louis Massy
+claimed $150; Abraham Perry $50; and Benjamin F. Baker $750 for similar
+damages.[516] Many years later the agent wrote of these unpleasant
+duties: "The traders would make a detective of the agent if practicable.
+All thefts on each other were reported to the agent for justice.
+Deserting boatmen (fed on corn and tallow) must be forced to proceed up
+the St. Peter's with their outfits for the trade, right or wrong. Every
+ox, cow, calf or hog lost by persons on the Indian lands, the agents
+were expected to find the culprits or pay for these often fictitious
+losses."[517]
+
+A new era in the history of these settlers began when the treaties of
+1837 opened the lands east of the Mississippi to settlement. Some time
+before they had heard rumors of the coming negotiations at Washington,
+and those living west of the Mississippi sent a memorial to the
+President stating that they had settled upon the land thinking it was
+part of the public domain and believing that they would have the right
+of preëmption upon their claims. But now, if a new treaty was made and
+the land west of the Mississippi purchased for a military reservation,
+they asked that they be allowed reasonable compensation for the
+improvements they had made. However, in the treaty no mention was made
+of a military reservation, the title to the land around the fort being
+allowed to rest upon Pike's treaty of 1805.[518]
+
+But to Major J. Plympton, who became the commanding officer at Fort
+Snelling during the summer of 1837, the presence of these people
+was undesirable, and so in a letter written to the Adjutant-General he
+called attention to the settlement and complained of the difficulty of
+obtaining fuel for the garrison when the squatters were also engaged in
+the same task. In his reply on November 17, 1837, the Adjutant-General
+directed that a reservation be marked off--the extent of Pike's purchase
+being indefinite.[519]
+
+On March 26, 1838, Major Plympton sent a map of the territory which he
+chose to have considered as a military reservation. This reservation,
+contrary to the expectations of many, included land on the east side of
+the Mississippi. Thus there were many who thought that they had been
+using their legal rights of preëmption when in reality they were only
+squatters. Order No. 65 issued at the post on July 26, 1838, forbade the
+erection of any buildings or fences upon the reservation, and prohibited
+the cutting of timber except for public use.[520] During this same time
+there seems to have been, on the part of those living on the west bank
+of the Mississippi, a movement to the east side. Mrs. Abraham Perry came
+to Agent Taliaferro on October 18, 1838, and complained that the Indians
+had killed three of her cattle "just below the stone cave"--that is,
+Fountain Cave which was on the east bank of the river.[521] Yet her
+husband was among those who had signed the petition of August 16, 1837,
+as residents on the west side.
+
+Within these lands were also a number of shacks along the river
+bank a few miles below Fort Snelling. Here whiskey was clandestinely
+transferred from the boats before they proceeded upstream. During the
+winter of 1839 the presence of these resorts had a deteriorating effect
+upon the garrison. Surgeon Emerson wrote to the Surgeon General of the
+United States on April 23, 1839: "Since the middle of winter we have
+been completely inundated with ardent spirits, and consequently the most
+beastly scenes of intoxication among the soldiers of this garrison and
+the Indians in its vicinity, which no doubt will add many cases to our
+sick-list.... I feel grieved to witness such scenes of drunkenness and
+dissipation where I have spent many days of happiness, when we had no
+ardent spirits among us, and consequently sobriety and good conduct
+among the command."[522]
+
+Brigadier General John E. Wool inspected Fort Snelling on June 2nd, and
+in a letter on June 28th he urged that the settlers be driven off the
+reservation. "Such is the character of the white inhabitants of that
+country", he wrote, "that if they cannot be permitted to carry on their
+nefarious traffic with the Indians, it will sooner or later involve them
+in a war with the United States."[523]
+
+Influenced by these letters and reports Secretary of War J. R. Poinsett
+determined to compel all the settlers to leave. It is, however, wrong to
+suppose that all were guilty of whiskey-peddling. In a letter in which
+he commented on the number of persons present at the Sunday services in
+the fort the chaplain wrote that "Some of the inhabitants also in
+the vicinity who were regular in their attendance have removed."[524]
+
+The instructions for the removal were made out on October 21, 1839, and
+sent to Edward James, Marshal of the Territory of Wisconsin. They stated
+that if force should prove necessary to compel the people to leave, the
+Marshal should call upon the commanding officer at Fort Snelling for
+such aid. In that case he was instructed to act "with as much
+forbearance, consideration, and delicacy as may be consistent with the
+prompt and faithful performance of the duties hereby assigned to
+you".[525]
+
+The orders were not received by Marshal James until February 18, 1840,
+and he immediately forwarded them to his deputy, Ira B. Brunson of
+Prairie du Chien. As soon as navigation opened in the spring he left for
+Fort Snelling. Notice was at once given to the settlers to move, and
+when they refused a detachment of soldiers was called out on May 6th and
+under the direction of a lieutenant and Marshal Brunson the household
+goods of the settlers were carried out and their cabins destroyed.[526]
+
+These ejected settlers found new homes a few miles down the river. In
+the midst of their rude homes a log chapel was dedicated in November,
+1841, to the Apostle St. Paul by the Reverend Lucian Galtier.[527] As
+the ceded lands were more and more occupied, the little village enjoyed
+a corresponding growth. Gradually the name of the chapel was adopted as
+the name of the settlement. In 1849 the Territory of Minnesota
+was organized with the seat of the legislature at St. Paul. The new
+community prospered, and the town swarmed with settlers, Indians,
+travellers, and adventurers who lived in tents or slept in barns in lieu
+of better accommodations. There were also capitalists, tradesmen, and
+officials who here made their homes.[528]
+
+It was inevitable that between this new community and Fort Snelling
+close relations should exist. The Territorial government was weak; to
+enforce order it was necessary for the Governor to make requisition on
+the fort for troops.[529] The jail at Fort Snelling was also utilized
+for the punishment of many undesirable characters always drawn to a new
+region. James Higby who sold a promissory note which had already been
+paid, and Jacob Shipler who was arrested on a charge of assault and
+battery were both given terms in the jail at the fort. John R. McGregor,
+who became angry and threw his wife against a cooking stove, was
+separated from his help-meet for a period of three months while he
+languished in the fort.[530]
+
+The soldiers, in return, visited the frontier town, conducting
+themselves in the eyes of one observer "with much dignity and
+sobriety".[531] Not always, however, could their actions be thus
+described. Two soldiers who had just returned from an expedition to the
+Indian country, started for St. Paul on the evening of their return,
+carrying with them their blankets which they meant to sell for
+"refreshment".  But their birch canoe upset and before aid could
+reach them they were drowned.[532]
+
+But relations of a more innocent and more desirable sort also existed.
+In the officials of the Territory the officers at the fort found
+congenial spirits. One of the popular pastimes of the little city was to
+ride out upon the frozen Mississippi in sleighs to Fort Snelling. "This
+command", narrates an official report, "had the honor of receiving His
+Excellency W. A. Gorman Gov. of Minnesota and the Hon. James Shields
+late of the U. S. Senate, on the 9th inst. by whom the Command was
+reviewed &c. in presence of a large concourse of Citizens."[533] The
+band of the Sixth Regiment which had paraded through the streets of
+Mexico City playing "Yankee Doodle" now found occupation in playing for
+the balls and parties of the frontier town. Even the inhabitants of
+Stillwater, twenty-five miles distant, called on the fort to furnish the
+music for the Valentine Ball on February 14, 1850.[534] During the same
+month a concert was given, the proceeds going to the Washington Monument
+Association. A year later the ladies who had arranged to give a tea
+party to raise money for the benefit of the poor children of the
+community changed their plans and accepted the offer of the band who
+volunteered to give a concert for the purpose.[535] The value of this
+association of citizens with the soldiers led to the remark of an editor
+that "We consider this band as well as the whole garrison, with its high
+intelligence--but especially the band, of infinite value to St.
+Paul--in fact, it is the most powerful element of influence amongst us,
+for our good, next to the pulpit and the press."[536]
+
+The tourists who for many years had been frequenting the upper
+Mississippi now increased in numbers. In the "Drive of All Visitors"
+were included the Falls of St. Anthony, Lake Harriet, Minnehaha Falls,
+and Fort Snelling.[537] From the lookout tower of the fort on the edge
+of the cliff, could be viewed the same scenery which had charmed Carver
+a hundred years before. Undoubtedly many thought as did the newspaper
+man who wrote: "In the contemplation of this scene from Ft. Snelling,
+one is ravished with a desire to get upon it; and to appropriate a
+little domain for his home. It has the look of home. How can the Sioux
+ever consent to part with these lands?"[538]
+
+But two years later they did part with them. The two treaties in which
+the cession was acknowledged were brought about without military
+aid.[539] This was in itself prophetic of the new status of the fort.
+With the growth of the Territorial organization, one by one the duties
+connected with Indian affairs, liquor troubles, and the protection of
+life and property were taken over by the civil officers, with the
+military men as the executors of their laws only when the regular forces
+of administration were unable to handle the difficulties.
+
+And now the fort which had so long looked down upon the canoes of the
+Indians and traders saw on its two rivers a new procession.
+Flatboats, steamboats, and canoes bore upstream the hardy pioneers and
+their families, and returned loaded with the products of the farm and
+the forest. The post which could have successfully resisted the attack
+of Indian warriors, or even the siege of a civilized enemy was to fall
+before the invasion of the pioneers. The frontier had suddenly leaped
+far to the westward. In 1858, when the troops were withdrawn, there was
+no need of an establishment such as had existed during the first forty
+years. It was the passing of Old Fort Snelling which for so many years
+had been the remotest outpost of American law.
+
+The development of the Northwest was not brought about by the
+spectacular and romantic incidents which the chroniclers loved to
+record. So gradual was its progress that the factors contributing to it
+can be seen only in the perspective of fifty years. It was the result of
+the monotonous details of the life of the fur trader who was the
+unwitting explorer of the Northwest, and the forerunner of the permanent
+resident. The routine duties of garrison life and expeditions to the
+Indian country, often barren of any visible result, added to its
+progress, as also did the weary marches of the explorer and the minute
+notations of the scientist who accompanied him. The patient sacrifices
+of the missionary who toiled at unaccustomed labors in the half-cleared
+cornfield and taught his primitive pupils in the log mission-house,
+introduced a new civilization. The daily contact of the Indian
+and the white man at the fort and agency were prophetic of a new
+relationship between the two races.
+
+But because these events were so commonplace the contemporary
+chroniclers have bequeathed only a brief though eloquent epitome of this
+old Mississippi River post. It was the exception and not the rule to
+note that a company of soldiers was up the river watching the movements
+of the Indians, that a missionary had been presented with a ham, or that
+an explorer took with him so many vegetables from the gardens of the
+fort that the gunwale of his boat was brought within four inches of the
+water. But such are the stray references which indicate the almost
+complete dependence upon the fort of all the factors in the development
+of the Northwest.
+
+
+In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to gather together from
+all sources the references which bear upon each particular phase of the
+process. In most cases they are few, not because the military men were
+not concerned with them, but because at every post in the Mississippi
+Valley conditions were practically the same and the public, being
+acquainted with these routine duties, was more interested in the
+picturesque Indian legends or in the duels between the officers. Of
+these latter incidents the pages of the history of Fort Snelling are
+full and in this respect it was typical of the American army post. But
+it is also an example of that which is of more importance--the
+contribution of the army to the transformation of the Mississippi
+Valley.
+
+In many ways Fort Snelling is unique in the list of American forts. The
+British flag was borne in triumph to wave from the flagstaff of Fort
+Ticonderoga after it had been evacuated by the colonial patriots during
+the dark days of 1777; but never was a foreign flag borne into Fort
+Snelling except to be burned in the sight of awestruck Indians. The guns
+of Fort Sumter announced the opening of the Civil War; never were the
+cannon at Fort Snelling fired at a foe. Mackinac was successively
+garrisoned by French, English, and American soldiers; whenever occupied
+by troops Fort Snelling flew the stars and stripes. The stockades at
+Boonesborough and Harrodstown were besieged by hundreds of savages who
+fought to gain entrance and obtain the scalps of the pioneer men and
+women there gathered for safety; no hostile demonstration was ever
+staged near Fort Snelling. Its history was not made by the rifles and
+sabers of the soldiers; the axe and the plow of the pioneer who worked
+in safety beneath its potential protection have left their history upon
+the landscape of the great Northwest.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES AND REFERENCES
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+[1] Carver's _Travels through the Interior Parts of North-America_, pp.
+vii, viii.
+
+[2] To the region lying on the upper waters of three great river
+systems--the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the Red River of the
+North--the writer has applied the name "Upper Northwest" to distinguish
+it from the "Old Northwest" and the "Pacific Northwest".
+
+[3] For a summary of the French explorations see Folwell's _Minnesota_,
+pp. 1-29. Thwaites's _France in America_, p. 74, contains an excellent
+map of the French operations in the West.
+
+[4] The report of Louis Antoine Bougainville, written in 1757 and based
+on the reports of Canadian officials, shows the extent of French
+commerce at the close of the period of French control. At Green Bay (La
+Baye) trade was carried on with the Folles-Avoines, Sacs, Foxes, Sioux,
+and other tribes, the annual output being from five to six hundred
+packages of furs. In the North, extending westward along what is now the
+international boundary to the Lake of the Woods and then along the lakes
+and rivers of the Lake Winnipeg system, was the territory of the post
+known as "The Sea of the West". This included seven forts and produced a
+yearly supply of from three to four hundred packages. "These regions are
+everywhere vast prairies; this is the route to take for the upper
+Missouri."--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XVIII, pp. 167-195.
+A picturesque account of the life of the French traders is given in
+Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 115-119.
+
+[5] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XVIII, p. 251; Turner's
+_The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin_ in the
+_Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science_,
+Vol. IX, pp. 584, 585.
+
+[6] Thwaites's _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_,
+Vol. VII, p. 373. In 1792, Peter Grant built a trading house on the site
+of St. Vincent, Minnesota, on the east bank of the Red River, and in
+1800-1801 the fort of Pembina was erected by the great traveller,
+Alexander Henry, the younger.--_South Dakota Historical Collections_,
+Vol. I, p. 138.
+
+[7] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 684.
+
+[8] Thwaites's _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_,
+Vol. I, pp. 227, 228. Traders of the Hudson's Bay Company also
+frequented the spot. Sergeant John Ordway records in his journal for
+December 1, 1804, that "a Scotsman who is tradeing at the Mandens came
+to visit us. he belonged to the hudson bay company.... he brought over
+Tobacco Beeds & other kinds of Goods. & traded with the Mandens for
+their furs & buffalow Robes. they bring Some Guns to trade for horses &.
+C. this hudsons bay comp^y lay Garrisoned near the N. W. Comp^y....
+Eight or 10 days travel by land a North course from this."--_Wisconsin
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XXII, p. 169.
+
+[9] Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far
+West_, Vol. II, p. 556.
+
+[10] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 279, 280.
+
+[11] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 286.
+
+[12] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 280.
+
+[13] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 156.
+
+[14] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 171.
+
+[15] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 252.
+
+[16] Wilkinson's instructions to Pike are printed in Coues's _The
+Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. II, pp. 842-844. Before the
+founding of Fort Snelling the Minnesota River was called by the French
+voyageurs the "St. Pierre". When the Americans were established on its
+banks they anglicized this name into "St. Peter's". The fort, the
+agency, and the fur traders' establishment are commonly referred to in
+early literature as "St. Peter's". By a joint resolution of Congress on
+June 19, 1852, the name Minnesota was ordered to be used in all public
+documents in which the river was mentioned. This was the Indian name for
+the river.--_United States Statutes at Large_,  Vol. X, p. 147. In
+mentioning this river use is made in this volume of the modern name,
+except when quoting.
+
+[17] The account of the treaty is given in Coues's _The Expeditions of
+Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 83, 84. The treaty itself is printed on
+page 231 and Pike's speech on pages 226-230. Article I contains the land
+cession: "That the Sioux nation grant unto the United States, for the
+purpose of establishment of military posts, nine miles square at the
+mouth of the St. Croix, also from below the confluence of the
+Mississippi and St. Peters up the Mississippi to include the falls of
+St. Anthony, extending nine miles on each side of the river, that the
+Sioux nation grants to the United States the full sovereignty and power
+over said district forever." The meaning of all this is extremely vague.
+
+[18] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 798.
+
+[19] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp. 11,
+13.
+
+[20] A petition of the London merchants to the English government stated
+that before the war the annual export of furs from Canada amounted to
+£250,000. Updyke's _The Diplomacy of the War of 1812_, p. 204.
+
+[21] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp. 72,
+73.
+
+[22] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp.
+66-69. The figures are given on page 69.
+
+[23] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, p. 184.
+
+[24] The best account of the massacre at Fort Dearborn is given in
+Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest_, 1673-1835, pp. 211-231.
+
+[25] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIX, p. 323.
+
+[26] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 120, 194.
+
+
+[27] _Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, p. 219. It
+must be stated that the British in no way sought intentionally to use
+the Indians for the purpose of massacreing the whites. The instructions
+to Dickson declared that he "should restrain them by all the means in
+your power from acts of Cruelty and inhumanity". On March 16, 1813,
+Dickson reported to the military secretary at Quebec that he had taken
+steps to redeem the soldiers, women, and children of the ill-fated Fort
+Dearborn garrison, who were still captives.--_Michigan Pioneer and
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, pp. 258, 259.
+
+[28] _Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, pp. 321,
+322.
+
+[29] There is a summary of Dickson's activities in the _Wisconsin
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 133-153.
+
+[30] _Niles' Register_, Vol. VI, p. 176.
+
+[31] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, p. 10; _Niles'
+Register_, Vol. VI, p. 242.
+
+[32] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XI, pp. 254-270.
+
+[33] _Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of
+America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, pp. 404, 405.
+
+[34] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 10, 11;
+Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West_,
+Vol. II, p. 561.
+
+[35] These treaties were concluded: on July 18th with the Pottawattomies
+and Piankashaws; on July 19th with the Tetons and Sioux of the Lakes,
+Sioux of St. Peter's River, and Yankton Sioux; September 2nd with the
+Kickapoos; September 8th with the Wyandots; September 12th with the
+Osages; September 13th with the Sacs of the Missouri; September 14th
+with the Foxes; September 16th with the Iowas. The treaties are
+published in Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+110-123. The reports of the commissioners and also the treaties are
+printed in the _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, pp.
+1-11.
+
+[36] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 9.
+
+[37] For these migrations see the _Michigan Pioneer and Historical
+Collections_, Vol. XXIII, pp. 97, 443; Kingsford's _The History of
+Canada_, Vol. IX, p. 69; _Report on Canadian Archives_, 1896, p. 157.
+ During the negotiations at Ghent the British commissioners had
+sought to have established a permanent Indian territory to be a barrier
+state between the two powers.--Updyke's _The Diplomacy of the War of
+1812_, p. 204.
+
+The Indians felt they had been abandoned by the English. Hence the
+liberality in gift distribution was an attempt to appease them.
+
+[38] See the reports of W. H. Puthuff in the _Wisconsin Historical
+Collections_, Vol. XIX, pp. 430-433, 472-474.
+
+[39] Schoolcraft's _Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with
+the Indian Tribes_, p. 19.
+
+[40] Irving's _The Sketch-Book_ (Hudson Edition), p. 489.
+
+[41] Carr's _Missouri_, p. 121.
+
+[42] _Niles' Register_, Vol. VIII, p. 436, August 19, 1815.
+
+[43] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 86.
+
+[44] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. III, p. 332. John Jacob
+Astor of the American Fur Company has received the credit for the
+passage of this law.--Folwell's _Minnesota_, p. 54; Coman's _Economic
+Beginnings of the Far West_, Vol. I, pp. 344, 345. This is neglecting
+the fact that there was a unanimous outcry against foreign traders--one
+of the signs that the War of 1812 marks the rise of American
+nationality. The legislation of April 29, 1816, was not wholly
+satisfactory to Astor. "I have seen a letter", wrote William H. Puthuff,
+Indian agent at Mackinac, "addressed by J. J. Astor to a Mr. Franks a
+British trader now at this place in which Mr. Astor expresses surprise
+and regret at the passage of a law forbidding British subjects from
+trading with Indians, within the American limits etc."--_Wisconsin
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XIX, p. 423. What Mr. Astor wanted was the
+prohibition of trade by American private citizens as well as by British
+private citizens. If his American Fur Company were given a monopoly as
+he desired, he also wanted to be free to employ such persons--American
+or British--as he needed.
+
+[45] Or, more correctly from the point where a north and south line
+drawn through the most northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods would
+intersect this parallel.--_Treaties and Conventions concluded between
+the United States of America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, p.
+416.
+
+[46] _Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of
+America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, p. 377.
+
+[47] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 279.
+
+[48] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XIV, pp. 387-389.
+
+[49] There is an excellent account of the United States trading house
+system in Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, pp.
+289-309.
+
+[50] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 228.
+
+[51] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 6.
+
+[52] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 39.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+[53] For the erection of these posts see Quaife's _Chicago and the Old
+Northwest, 1673-1835_, p. 265; Thwaites's _Wisconsin_, pp. 180-182;
+Gue's _History of Iowa_, Vol. I, pp. 137, 138.
+
+[54] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 669.
+
+[55] Major Long's journal is printed in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 9-88.
+
+[56] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XIV, p. 192.
+
+[57] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 779.
+
+[58] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 319.
+
+[59] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 32.
+
+[60] The story of the Yellowstone Expedition is narrated in detail in
+Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West_,
+Vol. II, pp. 562-587. See also the preface to James's _Account of an
+Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_ in Thwaites's _Early
+Western Travels_, Vol. XIV, pp. 9-26. For the site of this fort see
+Thwaites's _Early Western Travels_, Vol. XXII, p. 275, note 231.
+
+[61] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 34th Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 2,
+Document No. 1, p. 21.
+
+[62] Leavenworth's _A Genealogy of the Leavenworth Family in the United
+States_, p. 152.
+
+[63] Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 7.
+
+[64] In the _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820, Vol. III, No. 135,
+there is reprinted from the _National Intelligencer_ an "Extract of a
+letter from a gentleman of the expedition to the Falls of St. Anthony,
+to his friend in Washington, dated Cantonment of the 5th regt. U. S.
+Infantry, St. Peter's River, Nov. 10, 1819." It is from this letter that
+the dates of arriving at and leaving the various places are taken. The
+Adjutant General in an order praised the garrison at Fort Howard "for
+the economy and expedition with which the command constructed transport
+boats for the accommodation of the 5th regiment in its passage to the
+Mississippi."--_Detroit Gazette_, September 10, 1819.
+
+[65] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 96, note. Mrs. Van
+Cleve gives another version of this affair: "When all was in order,
+Colonel Leavenworth stepped forth, and, through an interpreter, formally
+requested of the Chief permission to pass peaceably through their
+country. The Chief, a very handsome young brave, advanced, and, with his
+right arm uncovered, said, with most expressive gestures: 'My brother,
+do you see the calm, blue sky above us? Do you see the lake that lies so
+peacefully at our feet? So calm, so peaceful are our hearts towards you.
+Pass on!'"--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories
+of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 11.
+
+That these Indians were not so friendly as this account would indicate
+is apparent from the statement in Major Forsyth's narrative that Captain
+Whistler of Fort Howard had been fired at, at different times during the
+summer of 1819 by these Winnebagoes.--_Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, p. 167.
+
+[66] Major Forsyth's narrative, covering the time from his departure
+from St. Louis on June 7th until his arrival there again on September
+17th, is published in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III,
+pp. 139-167; also in the _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. VI,
+pp. 188-219. It is from this narrative that the facts regarding the
+progress of the expedition were obtained.
+
+[67] Major Forsyth's narrative in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 147, 148, 149.
+
+[68] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 149; Van Cleve's
+ _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort
+Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 15.
+
+[69] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 149-153, 159.
+Mrs. Van Cleve says that a few days were spent on the shores of Lake
+Pepin.--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 16. Mrs. Ellet in her sketch of Mrs. Clark
+says a week was spent at this place.--Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the
+West_, p. 350.
+
+[70] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 153, 154. Neill
+records that the troops did not reach the Minnesota River "until
+September".--Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p.
+320. But in Appendix L., p. 891, he gives the same dates as Forsyth. In
+Folwell's _Minnesota_, p. 55, the statement is made that "the command
+arrived at Mendota August 23". As the main body of soldiers did not
+arrive until August 24th, this latter date should be taken as the
+birthday of Fort Snelling.
+
+[71] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 154-157; _Detroit
+Gazette_, October 22, 1819, February 18, 1820.
+
+[72] _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820.
+
+[73] Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp. 18, 19. The baby was Charlotte Ouisconsin
+Clark who married General Horatio P. Van Cleve. In 1888 she published a
+book of reminiscences. It possesses all the merits and defects of a book
+of reminiscences--vividness of pictures--inaccuracy in regard to
+specific facts.
+
+[74] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 351; _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 48.
+
+[75] Mrs. Van Cleve, who received her information from her father, gives
+the number as forty.--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten,"
+Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 19. James Doty, who
+kept the official journal of the Cass Expedition of 1820, and who
+received his information from the officers at Camp Cold Water, gives the
+number as forty.--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, p. 214.
+Philander Prescott in his reminiscences states that "Some fifty or sixty
+had died, and some ten men died after I arrived".--_Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 478. L. Grignon wrote on April 3, 1820, that
+"They tell me that fifty Soldiers of the river St. Pierre have
+died of Scurvy".--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 161.
+
+In writing of the attack of scurvy Mr. H. H. Sibley remarks: "It was
+doubtless caused by the bad quality of the provisions, especially of the
+pork, which was spoiled by the villany of the contractors, or their
+agents, in drawing the brine from the barrels that contained it, after
+leaving St. Louis, in order to lighten the load, and causing the barrels
+to be refilled with river water, before their delivery at the post,
+to avoid detection. The troops were compelled to live on this
+unwholesome fare for two successive seasons, before the fraud was
+discovered."--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 473, 474.
+Nowhere else is this explanation given. Sickness could easily come at a
+frontier post without such villainy. During the same winter at Camp
+Missouri over half of the garrison of seven hundred men were sick, and
+nearly one hundred of them died. At Council Bluff there was also a great
+deal of sickness.--_Detroit Gazette_, July 21, September 1, 1820.
+
+[76] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 473.
+
+[77] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 103.
+
+[78] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479.
+
+[79] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, p. 136.
+
+[80] These facts are from the reminiscences of Philander Prescott in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479.
+
+[81] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 105.
+
+[82] Snelling to Taliaferro, November 7, 1821.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 30.
+
+[83] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 107. Mrs. Van Cleve
+states that the fort was occupied in the fall of 1821.--Van Cleve's
+_"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling,
+Minnesota_, p. 32.
+
+[84] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153.
+
+[85] Schoolcraft's _Narrative Journal of Travels from Detroit Northwest
+through the Great Chain of American Lakes to the sources of the
+Mississippi River_, pp. 292-315. The official journal was kept by James
+Doty. The time spent with Leavenworth's troops is described in the
+_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, pp. 212-216.
+
+[86] Captain Kearny's journal is printed in the _Missouri Historical
+Society Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 8-29, 99-131. Pages 104-110 are
+devoted to the time spent at Camp Cold Water.
+
+[87] These facts regarding the change of the name are taken from Upham's
+_The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, Later named Fort Snelling_
+in the _Magazine of History_, Vol. XXI, pp. 38, 39. Dr. Upham received
+his information from a letter from the Adjutant General of the United
+States.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+[88] See Miss Gallaher's article on _The Military-Indian Frontier
+1830-1835_ in _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. XV, pp.
+393-428.
+
+[89] Langham to Taliaferro, August 19, 1820.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol.
+I, No. 62.
+
+[90] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 117.
+
+[91] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 901.
+
+[92] Marsh to Taliaferro, June 26, 1827.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I,
+No. 76.
+
+[93] This was the opening of the Winnebago War, often called the "Red
+Bird War". Accounts of it are given in William Joseph Snelling's _Early
+Days at Prairie du Chien_ in the _Wisconsin Historical Collections_,
+Vol. V, pp. 144-153; and _State Papers_, 1st Session, 20th Congress,
+Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150-163.
+
+[94] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 118.
+
+[95] For the movement of troops see _State Papers_, 1st Session, 20th
+Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150-163.
+
+[96] Taliaferro to Cass, October 4, 1832.--_Indian Office Files_, 1832,
+No. 226.
+
+[97] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 439, 440, 459; Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth
+Edition), pp. 483-487.
+
+[98] For an account of the Winnebagoes and their many migrations see
+Jackson's _A Century of Dishonor_, pp. 218-256.
+
+[99] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt. 2,
+Document No. 5, pp. 1028, 1029; _The Minnesota Pioneer_, September 13,
+1849.
+
+[100] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 28, December 12, 1849.
+
+[101] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3,
+Document No. 2, p. 421. "The recent arrival at Fort Snelling of a
+company of dragoons, so long wanted, will greatly assist in intercepting
+the migration southward of this discontented people."--Report of
+Alexander Ramsey, October 21, 1850, in _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session,
+31st Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 81.
+
+[102] This reservation was agreed upon by the treaty concluded at
+Washington, D. C., on February 27, 1855; Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws
+and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 690-693.
+
+[103] _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 316, 423.
+
+[104] Bryce's _The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, pp.
+365-372. A description of a hunt, written in French by Rev. M. Belcourt,
+is given in _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol.
+VIII, Document No. 51, pp. 44-52.
+
+[105] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII,
+Document No. 51, p. 4.
+
+[106] This was during the period that Professor William A. Dunning
+describes as "The Roaring Forties". "And the far flung interests of the
+British Empire need no more striking illustration than the fact that in
+whatever direction the Americans sought to expand their bounds, whether
+on the Atlantic or on the Pacific, in the Gulf of the tropics or under
+the Arctic circle, they found subjects of the Queen, with vested rights,
+opposing the movement."--Dunning's _The British Empire and the United
+States_, pp. 96, 97.
+
+[107] Captain Sumner's report is printed in the _Executive Documents_,
+1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 2, pp. 217-220. It is
+reprinted with explanatory notes in _The Iowa Journal of History and
+Politics_, Vol. XI, pp. 258-267.
+
+[108] The report of Major Woods is printed in _Executive Documents_, 1st
+Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII, Document No. 51. It contains
+fifty-five pages. Accompanying the expedition was John Pope, Brevet
+ Captain of the Topographical Engineers. His report is published
+in _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. X, Document No.
+42. There is an excellent map attached to the report.
+
+[109] Colonel Smith's report is printed in the _Executive Documents_,
+2nd Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Pt. II, Document No. 1, pp.
+426-454.
+
+[110] Ansel Briggs to the Secretary of War.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1849, No. 206. The petition was dated Washington, Iowa, July 31,
+1849.--_Indian Office Files_, 1849, No. 208.
+
+[111] Major Woods's report is found in the _Indian Office Files_, 1849,
+No. 174.
+
+[112] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, April 3, 1850.
+
+[113] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 16, 1850.
+
+[114] See the letter of William Hutchinson, who was one of the party. It
+is published in _The Minnesota Pioneer_, June 13, 1850. "Iowa City looks
+as it did five years ago", he wrote. "A few houses were built since that
+time; but evidently were not the capitol located at this place, it would
+be no _great shakes_, though in time it is bound to come out. Some years
+since, Uncle Sam erected expensive bridges for the good citizens of
+Iowa, betwixt Dubuque and Iowa City; and strange to say the people are
+suffering them to rot down without covering them. Iowa City has grown in
+ten years as large as Saint Paul, which is not 2 years old. Steamboats
+often get up to this place, but all will not suffice."
+
+[115] Report of Major Woods.--_Indian Office Files_, 1850, No. 363.
+
+[116] _The Iowa Star_ (Fort Des Moines), July 18, 1850.
+
+[117] _The Annals of Iowa_ (First Series), Vol. VII, pp. 284, 285.
+
+"Part of Company D. 1st regiment of U. S. Dragoons under command of
+Lieut. Gardner passed through here on their way to the Missouri river.
+We understand they intend to pay a visit to the Indian tribes on the
+upper Missouri and from thence across Minnesota Territory to their
+quarters at Ft. Snelling."--Quoted from the _Fort Des Moines Gazette_ in
+the _Miners' Express_ (Dubuque), September 4, 1850. The return of the
+troops to Fort Snelling is noted in _The Minnesota Pioneer_, October 3,
+1850.
+
+[118] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3,
+Document No. 2, p. 284. An account of the journey is printed in _The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, February 12, 1852.
+
+[119] Asa Whitney, a New York merchant, petitioned Congress in January,
+1845, for a franchise and a grant of land to make this dream a
+reality.--_Congressional Globe_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, pp. 218,
+219.
+
+[120] Act of March 3, 1853.--_United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. X,
+p. 219.
+
+[121] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No.
+91, pp. 1, 13, 74.
+
+[122] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 36th Congress, Document No.
+56, p. 36; _Post Returns_, May, 1853, in the archives of the War
+Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[123] A brief account of the expedition is given in Paxson's _The Last
+American Frontier_, pp. 197-203. The reports of all the surveys were
+published by the government. That of Governor Stevens consists of 651
+pages, added to the report of the Secretary of War, published in
+_Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91. In
+1859 Governor Stevens submitted a _Narrative and Final Report_,
+published in two parts in the _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 36th
+Congress, Document No. 56. The various reports of all the explorers are
+bound in a set of twelve volumes, in which Governor Stevens's first
+account may be found in Vol. I, and the later narrative in Vol. XII,
+Pts. I and II.
+
+[124] Order No. 7 stated: "It is considered of great consequence that
+the several trains should not be intermingled; and the dragoons attached
+to the several parties will continue with them, camping and working with
+them, receiving their orders only from their particular chiefs, even
+when the whole force is brought together."--_Executive Documents_, 2nd
+Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91, p. 46.
+
+[125] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 2, p. 112.
+
+[126] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, p. 566.
+
+[127] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+567-570.
+
+[128] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. X, Pt. I, p. 181.
+
+[129] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 161.
+
+[130] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 180-183.
+
+[131] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, July 19, 1849.
+
+[132] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, September 6, 1849, July 11, November 21,
+1850.
+
+[133] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. X, Pt. I, pp. 193, 199.
+
+[134] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+588-593.
+
+[135] Holcombe's _Minnesota in Three Centuries_, Vol. II, pp. 327, 328;
+_Annals of Iowa_ (First Series), Vol. VII, p. 290; _Post Returns_,
+March, April, 1853, in the archives of the War Department, Washington,
+D. C.
+
+[136] For Colonel Smith's expedition see above, Note 109. For the
+building of Fort Abercrombie see the _Collections of the State
+Historical Society of North Dakota_, Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 7.
+
+[137] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, pp. 10-12.
+
+[138] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2595.
+
+[139] For the sale of Fort Snelling see Dr. Folwell's paper on _The Sale
+of Fort Snelling_, 1857, in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol.
+XV, pp. 393-410.
+
+[140] The report of the committee may be found in _Reports of
+Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351.
+
+[141] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2614.
+
+[142] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2618.
+
+[143] Minnesota Historical Collections, Vol. VIII, p. 431.
+
+[144] For papers relating to the readjustment see _Executive Documents_,
+3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+[145] Quoted in Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp.
+58, 59.
+
+[146] In the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, pp. 430,
+431, there is a list of the commanding officers from September, 1819 to
+May, 1858.
+
+[147] For the life of Henry Leavenworth see the _Kansas Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VII, pp. 577, 578, Vol. IX, p. 569, Vol. XI, p. xxi;
+Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from 1779
+to 1900_, p. 428; Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of
+the Far West_, Vol. II, pp. 630-632; Leavenworth's _A Genealogy of the
+Leavenworth Family in the United States_, pp. 150-154.
+
+[148] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 777.
+
+[149] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, pp. 310-323, contains a
+sketch of the activities of Captain Snelling during the war.
+
+[150] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, pp. 313, 314.
+
+[151] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 316.
+
+[152] From the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 96, 97. Mrs. Adams, as a child,
+lived several years in the Snelling household.
+
+[153] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 599; Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 334.
+
+[154] From a manuscript entitled "Remarks on General Wm. Hull's Memoirs
+of the Campaign of the Northwestern Army, 1812", by Josiah
+Snelling.--_Draper Collection_, 8 U. 114, pp. 42, 43.
+
+[155] _The Works of Daniel Webster_, Vol. V, p. 410.
+
+[156] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, pp. 440, 441.
+
+[157] See the sketch of Captain Scott in Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years
+and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp. 28, 29.
+
+[158] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 367.
+
+[159] There is a sketch of Martin Scott in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 180-187, from which this story is taken.
+
+[160] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 577.
+
+[161] _Niles' Register_, Vol. 73, p. 130.
+
+[162] The frontispiece of Mrs. Eastman's _Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends
+of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_ was painted by Captain Eastman.
+
+[163] Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. II, p. 292.
+
+[164] In his notes to _Hiawatha_ Longfellow quotes from the introduction
+of Mrs. Eastman's book, p. ii.--_Longfellow's Complete Poetical Works_
+(Cambridge Edition), p. 666.
+
+[165] Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. II, p. 292.
+
+[166] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 449; _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p.
+441.
+
+[167] _The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. VIII, pp.
+89, 90.
+
+[168] Rhodes's _History of the United States_, Vol. IV, p. 328.
+
+[169] _The American Annual Cyclopaedia_, 1863, p. 816.
+
+[170] Bancroft's _History of Oregon_, Vol. II, pp. 611, 612. For the
+career of General Canby see Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American
+Biography_, Vol. I, pp. 517, 518.
+
+[171] This incident is taken from Folsom's _Fifty Years in the
+Northwest_, pp. 755, 756. Mr. Folsom says he took it "from a St. Paul
+paper of 1887".
+
+[172] For the Dred Scott case see McMaster's _A History of the People of
+the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 278, 279.
+
+[173] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. I, p. 50.
+
+[174] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 564.
+
+[175] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, pp. 729-739.
+
+[176] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IX, p. 395.
+
+[177] Quoted from the complaint of the agent, Nathaniel McLean,
+September 25, 1850, in _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 31st Congress,
+Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 106.
+
+[178] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 249.
+
+[179] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 253, 254.
+
+[180] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 353.
+
+[181] Taliaferro to Crawford, July 15, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 512.
+
+[182] These papers are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical
+Society. The dates covered in these diaries are from December, 1830, to
+June, 1831; May 25 to September 21, 1833; May 23 to August 28, 1834.
+
+[183] These letters are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical
+Society. In Volume I of these letters is the following notice: "These
+326 letters, are part of the great mass of correspondence received by
+Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro, Indian Agent at Fort Snelling, 1819-1840. They
+constitute but a small part of his accumulations in twenty years. The
+rest were burned in his house at Bedford, Pa., in 18__. It was a great
+loss to us, as, had they been spared, we would have received all of
+them. But even these 326 contain a large amount of valuable material for
+Minnesota history. Even as autographs they are valuable, [see
+autobiography of Taliaferro, Vol. 6, Coll.] These letters were given by
+Maj. T. in March, 1868. Arranged, bound and indexed (by J. F. W.) 1891."
+
+[184] Photostatic copies of many of these letters were taken and are to
+be found in the library of the Wisconsin Historical Society, where they
+were consulted.
+
+[185] These letter books are now in the possession of the Kansas State
+Historical Society at Topeka, where they were consulted. The only volume
+containing letters from Major Taliaferro is referred to as the _William
+Clark Papers, Correspondence, 1830-1832_.
+
+[186] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 253.
+
+[187] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 620. In the _Taliaferro Letters_ are many letters from
+William Clark and Elbert Herring in which they address Mr. Taliaferro as
+"major".
+
+[188] _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 11. A note on this letter gives
+these dates.
+
+[189] Nowhere is the date of his arrival at Fort Snelling given. In his
+autobiography he writes of his journey: "Jean Baptiste Faribault and
+family, had gone through by land, in charge of Colonel Leavenworth's
+horses and cows".--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 198.
+It was in the spring of 1820 that Faribault performed this
+service.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 103.
+
+[190] Clark to the Secretary of War, August 20, 1832.--_Indian Office
+Files_, 1832, No. 285. For his resignation see _Indian Office Files_,
+1824, No. 39.
+
+[191] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 24, 1831.
+
+[192] Taliaferro to Crawford, December 12, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 516.
+
+[193] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 337-339.
+
+[194] In the report for 1850 the agency at St. Peter's is designated a
+"Sub-Agency".--_Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 103.
+
+[195] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 339, 340.
+
+[196] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 213, 1827, No. 54, 1843, No. 222.
+
+[197] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, p. 341.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+[198] See _Notes on Canada and the North-West States of America_ in
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, Vol. LXXVIII, p. 323, September, 1855. These
+articles by Laurence Oliphant were later published in book form under
+the title of _Minnesota and the Far West_.
+
+[199] This is the height given in Nicollet's _Report intended to
+illustrate a Map of the Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi
+River_, p. 69.
+
+[200] Seymour's _Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West_, p.
+103.
+
+[201] This sketch of the fort is obtained from the map of Fort Snelling
+in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p. 431; and from a
+_Report of the capacity and condition of the barracks, quarters,
+hospital, storehouses, &c., at Fort Snelling, Minnesota Territory, made
+to the Quartermaster General_. This report was made on August 23, 1856.
+It is printed in _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress,
+Vol. II, Report No. 351, pp. 407-409.
+
+[202] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. IV, p. 122.
+
+[203] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, p. 295.
+
+[204] A statement of the equipment at the various posts during the
+fourth quarter of 1834 is printed in the _American State Papers,
+Military Affairs_, Vol. V, p. 853-900.
+
+[205] Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 492.
+
+[206] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153.
+
+[207] Taliaferro to William Clark, August 17, 1830.--_Indian Office
+Files_, 1830, No. 139.
+
+[208] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 7, 1831.
+
+[209] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 8, 1831.
+
+[210] Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 492; _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol.
+VII, Document No. 9, p. 19.
+
+[211] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153.
+
+[212] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 207.
+
+[213] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153. In the Sibley House at
+Mendota is hung an oil painting of Fort Snelling made by Sergeant Thomas
+who was stationed at Fort Snelling sometime between 1836 and 1842. This
+painting, which was made from the hill behind Sibley House, shows the
+location of these various buildings.
+
+[214] For Baker's house see _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th
+Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9, pp. 19, 33, 34; also _Reports of
+Committees_, 1st session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p.
+400.
+
+[215] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, pp. 295, 296.
+Charles Joseph Latrobe visited the post in the fall of 1833.
+
+[216] These buildings are shown in the picture mentioned in note 213,
+above.
+
+[217] There is a description of Mendota given in Seymour's _Sketches of
+Minnesota, the New England of the West_, pp. 101, 102.
+
+[218] Seymour's _Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West_, p.
+117; Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, pp. 156, 157.
+
+[219] These figures are taken from Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition
+to the Source of St. Peter's River_, Vol. I, p. 309.
+
+[220] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, p. 302.
+
+[221] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 37, 38; _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th
+Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p. 148.
+
+[222] Upham's _The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, later named
+Fort Snelling_ in _The Magazine of History_, Vol. XXI, p. 37.
+
+[223] See below, the chapter entitled _Soldiers of the Cross_.
+
+[224] This enumeration of the Indian villages is from Pond's _The
+Dakotas or Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 320-330. The spelling of the
+names follows that used by Pond, although they were all written in many
+ways. The population figures are from Taliaferro's report in 1834, found
+in _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 203.
+
+[225] See the description of an Indian village in Latrobe's _The Rambler
+in North America_, Vol. II, pp. 288, 289; also, Keating's _Narrative of
+an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River_, Vol. I, pp. 342, 343.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+[226] On December 22, 1819, the House of Representatives passed a
+resolution directing the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, to prepare a
+system of martial law and field service. His report was communicated to
+the House on December 26, 1820, and was entitled _Systems of Martial
+Law, and Field Service, and Police_. It is composed of two parts,
+namely, _General Regulations for the Army_, and _A System of Martial
+Law_. It is from these regulations that the following sketch of the
+routine life at a military post is built up. The report is
+published in the _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp.
+201-274.
+
+[227] Ingersoll's _A History of the War Department of the United
+States_, pp. 205, 206.
+
+[228] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 119.
+
+[229] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 210.
+
+[230] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 95.
+
+[231] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 210.
+
+[232] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 217, 218.
+
+[233] These account books are in the possession of the Minnesota
+Historical Society.
+
+[234] Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, p. 161.
+
+[235] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 22, 1831; _Post Returns_, March, 1840,
+in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[236] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 97.
+
+[237] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 345.
+
+[238] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 336, 344.
+
+[239] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342;
+_Post Returns_, September, 1828, in the archives of the War Department,
+Washington, D. C.
+
+[240] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 3, 1831.
+
+[241] This report is published in _the American State Papers, Military
+Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 273-277.
+
+[242] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 558, 706,
+Vol. III, p. 115.
+
+[243] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 345.
+
+[244] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 476.
+
+[245] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342.
+
+[246] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, p. 277.
+
+[247] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 205;
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 101.
+
+[248] Eastman's _Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort
+Snelling_, pp. 144, 145.
+
+[249] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 265.
+
+[250] _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820.
+
+[251] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, p. 305.
+
+[252] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, July 15, 1852.
+
+[253] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, p. 26; _Post Returns_, July, 1827, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[254] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 340.
+
+[255] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p. 432.
+
+[256] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 115.
+
+[257] Joseph M. Street to Postmaster General Barry, April 27,
+1831.--_Street Papers_, No. 15, Historical Department, Des Moines, Iowa.
+
+[258] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 44.
+
+[259] _Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin_, 1913,
+pp. 116, 117.
+
+[260] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 2, 5, 10, February 27, 1831.
+
+[261] Street to Clark, March 10, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 132; _Post Returns_, March, 1830. See
+also _Post Returns_, December, 1829, December, 1830, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[262] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 342.
+
+[263] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, p. 131.
+
+[264] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 342.
+
+[265] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 130. "Monsieur
+Tonson" was a very popular farce written by W. T. Moncrief in 1821. The
+French barber, Morbleu, is greatly troubled by a steady stream of
+visitors who come to make inquiries regarding a certain fictitious Mr.
+Thompson, hoping thereby to gain information regarding Adolphine de
+Courcy who has been traced to his door.--Walsh's _Heroes and Heroines of
+Fiction_, p. 360.
+
+[266] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 20, February 22, 1831.
+
+[267] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, July 25, 1824.--_Taliaferro
+Letters_, Vol. I, Nos. 50, 56.
+
+[268] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 28, 1849.
+
+[269] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 10, 11, 24, 1831.
+
+[270] George F. Turner to H. H. Sibley, February 11, 1842.--_Sibley
+Papers, 1840-1850_.
+
+[271] Taliaferro to Street, March 30, 1831.--_Street Papers_, No. 12.
+
+[272] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 100.
+
+[273] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 112.
+
+[274] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 920.
+General Edmund P. Gaines inspected the post shortly afterwards and
+reported: "From a conversation with the colonel, I can have no doubt
+that he has erred in the course pursued by him in reference to some of
+those controversies, inasmuch as he has intimated to his officers his
+willingness to sanction, in certain cases, and even to participate in
+_personal conflicts_, contrary to the twenty-fifth article of
+war."--_American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. IV, p. 123.
+
+[275] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 27, 1831.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+[276] Morse's _A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on
+Indian Affairs_, pp. 78, 79.
+
+[277] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 321, 322.
+
+[278] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 203.
+
+[279] Taliaferro to Clark, August 5, 1830.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 2.
+
+[280] This description of Indian life is based on Pond's _The Dakotas or
+Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834_ in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 319-501.
+
+[281] The quotations are taken from Beltrami's description of an Indian
+council which he attended at Fort Snelling in 1823.--Beltrami's _A
+Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, pp. 217-219.
+
+[282] These are taken from a list which is typical of the character of
+the presents, among the papers of Thomas Forsyth.--_Draper Manuscripts_,
+2T2.
+
+[283] _Annals of Congress_, 1st session, 17th Congress, Vol. I, pp. 319,
+320.
+
+[284] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 19, 1831. The speech of the chief
+closes thus: "We know you have nothing on hand for your children, but we
+hope you will give us some Pork & Bread & a little Tobacco--as our pipes
+are out & have been for some time our old men will be pleased." The
+village of the Red Head was St. Louis, the Red Head being General
+William Clark, the superintendent of Indian affairs.
+
+[285] "The Crane and the Hole in the Day--and other Chippeways at the
+Agency this day--Several Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency. Issued 24
+Rats Bread 20 pounds of Pork--15 lbs. of tobacco."--_Taliaferro's
+Diary_, January 23, 1831. See also the diary under the dates of December
+24, 1830, January 13, 17, 1831.
+
+[286] Cass to Taliaferro, July 28, 1825.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I,
+No. 57.
+
+[287] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 19, 1834.
+
+[288] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 738.
+
+[289] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 4, 1831.
+
+[290] Taliaferro to Harris, February 21, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1838, No. 631.
+
+[291] For the suffering during the winter of 1842-1843 and the steps
+taken to relieve it see the letter from Dr. Williamson in the
+_Missionary Herald_, Vol. 39, p. 355, September, 1843; and Bruce to
+Chambers, April 3, 1843, in _Indian Office Files_, 1843, No. 222.
+
+[292] Taliaferro to Dodge, June 30, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_, 1838,
+No. 690.
+
+[293] Taliaferro to Clark, March 3, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 129.
+
+[294] Taliaferro to Clark, September 14, 1834.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1834, No. 206.
+
+[295] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 7, 1834.
+
+[296] _Taliaferro's Diary_, December 25, 1830.
+
+[297] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 28, 30, 1834. On January 17, 1831, he
+gave a blanket in which to bury a woman.
+
+[298] _Indian Office Files_, 1832, Nos. 287, 294, 295, 296.
+
+[299] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 236.
+
+[300] Snelling to Taliaferro, November 13, 1820.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 21.
+
+[301] Found among the _Sibley Papers, 1830-1840_.
+
+[302] Taliaferro to Cass, March 3, 1832.--_Indian Office Files_, 1832,
+No. 289.
+
+[303] Taliaferro to Clark, July 15, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 235.
+
+[304] _Post Returns_, April, May, 1834, July, 1835, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[305] "These warriors of Mr. Rainville's were constantly with me, for
+they knew that I was an English warrior, as they called me, and they are
+very partial to the English."--Marryat's _A Diary in America_, Vol. II,
+p. 91. Captain Marryat, the English novelist, visited the upper
+Mississippi region in 1837.
+
+"Many and strong are the recollections of the Sioux and other tribes, of
+their alliance with the British in the last and revolutionary wars, of
+which I have met many curious instances".--Catlin's _Letters and Notes
+on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians_,
+Vol. II, p. 657, footnote.
+
+[306] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XXVI, p. 363, July 31, 1824; Vol. LIII, p.
+33, September 16, 1837.
+
+[307] Marryat'a _A Diary in America_, Vol. III, pp. 221, 222.
+
+[308] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, p. 320.
+
+[309] _Niles' Register_, Vol. LIII, p. 82, October 7, 1837.
+
+[310] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 50.
+
+[311] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 18, 1831.
+
+[312] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 11, 1831.
+
+[313] Taliaferro to Clark, April 3, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence_, 1830-1832, p. 161.
+
+[314] Renville to Sibley, August 21, 1840.--_Sibley Papers, 1830-1840_.
+
+[315] Quoted in Neill's _The History of Minnesota_, pp. 338, 339. The
+two men murdered on the Missouri River in 1820 were Isadore Poupon, a
+French half-breed, and Joseph F. Andrews, a Canadian.
+
+[316] Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, p. 283.
+
+[317] Snelling to Taliaferro, March 19, 1822.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 32. The quotation is taken from this letter. See also
+Calhoun to Snelling, September 18, 1822.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I,
+No. 40.
+
+[318] Letter of George Johnson, November 2, 1825.--_Indian Office
+Files_, 1825-1826, No. 4.
+
+[319] Taliaferro to Harris, September 10, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1838, No. 663.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+[320] Morse's _A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on
+Indian Affairs_, p. 28.
+
+[321] Kellogg's _Early Narratives of the Northwest, 1634-1699_, p. 50.
+
+[322] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 209.
+
+[323] Baker to Taliaferro, May 19, 1829.--_Indian Office Files_, 1829,
+No. 64.
+
+[324] Speech of Flat Mouth, May 27, 1827.--_Indian Office Files_, 1827,
+No. 14.
+
+[325] _Indian Office Files_, 1827, No. 9.
+
+[326] From Mrs. Van Cleve's reminiscences in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, p. 80.
+
+[327] The information upon which the entire incident is built is
+contained in the letter of Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827, in
+_Indian Office Files_, 1827, No. 10; the letter of Taliaferro to Clark,
+May 31, 1827, in Indian Office Files, 1827, No. 12; Neill's _The History
+of Minnesota_, pp. 391-394; _Reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams_ in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 107-110; _A
+Reminiscence_ _of Ft. Snelling_, by Mrs. Charlotte O. Van Cleve,
+in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 76-81; _Running
+the Gantlet_ by William J. Snelling (the son of Colonel Snelling) in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 439-456.
+
+The last mentioned account was originally published as a magazine
+article, and much of it is undoubtedly the product of the author's
+imagination. It is from this that the writer drew the story of Toopunkah
+Zeze. The article by Mrs. Van Cleve is full of errors and there are some
+mistakes in Mrs. Adams's reminiscences. For the facts of the attack the
+writer depended upon the two reports in the _Indian Office Files_. In a
+letter written from Prairie du Chien the next winter Joseph Street says
+that a hostage, an innocent man, was among the Sioux who were
+executed.--Street to Dr. Alexander Posey, December 11, 1827, in the
+_Street Papers_, No. 7.
+
+Of those who were shot, says Sibley in his reminiscences, all
+recovered.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 475. On the
+other hand Flat Mouth complained to Schoolcraft in 1832 that four of the
+number died.--Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the
+Upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 85.
+
+[328] _Indian Office Files_, 1829, No. 63.
+
+[329] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 135. As here given
+the mother's speech is partly direct, and partly indirect discourse. The
+writer has changed it all to the direct discourse.
+
+[330] The attack on Hole-in-the-Day's band is narrated in the letter of
+Plympton to General Jones, August 13, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1838, No. 618. See also _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp.
+134-136; Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 136,
+137.
+
+[331] The particulars of the encounter in 1839 are given in a letter
+written by the Right Reverend Mathias Loras in July 1839, and published
+in _Acta et Dicta: A Collection of historical data regarding the origin
+and growth of the Catholic Church in the Northwest_, Vol. I, No. 1, pp.
+18-21; and Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp.
+139-147.
+
+[332] "Instead of lessening the disasters of Indian warfare, the
+building of Fort Snelling in the heart of the Indian country and upon
+the line dividing the ranges of the Dakotas and the Chippewas, had the
+direct effect of vastly increasing the horrors of that warfare.
+Depending upon the protection of the military, both tribes brought their
+women and children into the disputed territory, where before the coming
+of the soldiers they would never have dared to expose them, and it soon
+developed that the fort afforded no protection to the children of the
+forest against the savagery of their hereditary enemies, who made
+treaties of peace only to thereby gain better opportunity for
+butchery."--Robinson's _A History of the Dakota or Sioux Indians_, p.
+154. This is Part II of the _South Dakota Historical Collections_, Vol.
+II.
+
+[333] At the forks of the Chippewa River in 1838, eleven Sioux were
+killed while asleep, by Chippewas whom they were entertaining. The
+mission at Lake Pokegama was attacked in 1840. In 1842, a battle was
+fought at Pine Coulie near the Indian village of Kaposia. In 1850, on
+Apple River in Wisconsin, fourteen Chippewas were scalped. See the
+article by Rev. S. W. Pond on _Indian Warfare in Minnesota_ in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 129-138. As late as
+1854, D. B. Herriman, the Chippewa agent, reported that during the
+preceding year nearly one hundred Chippewas had been killed and scalped
+by the Sioux. But none of these massacres took place at the
+fort.--_Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 1,
+Document No. 1, p. 260.
+
+[334] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII,
+Document No. 51, p. 31.
+
+[335] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 23, 1831.
+
+[336] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 4, 1831. For other occasions during the
+winter and spring of 1831 when the agent records the presence of both
+Sioux and Chippewas see the diary under date of January 31, March 5, May
+2, June 15.
+
+[337] Taliaferro to Clark, July 6, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 231.
+
+[338] Speech of Taliaferro to the Sioux.--_Taliaferro's Diary_, February
+19, 1831.
+
+[339] Report of J. N. Nicollet in _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session,
+28th Congress, Vol. II, Document No. 52, p. 66.
+
+[340] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 10, 18, 26, 1831.
+
+[341] Taliaferro to Clark, February 8, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 121.
+
+[342] The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's _Indian Affairs,
+Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 250-255. The treaty was signed on
+August 19, 1825.
+
+[343] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. XXX, p. 223, June, 1834. Reverend W. T.
+Boutwell accompanied Mr. Schoolcraft on this journey, and his account of
+it is published in the religious paper.
+
+[344] Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper
+Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 265.
+
+[345] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 684.
+
+[346] Taliaferro to William Clark, May 31, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. III, No. 234.
+
+[347] Taliaferro to Herring, July 16, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol.
+III, No. 238.
+
+[348] Taliaferro to William Clark, September 2, 1835; Taliaferro to E.
+Herring, September 20, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. III, Nos. 251,
+252.
+
+[349] Taliaferro to William Clark, May 26, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 195.
+
+[350] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 25, 1831.
+
+[351] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 269.
+
+[352] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 490.
+
+[353] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 2, 1851.
+
+[354] Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827.--_Indian Office Files_, 1827,
+No. 10.
+
+[355] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 16, 1850. Other occasions when
+Indians were imprisoned for similar causes are mentioned in _The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, September 23, 1852, April 20, 1854.
+
+[356] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, October 14, 1852.
+
+[357] Report of Agent A. J. Bruce, September 1, 1846.--_Executive
+Documents_, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 4, p. 246.
+
+
+[358] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, pp. 233,
+234.
+
+[359] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 31, 1831; Taliaferro to Captain W.
+R. Lovett, June 30, 1831, in _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. II, No. 150.
+
+[360] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 138.
+
+[361] Taliaferro to Clark, October 4, 1830.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 68.
+
+[362] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 29, 1834.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+[363] For an account of the attack on the trading house system see
+Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, pp. 301-309; also
+_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, pp. xiii-xviii.
+
+[364] This account of the fur trade is based upon the reminiscences of
+Mr. H. H. Sibley in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III,
+pp. 245-247; and Turner's _The Character and Influence of the Indian
+Trade in Wisconsin_ in the _Johns Hopkins University Studies in
+Historical and Political Science_, Vol. IX, pp. 601-607.
+
+[365] If an Indian failed continually in paying up his credits, the
+trader would refuse him any more goods. This would bring on the enmity
+of the hunter and his whole family. Such was the case of Joseph R. Brown
+mentioned in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 247.
+
+[366] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. II, pp. 139-146, Vol. III,
+pp. 332, 333, Vol. IV, pp. 729-735.
+
+[367] A copy of an American trading license is published in the _Report
+from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company_, p. 282.
+
+[368] _Indian Office Files_, 1831, No. 70.
+
+[369] _Indian Office Files_, 1831, No. 82.
+
+[370] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 200.
+
+[371] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 43
+
+[372] Sibley to Featherstonhaugh.--_Sibley Papers_. This letter is
+printed in Holcombe's _Minnesota in Three Centuries_, Vol. II, p. 57.
+
+
+[373] Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far
+West_, Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+[374] A list of the posts in the agency in 1826 is given in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 113, 114.
+
+"The Secretary of War directs that the traders in the St Peters Agency,
+who have been directed by you to build their houses in a particular
+form, as designated by you, be informed that they are at liberty to
+adapt the shape of their building to their own convenience. He moreover
+directs that the term of Forts, by which they are designated, be changed
+into Posts."--William Clark to Taliaferro, March 26, 1827, in
+_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 72.
+
+[375] Taliaferro to Herring, September 15, 1834, in _Indian Office
+Files_, 1834, No. 210; _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 74.
+
+[376] See Sibley's story of a tea party given to a number of traders at
+Fort Snelling.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 248,
+249.
+
+[377] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 230.
+
+[378] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 22, 1831.
+
+[379] Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper
+Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 44.
+
+[380] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, pp. 306, 307.
+
+[381] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 564.
+
+[382] Norman W. Kittson to Sibley, March 2, 1846.--_Sibley Papers,
+1840-1850_. Mr. Kittson was the manager of the American Fur Company's
+business along the international boundary, with his headquarters at
+Pembina. He, with the late James J. Hill, was one of the promoters of
+the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railroad Company.
+
+[383] _Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company_, p.
+370.
+
+[384] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 383.
+
+[385] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 30, 1831.
+
+[386] Kittson to Sibley, August 7, 1846.--_Sibley Papers, 1840-1850_.
+
+Mr. Kittson was the organizer of the picturesque caravans of Red River
+carts (at one time called "Kittson's carts") which carried on the
+extensive commerce between the Canadian and American settlements. At an
+early date this trade assumed large proportions. "The van of the Red
+River train numbering from an hundred to two hundred carts made entirely
+of wood and green hides and drawn by oxen and ponies in harness, reached
+St. Paul on Sunday with furs, hides, buffalo robes, dried buffalo
+tongues, pemmican, etc. They have been forty days on the route."--_The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, July 26, 1849.
+
+[387] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 38, p. 58, February, 1842.
+
+[388] _Indian Office Files_, 1839, No. 62.
+
+[389] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 40, p. 281, August, 1844.
+
+[390] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 563.
+
+[391] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 383.
+
+[392] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 23, 1834.
+
+[393] _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 74.
+
+[394] Marsh to Street, April 28, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 20.
+
+[395] _Indian Office Files_, 1835, No. 326.
+
+[396] Bailly to Street, August 3, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 28.
+
+[397] Street to Cass, October 3, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 69.
+
+[398] "Several persons have been arrested near Crow Wing for selling
+whiskey to the Winnebago Indians; and twelve or fifteen barrels of
+whiskey have been overtaken and knocked in the head, by Capt. Monroe's
+troops."--_The Minnesota Pioneer_, August 9, 1849.
+
+[399] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 922.
+
+[400] Taliaferro to Clark, August 17, 1830.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1830, No. 143.
+
+[401] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 140.
+
+[402] Taliaferro to Clark, August 2, 1829.--_Indian Office Files_, 1829,
+No. 65.
+
+[403] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 444.
+
+[404] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 919.
+
+[405] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 12, 1849.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+[406] Taliaferro writes: "It was some length of time before he could
+induce the Indians to respect the Sabbath-day--all days being alike to
+them. It so happened that hundreds of important peace conventions were
+made and confirmed by the hostile tribes on the Lord's day. But time and
+patience brought them to reason, and for many years they respected the
+white man's great 'medicine day.' The sign given for the day of rest was
+the agency flag floating from the flagstaff, at the agency council
+house."--_Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 236.
+
+[407] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 45, p. 429, December, 1849.
+
+[408] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 326, 327;
+_Taliaferro's Diary_, August 14, 1833.
+
+[409] Street to Taliaferro, August 12, 1829.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol.
+II, No. 108.
+
+[410] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 119-121.
+
+[411] Taliaferro to Eaton.--_Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 151.
+
+[412] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 18, May 1, June 8, 1831.
+
+[413] _Taliaferro's Diary_, August 14, 1833.
+
+[414] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 18, 1831.
+
+[415] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. iv.
+
+[416] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 255.
+
+[417] _Senate Documents_, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 523.
+
+[418] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 12-30.
+This volume, written by the son of Samuel Pond, tells of the work of his
+father and uncle.
+
+[419] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 30.
+Among the _Kemper Papers_ (Vol. XX, No. 34) the writer found the
+following permit to enter the Indian country:
+
+"The Right Reverend, Jackson Kemper, Missionary Bishop of the Protestant
+Episcopal Church, having signified to this Department, his desire to
+visit and remain sometime in the Indian country, and requested the
+permission required by law to enable him to do so, such permission is
+hereby granted; and he is commended to the friendly attention of civil
+and military officers and agents, and of citizens, and if at any time it
+shall be necessary to their protection.
+
+  Given under my hand and
+  the Seal of the War Department
+  this 1st day of October 1838.
+
+  S. Cooper.
+  Acting Secretary of War."
+
+[420] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 31, 32;
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 324, 325.
+
+[421] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 7, 1834.
+
+[422] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 38-42.
+
+[423] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 47.
+
+[424] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. II,
+p. 11.
+
+[425] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 43.
+
+[426] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 127-146.
+
+[427] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 127,
+133.
+
+[428] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt.
+II, Document No. 5, pp. 1054, 1055.
+
+[429] Riggs's _Mary and I, Forty Years with the Sioux_, pp. 41, 42.
+
+[430] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 49-59.
+
+[431] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 4, p. 315.
+
+[432] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol II, Pt.
+III, p. 439.
+
+[433] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 343.
+
+[434] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 63, 64.
+
+[435] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 41, p. 281, August, 1845; Vol. 32, pp.
+188, 189, May, 1836.
+
+[436] _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. IV, p. 61, February, 1839; Tanner's
+_History of the Diocese of Minnesota_, p. 24; _Post Returns_, April,
+1839, in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[437] Gear to Kemper, Nov. 29, 1841.--_Kemper Letters_, Vol. 25, No.
+103. See also _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. 5, p. 68, March, 1840.
+
+[438] _Acta et Dicta_, Vol. I, No. 1, July, 1907, pp. 14-21; _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 222-230.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+[439] Catlin's _Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition
+of the North American Indians_, Vol. II, p. 592.
+
+[440] Merrick's _Old Times on the Upper Mississippi_, p. 187. The
+following description was given by Philander Prescott, a fur trader:
+
+"The Indians say they had dreamed of seeing some monster of the deep the
+night before, which frightened them very much. It appears they did not
+discover the boat until it had got into the mouth of the St. Peter's,
+below Mr. Sibley's. They stood and gazed with astonishment at what they
+saw approaching, taking the boat to be some angry god of the water,
+coughing and spouting water upwards, sideways and forward. They had not
+courage enough to stand until the boat came near them. The women and
+children took to the woods, with their hair floating behind them in the
+breeze, from the speed they were going, in running from supposed danger.
+Some of the men had a little more courage, and only moved off to a short
+distance from the shore, and the boat passed along and landed.
+Everything being quiet for a moment, the Indians came up to the boat
+again, and stood looking at the monster of the deep. All at once the
+boat began to blow off steam, and the bravest warriors could not stand
+this awful roaring, but took to the woods, men, women and children, with
+their blankets flying in the wind; some tumbling in the brush
+which entangled their feet as they ran away--some hallooing, some
+crying, to the great amusement of the people on board the
+steamboat."--Quoted in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III,
+p. 104, note 1.
+
+[441] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 199.
+
+[442] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 191-193.
+
+[443] Beltrami published an account of his travels in French in New
+Orleans in 1824. The English version is entitled _A Pilgrimage in Europe
+and America, leading to the Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
+and Bloody River_, and was published in London in two volumes in 1828.
+It is composed of twenty-two letters addressed to "My Dear Countess" and
+dedicated "to the Fair Sex".
+
+[444] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 101.
+
+[445] The story of this exploration was published under the title of
+_Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, Lake
+Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, Etc. performed in the year 1823, by order
+of the Hon. J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, under the command of
+Stephen H. Long, U. S. T. E._ It was written by Professor Keating from
+the notes of the party. An English edition appeared in London in 1825.
+The references given are to this publication.
+
+[446] J. C. Calhoun to Major Long.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No.
+41.
+
+[447] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, p. 324, Vol. II, p. 112.
+
+[448] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, pp. 306-310.
+
+[449] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, p. 356.
+
+[450] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 241.
+
+[451] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 414.
+
+
+[452] "My head was covered with the bark of a tree, formed into the
+shape of a hat and sewed with threads of bark; and shoes, a coat, and
+pantaloons, such as are used by Canadians in the Indian territories, and
+formed of original skins sewed together by thread made of the
+muscles of that animal, completed the grotesque appearance of my
+person."--Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p.
+481. For a short summary of Beltrami's work see the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 183-196.
+
+[453] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. II, p. 200.
+
+[454] Catlin's _North American Indians_, Vol. II, pp. 599-602.
+
+[455] Catlin's _North American Indians_, Vol. II, pp. 602-607. This
+quotation is from page 607.
+
+[456] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Vol. IV, Document
+No. 333.
+
+[457] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. I,
+p. 262.
+
+[458] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 246.
+
+[459] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. I,
+pp. 261, 266, 288.
+
+[460] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 187, 188.
+
+[461] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. II,
+Document No. 52, p. 53.
+
+[462] Brower's _The Mississippi River and its Source_ which comprises
+Vol. VII of the _Minnesota Historical Collections_. See p. 162.
+
+[463] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 242-245; _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. I, p. 189.
+
+[464] In his reminiscences John C. Frémont has left a very interesting
+account of these two expeditions.--Frémont's _Memoirs of My Life_, Vol.
+I, pp. 30-54.
+
+[465] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 183.
+
+[466] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 129, 133, 134.
+
+
+[467] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 914, 915.
+
+[468] _North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser_, June 26, 1840.
+
+[469] _North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser_, June 5, 1840.
+
+[470] _Louisville Journal_ quoted in the _North Western Gazette and
+Galena Advertiser_, June 14, 1838.
+
+[471] Jackson Kemper was appointed missionary bishop of the Northwest in
+1835 and held the position until 1859 when he accepted the bishopric of
+Wisconsin. His papers and diaries are in the archives of the Wisconsin
+Historical Society. For an account of his work see Tiffany's _A History
+of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States_, pp. 448, 493.
+
+[472] _Kemper Papers_, Vol. XXVII, No. 113.
+
+[473] _Kemper Papers_, Vol. XXVII, No. 116.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+[474] _Journals of Congress_, Vol. III, p. 589.
+
+[475] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. I, p. 138.
+
+[476] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. XVI, p. 566.
+
+[477] _Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs_, 1890, p. xxix.
+
+[478] These figures are taken from an account of the proceedings of the
+council published in _Niles' Register_, Vol. XXIX, pp. 187-192.
+Taliaferro gives the number of his party as being 385 "Sioux and
+Chippewas, including the interpreters and attendants."--_Auto-biography
+of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_,
+Vol. VI, p. 206.
+
+[479] The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's _Indian Affairs,
+Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 250-255.
+
+[480] These are the reasons given by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
+in his report on December 1, 1837.--_Senate Documents_, 2nd Session,
+25th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 526, 527.
+
+[481] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 129.
+
+[482] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 131; Vol. VI, p.
+214.
+
+[483] For an account of the life of Flat Mouth see Coues's _The
+Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 169, note 10.
+
+[484] Sketches of the life of Hole-in-the-Day are given in _The Spirit
+of Missions_, Vol. VIII, p. 461, December, 1843; _North Western Gazette
+and Galena Advertiser_, August 3, 1839; _Prairie du Chien Patriot_, June
+8, 1847.
+
+[485] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 353.
+
+[486] The names of the witnesses of the treaty are given in Kappler's
+_Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, p. 493.
+
+[487] A contemporary account of the proceedings of the council published
+in the _Iowa News_ (Dubuque), Vol. I, Nos. 11 and 14, is reprinted in
+_The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 408-433.
+
+[488] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, p. 420.
+
+[489] Dodge to Harris, July 30, 1837.--_Indian Office Files_, 1837, No.
+226.
+
+[490] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt.
+2, Document No. 5, p. 985. The Indians desired whiskey at the councils.
+In order to prove that it was not refused because of stinginess, two
+barrels were opened at Prairie du Chien and the whiskey allowed to run
+on the ground. The old Indian Wakh-pa-koo-tay mourned the loss: "It was
+a great pity, there was enough wasted to have kept me drunk all the days
+of my life."--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 124.
+
+[491] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 409, 410.
+
+[492] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 424-426.
+
+[493] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 416, 417.
+
+Taliaferro was violently opposed to granting any funds to the
+traders.--_Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 215, 216.
+
+[494] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 431, 432.
+
+
+[495] The text of the treaty is to be found in Kappler's _Indian
+Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 491-493.
+
+[496] _Niles' Register_, Vol. LIII, pp. 81, 82; Kappler's _Indian
+Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 493, 494.
+
+[497] See an account of the payment in 1849 at Fort Snelling in _The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, September 27, 1849.
+
+[498] _Post Returns_, November, 1852, October, 1853, October, 1854, in
+the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+[499] Turner's _The Significance of the Frontier in American History_ in
+the _Annual Report of the American Historical Association_, 1893, p.
+211.
+
+[500] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 202.
+
+[501] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 453;
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 468.
+
+[502] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 319.
+
+[503] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. II, p. 60.
+
+[504] Much has been written on the founding of this colony and the
+romantic events connected with the struggle between the Hudson's Bay
+Company and the North West Company, in which many of the colonists were
+the innocent victims. Interesting accounts are given in Kingsford's _The
+History of Canada_, Vol. IX, pp. 108-150; Bryce's _The Remarkable
+History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, pp. 202-257; Bryce's _Lord
+Selkirk_ in _The Makers of Canada_, Vol. V, pp. 115-206; Laut's _The
+Conquest of the Great Northwest_, pp. 113-202; _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 75-89.
+
+[505] There is a summary of the early trading relations of the Red River
+Colony with the American settlements in the _Collections of the State
+Historical Society of North Dakota_, Vol. IV, pp. 251, 252. The arrival
+of these people at Fort Snelling is noted in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 124, 127; VI, p. 350.
+
+[506] "Two families of Swiss emigrants who arrived here yesterday were
+robbed of almost everything they possessed".--Snelling to
+Taliaferro, October 19, 1824, in _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 50.
+See also the story of the Tully children in Van Cleve's _"Three Score
+Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp.
+49-61.
+
+[507] The facts concerning the migrations of these Red River refugees
+are taken from the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams who was herself one
+of the travellers.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp.
+75-95. See also Chetlain's _The Red River Colony_. This is a small
+pamphlet written by the son of one of the refugees.
+
+[508] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XIV, p. 84.
+
+[509] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp. 70, 71.
+
+[510] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, p. 16.
+
+[511] Renville to Sibley, February 22, 1835.--_Sibley Papers,
+1830-1840_. A story is told of a certain "Simple-hearted, honest fellow"
+named Sinclair. "One time he was sick, at Mendota, and Surgeon Emerson,
+at the fort, sent by some one, a box of pills, for him to take a dose
+from. N. W. Kittson called on him a little while after this, and found
+that Sinclair had not only swallowed all the pills, but was then chewing
+up the box!"--Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 123.
+
+[512] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 127, 129.
+
+[513] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 50.
+
+[514] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 13, 14, 1834; _Indian Office Files_,
+1834, No. 239.
+
+[515] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 21, 1834.
+
+[516] _Indian Office Files_, 1837, Nos. 448, 447, 445.
+
+[517] _The Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 231.
+
+[518] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 14, 15.
+
+[519] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 16, 17.
+
+[520] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 18, 23.
+
+[521] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 136; Williams's _A
+History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp. 66, 67.
+
+[522] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 23, 24.
+
+[523] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 26, 27.
+
+[524] _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. V, p. 335, November, 1840. A recent
+sketch of Fort Snelling states that there were "no white neighbors
+except traders, agents of fur companies, refugees from civilization and
+disreputable hangers-on."--Hammond's _Quaint and Historic Forts of North
+America_, p. 272. Many of the evicted settlers can not be classed among
+these.
+
+[525] This order is published in Williams's _A History of the City of
+Saint Paul_, p. 94.
+
+[526] For the expulsion of the settlers see Williams's _A History of the
+City of Saint Paul_, pp. 99, 100; also, Neill's _The History of
+Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 459. Williams (p. 100) says that in 1849
+and 1852 memorials were presented to Congress by those who had been
+expelled, in which they stated that "the soldiery fell upon them without
+warning, treated them with unjustifiable rudeness, broke and destroyed
+furniture wantonly, insulted the women, and, in one or two instances,
+fired at and killed cattle."
+
+Father Galtier, who was there at the time, wrote: "Consequently a deputy
+marshall from Prairie du Chien was ordered to remove the houses. He went
+to work, assisted by some soldiers, and, one after another, unroofed the
+cottages, extending about five miles along the river. The settlers were
+forced to seek new homes." He makes no mention of personal
+violence.--_Acta et Dicta_, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 64.
+
+[527] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 111.
+
+[528] See the description of St. Paul in 1849 in Seymour's _Sketches of
+Minnesota, the New England of the West_, pp. 94-100.
+
+[529] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 30, 1850.
+
+[530] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 23, February 27, June 27, 1850.
+
+
+[531] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 27, 1851.
+
+[532] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, April 17, 1851.
+
+[533] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, p. 534; _Post
+Returns_, July, 1855, in the archives of the War Department, Washington,
+D. C.
+
+[534] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 20, 27, 1850.
+
+[535] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 6, 13, 1850; _Minnesota
+Chronicle and Register_, February 10, 1851.
+
+[536] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 13, 1850.
+
+[537] Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, pp. 152-163.
+
+[538] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, August 23, 1849.
+
+[539] These two treaties were the treaty with the Sisseton and Wahpeton
+bands of Sioux at Traverse des Sioux, July 23, 1851; and with the
+Mdewakanton and Wahpakoota bands of Sioux at Mendota on August 5,
+1851.--Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+588-593.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abercrombie, John J., fort built by, 50
+  Adams, Mrs. Ann, 245
+  Agency house, fire in, 101
+  Agriculture (see Farming)
+  Aitkin, Mr., 144
+  Akin, Mr., information furnished by, 172
+  Alcohol, purchase of, 88
+  American Fur Company,
+    fort purchased from, 21;
+    warehouse and store of, 81;
+    monopoly of, 135;
+    reference to, 138, 142, 188, 209
+  Americans, hostility of Indians to,
+    during War of 1812, 8-12;
+    Indians impressed by supremacy of, 112-118;
+    protection promised by, 122
+  Ammunition, giving of, to Indians, 110
+  Andrews, Joseph F., 230
+  Annuities, 42, 43, 111, 126;
+    payment of, to Indians, 184, 185
+  Apple River, massacre on, 132, 232
+  Apples, purchase of, 88
+  Ardourly, Jack, 100
+  Armorer's shop, 77, 78, 79
+  Articles of Confederation, 176
+  Assiniboine River, 5
+  Astor, John Jacob, 135, 209
+  Atkinson, Henry, fort named in honor of, 30;
+    reference to, 34
+  _Aunt Phyllis's Cabin_, 62
+
+  Badger, The, murder of, 127
+  Bailly, Alexis, 99, 188;
+    disagreement between Taliaferro and, 138, 139;
+    whiskey in store of, 142, 143
+  Baker, Benjamin, trading house of, 78, 79, 125, 192
+  Ball-plays, 101;
+    holding of, for Catlin, 164
+  Balls, music for, 197
+  Band, fund for maintenance of, 87;
+    music by, 197
+  Barracks,
+    building of, 25;
+    reference to, 73;
+    description of, 74, 75;
+    taking of sick soldiers from, 85
+  Bean, J. L., boundary line surveyed by, 130, 131
+  Bear, hunting of, 105
+  Bear dance, 164
+  Bedford (Pennsylvania), 71
+  Beef, 85;
+    ration of, 109
+  Beggars' dance, 164
+  Belen Gate of City of Mexico, 64
+  Beltrami, J. C.,
+    description of council by, 106, 107;
+    reference to, 133, 187;
+    visit of, to Fort Snelling, 160-163
+  Bennington (Vermont), 61
+  Benton, Thomas H., 107
+  Berries, gathering of, 105
+  Big Eagle, 83
+  Big Stone Lake, 103
+  Big Thunder, 83;
+    desire of, to raise corn, 152
+  Birthplace of soldiers, 92
+  Black Dog, village of, 83
+  Black Hawk War, position of Fort Snelling during, 35
+  Black Hole, confinement of offenders in, 91, 132
+  Black River, 36, 184
+  Blacksmith shop, 118
+  Blacksmiths, work of, 78, 155
+  Blankets, giving of, to Indians, 110;
+    reference to, 136
+  Bliss, John H., 68, 114, 151, 153;
+    punishment inflicted by, 90, 91;
+    statement by, 99, 100
+  Bliss, Mrs. John H., 153
+  Blockhouses, 74
+  Blue Earth River, Winnebago reservation on, 37;
+    reference to, 162
+
+  Boarding-school, success of, among Indians, 156
+  Boatmen, foreigners as, 138
+  _Bois brulés_,
+    difficulties with, 37-40;
+    location of, around fort, 188, 189
+  Books, fund for purchase of, 87
+  Boonesborough (Kentucky), 201
+  Boston, 56, 145
+  Bougainville, Louis Antoine, report of, 205
+  Boundary line of 1825, 130, 131, 178, 184
+  Brandy, 86
+  Braves, desire of, to take part in council, 181
+  "Brazil" (steamboat), 168, 169
+  Bread, character of, 86
+  Bread tickets, 88
+  Breakfast, 85
+  Brewers, 92
+  Briggs, Ansel, 41
+  Brock, General, 8
+  Brooke, George M., site for fort chosen by, 48
+  Broom, purchase of, 88
+  Brown, Joseph R., 190, 191
+  Brown, Private, purchases by, 88
+  Brown's Falls, 81
+  Bruce, Amos J., 71
+  Brunson, Alfred, work of, among Indians, 154
+  Brunson, Ira B., 195
+  Buchanan County (Iowa), 41
+  Buck, Solon J., acknowledgments to, ix
+  Buffalo, hunting of, by half-breeds, 37, 38, 40
+  Buffalo dance, 164
+  "Burlington" (steamboat), 168
+  Butter, purchase of, 88
+
+  Calhoun, John C., 19, 224
+  California, emigration to, 43
+  Camp Cold Water,
+    establishment of, 27;
+    reference to, 58, 110, 189, 190, 212
+  Camp Missouri, sickness at, 213
+  Camp Pierce, 46
+  Campbell, Duncan, 131
+  Campbell, Scott, service of, as interpreter, 71, 72
+  Canada, 3, 8, 57, 92, 158;
+    taking of furs to, 6;
+    importance of fur trade to, 9;
+    visits of Indians to, 37, 106;
+    difficulties with half-breeds from, 37-40;
+    export of furs from, 207
+  Canal, 20
+  Canby, Edward R. S., sketch of life of, 63-65
+  Candles, 86
+  Candy, purchase of, 88
+  Canister shot, 77
+  Cannon, description of, 77
+  Cannon River, 137
+  Canoes, 199
+  Cantonment Leavenworth, establishment of, 56
+  Cantonment New Hope, establishment of, 25;
+    removal of troops from, 27;
+    reference to, 55
+  Cards, playing of, 99
+  Carpenters, employment of soldiers as, 96
+  Cartridges, stock of, 77
+  Carver, Jonathan, exploration by, 1;
+    statement by, 1, 2;
+    reference to, 198
+  Cass, Lewis, visit of, at Fort Snelling, 28;
+    reference to, 137, 140, 178;
+    expedition of, 212
+  Cat'o'nine tails, 90
+  Catholic chapel, 81
+  Catholics, religious work among, 158
+  Catlin, George, visit of, at Fort Snelling, 163, 164
+  Catlin, Mrs. George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 163, 164
+  Cattle, feeding of, 82, 96
+  Cellars, 75
+  Cemetery, 81, 89, 93
+  Certificates, giving of, to Indians, 113, 114
+  Chambers, John, 182
+  Chapel, 81, 195
+  Chaplain, 88, 101, 194, 195;
+    service of Gear as, 157
+  Chatel, Mr., work of, 155, 156
+  Checkers, playing of, 99
+
+  Cheese, purchase of, 88
+  Cherokee Indians, removal of, 63, 64
+  Cherubusco, Battle of, 64
+  Chess, playing of, 99
+  Chicago, 161
+  Chiefs, giving of certificates to, 113, 114;
+    visit of, to Washington, 115, 116;
+    council with, 181
+  Children, education of, at fort, 100, 101
+  Chippewa, Battle of, 55
+  Chippewa Indians,
+    early traders among, 3;
+    reference to, 7, 48, 104, 108, 139, 142, 144,
+            163, 177, 178, 228, 231, 242;
+    unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13;
+    treaty between Sioux and, 28;
+    treaty with, 45, 176-186;
+    land ceded by, 47, 48;
+    home of, 103;
+    war parties against, 106;
+    hostility of, 114;
+    feuds between Sioux and, 119-134;
+    killing of, by Sioux, 121, 125;
+    murderers killed by, 122-124;
+    murder of Sioux warrior by, 127;
+    battle between Sioux and, 127, 128, 232;
+    boundary line between Sioux and, 130, 131, 178;
+    trustworthiness of, 134;
+    language of, 172, 173, 174;
+    summoning of, to council, 179
+  Chippewa River, 131, 172;
+    murder of Sioux on, 232
+  Choctaw Indians, removal of, 63, 64
+  Chouteau, Auguste, activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13
+  Christianity, influence of, 146;
+    method of preaching, 150, 151
+  Church, organization of, at Fort Snelling, 157;
+    attendance at, 194, 195
+  Churns, 76
+  Civil War,
+    use of Fort Snelling during, 52;
+    service of Eastman in, 62;
+    reference to, 63, 201;
+    service of Canby in, 64
+  Clark, Charlotte Ouisconsin, 23, 212
+  Clark, Dan E., acknowledgments to, x
+  Clark, Nathan, 21
+  Clark, Mrs. Nathan, 23
+  Clark, William, expedition under, 4, 5;
+    Fort Shelby established by, 11;
+    activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13;
+    reference to, 69, 70, 114, 178, 221, 228
+  Clarke, Colonel, 44
+  Clerks, 136
+  Cloud Man,
+    resolution of, to become farmer, 148;
+    reference to, 153
+  Cloves, purchase of, 88
+  Coe, Alvan, coming of, to Fort Snelling, 149
+  Coffee, 86
+  Colhoun, James E., 161, 162
+  Colors, guarding of, 85
+  Columbia, Department of, 65
+  Columbia Fur Company, 138
+  Columbia River, 5
+  Commanders of Fort Snelling,
+    influence of, 54;
+    sketches of lives of, 54-65
+  Commanding officer, quarters of, 75
+  Commerce, extent of, 205
+  Commissary, office of, 75
+  Commissary department, storehouse of, 75
+  Commissioner of Indian Affairs,
+    report of, 37;
+    reference to, 67, 177
+  Confederation, forming of, among Indians, 13
+  Congress, right of,
+    to regulate Indian affairs, 176;
+    memorials to, 246
+  Connecticut, 1
+  Contreras, Battle of, 64
+  Coon, story about Scott and, 60, 61
+  Cooper, S., 238
+  Coöperation in fur trade, 135
+  Copper, mining of, 25; block of, 175
+  Corn, feeding of, to cattle, 82;
+    raising of, by Indians, 105;
+    giving of, to Indians, 110
+  Council, holding of, with Indians, 35, 36, 43, 106-109, 129, 179-183
+  Council Bluff (Nebraska),
+    fort at, 20;
+    route of road to Fort Snelling from, 28, 29;
+    naming of fort at, 30;
+    reference to, 160;
+    sickness at, 213
+  Council Hall, description of, 106, 107
+  Council House, erection of, 28;
+
+    description of, 77;
+    burning of, 77, 78;
+    rebuilding of, 78
+  _Coureurs des bois_, activities of, 3
+  Court-martial, 102
+  Crane, The, 129, 228
+  Crawford, Captain, 159
+  Crawford County (Wisconsin) volunteers from, 35
+  Credit, fur trade carried on by means of, 136
+  Creek Indians, removal of, 63, 64
+  Croghan, George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 100
+  Cross Timbers (Indian Territory), 56
+  Crow Wing, 236
+  Crow Wing River, 47
+  Currants, purchase of, 88
+
+  _Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_,
+            62
+  Dana, Captain, 49
+  Dance of the braves, 164
+  Dances, holding of, by Indians, 164
+  Dakota, Department of, 52
+  Dakota Indians (see Sioux Indians)
+  Dearborn, Major, 110
+  Deaths, number of, at Fort Snelling, 93
+  Debts, payment of, to traders, 183, 184
+  De Courcy, Adolphine, 100
+  Deer, hunting of, 105
+  Delaware County (New York), 55
+  Delhi (New York), 56
+  Democrats, charges of graft against, 51
+  Denny, St. Clair, 161
+  Des Moines River, 18, 44
+  Deserters, dangers faced by, 92
+  Desertions, causes of, 91;
+    prevalence of, 91, 92
+  Details, duties of, 85
+  Detroit, 11, 19;
+    departure of troops from, 21;
+    surrender of, 57
+  Devil's Lake, 40
+  Dickson, Robert, activities of, in behalf of English, 11;
+    reference to, 13, 16, 134;
+    instructions to, 208
+  Diet, description of, 85
+  Dinner, 85
+  Dixon, Private, desertion of, 92
+  Dodge, Henry, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168;
+    council of, with Indians, 180-183
+  Dog dance, 164
+  Dominoes, playing of, 99
+  Doty, James D., 212
+  Douglas, Thomas, settlement of, 188, 189
+  Draft riots, 64
+  Dragoons, expedition of, 38, 39, 45, 216;
+    activities of, in Iowa, 44, 45;
+    service of, on survey, 46, 47;
+    reference to, 48, 56, 63, 186, 217;
+    frontier service of, 49;
+    arrival of, 215
+  Dress parade, 85
+  Drummond Island, visits of Indians to, 13, 14
+  Drunkenness, prevalence of, in garrison, 89, 90, 194;
+    punishment for, 90
+  Dubuque, 43, 158, 216
+  Dubuque, Diocese of, 158
+  Ducks, 96, 97
+  Dueling, 102
+  Duluth, Daniel Greyloson, 3
+  Dunning, William A., 215
+
+  Eagle dance, 164
+  Eastman, Mary Henderson, writings of, 62
+  Eastman, Seth, 35, 99, 145;
+    sketch of life of, 62
+  Eastman, Mrs. Seth, description by, 94
+  Eaton, John H., 149
+  Eatonville (Minnesota), colony at, 118, 149;
+    success of colony at, 150;
+    Pond brothers in charge of, 152
+  Education, work of, among Indians, 156
+  "Education Families", 103
+  Education of children, 100, 101
+  Edwards, Ninian, activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13
+  Eighth United States Infantry, 18
+
+  Elk, hunting of, 105
+  Emerson, John, sketch of life of, 65, 66;
+    reference to, 194, 245
+  Emerson, Mrs. John, 66
+  Emigration, 14, 15
+  England, 70
+  English, rule of, in West, 2, 3;
+    activities of, in fur trade, 3, 4, 140;
+    power of, over Indians, 5-17;
+    support of, by Indians in War of 1812, 8-12;
+    medals given by, 112;
+    persistence of influence of, 114, 115;
+    use of Indians by, 208
+  English River, 42
+  English trading companies, 2
+  Episcopal Church, 169
+  Evans, William, 190
+  Exploring expeditions, 109
+
+  Factors, 136;
+    relations of, with officers of fort, 138, 139
+  Factory System, 107
+  Fall, activities of Indians during, 105, 106
+  Falls of St. Anthony, 7, 24, 29, 30, 86, 96, 149, 153, 198, 207;
+    journey of Long to, 19;
+    plan to establish fort near, 20;
+    saw mill at, 27, 28;
+    fort named for, 29;
+    road to, 81;
+    description of, 81, 173, 174;
+    legend concerning, 81, 82;
+    visits of travelers to, 159-175;
+    attempt to cross, 161, 162
+  Falstrom, Jacob, 191
+  Faribault, Jean Baptiste, house of, 80;
+    reference to, 137, 141, 222;
+    trading post of, 187, 188
+  Faribault, Pelagi, 187
+  Farmers, 92;
+    employment of soldiers as, 95;
+    work of, among Indians, 155, 156
+  Farming, efforts to introduce, among Indians, 148-150;
+    work of Indians at, 150;
+    assistance to Indians in, 152, 153;
+    instruction of Indians in, 155
+  "Fashionable Tour", 159-175
+  Fat Duty Win (Indian), 156
+  "Fayette" (steamboat), 169
+  Fayette County (Iowa), 41
+  Featherstonhaugh, George William, visit of, to Fort Snelling,
+            153, 165, 166
+  Ferries, 14
+  Ferry house, 81
+  Ferryman, 81
+  Fifth United States Infantry, disembarkment of, 2;
+    orders to, 19, 20;
+    location of parts of, 21:
+    journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, 21-24;
+    companies of, taken to Fort Crawford, 32;
+    reference to, 55, 58, 59, 62, 187
+  Finley, Mr., home of, 81
+  Fireplaces, heating by means of, 99
+  Fires, epidemic of, 101
+  First United States Infantry, 58, 59, 62
+  Fishing tackle, purchase of, 88
+  Flag staff, 75
+  Flags, giving up of, by Indians, 6;
+    reference to, 112;
+    slur against, 145
+  Flat Mouth, 120;
+    career of, 179
+  Flatboats, 14, 86, 199
+  Flogging, 90
+  Florida War, service of Eastman in, 62;
+    service of Canby in, 63
+  Flour, 86
+  Food, character of, 26, 85-87
+  Folles-Avoine Indians, 205
+  Fond du Lac, Department of, 6
+  Foraging, 85, 96
+  Foreigners, permission to, to engage in fur trade, 138
+  Forests, 178
+  Forsyth, Thomas, journey of, up Mississippi, 22;
+    presents distributed by, 23;
+    arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, 24;
+    return trip of, 24;
+    reference to, 211, 228
+  Fort Abercrombie, facts concerning early history of, 49, 50
+  Fort Armstrong, construction of, 18;
+    reference to, 20;
+    garrison for, 22;
+    journey of Webb to, 117
+  Fort Atkinson (Iowa), dragoons from, 35;
+    expedition from, 38;
+    Major Woods at, 41
+
+  Fort Atkinson (Nebraska), naming of, 30;
+    sickness at, 93
+  Fort Benton, 46
+  Fort Bridger, 64
+  Fort Calhoun (Nebraska), 20
+  Fort Clarke, establishment of, 44, 45
+  Fort Crawford, establishment of, 18;
+    reference to, 20, 23, 59, 157, 161;
+    arrival of troops at, 22;
+    reënforcement of garrison of, 32, 34;
+    removal of troops from, 33
+  Fort Dearborn, massacre at, 10, 11, 208;
+    reference to, 18, 117;
+    re-occupation of, 18
+  Fort Defiance, 64
+  Fort Des Moines, 44
+  Fort Dodge, establishment of, 44, 45;
+    reference to, 49
+  Fort Erie, 57
+  Fort Gaines, 43, 48
+  Fort Garry, 40, 188
+  Fort Howard, erection of, 19;
+    reference to, 21, 211
+  Fort Leavenworth, establishment of, 56
+  Fort McKay, name of Fort Shelby changed to, 12;
+    re-occupation of site of, 18
+  Fort Pierre, purchase of, 21;
+    reference to, 167
+  Fort Ridgely, 49, 186
+  Fort Ripley, 48
+  Fort St. Anthony, 29
+  Fort Shelby, establishment of, 11, 12;
+    capture of, by English, 12
+  Fort Snelling, significance of establishment of, 2;
+    establishment and early history of, 18-30;
+    range of influence of, 21;
+    erection of, 27, 28;
+    garden at, 28;
+    route of road to, 28, 29;
+    naming of, 29, 30;
+    service of, in protection of frontier, 31-53;
+    attitude of War Department toward, 31;
+    Territorial jurisdictions over site of, 32;
+    activities of troops at, during Winnebago outbreak, 32-34;
+    character and duties of garrison of, 34, 35;
+    service of troops from, in removal of Winnebagoes, 35-37;
+    expeditions from, 39-45;
+    surveying party escorted by dragoons from, 46, 47;
+    relation of, to other forts, 47;
+    fort built by troops from, 48, 49, 50;
+    history of later years of, 50-53;
+    desire to locate town on site of, 50-52;
+    officers' training camp at, 53;
+    biographical sketches of men connected with, 54-72;
+    Dred Scott at, 66;
+    service of Indian agent at, 66-72;
+    description of, 73-83;
+    view from, 79, 80;
+    glimpses of garrison life at, 84-102;
+    relation of, to Indian affairs, 103-118;
+    efforts of authorities at, to keep peace between Sioux and Chippewas,
+            119-134;
+    regulation of fur trade by officers at, 135-139;
+    regulation of liquor traffic by officers at, 139-145;
+    work of missionaries at, 146-158;
+    religious activities at, 156-158;
+    visits of travelers to, 159-175, 198;
+    Indian treaty made at, 176-186;
+    part of, in opening country to settlement, 184, 185;
+    part of, in settlement of West, 187-201;
+    settlements around, 187-190;
+    removal of settlers from vicinity of, 192-195;
+    relations between St. Paul and, 196-198;
+    withdrawal of troops from, 199;
+    unique facts concerning, 201;
+    arrival of troops at, 212, 215;
+    oil painting of, 223;
+    effect of, on Indian affairs, 231, 232
+  Fort Sumter, 201
+  Fort Ticonderoga, 201
+  Fort Union, 46
+  Fort William, 9
+  Fort York, 189
+  Forts, resistance to building of, 13;
+    location of, 18;
+    building of, 18-20, 47;
+    reference to, 136;
+    degeneration of Indians in vicinity of, 147
+  "Four Hearts", 68
+  Four Legs, attempt of, to delay troops, 21
+  Fourth United States Infantry, 56
+  Fowle, Major, 34, 122
+
+  Fox Indians, rumor of attack by, 117;
+    reference to, 205;
+    treaty with, 208
+    (see Sac and Fox Indians)
+  Fox River, 19, 163;
+    canal between Wisconsin River and, 20;
+    ascent of, by troops, 21, 22
+  France, 1, 92
+  Franks, Mr., 209
+  Frémont, John C., 167, 241
+  French, rule of, in West, 2, 3;
+    influence of, over Indians, 3;
+    extent of trade during control of, 205
+  French traders, 2
+  Frontier, difficulties on, 15;
+    plan for protection of, 19;
+    service of Fort Snelling in protection of, 31-53;
+    service of Taylor on, 59
+  Fuel, use of wood for, 99
+  Funerals, conduct of, 93
+  Fur trade, 2, 3, 35;
+    activities of English in, 3, 4, 5-17;
+    importance of, to Canada, 9;
+    regulation of, 15-17, 135-139;
+    quantity of furs secured in, 137;
+    use of liquor in, 139, 140;
+    extent of, 205
+  Fur traders (see Traders)
+  Furs, taking of, to Canada, 6;
+    sorting and packing of, 81;
+    quantity and kind of, secured by traders, 137;
+    annual export of, from Canada, 207
+
+  Gaines, Edmund P., 227
+  Gale, Captain, 131
+  Galena (Illinois), 32, 151, 168, 170, 175, 190
+  Galtier, Lucian, 158, 195
+  Game, killing of, 42
+  Garden, products of, 28;
+    making of, 95, 96
+  Gardiner, Captain, 46
+  Gardner, Lieutenant, 216
+  Garrison, life of, at Fort Snelling, 84-102
+  Gear, Ezekiel, purchases made by, 88, 89;
+    service of, as chaplain, 157;
+    reference to, 169, 170, 173
+  Geese, 96
+  "General Ashley" (keel boat), 33
+  "General Brooke" (steamboat), 169
+  "General Fatigue", 85
+  Genoa (Italy), 70
+  Geological surveys, beginning of, 165
+  George the Third, medals of, 112
+  Gettysburg, Battle of, 63
+  Ghent, negotiations at, 209
+  Good Road (Chief), 83; village of, 155
+  Gooding, Mrs., 23
+  Gooding, Miss, 29
+  Goods for Indian trade, 136
+  Goose River, 40
+  Gorgets, 112, 114
+  Gorman, W. A., 197
+  Graft, charges of, 51
+  Graham's Point, 50
+  Grant, Peter, trading post of, 206
+  Grapeshot, 77
+  Gray, A., report by, 8
+  Great Britain, exploration of domain of, 1;
+    diplomatic correspondence with, 140
+  Great Lakes, 2, 103
+  Green, Platt Rogers, marriage of, 29;
+    reference to, 83
+  Green Bay, 4, 21, 138;
+    fort on, 19;
+    fur trade at, 205
+  Greenly, Mr., 43, 44
+  Greenough, I. K., 101, 143
+  Green's Villa, 82
+  Grist mill, 82
+  Grooms, Mr., 142, 151
+  Groseilliers, Medard Chuart, exploration by, 3
+  Guardhouse, 75
+  Gull Lake, 179
+  Guns, giving of, to Indians, 110
+
+  Half-breeds, difficulties with, 37-40;
+    reference to, 157, 184;
+    location of, around fort, 188, 189
+  Hamilton, Mrs. Alexander, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168
+  Hannibal (negro servant), 90
+  Harness, 75
+  Harriet (negro woman), 66
+  Harriman, D. B., 232
+  Harrison, William H., 57
+
+  Harrodstown (Kentucky), 201
+  Hartford (Connecticut), 21
+  Hastings (Minnesota), 26
+  Hay, raising of, 96
+  Hays, John, 190
+  Heald, Nathan, 10
+  Heiskell, William King, Fort Snelling reservation sold by, 51
+  Hennepin, Louis, 3
+  Henry, Alexander, 206
+  Herring, Elbert, 221
+  _Hiawatha_, 62
+  Higby, James, 196
+  "Highland Mary", 43
+  Hill, James J., 235
+  Hivernants, 136
+  Hole-in-the-Day, 124, 126, 129, 228, 231;
+    career of, 179, 180
+  Holland, 92
+  Homesickness, 25
+  Horses, feeding of, 85;
+    raising of hay for, 96;
+    exchange of, for liquor, 141
+  Hospital, 75;
+    taking of sick soldiers to, 85;
+    number of soldiers in, 93
+  Howitzers, 77
+  Hudson's Bay, 189
+  Hudson's Bay Company, 8, 140, 188, 206, 244
+  Huggins, Alexander G., 154
+  Hull, William, 10, 57;
+    surrender of Detroit by, 57, 58
+  Hunt, Abigail, marriage of, 57
+  Hunting, skill of Scott in, 60, 61;
+    success of soldiers in, 96, 97;
+    activities of Indians in, 105, 106;
+    reference to, 111, 188;
+    efforts to supplement, by farming, 148
+  Hunting grounds, 82
+  Hunting parties, size of, 38;
+    encounters by, 129;
+    watching of, by Indian agent, 129, 130
+
+  Illinois, admission of, 15;
+    Indian outbreak in, 32-34
+  Illinois River, 177
+  Indian affairs, regulation of, 34, 35, 67;
+    relation of Fort Snelling to, 103-118, 231
+  Indian agency, buildings of, 77;
+    proposed removal of, 78;
+    councils with Indians at, 106-109
+  Indian agent, protection for, 18;
+    service of Taliaferro as, 66-71;
+    relation between military authorities and, 67;
+    house of, 77, 78;
+    task of, 103, 104;
+    visit of Indians to, 111;
+    aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112;
+    efforts of, to promote peace between Sioux and Chippewas, 119-134;
+    service of, as mediator, 191, 192;
+    reference to, 220
+  Indian ball, 101
+  Indian country, preparations for march into, 93-95
+  Indian dances, holding of, for Catlin, 164
+  Indian schools, 118
+  Indian Territory, removal of Indians to, 63, 64
+  _Indian Tribes of the United States, History, Conditions, and Future
+            Prospects of the_, 62
+  Indian villages, 83
+  Indiana, admission of, 15;
+   reference to, 63
+  Indians, influence of French traders over, 3;
+    trade of English with, 4;
+    power of English over, 5-17, 114, 115;
+    support of British by, in War of 1812, 8-12;
+    treaties with, 12, 13;
+    sending of presents to, 13, 23;
+    visits of, to Drummond Island, 13, 14;
+    proposals for dealing with, 15;
+    regulation of trade with, 15-17;
+    refusal of, to supply troops with food, 26;
+    relation of Fort Snelling to, 31;
+    hostility of, 32-34;
+    opposition of, to half-breeds, 37;
+    power of agents over, 67;
+    tepees of, 73;
+    blacksmith work for, 78;
+    legend of, concerning Falls of St. Anthony, 81, 82;
+    treatment of deserters by, 92, 93;
+    plan for civilization of, 103;
+    number of, around Fort Snelling, 103, 104;
+    character of life among, 104-106;
+    councils with, at Fort Snelling, 106-109;
+
+    effect of military display on, 108, 109;
+    relief of sufferings of, 109, 110;
+    visit of, to agent, 111;
+    help to, in sickness, 111, 112;
+    vaccination of, 112;
+    evidence of power of government given to, by Fort Snelling, 112-118;
+    medals and certificates given to, 113, 114;
+    influence of Fort Snelling over, 116-118;
+    regulation of fur trade with, 135-139;
+    goods used in trade with, 136;
+    efforts to suppress liquor traffic with, 139-145;
+    evil effects of liquor on, 141;
+    work of missionaries among, 146-158;
+    degeneration among, 147;
+    log village for, 149;
+    work of, at farming, 150;
+    assistance to, in farming, 152, 153;
+    boarding-school for, 156;
+    effect of religious work among, 158;
+    paintings of, by Catlin, 163, 164;
+    relations of United States with, 176-178;
+    speeches by, 181, 182;
+    disputes between settlers and, 191, 192;
+    drunkenness among, 194;
+    use of, by British, 208;
+    plans for permanent territory for, 209;
+    respect of, for Sabbath, 237;
+    steamboats feared by, 239, 240
+  Indigo, purchase of, 88
+  Intemperance, prevalence of, in garrison, 89, 90
+  Interior, Department of, Indian affairs placed under control of, 67
+  Interpreter, service of Campbell as, 71, 72;
+    danger to, from fire, 78;
+    activities of, 129, 130, 131;
+    service of Renville as, 161
+  Interpreters, foreigners as, 138
+  "Ione" (steamboat), 169
+  Iowa, journey of Kearny across, 29;
+    removal of Winnebagoes from, 35, 36, 47;
+    expeditions from Fort Snelling into, 41-45
+  Iowa, Territory of, 32, 158
+  Iowa City, Major Woods at, 41, 42;
+    reference to, 43;
+    description of, 216
+  Iowa County, petition from, 41
+  Iowa Indians, 177;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Iowa River, difficulties with Indians along, 41, 42-44;
+    departure of Indians from, 44
+  Ireland, 92;
+    immigrants from, 189
+  Iron, mining of, 25
+  Irving, Washington, 14
+  Izard, George, 57
+
+  Jack, Captain, war with, 65
+  Jackson, Andrew, 15
+  Jail, use of, 196
+  James, Edward, settlers removed by, 195
+  James River, 116
+  Jarvis, Doctor, 112
+  Jefferson, Thomas, statement of, concerning trade, 4
+  Jesuits, work of, 146
+  Jewellers, 92
+  Jews' harps, giving of, to Indians, 107
+  Johnson, George, 118
+  Johnson County (Iowa), 41
+
+  Kansas State Historical Society, 221
+  Kaposia, 83, 152;
+    missionary at, 154;
+    abandonment of mission at, 155;
+    school at, 156;
+    battle near, 232
+  Kearny, Stephen Watts, survey of route for military road by, 29
+  Keating, William H., 161, 162
+  Keelboats, 86
+  Kemper, Jackson, letters describing visit of, to Fort Snelling, 169-175;
+    reference to, 238, 242
+  Kentucky, settlement of, 14;
+    reference to, 15, 63
+  Kickapoo Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Kinzie, John, 117
+  Kitchens, 75
+  Kittson, Norman W., 140, 235, 245
+  Knives, 136
+
+  La Baye, 205
+  Laborers, 92
+  Lac du Flambeau, 118
+  Lac du Traverse, 16
+  Lac qui Parle, 110, 116, 144, 154, 155
+  Laidlaw, William, 138
+
+  Lake Calhoun, 82, 96, 118, 133, 148, 153, 154;
+    mission on, 83
+  Lake Harriet, 82, 96, 127, 154, 198;
+    Indian boarding-school at, 156
+  Lake Huron, 13, 14, 19, 21
+  Lake Itasca, 167
+  Lake Julia, 163
+  Lake Michigan, 17, 19, 21
+  Lake Mini-Waken, 40
+  Lake of the Isles, 82, 96
+  Lake of the Woods, 16, 140, 209
+  Lake Pepin, 23, 24, 29, 93, 142, 171, 172, 212
+  Lake Pokegama, 232
+  Lake St. Croix, 128
+  Lake Superior, trading posts on, 6;
+    reference to, 9, 47, 160, 162, 172
+  Lake Traverse, 103, 116
+  Lake Winnebago, 21
+  Lake Winnipeg, 4, 162, 189, 205
+  Lakes, hunting in region of, 82, 83
+  Landing at Fort Snelling, description of, 73
+  Lands, questions concerning, 111
+  Land's End, 138
+  Land-seekers, effect of coming of, 117, 118;
+    land cessions urged by, 176
+  Latrobe, Charles Joseph, 223
+  "Laughing Water," 82
+  Laundresses, quarters of, 75
+  Lead mines, 178
+  Leavenworth, Henry, 21, 29, 63, 190, 211;
+    message of, to Indian chief, 21, 22;
+    journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, 22-24;
+    arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, 24;
+    return of, to Prairie du Chien, 24;
+    camp moved by, 27;
+    successor to, 27;
+    sketch of life of, 55, 56
+  Lee, Francis, 49
+  Leech Lake, Pike at, 6;
+    trading post on, 6;
+    reference to, 130, 179
+  Legend concerning Falls of St. Anthony, 81, 82
+  _Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The_, 14
+  Lewis, Meriwether, expedition under, 4, 5;
+    reference to, 72
+  Library, purchase of books for, 87;
+    reference to, 99
+  Licenses, granting of, to traders, 16, 137, 138
+  Linn County (Iowa), 41
+  Liquor, 86;
+    effect of, on Indians, 129, 141;
+    suppression of traffic in, 129;
+    power of, among Indians, 139, 140;
+    prices charged for, 141, 142;
+    destruction of, 143, 144
+  Liquor traffic, regulation of, 139-145
+  Little Crow, 68, 116, 117, 132, 155
+  Little Falls (Minnesota), 6, 81
+  Little Thunder, 118
+  Lockwood, Judge, 170
+  Log cabins, erection of, 25
+  Log village for Indians, 149
+  Long, Stephen H., site for fort approved by, 19;
+    reference to, 95;
+    expedition of, to upper Mississippi, 160-163
+  Longfellow, Henry W., 62
+  Lookout platform, 74
+  Loomis, Gustavus, 36, 156, 166;
+    punishment inflicted by, 90
+  Loras, Mathias, 127, 231;
+    activities of, at Mendota, 158
+  Lords of the North, 54-72
+  Louisiana, transfer of, 7
+  Louisiana Purchase, effect of, 4
+  Louisville (Kentucky), 169
+  Lover's rock, 172
+  Lower Red Cedar Lake, trading post on, 6
+  "Loyal Hanna" (steamboat), 169
+  Lumber, making of, 27, 28, 82
+
+  McCain, H. P., acknowledgments to, ix
+  M'Gillis, Hugh, 6
+  McGregor, John R., 196
+  McKenny, T. L., 17
+  McKenzie, Kenneth, trading house bought by, 79;
+    reference to, 138
+  McLean, Nathaniel, 71, 220
+  McMahon, Doctor, 121
+  McNeil, Colonel, 117
+  Mackinac, capture of, by British, 9, 10;
+    reference to, 11, 12, 18, 118, 146, 201, 209;
+    transfer of, to Americans, 18
+  Madison, James, 12
+
+  Magazine, 74;
+    contents of, 76, 77
+  Ma-ghe-ga-bo, 182, 183
+  Magruder, William T., 63, 186
+  Mahoney, Sergeant, purchases made by, 89
+  Mail, carrying of, to Fort Snelling, 97-99, 101
+  Maize, raising of, 95
+  "Malta" (steamboat), 169
+  Man-of-the-sky, 133
+  Mandan (North Dakota), 5
+  Mandan Indians, Lewis and Clark among, 5;
+    reference to, 206
+  Maple sugar, 120
+  March, preparations for, 93-95
+  Marengo (Iowa), difficulties with Indians near, 42, 43
+  Marion (Iowa), 42
+  Marquette, Jacques, 3, 146
+  Marryat, Frederick, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168, 229
+  Marsh, John, letter from, 33;
+    service of, as tutor, 100, 101
+  Marston, Major, 22
+  Massacre of 1862, 118
+  Massy, Louis, 192
+  Mather, William Williams, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 165
+  Mdewakanton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247
+  Meals, character of, 85-87
+  Medals, giving up of, by Indians, 6;
+    giving of, by English, 112;
+    giving of, by United States, 113, 114;
+    slur against, 145
+  Mendota, treaty of, 49, 247;
+    settlement at, 80, 81;
+    headquarters of fur trade at, 135, 136;
+    factor at, 139;
+    reference to, 142, 212, 223, 245;
+    religious activities at, 157, 158;
+    traders at, 188
+  Menominee Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13;
+    reference to, 177
+  Mess-rooms, 75
+  Mexican War, services of Taylor in, 59;
+    services of Scott in, 61;
+    reference to, 63;
+    service of Canby in, 64
+  Mexico, City of, 64, 197
+  Michigan, Territory of, 32
+  Military frontier, forward movement of, 17, 18
+  Military posts, establishment of, 2;
+    permission for establishment of, 7
+  Military reservation, 192;
+    removal of settlers from, 192-195
+  Military road, survey of route for, 28, 29
+  Military rules, severity of, 91
+  Mille Lac, 180
+  Miller, John, 19
+  Mills, 82, 149;
+    guarding of, 96
+  Minneapolis, real estate speculation at, 50
+  Minnehaha Creek, 27
+  Minnehaha Falls, 62, 96, 127, 198
+  Minnesota, Indians in, 103;
+    diocese of Dubuque extended over, 158;
+    reference to, 177
+  Minnesota, Territory of, 32, 216;
+    organization of, 196
+  Minnesota River, Carver on, 1;
+    reference to, 2, 21, 30, 31, 47, 55, 74, 106, 110, 111, 118, 121, 138,
+            140, 146, 154, 155, 185, 187, 207;
+    cession of land at mouth of, secured by Pike, 7, 8;
+    promise of trading house at mouth of, 17;
+    selection of site for fort at mouth of, 19;
+    arrival of troops at mouth of, 24, 212;
+    fort located at junction of Mississippi River and, 27;
+    concentration of Sioux Indians along, 49;
+    scenery at mouth of, 79, 80;
+    Indian villages on, 83;
+    clearing of timber from banks of, 99;
+    expedition up, 162;
+    name of, 206
+  Minnesota Valley, settlement of, 39;
+    geological survey in, 165
+  Mission, 83
+  Missionaries, 3, 118, 146-158;
+    methods of, suggested by Taliaferro, 150, 151;
+    service of, 199
+  Missionary societies, 145
+  Missions, activities at, 155
+  Mississippi River, Carver on, 1;
+    reference to, 2, 13, 15, 21, 30, 48, 55, 58, 74, 103, 107, 120, 126,
+            129, 131, 135, 143, 158, 167, 179, 187, 205, 207;
+
+    foreign jurisdictions over country west of, 2, 3;
+    expedition of Pike up, 4;
+    activities of British traders on, 5-8;
+    cession of land on, secured by Pike, 7, 8;
+    treaties with Indians on, 12, 13;
+    proposed trading posts on, 17;
+    forts on, 18, 19;
+    fort located at junction of Minnesota River and, 27;
+    exploration of, by Cass, 28;
+    scenery along, 79, 80;
+    road along, 81;
+    Indian villages on, 83;
+    low water in, 86;
+    seizure of liquor on, 144;
+    first steamboat on upper, 159, 160;
+    attempt to find source of, 163;
+    discovery of source of, 167;
+    advertisements of trip on, 168, 169;
+    description of journey up, 169-175;
+    reasons for cession of land east of, 178, 179;
+    cession of land east of, 182-185, 192;
+    military reservation on, 193
+  Mississippi Valley, settlement of, 39;
+    erection of military posts in, 47;
+    work of missionaries in, 146;
+    opening of, to settlement, 185;
+    reference to, 200
+  Missouri, increase in population of, 15;
+    reference to, 66
+  Missouri, Territory of, 29, 32
+  Missouri Compromise, 66
+  Missouri Fur Company, murder of employees of, 113
+  Missouri Indians, 116
+  Missouri River, 2, 3, 6, 13, 21, 30, 37, 46, 56, 72, 107, 112, 113, 116,
+            135, 138, 148, 167, 205, 216, 230;
+    English traders on, 4;
+    Lewis and Clark expedition on, 4, 5;
+    treaties with Indians on, 12, 13;
+    forts on, 19, 20;
+    return of Sacs and Foxes from, 42;
+    removal of Indians to, 44
+  Modoc Indians, war with, 65
+  Molino del Rey, Battle of, death of Scott in, 60, 61, 62
+  Moncrief, W. T., 226
+  Monroe, James, 36, 49, 186, 236
+  _Monsieur Tonson_, 100
+  "Monsoon" (steamboat), 169
+  Montreal, activities of merchants of, 4
+  Moores, Hazen, 143
+  Morgan's Bluff, 89
+  Morrill, Mr., 50
+  Morse, Jedidiah, plan of, for civilizing Indians, 103, 118
+  Mud Lake, 125, 191
+  Mumford, Mr., 101
+  Murderers, surrender of, by Indians, 113;
+    killing of, by Chippewas, 122-124;
+    punishment of, 125, 126, 132
+  Murphy, R. G., 71, 145
+  Musick, Peter, killing of cattle of, 191
+  Musket flints, 77
+  Muskrat furs, exchange of, for liquor, 142
+  Muskrats, trapping of, 105
+  Mutinies, causes of, 91
+
+  Nadin, complaint of, 181
+  Nadoueseronoms, 119
+  Navajo Indians, expedition against, 64
+  Needles, purchase of, 88
+  Nelson River, 189
+  Neutral Ground, removal of Winnebagoes from, 47
+  New Mexico, 64
+  New Orleans, 56
+  New Ulm (Minnesota), 49
+  New York City, 56, 145, 172, 175;
+    draft riots in, 64
+  Niagara Falls, 55, 173
+  Nichols, R. C., building of Fort Armstrong by, 18
+  Nicollet, Jean, exploration by, 3
+  Nicollet, Joseph N., explorations by, 166, 167;
+    reference to, 180
+  Nine Mile River, 174
+  Nokay River, 48
+  North, Lords of, 54-72
+  North Dakota, 40
+  North West Company, activities of, 4;
+    traders of, 5;
+    extent of commerce of, 6;
+    reference to, 8, 9, 10, 244
+
+  Northern Pacific Survey, 46
+  Northwest, period of foreign rule in, 1-17;
+    reference to, 18;
+    importance of Fort Snelling in, 55, 118;
+    guardian of, 30;
+    work of missionaries in, 146-158;
+    coming of first steamboat to, 159, 160;
+    missionary bishop of, 169, 242;
+    part of Fort Snelling in development of, 199, 200;
+    meaning of term, 205
+
+  Oak Grove, mission at, 155
+  Oats, raising of, 95
+  O'Fallon, Benjamin, 16
+  Officer of the day, 85
+  Officers' Mess, 88
+  Officers' quarters, description of, 75;
+    fire in, 101
+  Officers' Training Camp, 53
+  "O. H. Perry" (keelboat), 33, 34
+  Ojibway Indians, home of, 103
+  Old Northwest, settlement of, 14;
+    reference to, 205
+  Oliphant, Laurence, 222
+  Oliver, Lieutenant, experiences of, 26
+  Orderly-room, 75
+  Ordnance, alleged lack of, 76;
+    stock of, 76, 77
+  Ordnance sergeant, quarters of, 75
+  Ordway, John, 206
+  Oregon treaty, 46
+  Orphan asylum, 118
+  Orphans, fund for relief of, 87
+  Osage Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Ottawa Indians, 177
+  Otter furs, exchange of, for liquor, 142
+  Otter Tail Lake, 37, 131
+  Otto, Helen, acknowledgments to, x
+
+  Pacific Coast, emigration to, 45;
+    necessity of railroad to, 46;
+    survey of route for railroad to, 46, 47
+  Pacific Northwest, 205
+  Page, Captain, 36
+  Painted rock, 175
+  Painters, 92
+  "Palmyra" (steamboat), 168
+  Paper, purchase of, 88
+  Papermakers, 92
+  Parade ground, 73;
+    sweeping of, 85
+  Parkman, Francis, 146
+  Parties, holding of, 100, 101
+  Pattern farms, 103
+  Patterson, Robert, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 164
+  Pawnee Indians, campaign against, 56
+  Paymaster, office of, 75
+  Peace conferences between Indians, 131
+  Peace pipe, 107;
+    smoking of, 126
+  Pelzer, Louis, vii
+  Pembina, hunting party from, 38;
+    expedition to, 39, 40, 45;
+    reference to, 140, 163
+  Pemmican, making of, 37
+  Peoria (Illinois), 99
+  Pepper, purchase of, 88
+  Perrot, Nicholas, 3
+  Perry, Abraham, 192
+  Perry, Mrs. Abraham, 193
+  Pe-she-ke, speech by, 183
+  Pettijohn, Eli, purchase made by, 88
+  Phelan, Edward, 190
+  Philadelphia, 161, 164
+  Physician at Fort Snelling, sketch of life of, 65, 66;
+    service of, to settlers, 190, 191
+  Piankashaw Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Picnic grounds, 82
+  Picnics, 96
+  Pike, Zebulon M., expedition under, 4;
+    activities of English traders investigated by, 5-8;
+    cession of land secured by, 7, 8;
+    reference to, 11, 22, 139, 146, 179, 192, 193;
+    promise made by, 17
+  Pike's Island, 187
+  Pillager band of Chippewas, treaty with, 45;
+    reference to, 179, 182
+  Pilot Knob, 80
+  Pine Bend, 86
+  Pine Coulie, 232
+  Pine timber, 172
+  Pinisha, 83
+  Pipestone quarry, trip to, 167
+  Pioneers, protection of, against Indians, 116;
+
+    coming of, 199
+    (see Settlers)
+  Pittsburgh, 160
+  Plattsburg, 57
+  Pleasures of soldiers, 96, 97
+  Plympton, J., 65, 125, 126, 192, 193
+  Poage, Sarah, 154
+  Poinsett, J. R., 194
+  Police guard, 85
+  Pond, Gideon, coming of, to Fort Snelling, 151;
+    work of, among Indians, 152-156
+  Pond, S. W., 72, 103;
+    coming of, to Fort Snelling, 151;
+    work of, among Indians, 152-156
+  Pontiac's conspiracy, 3
+  Pope, John, 215
+  Pork, 86;
+    ration of, 109;
+    giving of, to Indians, 110
+  Portage des Sioux, 17
+  Post fund, 87
+  Post school, 75;
+    fund for maintenance of, 87;
+    organization of, 101
+  Potatoes, raising of, 95
+  Potosi (Wisconsin), 170, 173
+  Pottawattamie Indians, 42, 177;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Poupon, Isadore, 230
+  Powder, stock of, 77
+  Poweshiek (Chief), 44
+  Prairie du Chien, 11, 16, 20, 21, 26, 32, 33, 34, 41, 58, 66, 92, 122,
+            140, 142, 149, 161, 164, 170, 172, 173, 181, 187, 195, 243,
+            246;
+    establishment of Fort Shelby at, 11, 12;
+    capture of, by British, 12;
+    round-about route to, 13;
+    Fort Crawford at, 18;
+    arrival of troops at, 22;
+    return of Leavenworth to, 24;
+    carrying of mail between Fort Snelling and, 97-99, 101;
+    treaty made at, in 1825, 130, 177, 178
+  Preëmption, 192
+  Prescott, Philander, 212
+  Presents, giving of, to Indians, 13, 23, 107, 111
+  President of United States, 16
+  Prevost, George, 8
+  Prices, fixing of, 87
+  Prison, number of soldiers in, 91
+  Prisoners, guarding of, 85
+  Provencalle, Louis, 143
+  Provisions, distribution of, to Indians, 110;
+    character of, 213
+  Pump, 74
+  Punishments, character of, 90, 91
+  Puthuff, William H., 209
+
+  Quaife, Milo M., acknowledgments to, ix
+  Quarrels in garrison, 102
+  Quarrying, employment of soldiers at, 96
+  Quartermaster, trouble between physician and, 65, 66;
+    office of, 75
+  Quebec, 118, 208
+
+  Radisson, Pierre Esprit, exploration by, 3;
+    reference to, 119
+  Railroad, survey of route for, 46, 47
+  Rainville, Mr., 229
+  Raisins, purchase of, 88
+  Ramsey, Alexander, 36, 182;
+    treaty made by, 45;
+    council called by, 131, 132
+  Rations, character of, 85-87, 109;
+    reference to, 95;
+    issuance of, to Indians, 181, 182
+  Real estate speculation, 50
+  Reconnoitering, 85
+  Red Bird, hostility of Indians under, 33, 34
+  Red Bird War, 214
+  "Red Head," 108, 228
+  Red River carts, caravans of, 235, 236
+  Red River of the North, trading posts on, 4, 206;
+    reference to, 16, 49, 50, 103, 138, 151, 188, 205, 236;
+    difficulties with half-breeds from, 37-40;
+    expeditions to, 38-40, 162;
+    Lord Selkirk's colony on, 188
+  Red River Trail, 46
+  Red Wing (Chief), 92;
+    village of, 171, 172;
+    payment of annuities to Indians under, 185
+  _Regulations for the Army, General_, 84, 86
+
+  Renville, Daniel, 156
+  Renville, Joseph, 138, 191;
+    service of, as interpreter, 161
+  Renville, Rosalie, 156
+  Republicans, charges of graft made by, 51
+  _Reveille_, 84
+  Revival, success of, 156
+  Reynolds, Lieutenant, 86
+  Riggs, S. R., 144
+  Road to Fort Snelling, 73, 81
+  Robertson, Mr., work of, 155, 156
+  Robertson, Gustavus A., 156
+  Rock Island, building of fort on, 18;
+    garrison for fort on, 22;
+    reference to, 117
+  Rock River, hostility of Indians on, 12, 13
+  Rocky Mountains, 16
+  Roll call, 84, 85;
+    punishment for absence from, 90
+  Round Tower, Old, 72;
+    description of, 74
+  Routine duties, description of, 84, 85
+  Rum, 86;
+    evil effect of, 139
+  Rum River, 27, 101, 130;
+    battle on, 128
+  Runners, sending of, to Indian camps, 130
+  Rupel, J. B. F., 143
+  Ryerson, Private, purchases by, 88
+
+  Sabbath, respect of Indians for, 237
+  Sac Indians, hostility of, 13;
+    pursuit of, 35;
+    reference to, 205;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Sac and Fox Indians, 35, 42, 177;
+    return of, to Iowa, 42
+  St. Anthony (Minnesota), real estate speculation at, 50
+  St. Croix River, trading posts on, 6;
+    cession of land at mouth of, 8;
+    reference to, 126, 172, 174, 175, 180, 207
+  St. Joseph's, 10
+  St. Lawrence River, 205
+  St. Louis, 4, 5, 11, 22, 48, 56, 58, 69, 72, 120, 159, 162, 169, 170,
+            172, 213, 228;
+    troops from, 34;
+    bringing of supplies from, 86
+  St. Paul, 36, 46, 71, 216, 236;
+    real estate speculation at, 50;
+    founding of, 195, 196;
+    relations between fort and, 196-198
+  St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad Company, 235
+  St. Peter's, 170, 172, 173, 175, 206
+  St. Peter's agency, service of Taliaferro at, 68-71
+  St. Peter's River (see Minnesota River)
+  St. Vincent (Minnesota), 206
+  Salt, 86
+  Sandy Lake, trading post on, 6;
+    reference to, 114, 120, 180
+  Sanford, John F. A., Dred Scott bought by, 66
+  Santa Fe Trail, dangers on, 56
+  Sauk River, 133
+  Sault Ste. Marie, 119, 163
+  Saw mill, erection of, 27;
+    reference to, 82, 172
+  Saxton, Lieutenant, 46
+  Say, Thomas, 161, 162
+  Scalp dance, 123, 128, 131, 132
+  Scalps, taking of, 128
+  Scenery, description of, around Fort Snelling, 79, 80
+  School, organization of, 101
+  Schoolcraft, Henry R., statement by, 14;
+    reference to, 119, 130
+  Schools, success of, among Indians, 156
+  Scientific expeditions, 109
+  Scotland, 92;
+    immigrants from, 189
+  Scott, Dred, fugitive slave case of, 66
+  Scott, Martin, sketch of life of, 59-62
+  Scott, Winfield, naming of Fort Snelling suggested by, 29, 30;
+    reference to, 55
+  _Scott vs. Sanford_, 66
+  Scrub brush, purchase of, 88
+  Scurvy, ravages of, 26, 213
+  Second United States Infantry, 63
+  Secretary of War, 19, 103, 130, 149
+  Selkirk, Lord, colony of, 188, 189
+  Settlement, opening up country to, 184, 185
+
+  Settlements, protection for, 18
+  Settlers, annoyance of, by Indians, 42, 43;
+    desire of, for land cession, 178;
+    service of Fort Snelling to, 187-201;
+    disputes between Indians and, 191, 192;
+    memorial of, 192;
+    efforts to exclude from reservation, 192-195;
+    ejection of, 195, 246
+  Seymour, Samuel, 161
+  Shakopee (Minnesota), 83
+  Shakpay, 83
+  Shambaugh, Benj. F., introduction by, v;
+    acknowledgments to, vii, ix
+  Shapaydan, 83
+  Shaw, Mr., 22
+  Sherman, W. T., military career of, 63
+  Sheyenne River, 103, 138
+  Shields, James, 197
+  Shining Mountains, 3
+  Shipler, Jacob, 196
+  Shoemakers, 92
+  Shoes, purchase of, 88
+  Shot, stock of, 77
+  Sibley, General, 64
+  Sibley, Henry H., description by, 26, 27;
+    house of, 80;
+    hunting by, 96, 97;
+    reference to, 110, 145, 180, 213, 231, 239;
+    relations between officers of fort and, 139
+  Sibley House, 223
+  Sick, taking of, to hospital, 85
+  Sickness, prevalence of, among troops, 26, 213;
+    losses because of, 93;
+    help to Indians in case of, 111, 112
+  Sinclair, Mr., 245
+  Sioux Indians, early traders among, 3;
+    land at mouth of Minnesota ceded by, 7, 8;
+    visits of, to Drummond Island, 13, 14;
+    goods sent to, 22;
+    treaty between Chippewas and, 28;
+    unfriendliness of, 33;
+    part of, in Black Hawk War, 35;
+    hostility between half-breeds and, 37;
+    reference to, 48, 98, 101, 151, 158, 171, 177, 178, 179, 180, 184,
+            198, 205, 229, 231, 242;
+    concentration of, 49:
+    massacre by, 52, 83;
+    visit of, to Washington, 68;
+
+    villages of, 83;
+    home of, 103;
+    number of, 103, 104;
+    migrations of, to Canada, 106;
+    vaccination of, 112;
+    hostility of, 114;
+    disillusionment of, 115;
+    influence of Fort Snelling over, 116-118;
+    rumor of attack by, 117;
+    feuds between Chippewas and, 119-134;
+    killing of Chippewas by, 121, 125;
+    surrender of murderers by, 122, 125, 126;
+    battle between Chippewas and, 127, 128, 232;
+    boundary line between Chippewas and, 130, 131, 178;
+    imprisonment of, 132;
+    untrustworthiness of, 134;
+    temperance society among, 145;
+    farmer for, 155;
+    language of, 174;
+    delegation of, to Washington, 179;
+    treaty made by, 184, 247;
+    payment of annuities to, 185, 186;
+    amount of land ceded by, in 1805, 207
+  Sioux of the Lakes, treaty with, 208
+  Sioux of St. Peter's River, treaty with, 208
+  Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, 48
+  Sioux language, school books in, 156
+  Sisseton Sioux Indians, 113, 129, 228;
+    treaty with, 247
+  Sixth United States Infantry, company of, in Iowa, 44;
+    reference to, 48, 57, 63, 197;
+    frontier service of, 49
+  Skunk River, 42
+  Smallpox, efforts to check, 112
+  Smith, C. F., expedition under, 40;
+    site for fort recommended by, 49, 50
+  Smith, William R., 180
+  Smuggling of whiskey, 142, 143
+  Snelling, Josiah, building of fort by, 27, 28;
+    letter by, 28;
+    activities of, during Winnebago outbreak, 32-34;
+    reference to, 55, 96, 100, 102, 117, 132, 142, 163, 190;
+    sketch of life of, 56-59;
+    punishments inflicted by, 90;
+    description by, 113;
+    evil effects of liquor described by, 140, 141
+  Snelling, Mrs. Josiah, 100, 160
+
+  Snelling, William J., 102, 163
+  Soap, 86;
+    purchase of, 88
+  Social life, 99-102
+  Soiree, 101
+  Soldiers, building of fort by, 27;
+    surroundings of, at Fort Snelling, 73-83;
+    life of, at Fort Snelling, 84-102;
+    occupation of, 92;
+    birthplace of, 92;
+    journeys into Indian country enjoyed by, 93-95;
+    employments of, 95, 96;
+    pleasures of, 96, 97;
+    carrying of mail by, 97, 98;
+    social life among, 100-102;
+    quarrels among, 102;
+    dependence of missionaries on, 148;
+    revival among, 156;
+    church services for, 157;
+    expedition escorted by, 162, 163;
+    drunkenness among, 194;
+    arrival of, at Fort Snelling, 212;
+    ejection of settlers by, 246
+  Soup, character of, 86, 87
+  South Dakota, Indians in, 103
+  Southwest Company, 188
+  Spain, exploration of domain of, 1
+  Spanish, rule of, in West, 2, 3;
+    Indian trade won from, by English, 4
+  Speculators, desire of, for land cession, 178
+  Speeches, making of, by Indians, 181, 182
+  Split Upper Lip, 123
+  Spring, eagerness for coming of, 102;
+    activities of Indians in, 104, 105
+  Squad-rooms, 75
+  Squatters, huts of, 79
+    (see Settlers)
+  Starch, purchase of, 88
+  Stairway, 73
+  Stanton, Edwin M., 64
+  Steamboating, beginning of, on upper Mississippi, 159, 160
+  Steamboats, use of, to bring supplies, 86;
+    mail carried by, 97;
+    reference to, 159, 199;
+    advertisements of, 169;
+    attitude of Indians toward, 239, 240
+  Steele, Franklin, Fort Snelling reservation sold to, 51, 52;
+    adjustment with, 52;
+    home of, 79;
+    account books of, 87
+  Steen, Mr., 43, 44
+  Stevens, Isaac I., survey of route for railroad by, 46;
+    reference to, 217
+  Stevens, Jedediah I., coming of, to Fort Snelling, 149;
+    work of, among Indians, 154;
+    preaching by, 157
+  Stillwater (Minnesota), 197
+  Stockade, erection of, 25;
+    reference to, 73, 136
+  Store, purchase of goods at, 87-89
+  Storehouse, 75
+  Storer, William, 131
+  Stoves, use of, for heating, 99
+  Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 62
+  Straits of Mackinac, 21
+  Street, Joseph M., 149, 231
+  Strong Earth, complaint of, 121;
+    career of, 180
+  Strong Ground, career of, 180
+  Sugar, 86;
+    purchase of, 88
+  Sugar bush, 105
+  Summer, activities of Indians during, 105
+  Sumner, Edwin V., expedition under, 38
+  Superintendent of Indian Affairs, 67, 71
+  Supplies, character of, 26;
+    bringing of, to Fort Snelling, 86;
+    amount of, furnished to Indians, 182
+  Supreme Court of United States, 66
+  Surveyors, destruction of landmarks of, 42
+  Suspenders, purchase of, 88
+  Sutler, home of, 79;
+    purchase of goods from, 87-89;
+    service of Brown as, 190
+  Swan, 96
+  Swan River, 179
+  Switzerland, immigrants from, 172, 189
+
+  Taliaferro, Lawrence, 28, 35, 66, 72, 77, 78, 84, 89, 91, 98, 102, 103,
+            114, 116, 139, 140, 160, 167, 178, 179, 180, 184, 193, 221;
+    threat against, 33;
+    service of, as Indian agent, 68-71;
+    letters and papers of, 69, 70;
+
+    speech by, 108;
+    suffering of Indians relieved by, 109, 110;
+    visit of Indians to, 111;
+    aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112;
+    murderers demanded by, 113;
+    efforts of, to civilize Indians, 118;
+    difficulties of, with Sioux and Chippewas, 120-134;
+    traders' licenses granted by, 137, 138;
+    disagreement between Bailly and, 138, 139;
+    liquor laws enforced by, 142-144;
+    efforts of, to induce Indians to farm, 148-150;
+    coöperation of, with missionaries, 149-158;
+    wedding ceremony performed by, 191;
+    service of, as mediator, 191, 192
+  Tatling, results of, 102
+  Tattoo, 85
+  Taylor, Zachary, service of, at Fort Snelling, 59
+  Tea party, 197
+  Teamsters, employment of soldiers as, 96
+  Temperance societies, 143, 145
+  Tennessee, settlement of, 14;
+    reference to, 15
+  Tenth United States Infantry, expedition of companies of, 40;
+    reference to, 63, 64
+  Tepees, repairing of, 105
+  Teton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Theatrical performances, 100
+  Thespian Players, 100
+  Third Artillery, 63
+  Third United States Infantry, 19, 21
+  Thomas, Sergeant, 223
+  Throckmorton, Captain, 169
+  Timber, destruction of, 42
+  Timber lands, opening up of, 185
+  Tintatonwan village, 83
+  Tippecanoe, Battle of, 56
+  Toopunkah Zeze, killing of, 123, 124, 231
+  Tourist traffic, extent of, 168, 169
+  Tourists, increase in number of, 198
+    (see Travelers)
+  Traders, activities of, 3, 4;
+    regulation of activities of, 135-145;
+    granting of licenses to, 137, 138;
+    law suit begun by, 144;
+    opposition of, to farming, 150;
+    religious work among, 157, 158;
+    desire of, for treaty, 178, 179;
+    presence of, at council, 180;
+    speeches of Indians concerning, 181;
+    payment of debts to, 183, 184;
+    reference to, 187, 192;
+    location of, at Mendota, 188;
+    service of, 199
+  Trading companies, development of, 135;
+    profit of, 136
+  Trading house, 78, 79, 135
+  Trading houses, establishment of, 17;
+    protection for, 18;
+    cluster of, 80
+  Trading posts, location of, 6, 135, 136, 138;
+    permission for establishment of, 7;
+    reference to, 187, 188
+  Training camp, use of Fort Snelling as, 52, 53
+  Travelers, visits of, to Fort Snelling, 159-175
+  Traverse des Sioux, treaty of, 49, 247
+  Treaties, making of, with Indians, 12, 13, 28, 47, 48, 176-186,
+          208, 247;
+    making of, between tribes, 131, 132
+  Treaty of Ghent, terms of, 12, 18
+  Treaty of Paris (1783), 16
+  Trinkets, 136
+  Troops, proposed employment of, in mining, 25;
+    troubles of, during first winter, 25-27;
+    ravages of scurvy among, 26;
+    new camp for, 27;
+    service of, in protection of frontier, 31-53;
+    withdrawal of, from Fort Snelling, 52, 199
+    (also see Soldiers)
+  Truces, making of, between tribes, 131
+  Turkey River, removal of Winnebagoes from, 35, 36;
+    reference to, 47
+  Turner, F. J., 187
+  Tutor, service of Marsh as, 100, 101
+
+  _Uncle Tom's Cabin_, 62
+  United States, establishment of military posts by, 2;
+
+    agreement of, to make peace with Indians, 12;
+    northern boundary of, 16;
+    expansion of, 45, 46;
+    hostility of Indians to, 114;
+    relations of, with Indians, 176-178;
+    agreement of, with Chippewas, 184;
+    land ceded to, by Sioux in 1805, 207
+  Upper country, extent of, 2
+  Utah, 64
+
+  Vaccination of Indians, 112
+  Vail, J., 143
+  Valentine Ball, 197
+  "Valley Forge" (steamboat), 169
+  Van Antwerp, Ver Planck, 180
+  Van Cleve, Horatio P., 212
+  Van Cleve, Mrs., 231
+  Vancouver (Washington), 47
+  Vevay (Indiana), 190
+  Vinegar, 86
+  Vineyard, Miles, 179
+  Virginia, 70
+  "Virginia" (steamboat), trip of, up Mississippi River, 159, 160
+  Volga River, 41
+  Voyageurs, 136, 157, 188
+
+  Wabasha (Chief), 33, 117;
+    land sold by, 35;
+    meeting of couriers at village of, 98;
+    missionary at village of, 154;
+    village of, 171;
+    payment of annuities to Indians under, 185
+  Wabasha's Prairie, 35
+  Wahpakoota Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247
+  Wahpeton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247
+  Wall around Fort Snelling, description of, 73, 74, 76
+  Wakh-pa-koo-tay, 243
+  Wakinyantanka, 83
+  Wamditanka, 83
+  Wapsipinicon River, 42
+  War Department, 19, 22, 39, 44, 160;
+    naming of Fort Snelling by, 29, 30;
+    attitude of, toward Fort Snelling, 31;
+    Indian affairs placed under control of, 67
+  War of 1812, English supported by Indians during, 8-12;
+    reference to, 18, 209;
+    service of Snelling during, 57;
+    service of Taliaferro in, 70
+  War parties, 106
+  Warfare, history of, between Sioux and Chippewas, 119-134
+  "Warrior" (steamboat), 151, 164
+  Warriors, desire of, to take part in council, 181
+  Washington, George, 168
+  Washington (Connecticut), 151
+  Washington, D. C., 46, 58, 62, 64, 98, 192;
+    visit of Indians to, 68, 115, 116, 179;
+    treaty with Sioux at, 184
+  Washington Monument Association, 197
+  Washington Territory, 46
+  Washington's birthday, celebration of, 100
+  Water power, 178
+  Weapons, stock of, 76, 77
+  Webb, James, journey of, to Fort Armstrong, 117
+  Webster, Daniel, statement by, 59
+  Weddings, 191
+  West, prediction of Carver concerning, 1, 2;
+    foreign jurisdictions in, 2, 3;
+    English supported by Indians in, 8-12;
+    rapid development of, 14;
+    cause of trouble in, 15;
+    influence of Fort Snelling in, 52;
+    service of Canby in, 65;
+    work of missionaries in, 146
+  West Point Military Academy, 62, 63, 100
+  Westward movement, 14, 15
+  Wheat, spoiling of, 86; raising of, 95
+  Wheeling (West Virginia), 161
+  Wheelwrights, 92
+  Whiskey, 86;
+    drinking of, by soldiers, 89;
+    efforts to suppress traffic in, 139-145;
+    smuggling of, 142, 143;
+    destruction of, 143, 144, 243;
+    traffic in, 194, 236
+  Whistler, Captain, 21, 211
+  White Head, 118
+  Whitney, Asa, 217
+
+  Whooping cough, epidemic of, 191
+  Widows, fund for relief of, 87
+  Wilcox, Captain, 32
+  Williams, Lieutenant, 99
+  Williamson, Thomas S., 110;
+    work of, among Indians, 154-157
+  Williamson, Mrs. Thomas S., 154
+  Wines, seizure of, 143;
+    giving of, to Indians, 144
+  Winnebago Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13;
+    attempt of, to delay troops, 21, 22;
+    outbreak of, 32-34;
+    removal of, to new reservation, 35-37, 48;
+    reference to, 41, 42, 177, 211, 236;
+    treaty with, 47;
+    new reservation for, 48;
+    disturbances among, 48, 49;
+    language of, 174
+  Winnebago War, 214
+  Winnipeg, 188
+  Winona (Minnesota), 35
+  Winter, difficulty in securing mail during, 97-99;
+    life at Fort Snelling during, 99-102;
+    life among Indians during, 104, 109, 110
+  Wisconsin, Nicollet in, 3;
+    Indian outbreak in, 32-34;
+    desire of Winnebagoes to return to, 36;
+    reference to, 168;
+    desire for land cession in, 178;
+    bishop of, 242
+  Wisconsin, Territory of, 32, 180;
+    marshal of, 195
+  Wisconsin Historical Society, 242
+  Wisconsin River, 19, 20, 34;
+    canal between Fox River and, 20
+  Women, social life of, at fort, 100-102
+  Wood, Doctor, aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112
+  Wood, securing of, for fuel, 99
+  Woods, Samuel, expedition under, 38, 41-45;
+    reference to, 40;
+    fort established by, 44, 45
+  Wool, John E., 194
+  Wyandot Indians, treaty with, 208
+
+  Yankton Sioux Indians, half-breed killed by, 37;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Yeast powder, purchase of, 88
+  Yellowstone Expedition, 20;
+    failure of, 21
+  Yellowstone River, fort at mouth of, 19
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Note: There are a number of inconsistencies in spelling and
+hyphenation which are left as in the original, as they were
+copied directly from various sources, such as personal journals.
+
+Page 12, para, 3: Treaty of Ghent, 1914, changed to 1814.
+
+Page 13: 'Menominees' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 98: 'inteligence' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 101: 'great numbers of Dear--Our' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 113: 'afraid to die. the Murderer' as in original. Note: This
+writer/source doesn't capitalize normally.
+
+Page 128: Chippeways spelled as in original.
+
+Page 129: 'liveing' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 134: 'Chippeways' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 143: 'Societties' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 156: 'revival among the the soldiers, and' (Removed extra 'the').
+
+Page 170: 'a-head' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 172: 'The Sioux have winter & summer houses. The latter are
+conical made....' apparently refers to winter, even though the
+phrase is 'winter & summer'.
+
+Page 177: 'Menomonies' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 191: Falstrom also spelled Faustram on same page.
+
+Footnote 8: 'tradeing' spelled as in original.
+
+Footnote 8: 'visit us. he' as in original.
+
+Footnote 8: 'Mandens' spelled as in original.
+
+Footnote 27: 'massacreing' spelled as in original.
+
+Footnote 183: Part of year missing from original. Changed
+from '18 ' to '18__'.
+
+Index: Warfare, history of: Siuox changed to Sioux.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Old Fort Snelling
+       1819-1858
+
+Author: Marcus L. Hansen
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22719]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD FORT SNELLING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by K Nordquist, Sigal Alon, Leonard Johnson and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+   <img src="images/cover.jpg"
+      alt="Book Cover."
+      title="Book Cover." />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>OLD FORT SNELLING</strong></p>
+
+<p class="center">From a painting by Captain Seth Eastman, reproduced in Mrs. Eastman's
+<em>Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling</em></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+   <a href="images/ft_snelling.jpg">
+   <img src="images/ft_snelling_sm.jpg"
+      alt=""
+      title="" />
+   </a>
+   <p class="caption">OLD FORT SNELLING</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="title_pg">
+<h1>OLD FORT SNELLING<br />
+
+<small>1819&ndash;1858</small></h1>
+
+<p>BY<br />
+MARCUS L. HANSEN</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+   <img src="images/logo.png"
+      alt=""
+      title="" />
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="publisher">PUBLISHED AT IOWA CITY IOWA IN 1918 BY<br />
+THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA</p>
+
+
+<p class="press">THE TORCH PRESS<br />
+CEDAR RAPIDS<br />
+IOWA</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_v" name="Page_v"></a><span class="pagenum">[v]</span></p>
+<h2><a id="INTRO" name="INTRO"></a>EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The establishment in 1917 of a camp at Fort Snelling for the training of
+officers for the army has aroused curiosity in the history of Old Fort
+Snelling. Again as in the days of the pioneer settlement of the
+Northwest the Fort at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi
+rivers has become an object of more than ordinary interest.</p>
+
+<p>Old Fort Snelling was established in 1819 within the Missouri Territory
+on ground which later became a part of the Territory of Iowa. Not until
+1849 was it included within Minnesota boundaries. Linked with the early
+annals of Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the
+Northwest, the history of Old Fort Snelling is the common heritage of
+many commonwealths in the Upper Mississippi Valley.</p>
+
+<p>The period covered in this volume begins with the establishment of the
+Fort in 1819 and ends with the temporary abandonment of the site as a
+military post in 1858.</p>
+
+<p class="citation"><span class="smcap">Benj. F. Shambaugh</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Office of the Superintendent and Editor<br />
+The State Historical Society of Iowa<br />
+Iowa City Iowa</span></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_vi" name="Page_vi"></a><span class="pagenum">[vi]</span></p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_vii" name="Page_vii"></a><span class="pagenum">[vii]</span></p>
+<h2><a id="PREFACE" name="PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The position which the military post holds in western history is
+sometimes misunderstood. So often has a consideration of it been left to
+the novelist's pen that romantic glamour has obscured the permanent
+contribution made by many a lonely post to the development of the
+surrounding region. The western fort was more than a block-house or a
+picket. Being the home of a handful of soldiers did not give it its real
+importance: it was an institution and should be studied as such. Old
+Fort Snelling is a type of the many remote military stations which were
+scattered throughout the West upon the upper waters of the rivers or at
+intermediate places on the interminable stretches of the westward
+trails.</p>
+
+<p>This study of the history and influence of Old Fort Snelling was first
+undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Louis Pelzer of the State University
+of Iowa, and was carried on under his supervision. The results of the
+investigation were accepted as a thesis in the Graduate College of the
+State University of Iowa in June, 1917. Upon the suggestion of Dr. Benj.
+F. Shambaugh, Superintendent of The State Historical Society of Iowa,
+the plan of the work was changed, its scope enlarged, many new sources
+of information <a id="Page_viii" name="Page_viii"></a><span class="pagenum">[viii]</span> were consulted, and the entire manuscript
+rewritten.</p>
+
+<p>Connected with so many of the aspects of western history, Old Fort
+Snelling is pictured in accounts both numerous and varied. The reports
+of government officials, the relations of travellers and explorers, and
+the reminiscences of fur traders, pioneer settlers, and missionaries
+show the Fort as each author, looking at it from the angle of his
+particular interest, saw it. These published accounts are found in the
+<em>Annual Reports</em> of the Secretary of War, in the <em>Annual Reports</em> of the
+Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and in the works of travellers and
+pioneers. Many of the most important sources are the briefer accounts
+printed in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>. The author's
+dependence upon these sources of information is evident upon every page
+of this volume.</p>
+
+<p>But not alone from these sources, which are readily accessible, is this
+account of the Old Fort drawn. A half-burned diary, the account books of
+the post sutler, letter books filled with correspondence dealing with
+matters which are often trivial, and statistical returns of men and
+equipment are sources which from their nature may never be printed. But
+in them reposes much of the material upon which this book is based. The
+examination of all the documents which offered any prospect of throwing
+light upon the subject was made possible for the author as Research
+Assistant in The State Historical Society <a id="Page_ix" name="Page_ix"></a><span class="pagenum">[ix]</span> of Iowa. And in this
+connection I wish to express my appreciation for the many courtesies
+which I have received from those in whose custody these sources are
+kept. To Dr. Solon J. Buck, Superintendent of the Minnesota Historical
+Society and the members of the library staff of that Society I am
+indebted for many kindnesses. Dr. M. M. Quaife, Superintendent of the
+State Historical Society of Wisconsin, placed at my disposal thousands
+of sheets of transcripts made from the records of the Indian Department
+at Washington and kept in the library of the Historical Society at
+Madison. At the Historical Department of Iowa at Des Moines, and in the
+library of the Kansas State Historical Society at Topeka opportunity was
+granted to examine valuable manuscripts. General H. P. McCain,
+Adjutant-General of the United States, had a search made of the records
+on file in the archives of the War Department at Washington, and such
+papers as dealt with Fort Snelling were consulted by the author.</p>
+
+<p>My fellow workers on the staff of The State Historical Society of Iowa
+have often aided me with suggestions and criticisms. To the
+Superintendent of the Society, Dr. Benj. F. Shambaugh, I wish to express
+my appreciation not only for the advice, encouragement, and inspiration
+which he freely gave, but also for the willingness with which he made
+possible the investigation of every clue to sources of information by
+correspondence or by personal visit. <a id="Page_x" name="Page_x"></a><span class="pagenum">[x]</span> Moreover, the manuscript has
+been carefully edited by him. The task of seeing the work through the
+press has been performed by Associate Editor Dr. Dan E. Clark, who also
+carefully read the manuscript and compiled the index. Miss Helen Otto
+assisted in the verification of the manuscript.</p>
+
+<p class="citation">
+<span class="smcap">Marcus L. Hansen</span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">The State Historical Society of Iowa<br />
+Iowa City Iowa</span></p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+
+
+<p><a id="Page_xi" name="Page_xi"></a><span class="pagenum">[xi]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<ul class="toc">
+<li><span class="marker">&nbsp;</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRO">Editor's Introduction</a></span>                         <span class="ralign">v</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">&nbsp;</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#PREFACE">Author's Preface</a></span>                            <span class="ralign">vii</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">I.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#I">A Century and a Half of Foreign Rule</a></span>          <span class="ralign">1</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">II.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#II">The Evolution of Fort Snelling</a></span>               <span class="ralign">18</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">III.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#III">Forty Years of Frontier Duty</a></span>                 <span class="ralign">31</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">IV.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#IV">Lords of the North</a></span>                           <span class="ralign">54</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">V.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#V">A Soldier's World</a></span>                            <span class="ralign">73</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">VI.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#VI">Glimpses of Garrison Life</a></span>                    <span class="ralign">84</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">VII.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#VII">The Fort and Indian Life</a></span>                    <span class="ralign">103</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">VIII.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#VIII">The Sioux-Chippewa Feuds</a></span>                    <span class="ralign">119</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">IX.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#IX">The Fur Trade</a></span>                               <span class="ralign">135</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">X.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#X">Soldiers of the Cross</a></span>                       <span class="ralign">146</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">XI.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#XI">The Fashionable Tour</a></span>                        <span class="ralign">159</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">XII.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#XII">The Chippewa Treaty of 1837</a></span>                 <span class="ralign">176</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">XIII.</span><span class="smcap"><a href="#XIII">Citizens and Soldiers</a></span>                       <span class="ralign">187</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">&nbsp;</span>         <span class="smcap"><a href="#NOTES_AND_REFERENCES">Notes and References</a></span>                        <span class="ralign">205</span></li>
+
+<li><span class="marker">&nbsp;</span>         <span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span>                                       <span class="ralign">251</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_xii" name="Page_xii"></a><span class="pagenum">[xii]</span></p>
+
+<div class="title_pg">
+<p>OLD FORT SNELLING<br />
+
+1819&ndash;1858</p>
+
+
+<div class="center" style="margin: 4em 0;">
+   <img src="images/hist_logo.png"
+      alt=""
+      title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>MARCUS L. HANSEN</p>
+</div>
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_001" name="Page_001"></a><span class="pagenum">[001]</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br />
+
+A CENTURY AND A HALF OF FOREIGN RULE</h2>
+
+
+<p>On an autumn day in 1766 Captain Jonathan Carver stood upon the bluff
+which rises at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers and
+viewed the wonderful landscape of prairie and wooded valleys that lay
+before him. As a captain in the colonial troops of Connecticut he had
+served his king faithfully in the late war with France; and now in the
+days of peace which followed the glorious victory he sought to continue
+his usefulness by exploring the vast regions which had been added to the
+domains of Great Britain and Spain. Three years of travel in the
+wilderness taught him that those wild lands would not always be the
+haunt of savage animals and wandering tribes.</p>
+
+<p><q>To what power or authority this new world will become dependent, after
+it has arisen from its present uncultivated state, time alone can
+discover</q>, he later wrote. <q>But as the seat of Empire, from time
+immemorial has been gradually progressive towards the West, there is no
+doubt but that at some future period, mighty kingdoms will emerge from
+these wildernesses, and stately palaces and solemn temples, with gilded
+spires reaching the skies, supplant the <a id="Page_002" name="Page_002"></a><span class="pagenum">[002]</span> Indian huts, whose only
+decorations are the barbarous trophies of their vanquished enemies.</q><a name="anchor-1" id="anchor-1"></a><a href="#footnote-1" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 1.">1</a></p>
+
+<p>Not until the twenty-fourth day of August, 1819, when less than a
+hundred soldiers of the Fifth United States Infantry disembarked
+opposite the towering height where a few years later rose the white
+walls of Fort Snelling, did the nation which was to rule assert its
+power. The event was, indeed, epochal. It not only marked a change in
+the sovereignty over the vast region, but it also made possible the
+development of those factors which were to bring about the great
+transformation.</p>
+
+<p>It was for the <q>upper country</q> that this fort was built&mdash;a country
+stretching from the Great Lakes across the wooded headwaters of the
+Mississippi and Minnesota rivers to the plains of the Missouri. The
+history of this region is marked by several distinct periods: the coming
+of the French traders, the supremacy of the English companies, the
+establishment of military posts of the United States, and the building
+of American communities.</p>
+
+<p>Although at the opening of the second decade of the nineteenth century
+the American troops quartered on the west banks of the Mississippi River
+were on soil that, in name, had been American for sixteen years, and
+although they looked over the river to land that had since 1783 belonged
+to their country, yet they had in fact taken possession of a foreign
+land. English, French, and Spanish flags had at various times waved over
+certain parts of it. <a id="Page_003" name="Page_003"></a><span class="pagenum">[003]</span> Foreign influence, during a century and a
+half, had become widespread and deeply rooted.</p>
+
+<p>When in 1634 Jean Nicollet visited the Wisconsin country the French
+advance into the upper Northwest had begun.<a name="anchor-2" id="anchor-2"></a><a href="#footnote-2" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 2.">2</a> From 1658 to 1660
+Radisson and Groseilliers wandered among the tribes and brought the
+first canoe loads of furs to Canada from the far West. Then along with
+the missionaries, Hennepin and Marquette, came the <em>coureurs des bois</em>,
+Nicholas Perrot and Daniel Greyloson Duluth. It is unnecessary to recite
+in detail the exploits of these Frenchmen and their successors.<a name="anchor-3" id="anchor-3"></a><a href="#footnote-3" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 3.">3</a> For a
+century the songs of unknown boatmen rose from the waters of the western
+rivers; unknown traders smoked in the lodges of Sioux and Chippewas; and
+hardy wanderers whose feats of discovery are unrecorded, leaving behind
+the Missouri River, saw from afar the wonders of the <q>Shining
+Mountains</q>.<a name="anchor-4" id="anchor-4"></a><a href="#footnote-4" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 4.">4</a> But if no record of them remains, their influence was
+lasting. Living with the natives, supplying their needs by barter, and
+marrying the Indian girls, the French gained a remarkable power over the
+northwestern tribes, which caused them to consider whoever came from
+Canada their friend, even after the English government had supplanted
+the French in power.</p>
+
+<p>West of the lakes the transition from the French to the English rule
+created no disturbances, such as Pontiac's conspiracy which so
+completely disrupted the trade in the East.<a name="anchor-5" id="anchor-5"></a><a href="#footnote-5" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 5.">5</a> Continuing the French
+policy and also their posts and voyageurs, the Scottish <a id="Page_004" name="Page_004"></a><span class="pagenum">[004]</span> merchants
+of Montreal, organized in 1784 as the North West Company, pushed
+westward from Green Bay and southward from Lake Winnipeg. This advance
+was continued until the opening years of the next century. Although on
+nominally Spanish territory, the tribes on the upper Missouri were won
+from the Spanish traders at St. Louis by such severe cutting in prices
+that the latter could not compete. The posts of the North West Company
+on the Red River of the North became the resort for many of the western
+tribes.<a name="anchor-6" id="anchor-6"></a><a href="#footnote-6" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 6.">6</a></p>
+
+<p>The diverting of the trade of these natives, who would naturally have
+come down the Missouri where American traders could meet them and be
+benefited, was noticed by President Jefferson, who, on January 18, 1803,
+wrote to Congress: <q>It is, however, understood, that the country on that
+river is inhabited by numerous tribes, who furnish great supplies of
+furs and peltry to the trade of another nation, carried on in a high
+latitude, through an infinite number of portages and lakes, shut up by
+ice through a long season.</q> In this same message was included a
+recommendation that a small expedition be sent up to confer with the
+tribes with respect to the admission of American traders.<a name="anchor-7" id="anchor-7"></a><a href="#footnote-7" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 7.">7</a></p>
+
+<p>But the purchase of Louisiana altered matters. It was not only a matter
+of trade, but one of sovereignty. A double movement was initiated: one
+to ascend the Mississippi under Zebulon M. Pike, and the other the
+Missouri under Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark.
+The reports <a id="Page_005" name="Page_005"></a><span class="pagenum">[005]</span> of these two expeditions indicate how firm a grip the
+English traders had upon the Indians of the upper Northwest.</p>
+
+<p>The expedition of Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri and passed over
+the mountains to the Columbia River which was followed to the coast. The
+first winter, from late in October, 1804, to early in April, 1805, was
+spent in a fort which was constructed in the village of the Mandans,
+near the location of the present city of Mandan in North Dakota. Here
+was abundant opportunity to investigate the fur trade. Nor had they long
+to wait. On the 27th of November, seven British traders arrived from the
+North West Company's post on the Assiniboine River to barter with the
+river tribes. The next day, in council with the Mandan chiefs, the
+Americans warned the Indians not to receive medals or flags from the
+foreigners if they wished to be friends with the <q>Great American
+Father</q>. A day later this warning was communicated to the traders
+themselves who promised to refrain from any such acts.<a name="anchor-8" id="anchor-8"></a><a href="#footnote-8" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 8.">8</a> How well they
+kept their promises later events showed. The Lewis and Clark expedition
+was only a passing pageant; for by the time of the War of 1812, the only
+American traders who ventured to do business on the upper waters were
+practically driven off by the foreign companies.<a name="anchor-9" id="anchor-9"></a><a href="#footnote-9" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 9.">9</a></p>
+
+<p>The report of Zebulon M. Pike indicates that conditions were much worse
+on the upper Mississippi. Leaving St. Louis on August 9, 1805, he
+returned to that place on April 30, 1806. About two months <a id="Page_006" name="Page_006"></a><span class="pagenum">[006]</span> were
+spent at a fort erected near the site of Little Falls, where he left a
+few men and pushed on with the rest of the company to Leech Lake.
+Conversation with the fur traders and councils with the Indians revealed
+the extent of the commerce of the North West Company. He heard of
+permanent trading posts on the south side of Lake Superior and at the
+headwaters of the St. Croix River; and he saw at Lower Red Cedar Lake,
+Sandy Lake, and Leech Lake the rude stockades and log buildings which
+were called forts.<a name="anchor-10" id="anchor-10"></a><a href="#footnote-100" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 10.">10</a> These three posts were included in the
+<q>Department of Fond du Lac</q> and were the centers from which in the year
+1805, trade with the Indians was carried on by one hundred and nine
+men.<a name="anchor-11" id="anchor-11"></a><a href="#footnote-111" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 11.">11</a> By means of the rivers and portages of the wilderness the furs
+were brought to Canada without passing a custom house, and thus the
+United States was defrauded of duties which, it was estimated, would
+amount to $26,000 annually.<a name="anchor-12" id="anchor-12"></a><a href="#footnote-122" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 12.">12</a></p>
+
+<p>Pike objected to many of the evident signs of British sovereignty: the
+British flag flying above the headquarters of the department of Fond du
+Lac was shot down;<a name="anchor-13" id="anchor-13"></a><a href="#footnote-13" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 13.">13</a> many of the Indians were induced to give up their
+British medals and flags;<a name="anchor-14" id="anchor-14"></a><a href="#footnote-14" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 14.">14</a> and Hugh M'Gillis, agent of the company
+for the district, in response to Pike's letter of complaint, promised in
+the future to refrain from displaying the British flag, presenting
+medals, or talking politics to the Indians.<a name="anchor-15" id="anchor-15"></a><a href="#footnote-15" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 15.">15</a> But his promises were no
+more seriously given than those of his brethren on the Missouri.</p>
+
+<p>Little of permanent value would have been accomplished <a id="Page_007" name="Page_007"></a><span class="pagenum">[007]</span> if the
+acts of the explorer on September 23, 1805, had been omitted. The
+instructions issued to Pike on July 30, 1805, stated: <q>You will be
+pleased to obtain permission from the Indians who claim the ground, for
+the erection of military posts and trading-houses at the mouth of the
+river St. Pierre [the Minnesota River], the falls of St. Anthony, and
+every other critical point which may fall under your observation; these
+permissions to be granted in formal conferences, regularly recorded, and
+the ground marked off.</q><a name="anchor-16" id="anchor-16"></a><a href="#footnote-16" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 16.">16</a></p>
+
+<p>When Pike reached the mouth of the Minnesota River, the natural features
+of the locality convinced him of the advantages which would arise from a
+fort located at that point. From the high bluff lying between the
+Minnesota and the Mississippi rivers the course of both streams would be
+under the sweep of the guns. Sheer walls of stone rising from the
+Mississippi could prevent invasion; and the fur trading business could
+be regulated, as all boats entering or leaving the Indian country must
+use one or the other of the two rivers.</p>
+
+<p>A <q>bower</q> was constructed of sails, and on September 23rd Pike spoke to
+the Sioux Indians there assembled concerning the transfer of Louisiana,
+the futility of their wars with the Chippewas, and the evils of rum. He
+asked them to cede to the United States lands for military posts, and
+dwelt on the value of these posts to the Indians. To this the chiefs
+assented, receiving in return presents valued at $200 and sixty gallons
+of liquor. The terms of <a id="Page_008" name="Page_008"></a><span class="pagenum">[008]</span> the treaty provided that the Sioux should
+cede to the United States tracts <q>for the purpose of establishment of
+military posts,</q> at the mouth of the Minnesota and at the mouth of the
+St. Croix. A money consideration was also mentioned, but a blank was
+left which was later filled in by the Senate with $2000.<a name="anchor-17" id="anchor-17"></a><a href="#footnote-17" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 17.">17</a></p>
+
+<p>The government, busy with distressing foreign affairs, neglected to make
+a permanent occupation of the explored region. A struggle between the
+American and British governments was arising over events far remote from
+the northern lakes and woods. But the Canadian authorities saw the
+necessity of having Indian allies for the approaching struggle. As early
+as 1807 reports from the West indicated hostile feelings on the part of
+the Indians toward the Americans, and an official at Mackinac wrote on
+August 30, 1807, that this condition <q>is principally to be attributed to
+the influence of foreigners trading in the country.</q><a name="anchor-18" id="anchor-18"></a><a href="#footnote-18" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 18.">18</a> Captain A.
+Gray, who was sent to inquire into the aid which the Hudson's Bay
+Company and the North West Company could furnish, reported to Sir George
+Prevost, commander of the British forces in Canada, on January 12, 1812:
+<q>By means of these Companies, we might let loose the Indians upon them
+throughout the whole extent of their Western frontier, as they have a
+most commanding influence over them.</q> In a memorandum of plans for the
+defence of Canada, General Brock noted that <q>the Co-operation of the
+Indians <a id="Page_009" name="Page_009"></a><span class="pagenum">[009]</span> will be attended with great expence in presents
+provisions &amp;c.</q><a name="anchor-19" id="anchor-19"></a><a href="#footnote-19" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 19.">19</a></p>
+
+<p>To this alliance the Indians gave willing ears. Their interests lay with
+the British rather than with the Americans. The economic stability of
+Canada rested upon the fur trade, which in turn could survive only if
+the free life of the hunt and the chase, which the Indians loved so
+well, was left them. But with the Americans were associated the making
+of treaties and the ceding of land. The Indians preferred to see upon
+their rivers the canoe of the trader rather than the flatboat of the
+pioneer.<a name="anchor-20" id="anchor-20"></a><a href="#footnote-20" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 20.">20</a></p>
+
+<p>The coming of hostilities was received joyfully by all the inhabitants
+of the Northwest. To the Indian it meant an opportunity to avenge past
+wrongs; the Canadian hoped to make secure his present condition; and the
+American settler saw a chance to drive out both enemies&mdash;Indians and
+foreign traders alike. The news of the declaration of war reached the
+great rendezvous of the North West Company at Fort William on the
+northern shore of Lake Superior on the sixteenth of July, 1812, and the
+next day one of the traders left for the interior to rouse the natives.
+The agent of the company at this post wrote enthusiastically: <q>I have
+not the least doubt but our force, will in ten days hence, amount to at
+least five thousand effective men.</q><a name="anchor-21" id="anchor-21"></a><a href="#footnote-21" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 21.">21</a></p>
+
+<p>But already a sufficient number of Indians had come to the aid of the
+English to render service. On the very next day the English flag
+replaced the <a id="Page_010" name="Page_010"></a><span class="pagenum">[010]</span> American above the fort at Mackinac. No sooner had
+the news of the beginning of hostilities become known at the neighboring
+British post at St. Joseph's than immediate preparations were made. The
+Indians were marshalled for the attack, and a vessel belonging to the
+North West Company was requisitioned. The morning of July 17th revealed
+the American fort surrounded by Indians and commanded by a cannon which
+had been dragged upon a height of land. Seeing the futility of
+resistance the garrison surrendered and marched out before noon. Of the
+total attacking force of 1021 there were Indians to the number of 715,
+of whom the British leader wrote, <q>although these people's minds were
+much heated, yet as soon as they heard the Capitulation was signed they
+all returned to their Canoes, and not one drop either of Man's or
+Animal's Blood was Spilt, till I gave an Order for a certain number of
+Bullocks to be purchased for them</q>.<a name="anchor-22" id="anchor-22"></a><a href="#footnote-22" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 22.">22</a> The ease with which the capture
+was made had the effect of bringing to the English standards all the
+Indians of the Northwest, except a part of the Miamis and Delawares, in
+spite of the fact that they had earlier made promises of neutrality.<a name="anchor-23" id="anchor-23"></a><a href="#footnote-23" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 23.">23</a></p>
+
+<p>Although the capture of the fort at Mackinac was accomplished without
+any Indian atrocities, the success of that day was to precipitate a
+massacre, long to rankle in the minds of the pioneers of the West.
+Immediately upon hearing of the capture of the fort, General Hull wrote
+to Captain Heald in command at Fort Dearborn ordering the evacuation of
+that post. <a id="Page_011" name="Page_011"></a><span class="pagenum">[011]</span> On the morning of August 15th, as the small garrison
+of fifty-five regulars and twelve militia were leaving the fort with
+their women and children, they were fallen upon by a force of five
+hundred Indians. Twenty-six regulars, all the militiamen, two women, and
+twelve children were murdered on the spot. An unknown number of wounded
+prisoners were that evening victims at what the Indians termed a
+<q>general frolic</q>.<a name="anchor-24" id="anchor-24"></a><a href="#footnote-24" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 24.">24</a></p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Robert Dickson, who for many years had been a Prairie du
+Chien fur trader, was continuing his activities as recruiter of Indians
+for British service. This was the same Dickson who had in 1802 received
+an American commission as a justice of the peace,<a name="anchor-25" id="anchor-25"></a><a href="#footnote-25" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 25.">25</a> and had later
+entertained Pike and his men <q>with a supper and a dram</q>, impressing the
+American explorer as a man of <q>open, frank manners.</q><a name="anchor-26" id="anchor-26"></a><a href="#footnote-26" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 26.">26</a> Now, in
+January, 1813, he was appointed by Great Britain <q>agent for the Indians
+of the several Nations to the Westward of Lake Huron</q>.<a name="anchor-27" id="anchor-27"></a><a href="#footnote-27" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 27.">27</a></p>
+
+<p>By June 23, 1813, he had already sent eight hundred Indians to Detroit
+and had collected six hundred at Mackinac.<a name="anchor-28" id="anchor-28"></a><a href="#footnote-28" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 28.">28</a> The summer of 1813 was
+spent in operations about Detroit, but in the winter he was again active
+in the West.<a name="anchor-29" id="anchor-29"></a><a href="#footnote-29" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 29.">29</a> Great alarm was felt at St. Louis when rumors came
+telling of the great force he was collecting.<a name="anchor-30" id="anchor-30"></a><a href="#footnote-30" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 30.">30</a> Accordingly, late in
+the spring of 1814, Governor William Clark of Missouri Territory
+proceeded up the Mississippi and at Prairie du Chien built a stockade
+named Fort Shelby. <a id="Page_012" name="Page_012"></a><span class="pagenum">[012]</span> It was garrisoned by about sixty men.<a name="anchor-31" id="anchor-31"></a><a href="#footnote-31" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 31.">31</a> News
+of this movement soon came to Mackinac, and prompted the British
+commandant to prepare a counter-expedition. On the seventeenth of July
+the force composed of five hundred and fifty men, of whom four hundred
+were Indians, arrived outside the post. Immediately a summons to
+surrender was sent. The American commander at first refused, but two
+days later agreed to capitulate providing the Indians would be kept in
+check. The surrender took place on July 20th, and the captor christened
+the stockade Fort McKay in honor of himself.<a name="anchor-32" id="anchor-32"></a><a href="#footnote-32" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 32.">32</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus, the Indians about the Mississippi had been present at the
+surrender of two posts and had participated in a massacre. British arms
+had been successful, and the close of the war found British prestige
+very high.</p>
+
+<p>The Treaty of Ghent on December 24, <ins class="corr" title="Original had 1914.">1814</ins>, closed the war; and Article IX
+of that treaty provided that the United States should make peace with
+the Indian tribes and restore to them the <q>possessions, rights and
+privileges</q> which they had enjoyed before hostilities.<a name="anchor-33" id="anchor-33"></a><a href="#footnote-33" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 33.">33</a> President
+Madison accordingly appointed William Clark, Ninian Edwards, and Auguste
+Chouteau as commissioners to enter into treaties of peace with the
+warring tribes of the upper Mississippi and the upper Missouri. Only
+with extreme difficulty was word of the negotiations sent to the tribes.
+The hostility of the Indians living about the mouth of the Rock River
+made it necessary that the messenger <a id="Page_013" name="Page_013"></a><span class="pagenum">[013]</span> proceed to Prairie du Chien
+by way of the Missouri River, and then across country.<a name="anchor-34" id="anchor-34"></a><a href="#footnote-34" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 34.">34</a></p>
+
+<p>Although treaties were concluded with those who did come to the council,
+none were eager to negotiate. The Chippewas, <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original.">Menominees</ins>, and Winnebagoes
+even refused to send delegations; and the Sacs of Rock River not only
+refused to attend, but also showed their contempt by continually
+harassing the frontier settlements during the time of the
+negotiations.<a name="anchor-35" id="anchor-35"></a><a href="#footnote-35" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 35.">35</a> This opposition, the commissioners reported, was due
+to the presence of an unusual number of British traders among the
+Indians. The report closed with the opinion that <q>the exertion of the
+military power of the Government will be necessary to secure the peace
+and safety of this country.</q><a name="anchor-36" id="anchor-36"></a><a href="#footnote-36" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 36.">36</a></p>
+
+<p>For some years it had been customary for the British authorities to send
+presents to the Indians on the Mississippi, and Robert Dickson had
+promised the natives that the practice would be continued. But with the
+coming of peace this custom was not allowed by the Americans.
+Accordingly, in June, 1815, word was sent to the river tribes, that all
+who came to the British headquarters at Drummond Island in Lake Huron,
+would be supplied. By June 19th of the next year four hundred Indians
+had arrived at the post&mdash;mainly Sioux. To sympathetic ears they reported
+that they feared that the Americans were planning their extinction, and
+a confederation was being formed to resist the building of American
+forts on the Indian lands. As late as <a id="Page_014" name="Page_014"></a><span class="pagenum">[014]</span> 1825, of the four thousand
+Indians in the habit of visiting Drummond Island, three thousand came
+from the region west and southwest of Lake Huron&mdash;that is from American
+territory.<a name="anchor-37" id="anchor-37"></a><a href="#footnote-37" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 37.">37</a> These motley processions which trailed through the
+American woods, stopping to beg at the American posts, were not slow in
+being reported. It did not take a vivid imagination to see that the
+renewal of border warfare was inevitable.<a name="anchor-38" id="anchor-38"></a><a href="#footnote-38" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 38.">38</a></p>
+
+<p>This danger was increased by the rapid development of the West following
+the war. Just as over the mountain trails and down the rivers, Kentucky
+and Tennessee had been settled before the war, now the States of the Old
+Northwest received their pioneers. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who made his
+first trip down the Ohio at this time (1818), remarked: <q>I mingled in
+this crowd, and, while listening to the anticipations indulged in, it
+seemed to me that the war had not, in reality, been fought for <q>free
+trade and sailors' rights</q> where it had commenced, but to gain a
+knowledge of the world beyond the Alleghanies.&hellip; To judge by the tone
+of general conversation, they meant, in their generation, to plow the
+Mississippi Valley from its head to its foot.</q><a name="anchor-39" id="anchor-39"></a><a href="#footnote-39" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 39.">39</a></p>
+
+<p>The flatboats on the rivers, the crowded ferries, and the caravans
+crossing the prairies were familiar scenes. In <em>The Legend of Sleepy
+Hollow</em>, which appeared in 1819, Washington Irving puts this fondest
+dream into the mind of his hero, Ichabod: <q>Nay, his busy fancy already
+realized his hopes, and presented to him the blooming Katrina with a
+whole family of children, mounted on the top of a wagon <a id="Page_015" name="Page_015"></a><span class="pagenum">[015]</span> loaded
+with household trumpery, with pots and kettles dangling beneath; and he
+beheld himself bestriding a pacing mare, with a colt at her heels,
+setting out for Kentucky, Tennessee, or the Lord knows where.</q> When he
+wrote this the author was not using his imagination: it was a picture he
+saw daily.<a name="anchor-40" id="anchor-40"></a><a href="#footnote-40" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 40.">40</a></p>
+
+<p>The extent of this westward movement is indicated by the provisions made
+for the political organization of these growing settlements. Indiana
+achieved statehood in 1816 and Illinois in 1818. Across the river in
+Missouri the population had grown from 20,000 in 1810 to 66,000 in
+1820,<a name="anchor-41" id="anchor-41"></a><a href="#footnote-41" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 41.">41</a> and the weighty questions concerning her admission were being
+discussed in Washington.</p>
+
+<p>With an expanding frontier brought into contact with hostile Indians,
+trouble was bound to result. Various plans were proposed to deal with
+the problem. It was reported that General Jackson would take charge of
+active military operations against the Indians of the upper
+Mississippi.<a name="anchor-42" id="anchor-42"></a><a href="#footnote-42" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 42.">42</a> One agent suggested that <q>three or four months' full
+feeding on meat and bread, even without ardent spirit, will bring on
+disease, and, in six or eight months, great mortality.&hellip; I believe more
+Indians might be killed with the expense of $100,000 in this way, than
+$1,000,000 expended in the support of armies to go against them.</q><a name="anchor-43" id="anchor-43"></a><a href="#footnote-43" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 43.">43</a></p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, wiser counsels than either of these prevailed to control
+the Indians: the control of the fur trade was necessary. It was felt,
+and rightly, that much of the trouble in the West was due to the <a id="Page_016" name="Page_016"></a><span class="pagenum">[016]</span>
+power of the British traders. Accordingly, by an act of Congress of
+April 29, 1816, it was provided that <q>licenses to trade with the Indians
+within the territorial limits of the United States shall not be granted
+to any but citizens of the United States, unless by the express
+direction of the President of the United States, and upon such terms and
+conditions as the public interest may, in his opinion, require.</q> To
+carry this act into effect the president was authorized to call upon the
+military force.<a name="anchor-44" id="anchor-44"></a><a href="#footnote-44" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 44.">44</a></p>
+
+<p>This legislation was most opportune, since by the commercial convention
+of October 20, 1818, the northern boundary was definitely agreed upon as
+the forty-ninth parallel westward from the Lake of the Woods to the
+Rocky Mountains.<a name="anchor-45" id="anchor-45"></a><a href="#footnote-45" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 45.">45</a> Ever since the negotiators of the Treaty of Paris
+of 1783 had inserted a geographical impossibility by declaring that the
+boundary should extend due west from the Lake of the Woods to the
+Mississippi, there had existed a vagueness as to where the actual line
+should be drawn.<a name="anchor-46" id="anchor-46"></a><a href="#footnote-46" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 46.">46</a> In 1806 the British traders thought it would be run
+from the lake to the source of the river;<a name="anchor-47" id="anchor-47"></a><a href="#footnote-47" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 47.">47</a> and as late as 1818
+Benjamin O'Fallon wrote from Prairie du Chien that Robert Dickson <q>is
+directed to build a fort on the highest land between Lac du Travers and
+Red river, which he supposes will be the established line between the
+two countries.</q><a name="anchor-48" id="anchor-48"></a><a href="#footnote-48" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 48.">48</a> But with the boundary now defined, the area where
+the trade laws were to be enforced was evident.</p>
+
+<p>The method of Indian trade by foreigners was to <a id="Page_017" name="Page_017"></a><span class="pagenum">[017]</span> be supplanted by
+an extension of the United States trading house system. This was a group
+of trading houses, conducted by the government, where the Indians could
+exchange their furs for goods at cost price and thus avoid both the
+deceit and whiskey of the private merchant, although they were often
+willing to submit to the one for the sake of the other.<a name="anchor-49" id="anchor-49"></a><a href="#footnote-49" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 49.">49</a> As early as
+1805 Pike had promised the Indians, in council assembled, that the
+government intended to build a trading house at the mouth of the
+Minnesota River.<a name="anchor-50" id="anchor-50"></a><a href="#footnote-50" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 50.">50</a> The commissioners at Portage des Sioux, in 1815,
+had been instructed to inform the tribes that <q>it is intended to
+establish strong posts very high up the Mississippi, and from the
+Mississippi to Lake Michigan, and to open trading-houses at those posts,
+or other suitable places for their accommodation.</q><a name="anchor-51" id="anchor-51"></a><a href="#footnote-51" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 51.">51</a> In 1818 T. L.
+McKenny, Superintendent of Indian Trade, recommended the building of
+seven additional trading houses, one of which was to be located on the
+<q>River St. Peters, at or about its junction with the Mississippi.</q><a name="anchor-52" id="anchor-52"></a><a href="#footnote-52" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 52.">52</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus, through the Indian department steps were being taken to inaugurate
+a new r&eacute;gime in the upper Northwest. But Indian agents and trading
+houses needed the protection and administrative arm of the military
+department in order to be effective. The forward movement of the
+military frontier during the years succeeding the war is significant as
+marking a trend towards the Americanization of a great region. </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_018" name="Page_018"></a><span class="pagenum">[018]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br />
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF FORT SNELLING</h2>
+
+
+<p>When the War of 1812 broke out in the Northwest, the Americans had only
+two advanced posts&mdash;Mackinac and Fort Dearborn. Of these, one was
+captured during the hostilities, and the other was evacuated. An attempt
+was made to build a post at Prairie du Chien, but it quickly passed into
+English hands and remained in their possession until the news of peace
+had reached that frontier station. But after the Treaty of Ghent was
+signed the line of the military frontier was quickly advanced in order
+to safeguard the Indian agents, the trading houses, and the advancing
+settlements.</p>
+
+<p>Fort Dearborn was re-occupied on July 4, 1815. Mackinac was transferred
+to American hands on July 18, 1815. In the fall of the same year Colonel
+R. C. Nichols of the Eighth United States Infantry attempted to ascend
+the Mississippi to Rock Island, but was compelled to pass the winter in
+the vicinity of the mouth of the Des Moines River. On May 10, 1816,
+however, he reached Rock Island, where the construction of Fort
+Armstrong was undertaken. June 21st of the same year saw the
+re-occupation of the site of Fort McKay at Prairie du Chien; and Fort
+Crawford soon protected this important point <a id="Page_019" name="Page_019"></a><span class="pagenum">[019]</span> at the junction of
+the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers. One other point, vital in all
+western transportation was at the head of Green Bay at the mouth of the
+Fox River. Colonel John Miller of the Third Infantry arrived at this
+place on August 7, 1816, and soon began the erection of Fort Howard.<a name="anchor-53" id="anchor-53"></a><a href="#footnote-53" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 53.">53</a></p>
+
+<p>But the government was not content with these movements. In a report
+dated December 22, 1817, the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, wrote to
+the House of Representatives that <q>a board of the most skilful officers
+in our service has been constituted to examine the whole line of our
+frontier, and to determine on the position and extent of works that may
+be necessary to the defence of the country.</q><a name="anchor-54" id="anchor-54"></a><a href="#footnote-54" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 54.">54</a> Plans had already been
+made. During the summer of 1817 Major Stephen H. Long, a topographical
+engineer in the United States Army, had made a journey to the Falls of
+St. Anthony in a six-oared skiff and had approved the position at the
+mouth of the Minnesota River as a location for a fort.<a name="anchor-55" id="anchor-55"></a><a href="#footnote-55" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 55.">55</a> Other plans
+were soon announced. In the spring of 1818 <em>The Washington City Gazette</em>
+stated that a fort would be built on the Missouri River at the mouth of
+the Yellowstone River;<a name="anchor-56" id="anchor-56"></a><a href="#footnote-56" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 56.">56</a> and a second report of the Secretary of War
+on December 11, 1818, indicated that the site at the mouth of the
+Minnesota would soon be occupied.<a name="anchor-57" id="anchor-57"></a><a href="#footnote-57" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 57.">57</a></p>
+
+<p>On the tenth of February, 1819, the War Department ordered the Fifth
+Infantry to concentrate at Detroit, after which it would be transported
+across Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, up the Fox River, <a id="Page_020" name="Page_020"></a><span class="pagenum">[020]</span> and down
+the Wisconsin River to Prairie du Chien, where a part would garrison
+Fort Crawford, a part would proceed to Fort Armstrong, and the remainder
+would ascend the Mississippi and near the Falls of St. Anthony erect a
+post which would be the headquarters of the regiment.<a name="anchor-58" id="anchor-58"></a><a href="#footnote-58" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 58.">58</a> This movement
+was closely associated with that on the Missouri River called the
+Yellowstone Expedition. Both movements were part of one system&mdash;a
+comprehensive attempt to possess the northwestern frontier. The
+thoroughness of the plan is shown by the program outlined for the troops
+for the year 1820: three forts were to be built on the Missouri River;
+the navigation of that river was to be improved; roads were to be opened
+between the two diverging lines of posts (those on the Missouri and
+those on the Mississippi); and the Fox and Wisconsin rivers were to be
+connected by a canal. Thus the transportation of supplies would be
+facilitated, and in case of hostilities the forts could co&ouml;perate in the
+military operations.<a name="anchor-59" id="anchor-59"></a><a href="#footnote-59" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 59.">59</a></p>
+
+<p>The western part of this general movement was a failure. Indeed, the
+only result was the construction of a post at the point then known as
+Council Bluff (now Fort Calhoun, Nebraska), which after an existence of
+eight years was abandoned. Congress, disgusted with the management of
+the undertaking, refused to vote the funds necessary for the complete
+fulfillment of the project.<a name="anchor-60" id="anchor-60"></a><a href="#footnote-60" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 60.">60</a> Accordingly, no permanent military post
+existed upon the upper Missouri until 1855, when the United States
+government purchased <a id="Page_021" name="Page_021"></a><span class="pagenum">[021]</span> from the American Fur Company their station
+called Fort Pierre and transformed it into a military establishment.<a name="anchor-61" id="anchor-61"></a><a href="#footnote-61" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 61.">61</a>
+The failure of the Yellowstone Expedition made more difficult the work
+of Fort Snelling. The range of its influence extended to the Missouri,
+and for forty years it was of more importance than even its originators
+had planned.</p>
+
+<p>The Fifth Infantry, to which the difficult task of establishing a fort
+at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers was assigned was
+stationed at various places. Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth, who
+was the commanding officer of the regiment, had been located at Prairie
+du Chien as Superintendent of Indian Affairs.<a name="anchor-62" id="anchor-62"></a><a href="#footnote-62" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 62.">62</a> Lieutenant Nathan
+Clark was living at Hartford, Connecticut.<a name="anchor-63" id="anchor-63"></a><a href="#footnote-63" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 63.">63</a> But by May 14th the main
+part of the regiment was ready to leave Detroit. Schooners brought them
+through Lake Huron, the Straits of Mackinac, and across Lake Michigan to
+Fort Howard on Green Bay. Captain Whistler of the Third United States
+Infantry, then stationed at this post, had prepared bateaux for the use
+of the troops, and on June 7th the ascent of the Fox River was
+commenced.<a name="anchor-64" id="anchor-64"></a><a href="#footnote-64" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 64.">64</a> The Winnebago chief <q>Four Legs</q>, whose village was at the
+outlet of Lake Winnebago, had the custom of exacting tribute from
+travellers using the Fox-Wisconsin route. When the troops of the Fifth
+Infantry came to the site, <q>Four Legs</q> sent the message, <q>The Lake is
+locked.</q> Whereupon Colonel Leavenworth, showing the messenger his rifle,
+replied: <q>tell him, that this is the key, and I shall unlock it and go
+on.</q><a id="Page_022" name="Page_022"></a><span class="pagenum">[022]</span> Upon receiving this belligerent reply, the chief allowed the
+troops to pass; and finally on June 30th the bateaux were moored near
+Fort Crawford and Prairie du Chien.<a name="anchor-65" id="anchor-65"></a><a href="#footnote-65" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 65.">65</a></p>
+
+<p>At Fort Crawford there was a tedious wait. Provisions, ordnance,
+ammunition, and recruits were expected from St. Louis. On July 5th Major
+Thomas Forsyth arrived from St. Louis. He had been ordered by the War
+Department to bring two thousand dollars worth of goods to the Sioux
+Indians in payment for the reservation ceded by them to Pike.<a name="anchor-66" id="anchor-66"></a><a href="#footnote-66" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 66.">66</a> Day
+after day passed. Finally, on July 17th a certain Mr. Shaw came with
+news that the recruits could be expected soon. On July 31st this curt
+entry is made in Forsyth's journal: <q>no boats, no recruits, no news, nor
+anything else from St. Louis.</q> The next day Major Marston was sent with
+twenty-seven troops to garrison Fort Armstrong at Rock Island; and on
+August 2nd Forsyth recorded: <q>Thank God a boat loaded with ordnance and
+stores of different kinds arrived to-day, and said a provision boat
+would arrive to-morrow, but no news of the recruits.</q><a name="anchor-67" id="anchor-67"></a><a href="#footnote-67" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 67.">67</a></p>
+
+<p>Colonel Leavenworth at once made preparations to ascend the river. The
+two large boats that had brought up supplies were engaged, and at eight
+o'clock on the morning of Sunday, August 8th, the flotilla set out&mdash;the
+two large boats, fourteen bateaux, the boat of Major Forsyth, and the
+barge of Colonel Leavenworth. In the party were ninety-eight soldiers
+and twenty boatmen. There were others also whose presence in that wild
+region would <a id="Page_023" name="Page_023"></a><span class="pagenum">[023]</span> not be expected: Mrs. Gooding, the wife of one of
+the captains; Mrs. Nathan Clark, the wife of the commissary; and little
+Charlotte Ouisconsin Clark, who had been born scarcely an hour after the
+regiment reached Fort Crawford. The knowledge that they were upon the
+last stage of their journey caused a feeling of cheerfulness among the
+soldiers, and the first day they proceeded a distance of eighteen
+miles.<a name="anchor-68" id="anchor-68"></a><a href="#footnote-68" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 68.">68</a></p>
+
+<p>For sixteen days the boatmen poled their bateaux up the river. Once when
+there was a <q>Great appearance of wind</q> the sails were hoisted. At other
+times the heavily loaded boats were moved with difficulty through the
+shallow water. Occasionally fog and rain impeded their progress. Bad
+water made half of the soldiers sick before the journey was ended; and
+to avoid the mosquitoes on the river, the men preferred to sleep on the
+banks, although every morning there was a heavy dew. On August 17th the
+lower end of Lake Pepin was reached and here a delay of several hours
+occurred while the men drew provisions from the supply boats, and washed
+their dirty linen.<a name="anchor-69" id="anchor-69"></a><a href="#footnote-69" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 69.">69</a></p>
+
+<p>Major Forsyth stopped at the Indian villages to distribute presents and
+to announce to the natives the object of the coming of the troops, and
+the value they would derive from having a fort in their midst. On
+Sunday, August 22nd, he encamped a few miles ahead of the main body of
+the expedition, but by eight o'clock the next morning all the boats had
+come up. Impatient to reach the end of the journey, <a id="Page_024" name="Page_024"></a><span class="pagenum">[024]</span> Major Forsyth
+again pushed forward and at four o'clock in the afternoon reached the
+mouth of the Minnesota River. On the morning of Tuesday, August 24,
+1819, Colonel Leavenworth arrived in his barge ahead of the troops and
+spent almost the entire day in looking over the sites available for a
+camp. Finally, he decided upon a spot on the right bank of the Minnesota
+River, just above its mouth. There was no rest for the troops when their
+boats reached the chosen place. <q>They were immediately set to work in
+making roads up the bank of the river, cutting down trees, etc.</q><a name="anchor-70" id="anchor-70"></a><a href="#footnote-70" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 70.">70</a></p>
+
+<p>If the soldiers had any spare time in their labors in which to become
+interested in their surroundings, there was novelty in everything about
+them. During the next few days all the nearby chiefs came to call upon
+their new neighbors: they left satisfied with the presents and the
+whiskey which they had received. On Saturday a party ascended to the
+Falls of St. Anthony; and on Sunday a visit was made to the Indian
+villages up the Minnesota River. It was on Monday that Major Forsyth
+began his return trip, and as the supplies in store were few and the
+long-expected recruits were needed for the erection of the camp
+buildings, Colonel Leavenworth set out with him for Prairie du Chien. On
+September 1st they met on Lake Pepin two boats and a bateau with one
+hundred and twenty soldiers on board. But Colonel Leavenworth continued
+to Prairie du Chien, where he remained some time to urge on any boats
+which might arrive. On September <a id="Page_025" name="Page_025"></a><span class="pagenum">[025]</span> 5th the one hundred and twenty
+recruits landed at the new camp.<a name="anchor-71" id="anchor-71"></a><a href="#footnote-71" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 71.">71</a></p>
+
+<p>Log cabins and a stockade were erected while the party still lived in
+the boats on the river. By November the temporary barracks were ready
+for occupation. Looking forward to a pleasant winter, the name
+<q>Cantonment New Hope</q> was applied to the embryo fort. The more
+scientific among the men examined the country round about, and saw in
+the hills visions of mines of precious metals. <q>Would not the employment
+of the troops in the manufacture of Copper and Iron be advantageous to
+the government?</q>, wrote one of these energetic soldiers. But the
+succeeding months were not to give an opportunity for such
+occupations.<a name="anchor-72" id="anchor-72"></a><a href="#footnote-72" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 72.">72</a></p>
+
+<p>Added to the natural monotony of a wilderness post, there was
+homesickness and suffering during the first winter. The quarters that
+had been built were inadequate for protection from the cold of that
+climate. <q>Once during that memorable six months</q>, runs the account of
+one of the inhabitants of Cantonment New Hope, <q>the roof of our cabin
+blew off, and the walls seemed about to fall in. My father, sending my
+mother and brother to a place of safety, held up the chimney to prevent
+a total downfall; while the baby, who had been pushed under the bed in
+her cradle, lay there.&hellip; until the wind subsided, when, upon being
+drawn out from her hiding-place, she evinced great pleasure at the
+commotion, and seemed to take it all as something designed especially
+for her amusement.</q> That baby <a id="Page_026" name="Page_026"></a><span class="pagenum">[026]</span> lived to recall the incident almost
+seventy years later.<a name="anchor-73" id="anchor-73"></a><a href="#footnote-73" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 73.">73</a></p>
+
+<p>Toward the close of the winter there came sickness, chiefly on account
+of a lack of proper provisions. Late in the fall Lieutenant Oliver had
+left Prairie du Chien with supplies in a keel boat. But the river froze
+and the boat was unable to progress farther than the vicinity of
+Hastings, Minnesota. Here it was necessary to keep a guard all winter to
+protect the food from the Indians and the wolves. The Indians refused to
+sell them game; no vegetables could be purchased; and the bread was <q>two
+inches in the barrels thick with mould</q>.<a name="anchor-74" id="anchor-74"></a><a href="#footnote-74" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 74.">74</a> With such food it is no
+wonder that scurvy, the dreaded disease of all frontier posts, broke out
+among the troops. Forty soldiers died before the progress of the disease
+was arrested by home-made remedies and groceries brought up by the
+sutler.<a name="anchor-75" id="anchor-75"></a><a href="#footnote-75" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 75.">75</a></p>
+
+<p>This visitation of disease left a profound impression upon the
+survivors. Henry H. Sibley, who had often spoken with those who passed
+through the weary months of suffering and sickness, wrote that <q>scurvy
+broke out in a most malignant form, and raged so violently that, for a
+few days, garrison duty was suspended, there being barely well men
+enough in the command to attend to the sick, and to the interment of the
+dead. So sudden were the attacks, that soldiers in apparent good health
+when they went to bed, were found dead in the morning. One man who was
+relieved from his tour of sentinel duty, and stretched himself upon the
+bench of the guard room, <a id="Page_027" name="Page_027"></a><span class="pagenum">[027]</span> four hours after, when he was called
+upon to resume his post, was discovered to be lifeless.</q><a name="anchor-76" id="anchor-76"></a><a href="#footnote-76" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 76.">76</a></p>
+
+<p>Thinking that much of the sickness was caused by the unhealthful
+location, Colonel Leavenworth, on May 5, 1820, moved the soldiers to a
+place on the west bank of the Mississippi north of the Minnesota where
+there was a great spring of cold water. Here the troops were quartered
+in tents&mdash;naming their community <q>Camp Cold Water</q>.<a name="anchor-77" id="anchor-77"></a><a href="#footnote-77" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 77.">77</a> The immediate
+need was the erection of the permanent post. Colonel Leavenworth chose
+for the site a position three hundred yards west of the crest of the
+cliff. Some material was brought to this place, but no building was
+done. In August Colonel Leavenworth was superseded in command by Colonel
+Josiah Snelling, who located the position at the extreme point of land
+between the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers.<a name="anchor-78" id="anchor-78"></a><a href="#footnote-78" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 78.">78</a> The work of erecting
+the buildings was done by the soldiers, it being customary at that time
+to pay the soldiers fifteen cents a day in addition to their regular pay
+for this extra work.<a name="anchor-79" id="anchor-79"></a><a href="#footnote-79" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 79.">79</a></p>
+
+<p>Steps were taken during the summer of 1820 to obtain the necessary
+material. A saw mill was needed to make the lumber with which the
+interior of the buildings would be finished and the furniture
+constructed. As the water in Minnehaha Creek was very low that year, it
+was decided to erect the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. Some men were
+sent up the Mississippi River to Rum River to examine the timber, and
+during the winter of 1820&ndash;1821 a party of soldiers was employed in
+cutting logs and <a id="Page_028" name="Page_028"></a><span class="pagenum">[028]</span> dragging them to the river bank. With the coming
+of spring the logs were floated down to the Falls of St. Anthony, where
+they were sawed into lumber and then hauled to the fort by teams.<a name="anchor-80" id="anchor-80"></a><a href="#footnote-80" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 80.">80</a></p>
+
+<p>The progress made on the building was slow. On the tenth of September,
+1820, the cornerstone was laid.<a name="anchor-81" id="anchor-81"></a><a href="#footnote-81" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 81.">81</a> More than a year later, on November
+7, 1821, Colonel Snelling wrote to the Indian agent, Lawrence
+Taliaferro, that <q>nothing new has occurred since my return excepting
+that the other stone barrack is up &amp; the rafters on.</q><a name="anchor-82" id="anchor-82"></a><a href="#footnote-82" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 82.">82</a> The fort was
+partially occupied, probably in the fall of 1822, before all the
+surrounding wall had been completed.<a name="anchor-83" id="anchor-83"></a><a href="#footnote-83" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 83.">83</a> But it is evident that most of
+the fort was finished by July, 1823, for at that time the troops erected
+the Indian Council House.<a name="anchor-84" id="anchor-84"></a><a href="#footnote-84" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 84.">84</a></p>
+
+<p>In the meantime other events had been occurring. On July 31, 1820,
+Governor Cass of Michigan Territory, who had been on an exploring
+expedition to the upper Mississippi, passed down the river and remained
+with the troops until the morning of August 2nd. A council was held with
+the Indians, during which a peace was made between the Sioux and the
+Chippewas. That the garrison had been busy at duties other than erecting
+buildings is evident from the fact that Governor Cass found ninety acres
+planted with corn and potatoes and wheat. From the garden green peas had
+been obtained as early as June 15th, and green corn on July 20th.<a name="anchor-85" id="anchor-85"></a><a href="#footnote-85" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 85.">85</a></p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the plans outlined for the year 1820 it was proposed
+to open a road between Council <a id="Page_029" name="Page_029"></a><span class="pagenum">[029]</span> Bluff and the new post on the
+upper Mississippi. To survey the route Captain Stephen Watts Kearny led
+a party which consisted of four other officers, fifteen soldiers, four
+servants, an Indian guide and his wife and papoose, eight mules, and
+seven horses. The route led from Council Bluff across what is now the
+northern and northwestern part of the State of Iowa to Lake Pepin, and
+then along the Mississippi to the new post. From July 25th to July 29th
+they remained with Leavenworth's men, visiting the Falls of St. Anthony,
+examining the country, and on July 26th going with Lieutenant Green and
+Miss Gooding to the east side of the Mississippi. Here Lieutenant Green
+and Miss Gooding were married by Colonel Leavenworth, who as Indian
+agent for the <q>Northwest Territory</q> could perform his duties on the east
+bank of the river, but not on the west, which was in the Missouri
+Territory.<a name="anchor-86" id="anchor-86"></a><a href="#footnote-86" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 86.">86</a></p>
+
+<p>The fact that the Falls of St. Anthony constituted the most noticeable
+landmark of the vicinity led to the application of its name to the
+military works. The first official inspection of Fort St. Anthony
+occurred some time between May 13, 1824, and June 13, 1824. General
+Winfield Scott, as the inspector, was received with all the honor and
+entertainment that the frontier post could provide. He left favorably
+impressed with the work that had been done.</p>
+
+<p><q>I wish to suggest to the general-in-chief,</q> wrote General Scott in his
+report, <q>and through him to the War Department, the propriety of calling
+this work <em>Fort Snelling</em>, as a just compliment to the meritorious
+<a id="Page_030" name="Page_030"></a><span class="pagenum">[030]</span> officer under whom it has been erected. The present name is
+foreign to all our associations, and is, besides, geographically
+incorrect, as the work stands at the junction of the Mississippi and
+Saint Peter's rivers, eight miles below the great falls of the
+Mississippi, called after Saint Anthony. Some few years since the
+Secretary of War directed that the work at the Council Bluffs should be
+called Fort Atkinson in compliment to the valuable services of General
+Atkinson on the upper Missouri. The above proposition is made on the
+same principle.</q></p>
+
+<p>A general order on January 7, 1825, directed that the suggested change
+should be made. Thereupon Fort Snelling began its career as the guardian
+of the Northwest.<a name="anchor-87" id="anchor-87"></a><a href="#footnote-87" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 87.">87</a> </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_031" name="Page_031"></a><span class="pagenum">[031]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<br />
+
+FORTY YEARS OF FRONTIER DUTY</h2>
+
+
+<p>It was not the intention of the War Department that the influence of the
+frontier military post should be limited by the range of the guns
+mounted upon its walls. The post was to be the center of the Indian life
+for those tribes that dwelt in the vicinity. At the same time
+expeditions, the base of which was to be at the fort, were to carry the
+authority of the government out upon the wild Indian lands, and the
+frontier settlements were to look to the soldiers for protection.<a name="anchor-88" id="anchor-88"></a><a href="#footnote-88" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 88.">88</a></p>
+
+<p>How, in its origin, Fort Snelling became part of a comprehensive system
+for the protection of the frontier, has been detailed. The events of the
+forty years that followed indicate very clearly the wisdom of the men
+who chose the site. Every phase of frontier duty was performed by the
+troops stationed at the mouth of the Minnesota River; and although these
+tasks often took them hundreds of miles from the post, and although they
+often co&ouml;perated with men from other forts, yet these expeditions may
+well be considered as part of the history of Fort Snelling. They were a
+test of the training received on the parade ground, and the successful
+accomplishment <a id="Page_032" name="Page_032"></a><span class="pagenum">[032]</span> of many a difficult duty shows that the post was
+fulfilling the objects of those who built it.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1848 the governmental organization in the jurisdiction of which
+Fort Snelling was located was very weak. When first erected in 1819 the
+fort was in the Territory of Missouri (1812&ndash;1821). Then followed a
+number of years in which it was in unorganized territory (1821&ndash;1834).
+The Territory of Michigan (1834&ndash;1836), the Territory of Wisconsin
+(1836&ndash;1838), and the Territory of Iowa (1838&ndash;1846) successively had
+jurisdiction over it; while in 1849 it fell within the newly-organized
+Territory of Minnesota. Lying far from the seats of government, in a
+region of wandering traders and red men, the fort became the exponent of
+the government&mdash;the only symbol of governmental restriction in a region
+almost entirely without law.</p>
+
+<p>During the first years of its existence while the buildings were being
+erected and the fort was making its place in the Indian life and the fur
+trade of the surrounding region, the frontier was comparatively quiet.
+The first outbreak occurred in Illinois and Wisconsin, where the
+Winnebagoes were constantly coming into contact with the lead miners
+about Galena. During the summer of 1826 rumors came to Fort Snelling of
+the hostility of this tribe, and Colonel Snelling thought it prudent to
+re&euml;nforce the garrison of Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien. Three
+companies of the Fifth Infantry were sent away from Fort Snelling on the
+afternoon of August 18th under the command of Captain Wilcox.<a name="anchor-89" id="anchor-89"></a><a href="#footnote-89" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 89.">89</a>
+Although <a id="Page_033" name="Page_033"></a><span class="pagenum">[033]</span> no actual conflict occurred, the continued uneasiness
+felt because of the presence of the Winnebagoes led the authorities to
+remove all the troops from Fort Crawford to the upper post in the fall
+of that year.<a name="anchor-90" id="anchor-90"></a><a href="#footnote-90" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 90.">90</a></p>
+
+<p>The lack of soldiers among them intensified the unruly spirit in the
+Winnebagoes. In June of the next year two keel boats, the <q>General
+Ashley</q> and the <q>O. H. Perry</q>, which were carrying supplies to Fort
+Snelling noticed an unfriendly feeling among the Sioux at Wabasha's
+village. Fifty warriors with their faces painted black and with black
+streaks on their blankets visited the <q>O. H. Perry</q>, but refused to
+shake hands. Apprehensive of danger on the return journey, Colonel
+Snelling furnished the crews with guns and cartridges before the descent
+was commenced.<a name="anchor-91" id="anchor-91"></a><a href="#footnote-91" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 91.">91</a></p>
+
+<p>There soon arrived at Fort Snelling a letter from John Marsh, the
+sub-agent at Prairie du Chien. It stated that rumors were current that
+Prairie du Chien was to be attacked and that the Sioux and Winnebagoes
+threatened to kill Taliaferro <q>and any American that they can find at a
+distance from the Fort</q>. The letter closed with the request that steps
+be taken for the defense of Prairie du Chien.<a name="anchor-92" id="anchor-92"></a><a href="#footnote-92" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 92.">92</a> No doubt preparations
+were commenced immediately; but they were hastened by news which soon
+came up the river. On June 26th the Winnebago chief, Red Bird, with
+three of his men had attacked a farm house near Prairie du Chien and
+obtained the scalp of a child. Returning to their village, they had seen
+<a id="Page_034" name="Page_034"></a><span class="pagenum">[034]</span> the keel boats coming down the river. With their fighting blood
+up they attacked the <q>O. H. Perry</q>, and in a battle which lasted several
+hours they killed two of the crew and lost seven of their own warriors.
+The report of this attack, together with the murder near Prairie du
+Chien, spread consternation among the white men.<a name="anchor-93" id="anchor-93"></a><a href="#footnote-93" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 93.">93</a></p>
+
+<p>Without delay Colonel Snelling with four companies started down the
+river.<a name="anchor-94" id="anchor-94"></a><a href="#footnote-94" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 94.">94</a> A few days after reaching Prairie du Chien, he was re&euml;nforced
+by troops brought up from St. Louis by Colonel Atkinson. It was thought
+necessary that Fort Snelling should be maintained during the critical
+period, and as it was short of provisions, Colonel Snelling was ordered
+back to his post with a supply of flour, and directed to procure boats
+which could be used in the pursuit of the Winnebagoes up the Wisconsin
+River. On the 16th of August Colonel Snelling arrived at his post, and
+on the following day Major Fowle started downstream with four other
+companies of the Fifth Infantry in two keel boats and nine mackinac
+boats, arriving at Fort Crawford on August 21st. The Indians, overawed
+by the rapidity of these military movements and the size of the force
+sent against them, immediately became peaceable. As a precaution,
+however, Major Fowle was kept at Fort Crawford, and the post was
+provisioned for a year.<a name="anchor-95" id="anchor-95"></a><a href="#footnote-95" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 95.">95</a></p>
+
+<p>During the next twenty years the force maintained at Fort Snelling was
+small, and the garrison was occupied in routine tasks, the regulation of
+Indian <a id="Page_035" name="Page_035"></a><span class="pagenum">[035]</span> affairs, and the fur trade. At the time of the Black Hawk
+War there was quiet about Fort Snelling, and Major Taliaferro offered
+his services and those of the Sioux warriors in the campaign against the
+Sacs and Foxes. But the government did not think it advisable to
+formally accept the proffered help, although a number of the Sioux did
+take part in pursuing the remnants of Sacs who succeeded in crossing the
+river.<a name="anchor-96" id="anchor-96"></a><a href="#footnote-96" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 96.">96</a></p>
+
+<p>In June, 1848, the company of infantry stationed at Fort Snelling
+received an urgent call to come to Wabasha's Prairie&mdash;near Winona,
+Minnesota. The Winnebago Indians were being transferred from their
+former home in the Turkey Valley region in Iowa to a new reservation
+obtained for them from the Chippewas. But when the Prairie was reached,
+the Winnebagoes visited with Wabasha and he sold it to them for a home.
+When Captain Seth Eastman arrived from Fort Snelling he was put in
+charge of the military forces which had been hastily brought together to
+force the Winnebagoes to continue their march. There were volunteers
+from Crawford County, Wisconsin, dragoons from Fort Atkinson, Iowa, and
+the infantry from Fort Snelling, besides sixty armed teamsters.</p>
+
+<p>These military forces lay encamped, separated from the Indians by a
+slough. In the morning a deputation of Indians came to ask the meaning
+of the martial appearance of the whites when all <em>they</em> desired was a
+council. This suggestion of a council was quickly assented to, but the
+Indians approached <a id="Page_036" name="Page_036"></a><span class="pagenum">[036]</span> with such a rush and with such blood-curdling
+yells that the cannon were loaded and the soldiers stood ready to fire.
+During the council the Winnebagoes refused to move until one small band
+gave in to the entreaties of the agent and were taken up to Fort
+Snelling. This was an opening wedge, for when the steamboat returned
+1700 were ready to move. The total journey of three hundred and ten
+miles from the old to the new home occupied the time from June 8th to
+July 30th, 1848.<a name="anchor-97" id="anchor-97"></a><a href="#footnote-97" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 97.">97</a></p>
+
+<p>By the next summer they were ready to return&mdash;anywhere, but especially
+to Wisconsin, their earliest home.<a name="anchor-98" id="anchor-98"></a><a href="#footnote-98" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 98.">98</a> In July the whole tribe,
+stimulated by whiskey, started; but Governor Ramsey called on Colonel
+Loomis of Fort Snelling for aid, and a force under Captain Monroe
+proceeded to the north where their presence aided in quieting the
+disturbers. Again, on September 9th about a hundred had approached
+within sixteen miles of St. Paul, when Captain Page and forty men from
+Fort Snelling frightened them so much that they fled into the swamps and
+returned home quietly. Smaller parties were captured on the river and
+sent back under a military guard.<a name="anchor-99" id="anchor-99"></a><a href="#footnote-99" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 99.">99</a> Not all the efforts, however, were
+successful. It was reported that one evening in November over a hundred
+red men floated down quietly under the very guns of Fort Snelling, and
+two weeks later the newspaper accounts tell of three hundred Winnebagoes
+in camp near the mouth of the Black River.<a name="anchor-100" id="anchor-100"></a><a href="#footnote-100" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 100.">100</a> The need for a company
+of dragoons at Fort Snelling was imperative. The next summer it was
+obtained, <a id="Page_037" name="Page_037"></a><span class="pagenum">[037]</span> and in 1851 this military force was described as being
+<q>an indispensable and invaluable auxiliary.</q><a name="anchor-101" id="anchor-101"></a><a href="#footnote-101" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 101.">101</a> Not until 1855 was the
+Winnebago spirit of migration broken, and then only after a new
+reservation had been obtained for them at the mouth of the Blue Earth
+River.<a name="anchor-102" id="anchor-102"></a><a href="#footnote-102" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 102.">102</a></p>
+
+<p>In his report of November 25, 1844, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
+called attention to the fact that no longer was there any need of
+entertaining fears on account of the visits made by American Indians to
+the Canadian posts, as these pilgrimages were indulged in only by a few
+<q>worthless vagrants</q>. But an evil of a different character was imminent.
+Twice a year hundreds of Red River half-breeds&mdash;<em>bois brul&eacute;s</em>&mdash;left
+their homes on the British side of the international boundary to hunt
+buffalo on the American plains which bordered on the Missouri River.
+Here they came into contact with Indians who naturally resented this
+intrusion upon their hunting grounds. During the summer of 1844 a
+half-breed had been killed by a party of Yankton Sioux, and the invaders
+had retaliated by killing eight Sioux of another band. This so inflamed
+the Indians that they went upon the war path and without stopping to
+reason about the matter, they attacked a party of whites whom they met
+on Otter Tail Lake.<a name="anchor-103" id="anchor-103"></a><a href="#footnote-103" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 103.">103</a></p>
+
+<p>To hunt the buffalo freely, even on foreign soil, seemed to the <em>bois
+brul&eacute;s</em> to be their natural right. On the pemmican which they made from
+these buffaloes they depended for their winter's food. Five <a id="Page_038" name="Page_038"></a><span class="pagenum">[038]</span>
+hundred and forty carts trailed out of Pembina on the summer hunt of
+1820, and from year to year the number increased until in 1840 there
+were 1210 carts, accompanied by 1630 people. Nowhere else in the new
+world at least, was there such a hunting party. Thirteen hundred and
+seventy-five buffalo tongues were counted as the result of one day's
+hunt in 1840.<a name="anchor-104" id="anchor-104"></a><a href="#footnote-104" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 104.">104</a> It was estimated that every year these Red River
+hunters killed twenty thousand buffaloes on American soil.<a name="anchor-105" id="anchor-105"></a><a href="#footnote-105" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 105.">105</a></p>
+
+<p>In this there was a real grievance. Though small in itself the incident
+could easily develop into a war when there were other factors urging in
+the same direction.<a name="anchor-106" id="anchor-106"></a><a href="#footnote-106" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 106.">106</a> The exact condition of affairs on the border
+was so confused that the United States made occasional military displays
+in order to impress the invaders and also to satisfy its own curiosity.
+The first of these expeditions occurred in 1845. Captain Edwin V.
+Sumner, then in command at Fort Atkinson, in the Iowa country, visited
+the Red River of the North during the summer of that year with Companies
+B and I of the First Regiment of Dragoons. But the difficulty was that
+while the invaders would promise to remain off American soil and would
+retire as soon as a military force appeared, yet no sooner would the
+troops depart than they would be back again on the hunting grounds.<a name="anchor-107" id="anchor-107"></a><a href="#footnote-107" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 107.">107</a></p>
+
+<p>When complaints continued to come in the Adjutant General proposed to
+establish a post on the Red River. As a preliminary movement Brevet
+Major Samuel Woods, Captain of the Sixth Infantry located <a id="Page_039" name="Page_039"></a><span class="pagenum">[039]</span> at Fort
+Snelling, was ordered to proceed with Company D of the dragoons to the
+border and make recommendations to the War Department in regard to a
+suitable site. On June 6, 1849, the start was made from Fort Snelling,
+and the weary march directed to the northwest over the swollen rivers
+and the marshy swamps with the mosquitoes a constant torment, until on
+August 1st the soldiers reached the collection of Indian lodges and the
+trading establishment that was known as Pembina. During the twenty-five
+days spent at this point observations were made of the topographical
+features of the land, the character of the Indians, and the pursuits of
+the half-breeds.</p>
+
+<p>Major Woods urged the American Indians and half-breeds to prevent by
+force the invasions, promising that the United States would support
+them. But it would be useless, he reported, to build a fort at Pembina
+unless at least two hundred fifty men were stationed there. It would be
+better to concentrate a large force at Fort Snelling, from whence
+expeditions could be made into the Indian country in all directions as
+necessity might arise. The return to the fort occupied twenty-three and
+a half days, and on September 18th the total journey of almost a
+thousand miles was completed with the loss of only one horse and one
+mule.<a name="anchor-108" id="anchor-108"></a><a href="#footnote-108" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 108.">108</a></p>
+
+<p>During the next few years conditions remained unchanged, and as the
+settlement of the Minnesota and Mississippi valleys was pushing the
+Indian tribes farther to the westward, more and bitter conflicts <a id="Page_040" name="Page_040"></a><span class="pagenum">[040]</span>
+with the half-breeds would be liable to occur. In order to give a final
+warning to the foreign hunters and to select a site for a post which
+could serve the double purpose of protecting the frontier settlements
+from the Indians and the Indians from the foreigners, Lieutenant Colonel
+C. F. Smith of the Tenth Infantry was ordered on June 9, 1856, to tour
+the region with Companies B and F. As far as the Goose River, in the
+North Dakota country, the route followed from Fort Snelling was
+practically the same as that of Major Woods; but instead of proceeding
+by the usual route northward to Pembina, a detour was made to Lake
+Mini-Waken (Devil's Lake). On the return the less travelled and more
+difficult road on the east side of the Red River was followed.</p>
+
+<p>On August 19th the trail of the annual hunting party was crossed; but
+the nine hundred men, women, and children who had made the trip had
+returned to their homes three weeks before, and kept away from the
+military party. Since no warning could be given to them in person, a
+notice written in both English and French was circulated in Pembina and
+in the British settlements to the north. But the natives obtained sweet
+revenge when Colonel Smith attempted to buy from the farmers in the
+vicinity of the principal trading post&mdash;Fort Garry&mdash;a sufficient supply
+of oats for his troops. The half-breeds declined to bring the grain,
+giving as their excuse that they did not desire to trespass on American
+soil when warned to keep off.<a name="anchor-109" id="anchor-109"></a><a href="#footnote-109" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 109.">109</a> <a id="Page_041" name="Page_041"></a><span class="pagenum">[041]</span></p>
+
+<p>Not only to the north did the troops from Fort Snelling make
+expeditions. The wide range of its influence is illustrated by the task
+which occupied the attention of its soldiers during the summer of 1850.
+On August 8, 1849, Governor Ansel Briggs of Iowa forwarded to the
+Secretary of War a petition, signed by over a hundred citizens of Iowa
+County, in which they complained of the presence of a great number of
+Indians who were destroying the timber, removing the section corners,
+and even demanding rent from some of the settlers&mdash;claiming that they
+owned the land on the Iowa River.<a name="anchor-110" id="anchor-110"></a><a href="#footnote-110" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 110.">110</a></p>
+
+<p>To investigate conditions and to report upon what steps would be
+necessary to remove the cause of complaint, Brevet Major Samuel Woods,
+stationed at Fort Snelling, was ordered to proceed to the State of Iowa.
+On the twenty-fifth of September he left for Prairie du Chien, and
+arriving here set out for Fort Atkinson, thinking that probably the
+Winnebagoes were the Indians causing the trouble. But he discovered that
+many of them had just set out for the upper Mississippi, and those
+remaining behind were so few in number that they could cause little
+inconvenience to the frontier. From Fort Atkinson Major Woods passed
+southward through Fayette, Buchanan, Linn, and Johnson counties to Iowa
+City. At this time the region traversed was sparsely settled. For a
+hundred miles south of Fort Atkinson there were only two
+settlements&mdash;one, consisting of a few families, high upon the Volga
+River, and the other larger in numbers clustered about some mills <a id="Page_042" name="Page_042"></a><span class="pagenum">[042]</span>
+on the Wapsipinicon River. About fifteen miles north of Marion the
+inhabitants became more numerous. Here were found Indians&mdash;Sacs and
+Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes&mdash;but they were not hostile and
+their presence caused no objection.</p>
+
+<p>It was at Iowa City that Major Woods heard that the inhabitants on the
+Iowa, English, and Skunk Rivers had been making the loudest complaints.
+Accordingly he started up the Iowa River to the vicinity of Marengo.
+Here he learned that a few days before the settlers near the town,
+becoming tired of having Indians about them, armed themselves and by
+force broke up the Indian encampment. Only one lodge remained, that on
+the lands of a farmer who gave permission to three of the red men to
+live under his protection.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of Indians, Major Woods reported, consisted of five or
+six hundred Sacs and Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes. Among these
+the Sacs and Foxes were the most numerous. They had by treaty sold their
+lands some years earlier and had been removed to the Missouri River; but
+they preferred their old home, and so had returned in straggling bands,
+sometimes going back to the Missouri to get their annuities. The
+Winnebagoes were those who had escaped when the tribe was being
+transferred to the new reservation north of Fort Snelling.</p>
+
+<p>The complaints against these Indians were that they destroyed a great
+deal of timber, removed the surveyors' landmarks, killed the game,
+annoyed the <a id="Page_043" name="Page_043"></a><span class="pagenum">[043]</span> settlers, and that when intoxicated they were an
+actual source of danger. Believing that these reasons were well founded,
+Major Woods advised that the Indians be removed as soon as possible.
+Conditions did not demand a winter campaign, but preparations should be
+made for the removal during the early summer.<a name="anchor-111" id="anchor-111"></a><a href="#footnote-111" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 111.">111</a></p>
+
+<p>In the early part of April of the next year it was known that two
+companies of infantry from Fort Snelling, and one company of dragoons
+from Fort Gaines had been detailed for this task.<a name="anchor-112" id="anchor-112"></a><a href="#footnote-112" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 112.">112</a> On the twelfth of
+May the <q>Highland Mary</q> left Fort Snelling, having on board the infantry
+and cavalry and part of the equipment, while in tow was a barge full of
+horses and mules.<a name="anchor-113" id="anchor-113"></a><a href="#footnote-113" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 113.">113</a> The soldiers were disembarked at Dubuque, whence
+they followed the trail to Iowa City, along which they <q>saw nothing
+except the ravages of California emigration.</q> Proceeding to the vicinity
+of Marengo, a council was held with the Indians. But the latter marched
+into the council ten abreast carrying their war clubs and manifesting
+such a hostile disposition that it was impossible for Major Woods to
+accomplish anything.<a name="anchor-114" id="anchor-114"></a><a href="#footnote-114" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 114.">114</a></p>
+
+<p>For a while it seemed that active military operations would be
+necessary. The Indians becoming convinced that this would be the result,
+and fearing that all the expenses of the campaign would be deducted from
+the annuities of the tribe, suggested to two men of the neighborhood&mdash;a
+Mr. Steen and a Mr. Greenly&mdash;that they would go back to their homes if
+these two men could be appointed their <a id="Page_044" name="Page_044"></a><span class="pagenum">[044]</span> guides. When Mr. Steen and
+Mr. Greenly broached the subject to Major Woods he considered it
+thoughtfully, and finally an arrangement was made. For every Indian who
+left the Iowa River and was turned over to their agent west of the
+Missouri River, the government was to pay three dollars and fifty cents.
+Five hundred dollars was to be advanced to pay for the provisions of the
+party. Upon June 6th a second council was held with the Indians, during
+which Major Woods impressed upon Chief Poweshiek and his men the
+necessity of their returning and the advisability of their doing it
+peaceably.<a name="anchor-115" id="anchor-115"></a><a href="#footnote-115" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 115.">115</a></p>
+
+<p>During the month of July the Indians started upon their journey. For
+several days they encamped near Fort Des Moines, and on July 16th
+seventy of the warriors, armed and painted, paraded on horseback through
+the streets of the town to the public square where for an hour they
+danced for the amusement of the two or three hundred interested
+spectators in the frontier town.<a name="anchor-116" id="anchor-116"></a><a href="#footnote-116" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 116.">116</a></p>
+
+<p>These events made necessary a change in the plans of the troops. Company
+E of the Sixth Infantry remained at their camp on the Iowa River for
+some time, but upon the last day of July set out under the command of
+Major Woods for a site on the Des Moines River which had been chosen by
+the War Department as the location of a new military post. On August 23,
+1850, the troops arrived at the designated place and began the erection
+of a fort which they named Fort Clarke in honor of Colonel Clarke <a id="Page_045" name="Page_045"></a><span class="pagenum">[045]</span>
+the commanding officer of the Sixth Infantry. The name, however, was
+soon changed to Fort Dodge.</p>
+
+<p>The company of dragoons was occupied during August and September in
+making a tour of the western part of the State of Iowa, and it was not
+until October that the cavalry company and the other infantry company
+returned to their station at Fort Snelling.<a name="anchor-117" id="anchor-117"></a><a href="#footnote-117" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 117.">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Occupation for the company of dragoons was furnished during the next
+summer when Governor Ramsey was sent to Pembina to draw up a treaty with
+the Pillager band of Chippewa Indians. On August 18, 1851, the party set
+out from Fort Snelling. Besides the Governor and a number of gentlemen
+who accompanied him, the party consisted of twenty-five dragoons, and
+eight French-Canadian and half-breed drivers who had charge of six
+baggage wagons and several light Red River carts. The march was very
+difficult and the dragoons were kept busy repairing the roads over the
+swamp lands and dragging with ropes the heavy wagons over the quickly
+made causeways. The treaty which was made after this difficult journey
+was not ratified by the Senate.<a name="anchor-118" id="anchor-118"></a><a href="#footnote-118" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 118.">118</a></p>
+
+<p>The wonderful expansion of the Nation, which occurred in the latter half
+of the fifth decade of the century, turned all eyes toward the fertile
+valleys and the mountains of fabulous wealth on the Pacific Coast. Even
+before the acquisition of this territory some visionary minds had
+pictured it bound to the United States, if not by political ties, at
+least by <a id="Page_046" name="Page_046"></a><span class="pagenum">[046]</span> bonds of steel.<a name="anchor-119" id="anchor-119"></a><a href="#footnote-119" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 119.">119</a> The Oregon treaty of 1846 brought
+part of the coveted land under the jurisdiction of the United States,
+and the necessity of a railroad to the Pacific was soon realized. But
+sectional interests prevented agreement upon any certain route, and it
+was decided to survey the most promising and choose the one agreed upon
+by the engineers. Accordingly, the army appropriation bill of 1853
+provided $150,000 for this purpose.<a name="anchor-120" id="anchor-120"></a><a href="#footnote-120" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 120.">120</a></p>
+
+<p>Isaac I. Stevens, the newly appointed Governor of Washington Territory,
+led the party which examined the country between the parallels of
+forty-seven and forty-nine degrees north latitude&mdash;called the Northern
+Pacific Survey. He left Washington, D. C, on May 9, 1853, and reached
+St. Paul on May 27th. According to his instructions he was authorized to
+call upon one sergeant, two corporals, one musician, and sixteen
+privates of Company D First Dragoons, who were still stationed at Fort
+Snelling.<a name="anchor-121" id="anchor-121"></a><a href="#footnote-121" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 121.">121</a> Captain Gardiner, who had preceded his leader up the
+river, had selected the escort and collected the party on May 24th in
+Camp Pierce&mdash;a temporary encampment located three miles northwest of the
+fort.<a name="anchor-122" id="anchor-122"></a><a href="#footnote-122" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 122.">122</a> Early in June camp was broken and the start for the far West
+was made, at first, over the Red River Trail, and then across the
+prairies to Fort Union, where on August 1st they were joined by others
+who had been sent up the Missouri with supplies. Fort Benton was reached
+on September 1st There they remained until the twelfth of the month when
+Lieutenant Saxton, leading a similar party <a id="Page_047" name="Page_047"></a><span class="pagenum">[047]</span> eastward from
+Vancouver, arrived. Thus a survey from the Mississippi to the Pacific
+had been completed.<a name="anchor-123" id="anchor-123"></a><a href="#footnote-123" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 123.">123</a></p>
+
+<p>On the journey the entire party had been divided into small groups, who
+conducted surveys and explorations in various directions. To each of
+these groups were detailed a few of the dragoons, who were in all
+respects an integral part of the expedition and not merely a guard for
+protection. Accordingly, no special mention of their work was made in
+the report.<a name="anchor-124" id="anchor-124"></a><a href="#footnote-124" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 124.">124</a></p>
+
+<p>After thirty years, the distinction of being the most northwestern post
+in the upper Mississippi region was lost by Fort Snelling. Other
+military stations were erected, and thereafter many of its former
+activities were conducted from these stations on the extreme frontier.
+Yet in everything contributed by these newer posts, the older had a
+part; accounts of them reveal their dependence on Fort Snelling, the
+parent post.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1844 the Secretary of War had reported that plans were being
+made to erect two new forts between Lake Superior and the River St.
+Peter's.<a name="anchor-125" id="anchor-125"></a><a href="#footnote-125" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 125.">125</a> But nothing was done at this time. By a treaty of October
+13, 1846, the Winnebagoes living on the <q>Neutral Ground</q> in the Turkey
+River Valley of the Iowa country agreed to exchange this reservation for
+one <q>north of St. Peter's and west of the Mississippi Rivers</q>.<a name="anchor-126" id="anchor-126"></a><a href="#footnote-126" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 126.">126</a> By
+treaties in the following August, the Chippewas ceded to the government
+a tract lying south of the Crow Wing River <a id="Page_048" name="Page_048"></a><span class="pagenum">[048]</span> and west of the
+Mississippi River, and north and east of the so-called Sioux-Chippewa
+boundary line.<a name="anchor-127" id="anchor-127"></a><a href="#footnote-127" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 127.">127</a> This was the area agreed on by the government as
+being suitable for the Winnebagoes. In view of the reputation of
+unruliness possessed by this tribe, and the fact that they were to be
+placed between the warring tribes&mdash;the Sioux and the Chippewas&mdash;the
+establishment of a post on the reservation was thought desirable.</p>
+
+<p>The transfer of the tribe took place during the summer of 1848; and in
+the same fall Brigadier General George M. Brooke of St. Louis,
+accompanied by a squadron of dragoons, chose a point opposite the Nokay
+River as a desirable location.<a name="anchor-128" id="anchor-128"></a><a href="#footnote-128" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 128.">128</a> This company and a company of the
+Sixth Infantry from Fort Snelling were employed in building the fort,
+and when cold weather prevented further operations, they were withdrawn
+to Fort Snelling, where the winter was passed.<a name="anchor-129" id="anchor-129"></a><a href="#footnote-129" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 129.">129</a> In the spring the
+troops returned, and Fort Gaines&mdash;rechristened Fort Ripley&mdash;was occupied
+on the thirteenth of April, 1849.<a name="anchor-130" id="anchor-130"></a><a href="#footnote-130" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 130.">130</a></p>
+
+<p>But this post alone was unable to keep the Winnebagoes in check. They
+celebrated the first fourth of July by attacking a frontier store and
+<q>causing one gentleman to escape <em>en dishabille</em> to the woods, where he
+danced to the tune of the mosquitoes during some three days and
+nights.</q><a name="anchor-131" id="anchor-131"></a><a href="#footnote-131" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 131.">131</a> Again and again reports of riotous revels and rumors of
+impending outbreaks caused help to be sent from Fort Snelling to assist
+the troops higher up the river.<a name="anchor-132" id="anchor-132"></a><a href="#footnote-132" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 132.">132</a> In the spring of 1857 the fort was
+abandoned, but <a id="Page_049" name="Page_049"></a><span class="pagenum">[049]</span> Indian disturbances during the summer caused a
+detachment to be sent from the older post. These troops remained at that
+point until in the summer of 1858 they were transferred to the newly
+founded Fort Abercrombie.<a name="anchor-133" id="anchor-133"></a><a href="#footnote-133" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 133.">133</a></p>
+
+<p>The treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, concluded in 1851,
+concentrated the Sioux Indians on a long irregular reservation along the
+upper Minnesota River.<a name="anchor-134" id="anchor-134"></a><a href="#footnote-134" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 134.">134</a> The Indians were not transferred until the
+summer of 1853, but in the fall of the previous year the need of a post
+among so many half civilized people, placed in a small territory, was
+obvious. Accordingly, Colonel Francis Lee, commandant at Fort Snelling,
+and Captain Dana of the quartermaster's department, escorted by a troop
+of dragoons, selected a suitable site on the north side of the Minnesota
+River, a dozen miles upstream from the town of New Ulm.</p>
+
+<p>On February 24, 1853, seven privates of Company D of the First Dragoons,
+and two sergeants and thirteen privates of the Sixth Infantry were sent
+to the location to begin the erection of the fort. In April the dragoons
+were ordered to return to Fort Snelling and Companies C and K of the
+Sixth Infantry went up the river under the command of Captain James
+Monroe and became part of the permanent garrison of newly-founded Fort
+Ridgely. One other company came up from Fort Dodge&mdash;the post in Iowa
+which was abandoned with this withdrawal.<a name="anchor-135" id="anchor-135"></a><a href="#footnote-135" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 135.">135</a></p>
+
+<p>Colonel C. F. Smith, who led the expedition from Fort Snelling to the
+Red River during the summer <a id="Page_050" name="Page_050"></a><span class="pagenum">[050]</span> of 1856, was instructed to recommend
+a site for a post. His choice of Graham's Point on the Red River was
+accepted; and here, in the fall of 1857, Colonel John J. Abercrombie
+constructed the fort which was named in his honor. Colonel Smith,
+writing from Fort Snelling, gave among his reasons for the choice of
+Graham's Point <q>the additional advantage of greater facility for
+receiving stores from the depot here</q>.<a name="anchor-136" id="anchor-136"></a><a href="#footnote-136" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 136.">136</a></p>
+
+<p>With the building of these posts, Fort Snelling lost much of its
+importance. The garrison was small and the fort was almost nothing more
+than a depot for supplying the more advanced forts with food, clothing,
+and ammunition.<a name="anchor-137" id="anchor-137"></a><a href="#footnote-137" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 137.">137</a> With the decline of its military position, the idea
+became prevalent that some day it would be abandoned entirely, and the
+land thrown open to settlement.</p>
+
+<p>The neighboring cities of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Anthony were in
+the throes of real estate speculation. There were some who saw in Fort
+Snelling a site more advantageous than any of these. <q>It is a position
+which has attracted also a good deal of attention on account of its
+superior beauty of location, its agricultural advantages, and its more
+notable advantages for a town site</q>, said Mr. Morrill during a debate on
+the floor of the House of Representatives. <q>Whatever witnesses in this
+case may have differed upon as to other matters, they nearly all agree
+that, as a point for a town site, it possesses superior advantages over
+any other in that part of the country.</q><a name="anchor-138" id="anchor-138"></a><a href="#footnote-138" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 138.">138</a> <a id="Page_051" name="Page_051"></a><span class="pagenum">[051]</span></p>
+
+<p>Successful efforts were made to secure this site. On June 6, 1857, Mr.
+William King Heiskell, a commissioner appointed by the Secretary of War,
+sold to Mr. Franklin Steele, who was acting for himself and three
+others, the entire reservation for $90,000. The President approved the
+act on the second of July. Other parties who were interested in securing
+the site were not aware that the sale was to be made until everything
+had been accomplished.<a name="anchor-139" id="anchor-139"></a><a href="#footnote-139" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 139.">139</a></p>
+
+<p>Immediately there arose the cry of graft: the Republicans saw in the
+transaction the corruption of the existing Democratic r&eacute;gime. A
+committee was appointed by the House of Representatives to investigate
+the matter, and the testimony which they took covers three hundred and
+seven pages. Some witnesses said that the post should have been retained
+for military purposes; others insisted that there was no such need. Some
+said that the site was admirable for a city; a few stated that it
+possessed no such advantages. Some said that it was necessary as a
+supply station for the upper posts; others insisted that these posts
+could be supplied more cheaply by a direct route.<a name="anchor-140" id="anchor-140"></a><a href="#footnote-140" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 140.">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Bitter debates marked the consideration of the report. The objects,
+character, and ability of the witnesses were questioned. One member of
+the House said that <q>Fort Snelling is a very elegant appanage to very
+elegant gentlemen, who have a very elegant place for parade and
+show.</q><a name="anchor-141" id="anchor-141"></a><a href="#footnote-141" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 141.">141</a> Another remarked that <q>the officers at Fort Snelling were
+opposed to the sale and it was natural that <a id="Page_052" name="Page_052"></a><span class="pagenum">[052]</span> they should be. They
+had a beautiful place of residence, they had the most comfortable
+quarters, and a superabundance of stores for their subsistence. There
+they were living upon the fat of the land, without anything under God's
+heaven to do. Society was near at hand in a city populous, and
+furnishing all the luxuries of life. They of course did not want to
+surrender such quarters and such comforts for the hardships and trials
+of a frontier station.</q><a name="anchor-142" id="anchor-142"></a><a href="#footnote-142" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 142.">142</a></p>
+
+<p>Finally, on June second the whole matter was laid on the table. On May
+27, 1858, the troops had been withdrawn,<a name="anchor-143" id="anchor-143"></a><a href="#footnote-143" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 143.">143</a> and on July 19, 1858, the
+quartermaster turned the buildings over to Mr. Steele. But with the
+opening of the Civil War Fort Snelling was used by the government as a
+training station, and after the war it was continued as a permanent
+post. Mr. Steele had been unable to pay the entire $90,000, and as he
+claimed rent at the rate of $2000 a month for the time it had been used
+by the government, the matter was again taken up. It was finally
+adjusted in an agreement whereby Mr. Steele retained the greater part of
+the land, and the government kept the buildings and 1521.20 acres
+surrounding the fort. Later some of the land was re-purchased from Mr.
+Steele.<a name="anchor-144" id="anchor-144"></a><a href="#footnote-144" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 144.">144</a></p>
+
+<p>The history of Old Fort Snelling closes with the removal of the troops
+in 1858. The story of its use during the Civil War, of the part it
+played during the Sioux massacre of 1862, of its influence throughout
+the West during the years when the headquarters of the Department of
+Dakota were located within <a id="Page_053" name="Page_053"></a><span class="pagenum">[053]</span> its walls, of the Officers' Training
+Camp established during the summer of 1917, lies outside the scope of
+this volume. The life of the new Fort Snelling revives the traditions of
+patriotism, loyalty, and sacrifice, which have centered about the post
+since that day in August, 1819, which witnessed its beginning. </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_054" name="Page_054"></a><span class="pagenum">[054]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV<br />
+
+LORDS OF THE NORTH</h2>
+
+
+<p>An old settler, speaking of the expulsion of the squatters on the
+military reservation remarked: <q>At that time, and both before and since,
+the commanding officers of the fort were the lords of the north. They
+ruled supreme. The citizens in the neighborhood of the fort were liable
+at any time to be thrust into the guard-house. While the chief of the
+fort was the king, the subordinate officers were the princes, and
+persons have been deprived of their liberty and imprisoned by those
+tyrants for the most trivial wrong, or some imaginary offense.</q><a name="anchor-145" id="anchor-145"></a><a href="#footnote-145" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 145.">145</a>
+This statement is doubtless rather extreme; but the fact remains that
+the fort was the only agency of government in the region, and so the
+commanding officer was indeed the supreme ruler in so far as he directed
+the policy and activities of the post.</p>
+
+<p>Interest in Old Fort Snelling is not primarily in the logs and stones
+which made up its building, but in the men and women who lived within
+its walls. Many were the lives influenced by a residence in its
+barracks. Characters were formed by the stern rigors of frontier
+service. Far from busy cities, in the tiresome routine of army life, men
+were being trained who were to be leaders in the political and <a id="Page_055" name="Page_055"></a><span class="pagenum">[055]</span>
+military life of the Nation. Others never rose to a higher position; but
+they command attention because in their faithful performance of daily
+duties, year after year, they were quietly helping to make the history
+of the Northwest. It is impossible to consider every man who might be
+classed among the <q>Lords of the North</q>, but a review of the careers of a
+few of them indicates the type of men whose natural ability was
+supplemented by the self-confidence and the grim determination which are
+the products of frontier service.<a name="anchor-146" id="anchor-146"></a><a href="#footnote-146" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 146.">146</a></p>
+
+
+<p>The memory of the man who led the troops to the mouth of the Minnesota
+River in 1819 is commemorated by a fort and a city in another State. The
+trials which he endured during that first winter at Cantonment New Hope
+were only harbingers of greater difficulties which were to bring to him
+the death of a frontier martyr. Although he had been educated for the
+lawyer's profession, Henry Leavenworth raised a company of volunteers in
+Delaware County, New York, in 1812, and was elected its captain. He
+served under General Winfield Scott and won honors for distinguished
+service at the Battle of Chippewa and at Niagara Falls. After the war he
+continued in the army, being appointed lieutenant colonel of the Fifth
+United States Infantry on February 10, 1818. After conducting the troops
+up the Mississippi River in 1819 and remaining through the winter, he
+was superseded by Colonel Snelling.</p>
+
+<p>Expeditions and Indian duties occupied his attention <a id="Page_056" name="Page_056"></a><span class="pagenum">[056]</span> during the
+next few years, and in May, 1827, he established <q>Cantonment
+Leavenworth</q> on the west bank of the Missouri River. On February 8,
+1832, the name was changed to Fort Leavenworth. During a campaign
+against the Pawnee Indians, who were harassing the caravans of the Santa
+F&eacute; traders, Colonel Leavenworth was taken sick with fever and died on
+July 21, 1834, in a hospital wagon at Cross Timbers in Indian Territory.
+The body was wrapped in spices and sent by way of St. Louis, New
+Orleans, and New York City, to Delhi, New York, where it remained until
+in 1902 it was reinterred in the national cemetery at Fort Leavenworth.
+A granite shaft some twelve feet high marks his resting-place.<a name="anchor-147" id="anchor-147"></a><a href="#footnote-147" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 147.">147</a></p>
+
+
+<p>The monument to the man under whose direction the fort was built is the
+modern military establishment named Fort Snelling. The erection of this
+fort was the last achievement of a life which, though comparatively
+brief, had already accomplished much. Josiah Snelling was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, in 1782. His first commission was as a first
+lieutenant in the Fourth Infantry and bears the date of May 3, 1808. In
+the Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811, he commanded one of the
+companies that were attacked in their camp in the early morning. An
+attempt was made by a company of dragoons to drive off the groups of
+Indians whose fire was the heaviest, but the officer who was leading was
+wounded and the attempt failed. <q>The Indians</q>, <a id="Page_057" name="Page_057"></a><span class="pagenum">[057]</span> reported General
+Harrison, <q>were, however, immediately and gallantly dislodged from their
+advantageous position by Captain Snelling, at the head of his
+company.</q><a name="anchor-148" id="anchor-148"></a><a href="#footnote-148" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 148.">148</a> During the War of 1812 he served with Hull's army about
+Detroit, and when the fort was surrendered he was taken a prisoner and
+brought to Canada. But he was exchanged and ordered to Plattsburg, and
+later was sent to Fort Erie on the staff of General George Izard. At the
+close of the war he was retained as lieutenant colonel of the Sixth
+Infantry and was stationed at Plattsburg for four years.<a name="anchor-149" id="anchor-149"></a><a href="#footnote-149" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 149.">149</a></p>
+
+<p>Bravery and impetuosity were two of Colonel Snelling's traits. During
+the campaign about Detroit he was married to Abigail Hunt by the
+chaplain of General Hull's army. The general and other officers were
+present. An account of the life of his wife states that <q>the ceremony
+had been performed but a few moments when the drum beat to arms; and
+Capt. Snelling instantly started up to go in search of his sword. All
+rushed to the door except Gen. Hull, who laying his hand on the young
+officer's shoulder as he was about leaving the house, said, <q>Snelling,
+you need not go, I will excuse you.</q> <q>By no means,</q> was the reply, <q>I
+feel more like doing my duty now than ever.</q> <q>Stay, it is a false alarm
+by my order,</q> said the General.</q><a name="anchor-150" id="anchor-150"></a><a href="#footnote-150" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 150.">150</a> The ignoble surrender of Detroit
+by General Hull was deplored by many of the men under him. The story is
+told that while General Hull's aid was trying to place the white flag in
+position he called, <q>Snelling, come and <a id="Page_058" name="Page_058"></a><span class="pagenum">[058]</span> help me fix this flag.</q>
+Whereupon that officer replied, <q>No, sir; I will not soil my hands with
+that flag.</q><a name="anchor-151" id="anchor-151"></a><a href="#footnote-151" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 151.">151</a></p>
+
+<p>On June 1, 1819, he was appointed colonel of the Fifth Infantry, and
+ordered to St. Louis, where the following winter was passed. In the
+summer he started up the Mississippi, but was detained at Prairie du
+Chien by a court-martial of which he was the president, and it was not
+until August that he reached the troops at Camp Cold Water. From that
+time until the fall of 1827 Colonel Snelling was in command of the post,
+when not absent on official business. Except when he had been drinking
+too much, he was a favorite with the troops, and as he had red hair and
+was somewhat bald, they nicknamed him the <q>prairie-hen</q>.<a name="anchor-152" id="anchor-152"></a><a href="#footnote-152" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 152.">152</a></p>
+
+<p>In the fall of 1827 the Fifth Infantry was withdrawn from the post and
+was succeeded by the First Infantry. The Snelling family located at St.
+Louis, while Colonel Snelling proceeded to Washington to settle some
+accounts. While here he was suddenly taken sick and died on August 20,
+1828.<a name="anchor-153" id="anchor-153"></a><a href="#footnote-153" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 153.">153</a></p>
+
+<p>The man whose name was applied to the post which has become so historic
+was a typical soldier of his day. Along with the bravery and zeal of the
+army, he possessed also its failings. <q>Of myself I have little to say</q>,
+he wrote on one occasion. <q>I entered the army a subaltern, almost
+eighteen years ago. From obscurity I have passed through every grade to
+the command of a regiment. I owe nothing to executive patronage, for I
+have neither friend or <a id="Page_059" name="Page_059"></a><span class="pagenum">[059]</span> relation connected with the government: I
+have obtained my rank in the ordinary course of promotion, and have
+retained it by doing my duty; and I really flatter myself that I still
+possess the confidence of the government, and the respect of those who
+serve with and under me.</q><a name="anchor-154" id="anchor-154"></a><a href="#footnote-154" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 154.">154</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Daniel Webster, speaking in the Senate on July 9, 1850, remarked that it
+was not in Indian wars that heroes were celebrated, but it was there
+that they were formed.<a name="anchor-155" id="anchor-155"></a><a href="#footnote-155" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 155.">155</a> The occasion of this speech was the death of
+the President, Zachary Taylor, who had served for many years upon the
+Indian frontier. As lieutenant colonel of the First Infantry, he came to
+Fort Snelling during the summer of 1828 and remained there for a year,
+when he established his headquarters at Fort Crawford. His achievements
+on the frontier and in the Mexican War, which finally brought him to the
+presidency are a familiar story, and the training which he received in
+Old Fort Snelling was only a part of that which gave him the name of
+<q>Rough and Ready</q>. It is a remarkable fact that at Fort Snelling he was
+remembered less for his own actions than for those of his four pretty
+daughters whose presence spread commotion in the hearts of the homesick
+young officers.<a name="anchor-156" id="anchor-156"></a><a href="#footnote-156" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 156.">156</a></p>
+
+
+<p>In 1837 the First Infantry was withdrawn and part of the Fifth Infantry
+returned to its former station. Among the familiar faces seen about the
+garrison again was that of a man whose eccentricities <a id="Page_060" name="Page_060"></a><span class="pagenum">[060]</span> and
+personality are closely associated with the life of the fort.<a name="anchor-157" id="anchor-157"></a><a href="#footnote-157" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 157.">157</a> In
+reporting the casualties of the battle of Molino del Rey, September 8,
+1847, the general commanding the American forces applied an adjective to
+only one of the dead. The report reads, <q>the service mourns the
+high-souled Scott, brevet lieutenant colonel 5th infantry</q>.<a name="anchor-158" id="anchor-158"></a><a href="#footnote-158" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 158.">158</a> This
+was Martin Scott, one of the most human, most lovable, and most
+energetic men who ever reviewed troops on the parade ground of Old Fort
+Snelling. Only from July 15, 1837, until August 20, 1837, was he in
+command, but for many years he was a familiar figure around the barracks
+and in the surrounding country.</p>
+
+<p>Hunting was his favorite pastime, and many a time the prairie rang with
+the yelping of the twenty or twenty-five dogs which he kept under the
+care of a special negro servant at the fort. His deadly aim was known to
+all. An army officer who insulted him was severely wounded in a duel; he
+often played the part of William Tell by shooting with his pistol
+through an apple placed upon the head of his negro; and if credence is
+to be given to the stories which are told, even the animals were aware
+that from him there was no escape. A coon sitting high on a tree was
+shot at by several hunters in succession, but still remained in its
+position. Captain Scott came along and took aim, whereupon the coon
+asked, <q>Who is that?</q> The reply was, <q>My name is Scott.</q> <q>Scott? what
+Scott?</q> continued the coon. <q>Captain Martin Scott.</q> <q>Are you Captain
+Martin Scott?</q> There was a pause before the voice in <a id="Page_061" name="Page_061"></a><span class="pagenum">[061]</span> the tree-top
+continued, <q>Then hold on&mdash;don't shoot; I may as well come down.</q><a name="anchor-159" id="anchor-159"></a><a href="#footnote-159" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 159.">159</a></p>
+
+<p>Martin Scott was born in Bennington, Vermont, on January 17, 1788. His
+family was extremely poor, but because of his freedom from army
+vices&mdash;gambling and drinking&mdash;he was able in later years to do them many
+favors. His kindness was equalled only by his bravery. For gallant
+conduct during the Mexican War he received several promotions, and held
+a commission as lieutenant colonel when he met death leading his
+regiment in the battle of Molino del Rey.<a name="anchor-160" id="anchor-160"></a><a href="#footnote-160" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 160.">160</a></p>
+
+<p>A newspaper correspondent who went over the field of battle, saw a
+gray-headed soldier spreading the blanket over the corpse of a fallen
+comrade. <q>I rode up to him</q>, wrote the reporter to his newspaper, <q>and
+asked him whether that was an officer. He looked up, and every lineament
+of his face betokening the greatest grief, replied, <q>you never asked a
+question sir, more easily answered, it is an officer.</q> I then asked him
+who he was. He again replied, <q>The best soldier of the 5th infantry,
+sir.</q> I then alighted from my horse and uncovering the face, found it
+was Col. Martin Scott. As I again covered the face, the soldier
+continued, without apparently addressing himself to any person in
+particular&mdash;<q>They have killed him&mdash;they will be paid for this&mdash;if it had
+only been me&mdash;I have served with him almost four enlistments but what
+will his poor family say?</q> And as he concluded thus the tears coursed
+down his furrowed cheeks, and the swelling of his <a id="Page_062" name="Page_062"></a><span class="pagenum">[062]</span> bosom showed
+how deeply he was affected by the death of his veteran and gallant
+commander.</q><a name="anchor-161" id="anchor-161"></a><a href="#footnote-161" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 161.">161</a></p>
+
+<p>When the Fifth Infantry was transferred in 1840 there was a second
+home-coming at Fort Snelling in that it was succeeded by parts of the
+First Infantry which remained until the year 1848. Captain Seth Eastman
+was in command at four different times during this period, and it was
+through his eyes that we can see Old Fort Snelling as it was.<a name="anchor-162" id="anchor-162"></a><a href="#footnote-162" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 162.">162</a> After
+his graduation from the Military Academy he was an assistant teacher of
+drawing at West Point. Following this he served in the Florida War and
+on the frontier until 1850, when he was called to Washington to
+illustrate the <em>History, Condition, and Future Prospects of the Indian
+Tribes of the United States</em>. Active service on the frontier and in the
+Civil War followed, and in 1866 he was breveted a brigadier
+general.<a name="anchor-163" id="anchor-163"></a><a href="#footnote-163" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 163.">163</a></p>
+
+<p>Mary Henderson Eastman, his wife, also commands attention. The intimate
+association of the fort with the surrounding Indians brought to her
+knowledge many incidents connected with their life which she embodied in
+a volume published in 1849 and entitled: <em>Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends
+of the Sioux around Fort Snelling</em>. In this volume Longfellow read of
+the Falls of Minnehaha, which he describes so picturesquely in
+<em>Hiawatha</em>.<a name="anchor-164" id="anchor-164"></a><a href="#footnote-164" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 164.">164</a> Other literary work was done by Mrs. Eastman, one of
+her volumes being <em>Aunt Phyllis's Cabin</em>, a reply to Mrs. Stowe's <em>Uncle
+Tom's Cabin</em>.<a name="anchor-165" id="anchor-165"></a><a href="#footnote-165" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 165.">165</a> <a id="Page_063" name="Page_063"></a><span class="pagenum">[063]</span></p>
+
+<p>Parts of the Sixth Infantry were garrisoned in Fort Snelling from 1848
+to 1852, and beginning in 1850 there was also a company of the First
+Dragoons who engaged in many of the expeditions narrated in the
+preceding chapter. Among the officers who commanded during this period
+was Lieutenant William T. Magruder, who was killed on July 3, 1863, at
+the Battle of Gettysburg while serving in the ranks of the Confederate
+army.<a name="anchor-166" id="anchor-166"></a><a href="#footnote-166" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 166.">166</a> One company of the Third Artillery was located at the post
+from 1853 to 1856. At the head of this company was Captain W. T. Sherman
+who, after serving in the Indian wars and the Mexican War, rose to
+prominence in the Civil War during which he was brevetted a major
+general. After the Civil War he was appointed commander of the
+Department of the East.<a name="anchor-167" id="anchor-167"></a><a href="#footnote-167" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 167.">167</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the last troops which occupied Fort Snelling before it was
+abandoned in 1858 was a part of the Tenth Infantry. Major E. R. S. Canby
+of this regiment was in command of the fort during the summer and autumn
+of 1856. His was a wonderful record of achievement upon the frontier and
+in the Civil War, and like Colonel Leavenworth he met his death in
+service. Born in Kentucky the year that Fort Snelling was founded, he
+moved to Indiana as a boy. He was appointed to the Military Academy at
+West Point in 1835 and graduated in 1839. For the next three years he
+was engaged as a second lieutenant in the Second Infantry in the Florida
+War, and upon the successful termination of the campaigns he was
+employed in removing the Cherokees, <a id="Page_064" name="Page_064"></a><span class="pagenum">[064]</span> Choctaws, and Creeks to
+Indian Territory. After a few years in garrison duty and the recruiting
+service he participated in the Mexican War, being promoted <q>for gallant
+and meritorious service</q> at Contreras, Cherubusco, and the Belen Gate of
+the City of Mexico. On March 3, 1855, a promotion made him major in the
+Tenth Infantry; and it was while holding this position that he served at
+Fort Snelling.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858 Major Canby was transferred to Fort Bridger, Utah, where he
+commanded an expedition against the Navajo Indians. While stationed at
+Fort Defiance, New Mexico, during the early years of the Civil War, he
+repelled the Confederate general, Sibley, who left one-half of his force
+behind him in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On March 31, 1862, he was
+made a brigadier general of volunteers and summoned to Washington to
+assist Secretary of War Stanton. While here General Canby was called
+upon to take charge of a difficult position. Draft riots in New York
+City from July 13th to July 16th resulted in the killing and wounding of
+about a thousand people and the destruction of about one and a half
+million dollars worth of property.<a name="anchor-168" id="anchor-168"></a><a href="#footnote-168" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 168.">168</a> On July 17th General Canby was
+put in charge of the Federal troops in the city, and he was later able
+to enforce the provisions of the draft without difficulties.<a name="anchor-169" id="anchor-169"></a><a href="#footnote-169" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 169.">169</a>
+Following this came an appointment as commander of the military division
+of West Mississippi, where he was wounded by Confederate guerrillas.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the war, Edward Canby, then a <a id="Page_065" name="Page_065"></a><span class="pagenum">[065]</span> major general of
+volunteers was sent to the far West as commander of the Department of
+the Columbia. Here the United States was engaged in a war with the Modoc
+Indians led by their chief <q>Captain Jack</q>. On April 11, 1873, General
+Canby held a peace parley with the Indians. It had been agreed that both
+parties should be unarmed, but in the middle of the negotiations
+<q>Captain Jack</q> suddenly drew a revolver from his breast, and shot Canby
+through the head killing him instantly.<a name="anchor-170" id="anchor-170"></a><a href="#footnote-170" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 170.">170</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Other officers at the post who had real power were the garrison
+physicians. One of these, Dr. John Emerson was a giant in body and
+impulsive in spirit. On a certain day in early winter when the
+quartermaster was distributing stoves to the officers, Dr. Emerson asked
+for one for his negro servant. This the quartermaster refused, saying
+that there were not enough in store; whereupon the doctor insinuated
+that the statement was a lie. Upon being insulted thus the quartermaster
+struck his companion between the eyes. Emerson turned on his heels
+immediately, but he returned in a few minutes with a brace of pistols
+which he pointed at his assailant. The fighting spirit of the
+quartermaster fell at the appearance of these weapons, and he started
+across the parade ground on a run followed by the doctor. A third
+character appeared in the person of Major Plympton, the commanding
+officer, who arrested Dr. Emerson. This episode gave rise to a great
+commotion in the garrison. One group who wanted some <a id="Page_066" name="Page_066"></a><span class="pagenum">[066]</span> excitement
+urged that only in blood could the quarrel be settled; while the other
+group sought for peace, knowing that there was no other physician nearer
+than Prairie du Chien. Not for several days was the quarrel patched up,
+and then the terms were never made public.<a name="anchor-171" id="anchor-171"></a><a href="#footnote-171" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 171.">171</a></p>
+
+<p>The cause of all this trouble was Dred Scott, man of color, and the
+slave of Dr. Emerson. He had been brought to Fort Snelling by his master
+in 1836, and here he was married to Harriet, also colored, who had been
+sold by Major Taliaferro to the doctor. When Dr. Emerson was transferred
+to Missouri, he took Dred Scott with him. After the death of his master,
+Scott began proceedings in the courts for his freedom on the ground that
+his residence at the military post made him free&mdash;Fort Snelling being
+located on soil where slavery was prohibited by the Missouri Compromise
+of 1820. Mrs. Emerson, who wanted to avoid an appearance in the courts,
+made over the control of Scott to John F. A. Sanford, and the case was
+finally brought to the Supreme Court of the United States. Thus Old Fort
+Snelling was connected with the case of <em>Scott vs. Sanford</em>, which was
+so important among the events leading up to the Civil War.<a name="anchor-172" id="anchor-172"></a><a href="#footnote-172" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 172.">172</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Were battles and military operations alone considered, the annals of
+Fort Snelling would comprise few pages; and were only military men
+characterized one of the most potent factors in the life of the fort
+would be omitted. The influence of the fort on the <a id="Page_067" name="Page_067"></a><span class="pagenum">[067]</span> Indians was
+felt more through the quiet daily work of the Indian agent who was their
+official friend. Although he was an officer entirely distinct from the
+military organization at the fort, his work may legitimately be
+accredited among the other activities of the post. He was, in fact, an
+army official. The act of August 7, 1789, which organized the War
+Department, placed Indian affairs in the hands of the Secretary;<a name="anchor-173" id="anchor-173"></a><a href="#footnote-173" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 173.">173</a> on
+July 9, 1832, a commissioner of Indian affairs was authorized;<a name="anchor-174" id="anchor-174"></a><a href="#footnote-174" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 174.">174</a> and
+on June 30, 1834, the relations of the Indian agents to the military
+department were more clearly defined. The Superintendent of Indian
+Affairs, the Indian agents, and the sub-agents were given the right to
+call upon the military forces to remove all trespassers in the Indian
+country, to procure the arrest and trial of all Indians accused of
+committing any crime, and to break up any distillery set up in the
+Indian country.<a name="anchor-175" id="anchor-175"></a><a href="#footnote-175" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 175.">175</a></p>
+
+<p>By the act of March 3, 1849, the Department of the Interior was
+organized. Section Five of the act stipulated that <q>the Secretary of the
+Interior shall exercise the supervisory and appellate powers now
+exercised by the Secretary of the War Department, in relation to all the
+acts of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs</q>.<a name="anchor-176" id="anchor-176"></a><a href="#footnote-176" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 176.">176</a> On the whole this law
+did not disturb the co&ouml;peration between the two branches of the
+government service, although the commander at Fort Snelling intimated to
+the agent that his privileges were <q>not of right but by courtesy</q>.<a name="anchor-177" id="anchor-177"></a><a href="#footnote-177" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 177.">177</a></p>
+
+<p>One name more than any other is associated with the agency at Fort
+Snelling&mdash;usually called the <a id="Page_068" name="Page_068"></a><span class="pagenum">[068]</span> agency of St. Peter's. From 1820 to
+1840 regiments came and went, and the officers who ruled as <q>Lords of
+the North</q> were soon transferred to other posts. The military
+establishment was itself known by several different names in succession,
+but the Indian agent remained the same&mdash;Lawrence Taliaferro. His was a
+lasting influence&mdash;lasting because of the position he held in the
+memories of his wards and his associates, and lasting because of the
+records that he left.</p>
+
+<p>To the Indians he was a real <q>Father</q>. Americans, Scotch, Sioux, and
+French could all find within his breast, they said, a kindred spirit,
+and they bestowed upon him the name of <q>Four Hearts</q> because of the
+impartiality of his actions to all nationalities.<a name="anchor-178" id="anchor-178"></a><a href="#footnote-178" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 178.">178</a> In June, 1858, a
+number of Sioux chiefs were in Washington and came to see him. <q>My old
+Father,</q> said Little Crow, <q>we have called upon you; we love you; we
+respect you.&hellip; Since you left us a dark cloud has hung over our nation.
+We have lost confidence in the promises of our Great Father, and his
+people; bad men have nearly destroyed us.&hellip; We failed to get a friend
+in anyone like you; they all joined the traders. We know your heart, it
+feels for your old children.</q><a name="anchor-179" id="anchor-179"></a><a href="#footnote-179" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 179.">179</a></p>
+
+<p>Those who were associated with him at the fort also had kind words for
+him. <q>He belonged to a class more common then than now</q>, remarked the
+son of Colonel Bliss. <q>He imagined it to be his imperative duty to see
+that every Indian under his charge had the enjoyment of all his rights,
+and never <a id="Page_069" name="Page_069"></a><span class="pagenum">[069]</span> seemed to realize his opportunities for arranging with
+contractors for the supply of inferior goods and for dividing the
+profits.</q><a name="anchor-180" id="anchor-180"></a><a href="#footnote-180" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 180.">180</a> Of this honesty Taliaferro wrote: <q>I have the Sad
+Consolation of leaving after twenty Seven years&mdash;the public Service as
+poor as when first I entered&mdash;The only evidence of my integrity</q>.<a name="anchor-181" id="anchor-181"></a><a href="#footnote-181" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 181.">181</a></p>
+
+<p>No one can write of Fort Snelling without using the papers which
+Lawrence Taliaferro left. The diary kept by him during these twenty
+years shows the meager pleasures and grim duties of his task. Of this
+diary only a few fragmentary pages are extant&mdash;three roughly bound
+collections of sheets, many of them torn, many of them half-burned, and
+their writing faded. But from almost every page that is legible some
+information is gleaned, concerning the life of the soldiers, the visits
+of the Indians, the state of the weather, and reflections on Indian
+relations and the best time for planting potatoes.<a name="anchor-182" id="anchor-182"></a><a href="#footnote-182" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 182.">182</a> His wide
+acquaintance and the great extent of territory which his agency covered
+led to correspondence with many men. These letters also passed through a
+fire, and those that were rescued are now bound in four volumes.<a name="anchor-183" id="anchor-183"></a><a href="#footnote-183" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 183.">183</a></p>
+
+<p>His reports to General William Clark, Superintendent of Indian Affairs
+at St. Louis, were forwarded to Washington where they are now kept in
+the files of the Indian office.<a name="anchor-184" id="anchor-184"></a><a href="#footnote-184" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 184.">184</a> With methodical care Governor Clark
+copied the letters which he received into letter books. The existence of
+these letter books was not known until a few years ago, when <a id="Page_070" name="Page_070"></a><span class="pagenum">[070]</span> some
+of them were found in the hands of a junk dealer in Lawrence, Kansas,
+and were rescued&mdash;a great gain to the history of the West.<a name="anchor-185" id="anchor-185"></a><a href="#footnote-185" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 185.">185</a></p>
+
+<p>Many years after he closed his connection with the agency Lawrence
+Taliaferro wrote an <q>Autobiography</q>&mdash;a narrative that shows all the
+quaintness and egotism of the man. <q>Not until after the year 1840</q>, he
+wrote <q>did the government become unfortunate in the selection of their
+agents for Indian affairs.</q><a name="anchor-186" id="anchor-186"></a><a href="#footnote-186" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 186.">186</a> From this account can be gleaned
+information to supplement the bare facts usually given about his life.
+His ancestors had come to England from Genoa, Italy, and later they
+emigrated to Virginia. Here Lawrence Taliaferro was born on February 28,
+1794. At the age of eighteen he joined the army and served through the
+War of 1812, being a first lieutenant when it closed. Although he
+received no other promotion he was always known among his associates as
+<q>Major</q>.<a name="anchor-187" id="anchor-187"></a><a href="#footnote-187" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 187.">187</a></p>
+
+<p>He was appointed Indian agent for St. Peter's on March 27, 1819, and on
+April 1, 1819, he accepted&mdash;resigning the same day from the army.<a name="anchor-188" id="anchor-188"></a><a href="#footnote-188" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 188.">188</a>
+He reached his new station probably in the summer of 1820, and was
+immediately engaged in the duties connected with Indian affairs.<a name="anchor-189" id="anchor-189"></a><a href="#footnote-189" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 189.">189</a>
+During his term of office he was continually troubled by ill-health
+which resulted from his campaigns in the late war. In 1824 he resigned
+because of this ill-health, and although he continued in service,
+Governor Clark at one time wrote to the Secretary of War that <q>his fate
+is considered as very doubtful.</q><a name="anchor-190" id="anchor-190"></a><a href="#footnote-190" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 190.">190</a> <a id="Page_071" name="Page_071"></a><span class="pagenum">[071]</span></p>
+
+<p>As early as 1831 he confided to his diary that <q>there is something of a
+Combination of Persons at work day after day to pick at my Actions both
+public and private</q>.<a name="anchor-191" id="anchor-191"></a><a href="#footnote-191" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 191.">191</a> His resignation finally came in 1839, and he
+closed his connection with the Department on January 1, 1840, because he
+could no longer endure the machinations of the traders.<a name="anchor-192" id="anchor-192"></a><a href="#footnote-192" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 192.">192</a> Thereafter
+he made his home at Bedford, Pennsylvania, serving as a military
+storekeeper from 1857 to 1863, when he was put on the retired list. Mr.
+Taliaferro visited his old home at Fort Snelling in 1856 and wrote
+characteristically: <q>We were in St. Paul on the twenty-fourth of June,
+the <q>widow's son</q> was Irving's Rip Van Winkle; after a nap of fifteen
+years, we awoke in the midst of <em>fast</em> times. We truly felt bewildered
+when we found all the haunts and resting-places of the once noble sons
+of the forest, covered by cities, towns, and hamlets. We asked but few
+questions, being to our mind received as a strange animal; if nothing
+worse.</q><a name="anchor-193" id="anchor-193"></a><a href="#footnote-193" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 193.">193</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Among the others who served before 1858 as Indian agent were Amos J.
+Bruce, R. G. Murphy, and Nathaniel McLean. The influx of whites had
+greatly increased the difficulties of their position, and the memory of
+their former agent made the Indians suspicious of their new advisers.
+The Governor of the Territory became the Superintendent of Indian
+Affairs, and his presence so near the agency took from the agent much of
+his power.<a name="anchor-194" id="anchor-194"></a><a href="#footnote-194" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 194.">194</a></p>
+
+<p>Scott Campbell, the interpreter at Fort Snelling, <a id="Page_072" name="Page_072"></a><span class="pagenum">[072]</span> was the
+intermediary between the Indians and their lords. He was a half-breed
+whom Meriwether Lewis had met on his expedition up the Missouri River.
+He took the boy with him back to St. Louis; and when Lewis died,
+Campbell returned to his Sioux relatives and finally drifted to the
+agency at Fort Snelling.<a name="anchor-195" id="anchor-195"></a><a href="#footnote-195" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 195.">195</a> Having a knowledge of four languages, and
+possessing the confidence of all the tribes within four hundred miles of
+the post, he was indispensable. From August, 1825, to April, 1826, he
+was engaged in the fur trade, but was lured back into service by a
+salary of thirty-four dollars per month and one ration per day. By 1843,
+however, he had become such a drunkard that he had to be dismissed.<a name="anchor-196" id="anchor-196"></a><a href="#footnote-196" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 196.">196</a></p>
+
+<p>The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, in recalling early days wrote that
+<q>Scott Campbell no longer sits smoking his long pipe, and conversing in
+low tones with the listless loungers around the old Agency House; but
+who that resided in this country thirty or forty years ago can pass by
+the old stone houses near Fort Snelling and not think of Major
+Taliaferro and of his interpreter?</q><a name="anchor-197" id="anchor-197"></a><a href="#footnote-197" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 197.">197</a></p>
+
+<p>And who can pass the Old Round Tower without thinking of those men who
+as officers at Fort Snelling ruled supreme over a vast region, and who
+left the fort for places of greater trust and greater influence? </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_073" name="Page_073"></a><span class="pagenum">[073]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V<br />
+
+A SOLDIER'S WORLD</h2>
+
+
+<p>Instead of a world of city streets and country towns, of tilled fields
+and rivers busy with commerce, the raw recruit at Old Fort Snelling
+entered upon a world of stone barracks and Indian tepees, of tangled
+prairies and rushing rivers.<a name="anchor-198" id="anchor-198"></a><a href="#footnote-198" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 198.">198</a> The landing was directly under the
+cliff which towered above to a height which to many a wanderer in a
+frail canoe seemed twice the one hundred and six feet which the
+scientist's instruments ascribed to it.<a name="anchor-199" id="anchor-199"></a><a href="#footnote-199" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 199.">199</a> In later years a stairway
+led to the quarters of the commanding officer, but the wagon road which
+crept upwards along the sandstone wall&mdash;<q>nearly as white as
+loaf-sugar</q><a name="anchor-200" id="anchor-200"></a><a href="#footnote-200" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 200.">200</a>&mdash;where the swallows flew in and out from their holes,
+gained the summit at the rear of the fort.</p>
+
+<p>Following the road through the gate, and passing between the buildings
+to the center of the parade ground, the recruit probably paused to look
+about him.<a name="anchor-201" id="anchor-201"></a><a href="#footnote-201" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 201.">201</a> Visible in the openings between the buildings was the
+stone wall about ten feet high which surrounded the barracks, quarters,
+and storehouses. This wall took the place of the picket-stockade which
+was so prominent a feature in earlier and ruder fortifications.
+Conforming to the arrangement of the buildings which it enclosed, the
+wall was diamond-shaped, <a id="Page_074" name="Page_074"></a><span class="pagenum">[074]</span> one point being at the edge of the
+promontory where the valley of the Minnesota River met that of the
+Mississippi River. A second point was on the edge of the steep bluff
+which rose from the Mississippi. A third point, at a distance of about
+four hundred and fifty feet directly opposite the second, was on the
+summit of the Minnesota bluff. The fourth point was situated on the
+level ground of the plateau, at a distance of about seven hundred feet
+from the first point.</p>
+
+<p>As he stood in the middle of the parade ground and gazed beyond the pump
+and the magazine at the western or fourth point, the recruit saw rising
+to a height twice that of the wall, the Old Round Tower. To-day this
+tower is a vine-clad relic&mdash;a vestige remaining from the days of the
+past. But to the soldier of Old Fort Snelling it was a more practical
+structure&mdash;a place of lookout from which he was often to scan the swells
+of the prairie for approaching Indians or returning comrades. At the
+second and third points were blockhouses&mdash;buildings of stone, each
+giving a view of the river below it. At the first point there was also a
+tower&mdash;a wooden lookout platform at the very edge of the precipice from
+which was visible the landscape surrounding the fort.</p>
+
+<p>But the soldier was doubtless more interested in the buildings in which
+he was to live. The barracks for the men were under the north wall and
+consisted of two buildings one story in height. The larger of these,
+which was intended to accommodate two companies <a id="Page_075" name="Page_075"></a><span class="pagenum">[075]</span> was divided
+into sets, each set having on the main floor an orderly-room and three
+squad-rooms, while below in the basement were a mess-room and a kitchen.
+The other barrack was intended to be occupied by one company only; and
+the orderly-room, squad-rooms, mess-rooms, and a kitchen were on the
+same floor. The cellars below were damp and were used only for storage
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p class="center">PLAN OF OLD FORT SNELLING</p>
+
+<p>From a survey by Captain Arthur Williams, reproduced in the <em>Collections
+of the Minnesota Historical Society</em>, Vol. VIII, opposite p. 430]<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+   <a id="ft_plan"></a>
+   <a href="images/ft_plan.jpg" >
+     <img src="images/ft_plan_sm.jpg"
+        alt=""
+        title="" />
+   </a>
+   <p class="caption">PLAN OF OLD FORT SNELLING</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Occupying the same position under the south wall, and facing the
+barracks, were two other buildings, similar in appearance. In one of
+these the officers' quarters were located. It was divided into twelve
+sets, each consisting of two rooms, the front one sixteen by fourteen
+feet, and the back one, eight by fifteen and a half feet. In the
+basement were located kitchens for each set. The other building
+contained the offices of the commanding officer, the paymaster, the
+quartermaster, and the commissary. Here was a room used by the post
+school, and another filled with harness. An ordnance sergeant and five
+laundresses found quarters in the same structure.</p>
+
+<p>The quarters of the commanding officer with the flag staff directly in
+front, faced the parade ground and the Old Round Tower. There were four
+rooms on the main floor and in the basement were kitchens and pantries.
+Other buildings were also included within the fort. The storehouse of
+the commissary department was located near the southern blockhouse; and
+on either side of the gate were two buildings, shunned by all&mdash;the
+guardhouse and the hospital. <a id="Page_076" name="Page_076"></a><span class="pagenum">[076]</span></p>
+
+<p>Such was the plan of the fort, convenient in arrangement and beautiful
+in appearance; but the report of an official inspection in 1827
+complained that <q>the main points of <em>defence against an enemy</em> appear to
+have been in some respects sacrificed in the effort to secure the
+comfort and convenience of the troops in peace. These are important
+considerations; but at an exposed frontier post the primary object must
+be <em>security against the attack of an enemy</em>. Health and comfort come
+next. The buildings are too large, too numerous, and extending over a
+space entirely too great; enclosing a uselessly large parade, five times
+greater than is at all desirable in that climate.</q><a name="anchor-202" id="anchor-202"></a><a href="#footnote-202" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 202.">202</a></p>
+
+<p>A traveller who at a later day was entertained within the fort wrote of
+it facetiously in these words: <q>The idea is further suggested, that the
+strong stone wall was rather erected to keep the garrison in, than the
+enemy out. Though adapted for mounting cannon if needful, the walls were
+unprovided with those weapons; and the only piece of ordnance that I
+detected out of the magazine, was an old churn thrust gallantly through
+one of the embrasures. We were however far from complaining of the extra
+expense and taste which the worthy officer whose name it bears had
+expended on the erection of Fort Snelling, as it is in every way an
+addition to the sublime landscape in which it is situated.</q><a name="anchor-203" id="anchor-203"></a><a href="#footnote-203" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 203.">203</a></p>
+
+<p>But an examination of the contents of the magazine would have revealed
+weapons more formidable than churns. Among the equipment reported in
+<a id="Page_077" name="Page_077"></a><span class="pagenum">[077]</span> 1834 one reads of two iron twelve-pounder cannon of the garrison
+type; three six-pounder iron cannon of the field type; and two five and
+eight-tenths inch iron howitzers. There was also equipment for these
+pieces of artillery&mdash;carriages, sponges and rammers, lead aprons, dark
+lanterns, gunners' belts, gunners' haversacks, and tarpaulins. There
+were stored ready for service, 440 balls for the twelve-pounders, 1255
+balls for the six-pounders, 546 pounds of mixed loose grapeshot, and
+many other sizes of strapped and canister shot. For the use of the
+infantry there were 7749 musket flints, 1825 pounds of musket powder,
+1513 pounds of rifle powder, 31,390 cartridges, and 2047 blank
+cartridges.<a name="anchor-204" id="anchor-204"></a><a href="#footnote-204" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 204.">204</a></p>
+
+<p>Other structures closely connected with the work of the fort were
+located outside the wall. The buildings of the Indian agency were
+situated a quarter of a mile west, on the prairie.<a name="anchor-205" id="anchor-205"></a><a href="#footnote-205" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 205.">205</a> These consisted
+of a council house, the agent's house, and an armorer's shop. The
+original council house was built by the troops in 1823, but Agent
+Taliaferro claimed that most of the inside work was done at his own
+expense. The building was of logs and stone, eighty-two feet long,
+eighteen feet wide, and presenting in the front a piazza of seventy
+feet. Within, there were six rooms, lined with pine planking and
+separated from each other by panel doors.<a name="anchor-206" id="anchor-206"></a><a href="#footnote-206" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 206.">206</a></p>
+
+<p>At one o'clock on the morning of August 14, 1830, the sentinels at the
+fort discovered that the council house was on fire. But the flames had
+gained so much headway that it was impossible to save any of <a id="Page_078" name="Page_078"></a><span class="pagenum">[078]</span> the
+contents. The interpreter and his family who lived in this building
+barely escaped with their lives. In reporting the loss to the
+superintendent, Major Taliaferro wrote that <q>the general impression here
+is that fire was put to the house by Some drunken Indians &amp;
+circumstances are strong in justifying such a conclusion.</q><a name="anchor-207" id="anchor-207"></a><a href="#footnote-207" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 207.">207</a> This
+surmise was right, for on April 7, 1831, the Indians delivered at the
+fort one of their number who they claimed was guilty of the act.<a name="anchor-208" id="anchor-208"></a><a href="#footnote-208" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 208.">208</a></p>
+
+<p>That steps were taken to build a new council house is evident from the
+record in Taliaferro's diary under date of March 8, 1831, that four men
+had been hired <q>at $12 per Month to cut &amp; carry timber out of the pine
+Swamp for the Agency Council House.</q><a name="anchor-209" id="anchor-209"></a><a href="#footnote-209" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 209.">209</a> But in 1839 Taliaferro
+recommended that the agency be moved to a point seven miles up the
+river; and in 1841 there was a movement on foot to buy Baker's stone
+trading house for the same purpose.<a name="anchor-210" id="anchor-210"></a><a href="#footnote-210" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 210.">210</a></p>
+
+<p>Near the location of the old council house were two other buildings. One
+of these was the agent's house. This was made entirely of stone, and was
+one and a half stories high. It contained four rooms and a passage on
+the lower floor and two rooms above.<a name="anchor-211" id="anchor-211"></a><a href="#footnote-211" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 211.">211</a> Hastily built by troops at an
+early day, its comforts were few. <q>Since the Rainy Season Set in</q>,
+complained the agent in 1834, <q>both the hired Men and Myself have not
+had a Spot in our houses that Could be called dry, Not even our
+beds</q>.<a name="anchor-212" id="anchor-212"></a><a href="#footnote-212" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 212.">212</a> An armorer's shop, where blacksmith work was done for the
+Indians, was made of logs and measured sixteen by <a id="Page_079" name="Page_079"></a><span class="pagenum">[079]</span> eighteen feet.
+Nearer the fort was the home of Franklin Steele, the sutler of the
+post.<a name="anchor-213" id="anchor-213"></a><a href="#footnote-213" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 213.">213</a></p>
+
+<p>At Camp Cold Water, B. F. Baker had erected a large stone trading house,
+which in 1841 was valued at six thousand dollars. While he had no legal
+title to the land on which this house was built, the officers at the
+post allowed him to remain. Later it was sold to Kenneth McKenzie, who
+in 1853 built an addition, renovated the entire building, and used it as
+a hotel. In the vicinity of this structure were several small huts which
+had been the homes of some squatters on the reservation. But after their
+expulsion these huts rapidly fell into decay.<a name="anchor-214" id="anchor-214"></a><a href="#footnote-214" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 214.">214</a></p>
+
+<p>In his duties and recreations the soldier was often brought into touch
+with other features of the world about him&mdash;the points of scenic
+interest and the Indian villages. From the wooden lookout tower near the
+commanding officer's quarters a glimpse of the surrounding land was
+revealed.</p>
+
+<p><q>The view from the angle of the wall at the extreme point, is highly
+romantic</q>, wrote one who saw the wild scene before civilization had left
+its traces on the landscape. <q>To your left lies the broad deep valley of
+the Mississippi, with the opposite heights, descending precipitously to
+the water's edge; and to the right and in front, the St. Peter's, a
+broad stream, worthy from its size, length of course, and the number of
+tributaries which it receives, to be called the Western Fork of the
+Great River itself. It is seen flowing through a comparatively open
+vale, with swelling hills and intermingling forest and <a id="Page_080" name="Page_080"></a><span class="pagenum">[080]</span> prairie,
+for many miles above the point of junction. As it approaches the
+Mississippi, the volume of water divides into two branches; that on the
+right pursues the general course of the river above, and enters the
+Mississippi, at an angle of perhaps fifty degrees, directly under the
+walls of the fort; while the other, keeping to the base of the high
+prairie lands which rise above it to a notable summit called the Pilot
+Knob, enters the Mississippi lower down. The triangular island thus
+formed between the rivers lies immediately under the fort. Its level
+surface is partially cultivated, but towards the lower extremity thickly
+covered with wood. Beyond their junction, the united streams are seen
+gliding at the base of high cliffs into the narrowing valley below.
+Forests, and those of the most picturesque character, interspersed with
+strips of prairie, clothe a great portion of the distant view.</q></p>
+
+<p><q>A little cluster of trading houses is situated on the right branch of
+the St. Peter's, and here and there on the shores, and on the island,
+you saw the dark conical tents of the wandering Sioux. A more striking
+scene we had not met with in the United States, and hardly any that
+could vie with it for picturesque beauty, even at this unfavourable
+season. What must it be in spring, when the forests put forth their
+young leaves, and the prairies are clothed in verdure!</q><a name="anchor-215" id="anchor-215"></a><a href="#footnote-215" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 215.">215</a></p>
+
+<p>This <q>little cluster of trading houses</q> was the town of Mendota. Here
+was the stone house of Henry H. Sibley, and that of J. B. Faribault.
+Near <a id="Page_081" name="Page_081"></a><span class="pagenum">[081]</span> the river was the ferry house and the home of Mr. Finley the
+ferryman.<a name="anchor-216" id="anchor-216"></a><a href="#footnote-216" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 216.">216</a> Upon the hillside lay the little Catholic chapel,
+surrounded by the graves in the cemetery. But the center of interest was
+in the warehouse and store of the American Fur Company, where the skins
+of buffalo, elk, deer, fox, beaver, otter, muskrat, mink, martin,
+raccoon, and other animals were sorted and divided into packs weighing
+about a hundred pounds. Indians, Frenchmen, half-breeds, and restless
+wanderers from the East were always loitering about the
+establishment.<a name="anchor-217" id="anchor-217"></a><a href="#footnote-217" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 217.">217</a></p>
+
+<p>From the fort a road led along the Mississippi to the Falls of St.
+Anthony, on the way crossing Minnehaha Creek on the bridge built in
+early days by the soldiers. Here a stop was made to view the beauty of
+the cascade then known as Little Falls or Brown's Falls. It was the
+common practice for travellers to descend to the foot of the falls,
+clinging to the shrubs along the slippery pathway, and then go behind
+the sheet of falling water.<a name="anchor-218" id="anchor-218"></a><a href="#footnote-218" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 218.">218</a> Continuing, at a distance of eight
+miles up the Mississippi from the fort, the Falls of St. Anthony was
+reached. Although only sixteen feet high, the breadth of almost six
+hundred yards, broken in the middle by a rocky island gave to it an
+impressive majesty, and the thick vegetation on the island and banks
+returned a gloomy reflection from the whirling waters.<a name="anchor-219" id="anchor-219"></a><a href="#footnote-219" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 219.">219</a></p>
+
+<p>It is no wonder that in that wild and picturesque locality the Indians
+saw things ghostly and supernatural. <q>They tell you that here a young
+Dacota mother, goaded by jealousy,&mdash;the husband [sic] of <a id="Page_082" name="Page_082"></a><span class="pagenum">[082]</span> her
+children having taken another wife,&mdash;unmoored her canoe above the Great
+Fall, and seating herself and her children in it,&mdash;sang her death song,
+and went over the foaming acclivity in the face and amid the shrieks of
+her tribe. And often, the Indian believes, when the nights are calm, and
+the sky serene,&mdash;and the dew-drops are hanging motionless on the sprays
+of the weeping birch on the island,&mdash;and the country far and wide is
+vibrating to the murmur of the cataract,&mdash;that then the misty form of
+the young mother may be seen moving down the deceitful current above,
+while her song is heard mingling its sad notes with the lulling sound of
+<q>the Laughing Water!</q></q><a name="anchor-220" id="anchor-220"></a><a href="#footnote-220" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 220.">220</a></p>
+
+<p>Here at the Falls, on the west bank of the river, were three buildings:
+a saw mill, a grist mill, and a one-story frame dwelling, where a
+detachment of soldiers always remained to guard the property. The saw
+mill had provided much of the lumber used in the construction of the
+fort, and in the grist mill the corn was cracked that was fed during the
+winter to the cattle&mdash;a drove being delivered every fall for the use of
+the garrison. These buildings were still standing in 1858, although they
+were then in a bad state of decay.<a name="anchor-221" id="anchor-221"></a><a href="#footnote-221" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 221.">221</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the lakes on the prairie the most important were the Lake of the
+Isles, Lake Calhoun, and Lake Harriet. These were favorite picnic and
+hunting grounds for the men and women of the garrison. An old map made
+in 1823 shows <q>Green's Villa</q> on Lake Calhoun&mdash;probably a hunting lodge
+or shelter <a id="Page_083" name="Page_083"></a><span class="pagenum">[083]</span> built by Lieutenant Platt Rogers Green.<a name="anchor-222" id="anchor-222"></a><a href="#footnote-222" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 222.">222</a> Here on
+Lake Calhoun was located the missionary establishment which was so
+closely connected with the life of the fort.<a name="anchor-223" id="anchor-223"></a><a href="#footnote-223" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 223.">223</a></p>
+
+<p>There were other Indian villages near the fort. Nine miles below, on the
+bank of the Mississippi was the Sioux village of Kaposia. Here
+Wakinyantanka, or Big Thunder, reigned over his band which numbered one
+hundred and eighty-three in 1834. Two or three miles upstream from its
+mouth on the banks of the Minnesota was the group of wigwams called
+Black Dog's village, although the chief was Wamditanka or Big Eagle.
+About nine miles from Fort Snelling was Pinisha, reported as having one
+hundred and forty-eight inhabitants ruled over by Good Road. The largest
+group, three hundred and sixty-eight souls, was that of the Tintatonwan
+band, located twenty-four miles from Fort Snelling and near the present
+town of Shakopee. Shapaydan or Shakpay was the chief, the father of the
+warrior of the same name who was executed at Fort Snelling for
+participating in the Sioux massacre of 1862.<a name="anchor-224" id="anchor-224"></a><a href="#footnote-224" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 224.">224</a></p>
+
+<p>These villages were very much the same in appearance, large bark lodges
+being occupied by the Indians in the summer. The villages swarmed with
+children, squaws, painted warriors, and yelping dogs. About the lodges
+were the corn fields, the scaffolds where the corn was dried, and the
+more mournful scaffolds where, wrapped in buffalo skins, reposed the
+bones of the hunters who had followed the milky way to the <q>Land of the
+Ghosts</q>.<a name="anchor-225" id="anchor-225"></a><a href="#footnote-225" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 225.">225</a> </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_084" name="Page_084"></a><span class="pagenum">[084]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI<br />
+
+GLIMPSES OF GARRISON LIFE</h2>
+
+
+<p>What sort of a life did the soldier live in the barracks and on the
+parade ground, and in the world of prairies, rivers, and woods that lay
+about him? No person who was ever quartered within the walls of Old Fort
+Snelling seems to have left an account of what was included in the tasks
+and recreations of a day. Doubtless the routine duties repeated day
+after day were thought too ordinary to be worth recording. The pleasures
+were so simple and came so much as a matter of course that they also
+receive scant mention in the annals of the fort. It is from the <em>General
+Regulations for the Army</em> that one gets the daily program of a military
+post; and the few fragmentary pages of Taliaferro's diary and letters,
+together with the stray remarks of travellers and pioneers, indicate the
+joys and sorrows of a very human garrison.<a name="anchor-226" id="anchor-226"></a><a href="#footnote-226" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 226.">226</a></p>
+
+<p>No sooner was dawn visible over the Mississippi bluffs than the
+musicians of the post were summoned to the parade ground and five
+minutes later the <em>reveille</em> was sounded. At the signal both officers
+and men arose. Soon the rolls of the companies were called in front of
+the quarters; the quarters were put in order; the ground in front swept;
+and <a id="Page_085" name="Page_085"></a><span class="pagenum">[085]</span> the horses fed and watered. At eight-thirty the sick in the
+barracks were taken to the hospital, and at nine o'clock breakfast was
+served, preceded by a second roll-call. Then the various tasks of the
+day were performed under the direction of a captain or subaltern daily
+detailed as the <q>officer of the day</q>.</p>
+
+<p>A party termed the <q>General Fatigue</q> swept the entire parade
+ground&mdash;unless there were enough prisoners in the guard house to perform
+this unpleasant duty. A police guard furnished sentinels to watch over
+the prisoners, the colors, the quarters of the commanding officer, and
+the arms of the regiment. Other soldiers were posted at the front and
+the rear of the fort. Certain detachments were formed for reconnoitering
+and foraging&mdash;the nature of the tasks depending on the season of the
+year and the needs of the garrison.</p>
+
+<p>At three o'clock in the afternoon the third roll-call was followed by
+dinner; and thirty minutes before sunset the music called out the
+regiment for dress parade, where various maneuvers were gone through and
+orders were read. After the parade, when the regiment was again in its
+quarters, the arms were placed in the arm-racks, the horses attended to,
+a fifth roll-call endured, and tattoo sounded. Then the lights were
+extinguished and all were expected to be quiet for the night.</p>
+
+<p>This monotony of the daily program was equalled only by the monotony of
+the meals. The regulation diet prescribed by Congress in 1802 consisted
+of a pound and a quarter of beef, or three-quarters of a <a id="Page_086" name="Page_086"></a><span class="pagenum">[086]</span> pound of
+pork; eighteen ounces of bread or flour; one gill of rum, whiskey, or
+brandy; and for every hundred rations were supplied two quarts of salt,
+four quarts of vinegar, four pounds of soap, and one pound and a half of
+candles. In 1832 coffee and sugar were substituted for the liquor.<a name="anchor-227" id="anchor-227"></a><a href="#footnote-227" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 227.">227</a></p>
+
+<p>During the early years of Fort Snelling these supplies were brought from
+St. Louis in flatboats. With the development of steamboat traffic, the
+steamboat was utilized, but it did not entirely displace the earlier
+method. Difficulties often hindered the transportation of supplies. The
+summer of 1829 was extremely dry. The average monthly rainfall was less
+than an inch, and steamboat navigation was impossible. Even keelboats
+found difficulty in ascending the river; sixty days were spent by
+Lieutenant Reynolds in bringing up a load of supplies. A sand bar at
+Pine Bend was impassable, so half of the load was taken off and the rest
+hurried up the river. When the crew arrived the garrison was upon its
+last barrel of flour.<a name="anchor-228" id="anchor-228"></a><a href="#footnote-228" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 228.">228</a></p>
+
+<p><q>Bread and soup</q>, runs a clause in the <em>General Regulations for the
+Army</em>, <q>are the great items of a soldier's diet, in every
+situation</q>.<a name="anchor-229" id="anchor-229"></a><a href="#footnote-229" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 229.">229</a> The bread was made from the wheat grown by the
+soldiers, and was ground in the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. For
+some reason the crop of 1823 had become mouldy and the bread was black
+and bitter. When forced to eat it, the troops almost mutinied, bringing
+it out upon the parade ground and throwing it down.<a name="anchor-230" id="anchor-230"></a><a href="#footnote-230" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 230.">230</a> Nor does it
+seem likely that the soup was more appetizing <a id="Page_087" name="Page_087"></a><span class="pagenum">[087]</span> when one reads the
+following recipe which guided the company cooks: <q>To make soup, put into
+the vessel at the rate of five pints of water to a pound of fresh meat;
+apply a quick heat to make it boil promptly; skim off the foam, and then
+moderate the fire; salt is then put in, according to the palate. Add the
+vegetables of the season one or two hours, and sliced bread some
+minutes, before the simmering is ended. When the broth is sensibly
+reduced in quantity, that is, after five or six hours cooking, the
+process will be complete.</q><a name="anchor-231" id="anchor-231"></a><a href="#footnote-231" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 231.">231</a></p>
+
+<p>Fortunately the soldier did not have to depend entirely on these
+rations. Out of his modest cash income of six dollars per month he could
+buy at the sutler's store small necessities and some luxuries. The
+sutler was the authorized merchant of the post, and in order that his
+monopoly might not lead him to demand unreasonable sums for his wares,
+the prices were fixed by a <q>council of administration</q> composed of three
+officers. For every officer and enlisted soldier serving at the post the
+sutler paid into the <q>post fund</q>, from ten to fifteen cents per month.
+This sum was to be used for the relief of the widows or orphans of
+soldiers, the maintenance of a post school and band, and the purchase of
+books for a library.<a name="anchor-232" id="anchor-232"></a><a href="#footnote-232" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 232.">232</a></p>
+
+<p>The books of Franklin Steele, who was the sutler at Fort Snelling from
+1838 to 1858, may still be examined; and from their dreary lists of
+accounts, the human wants of a soldier at Old Fort Snelling are clearly
+indicated.<a name="anchor-233" id="anchor-233"></a><a href="#footnote-233" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 233.">233</a> On March 12, 1849, Private <a id="Page_088" name="Page_088"></a><span class="pagenum">[088]</span> Brown bought a pound
+of currants and a pound of raisins for fifty cents. Shoes, soap, and
+currants totalled $1.50 on April 7th; and on March 20th, two pounds of
+butter sold for thirty cents and a pound of cheese for forty-two cents.
+Private Ryerson had more varied needs. On March 7th, 1849, he purchased
+indigo; on March 16th, paper; on April 9th, alcohol and suspenders; five
+days later, needles and sugar; and on April 23rd, apples, butter, and a
+tin cup. The quiet waters in the neighboring lakes tempted Eli Pettijohn
+on a spring day in 1855 to invest $2.50 in <q>Fishing Tackel</q>.</p>
+
+<p>That the officers did not live upon the same fare as the soldiers is
+indicated by the entries under the title <q>Officers Mess</q>. On July 31,
+1855, there was purchased ten cents worth of cloves, ten cents worth of
+pepper, and ninety-five cents worth of cheese. Under the date of August
+8th <q>Bread tickets</q> were purchased to the amount of one dollar; and on
+August 30th, fifty cents worth of <q>Yeast Powd'r</q> was charged to their
+account.</p>
+
+<p>Saint and sinner both patronized this store. The Reverend Ezekiel Gear,
+who was the chaplain at the fort, evidently believed that cleanliness
+was next to godliness, for on July 31, 1855, he paid thirty cents for a
+scrub brush; on August 4th, he bought a broom for fifty cents; on August
+30th, he purchased twenty-five cents worth of starch, and on October
+19th, a large broom. Indulging in some luxuries, on August 2nd, 1855, he
+bought five cents worth of candy. Probably this was a treat for those
+<a id="Page_089" name="Page_089"></a><span class="pagenum">[089]</span> two boys, his son and his grandson, whom a visitor two years
+later found sleeping in the little cemetery at Morgan's Bluff near the
+fort, their resting place marked by a rude slab with a Latin
+inscription: <q>Lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in death not
+divided.</q><a name="anchor-234" id="anchor-234"></a><a href="#footnote-234" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 234.">234</a></p>
+
+<p>None the less clearly is the character of Sergeant Mahoney portrayed in
+these accounts. On July 31, 1855, it is recorded under his name: <q>1
+Flask $.75</q>. On August 20th, the same officer paid seventy-five cents
+for a bottle of cider. And the chaplain would have had an excellent
+illustration for his next sermon on intemperance if he could have read,
+as we can to-day, this melancholy note made in the sutler's book on
+October 17th: <q>Sergeant Mahoney, Cash Loaned 20.00</q>.</p>
+
+<p>There was need for sermons on intemperance. During the early years
+whiskey was issued as a part of the soldier's ration, and this only
+served to stimulate the desire for more. The class of men in the army
+was not always of the highest, and there were enough civilians who were
+willing to pander to their appetites. The following extract from
+Taliaferro's diary for March 22, 1831, is undoubtedly characteristic of
+many a forgotten episode: <q>Nothing of importance transpired this day.
+Two drunken Soldiers in crossing the SPeters broke through the Ice &amp;
+were near being drowned. They were exceeding alarmed &amp; made a hedious
+Noise &amp; yelling for Assistance&mdash;the men from the Fort relieved them
+although late at night.</q> Not always was assistance on hand in <a id="Page_090" name="Page_090"></a><span class="pagenum">[090]</span>
+such circumstances. A report was made in March, 1840, of a certain
+officer who <q>disappeared on the evening of the 5th of March, supposed to
+have been drowned by falling through the ice.</q><a name="anchor-235" id="anchor-235"></a><a href="#footnote-235" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 235.">235</a></p>
+
+<p>Drunkenness and absence from roll-call were among the infractions of
+rules for which punishment was most often inflicted. The character and
+severity of the punishment depended upon the mood of the commanding
+officer. Colonel Snelling, who was usually a very gentle man, was
+particularly severe in his treatment of offenders. <q>He would take them
+to his room</q>, wrote one who spent several years in the Snelling
+household, <q>and compel them to strip, when he would flog them
+unmercifully. I have heard them beg him to spare them, <q>for God's
+sake.</q></q><a name="anchor-236" id="anchor-236"></a><a href="#footnote-236" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 236.">236</a> This punishment by flogging was often performed with a
+<q>cat</q>&mdash;an instrument made of nine thongs about eighteen inches long,
+knotted in every inch, and attached to a small stick. When the culprit
+was stripped to the waist and tied to the flagstaff, the drummers took
+turns in applying the <q>cat</q> to the bare back.<a name="anchor-237" id="anchor-237"></a><a href="#footnote-237" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 237.">237</a></p>
+
+<p>Other officers used less painful methods. Thus, Major Loomis was known
+as <q>Old Ring</q>, since his favorite punishment was to place a log of wood
+upon the prisoner's shoulder and compel him to walk around and around in
+a circle under the vigilant eye of a sentinel. To Major John Bliss, who
+was in command at Fort Snelling from 1833 to 1836, the name <q>Black
+Starvation</q> might well have been applied. The negro servant, Hannibal,
+who clandestinely <a id="Page_091" name="Page_091"></a><span class="pagenum">[091]</span> sold spruce beer to the soldiers was confined
+in the Black Hole for forty-eight hours; and Private Kelly, who refused
+to do his part in the fatigue party spent more than seventy-two hours in
+the Black Hole before the pangs of starvation persuaded him to promise
+Major Bliss to be good in the future.<a name="anchor-238" id="anchor-238"></a><a href="#footnote-238" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 238.">238</a> On one occasion, which may be
+taken as typical of usual conditions, out of a total garrison of three
+hundred and twenty-nine, twenty-six were confined in prison. But at
+another time the commanding officer could report: <q>No Convicts at this
+Post</q>.<a name="anchor-239" id="anchor-239"></a><a href="#footnote-239" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 239.">239</a></p>
+
+<p>The severity of the military rules and the monotony of the life led to
+two undesirable consequences&mdash;mutinies and desertions. Of the former
+there is apparently no description, and the brief entry in Taliaferro's
+diary for February 3, 1831, leaves much to the imagination: <q>Mutiny of
+Most of the Troops of the 1st Infantry, Stationed at Fort Snelling this
+Morning</q>.<a name="anchor-240" id="anchor-240"></a><a href="#footnote-240" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 240.">240</a> What grievances led to the uprising on that wintry day,
+and by what diplomacy or by what punishments it was put down, are
+unrecorded.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the extent of desertions there is specific information
+regarding three years. Desertion was prevalent in the army at this time,
+and in order to provide methods of combating it the Secretary of War
+presented to Congress a great deal of information covering the years
+from 1823 to 1825.<a name="anchor-241" id="anchor-241"></a><a href="#footnote-241" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 241.">241</a> During these three years there were stationed at
+Fort Snelling an aggregate of two hundred and fifty-one soldiers in
+1823; three hundred and thirty-five in 1824; <a id="Page_092" name="Page_092"></a><span class="pagenum">[092]</span> and two hundred and
+forty-six in 1825.<a name="anchor-242" id="anchor-242"></a><a href="#footnote-242" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 242.">242</a> Of these, six deserted in 1823, eight in 1824,
+and twenty-nine in 1825. In this total of forty-three desertions,
+fifteen left in their first year of service, seventeen in the second,
+eighteen in the third, one in the fourth, and two in the fifth.
+Interesting facts regarding the kind of men who lived at the old
+frontier post can be gleaned from the data presented. Most of them were
+between the ages of twenty-one and thirty. In occupation there were
+laborers, farmers, painters, shoemakers, papermakers, wheelwrights,
+jewellers, and brewers. Among these forty-three, twenty-six were born in
+the United States, five in Ireland, two in Scotland, one in France, one
+in Holland, and one in Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The soldier who sought freedom by stealthily climbing over the stone
+wall of Fort Snelling and appropriating some canoe drawn up on the river
+bank, left monotony and discipline behind him; but in doing so he faced
+many dangers. There was no settlement nearer than Prairie du Chien&mdash;a
+military establishment. Indians were not afraid to injure those whom
+they knew to be deserters. A certain man by the name of Dixon who
+deserted was captured by Indians who brought him back to Fort Snelling
+and received a reward of twenty dollars. Dixon was court-martialed and
+sentenced to receive fifty lashes from the <q>cat</q> and then to be drummed
+out of the Fort.<a name="anchor-243" id="anchor-243"></a><a href="#footnote-243" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 243.">243</a> Four soldiers who escaped were killed by the
+Indians of Red Wing's band, and their <a id="Page_093" name="Page_093"></a><span class="pagenum">[093]</span> bodies were left on the
+shores of Lake Pepin, where they were later found half-eaten by the
+birds.<a name="anchor-244" id="anchor-244"></a><a href="#footnote-244" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 244.">244</a></p>
+
+<p>Sickness and death reduced the number on duty at the post. From the
+doctor the sick received professional aid. In 1826 when the force at
+Fort Snelling amounted to three hundred and twenty-nine men there were
+in the hospital one subaltern, one non-commissioned officer, one
+musician, and fifteen privates. That Fort Snelling was at a healthful
+location is indicated by the fact that during the same period at Fort
+Atkinson, with a force of only one hundred more, there was a total of
+one hundred and twenty-five sick persons.<a name="anchor-245" id="anchor-245"></a><a href="#footnote-245" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 245.">245</a></p>
+
+<p>The number of deaths was proportionately small. In the year ending on
+September 30, 1823, there was only one death; the next year the toll was
+the same; and in 1825 it amounted to five.<a name="anchor-246" id="anchor-246"></a><a href="#footnote-246" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 246.">246</a> On the occasion of a
+funeral six men, detailed from those of the same rank as the deceased,
+carried the coffin to the little cemetery outside the fort. A salute was
+fired over the grave and the band played solemn music, the drums being
+covered with black crepe. The mounds in the cemetery, unmarked by any
+stones, were soon obliterated; but if the departed soldier had been a
+cheerful companion his barrack-songs were missed by his comrades, and
+many friends, half-way across a continent, would mourn for one who was
+lying in an unknown grave, <q>somewhere in the West</q>.<a name="anchor-247" id="anchor-247"></a><a href="#footnote-247" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 247.">247</a></p>
+
+<p>On account of monotonous drills and tedious routine, any pretext to go
+into the Indian country was <a id="Page_094" name="Page_094"></a><span class="pagenum">[094]</span> hailed with delight. The bustle,
+excitement, and troubles connected with the departure of these
+expeditions are best described by Mrs. Seth Eastman, who as the wife of
+the commanding officer had often waved farewell to the departing
+company.<a name="anchor-248" id="anchor-248"></a><a href="#footnote-248" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 248.">248</a></p>
+
+<p><q>Now for excitement, the charm of garrison life. Officers are of course
+always ready to <q>go where glory waits</q> them, but who ever heard of one
+being ready to go when the order came?</q></p>
+
+<p><q>Alas! for the young officer who has a wife to leave; it will be weeks
+before he meets again her gentle smile!</q></p>
+
+<p><q>Still more&mdash;alas for him who has no wife at all! for he has not a shirt
+with buttons on it, and most of what he has are in the wash. He will
+have to borrow of Selden; but here's the difficulty, Selden is going
+too, and is worse off than himself. But no matter! What with pins and
+twine and trusting to chance, they will get along.</q></p>
+
+<p><q>Then the married men are inquiring for tin reflectors, for hard bread,
+though healthy, is never tempting. India rubber cloaks are in
+requisition too.</q></p>
+
+<p><q>Those who are going, claim the doctor in case of accidents. Those who
+stay, their wives at least, want him for fear of measles; while the
+disciple of Esculapius, though he knows there will be better cooking if
+he remain at home, is certain there will be food for fun if he go. It is
+soon decided&mdash;the doctor goes.</q></p>
+
+<p><q>Then the privates share in the pleasure of the <a id="Page_095" name="Page_095"></a><span class="pagenum">[095]</span> day. How should a
+soldier be employed but in active service? besides, what a capital
+chance to desert! One, who is tired of calling <q>All's well</q> through the
+long night, with only the rocks and trees to hear him, hopes that it
+will be his happy fate to find out there is danger near, and to give the
+alarm. Another vows, that if trouble wont come, why he will bring it by
+quarrelling with the first rascally Indian he meets. All is ready.
+Rations are put up for the men;&mdash;hams, buffalo tongues, pies and cake
+for the officers. The batallion marches out to the sound of the drum and
+fife;&mdash;they are soon down the hill&mdash;they enter their boats;
+handkerchiefs are waved from the fort, caps are raised and flourished
+over the water&mdash;they are almost out of sight&mdash;they are gone.</q></p>
+
+<p>Apart from these trips abroad and the stated drills and terms of guard
+duty the tasks which occupied the time of the soldiers depended upon the
+season of the year. A general order of September 11, 1818, had commanded
+the making of gardens at all the military posts.<a name="anchor-249" id="anchor-249"></a><a href="#footnote-249" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 249.">249</a> In the fall of
+1819 when the temporary cabins at New Hope Cantonment had been built,
+the soldiers began ploughing for the crop of the next summer.<a name="anchor-250" id="anchor-250"></a><a href="#footnote-250" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 250.">250</a> Major
+Long, in 1823, found two hundred and ten acres under cultivation&mdash;one
+hundred of wheat, sixty of maize, fifteen of oats, fourteen of potatoes,
+and twenty acres in gardens.<a name="anchor-251" id="anchor-251"></a><a href="#footnote-251" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 251.">251</a> All through the history of Old Fort
+Snelling the soldiers were employed as farmers. A visitor in 1852
+observed that <q>its garrison is rather deficient <a id="Page_096" name="Page_096"></a><span class="pagenum">[096]</span> in active
+employment, and we noticed a number of the rank and file taking exercise
+in a large corn and vegetable field attached to the Fort. It was
+certainly not exactly soldierly employment, but it was more manly, to
+our mind, than shooting and stabbing at $8 a month, and no question
+asked.</q><a name="anchor-252" id="anchor-252"></a><a href="#footnote-252" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 252.">252</a></p>
+
+<p>For the horses and cattle kept at the fort a great deal of hay was
+necessary for the winter months. This was obtained from the broad
+prairies of the military reservation. A group of men called the <q>Hay
+Party</q> were employed during the summer in cutting and stacking the long
+grass. But one officer was of the opinion that this task caused
+discontent&mdash;the enlisted man was no more than a common laborer and hence
+he lost the pride of a soldier.</p>
+
+<p>The diverse tasks at which a soldier might be called to labor are
+indicated by a summary of the employment of the troops in 1827. Seven
+soldiers were acting as teamsters, five were performing carpenters'
+duties, two were quarrying stone, two men and a sergeant composed the
+party guarding the mills at the Falls of St. Anthony, and eight others
+were <q>Procuring forage by order of Col. Snelling</q>.<a name="anchor-253" id="anchor-253"></a><a href="#footnote-253" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 253.">253</a></p>
+
+<p>Summer brought its own pleasures as well as duties. At Lake Calhoun,
+Lake Harriet, Lake of the Isles, and Minnehaha Falls, many were the
+picnics held when visitors came to the garrison.<a name="anchor-254" id="anchor-254"></a><a href="#footnote-254" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 254.">254</a> Swan, geese, and
+ducks were numerous about the lakes and swamps, and with the famous
+hunter H. H. Sibley as a guide, the game bags were soon filled. During
+<a id="Page_097" name="Page_097"></a><span class="pagenum">[097]</span> a period of three years, Mr. Sibley, alone, shot 1798 ducks&mdash;a
+fact which indicates what success a soldier-sportsman could have in his
+few hours of recreation.<a name="anchor-255" id="anchor-255"></a><a href="#footnote-255" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 255.">255</a></p>
+
+<p>But it was when the prairies were impassable because of drifts of snow
+from six to fifteen feet high,<a name="anchor-256" id="anchor-256"></a><a href="#footnote-256" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 256.">256</a> and when the course of the river
+could be traced only by a streak of white between the gray of its wooded
+banks that there appeared those features which are peculiar to the life
+of a remote garrison. The isolation was almost complete. There was no
+traffic upon the frozen river, and the traders were wintering in the
+Indian villages. Only through the mail was communication with the
+outside world possible. It was planned to have a monthly mail service,
+soldiers being sent to Prairie du Chien with the letters. Here they
+delivered about two-thirds of the mail to the persons to whom it was
+addressed and the rest was deposited in the post office.<a name="anchor-257" id="anchor-257"></a><a href="#footnote-257" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 257.">257</a></p>
+
+<p>In summer the mail was carried by the soldiers in canoes, but in winter
+the journey had to be made on foot. In summer the labor was lightened
+when a passing steamer overtook the rowing soldiers and picked up the
+canoe with its crew. In winter no such aid was possible. A hard day's
+tramp was followed by a night among the drifts, unless the tepee of some
+friendly Indian gave a temporary respite for a few hours.<a name="anchor-258" id="anchor-258"></a><a href="#footnote-258" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 258.">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Nor was this task free from perils. A system was arranged whereby a
+courier from Fort Snelling and one from Prairie du Chien set out at
+about the same <a id="Page_098" name="Page_098"></a><span class="pagenum">[098]</span> time, meeting at Wabasha's village where the packs
+were exchanged and each returned to his own post. On one occasion a
+spring thaw overtook the carrier from Prairie du Chien, who had
+proceeded beyond the meeting place because the messenger from the north
+was late. Suddenly the ice groaned and cracked, and the postman with
+difficulty found safety on a small island where, to his great surprise,
+he found the postman from Fort Snelling who had been caught in the same
+manner. Their provisions soon gave out; for a while they had only
+rose-apples to eat. It was not until almost two weeks later that the two
+half-starved messengers were picked up by the canoes of some friendly
+Sioux.<a name="anchor-259" id="anchor-259"></a><a href="#footnote-259" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 259.">259</a></p>
+
+<p>Such accidents rendered the mail service uncertain, and it was with
+impatience that the watchers at the fort looked down the river for the
+coming of the news-carriers. On April 2, 1831, Taliaferro wrote: <q>The
+Express departed&mdash;4 men in a Skiff&mdash;to convey the Mail to the Post
+Office at Prairie du Chiens&mdash;our return Express daily expected.</q> But
+they hoped too early and on April 5th it was recorded that <q>Our
+Express&mdash;1st which left for Prairie du Chiens on the 2d of March&mdash;has
+now been Absent more than a Month &amp; progressing in the Seccond. We have
+not had <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original.">inteligence</ins> from Washington City&mdash;since the 6th of December
+last</q>. Not until April 10th did the mail arrive. But even when the
+messengers were safe in the fort it was not certain that they brought
+what was so eagerly looked for, as the entry on February 27th clearly
+shows: <a id="Page_099" name="Page_099"></a><span class="pagenum">[099]</span> <q>Lieut Williams &amp; Mr Bailly returned this eveng from
+Prairie du Chiens but brought no Mail there having been no arrival since
+December.</q><a name="anchor-260" id="anchor-260"></a><a href="#footnote-260" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 260.">260</a> It was during this winter that even Prairie du Chien was
+shut off from the outside, the amount of snow between Peoria and Prairie
+du Chien stopping the mail service for two months. Again and again
+during the winter months the commanding officer complained to
+headquarters that <q>no Orders have been received within the Month</q>.<a name="anchor-261" id="anchor-261"></a><a href="#footnote-261" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 261.">261</a></p>
+
+<p>The duties of the soldiers during the winter were few. From the time it
+was built up to 1833 the quarters at Fort Snelling were heated by
+fireplaces. At that time, however, stoves were substituted.<a name="anchor-262" id="anchor-262"></a><a href="#footnote-262" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 262.">262</a> Wood
+was used for fuel&mdash;to obtain which was a never-ending task in winter.
+When Captain Seth Eastman was in command at various periods from 1844 to
+1848 the garrison had to go from eight to ten miles for wood. The banks
+of the Minnesota River were bordered by a forest varying from one
+hundred to three hundred yards wide; but by 1858 all of this for a
+distance of twelve miles had been cleared off.<a name="anchor-263" id="anchor-263"></a><a href="#footnote-263" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 263.">263</a></p>
+
+<p>Colonel John H. Bliss, who was a boy at Fort Snelling when his father
+was in command during the thirties, wrote that the winters <q>were
+undeniably tedious, but had their uses; we had a good library, and I
+read a great deal, which has stood by me well; then there was of course
+much sociability among the officers, and a great deal of playing of
+cards, dominoes, checkers, and chess. The soldiers, too, would <a id="Page_100" name="Page_100"></a><span class="pagenum">[100]</span>
+get up theatrical performances every fortnight or so, those taking
+female parts borrowing dresses from the soldiers' wives, and making a
+generous sacrifice to art of their cherished whiskers and
+mustaches.</q><a name="anchor-264" id="anchor-264"></a><a href="#footnote-264" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 264.">264</a></p>
+
+<p>During October, 1836, Inspector General George Croghan visited Fort
+Snelling, and on the evening of the seventh of the month the Thespian
+Players presented <em>Monsieur Tonson</em> in his honor. And here, far from
+city streets and French barbers, on a rude stage, Jack Ardourly fell in
+love with the beautiful Adolphine de Courcy&mdash;who probably only a few
+hours before had been hurrying to finish a task of cleaning guns so that
+she could call on the generous women of the garrison and beg from them
+capes and bonnets and hoops skirts!<a name="anchor-265" id="anchor-265"></a><a href="#footnote-265" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 265.">265</a></p>
+
+<p>Many of the officers were graduates of West Point, and their wives were
+from the best families of the East and South. On January 20, 1831, the
+ladies and gentlemen of the garrison had a party at the fort. <q>The room
+was tastefully decorated&mdash;- and the evening passed pleasantly</q>. On
+February 22nd of the same year the quarters of the commanding officer
+were the scene of another party in commemoration of Washington's
+birthday.<a name="anchor-266" id="anchor-266"></a><a href="#footnote-266" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 266.">266</a></p>
+
+<p>Efforts were made to provide for the education of the children of the
+fort. Mrs. Snelling at first taught her own children; but it is evident
+that there was soon a tutor, as the correspondence of Colonel Snelling
+shows that John Marsh received his board and seventy-five dollars for
+acting as tutor during the <a id="Page_101" name="Page_101"></a><span class="pagenum">[101]</span> winter of 1823&ndash;1824. This schoolmaster
+also carried the mail to Prairie du Chien in return for forty
+dollars.<a name="anchor-267" id="anchor-267"></a><a href="#footnote-267" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 267.">267</a> Soon after the appointment of a regular chaplain in 1838
+the post school was more thoroughly organized.<a name="anchor-268" id="anchor-268"></a><a href="#footnote-268" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 268.">268</a></p>
+
+<p>Occasionally there was some excitement at the fort. During the month of
+February in 1831 there was an epidemic of fires. First, the officers row
+of buildings caught on fire in the room of Lieutenant Greenough on
+February 10th. On the next day a second fire broke out; and on February
+24th the agency house took fire both from the inside and the outside in
+such a manner that it was evident that an incendiary had been at
+work.<a name="anchor-269" id="anchor-269"></a><a href="#footnote-269" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 269.">269</a></p>
+
+<p>But such events were of unusual occurrence. A letter written at Fort
+Snelling on February 11, 1842, pictures the usual winter life. <q>We of
+the garrison are as usual at this season rather dull, stale &amp;
+unprofitable&mdash;small parties for Tea are a good deal the fashion, &amp;
+tattle is used as formerly. Indian Ball plays are coming in season. One
+comes off today in which stacks of property are to be invested. The
+Sioux have been hunting about Rum River this winter and have killed
+great numbers of <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original">Dear</ins>&mdash;Our winter has been mild, one day only 30 below
+zero, and the rest comfortable.&hellip; Tonight Mumford gives a Soiree to the
+good folks of the garrison and this is the most exciting event of the
+week. What is the use of writing to you as I cannot find enough
+wherewith to fill two pages.</q><a name="anchor-270" id="anchor-270"></a><a href="#footnote-270" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 270.">270</a></p>
+
+<p>Such close confinement was tolerable when the <a id="Page_102" name="Page_102"></a><span class="pagenum">[102]</span> garrison was
+composed of congenial spirits, but occasionally it brought about
+dissensions and quarrels. Taliaferro on one occasion wrote that the
+<q>Society here is not in the most pleasant State from a System of tatling
+which has been reduced to a Science&mdash;not to be envied.</q><a name="anchor-271" id="anchor-271"></a><a href="#footnote-271" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 271.">271</a>
+Occasionally open encounters took place. One soldier stabbed another
+with a butcher's knife, and the victim died.<a name="anchor-272" id="anchor-272"></a><a href="#footnote-272" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 272.">272</a> In February, 1826, two
+officers of the garrison engaged in a duel.<a name="anchor-273" id="anchor-273"></a><a href="#footnote-273" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 273.">273</a> Even those in authority
+were not free from participation in these <q>affairs of honor</q>. A certain
+young officer challenged Colonel Snelling, and upon his refusing, his
+son, William Joseph Snelling, accepted and was slightly wounded. When
+the officer was court-martialed he accused one of the witnesses of being
+an infidel. Whereupon the latter challenged the officer in his turn, and
+a second duel was fought&mdash;which was bloodless.<a name="anchor-274" id="anchor-274"></a><a href="#footnote-274" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 274.">274</a></p>
+
+<p>With such conditions prevailing during the winter months it is no wonder
+that from day to day spring was eagerly looked for. Undoubtedly it was a
+happy occasion when the agent could record on the evening of Sunday,
+March 27, 1831, that the weather was <q>more pleasant&mdash;Wild geese seen
+this day&mdash;gentlemen generally [illegible] out and Walking&mdash;The Ladies
+also</q>.<a name="anchor-275" id="anchor-275"></a><a href="#footnote-275" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 275.">275</a> It meant a speedy return of summer pleasures and summer
+visitors. For when, even at a remote military post did these fail as
+three sure signs of spring&mdash;pleasant weather, flocks of geese, and
+ladies and gentlemen out walking together?</p>
+
+<p>They were very human, those men and women of Old Fort Snelling. </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_103" name="Page_103"></a><span class="pagenum">[103]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII<br />
+
+THE FORT AND INDIAN LIFE</h2>
+
+
+<p>It was a humane but visionary plan which Reverend Jedidiah Morse in 1822
+presented to the Secretary of War as the correct method of procedure in
+the task of civilizing the Indians. At various centers in the Indian
+country were to be established <q>Education Families</q>&mdash;groups of honest,
+industrious whites who were to have houses and farms, where the natives
+could observe their activities. And without any forcing it was expected
+that the red men, seeing the superior advantages of civilization, would
+be themselves gradually transformed.<a name="anchor-276" id="anchor-276"></a><a href="#footnote-276" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 276.">276</a></p>
+
+<p>To the north and east of Fort Snelling was the home of the Chippewa or
+Ojibway Indians&mdash;extending from the Mississippi to the Great Lakes. To
+the west, on the great prairies, the Dakota, or Sioux Indians lived and
+hunted. The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, estimated that the five
+bands of Sioux, which most often came into direct touch with the
+government at Fort Snelling, numbered in 1834, seven thousand, and
+wandered over southern Minnesota and South Dakota, near the lakes of Big
+Stone and Traverse.<a name="anchor-277" id="anchor-277"></a><a href="#footnote-277" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 277.">277</a> Major Taliaferro reported in 1834 that the
+number of Indians in his agency was 6721, and that they extended as far
+as the Sheyenne fork of the Red River.<a name="anchor-278" id="anchor-278"></a><a href="#footnote-278" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 278.">278</a> To one man, the agent, was
+given the <a id="Page_104" name="Page_104"></a><span class="pagenum">[104]</span> task of civilizing these thousands of Sioux. While it
+was for this tribe that the agency at Fort Snelling was established, yet
+the Chippewas often frequented its headquarters. One hundred and seventy
+warriors of these northern Indians arrived at the agent's house on the
+evening of August 4, 1830.<a name="anchor-279" id="anchor-279"></a><a href="#footnote-279" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 279.">279</a> The presence of these red men more than
+doubled the work of the agent, because there was now the difficulty of
+keeping peace between two warring tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Indian life was not so worthless as sometimes pictured. It is true that
+one could see laziness and poverty during the months of January and
+February, if he came upon an Indian village pitched near a wooded slope
+and above a frozen stream. There could be seen the smoke curling from
+the dingy tepee, the women dragging home wood for the ever-diminishing
+pile outside the door, and a few of the hardier men fishing through
+holes in the ice. About the tepee the snow was banked, and within the
+air was warm and heavy from the open fire and the long pipes of the
+reclining braves, who gambled with their neighbors at the game of <q>the
+shot and the mitten</q>.</p>
+
+<p>Thus through the two stormy months the Indians frittered away the time,
+eating their corn and wild rice seasoned with tallow. But when the first
+thaws of spring caused the sap in the maple trees to run, and when some
+of the more venturesome came back from a winter visit to the trading
+house with the word that the trader was waiting for skins in return for
+the blankets and ammunition he had given them <a id="Page_105" name="Page_105"></a><span class="pagenum">[105]</span> the preceding fall,
+the village divided&mdash;part going to the sugar bush, and part going to the
+prairie lakes and swamps for muskrats. In May they returned on the
+swollen streams with heavily freighted canoes to their villages of bark
+houses. During the summer there were many tasks&mdash;blue berries to be
+gathered in the woods, canoes to be built, tepees to be repaired,
+turnips to be dug, and pipestone to be brought from the far distant
+quarry. All through the hot months the women toiled in the corn fields;
+and when the corn was in the milk, all the village children screamed and
+waved their arms to frighten away the blackbirds. When the harvest had
+been carefully placed in bark barrels and buried, part of the village
+had already left to hunt the fox or gather wild rice along the lakes and
+cranberries in the marshes.</p>
+
+<p>And now came October and the deer hunt. There were only the extremely
+old people and the invalids to wave good-bye as the procession set out
+over the prairie&mdash;old men who could scarcely walk, bands of shouting
+children, hunters already on the alert, women with their bundles, and
+horses and dogs dragging on two poles the provisions and the skins of
+the tepees. For more than two months the program was the same: the march
+through the drifts and across the icy rivers, the morning council about
+a blazing fire before scattering over the prairie, and the triumphal
+return of the successful hunter at evening with the carcass of a bear,
+deer, or elk, across his shoulders and his name shouted through <a id="Page_106" name="Page_106"></a><span class="pagenum">[106]</span>
+the camp by the children gathered to welcome him. By January they were
+all back again at their villages.<a name="anchor-280" id="anchor-280"></a><a href="#footnote-280" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 280.">280</a></p>
+
+<p>It was this scheme of life which was to be gradually transformed. There
+were, of course, variations when war parties crept against the
+Chippewas, when drunken debaucheries resulted from a keg of whiskey that
+had escaped the vigilant eyes of the soldiers, and when migrations to
+the Canadian posts were prompted by the hope that there they could
+obtain enough supplies to support them without work and that there they
+could enjoy some ceremony to break the monotony of life. But these
+migrations were few on the part of the Sioux: they could enjoy councils
+just as good near home.</p>
+
+<p>On the occasion of a visit to Old Fort Snelling and the agency near by,
+the authorities were careful to see that there was a due amount of
+ceremony. Probably a whole band of Indians would come down from the
+headwaters of the Minnesota River. Their chiefs and braves gathered in
+the log Council Hall, and there took place the scene so picturesquely
+described by the eccentric traveller, J. C. Beltrami.</p>
+
+<p><q>The council-hall is, as it ought to be, a great room built of trunks of
+trees. The flag of the United States waves in the centre, surrounded by
+English colours, and medals hung to the walls. They are presented by the
+Indians to their <em>Father</em>, the agent, as a proof that they abjure all
+cabal or alliance with the English. Pipes, or calumets and other little
+Indian presents, offered by the various tribes as pledges <a id="Page_107" name="Page_107"></a><span class="pagenum">[107]</span> of
+their friendship, decorate the walls and give a remarkable and
+characteristic air to the room.</q> The dignitaries of the post are seated
+about a table and the braves recline upon the ground during the council.</p>
+
+<p><q>The <em>s&eacute;ance</em> opens with a speech of the chief, who rises and addresses
+the agent. He generally begins with the Great Spirit, or the sun, or the
+moon <q>whose purity is equalled by that of his own heart,</q> &amp;c. &amp;c. always
+finishing with a petition for presents;&mdash;<em>whiskey</em> is sure to find
+honourable mention: these are what English lawyers call the <em>common
+counts</em>.</q><a name="anchor-281" id="anchor-281"></a><a href="#footnote-281" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 281.">281</a></p>
+
+<p>After the reply of the agent the peace pipe was solemnly passed from one
+to another, and the council ended with the distribution of presents.
+These presents were of tobacco, gunpowder, vermilion, pipes, kettles,
+blankets, snuff-boxes, armbands, looking-glasses, horse bells,
+jews'-harps, ivory combs, and shawls.<a name="anchor-282" id="anchor-282"></a><a href="#footnote-282" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 282.">282</a> Not the least popular of
+these were the jews'-harps, which had their uses&mdash;in spite of the
+sarcastic invective delivered against them by Senator Benton in 1822
+when the abolition of the Factory System was being considered. <q>They
+were innocent</q>, observed the Senator, <q>and on that account precisely
+adapted to the purposes of the superintendent, in reclaiming the savage
+from the hunter state. The first state after that, in the road to
+refined life, is the pastoral, and without music the tawny-colored
+Corydons and the red-skinned Amaryllises, <q>
+<em>recubans sub tegmine fagi</em>,</q>
+upon the banks of the Missouri and Mississippi, could make no <a id="Page_108" name="Page_108"></a><span class="pagenum">[108]</span>
+progress in the delightful business of love and sentiment.</q><a name="anchor-283" id="anchor-283"></a><a href="#footnote-283" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 283.">283</a></p>
+
+<p>These councils were frequent occurrences, and their importance lies in
+the fact that through them certain principles could be instilled into
+the minds of the natives under the most favorable circumstances. The
+words spoken by the agent on these occasions had probably as much effect
+in controlling the Indians as a like number of bullets would have had.
+Major Taliaferro has recorded one of the orations which he delivered to
+his listening wards. He referred to the presence of the Great Spirit,
+told of his long service among them, eulogized their departed
+elders&mdash;<q>the old branches which have fallen from the Trunk of the old
+oak of your Nation</q>&mdash;and then inserted a few wise admonitions as to the
+futility of their wars with the Chippewas.</p>
+
+<p><q>Your Great Father</q>, he said, <q>has had much to do with war&mdash;but his
+heart is changed for peace &amp; he wishes all his red children as well as
+his white ones to follow his good example&mdash;he knows this course to be
+best for all&mdash;we should endeavor to please him&mdash;for by doing so we shall
+please the Great Spirit also&mdash;You will see your children growing up
+around you and your wives smiling as you approach from your days hunt.</q></p>
+
+<p>The speech ended with the announcement of the coming of <q>something good
+from below</q> and an approaching visit to the village of the Red
+Head.<a name="anchor-284" id="anchor-284"></a><a href="#footnote-284" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 284.">284</a></p>
+
+<p>During these meetings at the agency the sound of the fort's cannon and
+the sight of the well-uniformed <a id="Page_109" name="Page_109"></a><span class="pagenum">[109]</span> guards impressed the Indians even
+more than did the words of the agent. There they became acquainted with
+white men other than traders, and when exploring and scientific
+expeditions came over the plains with a guard of soldiers, they were
+wise enough not to interfere. These visits in themselves were pleasant,
+and the rations of bread and pork offered an agreeable respite from
+their usual fare.<a name="anchor-285" id="anchor-285"></a><a href="#footnote-285" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 285.">285</a></p>
+
+<p>At the time of the treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1825 one ration
+consisted of one pound of bread or one pint of corn and either one pound
+of beef or three-quarters of a pound of pork. This may be taken as a
+fair standard of the kind of rations issued at the agency.<a name="anchor-286" id="anchor-286"></a><a href="#footnote-286" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 286.">286</a> It was
+during the winter months especially when starvation or suffering would
+otherwise result that this aid was given to the Indians. During the
+summer when other means of subsistence were present, all appeals for
+food were refused.<a name="anchor-287" id="anchor-287"></a><a href="#footnote-287" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 287.">287</a> This custom of granting rations was formally
+incorporated in the law of June 30, 1834, with the only restriction that
+they were to be given only if <q>they can be spared from the army
+provisions without injury to the service</q>.<a name="anchor-288" id="anchor-288"></a><a href="#footnote-288" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 288.">288</a></p>
+
+<p>The condition of the tribes was often appalling, and many deaths would
+have occurred without this aid. At one time Taliaferro wrote that <q>400
+Indians encamped near the Agency&mdash;many from a distance and in a starving
+condition.</q><a name="anchor-289" id="anchor-289"></a><a href="#footnote-289" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 289.">289</a> Often he had to take from his own private funds, after
+he had drawn all he could from the public stores.<a name="anchor-290" id="anchor-290"></a><a href="#footnote-290" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 290.">290</a> The winter of
+1842&ndash;1843 was particularly severe. On the <a id="Page_110" name="Page_110"></a><span class="pagenum">[110]</span> first of November the
+ground was covered with snow which as late as April still lay from two
+to two and a half feet deep. No hunting was possible because of the
+drifts, and fishing through the ice was impracticable, the wind blowing
+the holes full of snow as soon as they were cut. The Indians living
+about Lac qui Parle, about two hundred miles up the Minnesota River,
+came with the missionary Dr. Thomas Williamson to winter on the site of
+old Camp Cold Water, knowing that only from the fort could they obtain
+relief.</p>
+
+<p>Everything that was possible was done. Blankets, guns, and ammunition to
+the value of $2500 were granted the Indians. Indeed, so many provisions
+were distributed that on April 3rd it was computed that there was only
+enough left to supply the garrison until the opening of navigation. The
+officers and soldiers saved all the remains from the tables and once a
+day the squaws and children were allowed to enter and receive these
+crumbs. The Indians who were away from the post were not neglected.
+Sixty bushels of corn and several barrels of pork were furnished by
+Major Dearborn to Mr. H. H. Sibley who sent them to destitute Indians on
+the Minnesota River. Still there was much suffering, for not enough food
+could be spared to satisfy all. Before spring arrived many of the
+Indians lived upon a syrup made of hickory chips and the boiled bark of
+the bitter sweet. All became greatly emaciated and some were unable to
+walk.<a name="anchor-291" id="anchor-291"></a><a href="#footnote-291" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 291.">291</a></p>
+
+<p>From time to time a solitary Indian on a business <a id="Page_111" name="Page_111"></a><span class="pagenum">[111]</span> visit to the
+trader would drop in to chat with the <q>Father</q>. Here he could make any
+complaints which he had to offer and be sure of a sympathetic if not
+satisfactory answer. <q>I have had more than fourteen hundred Indians on
+visits from all Sections of this Agency during the Month past&mdash;and all
+with Grieveances of Some Sort to redress</q>, wrote Taliaferro on June 30,
+1838.<a name="anchor-292" id="anchor-292"></a><a href="#footnote-292" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 292.">292</a> In all matters concerning lands, hunting, treaties,
+annuities, and the like, the Indian looked only to the agent for advice
+or explanation. Instigated by the traders, many of whom were hostile to
+him, the Indians considered him responsible for the acts of the
+soldiers.<a name="anchor-293" id="anchor-293"></a><a href="#footnote-293" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 293.">293</a> If a provision of a treaty was not carried out, the
+Indians thought it was Taliaferro's fault <q>for they know nothing of
+Congress or of their Multifarious and protracted debates, and
+proceedings.</q><a name="anchor-294" id="anchor-294"></a><a href="#footnote-294" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 294.">294</a></p>
+
+<p>A personal present was due the visitor at these <q>shake hands</q> occasions.
+If he were a headman or a brave he received a pound of powder, two
+pounds of lead, a fish line, a knife, four fish hooks, and six plugs of
+tobacco. If he were <q>any respectable Individual</q> he was sure of a knife,
+four fish hooks, and six plugs of tobacco.<a name="anchor-295" id="anchor-295"></a><a href="#footnote-295" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 295.">295</a> These individual visits
+did much to acquaint the natives personally with the agent, in the same
+way that the council impressed them with the agent's great power.</p>
+
+<p>But even more appreciated was the help offered in time of sickness. On
+December 25, 1830, Taliaferro records in his diary: <q>I rode up the
+SPeters to See an Indian.&hellip; Doctor Wood went up <a id="Page_112" name="Page_112"></a><span class="pagenum">[112]</span> also&mdash;I dressed
+her wound&mdash;I Sent my Interpreter up with other restoratives&mdash;she being
+delerious.</q><a name="anchor-296" id="anchor-296"></a><a href="#footnote-296" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 296.">296</a> On Saturday, June 28, 1834, there came to him a brave
+saying that both his son and daughter were ill. <q>Sent a message to Doct
+Jarvis to call &amp; see the girl.</q> The Sioux boy died two days later. But
+there the ministration did not end. To the mourners were given cotton
+and calico, or a blanket in order that the body might be decently
+covered.<a name="anchor-297" id="anchor-297"></a><a href="#footnote-297" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 297.">297</a></p>
+
+<p>The dread scourge of smallpox raged in the vicinity of Fort Snelling
+during the summer of 1832. Two Indians coming from the Missouri River
+were suffering from violent attacks. Immediately the disease spread. But
+Dr. Wood, the post's physician, was called upon by Major Taliaferro and
+at the end of five days three hundred and thirty Sioux had been
+vaccinated. It is interesting to notice that in case the Indians came to
+the agency Dr. Wood received six dollars for every hundred he treated,
+but if he went to their villages he received six dollars per day.<a name="anchor-298" id="anchor-298"></a><a href="#footnote-298" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 298.">298</a></p>
+
+<p>Besides these services the visits to the fort offered direct opportunity
+for the giving of tangible evidence of American supremacy. The English
+government had lavishly distributed signs of authority. During the first
+two years of his term of service, Taliaferro collected no less than
+thirty-six medals of George the Third, twenty-eight British flags, and
+eighteen gorgets.<a name="anchor-299" id="anchor-299"></a><a href="#footnote-299" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 299.">299</a> Some of these were presented to the agent as
+direct evidence of submission to American authority. In 1820 two
+employees of the <a id="Page_113" name="Page_113"></a><span class="pagenum">[113]</span> Missouri Fur Company were murdered on the
+Missouri River. The surrender of the murderers was demanded by
+Taliaferro, and while he was away the tribe came to Fort Snelling with
+one of the culprits and a hostage. Colonel Snelling, then acting as
+agent, described the scene in a letter.</p>
+
+<p><q>These unfortunate wretches were delivered up last evening with a great
+deal of ceremony, &amp; I assure you with affecting solemnity; the guards
+being first put under arms, they formed a procession in the road beyond
+the bake house; in front marched a Sussitong bearing a British flag,
+next came the Murderer &amp; the devoted chief, their arms pinioned &amp; large
+splinters of wood thrust through them above the elbows, intended as I
+understood to show us that they did not fear pain &amp; were not afraid to
+die. <ins class="corr" title="As in original">the</ins> Murderer wore a large British medal suspended to his neck &amp;
+both of the prisoners bore offerings of skins, &amp;c. in their hands. last
+came the chiefs of the Sussitongs, in this order they moved, the
+prisoners singing their death song &amp; the Sussitongs joining in chorus
+until they arrived in front of the guard house where a fire being
+previously prepared, the British flag was burnt, and the medal worn by
+the murderer given up.</q><a name="anchor-300" id="anchor-300"></a><a href="#footnote-300" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 300.">300</a></p>
+
+<p>In return for these greatly coveted signs of respect the agent delivered
+to the most prominent chiefs the medals and certificates of the United
+States. And thus by flattering the leaders control over the Indians was
+assured. What chief was not proud to carry with him this certificate,
+even if he <a id="Page_114" name="Page_114"></a><span class="pagenum">[114]</span> could not read it himself? <q>The bearer <em>The Whole in
+the day</em> is a respectable Man, and wears a Seccond Size Monroe Medal
+Presented to him for his uniform Good Conduct and great attachment to
+the United States&mdash;His Residence is at Sandy Lake Law Taliaferro Indian
+Agent at St. Peters</q>.<a name="anchor-301" id="anchor-301"></a><a href="#footnote-301" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 301.">301</a></p>
+
+<p>But the memory of the days of English rule was still alive, the
+suggestion being made to the government that <q>the gordgets would be More
+Acceptable were they to be fashioned after those introduced formerly by
+the British Government&mdash;with the difference only of the Eagle engraved
+upon each.</q><a name="anchor-302" id="anchor-302"></a><a href="#footnote-302" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 302.">302</a> To counteract this feeling it was necessary that the
+government should be lavish in the distribution of presents. British
+influence and example, wrote Taliaferro to Clark in 1831, were not yet
+<q>fairly purged of their baneful effects</q>.<a name="anchor-303" id="anchor-303"></a><a href="#footnote-303" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 303.">303</a> Even as late as 1834 a
+few extracts from the reports of Major Bliss indicate that this feeling
+was still noticeable. <q>The Sioux Indians expecting and favourable to an
+English war with the U. States</q>, he wrote in April. The next month he
+reported <q>Sioux and Chippewas pacific but dissatisfied with U. States</q>,
+and in July 1835 he informed headquarters that <q>the Chippewas &amp; Sioux
+are dissatisfied &amp; both exhibit symptoms of hostility to the U. States &amp;
+to each other. The Sioux the most decided.</q><a name="anchor-304" id="anchor-304"></a><a href="#footnote-304" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 304.">304</a></p>
+
+<p>English visitors at a much later period congratulated their government
+because the Indians, as they said, still had a greater fondness for the
+British than for the Americans.<a name="anchor-305" id="anchor-305"></a><a href="#footnote-305" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 305.">305</a> Except, however, along the <a id="Page_115" name="Page_115"></a><span class="pagenum">[115]</span>
+border, among the tribes outside of the sphere of the agent at Fort
+Snelling, this feeling manifested itself only as a sentiment which could
+lead to trouble if a break between the two nations should occur.</p>
+
+<p>To emphasize the power of the Nation, the agent brought to Washington in
+1824, and again in 1837, delegations of chiefs.<a name="anchor-306" id="anchor-306"></a><a href="#footnote-306" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 306.">306</a> On these occasions
+they were taken to the largest and busiest cities, entertained in the
+most delightful manner, and shown the most impressive sights. As crowds
+were always drawn together to see the Indians, the latter received a
+lasting opinion as to the numbers of the Americans.<a name="anchor-307" id="anchor-307"></a><a href="#footnote-307" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 307.">307</a> Previously the
+Sioux bands had thought that if ever they should unite their forces,
+they would be able to win in a war against all the whites; but now they
+were disillusioned.<a name="anchor-308" id="anchor-308"></a><a href="#footnote-308" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 308.">308</a></p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the Indians were pleased with their journey. <q>Since the
+treaty was signed</q>, stated a contemporary newspaper, <q>each of them has
+received a coat, hat, blanket, leggins, epaulettes, bands, and scarfs,
+and when dressed in full uniform, they exhibit more lively pleasure than
+would have been expected from the apathy of Indian character.</q><a name="anchor-309" id="anchor-309"></a><a href="#footnote-309" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 309.">309</a> The
+magnificence which they had seen was described amid the squalor of their
+home villages. <q>The effect produced by the visit of their chiefs to
+Washington is wonderful, since their return, the power, wealth, and
+numbers of the American people have been their constant themes, many of
+their stories approach so near the marvellous as to be discredited, such
+for example is the account of casting a cannon <a id="Page_116" name="Page_116"></a><span class="pagenum">[116]</span> which they
+witnessed, and the magnitude of our ships. Old <em>black dog</em> shakes his
+head &amp; says <q>all travellers are liars</q>.</q><a name="anchor-310" id="anchor-310"></a><a href="#footnote-310" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 310.">310</a> The memory of these trips
+lingered long. Little Crow came to call upon the agent in 1831. <q>The old
+chief left much delighted with his reception and my Talk&mdash;he departed
+singing the song which was often repeated when on his trip to Washington
+City in 1824.</q><a name="anchor-311" id="anchor-311"></a><a href="#footnote-311" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 311.">311</a></p>
+
+<p>The Indians touched by these relations with the fort were not only its
+immediate neighbors. The surrender of murderers from the tribes on the
+Missouri has been noted. On March 11, 1831, Taliaferro wrote that <q>I
+observe Indians from the Missouri &amp; various sections of the Sioux
+country.</q><a name="anchor-312" id="anchor-312"></a><a href="#footnote-312" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 312.">312</a> During the entire winter of 1831, a party of Missouri
+River Indians encamped about Fort Snelling.<a name="anchor-313" id="anchor-313"></a><a href="#footnote-313" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 313.">313</a> The Indians on the
+prairies were wide travellers. <q>There are a good many Indians about
+here</q>, says a letter from Lac qui Parle. <q>There have arrived 120 lodges
+of Missouri at Lake Traverse and 200 lodges at James River.</q><a name="anchor-314" id="anchor-314"></a><a href="#footnote-314" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 314.">314</a> By
+this continual movement, the influence of Fort Snelling was enlarged.</p>
+
+<p>How great was this influence? No one has contradicted the statement of
+Mr. Taliaferro that <q>it is due the Sioux of your territory to record one
+fact as to them, and that is, from the commencement of our agency to its
+close, our frontier pioneers were never even molested in their homes,
+nor did they shed one drop of American blood</q>.<a name="anchor-315" id="anchor-315"></a><a href="#footnote-315" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 315.">315</a> It was when this
+frontier encroached on their lands that hostility <a id="Page_117" name="Page_117"></a><span class="pagenum">[117]</span> broke out. If
+the Indians had been left in peace by covetous land-seekers, their
+civilization might in time have been accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>There was practically no hostility manifested against the garrison by
+the surrounding Indians. In January, 1822, Colonel McNeil, who was in
+command at Fort Dearborn, received word from John Kinzie, the pioneer
+Chicago trader, that the Sioux and Fox Indians were planning an attack
+on Fort Snelling. Lieutenant James Webb immediately volunteered to bring
+the news to Fort Armstrong on Rock Island, from whence it could be sent
+to the upper post. After a journey rendered terrible by the extreme cold
+and the danger from hostile Indians, he was successful in reaching Fort
+Armstrong.<a name="anchor-316" id="anchor-316"></a><a href="#footnote-316" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 316.">316</a></p>
+
+<p>In due time the letter was delivered to Colonel Snelling. <q>When I first
+received Col McNeils letter,</q> he wrote later, <q>I was disposed to smile
+at the absurdity of connecting the Sioux &amp; Foxes, in a design to attack
+this post</q>. But he later found out that the Foxes had sent wampum and
+tobacco to the bands of Wabasha and Little Crow, asking them not to
+stand in the way of any movements they might make. Wabasha accepted the
+wampum but Little Crow came to the fort to make known the danger. The
+vagueness of the rumors, however, made it impossible to act, and later
+developments showed that there was no truth in the report&mdash;at least no
+violence was attempted.<a name="anchor-317" id="anchor-317"></a><a href="#footnote-317" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 317.">317</a></p>
+
+<p>Fear of the strength of the fort prevented hostilities. <a id="Page_118" name="Page_118"></a><span class="pagenum">[118]</span> It was
+the Indian fashion to attack by ambush. They did not have the patience
+to endure a protracted siege. The Americans did not belittle the
+strength of the military works. Little Thunder and White Head, two
+Indians who had escaped from the jail at Mackinac by cutting through the
+log walls, met an American, George Johnson, at Lac du Flambeau. They
+were very inquisitive about the strength of Fort Snelling and the number
+of Americans stationed there. Regarding this incident the white man
+wrote: <q>I answered saying, that the fort at River St. Peters was as
+strong as Quebec, and more Americans there than in any other post.</q><a name="anchor-318" id="anchor-318"></a><a href="#footnote-318" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 318.">318</a></p>
+
+<p>The government did not adopt Dr. Morse's plan for civilizing the
+Indians, but the agent tried to carry out the policy therein suggested.
+The colony at Eatonville, located on Lake Calhoun, and the Indian
+schools soon passed into the hands of the missionaries. After the making
+of treaties a blacksmith shop was added to the agency. In line with his
+policy of providing for all classes of Indians, Taliaferro urged the
+erection of an orphan asylum where <q>all poor blind, and helpless women</q>
+would also be accommodated.<a name="anchor-319" id="anchor-319"></a><a href="#footnote-319" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 319.">319</a></p>
+
+<p>If time had been given doubtless a new form of Indian life would have
+arisen about the fort; but the coming of the land-seekers destroyed the
+plan. The failure was to result in a great massacre in 1862. This much
+at least can be said for Old Fort Snelling; it kept the Indians friendly
+while the foundations of American life were being laid in the Northwest.
+</p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_119" name="Page_119"></a><span class="pagenum">[119]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII<br />
+
+THE SIOUX-CHIPPEWA FEUDS</h2>
+
+
+<p>One of the reasons given for the building of Fort Snelling was that it
+would prevent the disastrous wars existing between the Sioux and
+Chippewa Indians.<a name="anchor-320" id="anchor-320"></a><a href="#footnote-320" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 320.">320</a> Beginning so far in the past that no cause could
+be ascribed for the hostility, each encounter was in itself both the
+result of preceding conflicts and the excuse for further warfare. Pierre
+Esprit de Radisson, who was the first writer to leave an account of the
+Chippewas, said that even at the time of his visit in about 1660 they
+were carrying on <q>a cruell warre against the Nadoueseronoms
+[Sioux].</q><a name="anchor-321" id="anchor-321"></a><a href="#footnote-321" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 321.">321</a></p>
+
+<p>Lurking in the bushes to waylay their enemies on the woodland paths,
+hiding on the river banks to intercept hostile canoes, pretending peace
+and enjoying hospitality in order to have an opportunity for treachery
+were the military tactics of the Sioux and Chippewa warriors. To prevent
+such warfare, a military post was almost powerless. In fact, so
+insidious was the hostility that even the very grounds of Fort Snelling
+were the scene of bloody encounters.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts were made to keep the Chippewas away from Fort Snelling by
+attaching them to the agency of H. R. Schoolcraft at Sault Ste.
+Marie.<a name="anchor-322" id="anchor-322"></a><a href="#footnote-322" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 322.">322</a> But the <a id="Page_120" name="Page_120"></a><span class="pagenum">[120]</span> distance was so great and the route so
+difficult that the Chippewas did not make the journey to consult that
+agent. On the other hand, Fort Snelling was so close, and the
+Mississippi such a natural outlet from their country, that a trader
+declared that <q>you might as well try to Stop the Water in the
+Mississippi from going to St Louis, as attempt to keep the Chippeway
+Indians from St Peters.</q><a name="anchor-323" id="anchor-323"></a><a href="#footnote-323" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 323.">323</a></p>
+
+<p>During the last days of the month of May, 1827, Flat Mouth, chief of the
+Sandy Lake band of Chippewa Indians was encamped near Fort Snelling. A
+number of men, women, and children were with him, bringing maple sugar,
+which they had gathered in the northern woods during the winter, and
+other articles to sell to the garrison. Major Taliaferro was away at the
+time, but on May 24th the steamboat <q>Pilot</q> landed him safely at Fort
+Snelling. To welcome their <q>Father</q> home, and perchance to see if he had
+any presents or promises for them, a large number of Sioux came from
+their villages to the fort, as was usual on such occasions. The agent
+took the opportunity presented by the presence of both Sioux and
+Chippewas to deliberate with them in regard to peace, and also to
+request the Chippewas not to visit Fort Snelling again, in accordance
+with instructions which he had received from the Indian Department. To
+this Flat Mouth replied sorrowfully: <q>I feel myself now like a Dog
+driven away from your door to find another&mdash;I am ashamed of this&mdash;but I
+know you are doing this not by your wish.</q><a name="anchor-324" id="anchor-324"></a><a href="#footnote-324" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 324.">324</a></p>
+
+<p>The twenty-eighth day of the month proved the <a id="Page_121" name="Page_121"></a><span class="pagenum">[121]</span> value of the advice
+Major Taliaferro had given. Several Sioux came to visit at a Chippewa
+lodge pitched directly under and in front of the agency house on the
+flats that border the Minnesota River. The guns of the fort could easily
+have been trained upon the spot. There was feasting and friendly revelry
+at the lodge that afternoon and evening. Meat, corn, and sugar were
+served in wooden platters; a dog was roasted and eaten. The peace pipe
+was smoked, and the conversation was peaceful regarding exploits in the
+hunt and the chase.</p>
+
+<p>At nine o'clock when the party broke up, as the Chippewas were calling
+friendly good-byes to the departing Sioux who had advanced a few steps,
+the latter turned and fired into the midst of the unsuspecting
+inhabitants of the tepee. There was instant confusion. With a shout of
+triumph the Sioux ran off. The sentinel on the hill above heard the
+shots and cries and called for the guard. In a few moments there was at
+the gate of the fort a crowd of panic-stricken Chippewas carrying their
+wounded and crying for protection. Six men, one woman, and a girl about
+eight years old were handed over to the surgeon of the post, Doctor
+McMahon.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately Major Taliaferro notified the Sioux that they had insulted
+the flag that waved over the land, and that ample satisfaction must be
+made to the Chippewas who had been treated in such a cowardly manner. In
+council with the agent, Strong Earth, a chief of the Chippewas,
+complained of the lack of protection: <q>Father: You know that two <a id="Page_122" name="Page_122"></a><span class="pagenum">[122]</span>
+Summers ago we attended a Great Council at Prairie du Chien, when by the
+advice of Our White Friends, we made Peace with the Sioux&mdash;We were then
+told, that the Americans would Guarantee our Safety under their
+Flags&mdash;We have Come here under that Assurance. But Father, look at Your
+Floor it is stained with the blood of our people shed while under Your
+Walls. If you are great and powerful why do You not protect us? <em>If
+Not</em>, of what use are Your Soldiers?</q><a name="anchor-325" id="anchor-325"></a><a href="#footnote-325" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 325.">325</a></p>
+
+<p>On the morning following the massacre a large body of Sioux&mdash;estimated
+at about three hundred and fifty&mdash;appeared on the prairie west of the
+fort. Brevet Major Fowle was ordered to march against them with two
+companies. Upon his appearance they fled, but he followed and was
+successful in capturing some of them. Nine Sioux&mdash;one of whom Major
+Taliaferro reports was given up voluntarily&mdash;were delivered up to the
+Chippewas. Identifying two of these as being among the murderers, they
+requested permission to execute them immediately.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the broad prairie the two prisoners were given their freedom. They
+were told to run, and when a few paces away the Chippewa warriors fired,
+and the Sioux fell dead. Then followed a hideous scene which a spectator
+described many years later. <q>The bodies, all warm and limp, are dragged
+to the brow of the hill. Men who at the sight of blood, become almost
+fiends, tear off the reeking scalps and hand them to the chief, who
+hangs them around his <a id="Page_123" name="Page_123"></a><span class="pagenum">[123]</span> neck. Women and children with tomahawks and
+knives cut deep gashes in the poor dead bodies, and scooping up the hot
+blood with their hands, eagerly drink it; then, grown frantic, they
+dance, and yell, and sing their horrid scalp songs, recounting deeds of
+valor on the part of their brave men, and telling off the Sioux scalps,
+taken in different battles, until tired and satiated at last with their
+horrid feast, they leave the mutilated bodies&mdash;festering in the
+sun.</q><a name="anchor-326" id="anchor-326"></a><a href="#footnote-326" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 326.">326</a> At evening the bodies were thrown over the cliff into the
+river below.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the thirty-first the Sioux delivered up to the
+Chippewas two others who, they claimed, had been the principal men in
+the affair. If the Chippewas did not shoot them, they said, they would
+do it themselves, as trouble had come to their nation on their account.
+But the Chippewas were willing.</p>
+
+<p>About this second execution there has grown up an interesting story. One
+of the offenders, Toopunkah Zeze, was a favorite among the children of
+the fort. Tall and handsome and athletic and brave, he was the ideal of
+Indian manhood. The other, called the Split Upper Lip, was well known as
+a thief, and was as much detested as his companion was respected. He
+cried and begged for his life, saying that his gun had missed fire&mdash;he
+had killed no one. The other calmly distributed his clothes among his
+friends, upbraiding his companion for his cowardice. <q>You lie, dog.
+Coward, old woman, you know that you lie. You know that you are as
+guilty as I am. <a id="Page_124" name="Page_124"></a><span class="pagenum">[124]</span> Hold your peace and die like a man&mdash;die like me.</q></p>
+
+<p>The two were brought out upon the prairie. Again the thirty yards were
+allowed; again the Chippewa guns were fired. For once it seemed that
+this Indian punishment of <q>running the gantlet</q> would lose a victim. For
+Toopunkah Zeze was still running. The bullet had cut the rope that bound
+him to his falling companion. With new hope he leaped forward. There was
+a shout of triumph from a group of Sioux hidden in the bushes; and the
+children of the fort, who had climbed upon the buildings to view the
+bloody scene from afar, clapped their hands. But the Chippewas were cool
+in their vengeance. Guns were reloaded and deliberate aim taken. The
+flints struck, and Toopunkah Zeze, now a hundred and fifty yards away
+and a second's distance from a place where the straggling groves of the
+prairie offered life, fell dead. Two more bodies were thrown over the
+precipice into the river.<a name="anchor-327" id="anchor-327"></a><a href="#footnote-327" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 327.">327</a></p>
+
+<p>For ten years the hostility continued, but the environs of the fort were
+sacred places. An effective lesson had been taught in 1827. But on
+August 2, 1838, Hole-in-the-Day, a Chippewa chief, and five of his band
+came to Fort Snelling on a visit. That spring there had been a
+treacherous massacre by Hole-in-the-Day at a Sioux camp. It was true, as
+he said in the poetic simplicity of Indian style: <q>You See I cannot keep
+my face Clean&mdash;as fast as it is Washed&mdash;I am Compelled to black it
+Again.&mdash;but My heart towards you is the Same.&mdash;My Fathers Bones Sleep by
+your house&mdash;My Daughter <a id="Page_125" name="Page_125"></a><span class="pagenum">[125]</span> at the Falls Near the Grave of my
+Uncle&mdash;My Wife lies at the Mouth of Sauk River&mdash;and a few days past I
+buried My Son.</q><a name="anchor-328" id="anchor-328"></a><a href="#footnote-328" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 328.">328</a></p>
+
+<p>On the following evening some Sioux of Mud Lake, hearing of the presence
+of the Chippewas, rode over to Baker's trading house where the Chippewas
+were encamped. Major Taliaferro had heard of the departure of the war
+party and had hurried to the scene. Just as he arrived the Sioux fired
+upon their enemies, killing one outright and wounding another in the
+knee. All but one of the Chippewas had laid aside their guns, thinking
+that they were upon neutral ground. This one, seeing a Sioux in the act
+of scalping the fallen Chippewa, fired upon him and wounded him
+mortally. But aided by the dusk the wounded Sioux was able to run more
+than a mile before he fell from loss of blood.</p>
+
+<p>The Chippewas were immediately brought into the fort for protection. On
+the next day Major Plympton and the Indian agent called together the
+chiefs of the neighboring villages. There was a long council until Major
+Plympton broke it up by saying peremptorily: <q>It is unnecessary to talk
+much. I have demanded the guilty&mdash;they must be brought.</q></p>
+
+<p>At half past five that evening the Sioux were delivered up. Three
+brothers had been accused of being guilty of the murder. One of them
+could not be brought because he was dying of the wound received the
+evening before. Much ceremony attended the proceedings as the Indian
+mother led her sons to the officers saying: <q>Of seven sons three only
+are <a id="Page_126" name="Page_126"></a><span class="pagenum">[126]</span> left; one of them is wounded, and soon will die, and if the
+two now given up are shot, my all is gone. I called on the head men to
+follow me to the Fort. I started with the prisoners, singing their death
+song, and have delivered them at the gate of the Fort. Have mercy on
+them for their youth and folly.</q><a name="anchor-329" id="anchor-329"></a><a href="#footnote-329" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 329.">329</a></p>
+
+<p>Because of the attack which Hole-in-the-Day had made on the Sioux a
+short time before, Major Plympton decided not to execute the prisoners.
+They were turned over to their own people to be flogged in the presence
+of the officers. More humiliating than death was their punishment. Their
+blankets, leggins, and breech-cloths were cut into small pieces, and
+finally the braves whipped them with long sticks while the women stood
+about crying.<a name="anchor-330" id="anchor-330"></a><a href="#footnote-330" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 330.">330</a></p>
+
+<p>Although there was now a deep desire for revenge in each of the tribes,
+they manifested outward friendliness when they met at the fort. During
+the month of June, 1839, there came to Fort Snelling over twelve hundred
+Chippewas thinking that there they would be paid their annuities for the
+land they had ceded in 1837. There were two main groups&mdash;one which came
+down from the headwaters of the Mississippi, and the other which came up
+the river from the vicinity of the St. Croix. At the same time Sioux
+numbering eight hundred and seventy were encamped near the agency. This
+was considered an opportune time to conclude a peace, and so the long
+calumet with its mixture of tobacco and bark of the willow tree was
+smoked while friendly athletic contests <a id="Page_127" name="Page_127"></a><span class="pagenum">[127]</span> were held on the prairie.
+On July 1st the two parties of Chippewas started for home. But in one of
+the bands were the two sons of the man who had been murdered the year
+before. In the evening before beginning their homeward journey, they
+visited the graveyard of the fort to cry over the grave of their father.
+Here the thought of vengeance came to them, and morning found them
+hidden in the bushes near the trail that skirted the shore of Lake
+Harriet. The Badger, a Sioux warrior, was the first to pass that way as
+he went out in the early morning to hunt pigeons. A moment later he was
+shot and scalped. The murderers then hurried away and hid behind the
+water at Minnehaha Falls.</p>
+
+<p>A few hours later, when the news had spread throughout all the Sioux
+villages, two bands set out to take revenge upon the departing
+Chippewas. The old men, the women, and the children remained at home,
+eagerly awaiting the result of the coming battle and cutting their arms
+and legs with their knives in grief over the losses which they knew
+their bands would have to undergo.</p>
+
+<p>It happened that at that time the Right Reverend Mathias Loras, the
+first Bishop of Dubuque, was at Fort Snelling. He had been an interested
+spectator at the Sioux-Chippewa peace parleys, had watched the departure
+of the determined avengers, and now was anxiously awaiting the result of
+the conflict. On the morning of July 4th as he was praying at his altar
+for the prosperity of his country he was startled by the shrill notes of
+the Sioux death-song, <a id="Page_128" name="Page_128"></a><span class="pagenum">[128]</span> and gazing through the window saw a bloody
+throng, dancing about the long poles from which dangled scalps with
+parts of the skulls still attached. Two terrible struggles had taken
+place the day before. On the Rum River seventy Chippewa scalps had been
+taken, and on the banks of Lake St. Croix twenty-five more were
+obtained. In both cases the losses of the Sioux were smaller. These
+trophies were brought to the villages, where they were danced about
+nightly until the leaves began to fall in the autumn, when they were
+buried.<a name="anchor-331" id="anchor-331"></a><a href="#footnote-331" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 331.">331</a></p>
+
+<p>These incidents which centered about Fort Snelling have led to the
+charge made against it, that instead of preventing the conflicts the
+fort intensified them. The fort was a convenient meeting place, it is
+argued, whither both parties resorted only to become involved in
+altercations and disputes which resulted in a flaring-up of old
+flames.<a name="anchor-332" id="anchor-332"></a><a href="#footnote-332" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 332.">332</a> But it must be remembered that the murders away from the
+fort were more numerous;<a name="anchor-333" id="anchor-333"></a><a href="#footnote-333" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 333.">333</a> and it is easier to recall the spectacular
+encounters which occurred at the fort, than the many occasions when the
+two tribes met peacefully as the guests of the officials.</p>
+
+<p>A military officer who was stationed there wrote: <q>At Fort Snelling I
+have seen the Sioux and <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original.">Chippeways</ins> in friendly converse, and passing
+their pipes in the most amicable manner when if they had met away from
+the post each would have been striving for the other's scalp.</q><a name="anchor-334" id="anchor-334"></a><a href="#footnote-334" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 334.">334</a> The
+Indian agent, whose success depended upon the continuation of peace,
+noted with pleasure these friendly gatherings. <a id="Page_129" name="Page_129"></a><span class="pagenum">[129]</span> <q>The Crane and the
+Hole in the Day&mdash;and other Chippeways at the Agency this day&mdash;Several
+Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency.</q><a name="anchor-335" id="anchor-335"></a><a href="#footnote-335" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 335.">335</a> These visits were often
+protracted for several weeks without trouble. <q>Chippeways&mdash;a number of
+these people also at the agency&mdash;some have been here for nearly 30
+days&mdash;fishing &amp; <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original.">liveing</ins> better &amp; more independently than the
+Sioux.</q><a name="anchor-336" id="anchor-336"></a><a href="#footnote-336" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 336.">336</a> On the 29th and 30th of June, 1831, Chippewas to the number
+of one hundred and fifty met five villages of Sioux.<a name="anchor-337" id="anchor-337"></a><a href="#footnote-337" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 337.">337</a></p>
+
+<p>Efforts to combat the evil were made in council with the Indians. <q>Your
+wars with the Chippeways can never be of service to anyone</q>, reasoned
+their <q>Father</q>, <q>for as fast as you destroy one&mdash;two or three more young
+men are ready to take the track of their deceased friends&mdash;The old
+people among you ought to know this&mdash;after the long wars between
+you</q>.<a name="anchor-338" id="anchor-338"></a><a href="#footnote-338" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 338.">338</a> Most of the encounters took place either when the warriors
+were emboldened by liquor, or when the rival hunting parties met on the
+plains. The strict enforcement of the law of 1832 prohibiting the
+introduction of spirits had a tranquilizing effect in the country of the
+Chippewas. Indeed, the principal object of all efforts to suppress the
+liquor traffic was the prevention of inter-tribal wars.<a name="anchor-339" id="anchor-339"></a><a href="#footnote-339" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 339.">339</a></p>
+
+<p>Constant watching of the hunting parties and admonition as to their
+conduct were among the duties of the agent. <q>Sent my interpreter up the
+Mississippi among the Indians</q>, he writes, <q>to see how they are
+progressing in their hunts and as to the present hunting grounds of the
+Chippeways.</q> <a id="Page_130" name="Page_130"></a><span class="pagenum">[130]</span> Eight days later record is made of the fact that
+<q>the Rum River Chippeways left for their camp this morning&mdash;Sent word to
+their people to hunt on their own Lands &amp; not by any Means to intrude
+upon the Soil of the Sioux.</q> When the interpreter returned he reported
+that everything was quiet between the two tribes.<a name="anchor-340" id="anchor-340"></a><a href="#footnote-340" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 340.">340</a> The sending of
+<q>runners</q> to the camps was a frequent occurrence during the winter of
+1831, the region covered being eighty miles to the east and two hundred
+miles to the north.<a name="anchor-341" id="anchor-341"></a><a href="#footnote-341" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 341.">341</a></p>
+
+<p>In the treaty of Prairie du Chien of 1825 a dividing line between the
+two tribes, beyond which neither should pass, was agreed upon.<a name="anchor-342" id="anchor-342"></a><a href="#footnote-342" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 342.">342</a> But
+this provision was for many years a dead letter. As long as the line was
+unsurveyed the natives could urge indefiniteness of territory as an
+excuse for murder and depredations&mdash;claiming that the other party was
+the trespasser. When Schoolcraft met the chiefs of the Chippewas in
+council at Leech Lake in 1832, the latter complained that the provisions
+of the treaty had not been carried out. <q>The words of the Long-knives
+have passed through our forests as a rushing wind, but they have been
+words merely. They have only <em>shaken</em> the trees, but have not stopped to
+break them down, nor even to make the rough places smooth.</q><a name="anchor-343" id="anchor-343"></a><a href="#footnote-343" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 343.">343</a> As a
+result Mr. Schoolcraft urged upon the Secretary of War the necessity of
+marking the line.<a name="anchor-344" id="anchor-344"></a><a href="#footnote-344" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 344.">344</a></p>
+
+<p>Seven thousand dollars were appropriated by the act of June 26, 1834,
+for the purpose of running this line,<a name="anchor-345" id="anchor-345"></a><a href="#footnote-345" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 345.">345</a> and the next spring Major J.
+L. Bean, accompanied <a id="Page_131" name="Page_131"></a><span class="pagenum">[131]</span> by Duncan Campbell, the Sioux interpreter of
+the agency, commenced the survey.<a name="anchor-346" id="anchor-346"></a><a href="#footnote-346" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 346.">346</a> Later an escort of troops from
+Fort Snelling was sent him under the command of Lieutenant William
+Storer, with the result that the reduced garrison was unable to enforce
+order.<a name="anchor-347" id="anchor-347"></a><a href="#footnote-347" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 347.">347</a> When the survey had been completed from the Chippewa River
+to Otter Tail Lake the return of the military escort put an end to the
+work, but the agent was of the opinion that the most important part had
+been marked.<a name="anchor-348" id="anchor-348"></a><a href="#footnote-348" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 348.">348</a></p>
+
+<p>Efforts were made by the government to keep down the warlike spirit of
+the tribes. Thus, when Captain Gale allowed the Indians to come into the
+fort and dance the scalp dance in June, 1830, his act was disapproved
+of, and he had to stand trial.<a name="anchor-349" id="anchor-349"></a><a href="#footnote-349" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 349.">349</a> Likewise peace conferences were
+fostered in order to put the seal of the authority of the government
+upon the transactions. During the winter of 1831 truces were made
+between several of the bands through the efforts of Agent
+Taliaferro.<a name="anchor-350" id="anchor-350"></a><a href="#footnote-350" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 350.">350</a> On August 2, 1843, a great gathering of the two nations
+was held at the fort, where a treaty of peace was drawn up under the
+auspices of the civil and military authorities.<a name="anchor-351" id="anchor-351"></a><a href="#footnote-351" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 351.">351</a> During the first
+year it was kept inviolate, <q>if we except two or three individual cases
+of outrage.</q><a name="anchor-352" id="anchor-352"></a><a href="#footnote-352" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 352.">352</a></p>
+
+<p>Even as late as June, 1850, an assemblage of both tribes was called
+together by Governor Ramsey. The Chippewas were encamped north of the
+fort on the bluff above the Mississippi. In front of them a detachment
+of infantry was drawn up. Within the <a id="Page_132" name="Page_132"></a><span class="pagenum">[132]</span> fort the artillery was in
+readiness. When word was sent to the Sioux that all things were ready,
+they approached, about three hundred strong, on horseback, all armed and
+painted, their whoops mingling with the jingling of their arms,
+ornaments, and the bells of their horses. Making a feint as if to rush
+around the soldiers, they suddenly wheeled to one side and became quiet;
+while the Chippewas on the other side of the line of infantry continued
+to dance and wave their weapons. It was amid such stirring war-like
+scenes that attempts for peace were made.<a name="anchor-353" id="anchor-353"></a><a href="#footnote-353" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 353.">353</a></p>
+
+<p>The earliest policy of the government had been to interfere as little as
+possible, and to allow retribution to be made by one tribe on another.
+But such inactivity did not appeal to a red-blooded officer like Colonel
+Snelling, who wrote after the trouble in 1827: <q>I have no hesitation in
+Saying that the Military on this frontier are useless for want of
+discretionary power, and that if it is not intrusted to the Commander,
+Men of Straw with Wooden Guns and Swords will answer the purpose as well
+as a Regt of Infantry.</q><a name="anchor-354" id="anchor-354"></a><a href="#footnote-354" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 354.">354</a></p>
+
+<p>But later the policy was adopted of confining in the <q>Black Hole</q> of the
+fort any culprits who were captured. Thirteen of the Sioux who
+participated in a massacre at Apple River were imprisoned;<a name="anchor-355" id="anchor-355"></a><a href="#footnote-355" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 355.">355</a> and on
+one occasion Little Crow's band performed the scalp dance near Fort
+Snelling in commemoration of the murder of two Chippewas, while the
+murderers themselves languished in the fort.<a name="anchor-356" id="anchor-356"></a><a href="#footnote-356" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 356.">356</a> Probably this method
+of dealing with the problem would <a id="Page_133" name="Page_133"></a><span class="pagenum">[133]</span> have been adopted earlier; but
+<q>the force at this point</q>, wrote an officer, <q>has been too small to send
+a sufficient force to take the offenders, even should an order to that
+effect be issued.</q><a name="anchor-357" id="anchor-357"></a><a href="#footnote-357" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 357.">357</a></p>
+
+<p>To determine how influential Fort Snelling was in maintaining order is
+impossible. As was the case with the liquor traffic, conditions were bad
+but could have been worse. From time to time there were events that
+indicated some success. After a peace had been concluded on the fourth
+of June, 1823, a small quarrel almost precipitated a general conflict on
+the sixth. Much to the chagrin of the Italian traveller, J. C. Beltrami,
+who was then a guest at the fort, the officers were successful in
+preventing bloodshed. <q>Everything conspired against my poor notes</q>, he
+wrote, <q>I had already perched myself on an eminence for the purpose of
+enriching them with an Indian battle, and behold I have nothing to write
+but this miserable article!&hellip; I almost suspected that the savages were
+in a league with the gentlemen of the fort to disappoint me.</q><a name="anchor-358" id="anchor-358"></a><a href="#footnote-358" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 358.">358</a></p>
+
+<p>Peace was maintained during the winter of 1831 on a line of three
+hundred and forty miles above and below Fort Snelling, and on one
+occasion there occurred the pleasant sight of Sioux and Chippewas
+departing in company for their hunting grounds on the Sauk River.<a name="anchor-359" id="anchor-359"></a><a href="#footnote-359" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 359.">359</a>
+Man-of-the-sky, who was chief of the Lake Calhoun band of Sioux, boasted
+that although he was only twenty-five years old at the time, he had
+already killed six Chippewas when Fort Snelling was erected, and added:
+<q>Had it not been <a id="Page_134" name="Page_134"></a><span class="pagenum">[134]</span> for that I should have killed many more, or have
+been myself killed ere this.</q><a name="anchor-360" id="anchor-360"></a><a href="#footnote-360" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 360.">360</a> It is interesting to note in
+connection with the sacredness of these treaties the comment of Major
+Taliaferro that <q>much more reliance is to be placed in the good faith of
+the <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original.">Chippeways</ins> than in that of the Sioux.</q><a name="anchor-361" id="anchor-361"></a><a href="#footnote-361" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 361.">361</a></p>
+
+<p>These spasmodic successes at least acquainted the Indians with
+governmental restraint. A paragraph from the manuscript diary of the
+agent refutes the argument that Fort Snelling intensified rather than
+alleviated these struggles. <q>From January 1833 up to this day</q>, wrote
+Taliaferro, <q>there has been no difficulty between the Sioux and
+Chippeways&mdash;I once kept these tribes at peace for two years and Six
+Months lacking 15 days. And this between the years 1821 &amp; 1825 till June
+8th of the latter year. Colonel Robert Dickson remarked to me that Such
+a thing had never occurred before even when he headed the tribes against
+Us in the War of 1812.</q><a name="anchor-362" id="anchor-362"></a><a href="#footnote-362" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 362.">362</a> </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_135" name="Page_135"></a><span class="pagenum">[135]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX<br />
+
+THE FUR TRADE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Indian trading-house which had been planned for the agency at Fort
+Snelling never materialized. Failure of the houses in operation to pay
+expenses and the opposition of the private traders led to their
+abolition in 1822. Thereafter, whatever attention the government
+directed toward the trade was influenced by the desire to prevent
+tampering with the allegiance of the Indians on the part of foreigners
+and to control this traffic which could contribute so much good or so
+much evil to the lives of the government's wards.<a name="anchor-363" id="anchor-363"></a><a href="#footnote-363" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 363.">363</a></p>
+
+<p>With the Indian trade left to the private traders, great trading
+companies developed, since the fur trade easily lent itself to the
+corporation system. Co&ouml;peration in the marketing of furs and in the
+buying of goods eliminated many of the difficulties which a single
+individual would meet. The American Fur Company, so long guided by John
+Jacob Astor, had a practical monopoly of the trade during the time that
+Old Fort Snelling was in existence. Mendota was the headquarters of a
+vast region which extended from the Mississippi to the headwaters of the
+streams flowing into the Missouri. At various places throughout this
+territory were trading posts <a id="Page_136" name="Page_136"></a><span class="pagenum">[136]</span> called <q>forts</q>, although they
+consisted of no more than a few huts within a stockade. These were all
+subsidiary to the post at Mendota.</p>
+
+<p>Goods for the Indian trade were much the same as those given as presents
+by the government officials&mdash;blankets, trinkets, tobacco, knives, and
+the like. These goods were sent in great Mackinac boats from the East to
+be distributed among the posts. Each Indian hunter received on credit
+goods valued at forty or fifty dollars in payment for which he pledged
+the spoils of his winter's hunt. If the trader did not go with his band,
+he visited them occasionally or sent his engag&eacute;s to see that they were
+hunting and that no other trader was tampering with them to secure their
+furs. In the spring the Indian would deliver furs valued at twice the
+amount of the goods received. The trading company's profit was,
+accordingly, about one hundred per cent. To carry out the details of the
+traffic there grew up within the company a complicated system of
+factors, clerks, voyageurs, and hivernants.<a name="anchor-364" id="anchor-364"></a><a href="#footnote-364" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 364.">364</a></p>
+
+<p>With the entire system of the fur trade the military officials had
+little to do except in the matter of regulation. Not much military
+protection was necessary as the Indian looked upon the trader more as a
+friend than an enemy.<a name="anchor-365" id="anchor-365"></a><a href="#footnote-365" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 365.">365</a> Care in respect to the character of the men
+engaged and supervision of the method of carrying on trade were the two
+things necessary. According to the act of March 30, 1802, which was
+supplemented by the acts of April 29, 1816, and June 30, 1834, no one
+could carry on trade <a id="Page_137" name="Page_137"></a><span class="pagenum">[137]</span> with the Indians without obtaining a license
+from an Indian agent, which was subject to revocation by the
+superintendent of the district.<a name="anchor-366" id="anchor-366"></a><a href="#footnote-366" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 366.">366</a></p>
+
+<p>Many were the problems which Major Taliaferro was obliged to consider
+when he granted a license. A license was valid for trade only at a
+certain place and among a certain tribe. The trader must be an American
+citizen. He was not allowed to carry with him any insignia of a foreign
+power. An invoice of his goods was presented to the agent, who had to
+certify to its correctness. Liquor was prohibited, and the trader was
+responsible for the conduct of all the members of his party in this
+matter. To guarantee the fulfillment of all these requirements, bond had
+to be given at the time of obtaining the permit.<a name="anchor-367" id="anchor-367"></a><a href="#footnote-367" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 367.">367</a></p>
+
+<p>To examine all the applicants, to keep in touch with them in the field,
+and to obtain the truth in regard to their conduct was enough to keep
+both agent and officers at Fort Snelling busy. In 1826 twenty-five
+licenses were granted; in 1827, eleven; in 1830, thirteen; and in 1831,
+fourteen.<a name="anchor-368" id="anchor-368"></a><a href="#footnote-368" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 368.">368</a> The amount of this trade was very large, as is indicated
+by the case of Mr. Faribault who traded on the Cannon River. One year he
+marketed 50 buffalo-robes, 39,080 muskrats, 2050 pounds of deer skins,
+125 pounds of beaver, 130 martin, 1100 mink, 663 raccoons, 331 otter, 25
+lynx, and 5 foxes.<a name="anchor-369" id="anchor-369"></a><a href="#footnote-369" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 369.">369</a></p>
+
+<p>There was a great deal of vagueness as to the application of the trade
+laws&mdash;<q>a mist of uncertainty</q> as Taliaferro called it.<a name="anchor-370" id="anchor-370"></a><a href="#footnote-370" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 370.">370</a> Governor
+Cass of Michigan <a id="Page_138" name="Page_138"></a><span class="pagenum">[138]</span> Territory allowed foreigners to enter into
+expeditions as interpreters or boatmen, who upon entering the wilderness
+took active charge of the crew and all operations.<a name="anchor-371" id="anchor-371"></a><a href="#footnote-371" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 371.">371</a> As far as Fort
+Snelling was concerned there was little call for the ejection of
+foreigners by force. In 1833 it was rumored that a foreigner was trading
+on the Sheyenne River&mdash;a tributary of the Red River. But with the
+despatch of a company of troops and the rumor of their approach, the
+culprit immediately decamped.<a name="anchor-372" id="anchor-372"></a><a href="#footnote-372" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 372.">372</a></p>
+
+<p>The building of the fort was in itself enough to impress British
+subjects with the firmness of the United States government. Joseph
+Renville, Kenneth McKenzie, and William Laidlaw, former employees of the
+English companies, in 1822 organized the Columbia Fur Company, and
+obtained a license from Major Taliaferro. In five years they had posts
+from Green Bay to the Missouri River, with their headquarters at Land's
+End, a short distance up the Minnesota River from Fort Snelling. But in
+1827 a union with the American Fur Company was brought about.<a name="anchor-373" id="anchor-373"></a><a href="#footnote-373" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 373.">373</a></p>
+
+<p>Traders licensed by the agent at Fort Snelling covered the territory as
+far west as the Missouri River. No post could be established without his
+approval; and he even attempted to regulate the form in which the
+establishment should be built.<a name="anchor-374" id="anchor-374"></a><a href="#footnote-374" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 374.">374</a> On the whole, co&ouml;peration between
+the factors of the fur companies and the officials at the post was
+desired by both parties. The most notable disagreement is that which
+existed between Alexis Bailly, the chief <a id="Page_139" name="Page_139"></a><span class="pagenum">[139]</span> factor at Mendota, and
+Major Taliaferro. This disagreement continued until September 15, 1834,
+when the agent reported that he had refused to allow Bailly to hold
+further intercourse with the natives, <q>not only in Consequence of his
+bad tongue, but on account also of his frequent Violations of the
+intercourse laws</q>. In this action he was seconded by the authorities of
+the fur company, who sent Mr. H. H. Sibley to fill Mr. Bailly's
+place.<a name="anchor-375" id="anchor-375"></a><a href="#footnote-375" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 375.">375</a> The pleasant relations which existed between Mr. Sibley and
+all the government officials&mdash;civil and military&mdash;is one of the charming
+chapters in the history of the fort.<a name="anchor-376" id="anchor-376"></a><a href="#footnote-376" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 376.">376</a></p>
+
+<p>Intimately connected with the fur trade was the liquor traffic. Not that
+the traders were always responsible for the introduction of the tabooed
+commodity, but they were connected with it to such an extent as to be
+always under suspicion. Nor was the attitude of the government
+consistent. When Pike ascended the Mississippi he spoke of the evil
+effects of rum to the chiefs who ceded to the United States the military
+reservation; but the explorer closed with the words: <q>before my
+departure I will give you some liquor to clear your throats.</q><a name="anchor-377" id="anchor-377"></a><a href="#footnote-377" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 377.">377</a> Even
+Taliaferro, foe that he was of liquor, knew its power. When a
+neighboring chief and thirty of his men visited the agency, he recorded:
+<q>After council&mdash;gave him 30 Rats Bread&mdash;50 Rats Pork&mdash;10 lbs Tobacco&mdash;3
+gallons of whiskey&mdash;the last for good Conduct towards the
+Chippeways.</q><a name="anchor-378" id="anchor-378"></a><a href="#footnote-378" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 378.">378</a></p>
+
+<p>Liquor was an important asset in carrying on the fur trade. The object
+was to please the red man, <a id="Page_140" name="Page_140"></a><span class="pagenum">[140]</span> not to stupefy him to such an extent
+that he could be swindled. With the growth of the great companies and
+the influx of numbers of private traders there were many bidders for
+each Indian's furs. Complaint was continual that the British traders
+about the Lake of the Woods successfully offered whiskey as an
+inducement to get the trade of the American Indians.<a name="anchor-379" id="anchor-379"></a><a href="#footnote-379" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 379.">379</a> Governor Cass,
+thinking it would be worse to lose the trade than admit the liquor,
+allowed its introduction, in <q>limited quantities</q>, by those engaged in
+business along the boundary.<a name="anchor-380" id="anchor-380"></a><a href="#footnote-380" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 380.">380</a> But the act of July 9, 1832, provided,
+that <q>no ardent spirits shall be hereafter introduced, under any
+pretence, into the Indian country.</q><a name="anchor-381" id="anchor-381"></a><a href="#footnote-381" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 381.">381</a> This put an end to the stock
+excuse. At the same time Americans suffered to such an extent that Mr.
+Norman W. Kittson at Pembina wanted permission to destroy all liquor and
+punish all offenders, promising <q>that very little would be introduced
+after a short time</q>.<a name="anchor-382" id="anchor-382"></a><a href="#footnote-382" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 382.">382</a> So acute was the difficulty that it became the
+subject of diplomatic correspondence with Great Britain; but the
+authorities of the Hudson's Bay Company retorted that <q>spirits are even
+clandestinely introduced into the Company's territories by citizens of
+the United States.</q><a name="anchor-383" id="anchor-383"></a><a href="#footnote-383" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 383.">383</a></p>
+
+<p>During the first years stringent measures were in force at the mouth of
+the Minnesota River. At Prairie du Chien, Taliaferro had seen the
+barrels rolled out from the river vessels and they foretold to him
+coming murders and depredations. His co&ouml;perating friend, Colonel
+Snelling, graphically described <a id="Page_141" name="Page_141"></a><span class="pagenum">[141]</span> its evil effects. <q>Herds of
+Indians</q>, he said, <q>are drawn together by the fascinations of whisky,
+and they exhibit the most degraded picture of human nature I ever
+witnessed.</q><a name="anchor-384" id="anchor-384"></a><a href="#footnote-384" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 384.">384</a> The drunken Indian did not molest the trader; his
+peaceful fellow-tribesman suffered more. <q>An Indian killed at Al [?]
+Faribault's Trading house&mdash;whiskey was given the Indian for his furs&mdash;by
+Mr. F.&mdash;The deceased then invited one of his friends to drink with
+him&mdash;the invitation was accepted&mdash;when this friend becoming inflamed
+with the Liquor very inhospitably sunk his Tomahawk into the head of his
+host&mdash;whiskey it is said does no harm in the Trade by persons
+interested&mdash;but the foregoing is only one of the many hundred fatal
+occurrences from its use in procuring furs unlawfully.</q><a name="anchor-385" id="anchor-385"></a><a href="#footnote-385" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 385.">385</a></p>
+
+<p>In fact, the Indians were continually agitated. If they received the
+spirits they naturally revelled. When their supply was exhausted they
+raged and fumed until they secured more. Sometimes the disease was more
+desirable than the cure. <q>I have thus far seen but few of the indians of
+this place and I am in hopes of passing on North without much trouble
+there has just arrived a fresh supply of whiskey which will keep them
+busy for a few days and by that time my carts will be almost out of
+their reach.</q><a name="anchor-386" id="anchor-386"></a><a href="#footnote-386" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 386.">386</a></p>
+
+<p>The eagerness for liquor on the part of the Indians made its
+introduction all the more easy. For it they were willing to pay much:
+eight horses were at one time exchanged for eight kegs of whiskey,<a name="anchor-387" id="anchor-387"></a><a href="#footnote-387" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 387.">387</a>
+and the <a id="Page_142" name="Page_142"></a><span class="pagenum">[142]</span> current rate at which it sold is indicated by the
+complaint which a Chippewa chief poured into the ears of the agent: <q>My
+Father&mdash;Is it right for our traders to make us pay 200 Musk Rats, and 3
+otters for a 3 gallon keg of mixed whiskey?</q><a name="anchor-388" id="anchor-388"></a><a href="#footnote-388" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 388.">388</a> They would undergo
+extreme physical suffering, lying out in the rain and wading rivers and
+swamps, to bring the precious liquid to their villages.<a name="anchor-389" id="anchor-389"></a><a href="#footnote-389" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 389.">389</a></p>
+
+<p>The officers were never successful in entirely banishing the prohibited
+article. Conditions depended upon the eagerness of the military and
+civil agents, on the number of soldiers stationed at the fort, and on
+the wiliness of the culprits. On one occasion liquor <q>was found secreted
+in barrels of corn, buried on the beach and in other secret places, and
+destroyed.</q><a name="anchor-390" id="anchor-390"></a><a href="#footnote-390" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 390.">390</a></p>
+
+<p>Major Taliaferro was not lax in enforcing the laws. Every boat passing
+Fort Snelling was searched, and no liquor was allowed to enter the
+Indian country.<a name="anchor-391" id="anchor-391"></a><a href="#footnote-391" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 391.">391</a> A few stray references seem to indicate what was a
+usual occupation of the troops. <q>The Sub Agent Mr. Grooms left with 10
+men on his 2d expedition below Lake Pepin in quest of whiskey
+Smuglers&mdash;as our Indians even entering the country with it from Prairie
+du Chiens and the Traders of the Am Fur Cpy are geting whiskey over the
+country by land and water</q>.<a name="anchor-392" id="anchor-392"></a><a href="#footnote-392" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 392.">392</a> During May, 1827, the agent called the
+attention of Colonel Josiah Snelling to the fact that in Mr. Bailly's
+store at Mendota there was whiskey which had been introduced into the
+Indian country contrary to law. Accordingly <a id="Page_143" name="Page_143"></a><span class="pagenum">[143]</span> a detachment of
+soldiers was sent under the command of Lieutenant J. B. F. Rupel, who
+succeeded in finding two barrels which were taken away and stored in the
+fort.<a name="anchor-393" id="anchor-393"></a><a href="#footnote-393" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 393.">393</a></p>
+
+<p>The year 1832 saw especial activity in the destruction of liquor. The
+boat of one trader passed up the Mississippi during April, having on
+board eighteen barrels of whiskey.<a name="anchor-394" id="anchor-394"></a><a href="#footnote-394" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 394.">394</a> Later in the season the
+vigilance of the officers had direct results. In July eleven kegs of
+high wines, very strong in quality, and in quantity amounting to one
+hundred and ten gallons, were taken from the boat of Hazen Moores by
+Captain J. Vail. The value of this liquor was $330. In October of the
+same year, five kegs of high wines and one keg of whiskey were found by
+Lieutenant I. K. Greenough in the boat of Louis Provencalle. These
+confiscated kegs were stored in the fort, and an interesting side-light
+on their ultimate fate is contained in the report of Major Taliaferro <q>I
+am of opinion</q>, he wrote, <q>from what I hear that the High Wines, and
+Whiskey Seized by Lieuts Vail and Greenough, and in Store here will soon
+be of little account in Consequence of loss by leakage, and the property
+Not in charge of any responsible person&mdash;Other than its mere deposite
+in the public store.</q> Whether any efforts were made to stop the leaks is
+not mentioned.<a name="anchor-395" id="anchor-395"></a><a href="#footnote-395" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 395.">395</a></p>
+
+<p>These energetic movements caused <q>consternation among those natives who
+have not yet joined the temperance <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original.">Societties</ins></q>.<a name="anchor-396" id="anchor-396"></a><a href="#footnote-396" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 396.">396</a> But they also
+caused violent opposition from the men whose goods had been <a id="Page_144" name="Page_144"></a><span class="pagenum">[144]</span>
+seized. These traders commenced a suit in the courts at Prairie du Chien
+against the commanding officer at Fort Snelling, arguing that while the
+law prohibited the introduction of liquor into the Indian country, this
+seizure had been made on the Mississippi River&mdash;<q>a common highway open
+to all the Citizens of the United States</q>.<a name="anchor-397" id="anchor-397"></a><a href="#footnote-397" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 397.">397</a></p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to follow the course of the whiskey traffic through its
+ups and downs. Numerous cases are recorded where the soldiers <q>knocked
+in the head</q> the whiskey barrels.<a name="anchor-398" id="anchor-398"></a><a href="#footnote-398" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 398.">398</a> But it was probably true, as the
+missionary S. R. Riggs wrote from Lac qui Parle on June 15, 1847, to the
+Indian agent: <q>The whiskey destroyed by the efforts of yourself and the
+commanding officer at Fort Snelling forms the glorious exception, and
+not the rule.</q><a name="anchor-399" id="anchor-399"></a><a href="#footnote-399" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 399.">399</a></p>
+
+<p>Under the regulations existing in 1830 the traders were allowed to take
+with them into the Indian country one gallon per month for every person
+engaged in the party. Under plea of this they brought in high wines
+which were later diluted with water and distributed among the Indians.
+Of the amount brought in, the employees actually saw only one-third, and
+this they paid for at the rate of from eight to sixteen dollars per
+gallon.<a name="anchor-400" id="anchor-400"></a><a href="#footnote-400" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 400.">400</a> Accordingly, Major Taliaferro issued a circular letter in
+which he stated that high wines and whiskey would be allowed to be
+brought in <q>in no case whatever</q>.<a name="anchor-401" id="anchor-401"></a><a href="#footnote-401" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 401.">401</a> Actions such as these by the
+agent, who was still a young man, brought about the remark which Mr.
+Aitkin, a trader among the Chippewas, is reported to have made to <a id="Page_145" name="Page_145"></a><span class="pagenum">[145]</span>
+some chiefs: <q>The Medals and Flags which you received at St Peters are
+nothing more than pewter and dish rags, and were given to you by a boy,
+and with a boys paw.</q><a name="anchor-402" id="anchor-402"></a><a href="#footnote-402" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 402.">402</a></p>
+
+<p>Much of the good which should have resulted from the activities of the
+officers was lost because the Indian could not be punished. If liquor
+was found in his possession and seized there was nothing to prevent his
+going back and obtaining more, taking the chance of being more
+successful in evading the authorities the second time.<a name="anchor-403" id="anchor-403"></a><a href="#footnote-403" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 403.">403</a> Accordingly
+prevention as well as cure was tried, and Captain Eastman, Mr. Sibley,
+and others sought, with some success, to persuade the Indians to refuse
+to accept liquor.<a name="anchor-404" id="anchor-404"></a><a href="#footnote-404" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 404.">404</a> Two years later the Indian agent, R. G. Murphy,
+organized a temperance society among the Sioux, who, an observer stated,
+were careful in living up to the pledge when once taken; and added, <q>One
+such man as Major Murphy does more <em>real, practical good</em> than all the
+missionary societies of New York and Boston.</q><a name="anchor-405" id="anchor-405"></a><a href="#footnote-405" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 405.">405</a> </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_146" name="Page_146"></a><span class="pagenum">[146]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X<br />
+
+SOLDIERS OF THE CROSS</h2>
+
+
+<p>Since the days of Father Marquette the Mississippi Valley has owed much
+to the missionaries. Parkman has recounted their sufferings and their
+glorious achievements in discovery, in exploration, and in inspiring
+others with their stories of the wonderful West. But when the
+black-robed Jesuit departed, and mass was no longer said in the log
+chapels about the lakes and tributary streams, the influence of
+Christianity still abided. There came a new generation of soldiers of
+the cross who served the great valley in a later stage of development as
+unselfishly and as thoroughly as their predecessors had done in the
+earlier days.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian in the Northwest in 1830 was not unacquainted with or hostile
+to the whites; he did not fall down in awe to worship one of a different
+color. His grandfather had traded with the wandering traveller who often
+lived a whole winter in the village, and with his tribe had visited the
+great commercial center at Mackinac. His father remembered the day when
+the second class of strangers entered&mdash;the uniformed soldiers led by
+Pike&mdash;and now the sound of the big gun in the fort at the mouth of the
+Minnesota was no longer a dread portent. <a id="Page_147" name="Page_147"></a><span class="pagenum">[147]</span></p>
+
+<p>But the missionary was a novelty. His purpose was unknown. He did not
+ask for furs; he did not stealthily give them whiskey; he did not come
+to summon them to councils at the agent's house; and he did not ask for
+cessions of land. If they would respect the white man's <q>medicine
+day</q><a name="anchor-406" id="anchor-406"></a><a href="#footnote-406" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 406.">406</a> and let their boys and girls attend the school, if they would
+listen patiently while he talked to them of things they did not
+understand, this newcomer was content. Out in the woods he cleared a
+patch of ground and grew corn. If the red men wanted to help he was very
+glad. When the winter storms came, and game was scarce, and the small
+supply of corn that the squaws had safely cached in the fall was eaten,
+then the missionary helped them in their difficulty. He often went with
+them on their hunts, shared all their privations, and eased their pain
+if accident or sickness befell them. As the activities of the mission
+broadened and its personnel enlarged, the Indian became more and more
+acquainted with whites who lived on farms and tilled the soil. So when
+at last the land was opened to settlement, the transition from the
+missionary's establishment to that of the American farmer was not
+sudden.</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written of the degeneration which came to the Indians
+about a fort through their association with the soldiers. That such
+degeneration did result is true, but it came about in spite of the
+efforts of the officers. On the other hand, distinct steps were taken to
+improve the condition of the neighboring tribes; and although these
+efforts were <a id="Page_148" name="Page_148"></a><span class="pagenum">[148]</span> soon transferred to the missionaries, yet these
+missionaries depended so much on support and encouragement from the
+soldiers that their enterprises may be considered as part of the history
+of Fort Snelling. The freedom from annoyance enjoyed by the missionaries
+living near the fort as compared with those at a distance indicates the
+influence of the post.<a name="anchor-407" id="anchor-407"></a><a href="#footnote-407" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 407.">407</a></p>
+
+<p>Soon after Fort Snelling was established, Taliaferro attempted to
+persuade some Indians to undertake farming in order to supplement their
+hunting. But they preferred leaving this work to the rather desultory
+efforts of the squaws. One chief, however, remembered the advice during
+the next winter. Far out on the plains that border on the Missouri River
+he and his party were overtaken by a blizzard. Each one wrapped himself
+in his blanket and let the snow drift about and over him. With a little
+dried buffalo meat which they divided among them, they kept alive until
+the storm was over. While lying here, knowing not whether his companions
+were dead or alive, expecting himself to be a victim of either the cold
+or hunger or both, Chief Cloud Man resolved that if he ever returned to
+the vicinity of Fort Snelling he would not depend entirely upon the hunt
+for his living, but would also engage in farming under the direction of
+the Indian agent. This was no mere death-bed conversion. Many of his
+companions refused to follow him in the movement; other chiefs openly
+opposed him; but in the spring eight Indians settled upon the shores of
+Lake Calhoun to begin the life of agriculturists. This community <a id="Page_149" name="Page_149"></a><span class="pagenum">[149]</span>
+was named Eatonville in honor of Secretary of War John H. Eaton.<a name="anchor-408" id="anchor-408"></a><a href="#footnote-408" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 408.">408</a></p>
+
+<p>On September 1, 1829, there arrived at the fort, the Reverend Alvan Coe
+and the Reverend Jedediah I. Stevens, two missionaries on a religious
+exploring expedition to locate a site for an establishment. They bore
+with them letters of introduction from Joseph M. Street, the agent at
+Prairie du Chien, who commended them to Taliaferro's care with a
+convincing array of scriptural quotations.<a name="anchor-409" id="anchor-409"></a><a href="#footnote-409" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 409.">409</a> The agent offered them
+the use of the buildings connected with the grist mill and the saw mill
+at the Falls and his own colony at Eatonville. After preaching a few
+times to the garrison, the ministers left. It was not until 1835 that
+Mr. Stevens located permanently near the post.<a name="anchor-410" id="anchor-410"></a><a href="#footnote-410" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 410.">410</a></p>
+
+<p>Major Taliaferro was left alone to carry on the difficult enterprise of
+civilizing the natives. In 1830 he wrote to the Secretary of War telling
+of the progress he had made and of his plans for a log village in which
+the Indians could live, instead of in the flimsy bark houses, and a log
+house for the protection of the Indians' property. He begged for
+financial aid, saying that <q>Six or eight hundred dollars would mature
+what has happily been begun, and this sum from the Civilization fund
+would enable me to progress with great efficiency, and without further
+tax on the Government.</q><a name="anchor-411" id="anchor-411"></a><a href="#footnote-411" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 411.">411</a> The need for his supervision was constant.
+From his diary can be seen how continual was his interest in the
+experiment. On April 18, 1831, he ordered the hoes and plows <a id="Page_150" name="Page_150"></a><span class="pagenum">[150]</span>
+repaired, and on May 1 he went to the colony taking the implements with
+him. Here he found <q>most of them at work&mdash;Cuting down trees, Grubbing
+out the roots &amp;c&mdash;What was more encouraging some few of the Men were at
+this unusual kind of labour for them&mdash;they laughed when they saw Me&mdash;I
+praised them, in every agreable way that could be conveyed to them in
+their language.</q> Again on June 8th he was pleased to see the Indians all
+at work hoeing their corn and potatoes.<a name="anchor-412" id="anchor-412"></a><a href="#footnote-412" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 412.">412</a></p>
+
+<p>The success of the colony was gratifying. In 1833 they raised from eight
+hundred to a thousand bushels of corn, and the population of the village
+was one hundred and twenty-five. Only one death had occurred in three
+years.<a name="anchor-413" id="anchor-413"></a><a href="#footnote-413" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 413.">413</a> There was much to contend with, however, since the traders
+were <q>violently opposed to Indians commencing to seek a living in this
+way.</q><a name="anchor-414" id="anchor-414"></a><a href="#footnote-414" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 414.">414</a> One trader stated that it was a loss to him of five hundred
+dollars whenever an Indian learned to read and write.<a name="anchor-415" id="anchor-415"></a><a href="#footnote-415" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 415.">415</a></p>
+
+<p>With all his duties it is no wonder that the agent was anxious to
+receive the help of the missionaries, and although he was himself <q>a
+Deacon in the <q>Old School Presbyterian Church</q></q>,<a name="anchor-416" id="anchor-416"></a><a href="#footnote-416" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 416.">416</a> his basis for
+aiding the red men, as he expressed it in a report, was that he had
+<q>endeavored to impress all missionaries with the true fact that
+Christianity must be preceded by civilization among the wild tribes. I
+hazard nothing in this, for an Indian must be taught all the <em>temporal</em>
+benefits of this life first, before you ask him to seek for eternal
+happiness; teach him to worship <a id="Page_151" name="Page_151"></a><span class="pagenum">[151]</span> the true and living God through
+the self-evident developments of his mother earth. In fine, let
+agriculture and the arts precede the preaching of the gospel, after
+which, Christianity inculcate if practicable.</q><a name="anchor-417" id="anchor-417"></a><a href="#footnote-417" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 417.">417</a></p>
+
+<p>The men who were to be Taliaferro's first helpers were living in the
+little village of Washington, Connecticut&mdash;two brothers, one
+twenty-three years old and the other twenty-one. Here a great revival
+occurred and among those whose lives were changed were Samuel Pond and
+Gideon Pond. The next year the older of the two went to the West and
+drifted into the frontier town of Galena. Hearing from a traveller from
+Red River of the Sioux about Fort Snelling he decided to dedicate his
+life to uplifting them. Upon broaching the subject to his brother the
+latter agreed, and on May 1, 1834, they left Galena on the <q>Warrior</q>. No
+missionary society was supporting them; they had only a little money;
+they did not know a word of the <q>Dakota</q> tongue; they were uneducated
+for missionary work. Living the roving life of the Indians as members of
+the tribe, they hoped to be able to gradually influence their lives and
+religion.<a name="anchor-418" id="anchor-418"></a><a href="#footnote-418" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 418.">418</a></p>
+
+<p>On May 6, 1834, the <q>Warrior</q> reached Fort Snelling. At the agency
+house, Mr. Grooms, who was the acting agent in the absence of Major
+Taliaferro, rented them a room. Major Bliss, then in command at the
+fort, immediately summoned them to appear before him and explain their
+presence in the Indian country without permission.<a name="anchor-419" id="anchor-419"></a><a href="#footnote-419" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 419.">419</a> When he heard of
+<a id="Page_152" name="Page_152"></a><span class="pagenum">[152]</span> their plans, they fitted immediately into a problem that had been
+puzzling him. Big Thunder, chief of the Kaposia village, wanted to raise
+more corn. But by using the customary Indian method of hoeing up the
+ground before planting, it was impossible to get much land under
+cultivation. At Fort Snelling were oxen and a plow, but there was no one
+to do the plowing or teach the art to the Indians. Accordingly Samuel
+Pond volunteered to take charge of the proposition.</p>
+
+<p>The plow was taken down the river in a canoe, while the oxen were driven
+by land. But the warriors were reluctant about touching the plow until
+Big Thunder, chief of the band, had seized the handles himself. For a
+week Samuel Pond continued the work. But the dogs had stolen the
+provisions he had taken from the fort, and so he was obliged not only to
+sleep in the Indian tepee, but also to live upon the ordinary Indian
+fare.<a name="anchor-420" id="anchor-420"></a><a href="#footnote-420" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 420.">420</a></p>
+
+<p>This task of plowing had just been performed when Major Taliaferro
+returned from the East. The success of the work done by Big Thunder led
+him to ask the Ponds to take charge of the Eatonville colony. As this
+would give them an opportunity of carrying out their plans, the brothers
+accepted. Their position is indicated by the following entry in
+Taliaferro's diary: <q>I am to furnish out of my private funds&mdash;Hay for
+the Oxen&mdash;belonging to the Indians, &amp; those young men are to have Charge
+of them for the Winter&mdash;They will plough some this fall and again in the
+Spring for the Indians, &amp; go on <a id="Page_153" name="Page_153"></a><span class="pagenum">[153]</span> thereafter to instruct them in
+the arts &amp; habits of civilized life.</q><a name="anchor-421" id="anchor-421"></a><a href="#footnote-421" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 421.">421</a></p>
+
+<p>Cloud Man, chief of the Calhoun band of Indians, chose a site near the
+lake, where a cabin was erected which cost a shilling&mdash;for nails. The
+walls were of tamarack logs from a neighboring grove; slabs obtained at
+the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony furnished a roof; and Major
+Taliaferro presented the missionaries with a window. Major Bliss gave
+them some potatoes, and Mrs. Bliss presented them with a ham. Knowing
+the thievishness of the natives, the Indian agent also added a padlock
+to the newly-finished cabin.<a name="anchor-422" id="anchor-422"></a><a href="#footnote-422" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 422.">422</a></p>
+
+<p>Near the house about four acres of land were cleared and fenced with
+logs. A quarter of a mile distant was the Indian village of fourteen
+bark lodges, each containing two or three families. This village was
+surrounded by corn fields and was reached through a narrow lane made by
+putting up posts and tying poles to them with strips of bark.<a name="anchor-423" id="anchor-423"></a><a href="#footnote-423" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 423.">423</a>
+According to Featherstonhaugh, who visited the establishment a year
+later, thirty acres were under cultivation and the yield of corn
+amounted to eight hundred bushels. It is interesting to note that this
+critical traveller found only one thing about Fort Snelling to commend
+and that was the self-sacrifice of the two Pond brothers.<a name="anchor-424" id="anchor-424"></a><a href="#footnote-424" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 424.">424</a></p>
+
+<p>They entered immediately into the life of the Indians. An extract from a
+letter written by one of the brothers shows the wide variety of their
+duties. <q>One Indian,</q> he said, <q>has been here to borrow my <a id="Page_154" name="Page_154"></a><span class="pagenum">[154]</span> axe,
+another to have me help him split a stick; another now interrupts me to
+borrow my hatchet; another has been here after a trap which he left with
+me; another is now before my window at work with his axe, while the
+women and children are screaming to drive the black-birds from their
+corn. Again I am interrupted by one who tells me that the Indians are
+going to play ball near our house to-day. Hundreds assemble on such
+occasions.</q><a name="anchor-425" id="anchor-425"></a><a href="#footnote-425" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 425.">425</a></p>
+
+<p>The work that was thus started soon expanded. In the spring of 1835 Rev.
+Thomas Smith Williamson arrived at Fort Snelling with his wife, a child,
+Miss Sarah Poage, and Alexander G. Huggins. At about the same time Rev.
+Jedediah I. Stevens returned to the post he had visited in 1829, and
+with the help of the Pond brothers built a mission school at Lake
+Harriet. Dr. Williamson went up the Minnesota River to Lac qui Parle,
+where another station was established. On May 19, 1837, Rev. Alfred
+Brunson came to Fort Snelling for a similar purpose, and after
+consulting with the agent and the commandant he chose the village of
+Kaposia for his headquarters. But these mission stations and their
+personnel were not permanent. The work of the Ponds was soon amalgamated
+with that of Mr. Stevens. In 1839 when the Sioux-Chippewa feuds were at
+their height and the Indians were afraid to remain at Lake Calhoun, Mr.
+Stevens tore down the little cabin the Ponds had built and used the
+material for breastworks and moved down the river to Wabasha's
+village&mdash;outside the influence of Fort Snelling. At <a id="Page_155" name="Page_155"></a><span class="pagenum">[155]</span> the same time
+the Ponds moved nearer the fort, where they remained until in 1842 they
+established a mission at Oak Grove, eight miles up the Minnesota River.
+This same war spirit and the hostility to the missionaries who preached
+against it led to the abandonment of the Kaposia enterprise in 1841. In
+1846, however, Little Crow asked for a school, and Dr. Williamson came
+from Lac qui Parle to take charge of it. These missions remained in
+existence throughout the period of Old Fort Snelling.<a name="anchor-426" id="anchor-426"></a><a href="#footnote-426" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 426.">426</a></p>
+
+<p>The activities of the missions took on two forms&mdash;industrial and
+educational. By the treaty of 1837 a farmer was provided for the Sioux
+about the fort. This position was offered to Gideon Pond who in 1838
+accepted. In return for his salary of six hundred dollars he had to plow
+the cornfields, cut hay for the cattle and feed them during the winter,
+and build such shelters as the animals might need. As he could not do
+all this work alone&mdash;and he wanted it thoroughly done&mdash;much of his
+salary was spent in hiring others to help him. His services were offered
+in the same spirit of sacrifice which first brought him to the
+region.<a name="anchor-427" id="anchor-427"></a><a href="#footnote-427" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 427.">427</a></p>
+
+<p>Blacksmiths were maintained at some of the villages. In 1849 Mr. Chatel,
+blacksmith for Good Road's village, made among other things, 73 chains
+to hang kettles on for cooking, 23 traps, 230 axes, 50 rat spears, 208
+pairs of fish spears, 24 pairs of stirrups, 63 crooked knives, and 199
+hoes. During the same year, Mr. Robertson, the farmer for Little Crow's
+village, ploughed 75 acres of land, made 500 <a id="Page_156" name="Page_156"></a><span class="pagenum">[156]</span> yards of fence, put
+up 20 tons of hay, and hauled corn for seventeen days. To be sure,
+Robertson and Chatel were not missionaries, but they were part of the
+movement for civilizing the Indians which was fostered and encouraged by
+the officers of the fort.<a name="anchor-428" id="anchor-428"></a><a href="#footnote-428" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 428.">428</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1837 at Lake Harriet there was an Indian boarding-school, where some
+half dozen half-breed girls were learning to read, write, and sew.<a name="anchor-429" id="anchor-429"></a><a href="#footnote-429" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 429.">429</a>
+The Pond brothers had made the beginnings of an alphabet of the Sioux
+language, and books and primers for the use of the scholars were soon
+printed.<a name="anchor-430" id="anchor-430"></a><a href="#footnote-430" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 430.">430</a> At all the stations surrounding Fort Snelling schools were
+maintained, but here as elsewhere <q>the children in pleasant weather
+prefer playing to reading</q>.<a name="anchor-431" id="anchor-431"></a><a href="#footnote-431" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 431.">431</a> Some progress was made, however, as is
+indicated by the school reports. In 1851 at the school maintained at
+Kaposia it is reported that Daniel Renville, Gustavus A. Robertson,
+Rosalie Renville, and Fat Duty Win can spell and read in English in
+<em>McGuffy's Eclectic Primer</em>, and can spell and read in the Sioux
+language in <em>Wowape Metawa</em>.<a name="anchor-432" id="anchor-432"></a><a href="#footnote-432" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 432.">432</a></p>
+
+<p>The success of these pioneer efforts depended much on the encouragement
+received at the beginning; and by a coincidence this encouragement was
+brought about the second summer that the Ponds were in the vicinity.
+During the winter Major Gustavus Loomis initiated <q>a red-hot revival
+among <ins class="corr" title="Double word in original.">the</ins> soldiers</q>, and although many of the converts backslid with the
+simultaneous appearance of spring and whiskey,<a name="anchor-433" id="anchor-433"></a><a href="#footnote-433" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 433.">433</a> yet there were so
+many that remained <a id="Page_157" name="Page_157"></a><span class="pagenum">[157]</span> faithful that on June 11, 1835, when Dr.
+Williamson arrived, a church was organized in one of the company rooms
+at Fort Snelling. This church was composed of soldiers, missionaries,
+and fur traders and was a basis of support in the difficult task of
+civilizing the Indians.<a name="anchor-434" id="anchor-434"></a><a href="#footnote-434" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 434.">434</a> The officers protected and encouraged the
+workers under all circumstances, the post doctor gave his services to
+them free, and once a month Mr. Stevens preached at the fort.<a name="anchor-435" id="anchor-435"></a><a href="#footnote-435" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 435.">435</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1838 the church was strengthened by the appointment of a chaplain,
+Rev. Ezekiel Gear of Galena. But on December 11, 1838, as he was leaving
+Fort Crawford in a sleigh, the horse started up sooner than was expected
+and he was thrown out, breaking his right thigh bone. He was kept at the
+hospital at Fort Crawford for some months and did not arrive at Fort
+Snelling until April 28, 1839.<a name="anchor-436" id="anchor-436"></a><a href="#footnote-436" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 436.">436</a> As there was no room large enough to
+hold all the soldiers, they were at first not compelled to attend the
+services. In 1841, however, the chaplain reported that all the soldiers
+attended regularly, but answered feebly to the responses, although the
+chaplain believed they were attentive to what was said. These movements,
+which were undertaken to elevate the character of the soldiers, could
+not but have an effect upon the success of the missionaries.<a name="anchor-437" id="anchor-437"></a><a href="#footnote-437" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 437.">437</a></p>
+
+<p>Under the protection of Fort Snelling efforts were also made to do
+religious work among the fur traders. The inhabitants of Mendota were
+old voyageurs and traders, French and half-breeds, and most of them,
+having lived long without the ministrations of the church, remembered
+the faith of their <a id="Page_158" name="Page_158"></a><span class="pagenum">[158]</span> childhood days in Canada. When in 1838 the
+Minnesota country west of the Mississippi was made a part of the
+Territory of Iowa, the Diocese of Dubuque was extended to correspond
+with the political area. In the following summer Bishop Loras of Dubuque
+visited the upper Mississippi and was entertained at the fort and by the
+faithful Catholics at Mendota. These amounted in number to one hundred
+and eighty-five, fifty-six of whom were baptized, eight were confirmed,
+and four couples were given the nuptial benediction. The need for
+permanent work was great. Plans were made to bring one or two Sioux to
+Dubuque to pass the winter and teach the language to some worker. In the
+spring of 1840 Rev. Lucian Galtier was sent up to be the pastor of this
+flock.<a name="anchor-438" id="anchor-438"></a><a href="#footnote-438" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 438.">438</a></p>
+
+<p>It was often with despair that the missionaries saw the Indians still
+clinging to their heathen rites, and the few additions to the churches
+do not indicate any great transformation of an Indian nation. But if the
+lives of the natives were not elevated by their contact with the whites
+it was not because they had no opportunity. The forces which led to
+their degeneration had the start of the civilizing forces, and they also
+appealed more to the Indian's nature. At the same time both romance and
+lustre is added to the relations of Old Fort Snelling with the
+surrounding Indians by the story of the attempts of the men who had a
+vision of what Indian life could be, and who unselfishly tried to make
+that vision a reality, encouraged and supported by the military men at
+the fort. </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_159" name="Page_159"></a><span class="pagenum">[159]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI<br />
+
+THE FASHIONABLE TOUR</h2>
+
+
+<p>George Catlin, whose wanderings in the West had acquainted him with the
+most beautiful and the most accessible scenic spots of the country,
+urged upon his readers the adoption of a trip to the Falls of St.
+Anthony as the <q>Fashionable Tour</q>.<a name="anchor-439" id="anchor-439"></a><a href="#footnote-439" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 439.">439</a> Primitive life and unspoiled
+landscapes could be seen from the comfortable decks of the steamboat.
+The objective point of these trips was the Falls of St. Anthony, but it
+was at Fort Snelling that the passengers were dropped. Only because of
+the necessity of bringing supplies to the troops at the post did the
+steamboats make the journey. It is in the writings of these visitors
+that there have been preserved many pictures of life in and about Fort
+Snelling. Moreover, these visits from the outside world brought pleasure
+and satisfaction to the smaller world about the fort.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of May, 1823, occurred an event which was epochal, not only
+in regard to the commercial development of the Northwest, but also in
+respect to the growth of the upper Mississippi as a Mecca for
+travellers. The steamboat <q>Virginia</q>, one hundred and twenty feet long
+with a twenty foot beam, commanded by Captain Crawford, left St. Louis
+with supplies for Fort Snelling; on the tenth <a id="Page_160" name="Page_160"></a><span class="pagenum">[160]</span> of May it was
+received by the soldiers at the fort with a salute of cannon and by the
+assembled Indians with awe and consternation.<a name="anchor-440" id="anchor-440"></a><a href="#footnote-440" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 440.">440</a> <q>I know not what
+impression the first sight of the Phoenician vessels might make on the
+inhabitants of the coasts of Greece,</q> wrote one who was a passenger on
+that eventful voyage, <q>or the Triremi of the Romans on the natives of
+Iberia, Gaul, or Britain; but I am sure it could not be stronger than
+that which I saw on the countenances of these savages at the arrival of
+our steam-boat.</q><a name="anchor-441" id="anchor-441"></a><a href="#footnote-441" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 441.">441</a></p>
+
+<p>The man who wrote these words was J. C. Beltrami, an Italian refugee,
+who for political reasons had fled from his native land. In 1823 he met
+Major Taliaferro at Pittsburgh and requested permission to accompany him
+to the Falls of St. Anthony. This was granted, and in company with the
+Indian agent he arrived at Fort Snelling on the first steamboat to brave
+the current of the upper Mississippi.<a name="anchor-442" id="anchor-442"></a><a href="#footnote-442" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 442.">442</a> Here for almost two months he
+was entertained by the officials at the post, visiting the Indian bands,
+attending their councils, writing letters to <q>My Dear Countess</q>,<a name="anchor-443" id="anchor-443"></a><a href="#footnote-443" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 443.">443</a>
+and conversing with Mrs. Snelling who alone could speak French with
+him.<a name="anchor-444" id="anchor-444"></a><a href="#footnote-444" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 444.">444</a> He was on the point of setting out overland for Council Bluffs
+when another party arrived at the post.</p>
+
+<p>In the list of the exploring expeditions which traversed the region
+about the head of Lake Superior, by far the most important was the one
+led by Stephen H. Long and conducted under the auspices of the War
+Department. The permanent members of the <a id="Page_161" name="Page_161"></a><span class="pagenum">[161]</span> party were Major Long of
+the Topographical Engineers, Thomas Say, zo&ouml;logist and antiquary,
+William H. Keating, mineralogist and geologist, Samuel Seymour,
+landscape painter and designer, and James E. Colhoun, astronomer and
+assistant topographer. The start was made at Philadelphia on April 30,
+1823, and the route led by way of Wheeling and Chicago to Fort Crawford
+at Prairie du Chien. From this point Major Long and Mr. Colhoun
+travelled by land and the others by water, the two parties arriving at
+the fort on July 2nd and July 3rd respectively. After a few days wait
+the journey was again resumed late on the afternoon of July 9th.<a name="anchor-445" id="anchor-445"></a><a href="#footnote-445" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 445.">445</a></p>
+
+<p>In the meantime much had been done. The orders issued to Major Long had
+authorized him to call upon the commanding officer at any post for men,
+horses, camp equipage, provisions, boats, clothing, medicines, and goods
+to the value of three hundred dollars to be distributed among the
+Indians.<a name="anchor-446" id="anchor-446"></a><a href="#footnote-446" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 446.">446</a> Biscuits were baked in the ovens of the fort; Joseph
+Renville was engaged as an interpreter; and the detachment of troops
+which had accompanied them from Prairie du Chien was exchanged for a new
+guard, consisting of a sergeant, two corporals, and eighteen soldiers
+under the command of Lieutenant St. Clair Denny.<a name="anchor-447" id="anchor-447"></a><a href="#footnote-447" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 447.">447</a></p>
+
+<p>But these preparations did not prevent them from enjoying the scenic
+views about Fort Snelling. On the sixth of July a walk was taken to the
+Falls of St. Anthony. An island in the river which divided the falls
+into two parts tempted Mr. Say, Mr. Colhoun, <a id="Page_162" name="Page_162"></a><span class="pagenum">[162]</span> and Mr. Keating to
+cross, the water being only two feet deep. But the ford was located only
+a few feet above the ledge of the rock, and the slippery footing
+rendered the exploit extremely dangerous. When this had been safely
+accomplished, Mr. Say and Mr. Colhoun crossed in the same way the
+eastern half of the falls, while Mr. Keating with great difficulty
+returned to the western bank. Later when the others were crossing the
+dangerous passage, they were seen to be in great difficulties whereupon
+one of the soldiers went out and aided them to the shore. Only after
+they had been strengthened by a dinner, prepared by the old sergeant who
+was in charge of the government mills, were they able to return to the
+fort.<a name="anchor-448" id="anchor-448"></a><a href="#footnote-448" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 448.">448</a></p>
+
+<p>The expedition went up the Minnesota River to its source, then down the
+Red River to Lake Winnipeg and returned to the East by way of the fur
+trader's route along the international boundary and Lake Superior. Fear
+of the Indians living about the mouth of the Blue Earth River, one of
+whose number had been arrested and sent to St. Louis for murder, had
+suggested the necessity of the military escort. But when the place was
+reached no trouble resulted, as the Indians had gone on their summer
+hunt. Accordingly nine of the soldiers were sent back with canoes&mdash;some
+of the supplies having been destroyed by accidents. Those who remained
+had no easy task. There were only nine horses, and these were reserved
+for the officers and <q>gentlemen</q> of the company, so that the privates
+were obliged to walk.<a name="anchor-449" id="anchor-449"></a><a href="#footnote-449" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 449.">449</a> <a id="Page_163" name="Page_163"></a><span class="pagenum">[163]</span></p>
+
+<p>On August 9th when the party left Pembina behind, their number had
+dwindled. Joseph Snelling, son of Colonel Snelling, who had gone with
+them thus far, returned by the same route with three soldiers. J. C.
+Beltrami, who had been allowed to cast his lot with theirs, and who had
+been equipped and supplied by the Indian agent, who had presented him
+with the <q>noble steed <q>Cadmus</q></q>,<a name="anchor-450" id="anchor-450"></a><a href="#footnote-450" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 450.">450</a> also left them. In company with
+two Chippewas and a <em>bois-brul&eacute;</em> of Red River, he set out for the
+southeast with the purpose of there finding the source of the
+Mississippi. Upon a small lake, which he named Lake Julia, he conferred
+the honor of being the head of the great river, while it seemed to him
+that the <q>shades of Marco Polo, of Columbus, of Americus Vespucius, of
+the Cabots, of Verazani, of the Zenos, and various others, appeared
+present, and joyfully assisting at this high and solemn ceremony</q>.<a name="anchor-451" id="anchor-451"></a><a href="#footnote-451" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 451.">451</a>
+After a journey of great suffering he was welcomed at Fort
+Snelling&mdash;wearing a hat made of the bark of a tree, and clothes of
+skins.<a name="anchor-452" id="anchor-452"></a><a href="#footnote-452" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 452.">452</a></p>
+
+<p>Not until late in the fall did the connection of Fort Snelling with this
+expedition cease, when the soldiers who had accompanied the party as far
+as Sault Ste. Marie returned to their post by the Fox-Wisconsin route
+after a journey rendered exceedingly disagreeable by the cold.<a name="anchor-453" id="anchor-453"></a><a href="#footnote-453" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 453.">453</a></p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1835 George Catlin and his wife spent several months at
+Fort Snelling. Mr. Catlin was an artist who made a specialty of Indian
+scenes, and his time was occupied in painting scenes of Indian <a id="Page_164" name="Page_164"></a><span class="pagenum">[164]</span>
+life and portraits of Indian chiefs. His studio was a room in the
+officers' quarters, and his models were the natives who lingered about
+the agency.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Catlin was extremely desirous of painting some pictures of Indian
+dances and ball-plays. In order to persuade the Indians to do their
+part, Lawrence Taliaferro told them on July 3rd that if they would come
+the next day and entertain the visitors, the great gun at the fort would
+be fired twenty-one times for their amusement. As this was the salute
+for the national holiday, he was safe in making the prophecy.
+Accordingly, on the fourth of July the prairie near the fort, for two
+hours, rang with the excited shouts of the ball-players; and when this
+pastime was finished the <q>beggar's-dance</q>, the <q>buffalo-dance</q>, the
+<q>bear-dance</q>, the <q>eagle-dance</q>, and the <q>dance-of-the-braves</q> furnished
+entertainment for three hours more.<a name="anchor-454" id="anchor-454"></a><a href="#footnote-454" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 454.">454</a></p>
+
+<p>On the sixteenth of July General Robert Patterson of Philadelphia with
+his sister and daughter arrived on the steamboat <q>Warrior</q>. For their
+amusement the Indians staged the <q>dog-dance</q>, using for their victims
+two dogs which were presented to them by the officers of the garrison.
+Accompanied by a soldier George Catlin left for Prairie du Chien on July
+27th. <q>About this lovely spot</q>, he wrote, <q>I have whiled away a few
+months with great pleasure, and having visited all the curiosities, and
+all the different villages of Indians in the vicinity, I close my
+notebook and start in a few days for Prairie du Chien, which is three
+hundred miles below this; where I <a id="Page_165" name="Page_165"></a><span class="pagenum">[165]</span> shall have new subjects for my
+brush and new themes for my pen, when I may continue my epistles.</q><a name="anchor-455" id="anchor-455"></a><a href="#footnote-455" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 455.">455</a></p>
+
+<p>In the thirties began that series of geological surveys which has
+continued ever since, under both the national and State governments. In
+the fall of 1835 George William Featherstonhaugh and William Williams
+Mather, geologists in the service of the government, made a survey of
+the Minnesota Valley. The detailed scientific report of the survey was
+published by the government;<a name="anchor-456" id="anchor-456"></a><a href="#footnote-456" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 456.">456</a> while a popular description of the
+trip, written by Mr. Featherstonhaugh, appeared in London in 1847
+entitled, <q>A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor</q>.</p>
+
+<p>From September 12th to September 15th on the up-journey and from October
+16th to October 22nd on the return, the scientist was entertained at the
+fort. The reception which he received did not impress him with its
+cordiality. <q>I could not but reflect upon the contrast betwixt the very
+kind attentions I had received at the other American posts, and the want
+of them I experienced here.</q><a name="anchor-457" id="anchor-457"></a><a href="#footnote-457" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 457.">457</a> But the feeling was mutual. The keen
+Indian agent characterized him by saying: <q>He attempted to pass current
+for that which he possessed not&mdash;superior talent and modesty in his
+profession.</q><a name="anchor-458" id="anchor-458"></a><a href="#footnote-458" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 458.">458</a> Mr. Featherstonhaugh was an Englishman in whose
+narrative American institutions were not praised. Even the presence of
+his American co-laborer, Mr. Mather, is not suspected by reading the
+entertaining story, for his name is not mentioned once.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult, therefore, to judge how accurate the <a id="Page_166" name="Page_166"></a><span class="pagenum">[166]</span> account of
+his stay at Fort Snelling really is. The room which was given to him for
+his use was <q>an old dirty, ill-smelling, comfortless store-room</q>, and
+Major L&mdash;&mdash; (Loomis?) who was asked by the commandant to provide
+accommodations for the visitor bored him with his psalm-singing and
+exhortations, being <q>a living rod in soak to tickle up sluggish
+Christians</q>. But, probably unwittingly, Featherstonhaugh admitted that
+Fort Snelling was of some service to him. For the supplies and
+vegetables taken from the post gardens brought the gunwale of the canoe
+to within four inches of the water!<a name="anchor-459" id="anchor-459"></a><a href="#footnote-459" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 459.">459</a></p>
+
+<p>Further exploration of the upper Mississippi was made by Joseph N.
+Nicollet during the summer of the next year. This French scientist was
+aided in part by the War Department, and in part by the fur traders, P.
+Chouteau, Jr., &amp; Co., of St. Louis.<a name="anchor-460" id="anchor-460"></a><a href="#footnote-460" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 460.">460</a> While at Fort Snelling he
+determined to visit the sources of the great river, and in his
+enterprises he was greatly assisted by Lawrence Taliaferro, H. H.
+Sibley, and the officers at the fort. Some of the soldiers wished to
+accompany him, but the absence of many of the garrison at Prairie du
+Chien made their presence at the post necessary. Some Chippewa Indians,
+some half-breeds, and a Frenchman, Desir&eacute; Fronchet, were his only
+companions when the ascent of the river was commenced. But at the first
+stopping place, near the Falls of St. Anthony, a band of thieving Sioux
+robbed him of many of his supplies, and the attempt would have been
+given up had <a id="Page_167" name="Page_167"></a><span class="pagenum">[167]</span> not Major Taliaferro made good the loss from his own
+means.<a name="anchor-461" id="anchor-461"></a><a href="#footnote-461" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 461.">461</a> Nicollet visited Lake Itasca and indicated its principal
+tributary, so that some authors have credited him with being the
+discoverer of the true source of the Mississippi.<a name="anchor-462" id="anchor-462"></a><a href="#footnote-462" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 462.">462</a></p>
+
+<p>After the return from this perilous journey, the winter was spent at
+Fort Snelling in working over the notes and a map. For the kindness
+shown him Mr. Nicollet expressed great appreciation, though the rude
+hospitality of the frontier post could provide no supper better than
+wild rice, mush, and milk, and no sleeping quarters better than the
+storehouse. But here he was entertained, as the agent wrote, in Virginia
+fashion where a call lasts six months and a visit one year; and the
+nights were made merry with the music of the violin and piano, and with
+the animated conversation of Taliaferro and Nicollet. For many hours on
+cold winter nights he studied through his telescope the stars in the
+clear heavens.<a name="anchor-463" id="anchor-463"></a><a href="#footnote-463" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 463.">463</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Nicollet devoted two more seasons to examining the country between
+the Mississippi and Missouri rivers in company with John C. Fr&eacute;mont. In
+1838 a trip was made from Fort Snelling to the pipestone quarry; and in
+1839 his party ascended the Missouri River to Fort Pierre, and then
+passed over the prairies to the Mississippi.<a name="anchor-464" id="anchor-464"></a><a href="#footnote-464" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 464.">464</a> The accounts of these
+journeys were widely read, and coming from the pen of such an able
+scientist and pleasing writer, the interest of the country was turned to
+the rich possibilities of this new Northwest.<a name="anchor-465" id="anchor-465"></a><a href="#footnote-465" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 465.">465</a></p>
+
+<p>In addition to these well-known travellers there <a id="Page_168" name="Page_168"></a><span class="pagenum">[168]</span> was a host of
+people who made the trip as a vacation jaunt. On June 1, 1836, the
+<q>Palmyra</q> arrived with thirty passengers. The steamboat <q>Burlington</q>
+tied up at Fort Snelling on June 13, 1838, having among its many
+passengers Captain Frederick Marryat, the popular English novelist. Only
+two days later the <q>Brazil</q> was moored near the <q>Burlington</q>, the
+presence of two boats at the same time being considered a novel sight.
+The family of Governor Henry Dodge was on this second boat.<a name="anchor-466" id="anchor-466"></a><a href="#footnote-466" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 466.">466</a></p>
+
+<p>On June 26, 1838, the <q>Burlington</q> was again at Fort Snelling. Among the
+tourists on this trip was Mrs. Alexander Hamilton who had embarked at
+Galena where she had been visiting her son, W. S. Hamilton, who was
+connected with lead mining enterprises in Wisconsin. The fact that Mrs.
+Hamilton had been a belle in society during the time of George
+Washington, and the general sympathy felt for her ever since the tragic
+death of her husband in 1804, caused her to be received with more
+attention than was usually bestowed on tourists. At nine o'clock she was
+taken in a carriage to the Falls of St. Anthony, and when she returned
+to the fort in the afternoon the officers met her at the gate and led
+her to a chair placed upon a carpet in the center of the parade ground.
+After the troops had been reviewed she was entertained at the
+headquarters of the fort until the <q>Burlington</q> left that same
+evening.<a name="anchor-467" id="anchor-467"></a><a href="#footnote-467" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 467.">467</a></p>
+
+<p>The extent of this tourist traffic is well illustrated in the newspapers
+of the time. Advertisements tell <a id="Page_169" name="Page_169"></a><span class="pagenum">[169]</span> of the interesting features to
+be seen on a trip to the upper Mississippi, of the pleasures of
+steamboat travel, and promise that <q>A first rate band of music will be
+on board.</q><a name="anchor-468" id="anchor-468"></a><a href="#footnote-468" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 468.">468</a> An editor paused long enough in the exciting
+presidential <q>Log Cabin</q> campaign of 1840 to remark that <q>Pleasure trips
+to these Falls appear to be quite the go. Large parties of ladies and
+gentlemen have passed up on the steamboats Loyal Hanna and Malta. And we
+noticed in a late St. Louis paper, the advertisements of the Valley
+Forge, Ione, Brazil and Monsoon, all for <q>pleasure excursions to St.
+Peters</q>. We see also in the same paper, that the steamboat Fayette is
+advertised <q>for Harrison and Reform</q>&mdash;rather an extensive country we
+should think, at the present time.</q><a name="anchor-469" id="anchor-469"></a><a href="#footnote-469" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 469.">469</a> Even as far away as Louisville,
+Kentucky, steamboats were chartered for trips to the upper waters of the
+Mississippi River.<a name="anchor-470" id="anchor-470"></a><a href="#footnote-470" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 470.">470</a></p>
+
+<p>The pleasures of such a journey, the scenery enjoyed, the people met,
+the events of the day spent at Fort Snelling are well illustrated by two
+letters written by the Right Reverend Jackson Kemper, who was the
+missionary bishop of the Northwest of the Episcopal Church.<a name="anchor-471" id="anchor-471"></a><a href="#footnote-471" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 471.">471</a> In the
+month of August, 1843, he was the guest of Captain Throckmorton on the
+steamboat <q>General Brooke</q>; and he made the trip to Fort Snelling to
+confer with Rev. Ezekiel Gear who was the chaplain at the post. The
+first letter was dated August 25, 1843, and was written to his daughter.</p>
+
+<p><q>Here we are snug and almost dry on a sand bar <a id="Page_170" name="Page_170"></a><span class="pagenum">[170]</span> and not more than
+13 miles below St. Peters</q>, he wrote. <q>While the Captain and his men are
+using all kinds of methods to get us off&mdash;the chief of which is to put
+our freight into a large barge aside of us&mdash;I will write you a few
+lines. It is now past 8 o'c. P. M. We still hope to get to the fort
+before night (mid-night I mean). Then the Captain says he will give us
+an early breakfast tomorrow and send us off to see the falls (5 Miles
+distant) and we must return so as to start down the river by noon. This
+is too bad in many respects; but what can we do? I have not time to stay
+with Mr. Gear until the next boat arrives; that may not be for a week or
+two; so I will say to Mr. G. when I see him: Here I am, &amp; I have come
+not to see the falls but you, and I am at your disposal as long as I am
+here. If you choose to take me to the falls, it is well; if you prefer
+that I should remain in your house I am content. It is still probable
+that I shall be at Potosi next tuesday Morning. To travel on Sunday, and
+particularly to do so without an opportunity of preaching, will be very
+hard. There will probably be only 4 passengers besides myself on the
+return. There was a little boat the other [day?] <ins class="corr" title="As in original.">a-head</ins> of us, and I
+hoped she might be detained at the fort until Monday&mdash;but that prospect
+has vanished, for she has just past us descending to Galena.</q></p>
+
+<p><q>It is supposed to be 500 miles from St. Louis to Prairie du Chien and
+300 from there to St. Peters. We stopt at Prairie du Chien for some
+hours and a Judge Lockwood came on board who with his wife is <a id="Page_171" name="Page_171"></a><span class="pagenum">[171]</span> an
+Episcopalian. He told me there are several in and about the town &amp; he
+thought the prospect of organizing a church a fair one if a Missionary
+could be obtained (We are off the sand bar). From the prairie our voyage
+has been delightful. At the distance of a mile or two from the river on
+each side are ranges of lofty hills, in a great variety of shapes. Many
+of them appeared as if the river had flowed for ages near to their tops.
+Some of them looked as if they had been cut in two; and on the peaks of
+several were large blocks of rock. As we were woodding I spoke of going
+up to one of them but was told it was dangerous on account of
+rattle-snakes. There is a curious fact connected with that reptile.
+Cannon river flows into the Mis<sup>i</sup> from the west&mdash;it is a long &amp; narrow
+stream&mdash;nine miles above Lake Pepin. They are never found north of that
+stream, although they abound below it. One of the hills we saw yesterday
+had 3 or 4 large blocks of rock upon it, called the pot and kettles from
+their resemblance to those useful utensils. The prairies were frequent &amp;
+some peculiarly attractive. On Wabasa's we saw a Sioux village&mdash;and a
+farmer's establishment&mdash;he being sent there by the U. S. to civilize the
+Indians. This morning we passed another village called Red Wings but saw
+very few of the inhabitants. The corn field was very &hellip; [illegible] and
+there were in it elevated frames where the boys are kept to scare away
+the blackbirds. I saw smoke near the frames, the boys having kindled a
+fire to roast ears of corn for their comfort. The Sioux have winter &amp;
+summer <a id="Page_172" name="Page_172"></a><span class="pagenum">[172]</span> houses. <ins class="corr" title="This seems to refer to winter rather than summer.">The latter</ins> are conical made of buffalo robes
+covering poles. The summer lodges looked something like poor log huts &amp;
+are made of poles &amp; elm bark. Near Red Wings village there is a Miss<sup>y</sup>
+establishment from Switzerland.&mdash;Lake Pepin is a beautiful sheet of
+water thro wh the M. flows or is an expanse of the M. &amp; is 25 miles by
+3. It apparently abounded in large fish, for they were constantly
+jumping out of the water. Its banks you know are celebrated for
+agates&mdash;but we have not time to stop a moment.&mdash;The settlements above P.
+du Chien are very few&mdash;now and then a solitary dwelling &amp; a wood yard.
+At one of these places the man told me his nearest neighbor was 20 miles
+off. In winter there is a good deal of travelling on the river in
+sleighs. About half way up Lake Pepin is the lover's rock of which you
+have heard, the Chippeway river enters from the East just below the
+commencement of the Lake, &amp; its Mouth is 100 Miles below St. Peters. Up
+it &amp; like wise up the St. Croix are saw mills, as that country abounds
+with Pine. The Mouth of the St. Croix is 30 miles below St. Peters. Here
+is a beautiful lake as large as L. Pepin thro' which the St. C. flows
+just before it joins the M.&mdash;We have a Mr. Akin on board whose trading
+establishment is 300 Miles north of the St. Peters &amp; 60 west of Lake
+Superior. Then he has been among the Chippeways 33 yrs. He has been
+thro' Lake Superior 30 times to New York for goods &amp; returned as often;
+and now for the first time he has traded with St. Louis. He knows
+perfectly all the languages <a id="Page_173" name="Page_173"></a><span class="pagenum">[173]</span> around him. The most copious is the
+Chippeway. He says they have some what of a written language, and he has
+frequently seen an Indian write off a &hellip; [illegible] for another on a
+piece of bark. He thinks the characters are something like those of the
+Mexicans.&mdash;Now I suppose you would like to receive a letter with the S.
+Peter's post Mark; and if I ascertain it will not take more than a Month
+on its journey you shall receive this thro that channel; otherwise I
+will reserve it for the p. o. of P. du Chien</q>.<a name="anchor-472" id="anchor-472"></a><a href="#footnote-472" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 472.">472</a></p>
+
+<p>The narrative is continued in a letter of August 29, 1843, written from
+Potosi, Wisconsin, to his son:</p>
+
+<p><q>Although you may not have a very high opinion of the West, yet I think
+you would have liked to be with me in my late trip to St. Peters. The
+weather was delightful and the scenery grand and very novel. You have
+probably seen my letter to your sister; I will therefore say, we arrived
+at the end of our voyage last friday night, and as the fog was very
+thick the next morning we could not see where we were until 8 oclock.
+Then the fort on a high hill, with its flag flying, had a fine
+appearance. Mr. Gear the chaplain soon called at the boat and appeared
+greatly rejoiced to see me. I accompanied him to his quarters and saw
+his family and some of the officers and ladies of the garrison, and then
+he and I rode out 8 miles to the falls of St. Anthony. Though very
+inferior to those of Niagara, they are still well worth seeing. The
+scenery is wild&mdash;there are many immense rocks in the river, evidently
+broken off from <a id="Page_174" name="Page_174"></a><span class="pagenum">[174]</span> the precipice over which the water is dashed with
+considerable noise&mdash;the water in its fall is frequently broken&mdash;but even
+when it is not so, the height is not more than 17-1/2 feet. Returning we
+went to a hill from whence we could see the whole of the fall for there
+is an island in the middle of the river which hides one half of it when
+you are near. A mile or two further brought us to a most beautiful and
+lofty cascade on Nine Mile river. The quantity of water was not large,
+but it fell amidst the wildest scene, unbroken, over a ledge of rock
+which extended far beyond its foundation.&mdash;There were not many Indians.
+The few I saw were Sioux who looked much degenerated by their contact
+with the Whites. The families of the officers appeared very happy; the
+ladies told me they were like sisters. For months they have no visitors
+but wild Indians&mdash;Sioux or Chippeways. An old Scotchman who had been in
+this country 50 years told me that all the tribes to the North and West
+speak the Chippeway language or its dialects; that the Sioux is entirely
+different from it, but that a dialect of it is spoken by the
+Winnebagoes, with this difference that the Sioux language has not the
+sound of the letter R in it while almost every word of the Winnebago
+abounds with Rs. He thinks that a person knowing the two languages&mdash;the
+C. and S. could travel through the indian country from Mexico to the N.
+Pole and make himself understood.&mdash;We had to return to the boat by one
+oclock, and soon after we started down the river. Near the Mouth of the
+St. Croix&mdash;about 45 <a id="Page_175" name="Page_175"></a><span class="pagenum">[175]</span> miles below St. Peters, I saw on a prairie a
+large stone painted a bright red, to which the Indians offer sacrifices
+of tobacco &amp;c. and consider a <em>Wa-Kon</em> or Spirit.&mdash;As we were on our
+journey sunday afternoon I saw a bark canoe paddling towards us with
+great rapidity containing as I first thought an Indian and a white Man.
+The steamer was stopt, and soon the chattels (kettle, coffee-pot, &amp;c)
+then the men afterwards the boat itself were on board. They proved to be
+a miner who had gone from Galena and a stout lad. Eight months ago a
+number of persons were induced by offers of land from Government to go
+to Lake Superior in search of copper; and a large party had lately been
+occupied in removing an immense block of copper from the bed of a river
+which empties into the Lake. This miner had been thus occupied; and he
+informed me that the task was done&mdash;that the block weighed three
+tons&mdash;that it was to be taken to New York &amp;c. as an object of curiosity.
+A fortnight ago he had started from the spot&mdash;skirted the Lake to a
+certain river, ascended that to its source, then carried the canoe with
+its contents 2 or 3 miles on their shoulders until they met the head
+waters of the St. Croix, and descended that river to the
+Mississippi.</q><a name="anchor-473" id="anchor-473"></a><a href="#footnote-473" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 473.">473</a> </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_176" name="Page_176"></a><span class="pagenum">[176]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII<br />
+
+THE CHIPPEWA TREATY OF 1837</h2>
+
+
+<p>The relations of the United States government to the Indians prior to
+1871 shows a dual attitude. On the one hand, the Indians were the
+government's wards. By the ninth of the Articles of Confederation,
+Congress was given the right of <q>regulating the trade and managing all
+affairs with the Indians who were not members of any of the
+states</q><a name="anchor-474" id="anchor-474"></a><a href="#footnote-474" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 474.">474</a> and by the act regulating Indian trade no cession of land
+could be valid unless made by treaty or convention.<a name="anchor-475" id="anchor-475"></a><a href="#footnote-475" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 475.">475</a> On the other
+hand, these treaties were negotiated and proclaimed with all the pomp
+and ceremony which would appeal to the Indian's mind and impress him
+with his importance as a member of a sovereign nation. This was
+distinctly a <q>legal fiction</q>, but it continued as the customary method
+of procedure until the act of March 3, 1871, abolished the practice of
+considering the tribes as independent nations.<a name="anchor-476" id="anchor-476"></a><a href="#footnote-476" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 476.">476</a></p>
+
+<p>As the nation increased in strength and the agricultural and commercial
+forces of the country were pushing westward and coming into contact with
+the distant tribes, the treaties increased in number and importance.
+Urged by the cries of hungry land-seekers the cession of land by the
+natives gradually became the most important phase of all treaties; and
+<a id="Page_177" name="Page_177"></a><span class="pagenum">[177]</span> in order that the new settlements might be protected from
+vengeful Indians the title to the land rested on legal cession rather
+than on conquest. It is stated on the authority of the Commissioner of
+Indian Affairs that <q>Except only in the case of the Sioux Indians in
+Minnesota, after the outbreak of 1862, the Government has never
+extinguished an Indian title as by right of conquest; and in this case
+the Indians were provided with another reservation, and subsequently
+were paid the net proceeds arising from the sale of the land
+vacated.</q><a name="anchor-477" id="anchor-477"></a><a href="#footnote-477" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 477.">477</a></p>
+
+<p>The negotiation of a treaty was not an easy affair. There were no
+recognized representatives of the tribe. In order that a treaty might be
+satisfactory it was necessary that all factions be consulted; and the
+braves who gathered often numbered into the hundreds. Thus, in planning
+the negotiations a satisfactory place and an opportune time must be
+selected, while the red men must be supported while away from home and
+protected from lurking enemies. It was in these phases of treaty-making
+that the military posts showed their importance.</p>
+
+<p>The first important treaty with which the tribes living about Fort
+Snelling were concerned was that made at Prairie du Chien in 1825. The
+little frontier village presented a gala appearance during the month of
+August when the great convocation was held. There were Chippewas, Sioux,
+Sacs and Foxes, <ins class="corr" title="Spelled as in original.">Menomonies</ins>, Iowas, Winnebagoes, and a portion of the
+Ottawa, Chippewa, and Pottawattomie tribes living on the Illinois River
+gathered to consult <a id="Page_178" name="Page_178"></a><span class="pagenum">[178]</span> with Governor Lewis Cass of Michigan and
+General William Clark, the government's commissioners. Of the 1054
+drawing rations on the last day, 386 were of the delegation of Sioux and
+Chippewas gathered by Major Taliaferro at Fort Snelling and brought down
+in safety to make a triumphal entry in true Indian style with flags
+flying, drums beating, and guns firing.<a name="anchor-478" id="anchor-478"></a><a href="#footnote-478" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 478.">478</a></p>
+
+<p>Although there was no cession of land, distinct progress was made in
+that the territories of the various tribes were defined, thus making
+negotiations easier for the future. Of especial importance was the
+Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, which made clear the territory of each
+tribe, so that when the year 1837 arrived and treaties were made to
+obtain the lands east of the Mississippi, the areas with which each was
+concerned were clearly understood.<a name="anchor-479" id="anchor-479"></a><a href="#footnote-479" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 479.">479</a></p>
+
+<p>By the year 1837 many conditions called for the cession of these lands.
+The forests, the water-power, the mines of lead and other ores aroused
+the desires of speculators. Settlers were thronging to Wisconsin, and it
+was felt that if the land could be purchased and the Indians removed,
+the people would be safe from any attacks, and the Indians would be
+removed from the contaminating influence of many of the undesirable
+whites.<a name="anchor-480" id="anchor-480"></a><a href="#footnote-480" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 480.">480</a> There were also the traders who for years past had given
+credit to many worthless Indians who had never brought back from the
+hunt furs sufficient to pay for the goods advanced them; and they hoped
+that in the <a id="Page_179" name="Page_179"></a><span class="pagenum">[179]</span> payment for the lands certain sums would be reserved
+for the liquidation of these debts.<a name="anchor-481" id="anchor-481"></a><a href="#footnote-481" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 481.">481</a></p>
+
+<p>In the early summer of 1837 Major Taliaferro was ordered to organize a
+delegation of Sioux Indians who could be taken to Washington, where the
+Sioux negotiations would take place. At the same time orders were issued
+to summon the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi to a council to be held
+at Fort Snelling. To both of these groups the subject of the purchase of
+the Indian lands east of the Mississippi would be broached.<a name="anchor-482" id="anchor-482"></a><a href="#footnote-482" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 482.">482</a></p>
+
+<p>Miles Vineyard, who was the sub-agent at Fort Snelling, was immediately
+sent to the villages of the Chippewas. Early in July the red men began
+to arrive, and by July 20th about a thousand men, women, and children
+had pitched their tepees near the fort. Many were the notable chiefs
+gathered there with their warriors. With the Pillager band from Leech
+Lake was Chief Flat Mouth, who had twenty-five times been on the warpath
+without receiving a wound, who had delivered his English medal to Pike
+in 1806, and whose band had been attacked by the Sioux under the walls
+of Fort Snelling in 1827. The most famous of the Chippewa chiefs, he was
+still living in 1852, being then seventy-eight years old.<a name="anchor-483" id="anchor-483"></a><a href="#footnote-483" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 483.">483</a></p>
+
+<p>The chief of the bands from Gull Lake and Swan River was
+Hole-in-the-Day. Energetic, brave, and intelligent, he gained a great
+influence over the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi. His name, which
+literally meant a bright spot in the sky, is often written <a id="Page_180" name="Page_180"></a><span class="pagenum">[180]</span>
+Hole-in-the-Sky. He was a frequent visitor at Fort Snelling and came to
+his death at that place in 1847 when he fell from a wagon, breaking his
+neck and dying instantly.<a name="anchor-484" id="anchor-484"></a><a href="#footnote-484" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 484.">484</a> His brother Strong Ground or Strong Earth
+was also present at the council. He had been a member of Flat Mouth's
+band at the time of the massacre in 1827. Thirty-six eagle plumes waved
+from his head-dress at the time of his death, each of them representing
+the scalp of an enemy. The first of these he obtained when as a small
+boy he dashed into the ranks of the Sioux during a conflict and scalped
+a fallen warrior.<a name="anchor-485" id="anchor-485"></a><a href="#footnote-485" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 485.">485</a> Chiefs and warriors from the St. Croix River,
+Mille Lac, and Sandy Lake, with their followers, were also encamped near
+the fort.</p>
+
+<p>There were also notables among the white men gathered there. The United
+States commissioner was Henry Dodge, known as an Indian fighter, and at
+that time Governor of Wisconsin Territory. General William R. Smith of
+Pennsylvania, who had been appointed by the President to serve as a
+commissioner with Governor Dodge, was unable to come. Lawrence
+Taliaferro, the Indian agent, was busied with many duties connected with
+the safety of the visitors. Four hundred Sioux hovered about, and these
+had to be kept at a safe distance to avoid conflicts. Verplanck Van
+Antwerp, the secretary of the commission; J. N. Nicollet, the explorer;
+H. H. Sibley; and many other fur traders watched the negotiations and
+put their names to the treaty as witnesses.<a name="anchor-486" id="anchor-486"></a><a href="#footnote-486" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 486.">486</a> <a id="Page_181" name="Page_181"></a><span class="pagenum">[181]</span></p>
+
+<p>The council began on July 20th. It was with the chiefs that Governor
+Dodge parleyed, but the warriors and braves felt that they also should
+have some part in the proceedings. On one occasion several hundred of
+them, streaked with their brightest paint, waving their tomahawks and
+spears and carrying the war flag of the Chippewas, together with the
+flag of the United States, interrupted the council with their whoops and
+drums; and when they had approached the chair of the Governor, paused
+while two of the warriors harangued the crowd on the kindness of the
+traders and the debts owed them.<a name="anchor-487" id="anchor-487"></a><a href="#footnote-487" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 487.">487</a></p>
+
+<p>The negotiations were carried on in a bower near the house of the agent.
+The chiefs were assembled daily; the peace pipe was smoked; and the red
+men, dressed only in leggings and breech cloths, with their long hair
+hanging over their shoulders under the eagle feathers upon their heads,
+and medals dangling from their necks, spoke of lands, of the traders,
+and of wars. The speeches of the Indians seemed interminable. From day
+to day action was postponed as they were waiting for other bands to
+arrive.</p>
+
+<p>To prolong the council as long as possible was satisfying to the
+appetite of the Indian. The rations issued by the commissary at Fort
+Snelling were not to be eagerly exchanged for the fare of a Chippewa
+lodge in the northern woods. But at first the menu was not satisfactory.
+Nadin (the Wind) complained on July 24th: <q>You have everything around
+you, and can give us some of the cattle that are around us on the
+prairie. At the treaty of Prairie du Chien, <a id="Page_182" name="Page_182"></a><span class="pagenum">[182]</span> the case was as
+difficult as this. The great Chief then fed us well with cattle.</q><a name="anchor-488" id="anchor-488"></a><a href="#footnote-488" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 488.">488</a>
+Evidently this hint was acted upon, as the old records show that by July
+30th ten beeves weighing 6123 pounds had been furnished the Chippewas
+who were assembled to the number of 1400.<a name="anchor-489" id="anchor-489"></a><a href="#footnote-489" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 489.">489</a> The amount of supplies
+used on such an occasion is indicated by instructions given to Alexander
+Ramsey and John Chambers who in 1849 were commissioned to treat with the
+Sioux Indians at Fort Snelling. They were authorized to obtain from the
+commissary at Fort Snelling 15,000 rations of flour, 10,000 of pork,
+10,000 of salt, 10,000 of beans, and 5000 of soap.<a name="anchor-490" id="anchor-490"></a><a href="#footnote-490" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 490.">490</a></p>
+
+<p>At the first meeting Governor Dodge spoke to the Chippewas of the
+purpose of the council. Their lands east of the Mississippi, he informed
+them, were not valuable in game and were not suited for agricultural
+purposes. They were said to be covered with pine trees, which the white
+men were eager to obtain, and accordingly the government was willing to
+pay the Chippewa nation for them. Thus, by selling the land they could
+obtain money for that which actually was of little value to them.<a name="anchor-491" id="anchor-491"></a><a href="#footnote-491" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 491.">491</a></p>
+
+<p>There evidently was no intention on the part of the Indians not to sell
+the lands, but the council was protracted, pending the arrival of other
+bands. Not until July 27th did they make any movement to close the deal.
+On that day, Ma-ghe-ga-bo, a warrior of the Pillager band, dressed in
+his most fantastic costume, covered a map of the land in question with a
+piece of paper, remarking that when the paper was <a id="Page_183" name="Page_183"></a><span class="pagenum">[183]</span> removed the
+land would be considered sold. He added a final request: <q>My father, in
+all the country we sell you, we wish to hold on to that which gives us
+life&mdash;the streams and lakes where we fish, and the trees from which we
+make sugar.</q></p>
+
+<p>Finally he asked all the chiefs who agreed to sell the land to rise.
+About thirty arose at his word. Immediately Ma-ghe-ga-bo raised the
+paper from the map and seized the hand of Governor Dodge. The sale was
+made. There remained only to agree upon the terms of the cession.<a name="anchor-492" id="anchor-492"></a><a href="#footnote-492" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 492.">492</a></p>
+
+<p>During the negotiations, reference had been made continually by the
+Indians to the traders and the payment of the debts owed them. Pe-she-ke
+said: <q>I have been supported by the trader, and without his aid, could
+not get through the winter with naked skin. The grounds where your
+children have to hunt are as bare as that on which I now stand, and have
+no game upon them.&hellip; We have not much to give the traders, as our lands
+and hunting grounds are so destitute. Do us a kindness by paying our old
+debts.</q> That he was coached to make the remark is evident from his
+statement that <q>No-body&mdash;no trader has instructed me what to say to
+you.</q><a name="anchor-493" id="anchor-493"></a><a href="#footnote-493" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 493.">493</a></p>
+
+<p>On July 29th the terms were finally agreed upon, and while the secretary
+was writing out the treaty the braves of the Chippewas held a dance
+under the walls of Fort Snelling. This indicated not only their
+satisfaction at the successful conclusion of the council, but was also
+intended as a compliment to <a id="Page_184" name="Page_184"></a><span class="pagenum">[184]</span> the commissioner. Three hundred
+warriors circled about in their gaudy costumes, recounting during the
+pauses of the dance the deeds of bravery they had done and the number of
+Sioux scalps they had obtained. At a distance a great number of Sioux
+looked upon the scene, not daring to interfere when the troops of the
+fort were so near.<a name="anchor-494" id="anchor-494"></a><a href="#footnote-494" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 494.">494</a></p>
+
+<p>By this treaty the Chippewas ceded an immense tract of land east of the
+Mississippi. In return the United States agreed to pay annually for
+twenty years $9500 in money, $19,000 in goods, $3000 for blacksmiths,
+$1000 for farmers, $2000 in provisions, and $500 in tobacco. One hundred
+thousand dollars was to be paid to the half-breeds, and $70,000 was set
+aside to pay the claims of the fur traders. The privilege of hunting,
+fishing, and gathering wild rice along the lakes and rivers of the ceded
+territory was reserved for the Indians.<a name="anchor-495" id="anchor-495"></a><a href="#footnote-495" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 495.">495</a></p>
+
+<p>This cession of land by the Chippewas had its counterpart in a treaty
+concluded by Sioux chiefs on September 29, 1837, in Washington, whither
+they had been taken by Major Taliaferro. All their lands east of the
+Mississippi&mdash;the land between the Black River and the Mississippi River
+as far north as the Sioux-Chippewa boundary line was given up for
+various considerations amounting in total to almost one million
+dollars.<a name="anchor-496" id="anchor-496"></a><a href="#footnote-496" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 496.">496</a></p>
+
+<p>By these two treaties all the lands east of Fort Snelling were opened to
+settlement and commercial exploitation. As soon as the news of their
+ratification came, developments immediately began&mdash;developments <a id="Page_185" name="Page_185"></a><span class="pagenum">[185]</span>
+which had an important bearing upon the future history of Old Fort
+Snelling. The days when the Chippewa treaty was being drawn up are
+important, not only because they present an interesting sight of the
+picturesque features of an Indian council, but also because they show
+how Fort Snelling was assisting in the opening up of the rich timber
+lands and fertile prairies that border the Mississippi River.</p>
+
+<p>For many years the payment of annuities that had been promised the Sioux
+was an annual reminder of these treaties. It was necessary that each
+Indian receive his portion of the goods and money in person in order to
+prevent fraud. In the late summer of each year all the warriors of Red
+Wing's and Wabasha's villages would leave their homes for the fort. In
+the agency building the United States officers, with the roll of the
+Sioux nation before them, called the names of the individuals, who one
+by one stepped up, touched the pen of the secretary, received the money,
+and deposited it in the box of his band. Outside was the typical Indian
+group&mdash;squaws, children, dogs, and braves smoking their pipes and
+talking of past achievements. And in order that the Indians might always
+be conscious of the presence of the soldiers of the <q>Great Father</q>, the
+band of the fort played patriotic and thrilling airs.<a name="anchor-497" id="anchor-497"></a><a href="#footnote-497" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 497.">497</a></p>
+
+<p>With the transfer of the Indians to reservations higher up on the
+Minnesota River the payment of these annuities became a task which could
+no longer be performed at the fort. But the guarding of the <a id="Page_186" name="Page_186"></a><span class="pagenum">[186]</span> funds
+was a necessity. Captain James Monroe spent the latter half of the month
+of November, 1852, at Traverse des Sioux with one subaltern and
+forty-seven men of the dragoons and infantry, protecting the money from
+bandits and Indians. William T. Magruder was ordered on October 23,
+1853, to proceed in command of a detachment of troops to escort the
+money being sent to Fort Ridgely; and exactly a year later, an officer
+and thirteen men were detailed to perform a similar task.<a name="anchor-498" id="anchor-498"></a><a href="#footnote-498" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 498.">498</a> </p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_187" name="Page_187"></a><span class="pagenum">[187]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII<br />
+
+CITIZENS AND SOLDIERS</h2>
+
+
+<p><q>The frontier army post,</q> writes Professor F. J. Turner, <q>serving to
+protect the settlers from the Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open
+the Indian country, and has been a nucleus for settlement.</q><a name="anchor-499" id="anchor-499"></a><a href="#footnote-499" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 499.">499</a> When
+the Fifth Infantry built its cantonment on the Minnesota River there
+were no other habitations in the neighborhood. Traders yearly frequented
+the region and wintered on the banks of the Mississippi and Minnesota
+rivers, but their headquarters were located at Prairie du Chien.
+Immediately after the beginning of the military establishment, however,
+the movement mentioned by Professor Turner was initiated.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1820 J. B. Faribault came up with cattle for the
+garrison and decided to locate in the vicinity as a fur trader. On
+August 9th the Indians granted Pike's Island to his wife, Pelagi
+Faribault, who was the daughter of a Frenchman and a Sioux woman.
+Faribault immediately built houses upon the island, but high water
+washed them away. Thereupon he removed to the east side of the
+Mississippi. It is probably to this establishment that Beltrami referred
+in 1823 when he wrote that <q>there are no buildings round the fort,
+except three or four log-houses <a id="Page_188" name="Page_188"></a><span class="pagenum">[188]</span> on the banks of the river, in
+which some subaltern agents of the Southwest Company live among the
+frogs.</q><a name="anchor-500" id="anchor-500"></a><a href="#footnote-500" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 500.">500</a> This position was also upon low land, and on April 21,
+1826, when the ice began to move, Faribault's houses were carried away,
+while he and his family escaped in canoes.<a name="anchor-501" id="anchor-501"></a><a href="#footnote-501" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 501.">501</a> After this second
+disaster Faribault's establishment was erected at Mendota, where Alexis
+Bailly had already located.<a name="anchor-502" id="anchor-502"></a><a href="#footnote-502" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 502.">502</a> The growth of this village was very
+slow. But gradually old fur traders settled about it with their
+families; voyageurs, when not employed on the rivers, lounged about the
+trading house; and the agents and clerks of the American Fur Company had
+their permanent homes in the rude log cabins which were clustered about.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime a new element had been added to the surroundings of the
+fort. It was already three-quarters of a century since the traders had
+erected the first trading post upon the Red River of the North. The
+early French voyageurs had left a race of half-breeds, popularly called
+<em>bois-brul&eacute;s</em>, who were the vassals of the two great companies. When
+their strength had been spent in the labors of hunting and trapping,
+they retired to the vicinity of some post&mdash;the largest of these
+settlements being Fort Garry, the germ of the modern city of Winnipeg,
+which as early as 1823 boasted of a population of about six
+hundred.<a name="anchor-503" id="anchor-503"></a><a href="#footnote-503" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 503.">503</a></p>
+
+<p>But not all of these half-breeds were traders. Thomas Douglas, the fifth
+Lord Selkirk had secured from the Hudson's Bay Company the grant of an
+<a id="Page_189" name="Page_189"></a><span class="pagenum">[189]</span> immense tract of land on the Red River, and in 1811 he began the
+colonization of the region with poor immigrants from Scotland and
+Ireland. But the knowledge of the internal troubles of the company put
+an end to the immigration from these two countries, and Lord Selkirk
+turned to Switzerland for new recruits. In 1821 a ship full of Swiss
+sailed for Fort York on Hudson's Bay, and late in the fall the party
+reached the Red River after a toilsome journey up the Nelson River and
+across Lake Winnipeg. Being artisans and city-dwellers they were unable
+to endure the rough agricultural labors in the bleak north. Cold,
+floods, grasshoppers, and uncongenial neighbors rendered the location
+unpleasant.<a name="anchor-504" id="anchor-504"></a><a href="#footnote-504" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 504.">504</a></p>
+
+<p>Travellers from the south brought news of a better locality, and towards
+this place there soon began a movement which, while not great in any one
+year, was long continued. In 1821 five families made the journey to Fort
+Snelling, and their success inspired others. In 1823 thirteen families
+made the perilous journey of four hundred miles. From year to year, as
+families became discouraged they left the colony. Four hundred and
+eighty-nine persons had arrived at Fort Snelling up to 1835.<a name="anchor-505" id="anchor-505"></a><a href="#footnote-505" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 505.">505</a></p>
+
+<p>The many hardships endured by these travellers, and their pitiful
+condition, appealed to the sympathy of the Americans,<a name="anchor-506" id="anchor-506"></a><a href="#footnote-506" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 506.">506</a> and they were
+welcomed and aided by the officers at Fort Snelling. During their stay
+one party was granted the use of the old barracks at Camp Cold Water.
+Employment was given the men upon the reservation, and those who
+preferred <a id="Page_190" name="Page_190"></a><span class="pagenum">[190]</span> to remain were allowed to settle upon the military
+grounds. Comparatively few, however, made their homes here, the greater
+number proceeding to Galena, Illinois, and Vevay, Indiana. On one
+occasion provisions for the down-river journey in government keel-boats
+were issued by Colonel Snelling.<a name="anchor-507" id="anchor-507"></a><a href="#footnote-507" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 507.">507</a></p>
+
+<p>A third class of settlers around the fort was composed of discharged
+soldiers. Men stationed at Fort Snelling saw the agricultural value of
+the surrounding lands, or the possibility of riches in the fur trade.
+Joseph R. Brown, who came as a drummer boy with Colonel Leavenworth in
+1819, entered the employ of the post sutler when he ceased his
+connection with the army, and later he became an Indian trader.<a name="anchor-508" id="anchor-508"></a><a href="#footnote-508" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 508.">508</a>
+Edward Phelan, John Hays, and William Evans, whose terms of service at
+Fort Snelling expired about this time were among the first settlers on
+the land ceded in the treaty of 1837.<a name="anchor-509" id="anchor-509"></a><a href="#footnote-509" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 509.">509</a></p>
+
+<p>In the fall of 1837 it was revealed by a survey that there were one
+hundred and fifty-seven white persons, not connected with the fort,
+living on the reservation. Of these, eighty-two had their homes in the
+vicinity of Camp Cold Water and seventy-five at the fur trading
+establishments. Approximately two hundred horses and cattle were owned
+by these persons.<a name="anchor-510" id="anchor-510"></a><a href="#footnote-510" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 510.">510</a></p>
+
+<p>For many years pleasant relations existed between the officers at the
+post and the civilians. The physician of the garrison willingly
+responded to calls for his aid made by the people living outside the
+fort. <a id="Page_191" name="Page_191"></a><span class="pagenum">[191]</span></p>
+
+<p><q>I am compelled</q>, wrote Joseph Renville to H. H. Sibley, <q>to ask you for
+some assistance in regard to a disease which is very bad here&mdash;the
+whooping cough. I pray you to ask the doctor for some medicine,
+particularly for some camphor.</q><a name="anchor-511" id="anchor-511"></a><a href="#footnote-511" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 511.">511</a> Many a time Lawrence Taliaferro
+presided at a frontier wedding, when in one of the rude huts on the
+reservation the picturesque figure of the fur trader mingled with the
+glittering uniform of the officer, and dusky faces peered in at the
+windows awaiting the end of the ceremony when they also could partake of
+such a feast as only the prairies, lakes, and sutler's store could
+provide.<a name="anchor-512" id="anchor-512"></a><a href="#footnote-512" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 512.">512</a></p>
+
+<p>In the troubles which naturally arose between the settlers and the
+Indians, the agent was the mediator. Thirty of Peter Musick's cattle
+were killed by Indians who, wanting only powder horns, left the
+carcasses to the wolves.<a name="anchor-513" id="anchor-513"></a><a href="#footnote-513" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 513.">513</a> On July 13, 1834, Jacob <ins class="corr" title="This name appears with 2 spellings.">Falstrom</ins> came to
+the agency bringing the feet and hams of an ox which he claimed had been
+shot by a Sioux Indian at Mud Lake. He claimed thirty-five dollars from
+the Indian Department for the loss which he had sustained. As he was a
+poor man and had a large family to support Major Taliaferro was moved to
+make an effort to aid him. <q>I proposed</q>, he wrote in his diary the same
+evening, <q>to contribute $5 for the benefit of J. <ins class="corr" title="This name appears with 2 spellings.">Faustram</ins> to Several of
+the Gentlemen of the Post&mdash;but not meeting with a corresponding
+Sentiment&mdash;the poor fellow must be informed of my bad success in his
+behalf</q>.<a name="anchor-514" id="anchor-514"></a><a href="#footnote-514" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 514.">514</a></p>
+
+<p>Only a week later Joseph R. Brown asked to be <a id="Page_192" name="Page_192"></a><span class="pagenum">[192]</span> paid for a hog
+which the Indians had killed.<a name="anchor-515" id="anchor-515"></a><a href="#footnote-515" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 515.">515</a> During the summer of 1837 Louis Massy
+claimed $150; Abraham Perry $50; and Benjamin F. Baker $750 for similar
+damages.<a name="anchor-516" id="anchor-516"></a><a href="#footnote-516" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 516.">516</a> Many years later the agent wrote of these unpleasant
+duties: <q>The traders would make a detective of the agent if practicable.
+All thefts on each other were reported to the agent for justice.
+Deserting boatmen (fed on corn and tallow) must be forced to proceed up
+the St. Peter's with their outfits for the trade, right or wrong. Every
+ox, cow, calf or hog lost by persons on the Indian lands, the agents
+were expected to find the culprits or pay for these often fictitious
+losses.</q><a name="anchor-517" id="anchor-517"></a><a href="#footnote-517" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 517.">517</a></p>
+
+<p>A new era in the history of these settlers began when the treaties of
+1837 opened the lands east of the Mississippi to settlement. Some time
+before they had heard rumors of the coming negotiations at Washington,
+and those living west of the Mississippi sent a memorial to the
+President stating that they had settled upon the land thinking it was
+part of the public domain and believing that they would have the right
+of pre&euml;mption upon their claims. But now, if a new treaty was made and
+the land west of the Mississippi purchased for a military reservation,
+they asked that they be allowed reasonable compensation for the
+improvements they had made. However, in the treaty no mention was made
+of a military reservation, the title to the land around the fort being
+allowed to rest upon Pike's treaty of 1805.<a name="anchor-518" id="anchor-518"></a><a href="#footnote-518" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 518.">518</a></p>
+
+<p>But to Major J. Plympton, who became the commanding officer at Fort
+Snelling during the summer <a id="Page_193" name="Page_193"></a><span class="pagenum">[193]</span> of 1837, the presence of these people
+was undesirable, and so in a letter written to the Adjutant-General he
+called attention to the settlement and complained of the difficulty of
+obtaining fuel for the garrison when the squatters were also engaged in
+the same task. In his reply on November 17, 1837, the Adjutant-General
+directed that a reservation be marked off&mdash;the extent of Pike's purchase
+being indefinite.<a name="anchor-519" id="anchor-519"></a><a href="#footnote-519" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 519.">519</a></p>
+
+<p>On March 26, 1838, Major Plympton sent a map of the territory which he
+chose to have considered as a military reservation. This reservation,
+contrary to the expectations of many, included land on the east side of
+the Mississippi. Thus there were many who thought that they had been
+using their legal rights of pre&euml;mption when in reality they were only
+squatters. Order No. 65 issued at the post on July 26, 1838, forbade the
+erection of any buildings or fences upon the reservation, and prohibited
+the cutting of timber except for public use.<a name="anchor-520" id="anchor-520"></a><a href="#footnote-520" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 520.">520</a> During this same time
+there seems to have been, on the part of those living on the west bank
+of the Mississippi, a movement to the east side. Mrs. Abraham Perry came
+to Agent Taliaferro on October 18, 1838, and complained that the Indians
+had killed three of her cattle <q>just below the stone cave</q>&mdash;that is,
+Fountain Cave which was on the east bank of the river.<a name="anchor-521" id="anchor-521"></a><a href="#footnote-521" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 521.">521</a> Yet her
+husband was among those who had signed the petition of August 16, 1837,
+as residents on the west side.</p>
+
+<p>Within these lands were also a number of shacks <a id="Page_194" name="Page_194"></a><span class="pagenum">[194]</span> along the river
+bank a few miles below Fort Snelling. Here whiskey was clandestinely
+transferred from the boats before they proceeded upstream. During the
+winter of 1839 the presence of these resorts had a deteriorating effect
+upon the garrison. Surgeon Emerson wrote to the Surgeon General of the
+United States on April 23, 1839: <q>Since the middle of winter we have
+been completely inundated with ardent spirits, and consequently the most
+beastly scenes of intoxication among the soldiers of this garrison and
+the Indians in its vicinity, which no doubt will add many cases to our
+sick-list.&hellip; I feel grieved to witness such scenes of drunkenness and
+dissipation where I have spent many days of happiness, when we had no
+ardent spirits among us, and consequently sobriety and good conduct
+among the command.</q><a name="anchor-522" id="anchor-522"></a><a href="#footnote-522" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 522.">522</a></p>
+
+<p>Brigadier General John E. Wool inspected Fort Snelling on June 2nd, and
+in a letter on June 28th he urged that the settlers be driven off the
+reservation. <q>Such is the character of the white inhabitants of that
+country</q>, he wrote, <q>that if they cannot be permitted to carry on their
+nefarious traffic with the Indians, it will sooner or later involve them
+in a war with the United States.</q><a name="anchor-523" id="anchor-523"></a><a href="#footnote-523" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 523.">523</a></p>
+
+<p>Influenced by these letters and reports Secretary of War J. R. Poinsett
+determined to compel all the settlers to leave. It is, however, wrong to
+suppose that all were guilty of whiskey-peddling. In a letter in which
+he commented on the number of persons present at the Sunday services in
+the fort the chaplain <a id="Page_195" name="Page_195"></a><span class="pagenum">[195]</span> wrote that <q>Some of the inhabitants also in
+the vicinity who were regular in their attendance have removed.</q><a name="anchor-524" id="anchor-524"></a><a href="#footnote-524" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 524.">524</a></p>
+
+<p>The instructions for the removal were made out on October 21, 1839, and
+sent to Edward James, Marshal of the Territory of Wisconsin. They stated
+that if force should prove necessary to compel the people to leave, the
+Marshal should call upon the commanding officer at Fort Snelling for
+such aid. In that case he was instructed to act <q>with as much
+forbearance, consideration, and delicacy as may be consistent with the
+prompt and faithful performance of the duties hereby assigned to
+you</q>.<a name="anchor-525" id="anchor-525"></a><a href="#footnote-525" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 525.">525</a></p>
+
+<p>The orders were not received by Marshal James until February 18, 1840,
+and he immediately forwarded them to his deputy, Ira B. Brunson of
+Prairie du Chien. As soon as navigation opened in the spring he left for
+Fort Snelling. Notice was at once given to the settlers to move, and
+when they refused a detachment of soldiers was called out on May 6th and
+under the direction of a lieutenant and Marshal Brunson the household
+goods of the settlers were carried out and their cabins destroyed.<a name="anchor-526" id="anchor-526"></a><a href="#footnote-526" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 526.">526</a></p>
+
+<p>These ejected settlers found new homes a few miles down the river. In
+the midst of their rude homes a log chapel was dedicated in November,
+1841, to the Apostle St. Paul by the Reverend Lucian Galtier.<a name="anchor-527" id="anchor-527"></a><a href="#footnote-527" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 527.">527</a> As
+the ceded lands were more and more occupied, the little village enjoyed
+a corresponding growth. Gradually the name of the chapel was adopted as
+the name of the settlement. In 1849 the <a id="Page_196" name="Page_196"></a><span class="pagenum">[196]</span> Territory of Minnesota
+was organized with the seat of the legislature at St. Paul. The new
+community prospered, and the town swarmed with settlers, Indians,
+travellers, and adventurers who lived in tents or slept in barns in lieu
+of better accommodations. There were also capitalists, tradesmen, and
+officials who here made their homes.<a name="anchor-528" id="anchor-528"></a><a href="#footnote-528" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 528.">528</a></p>
+
+<p>It was inevitable that between this new community and Fort Snelling
+close relations should exist. The Territorial government was weak; to
+enforce order it was necessary for the Governor to make requisition on
+the fort for troops.<a name="anchor-529" id="anchor-529"></a><a href="#footnote-529" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 529.">529</a> The jail at Fort Snelling was also utilized
+for the punishment of many undesirable characters always drawn to a new
+region. James Higby who sold a promissory note which had already been
+paid, and Jacob Shipler who was arrested on a charge of assault and
+battery were both given terms in the jail at the fort. John R. McGregor,
+who became angry and threw his wife against a cooking stove, was
+separated from his help-meet for a period of three months while he
+languished in the fort.<a name="anchor-530" id="anchor-530"></a><a href="#footnote-530" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 530.">530</a></p>
+
+<p>The soldiers, in return, visited the frontier town, conducting
+themselves in the eyes of one observer <q>with much dignity and
+sobriety</q>.<a name="anchor-531" id="anchor-531"></a><a href="#footnote-531" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 531.">531</a> Not always, however, could their actions be thus
+described. Two soldiers who had just returned from an expedition to the
+Indian country, started for St. Paul on the evening of their return,
+carrying with them their blankets which they meant to sell for
+<q>refreshment</q>. <a id="Page_197" name="Page_197"></a><span class="pagenum">[197]</span> But their birch canoe upset and before aid could
+reach them they were drowned.<a name="anchor-532" id="anchor-532"></a><a href="#footnote-532" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 532.">532</a></p>
+
+<p>But relations of a more innocent and more desirable sort also existed.
+In the officials of the Territory the officers at the fort found
+congenial spirits. One of the popular pastimes of the little city was to
+ride out upon the frozen Mississippi in sleighs to Fort Snelling. <q>This
+command</q>, narrates an official report, <q>had the honor of receiving His
+Excellency W. A. Gorman Gov. of Minnesota and the Hon. James Shields
+late of the U. S. Senate, on the 9th inst. by whom the Command was
+reviewed &amp;c. in presence of a large concourse of Citizens.</q><a name="anchor-533" id="anchor-533"></a><a href="#footnote-533" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 533.">533</a> The
+band of the Sixth Regiment which had paraded through the streets of
+Mexico City playing <q>Yankee Doodle</q> now found occupation in playing for
+the balls and parties of the frontier town. Even the inhabitants of
+Stillwater, twenty-five miles distant, called on the fort to furnish the
+music for the Valentine Ball on February 14, 1850.<a name="anchor-534" id="anchor-534"></a><a href="#footnote-534" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 534.">534</a> During the same
+month a concert was given, the proceeds going to the Washington Monument
+Association. A year later the ladies who had arranged to give a tea
+party to raise money for the benefit of the poor children of the
+community changed their plans and accepted the offer of the band who
+volunteered to give a concert for the purpose.<a name="anchor-535" id="anchor-535"></a><a href="#footnote-535" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 535.">535</a> The value of this
+association of citizens with the soldiers led to the remark of an editor
+that <q>We consider this band as well as the whole garrison, with its high
+intelligence&mdash;but especially <a id="Page_198" name="Page_198"></a><span class="pagenum">[198]</span> the band, of infinite value to St.
+Paul&mdash;in fact, it is the most powerful element of influence amongst us,
+for our good, next to the pulpit and the press.</q><a name="anchor-536" id="anchor-536"></a><a href="#footnote-536" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 536.">536</a></p>
+
+<p>The tourists who for many years had been frequenting the upper
+Mississippi now increased in numbers. In the <q>Drive of All Visitors</q>
+were included the Falls of St. Anthony, Lake Harriet, Minnehaha Falls,
+and Fort Snelling.<a name="anchor-537" id="anchor-537"></a><a href="#footnote-537" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 537.">537</a> From the lookout tower of the fort on the edge
+of the cliff, could be viewed the same scenery which had charmed Carver
+a hundred years before. Undoubtedly many thought as did the newspaper
+man who wrote: <q>In the contemplation of this scene from Ft. Snelling,
+one is ravished with a desire to get upon it; and to appropriate a
+little domain for his home. It has the look of home. How can the Sioux
+ever consent to part with these lands?</q><a name="anchor-538" id="anchor-538"></a><a href="#footnote-538" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 538.">538</a></p>
+
+<p>But two years later they did part with them. The two treaties in which
+the cession was acknowledged were brought about without military
+aid.<a name="anchor-539" id="anchor-539"></a><a href="#footnote-539" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 539.">539</a> This was in itself prophetic of the new status of the fort.
+With the growth of the Territorial organization, one by one the duties
+connected with Indian affairs, liquor troubles, and the protection of
+life and property were taken over by the civil officers, with the
+military men as the executors of their laws only when the regular forces
+of administration were unable to handle the difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>And now the fort which had so long looked down upon the canoes of the
+Indians and traders saw on <a id="Page_199" name="Page_199"></a><span class="pagenum">[199]</span> its two rivers a new procession.
+Flatboats, steamboats, and canoes bore upstream the hardy pioneers and
+their families, and returned loaded with the products of the farm and
+the forest. The post which could have successfully resisted the attack
+of Indian warriors, or even the siege of a civilized enemy was to fall
+before the invasion of the pioneers. The frontier had suddenly leaped
+far to the westward. In 1858, when the troops were withdrawn, there was
+no need of an establishment such as had existed during the first forty
+years. It was the passing of Old Fort Snelling which for so many years
+had been the remotest outpost of American law.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the Northwest was not brought about by the
+spectacular and romantic incidents which the chroniclers loved to
+record. So gradual was its progress that the factors contributing to it
+can be seen only in the perspective of fifty years. It was the result of
+the monotonous details of the life of the fur trader who was the
+unwitting explorer of the Northwest, and the forerunner of the permanent
+resident. The routine duties of garrison life and expeditions to the
+Indian country, often barren of any visible result, added to its
+progress, as also did the weary marches of the explorer and the minute
+notations of the scientist who accompanied him. The patient sacrifices
+of the missionary who toiled at unaccustomed labors in the half-cleared
+cornfield and taught his primitive pupils in the log mission-house,
+introduced a new civilization. The <a id="Page_200" name="Page_200"></a><span class="pagenum">[200]</span> daily contact of the Indian
+and the white man at the fort and agency were prophetic of a new
+relationship between the two races.</p>
+
+<p>But because these events were so commonplace the contemporary
+chroniclers have bequeathed only a brief though eloquent epitome of this
+old Mississippi River post. It was the exception and not the rule to
+note that a company of soldiers was up the river watching the movements
+of the Indians, that a missionary had been presented with a ham, or that
+an explorer took with him so many vegetables from the gardens of the
+fort that the gunwale of his boat was brought within four inches of the
+water. But such are the stray references which indicate the almost
+complete dependence upon the fort of all the factors in the development
+of the Northwest.</p>
+
+
+<p>In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to gather together from
+all sources the references which bear upon each particular phase of the
+process. In most cases they are few, not because the military men were
+not concerned with them, but because at every post in the Mississippi
+Valley conditions were practically the same and the public, being
+acquainted with these routine duties, was more interested in the
+picturesque Indian legends or in the duels between the officers. Of
+these latter incidents the pages of the history of Fort Snelling are
+full and in this respect it was typical of the American army post. But
+it is also an example of that which is of <a id="Page_201" name="Page_201"></a><span class="pagenum">[201]</span> more importance&mdash;the
+contribution of the army to the transformation of the Mississippi
+Valley.</p>
+
+<p>In many ways Fort Snelling is unique in the list of American forts. The
+British flag was borne in triumph to wave from the flagstaff of Fort
+Ticonderoga after it had been evacuated by the colonial patriots during
+the dark days of 1777; but never was a foreign flag borne into Fort
+Snelling except to be burned in the sight of awestruck Indians. The guns
+of Fort Sumter announced the opening of the Civil War; never were the
+cannon at Fort Snelling fired at a foe. Mackinac was successively
+garrisoned by French, English, and American soldiers; whenever occupied
+by troops Fort Snelling flew the stars and stripes. The stockades at
+Boonesborough and Harrodstown were besieged by hundreds of savages who
+fought to gain entrance and obtain the scalps of the pioneer men and
+women there gathered for safety; no hostile demonstration was ever
+staged near Fort Snelling. Its history was not made by the rifles and
+sabers of the soldiers; the axe and the plow of the pioneer who worked
+in safety beneath its potential protection have left their history upon
+the landscape of the great Northwest. <a id="Page_202" name="Page_202"></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="Page_203" name="Page_203"></a></p>
+
+
+
+<p><a id="Page_204" name="Page_204"></a></p>
+
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_205" name="Page_205"></a><span class="pagenum">[205]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="NOTES_AND_REFERENCES" id="NOTES_AND_REFERENCES"></a>NOTES AND REFERENCES</h2>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p class="center">CHAPTER I</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-1" id="footnote-1"></a>Carver's <em>Travels through the Interior Parts of North-America</em>, pp.
+vii, viii.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-1" class="label">1</a> </li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-2" id="footnote-2"></a> To the region lying on the upper waters of three great river
+systems--the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the Red River of the
+North--the writer has applied the name <q>Upper Northwest</q> to distinguish
+it from the <q>Old Northwest</q> and the <q>Pacific Northwest</q>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-2" class="label">2</a> </li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-3" id="footnote-3"></a> For a summary of the French explorations see Folwell's <em>Minnesota</em>,
+pp. 1&ndash;29. Thwaites's <em>France in America</em>, p. 74, contains an excellent
+map of the French operations in the West.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-3" class="label">3</a> </li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-4" id="footnote-4"></a> The report of Louis Antoine Bougainville, written in 1757 and based
+on the reports of Canadian officials, shows the extent of French
+commerce at the close of the period of French control. At Green Bay (La
+Baye) trade was carried on with the Folles-Avoines, Sacs, Foxes, Sioux,
+and other tribes, the annual output being from five to six hundred
+packages of furs. In the North, extending westward along what is now the
+international boundary to the Lake of the Woods and then along the lakes
+and rivers of the Lake Winnipeg system, was the territory of the post
+known as <q>The Sea of the West</q>. This included seven forts and produced a
+yearly supply of from three to four hundred packages. <q>These regions are
+everywhere vast prairies; this is the route to take for the upper
+Missouri.</q>--<em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XVIII, pp. 167&ndash;195.
+A picturesque account of the life of the French traders is given in
+Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), pp. 115&ndash;119.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-4" class="label">4</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-5" id="footnote-5"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XVIII, p. 251; Turner's
+<em>The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin</em> in the
+<em>Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science</em>,
+Vol. IX, pp. 584, 585.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-5" class="label">5</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_206" name="Page_206"></a><span class="pagenum">[206]</span><a name="footnote-6" id="footnote-6"></a> Thwaites's <em>Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition</em>,
+Vol. VII, p. 373. In 1792, Peter Grant built a trading house on the site
+of St. Vincent, Minnesota, on the east bank of the Red River, and in
+1800&ndash;1801 the fort of Pembina was erected by the great traveller,
+Alexander Henry, the younger.--<em>South Dakota Historical Collections</em>,
+Vol. I, p. 138.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-6" class="label">6</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-7" id="footnote-7"></a> <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. I, p. 684.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-7" class="label">7</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-8" id="footnote-8"></a> Thwaites's <em>Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition</em>,
+Vol. I, pp. 227, 228. Traders of the Hudson's Bay Company also
+frequented the spot. Sergeant John Ordway records in his journal for
+December 1, 1804, that <q>a Scotsman who is tradeing at the Mandens came
+to visit us. he belonged to the hudson bay company.&hellip; he brought over
+Tobacco Beeds &amp; other kinds of Goods. &amp; traded with the Mandens for
+their furs &amp; buffalow Robes. they bring Some Guns to trade for horses &amp;C. this hudsons bay comp<sup>y</sup> lay Garrisoned near the N. W. Comp<sup>y</sup>.&hellip;
+Eight or 10 days travel by land a North course from this.</q>--<em>Wisconsin
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XXII, p. 169.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-8" class="label">8</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-9" id="footnote-9"></a> Chittenden's <em>The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far
+West</em>, Vol. II, p. 556.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-9" class="label">9</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-10" id="footnote-10"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, pp. 279, 280.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-10" class="label">10</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-11" id="footnote-11"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 286.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-11" class="label">11</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-12" id="footnote-12"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 280.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-12" class="label">12</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-13" id="footnote-13"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 156.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-13" class="label">13</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-14" id="footnote-14"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 171.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-14" class="label">14</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-15" id="footnote-15"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 252.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-15" class="label">15</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-16" id="footnote-16"></a> Wilkinson's instructions to Pike are printed in Coues's <em>The
+Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. II, pp. 842&ndash;844. Before the
+founding of Fort Snelling the Minnesota River was called by the French
+voyageurs the <q>St. Pierre</q>. When the Americans were established on its
+banks they anglicized this name into <q>St. Peter's</q>. The fort, the
+agency, and the fur traders' establishment are commonly referred to in
+early literature as <q>St. Peter's</q>. By a joint resolution of Congress on
+June 19, 1852, the name Minnesota was ordered to be used in all public
+documents in which the river was mentioned. This was the Indian name for
+the river.--<em>United States Statutes at Large</em>,  <a id="Page_207" name="Page_207"></a><span class="pagenum">[207]</span>Vol. X, p. 147. In
+mentioning this river use is made in this volume of the modern name,
+except when quoting.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-16" class="label">16</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-17" id="footnote-17"></a> The account of the treaty is given in Coues's <em>The Expeditions of
+Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, pp. 83, 84. The treaty itself is printed on
+page 231 and Pike's speech on pages 226&ndash;230. Article I contains the land
+cession: <q>That the Sioux nation grant unto the United States, for the
+purpose of establishment of military posts, nine miles square at the
+mouth of the St. Croix, also from below the confluence of the
+Mississippi and St. Peters up the Mississippi to include the falls of
+St. Anthony, extending nine miles on each side of the river, that the
+Sioux nation grants to the United States the full sovereignty and power
+over said district forever.</q> The meaning of all this is extremely vague.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-17" class="label">17</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-18" id="footnote-18"></a> <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. I, p. 798.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-18" class="label">18</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-19" id="footnote-19"></a> <em>Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812</em>, pp. 11,
+13.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-19" class="label">19</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-20" id="footnote-20"></a> A petition of the London merchants to the English government stated
+that before the war the annual export of furs from Canada amounted to
+&pound;250,000. Updyke's <em>The Diplomacy of the War of 1812</em>, p. 204.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-20" class="label">20</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-21" id="footnote-21"></a> <em>Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812</em>, pp. 72,
+73.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-21" class="label">21</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-22" id="footnote-22"></a> <em>Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812</em>, pp.
+66&ndash;69. The figures are given on page 69.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-22" class="label">22</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-23" id="footnote-23"></a> <em>Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812</em>, p. 184.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-23" class="label">23</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-24" id="footnote-24"></a> The best account of the massacre at Fort Dearborn is given in
+Quaife's <em>Chicago and the Old Northwest</em>, 1673&ndash;1835, pp. 211&ndash;231.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-24" class="label">24</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-25" id="footnote-25"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XIX, p. 323.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-25" class="label">25</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-26" id="footnote-26"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, pp. 120, 194.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-26" class="label">26</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_208" name="Page_208"></a><span class="pagenum">[208]</span><a name="footnote-27" id="footnote-27"></a> <em>Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XV, p. 219. It
+must be stated that the British in no way sought intentionally to use
+the Indians for the purpose of massacreing the whites. The instructions
+to Dickson declared that he <q>should restrain them by all the means in
+your power from acts of Cruelty and inhumanity</q>. On March 16, 1813,
+Dickson reported to the military secretary at Quebec that he had taken
+steps to redeem the soldiers, women, and children of the ill-fated Fort
+Dearborn garrison, who were still captives.--<em>Michigan Pioneer and
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XV, pp. 258, 259.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-27" class="label">27</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-28" id="footnote-28"></a> <em>Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XV, pp. 321,
+322.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-28" class="label">28</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-29" id="footnote-29"></a> There is a summary of Dickson's activities in the <em>Wisconsin
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, pp. 133&ndash;153.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-29" class="label">29</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-30" id="footnote-30"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. VI, p. 176.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-30" class="label">30</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-31" id="footnote-31"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XIII, p. 10; <em>Niles'
+Register</em>, Vol. VI, p. 242.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-31" class="label">31</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-32" id="footnote-32"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XI, pp. 254&ndash;270.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-32" class="label">32</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-33" id="footnote-33"></a> <em>Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of
+America and other powers since July 4, 1776</em>, pp. 404, 405.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-33" class="label">33</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-34" id="footnote-34"></a> <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. II, pp. 10, 11;
+Chittenden's <em>The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West</em>,
+Vol. II, p. 561.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-34" class="label">34</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-35" id="footnote-35"></a> These treaties were concluded: on July 18th with the Pottawattomies
+and Piankashaws; on July 19th with the Tetons and Sioux of the Lakes,
+Sioux of St. Peter's River, and Yankton Sioux; September 2nd with the
+Kickapoos; September 8th with the Wyandots; September 12th with the
+Osages; September 13th with the Sacs of the Missouri; September 14th
+with the Foxes; September 16th with the Iowas. The treaties are
+published in Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp.
+110&ndash;123. The reports of the commissioners and also the treaties are
+printed in the <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. II, pp.
+1&ndash;11.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-35" class="label">35</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-36" id="footnote-36"></a> <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 9.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-36" class="label">36</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-37" id="footnote-37"></a> For these migrations see the <em>Michigan Pioneer and Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. XXIII, pp. 97, 443; Kingsford's <em>The History of
+Canada</em>, Vol. IX, p. 69; <em>Report on Canadian Archives</em>, 1896, p. 157.
+<a id="Page_209" name="Page_209"></a><span class="pagenum">[209]</span>During the negotiations at Ghent the British commissioners had
+sought to have established a permanent Indian territory to be a barrier
+state between the two powers.--Updyke's <em>The Diplomacy of the War of
+1812</em>, p. 204.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians felt they had been abandoned by the English. Hence the
+liberality in gift distribution was an attempt to appease them.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-37" class="label">37</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-38" id="footnote-38"></a> See the reports of W. H. Puthuff in the <em>Wisconsin Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. XIX, pp. 430&ndash;433, 472&ndash;474.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-38" class="label">38</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-39" id="footnote-39"></a> Schoolcraft's <em>Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with
+the Indian Tribes</em>, p. 19.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-39" class="label">39</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-40" id="footnote-40"></a> Irving's <em>The Sketch-Book</em> (Hudson Edition), p. 489.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-40" class="label">40</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-41" id="footnote-41"></a> Carr's <em>Missouri</em>, p. 121.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-41" class="label">41</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-42" id="footnote-42"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. VIII, p. 436, August 19, 1815.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-42" class="label">42</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-43" id="footnote-43"></a> <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 86.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-43" class="label">43</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-44" id="footnote-44"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. III, p. 332. John Jacob
+Astor of the American Fur Company has received the credit for the
+passage of this law.--Folwell's <em>Minnesota</em>, p. 54; Coman's <em>Economic
+Beginnings of the Far West</em>, Vol. I, pp. 344, 345. This is neglecting
+the fact that there was a unanimous outcry against foreign traders--one
+of the signs that the War of 1812 marks the rise of American
+nationality. The legislation of April 29, 1816, was not wholly
+satisfactory to Astor. <q>I have seen a letter</q>, wrote William H. Puthuff,
+Indian agent at Mackinac, <q>addressed by J. J. Astor to a Mr. Franks a
+British trader now at this place in which Mr. Astor expresses surprise
+and regret at the passage of a law forbidding British subjects from
+trading with Indians, within the American limits etc.</q>--<em>Wisconsin
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XIX, p. 423. What Mr. Astor wanted was the
+prohibition of trade by American private citizens as well as by British
+private citizens. If his American Fur Company were given a monopoly as
+he desired, he also wanted to be free to employ such persons--American
+or British--as he needed.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-44" class="label">44</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-45" id="footnote-45"></a> Or, more correctly from the point where a north and south line
+drawn through the most northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods would
+intersect this parallel.--<em>Treaties and Conventions concluded between
+the United States of America and other powers since July 4, 1776</em>, p.
+416. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-45" class="label">45</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_210" name="Page_210"></a><span class="pagenum">[210]</span><a name="footnote-46" id="footnote-46"></a> <em>Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of
+America and other powers since July 4, 1776</em>, p. 377.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-46" class="label">46</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-47" id="footnote-47"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 279.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-47" class="label">47</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-48" id="footnote-48"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. XIV, pp. 387&ndash;389.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-48" class="label">48</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-49" id="footnote-49"></a> There is an excellent account of the United States trading house
+system in Quaife's <em>Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673&ndash;1835</em>, pp.
+289&ndash;309.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-49" class="label">49</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-50" id="footnote-50"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 228.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-50" class="label">50</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-51" id="footnote-51"></a> <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 6.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-51" class="label">51</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-52" id="footnote-52"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XX, p. 39.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-52" class="label">52</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">CHAPTER II</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-53" id="footnote-53"></a> For the erection of these posts see Quaife's <em>Chicago and the Old
+Northwest, 1673&ndash;1835</em>, p. 265; Thwaites's <em>Wisconsin</em>, pp. 180&ndash;182;
+Gue's <em>History of Iowa</em>, Vol. I, pp. 137, 138.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-53" class="label">53</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-54" id="footnote-54"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. I, p. 669.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-54" class="label">54</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-55" id="footnote-55"></a> Major Long's journal is printed in the <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 9&ndash;88.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-55" class="label">55</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-56" id="footnote-56"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. XIV, p. 192.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-56" class="label">56</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-57" id="footnote-57"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. I, p. 779.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-57" class="label">57</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-58" id="footnote-58"></a> Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), p. 319.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-58" class="label">58</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-59" id="footnote-59"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 32.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-59" class="label">59</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-60" id="footnote-60"></a> The story of the Yellowstone Expedition is narrated in detail in
+Chittenden's <em>The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West</em>,
+Vol. II, pp. 562&ndash;587. See also the preface to James's <em>Account of an
+Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains</em> in Thwaites's <em>Early
+Western Travels</em>, Vol. XIV, pp. 9&ndash;26. For the site of this fort see
+Thwaites's <em>Early Western Travels</em>, Vol. XXII, p. 275, note 231.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-60" class="label">60</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-61" id="footnote-61"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 34th Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 2,
+Document No. 1, p. 21.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-61" class="label">61</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-62" id="footnote-62"></a> Leavenworth's <em>A Genealogy of the Leavenworth Family in the United
+States</em>, p. 152. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-62" class="label">62</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_211" name="Page_211"></a><span class="pagenum">[211]</span><a name="footnote-63" id="footnote-63"></a> Van Cleve's <em><q>Three Score Years and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota</em>, p. 7.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-63" class="label">63</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-64" id="footnote-64"></a> In the <em>Detroit Gazette</em>, February 18, 1820, Vol. III, No. 135,
+there is reprinted from the <em>National Intelligencer</em> an <q>Extract of a
+letter from a gentleman of the expedition to the Falls of St. Anthony,
+to his friend in Washington, dated Cantonment of the 5th regt. U. S.
+Infantry, St. Peter's River, Nov. 10, 1819.</q> It is from this letter that
+the dates of arriving at and leaving the various places are taken. The
+Adjutant General in an order praised the garrison at Fort Howard <q>for
+the economy and expedition with which the command constructed transport
+boats for the accommodation of the 5th regiment in its passage to the
+Mississippi.</q>--<em>Detroit Gazette</em>, September 10, 1819.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-64" class="label">64</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-65" id="footnote-65"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. V, p. 96, note. Mrs. Van
+Cleve gives another version of this affair: <q>When all was in order,
+Colonel Leavenworth stepped forth, and, through an interpreter, formally
+requested of the Chief permission to pass peaceably through their
+country. The Chief, a very handsome young brave, advanced, and, with his
+right arm uncovered, said, with most expressive gestures: 'My brother,
+do you see the calm, blue sky above us? Do you see the lake that lies so
+peacefully at our feet? So calm, so peaceful are our hearts towards you.
+Pass on!'</q>--Van Cleve's <em><q>Three Score Years and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories
+of Fort Snelling, Minnesota</em>, p. 11.</p>
+
+<p>That these Indians were not so friendly as this account would indicate
+is apparent from the statement in Major Forsyth's narrative that Captain
+Whistler of Fort Howard had been fired at, at different times during the
+summer of 1819 by these Winnebagoes.--<em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. III, p. 167.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-65" class="label">65</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-66" id="footnote-66"></a> Major Forsyth's narrative, covering the time from his departure
+from St. Louis on June 7th until his arrival there again on September
+17th, is published in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III,
+pp. 139&ndash;167; also in the <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI,
+pp. 188&ndash;219. It is from this narrative that the facts regarding the
+progress of the expedition were obtained.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-66" class="label">66</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-67" id="footnote-67"></a> Major Forsyth's narrative in the <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 147, 148, 149.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-67" class="label">67</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-68" id="footnote-68"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, p. 149; Van Cleve's
+<a id="Page_212" name="Page_212"></a><span class="pagenum">[212]</span><em><q>Three Score Years and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories of Fort
+Snelling, Minnesota</em>, p. 15.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-68" class="label">68</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-69" id="footnote-69"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 149&ndash;153, 159.
+Mrs. Van Cleve says that a few days were spent on the shores of Lake
+Pepin.--Van Cleve's <em><q>Three Score Years and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota</em>, p. 16. Mrs. Ellet in her sketch of Mrs. Clark
+says a week was spent at this place.--Ellet's <em>Pioneer Women of the
+West</em>, p. 350.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-69" class="label">69</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-70" id="footnote-70"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 153, 154. Neill
+records that the troops did not reach the Minnesota River <q>until
+September</q>.--Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), p.
+320. But in Appendix L., p. 891, he gives the same dates as Forsyth. In
+Folwell's <em>Minnesota</em>, p. 55, the statement is made that <q>the command
+arrived at Mendota August 23</q>. As the main body of soldiers did not
+arrive until August 24th, this latter date should be taken as the
+birthday of Fort Snelling.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-70" class="label">70</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-71" id="footnote-71"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 154&ndash;157; <em>Detroit
+Gazette</em>, October 22, 1819, February 18, 1820.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-71" class="label">71</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-72" id="footnote-72"></a> <em>Detroit Gazette</em>, February 18, 1820.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-72" class="label">72</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-73" id="footnote-73"></a> Van Cleve's <em><q>Three Score Years and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota</em>, pp. 18, 19. The baby was Charlotte Ouisconsin
+Clark who married General Horatio P. Van Cleve. In 1888 she published a
+book of reminiscences. It possesses all the merits and defects of a book
+of reminiscences--vividness of pictures--inaccuracy in regard to
+specific facts.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-73" class="label">73</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-74" id="footnote-74"></a> Ellet's <em>Pioneer Women of the West</em>, p. 351; <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 48.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-74" class="label">74</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-75" id="footnote-75"></a> Mrs. Van Cleve, who received her information from her father, gives
+the number as forty.--Van Cleve's <em><q>Three Score Years and Ten,</q>
+Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota</em>, p. 19. James Doty, who
+kept the official journal of the Cass Expedition of 1820, and who
+received his information from the officers at Camp Cold Water, gives the
+number as forty.--<em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XIII, p. 214.
+Philander Prescott in his reminiscences states that <q>Some fifty or sixty
+had died, and some ten men died after I arrived</q>.--<em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 478. L. Grignon wrote on April 3, 1820, that
+<q>They tell me that fifty Sol<a id="Page_213" name="Page_213"></a><span class="pagenum">[213]</span>diers  of the river St. Pierre have
+died of Scurvy</q>.--<em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XX, p. 161.</p>
+
+<p>In writing of the attack of scurvy Mr. H. H. Sibley remarks: <q>It was
+doubtless caused by the bad quality of the provisions, especially of the
+pork, which was spoiled by the villany of the contractors, or their
+agents, in drawing the brine from the barrels that contained it, after
+leaving St. Louis, in order to lighten the load, and causing the barrels
+to be refilled with river water, before their delivery at the post,
+to avoid detection. The troops were compelled to live on this
+unwholesome fare for two successive seasons, before the fraud was
+discovered.</q>--<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, pp. 473, 474.
+Nowhere else is this explanation given. Sickness could easily come at a
+frontier post without such villainy. During the same winter at Camp
+Missouri over half of the garrison of seven hundred men were sick, and
+nearly one hundred of them died. At Council Bluff there was also a great
+deal of sickness.--<em>Detroit Gazette</em>, July 21, September 1, 1820.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-75" class="label">75</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-76" id="footnote-76"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, p. 473.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-76" class="label">76</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-77" id="footnote-77"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 103.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-77" class="label">77</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-78" id="footnote-78"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-78" class="label">78</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-79" id="footnote-79"></a> <em>Reports of Committees</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, p. 136.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-79" class="label">79</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-80" id="footnote-80"></a> These facts are from the reminiscences of Philander Prescott in the
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-80" class="label">80</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-81" id="footnote-81"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 105.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-81" class="label">81</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-82" id="footnote-82"></a> Snelling to Taliaferro, November 7, 1821.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>,
+Vol. I, No. 30.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-82" class="label">82</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-83" id="footnote-83"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 107. Mrs. Van Cleve
+states that the fort was occupied in the fall of 1821.--Van Cleve's
+<em><q>Three Score Years and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling,
+Minnesota</em>, p. 32.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-83" class="label">83</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-84" id="footnote-84"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1830, No. 153.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-84" class="label">84</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-85" id="footnote-85"></a> Schoolcraft's <em>Narrative Journal of Travels from Detroit Northwest
+through the Great Chain of American Lakes to the sources of the
+Mississippi River</em>, pp. 292&ndash;315. The official journal was kept by James
+Doty. The time spent with Leavenworth's troops is described in the
+<em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XIII, pp. 212&ndash;216. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-85" class="label">85</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_214" name="Page_214"></a><span class="pagenum">[214]</span><a name="footnote-86" id="footnote-86"></a> Captain Kearny's journal is printed in the <em>Missouri Historical
+Society Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 8&ndash;29, 99&ndash;131. Pages 104&ndash;110 are
+devoted to the time spent at Camp Cold Water.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-86" class="label">86</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-87" id="footnote-87"></a> These facts regarding the change of the name are taken from Upham's
+<em>The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, Later named Fort Snelling</em>
+in the <em>Magazine of History</em>, Vol. XXI, pp. 38, 39. Dr. Upham received
+his information from a letter from the Adjutant General of the United
+States.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-87" class="label">87</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER III</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-88" id="footnote-88"></a> See Miss Gallaher's article on <em>The Military-Indian Frontier
+1830&ndash;1835</em> in <em>The Iowa Journal of History and Politics</em>, Vol. XV, pp.
+393&ndash;428.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-88" class="label">88</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-89" id="footnote-89"></a> Langham to Taliaferro, August 19, 1820.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol.
+I, No. 62.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-89" class="label">89</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-90" id="footnote-90"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 117.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-90" class="label">90</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-91" id="footnote-91"></a> Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), p. 901.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-91" class="label">91</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-92" id="footnote-92"></a> Marsh to Taliaferro, June 26, 1827.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I,
+No. 76.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-92" class="label">92</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-93" id="footnote-93"></a> This was the opening of the Winnebago War, often called the <q>Red
+Bird War</q>. Accounts of it are given in William Joseph Snelling's <em>Early
+Days at Prairie du Chien</em> in the <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>,
+Vol. V, pp. 144&ndash;153; and <em>State Papers</em>, 1st Session, 20th Congress,
+Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150&ndash;163.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-93" class="label">93</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-94" id="footnote-94"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 118.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-94" class="label">94</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-95" id="footnote-95"></a> For the movement of troops see <em>State Papers</em>, 1st Session, 20th
+Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150&ndash;163.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-95" class="label">95</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-96" id="footnote-96"></a> Taliaferro to Cass, October 4, 1832.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1832,
+No. 226.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-96" class="label">96</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-97" id="footnote-97"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 439, 440, 459; Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth
+Edition), pp. 483&ndash;487.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-97" class="label">97</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-98" id="footnote-98"></a> For an account of the Winnebagoes and their many migrations see
+Jackson's <em>A Century of Dishonor</em>, pp. 218&ndash;256. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-98" class="label">98</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_215" name="Page_215"></a><span class="pagenum">[215]</span><a name="footnote-99" id="footnote-99"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt. 2,
+Document No. 5, pp. 1028, 1029; <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, September 13,
+1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-99" class="label">99</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-100" id="footnote-100"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, November 28, December 12, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-100" class="label">100</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-101" id="footnote-101"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3,
+Document No. 2, p. 421. <q>The recent arrival at Fort Snelling of a
+company of dragoons, so long wanted, will greatly assist in intercepting
+the migration southward of this discontented people.</q>--Report of
+Alexander Ramsey, October 21, 1850, in <em>Senate Documents</em>, 2nd Session,
+31st Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 81.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-101" class="label">101</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-102" id="footnote-102"></a> This reservation was agreed upon by the treaty concluded at
+Washington, D. C., on February 27, 1855; Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs, Laws
+and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp. 690&ndash;693.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-102" class="label">102</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-103" id="footnote-103"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 316, 423.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-103" class="label">103</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-104" id="footnote-104"></a> Bryce's <em>The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company</em>, pp.
+365&ndash;372. A description of a hunt, written in French by Rev. M. Belcourt,
+is given in <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol.
+VIII, Document No. 51, pp. 44&ndash;52.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-104" class="label">104</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-105" id="footnote-105"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII,
+Document No. 51, p. 4.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-105" class="label">105</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-106" id="footnote-106"></a> This was during the period that Professor William A. Dunning
+describes as <q>The Roaring Forties</q>. <q>And the far flung interests of the
+British Empire need no more striking illustration than the fact that in
+whatever direction the Americans sought to expand their bounds, whether
+on the Atlantic or on the Pacific, in the Gulf of the tropics or under
+the Arctic circle, they found subjects of the Queen, with vested rights,
+opposing the movement.</q>--Dunning's <em>The British Empire and the United
+States</em>, pp. 96, 97.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-106" class="label">106</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-107" id="footnote-107"></a> Captain Sumner's report is printed in the <em>Executive Documents</em>,
+1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 2, pp. 217&ndash;220. It is
+reprinted with explanatory notes in <em>The Iowa Journal of History and
+Politics</em>, Vol. XI, pp. 258&ndash;267.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-107" class="label">107</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-108" id="footnote-108"></a> The report of Major Woods is printed in <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st
+Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII, Document No. 51. It contains
+fifty-five pages. Accompanying the expedition was John Pope, Brevet
+<a id="Page_216" name="Page_216"></a><span class="pagenum">[216]</span>Captain of the Topographical Engineers. His report is published
+in <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. X, Document No.
+42. There is an excellent map attached to the report.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-108" class="label">108</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-109" id="footnote-109"></a> Colonel Smith's report is printed in the <em>Executive Documents</em>,
+2nd Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Pt. II, Document No. 1, pp.
+426&ndash;454.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-109" class="label">109</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-110" id="footnote-110"></a> Ansel Briggs to the Secretary of War.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1849, No. 206. The petition was dated Washington, Iowa, July 31,
+1849.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1849, No. 208.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-110" class="label">110</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-111" id="footnote-111"></a> Major Woods's report is found in the <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1849,
+No. 174.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-111" class="label">111</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-112" id="footnote-112"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, April 3, 1850.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-112" class="label">112</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-113" id="footnote-113"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, May 16, 1850.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-113" class="label">113</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-114" id="footnote-114"></a> See the letter of William Hutchinson, who was one of the party. It
+is published in <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, June 13, 1850. <q>Iowa City looks
+as it did five years ago</q>, he wrote. <q>A few houses were built since that
+time; but evidently were not the capitol located at this place, it would
+be no <em>great shakes</em>, though in time it is bound to come out. Some years
+since, Uncle Sam erected expensive bridges for the good citizens of
+Iowa, betwixt Dubuque and Iowa City; and strange to say the people are
+suffering them to rot down without covering them. Iowa City has grown in
+ten years as large as Saint Paul, which is not 2 years old. Steamboats
+often get up to this place, but all will not suffice.</q></p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-114" class="label">114</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-115" id="footnote-115"></a> Report of Major Woods.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1850, No. 363.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-115" class="label">115</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-116" id="footnote-116"></a> <em>The Iowa Star</em> (Fort Des Moines), July 18, 1850.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-116" class="label">116</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-117" id="footnote-117"></a> <em>The Annals of Iowa</em> (First Series), Vol. VII, pp. 284, 285.</p>
+
+<p><q>Part of Company D. 1st regiment of U. S. Dragoons under command of
+Lieut. Gardner passed through here on their way to the Missouri river.
+We understand they intend to pay a visit to the Indian tribes on the
+upper Missouri and from thence across Minnesota Territory to their
+quarters at Ft. Snelling.</q>--Quoted from the <em>Fort Des Moines Gazette</em> in
+the <em>Miners' Express</em> (Dubuque), September 4, 1850. The return of the
+troops to Fort Snelling is noted in <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, October 3,
+1850. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-117" class="label">117</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_217" name="Page_217"></a><span class="pagenum">[217]</span><a name="footnote-118" id="footnote-118"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3,
+Document No. 2, p. 284. An account of the journey is printed in <em>The
+Minnesota Pioneer</em>, February 12, 1852.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-118" class="label">118</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-119" id="footnote-119"></a> Asa Whitney, a New York merchant, petitioned Congress in January,
+1845, for a franchise and a grant of land to make this dream a
+reality.--<em>Congressional Globe</em>, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, pp. 218,
+219.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-119" class="label">119</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-120" id="footnote-120"></a> Act of March 3, 1853.--<em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. X,
+p. 219.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-120" class="label">120</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-121" id="footnote-121"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No.
+91, pp. 1, 13, 74.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-121" class="label">121</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-122" id="footnote-122"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 36th Congress, Document No.
+56, p. 36; <em>Post Returns</em>, May, 1853, in the archives of the War
+Department, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-122" class="label">122</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-123" id="footnote-123"></a> A brief account of the expedition is given in Paxson's <em>The Last
+American Frontier</em>, pp. 197&ndash;203. The reports of all the surveys were
+published by the government. That of Governor Stevens consists of 651
+pages, added to the report of the Secretary of War, published in
+<em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91. In
+1859 Governor Stevens submitted a <em>Narrative and Final Report</em>,
+published in two parts in the <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 36th
+Congress, Document No. 56. The various reports of all the explorers are
+bound in a set of twelve volumes, in which Governor Stevens's first
+account may be found in Vol. I, and the later narrative in Vol. XII,
+Pts. I and II.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-123" class="label">123</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-124" id="footnote-124"></a> Order No. 7 stated: <q>It is considered of great consequence that
+the several trains should not be intermingled; and the dragoons attached
+to the several parties will continue with them, camping and working with
+them, receiving their orders only from their particular chiefs, even
+when the whole force is brought together.</q>--<em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd
+Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91, p. 46.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-124" class="label">124</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-125" id="footnote-125"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 2, p. 112.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-125" class="label">125</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-126" id="footnote-126"></a> Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, p. 566.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-126" class="label">126</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-127" id="footnote-127"></a> Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp.
+567&ndash;570. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-127" class="label">127</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_218" name="Page_218"></a><span class="pagenum">[218]</span><a name="footnote-128" id="footnote-128"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. X, Pt. I, p. 181.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-128" class="label">128</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-129" id="footnote-129"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 161.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-129" class="label">129</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-130" id="footnote-130"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 180&ndash;183.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-130" class="label">130</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-131" id="footnote-131"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, July 19, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-131" class="label">131</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-132" id="footnote-132"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, September 6, 1849, July 11, November 21,
+1850.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-132" class="label">132</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-133" id="footnote-133"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. X, Pt. I, pp. 193, 199.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-133" class="label">133</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-134" id="footnote-134"></a> Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp.
+588&ndash;593.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-134" class="label">134</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-135" id="footnote-135"></a> Holcombe's <em>Minnesota in Three Centuries</em>, Vol. II, pp. 327, 328;
+<em>Annals of Iowa</em> (First Series), Vol. VII, p. 290; <em>Post Returns</em>,
+March, April, 1853, in the archives of the War Department, Washington,
+D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-135" class="label">135</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-136" id="footnote-136"></a> For Colonel Smith's expedition see above, Note 109. For the
+building of Fort Abercrombie see the <em>Collections of the State
+Historical Society of North Dakota</em>, Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 7.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-136" class="label">136</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-137" id="footnote-137"></a> <em>Reports of Committees</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, pp. 10&ndash;12.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-137" class="label">137</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-138" id="footnote-138"></a> <em>Congressional Globe</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2595.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-138" class="label">138</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-139" id="footnote-139"></a> For the sale of Fort Snelling see Dr. Folwell's paper on <em>The Sale
+of Fort Snelling</em>, 1857, in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol.
+XV, pp. 393&ndash;410.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-139" class="label">139</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-140" id="footnote-140"></a> The report of the committee may be found in <em>Reports of
+Committees</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-140" class="label">140</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-141" id="footnote-141"></a> <em>Congressional Globe</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2614.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-141" class="label">141</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-142" id="footnote-142"></a> <em>Congressional Globe</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2618.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-142" class="label">142</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-143" id="footnote-143"></a> Minnesota Historical Collections, Vol. VIII, p. 431.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-143" class="label">143</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-144" id="footnote-144"></a> For papers relating to the readjustment see <em>Executive Documents</em>,
+3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-144" class="label">144</a>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER IV</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a id="Page_219" name="Page_219"></a><span class="pagenum">[219]</span><a name="footnote-145" id="footnote-145"></a> Quoted in Williams's <em>A History of the City of Saint Paul</em>, pp.
+58, 59.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-145" class="label">145</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-146" id="footnote-146"></a> In the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VIII, pp. 430,
+431, there is a list of the commanding officers from September, 1819 to
+May, 1858.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-146" class="label">146</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-147" id="footnote-147"></a> For the life of Henry Leavenworth see the <em>Kansas Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. VII, pp. 577, 578, Vol. IX, p. 569, Vol. XI, p. xxi;
+Powell's <em>List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from 1779
+to 1900</em>, p. 428; Chittenden's <em>The History of the American Fur Trade of
+the Far West</em>, Vol. II, pp. 630&ndash;632; Leavenworth's <em>A Genealogy of the
+Leavenworth Family in the United States</em>, pp. 150&ndash;154.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-147" class="label">147</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-148" id="footnote-148"></a> <em>American State Papers, Indian Affairs</em>, Vol. I, p. 777.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-148" class="label">148</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-149" id="footnote-149"></a> Ellet's <em>Pioneer Women of the West</em>, pp. 310&ndash;323, contains a
+sketch of the activities of Captain Snelling during the war.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-149" class="label">149</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-150" id="footnote-150"></a> Ellet's <em>Pioneer Women of the West</em>, pp. 313, 314.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-150" class="label">150</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-151" id="footnote-151"></a> Ellet's <em>Pioneer Women of the West</em>, p. 316.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-151" class="label">151</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-152" id="footnote-152"></a> From the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 96, 97. Mrs. Adams, as a child,
+lived several years in the Snelling household.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-152" class="label">152</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-153" id="footnote-153"></a> Powell's <em>List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900</em>, p. 599; Ellet's <em>Pioneer Women of the West</em>, p. 334.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-153" class="label">153</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-154" id="footnote-154"></a> From a manuscript entitled <q>Remarks on General Wm. Hull's Memoirs
+of the Campaign of the Northwestern Army, 1812</q>, by Josiah
+Snelling.--<em>Draper Collection</em>, 8 U. 114, pp. 42, 43.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-154" class="label">154</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-155" id="footnote-155"></a> <em>The Works of Daniel Webster</em>, Vol. V, p. 410.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-155" class="label">155</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-156" id="footnote-156"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VIII, pp. 440, 441.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-156" class="label">156</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-157" id="footnote-157"></a> See the sketch of Captain Scott in Van Cleve's <em><q>Three Score Years
+and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota</em>, pp. 28, 29.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-157" class="label">157</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-158" id="footnote-158"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 367.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-158" class="label">158</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-159" id="footnote-159"></a> There is a sketch of Martin Scott in the <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 180&ndash;187, from which this story is taken. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-159" class="label">159</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_220" name="Page_220"></a><span class="pagenum">[220]</span><a name="footnote-160" id="footnote-160"></a> Powell's <em>List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900</em>, p. 577.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-160" class="label">160</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-161" id="footnote-161"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. 73, p. 130.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-161" class="label">161</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-162" id="footnote-162"></a> The frontispiece of Mrs. Eastman's <em>Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends
+of the Sioux around Fort Snelling</em> was painted by Captain Eastman.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-162" class="label">162</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-163" id="footnote-163"></a> Appletons' <em>Cyclopaedia of American Biography</em>, Vol. II, p. 292.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-163" class="label">163</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-164" id="footnote-164"></a> In his notes to <em>Hiawatha</em> Longfellow quotes from the introduction
+of Mrs. Eastman's book, p. ii.--<em>Longfellow's Complete Poetical Works</em>
+(Cambridge Edition), p. 666.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-164" class="label">164</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-165" id="footnote-165"></a> Appletons' <em>Cyclopaedia of American Biography</em>, Vol. II, p. 292.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-165" class="label">165</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-166" id="footnote-166"></a> Powell's <em>List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900</em>, p. 449; <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VIII, p.
+441.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-166" class="label">166</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-167" id="footnote-167"></a> <em>The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography</em>, Vol. VIII, pp.
+89, 90.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-167" class="label">167</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-168" id="footnote-168"></a> Rhodes's <em>History of the United States</em>, Vol. IV, p. 328.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-168" class="label">168</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-169" id="footnote-169"></a> <em>The American Annual Cyclopaedia</em>, 1863, p. 816.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-169" class="label">169</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-170" id="footnote-170"></a> Bancroft's <em>History of Oregon</em>, Vol. II, pp. 611, 612. For the
+career of General Canby see Appletons' <em>Cyclopaedia of American
+Biography</em>, Vol. I, pp. 517, 518.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-170" class="label">170</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-171" id="footnote-171"></a> This incident is taken from Folsom's <em>Fifty Years in the
+Northwest</em>, pp. 755, 756. Mr. Folsom says he took it <q>from a St. Paul
+paper of 1887</q>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-171" class="label">171</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-172" id="footnote-172"></a> For the Dred Scott case see McMaster's <em>A History of the People of
+the United States</em>, Vol. VIII, pp. 278, 279.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-172" class="label">172</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-173" id="footnote-173"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. I, p. 50.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-173" class="label">173</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-174" id="footnote-174"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. IV, p. 564.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-174" class="label">174</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-175" id="footnote-175"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. IV, pp. 729&ndash;739.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-175" class="label">175</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-176" id="footnote-176"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. IX, p. 395.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-176" class="label">176</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-177" id="footnote-177"></a> Quoted from the complaint of the agent, Nathaniel McLean,
+September 25, 1850, in <em>Senate Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 31st Congress,
+Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 106. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-177" class="label">177</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_221" name="Page_221"></a><span class="pagenum">[221]</span><a name="footnote-178" id="footnote-178"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 249.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-178" class="label">178</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-179" id="footnote-179"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 253, 254.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-179" class="label">179</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-180" id="footnote-180"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 353.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-180" class="label">180</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-181" id="footnote-181"></a> Taliaferro to Crawford, July 15, 1839.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1839, No. 512.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-181" class="label">181</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-182" id="footnote-182"></a> These papers are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical
+Society. The dates covered in these diaries are from December, 1830, to
+June, 1831; May 25 to September 21, 1833; May 23 to August 28, 1834.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-182" class="label">182</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-183" id="footnote-183"></a> These letters are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical
+Society. In Volume I of these letters is the following notice: <q>These
+326 letters, are part of the great mass of correspondence received by
+Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro, Indian Agent at Fort Snelling, 1819&ndash;1840. They
+constitute but a small part of his accumulations in twenty years. The
+rest were burned in his house at Bedford, Pa., in 18__. It was a great
+loss to us, as, had they been spared, we would have received all of
+them. But even these 326 contain a large amount of valuable material for
+Minnesota history. Even as autographs they are valuable, [see
+autobiography of Taliaferro, Vol. 6, Coll.] These letters were given by
+Maj. T. in March, 1868. Arranged, bound and indexed (by J. F. W.) 1891.</q></p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-183" class="label">183</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-184" id="footnote-184"></a> Photostatic copies of many of these letters were taken and are to
+be found in the library of the Wisconsin Historical Society, where they
+were consulted.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-184" class="label">184</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-185" id="footnote-185"></a> These letter books are now in the possession of the Kansas State
+Historical Society at Topeka, where they were consulted. The only volume
+containing letters from Major Taliaferro is referred to as the <em>William
+Clark Papers, Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-185" class="label">185</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-186" id="footnote-186"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 253.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-186" class="label">186</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-187" id="footnote-187"></a> Powell's <em>List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900</em>, p. 620. In the <em>Taliaferro Letters</em> are many letters from
+William Clark and Elbert Herring in which they address Mr. Taliaferro as
+<q>major</q>. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-187" class="label">187</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_222" name="Page_222"></a><span class="pagenum">[222]</span><a name="footnote-188" id="footnote-188"></a> <em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I, No. 11. A note on this letter gives
+these dates.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-188" class="label">188</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-189" id="footnote-189"></a> Nowhere is the date of his arrival at Fort Snelling given. In his
+autobiography he writes of his journey: <q>Jean Baptiste Faribault and
+family, had gone through by land, in charge of Colonel Leavenworth's
+horses and cows</q>.--<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 198.
+It was in the spring of 1820 that Faribault performed this
+service.--<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 103.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-189" class="label">189</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-190" id="footnote-190"></a> Clark to the Secretary of War, August 20, 1832.--<em>Indian Office
+Files</em>, 1832, No. 285. For his resignation see <em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1824, No. 39.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-190" class="label">190</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-191" id="footnote-191"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, March 24, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-191" class="label">191</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-192" id="footnote-192"></a> Taliaferro to Crawford, December 12, 1839.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1839, No. 516.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-192" class="label">192</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-193" id="footnote-193"></a> Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), pp. 337&ndash;339.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-193" class="label">193</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-194" id="footnote-194"></a> In the report for 1850 the agency at St. Peter's is designated a
+<q>Sub-Agency</q>.--<em>Senate Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 103.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-194" class="label">194</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-195" id="footnote-195"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, pp. 339, 340.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-195" class="label">195</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-196" id="footnote-196"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1834, No. 213, 1827, No. 54, 1843, No. 222.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-196" class="label">196</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-197" id="footnote-197"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, p. 341.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-197" class="label">197</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER V</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-198" id="footnote-198"></a> See <em>Notes on Canada and the North-West States of America</em> in
+<em>Blackwood's Magazine</em>, Vol. LXXVIII, p. 323, September, 1855. These
+articles by Laurence Oliphant were later published in book form under
+the title of <em>Minnesota and the Far West</em>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-198" class="label">198</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-199" id="footnote-199"></a> This is the height given in Nicollet's <em>Report intended to
+illustrate a Map of the Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi
+River</em>, p. 69.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-199" class="label">199</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-200" id="footnote-200"></a> Seymour's <em>Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West</em>, p.
+103. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-200" class="label">200</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_223" name="Page_223"></a><span class="pagenum">[223]</span><a name="footnote-201" id="footnote-201"></a> This sketch of the fort is obtained from the map of Fort Snelling
+in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VIII, p. 431; and from a
+<em>Report of the capacity and condition of the barracks, quarters,
+hospital, storehouses, &amp;c., at Fort Snelling, Minnesota Territory, made
+to the Quartermaster General</em>. This report was made on August 23, 1856.
+It is printed in <em>Reports of Committees</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress,
+Vol. II, Report No. 351, pp. 407&ndash;409.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-201" class="label">201</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-202" id="footnote-202"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. IV, p. 122.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-202" class="label">202</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-203" id="footnote-203"></a> Latrobe's <em>The Rambler in North America</em>, Vol. II, p. 295.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-203" class="label">203</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-204" id="footnote-204"></a> A statement of the equipment at the various posts during the
+fourth quarter of 1834 is printed in the <em>American State Papers,
+Military Affairs</em>, Vol. V, p. 853&ndash;900.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-204" class="label">204</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-205" id="footnote-205"></a> Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1839, No. 492.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-205" class="label">205</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-206" id="footnote-206"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1830, No. 153.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-206" class="label">206</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-207" id="footnote-207"></a> Taliaferro to William Clark, August 17, 1830.--<em>Indian Office
+Files</em>, 1830, No. 139.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-207" class="label">207</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-208" id="footnote-208"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, April 7, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-208" class="label">208</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-209" id="footnote-209"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, March 8, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-209" class="label">209</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-210" id="footnote-210"></a> Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1839, No. 492; <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol.
+VII, Document No. 9, p. 19.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-210" class="label">210</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-211" id="footnote-211"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1830, No. 153.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-211" class="label">211</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-212" id="footnote-212"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1834, No. 207.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-212" class="label">212</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-213" id="footnote-213"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1830, No. 153. In the Sibley House at
+Mendota is hung an oil painting of Fort Snelling made by Sergeant Thomas
+who was stationed at Fort Snelling sometime between 1836 and 1842. This
+painting, which was made from the hill behind Sibley House, shows the
+location of these various buildings.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-213" class="label">213</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-214" id="footnote-214"></a> For Baker's house see <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th
+Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9, pp. 19, 33, 34; also <em>Reports of
+Committees</em>, 1st session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p.
+400.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-214" class="label">214</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-215" id="footnote-215"></a> Latrobe's <em>The Rambler in North America</em>, Vol. II, pp. 295, 296.
+Charles Joseph Latrobe visited the post in the fall of 1833.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-215" class="label">215</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_224" name="Page_224"></a><span class="pagenum">[224]</span><a name="footnote-216" id="footnote-216"></a> These buildings are shown in the picture mentioned in note 213,
+above.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-216" class="label">216</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-217" id="footnote-217"></a> There is a description of Mendota given in Seymour's <em>Sketches of
+Minnesota, the New England of the West</em>, pp. 101, 102.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-217" class="label">217</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-218" id="footnote-218"></a> Seymour's <em>Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West</em>, p.
+117; Bishop's <em>Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota</em>, pp. 156, 157.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-218" class="label">218</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-219" id="footnote-219"></a> These figures are taken from Keating's <em>Narrative of an Expedition
+to the Source of St. Peter's River</em>, Vol. I, p. 309.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-219" class="label">219</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-220" id="footnote-220"></a> Latrobe's <em>The Rambler in North America</em>, Vol. II, p. 302.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-220" class="label">220</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-221" id="footnote-221"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 37, 38; <em>Reports of Committees</em>, 1st Session, 35th
+Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p. 148.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-221" class="label">221</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-222" id="footnote-222"></a> Upham's <em>The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, later named
+Fort Snelling</em> in <em>The Magazine of History</em>, Vol. XXI, p. 37.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-222" class="label">222</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-223" id="footnote-223"></a> See below, the chapter entitled <em>Soldiers of the Cross</em>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-223" class="label">223</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-224" id="footnote-224"></a> This enumeration of the Indian villages is from Pond's <em>The
+Dakotas or Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, pp. 320&ndash;330. The spelling of the
+names follows that used by Pond, although they were all written in many
+ways. The population figures are from Taliaferro's report in 1834, found
+in <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1834, No. 203.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-224" class="label">224</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-225" id="footnote-225"></a> See the description of an Indian village in Latrobe's <em>The Rambler
+in North America</em>, Vol. II, pp. 288, 289; also, Keating's <em>Narrative of
+an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River</em>, Vol. I, pp. 342, 343.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-225" class="label">225</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER VI</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-226" id="footnote-226"></a> On December 22, 1819, the House of Representatives passed a
+resolution directing the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, to prepare a
+system of martial law and field service. His report was communicated to
+the House on December 26, 1820, and was entitled <em>Systems of Martial
+Law, and Field Service, and Police</em>. It is composed of two parts,
+namely, <em>General Regulations for the Army</em>, and <em>A System of Martial
+Law</em>. It is from these regulations that the following sketch of the
+routine life at a military post is built up. The report <a id="Page_225" name="Page_225"></a><span class="pagenum">[225]</span>is
+published in the <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, pp.
+201&ndash;274.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-226" class="label">226</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-227" id="footnote-227"></a> Ingersoll's <em>A History of the War Department of the United
+States</em>, pp. 205, 206.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-227" class="label">227</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-228" id="footnote-228"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 119.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-228" class="label">228</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-229" id="footnote-229"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 210.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-229" class="label">229</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-230" id="footnote-230"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 95.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-230" class="label">230</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-231" id="footnote-231"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 210.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-231" class="label">231</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-232" id="footnote-232"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, pp. 217, 218.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-232" class="label">232</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-233" id="footnote-233"></a> These account books are in the possession of the Minnesota
+Historical Society.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-233" class="label">233</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-234" id="footnote-234"></a> Bishop's <em>Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota</em>, p. 161.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-234" class="label">234</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-235" id="footnote-235"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, March 22, 1831; <em>Post Returns</em>, March, 1840,
+in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-235" class="label">235</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-236" id="footnote-236"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 97.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-236" class="label">236</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-237" id="footnote-237"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 345.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-237" class="label">237</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-238" id="footnote-238"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 336, 344.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-238" class="label">238</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-239" id="footnote-239"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342;
+<em>Post Returns</em>, September, 1828, in the archives of the War Department,
+Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-239" class="label">239</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-240" id="footnote-240"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, February 3, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-240" class="label">240</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-241" id="footnote-241"></a> This report is published in <em>the American State Papers, Military
+Affairs</em>, Vol. III, pp. 273&ndash;277.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-241" class="label">241</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-242" id="footnote-242"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, pp. 558, 706,
+Vol. III, p. 115.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-242" class="label">242</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-243" id="footnote-243"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 345.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-243" class="label">243</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-244" id="footnote-244"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, p. 476.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-244" class="label">244</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-245" id="footnote-245"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-245" class="label">245</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-246" id="footnote-246"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. III, p. 277.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-246" class="label">246</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-247" id="footnote-247"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 205;
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 101. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-247" class="label">247</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_226" name="Page_226"></a><span class="pagenum">[226]</span><a name="footnote-248" id="footnote-248"></a> Eastman's <em>Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort
+Snelling</em>, pp. 144, 145.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-248" class="label">248</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-249" id="footnote-249"></a> <em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. II, p. 265.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-249" class="label">249</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-250" id="footnote-250"></a> <em>Detroit Gazette</em>, February 18, 1820.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-250" class="label">250</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-251" id="footnote-251"></a> Keating's <em>Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River</em>, Vol. I, p. 305.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-251" class="label">251</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-252" id="footnote-252"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, July 15, 1852.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-252" class="label">252</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-253" id="footnote-253"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, p. 26; <em>Post Returns</em>, July, 1827, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-253" class="label">253</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-254" id="footnote-254"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 340.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-254" class="label">254</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-255" id="footnote-255"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VIII, p. 432.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-255" class="label">255</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-256" id="footnote-256"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 115.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-256" class="label">256</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-257" id="footnote-257"></a> Joseph M. Street to Postmaster General Barry, April 27,
+1831.--<em>Street Papers</em>, No. 15, Historical Department, Des Moines, Iowa.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-257" class="label">257</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-258" id="footnote-258"></a> Williams's <em>A History of the City of Saint Paul</em>, p. 44.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-258" class="label">258</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-259" id="footnote-259"></a> <em>Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin</em>, 1913,
+pp. 116, 117.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-259" class="label">259</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-260" id="footnote-260"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, April 2, 5, 10, February 27, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-260" class="label">260</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-261" id="footnote-261"></a> Street to Clark, March 10, 1831.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 132; <em>Post Returns</em>, March, 1830. See
+also <em>Post Returns</em>, December, 1829, December, 1830, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-261" class="label">261</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-262" id="footnote-262"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 342.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-262" class="label">262</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-263" id="footnote-263"></a> <em>Reports of Committees</em>, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, p. 131.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-263" class="label">263</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-264" id="footnote-264"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 342.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-264" class="label">264</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-265" id="footnote-265"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 130. <q>Monsieur
+Tonson</q> was a very popular farce written by W. T. Moncrief in 1821. The
+French barber, Morbleu, is greatly troubled by a steady stream of
+visitors who come to make inquiries regarding a certain fictitious Mr.
+Thompson, hoping thereby to gain information regarding Adolphine de
+Courcy who has been traced to his door.--Walsh's <em>Heroes and Heroines of
+Fiction</em>, p. 360. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-265" class="label">265</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_227" name="Page_227"></a><span class="pagenum">[227]</span><a name="footnote-266" id="footnote-266"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, January 20, February 22, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-266" class="label">266</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-267" id="footnote-267"></a> Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, July 25, 1824.--<em>Taliaferro
+Letters</em>, Vol. I, Nos. 50, 56.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-267" class="label">267</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-268" id="footnote-268"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, November 28, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-268" class="label">268</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-269" id="footnote-269"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, February 10, 11, 24, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-269" class="label">269</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-270" id="footnote-270"></a> George F. Turner to H. H. Sibley, February 11, 1842.--<em>Sibley
+Papers, 1840&ndash;1850</em>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-270" class="label">270</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-271" id="footnote-271"></a> Taliaferro to Street, March 30, 1831.--<em>Street Papers</em>, No. 12.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-271" class="label">271</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-272" id="footnote-272"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 100.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-272" class="label">272</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-273" id="footnote-273"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 112.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-273" class="label">273</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-274" id="footnote-274"></a> Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), p. 920.
+General Edmund P. Gaines inspected the post shortly afterwards and
+reported: <q>From a conversation with the colonel, I can have no doubt
+that he has erred in the course pursued by him in reference to some of
+those controversies, inasmuch as he has intimated to his officers his
+willingness to sanction, in certain cases, and even to participate in
+<em>personal conflicts</em>, contrary to the twenty-fifth article of
+war.</q>--<em>American State Papers, Military Affairs</em>, Vol. IV, p. 123.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-274" class="label">274</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-275" id="footnote-275"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, March 27, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-275" class="label">275</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER VII</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-276" id="footnote-276"></a> Morse's <em>A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on
+Indian Affairs</em>, pp. 78, 79.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-276" class="label">276</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-277" id="footnote-277"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, pp. 321, 322.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-277" class="label">277</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-278" id="footnote-278"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1834, No. 203.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-278" class="label">278</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-279" id="footnote-279"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, August 5, 1830.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 2.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-279" class="label">279</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-280" id="footnote-280"></a> This description of Indian life is based on Pond's <em>The Dakotas or
+Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834</em> in the <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. XII, pp. 319&ndash;501.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-280" class="label">280</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-281" id="footnote-281"></a> The quotations are taken from Beltrami's description of an Indian
+council which he attended at Fort Snelling in 1823.--Beltrami's <em>A
+Pilgrimage in Europe and America</em>, Vol. II, pp. 217&ndash;219. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-281" class="label">281</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_228" name="Page_228"></a><span class="pagenum">[228]</span><a name="footnote-282" id="footnote-282"></a> These are taken from a list which is typical of the character of
+the presents, among the papers of Thomas Forsyth.--<em>Draper Manuscripts</em>,
+2T2.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-282" class="label">282</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-283" id="footnote-283"></a> <em>Annals of Congress</em>, 1st session, 17th Congress, Vol. I, pp. 319,
+320.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-283" class="label">283</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-284" id="footnote-284"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, February 19, 1831. The speech of the chief
+closes thus: <q>We know you have nothing on hand for your children, but we
+hope you will give us some Pork &amp; Bread &amp; a little Tobacco--as our pipes
+are out &amp; have been for some time our old men will be pleased.</q> The
+village of the Red Head was St. Louis, the Red Head being General
+William Clark, the superintendent of Indian affairs.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-284" class="label">284</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-285" id="footnote-285"></a> <q>The Crane and the Hole in the Day--and other Chippeways at the
+Agency this day--Several Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency. Issued 24
+Rats Bread 20 pounds of Pork--15 lbs. of tobacco.</q>--<em>Taliaferro's
+Diary</em>, January 23, 1831. See also the diary under the dates of December
+24, 1830, January 13, 17, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-285" class="label">285</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-286" id="footnote-286"></a> Cass to Taliaferro, July 28, 1825.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I,
+No. 57.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-286" class="label">286</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-287" id="footnote-287"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, July 19, 1834.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-287" class="label">287</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-288" id="footnote-288"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. IV, p. 738.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-288" class="label">288</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-289" id="footnote-289"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, March 4, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-289" class="label">289</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-290" id="footnote-290"></a> Taliaferro to Harris, February 21, 1838.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1838, No. 631.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-290" class="label">290</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-291" id="footnote-291"></a> For the suffering during the winter of 1842&ndash;1843 and the steps
+taken to relieve it see the letter from Dr. Williamson in the
+<em>Missionary Herald</em>, Vol. 39, p. 355, September, 1843; and Bruce to
+Chambers, April 3, 1843, in <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1843, No. 222.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-291" class="label">291</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-292" id="footnote-292"></a> Taliaferro to Dodge, June 30, 1838.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1838,
+No. 690.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-292" class="label">292</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-293" id="footnote-293"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, March 3, 1831.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 129.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-293" class="label">293</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-294" id="footnote-294"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, September 14, 1834.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1834, No. 206.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-294" class="label">294</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-295" id="footnote-295"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, July 7, 1834.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-295" class="label">295</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-296" id="footnote-296"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, December 25, 1830. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-296" class="label">296</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_229" name="Page_229"></a><span class="pagenum">[229]</span><a name="footnote-297" id="footnote-297"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, June 28, 30, 1834. On January 17, 1831, he
+gave a blanket in which to bury a woman.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-297" class="label">297</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-298" id="footnote-298"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1832, Nos. 287, 294, 295, 296.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-298" class="label">298</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-299" id="footnote-299"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 236.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-299" class="label">299</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-300" id="footnote-300"></a> Snelling to Taliaferro, November 13, 1820.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>,
+Vol. I, No. 21.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-300" class="label">300</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-301" id="footnote-301"></a> Found among the <em>Sibley Papers, 1830&ndash;1840</em>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-301" class="label">301</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-302" id="footnote-302"></a> Taliaferro to Cass, March 3, 1832.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1832,
+No. 289.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-302" class="label">302</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-303" id="footnote-303"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, July 15, 1831.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 235.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-303" class="label">303</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-304" id="footnote-304"></a> <em>Post Returns</em>, April, May, 1834, July, 1835, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-304" class="label">304</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-305" id="footnote-305"></a> <q>These warriors of Mr. Rainville's were constantly with me, for
+they knew that I was an English warrior, as they called me, and they are
+very partial to the English.</q>--Marryat's <em>A Diary in America</em>, Vol. II,
+p. 91. Captain Marryat, the English novelist, visited the upper
+Mississippi region in 1837.</p>
+
+<p><q>Many and strong are the recollections of the Sioux and other tribes, of
+their alliance with the British in the last and revolutionary wars, of
+which I have met many curious instances</q>.--Catlin's <em>Letters and Notes
+on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians</em>,
+Vol. II, p. 657, footnote.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-305" class="label">305</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-306" id="footnote-306"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. XXVI, p. 363, July 31, 1824; Vol. LIII, p.
+33, September 16, 1837.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-306" class="label">306</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-307" id="footnote-307"></a> Marryat'a <em>A Diary in America</em>, Vol. III, pp. 221, 222.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-307" class="label">307</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-308" id="footnote-308"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, p. 320.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-308" class="label">308</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-309" id="footnote-309"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. LIII, p. 82, October 7, 1837.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-309" class="label">309</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-310" id="footnote-310"></a> Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>,
+Vol. I, No. 50.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-310" class="label">310</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-311" id="footnote-311"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, March 18, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-311" class="label">311</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-312" id="footnote-312"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, March 11, 1831. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-312" class="label">312</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_230" name="Page_230"></a><span class="pagenum">[230]</span><a name="footnote-313" id="footnote-313"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, April 3, 1831.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence</em>, 1830&ndash;1832, p. 161.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-313" class="label">313</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-314" id="footnote-314"></a> Renville to Sibley, August 21, 1840.--<em>Sibley Papers, 1830&ndash;1840</em>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-314" class="label">314</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-315" id="footnote-315"></a> Quoted in Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em>, pp. 338, 339. The
+two men murdered on the Missouri River in 1820 were Isadore Poupon, a
+French half-breed, and Joseph F. Andrews, a Canadian.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-315" class="label">315</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-316" id="footnote-316"></a> Quaife's <em>Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673&ndash;1835</em>, p. 283.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-316" class="label">316</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-317" id="footnote-317"></a> Snelling to Taliaferro, March 19, 1822.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>,
+Vol. I, No. 32. The quotation is taken from this letter. See also
+Calhoun to Snelling, September 18, 1822.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I,
+No. 40.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-317" class="label">317</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-318" id="footnote-318"></a> Letter of George Johnson, November 2, 1825.--<em>Indian Office
+Files</em>, 1825&ndash;1826, No. 4.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-318" class="label">318</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-319" id="footnote-319"></a> Taliaferro to Harris, September 10, 1838.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1838, No. 663.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-319" class="label">319</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER VIII</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-320" id="footnote-320"></a> Morse's <em>A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on
+Indian Affairs</em>, p. 28.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-320" class="label">320</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-321" id="footnote-321"></a> Kellogg's <em>Early Narratives of the Northwest, 1634&ndash;1699</em>, p. 50.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-321" class="label">321</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-322" id="footnote-322"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 209.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-322" class="label">322</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-323" id="footnote-323"></a> Baker to Taliaferro, May 19, 1829.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1829,
+No. 64.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-323" class="label">323</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-324" id="footnote-324"></a> Speech of Flat Mouth, May 27, 1827.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1827,
+No. 14.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-324" class="label">324</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-325" id="footnote-325"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1827, No. 9.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-325" class="label">325</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-326" id="footnote-326"></a> From Mrs. Van Cleve's reminiscences in the <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. III, p. 80.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-326" class="label">326</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-327" id="footnote-327"></a> The information upon which the entire incident is built is
+contained in the letter of Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827, in
+<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1827, No. 10; the letter of Taliaferro to Clark,
+May 31, 1827, in Indian Office Files, 1827, No. 12; Neill's <em>The History
+of Minnesota</em>, pp. 391&ndash;394; <em>Reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams</em> in the
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 107&ndash;110; <em>A
+Reminiscence</em> <a id="Page_231" name="Page_231"></a><span class="pagenum">[231]</span><em>of Ft. Snelling</em>, by Mrs. Charlotte O. Van Cleve,
+in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 76&ndash;81; <em>Running
+the Gantlet</em> by William J. Snelling (the son of Colonel Snelling) in the
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, pp. 439&ndash;456.</p>
+
+<p>The last mentioned account was originally published as a magazine
+article, and much of it is undoubtedly the product of the author's
+imagination. It is from this that the writer drew the story of Toopunkah
+Zeze. The article by Mrs. Van Cleve is full of errors and there are some
+mistakes in Mrs. Adams's reminiscences. For the facts of the attack the
+writer depended upon the two reports in the <em>Indian Office Files</em>. In a
+letter written from Prairie du Chien the next winter Joseph Street says
+that a hostage, an innocent man, was among the Sioux who were
+executed.--Street to Dr. Alexander Posey, December 11, 1827, in the
+<em>Street Papers</em>, No. 7.</p>
+
+<p>Of those who were shot, says Sibley in his reminiscences, all
+recovered.--<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, p. 475. On the
+other hand Flat Mouth complained to Schoolcraft in 1832 that four of the
+number died.--Schoolcraft's <em>Narrative of an Expedition through the
+Upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake</em>, p. 85.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-327" class="label">327</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-328" id="footnote-328"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1829, No. 63.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-328" class="label">328</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-329" id="footnote-329"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 135. As here given
+the mother's speech is partly direct, and partly indirect discourse. The
+writer has changed it all to the direct discourse.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-329" class="label">329</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-330" id="footnote-330"></a> The attack on Hole-in-the-Day's band is narrated in the letter of
+Plympton to General Jones, August 13, 1838.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1838, No. 618. See also <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp.
+134&ndash;136; Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp. 136,
+137.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-330" class="label">330</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-331" id="footnote-331"></a> The particulars of the encounter in 1839 are given in a letter
+written by the Right Reverend Mathias Loras in July 1839, and published
+in <em>Acta et Dicta: A Collection of historical data regarding the origin
+and growth of the Catholic Church in the Northwest</em>, Vol. I, No. 1, pp.
+18&ndash;21; and Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp.
+139&ndash;147.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-331" class="label">331</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-332" id="footnote-332"></a> <q>Instead of lessening the disasters of Indian warfare, the
+building of Fort Snelling in the heart of the Indian country and upon
+the line dividing the ranges of the Dakotas and the Chippewas, had the
+direct effect of vastly increasing the horrors of that warfare.<a id="Page_232" name="Page_232"></a><span class="pagenum">[232]</span>
+Depending upon the protection of the military, both tribes brought their
+women and children into the disputed territory, where before the coming
+of the soldiers they would never have dared to expose them, and it soon
+developed that the fort afforded no protection to the children of the
+forest against the savagery of their hereditary enemies, who made
+treaties of peace only to thereby gain better opportunity for
+butchery.</q>--Robinson's <em>A History of the Dakota or Sioux Indians</em>, p.
+154. This is Part II of the <em>South Dakota Historical Collections</em>, Vol.
+II.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-332" class="label">332</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-333" id="footnote-333"></a> At the forks of the Chippewa River in 1838, eleven Sioux were
+killed while asleep, by Chippewas whom they were entertaining. The
+mission at Lake Pokegama was attacked in 1840. In 1842, a battle was
+fought at Pine Coulie near the Indian village of Kaposia. In 1850, on
+Apple River in Wisconsin, fourteen Chippewas were scalped. See the
+article by Rev. S. W. Pond on <em>Indian Warfare in Minnesota</em> in the
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 129&ndash;138. As late as
+1854, D. B. Herriman, the Chippewa agent, reported that during the
+preceding year nearly one hundred Chippewas had been killed and scalped
+by the Sioux. But none of these massacres took place at the
+fort.--<em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 1,
+Document No. 1, p. 260.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-333" class="label">333</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-334" id="footnote-334"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII,
+Document No. 51, p. 31.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-334" class="label">334</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-335" id="footnote-335"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, January 23, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-335" class="label">335</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-336" id="footnote-336"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, June 4, 1831. For other occasions during the
+winter and spring of 1831 when the agent records the presence of both
+Sioux and Chippewas see the diary under date of January 31, March 5, May
+2, June 15.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-336" class="label">336</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-337" id="footnote-337"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, July 6, 1831.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 231.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-337" class="label">337</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-338" id="footnote-338"></a> Speech of Taliaferro to the Sioux.--<em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, February
+19, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-338" class="label">338</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-339" id="footnote-339"></a> Report of J. N. Nicollet in <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session,
+28th Congress, Vol. II, Document No. 52, p. 66.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-339" class="label">339</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-340" id="footnote-340"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, January 10, 18, 26, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-340" class="label">340</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-341" id="footnote-341"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, February 8, 1831.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 121. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-341" class="label">341</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_233" name="Page_233"></a><span class="pagenum">[233]</span><a name="footnote-342" id="footnote-342"></a> The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs,
+Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp. 250&ndash;255. The treaty was signed on
+August 19, 1825.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-342" class="label">342</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-343" id="footnote-343"></a> <em>Missionary Herald</em>, Vol. XXX, p. 223, June, 1834. Reverend W. T.
+Boutwell accompanied Mr. Schoolcraft on this journey, and his account of
+it is published in the religious paper.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-343" class="label">343</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-344" id="footnote-344"></a> Schoolcraft's <em>Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper
+Mississippi to Itasca Lake</em>, p. 265.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-344" class="label">344</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-345" id="footnote-345"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. IV, p. 684.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-345" class="label">345</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-346" id="footnote-346"></a> Taliaferro to William Clark, May 31, 1835.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>,
+Vol. III, No. 234.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-346" class="label">346</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-347" id="footnote-347"></a> Taliaferro to Herring, July 16, 1835.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol.
+III, No. 238.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-347" class="label">347</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-348" id="footnote-348"></a> Taliaferro to William Clark, September 2, 1835; Taliaferro to E.
+Herring, September 20, 1835.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. III, Nos. 251,
+252.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-348" class="label">348</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-349" id="footnote-349"></a> Taliaferro to William Clark, May 26, 1831.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 195.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-349" class="label">349</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-350" id="footnote-350"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, January 25, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-350" class="label">350</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-351" id="footnote-351"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 269.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-351" class="label">351</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-352" id="footnote-352"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 490.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-352" class="label">352</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-353" id="footnote-353"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, January 2, 1851.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-353" class="label">353</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-354" id="footnote-354"></a> Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1827,
+No. 10.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-354" class="label">354</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-355" id="footnote-355"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, May 16, 1850. Other occasions when
+Indians were imprisoned for similar causes are mentioned in <em>The
+Minnesota Pioneer</em>, September 23, 1852, April 20, 1854.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-355" class="label">355</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-356" id="footnote-356"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, October 14, 1852.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-356" class="label">356</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-357" id="footnote-357"></a> Report of Agent A. J. Bruce, September 1, 1846.--<em>Executive
+Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 4, p. 246.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-357" class="label">357</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_234" name="Page_234"></a><span class="pagenum">[234]</span><a name="footnote-358" id="footnote-358"></a> Beltrami's <em>A Pilgrimage in Europe and America</em>, Vol. II, pp. 233,
+234.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-358" class="label">358</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-359" id="footnote-359"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, January 31, 1831; Taliaferro to Captain W.
+R. Lovett, June 30, 1831, in <em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. II, No. 150.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-359" class="label">359</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-360" id="footnote-360"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, p. 138.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-360" class="label">360</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-361" id="footnote-361"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, October 4, 1830.--<em>William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830&ndash;1832</em>, p. 68.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-361" class="label">361</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-362" id="footnote-362"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, June 29, 1834.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-362" class="label">362</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER IX</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-363" id="footnote-363"></a> For an account of the attack on the trading house system see
+Quaife's <em>Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673&ndash;1835</em>, pp. 301&ndash;309; also
+<em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XX, pp. xiii-xviii.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-363" class="label">363</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-364" id="footnote-364"></a> This account of the fur trade is based upon the reminiscences of
+Mr. H. H. Sibley in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III,
+pp. 245&ndash;247; and Turner's <em>The Character and Influence of the Indian
+Trade in Wisconsin</em> in the <em>Johns Hopkins University Studies in
+Historical and Political Science</em>, Vol. IX, pp. 601&ndash;607.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-364" class="label">364</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-365" id="footnote-365"></a> If an Indian failed continually in paying up his credits, the
+trader would refuse him any more goods. This would bring on the enmity
+of the hunter and his whole family. Such was the case of Joseph R. Brown
+mentioned in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, p. 247.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-365" class="label">365</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-366" id="footnote-366"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. II, pp. 139&ndash;146, Vol. III,
+pp. 332, 333, Vol. IV, pp. 729&ndash;735.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-366" class="label">366</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-367" id="footnote-367"></a> A copy of an American trading license is published in the <em>Report
+from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company</em>, p. 282.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-367" class="label">367</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-368" id="footnote-368"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1831, No. 70.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-368" class="label">368</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-369" id="footnote-369"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1831, No. 82.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-369" class="label">369</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-370" id="footnote-370"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 200.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-370" class="label">370</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-371" id="footnote-371"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XX, p. 43</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-371" class="label">371</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-372" id="footnote-372"></a> Sibley to Featherstonhaugh.--<em>Sibley Papers</em>. This letter is
+printed in Holcombe's <em>Minnesota in Three Centuries</em>, Vol. II, p. 57.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-372" class="label">372</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_235" name="Page_235"></a><span class="pagenum">[235]</span><a name="footnote-373" id="footnote-373"></a> Chittenden's <em>The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far
+West</em>, Vol. I, p. 323.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-373" class="label">373</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-374" id="footnote-374"></a> A list of the posts in the agency in 1826 is given in the
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 113, 114.</p>
+
+<p><q>The Secretary of War directs that the traders in the St Peters Agency,
+who have been directed by you to build their houses in a particular
+form, as designated by you, be informed that they are at liberty to
+adapt the shape of their building to their own convenience. He moreover
+directs that the term of Forts, by which they are designated, be changed
+into Posts.</q>--William Clark to Taliaferro, March 26, 1827, in
+<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I, No. 72.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-374" class="label">374</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-375" id="footnote-375"></a> Taliaferro to Herring, September 15, 1834, in <em>Indian Office
+Files</em>, 1834, No. 210; <em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I, No. 74.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-375" class="label">375</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-376" id="footnote-376"></a> See Sibley's story of a tea party given to a number of traders at
+Fort Snelling.--<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 248,
+249.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-376" class="label">376</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-377" id="footnote-377"></a> Coues's <em>The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 230.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-377" class="label">377</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-378" id="footnote-378"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, February 22, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-378" class="label">378</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-379" id="footnote-379"></a> Schoolcraft's <em>Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper
+Mississippi to Itasca Lake</em>, p. 44.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-379" class="label">379</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-380" id="footnote-380"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XX, pp. 306, 307.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-380" class="label">380</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-381" id="footnote-381"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. IV, p. 564.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-381" class="label">381</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-382" id="footnote-382"></a> Norman W. Kittson to Sibley, March 2, 1846.--<em>Sibley Papers,
+1840&ndash;1850</em>. Mr. Kittson was the manager of the American Fur Company's
+business along the international boundary, with his headquarters at
+Pembina. He, with the late James J. Hill, was one of the promoters of
+the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railroad Company.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-382" class="label">382</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-383" id="footnote-383"></a> <em>Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company</em>, p.
+370.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-383" class="label">383</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-384" id="footnote-384"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XX, p. 383.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-384" class="label">384</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-385" id="footnote-385"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, January 30, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-385" class="label">385</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-386" id="footnote-386"></a> Kittson to Sibley, August 7, 1846.--<em>Sibley Papers, 1840&ndash;1850</em>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Kittson was the organizer of the picturesque caravans of Red River
+carts (at one time called <q>Kittson's carts</q>) which carried <a id="Page_236" name="Page_236"></a><span class="pagenum">[236]</span>on the
+extensive commerce between the Canadian and American settlements. At an
+early date this trade assumed large proportions. <q>The van of the Red
+River train numbering from an hundred to two hundred carts made entirely
+of wood and green hides and drawn by oxen and ponies in harness, reached
+St. Paul on Sunday with furs, hides, buffalo robes, dried buffalo
+tongues, pemmican, etc. They have been forty days on the route.</q>--<em>The
+Minnesota Pioneer</em>, July 26, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-386" class="label">386</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-387" id="footnote-387"></a> <em>Missionary Herald</em>, Vol. 38, p. 58, February, 1842.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-387" class="label">387</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-388" id="footnote-388"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1839, No. 62.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-388" class="label">388</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-389" id="footnote-389"></a> <em>Missionary Herald</em>, Vol. 40, p. 281, August, 1844.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-389" class="label">389</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-390" id="footnote-390"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 563.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-390" class="label">390</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-391" id="footnote-391"></a> <em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XX, p. 383.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-391" class="label">391</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-392" id="footnote-392"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, July 23, 1834.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-392" class="label">392</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-393" id="footnote-393"></a> <em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I, No. 74.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-393" class="label">393</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-394" id="footnote-394"></a> Marsh to Street, April 28, 1832.--<em>Street Papers</em>, No. 20.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-394" class="label">394</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-395" id="footnote-395"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1835, No. 326.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-395" class="label">395</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-396" id="footnote-396"></a> Bailly to Street, August 3, 1832.--<em>Street Papers</em>, No. 28.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-396" class="label">396</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-397" id="footnote-397"></a> Street to Cass, October 3, 1832.--<em>Street Papers</em>, No. 69.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-397" class="label">397</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-398" id="footnote-398"></a> <q>Several persons have been arrested near Crow Wing for selling
+whiskey to the Winnebago Indians; and twelve or fifteen barrels of
+whiskey have been overtaken and knocked in the head, by Capt. Monroe's
+troops.</q>--<em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, August 9, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-398" class="label">398</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-399" id="footnote-399"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 922.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-399" class="label">399</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-400" id="footnote-400"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, August 17, 1830.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1830, No. 143.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-400" class="label">400</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-401" id="footnote-401"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1830, No. 140.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-401" class="label">401</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-402" id="footnote-402"></a> Taliaferro to Clark, August 2, 1829.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1829,
+No. 65.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-402" class="label">402</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-403" id="footnote-403"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 444. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-403" class="label">403</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_237" name="Page_237"></a><span class="pagenum">[237]</span><a name="footnote-404" id="footnote-404"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 919.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-404" class="label">404</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-405" id="footnote-405"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, May 12, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-405" class="label">405</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER X</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-406" id="footnote-406"></a> Taliaferro writes: <q>It was some length of time before he could
+induce the Indians to respect the Sabbath-day--all days being alike to
+them. It so happened that hundreds of important peace conventions were
+made and confirmed by the hostile tribes on the Lord's day. But time and
+patience brought them to reason, and for many years they respected the
+white man's great <q>medicine day.</q> The sign given for the day of rest was
+the agency flag floating from the flagstaff, at the agency council
+house.</q>--<em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 236.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-406" class="label">406</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-407" id="footnote-407"></a> <em>Missionary Herald</em>, Vol. 45, p. 429, December, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-407" class="label">407</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-408" id="footnote-408"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, pp. 326, 327;
+<em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, August 14, 1833.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-408" class="label">408</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-409" id="footnote-409"></a> Street to Taliaferro, August 12, 1829.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol.
+II, No. 108.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-409" class="label">409</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-410" id="footnote-410"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 119&ndash;121.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-410" class="label">410</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-411" id="footnote-411"></a> Taliaferro to Eaton.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1830, No. 151.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-411" class="label">411</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-412" id="footnote-412"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, April 18, May 1, June 8, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-412" class="label">412</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-413" id="footnote-413"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, August 14, 1833.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-413" class="label">413</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-414" id="footnote-414"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, April 18, 1831.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-414" class="label">414</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-415" id="footnote-415"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, p. iv.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-415" class="label">415</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-416" id="footnote-416"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 255.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-416" class="label">416</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-417" id="footnote-417"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 523.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-417" class="label">417</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-418" id="footnote-418"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp. 12&ndash;30.
+This volume, written by the son of Samuel Pond, tells of the work of his
+father and uncle. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-418" class="label">418</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_238" name="Page_238"></a><span class="pagenum">[238]</span><a name="footnote-419" id="footnote-419"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, p. 30.
+Among the <em>Kemper Papers</em> (Vol. XX, No. 34) the writer found the
+following permit to enter the Indian country:</p>
+
+<p><q>The Right Reverend, Jackson Kemper, Missionary Bishop of the Protestant
+Episcopal Church, having signified to this Department, his desire to
+visit and remain sometime in the Indian country, and requested the
+permission required by law to enable him to do so, such permission is
+hereby granted; and he is commended to the friendly attention of civil
+and military officers and agents, and of citizens, and if at any time it
+shall be necessary to their protection.</q></p>
+
+<p><q>Given under my hand and<br />
+  the Seal of the War Department<br />
+  this 1st day of October 1838.</q></p>
+
+<p><q>S. Cooper.<br />
+  Acting Secretary of War.</q></p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-419" class="label">419</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-420" id="footnote-420"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp. 31, 32;
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XII, pp. 324, 325.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-420" class="label">420</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-421" id="footnote-421"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, July 7, 1834.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-421" class="label">421</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-422" id="footnote-422"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp. 38&ndash;42.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-422" class="label">422</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-423" id="footnote-423"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, p. 47.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-423" class="label">423</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-424" id="footnote-424"></a> Featherstonhaugh's <em>A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor</em>, Vol. II,
+p. 11.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-424" class="label">424</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-425" id="footnote-425"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, p. 43.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-425" class="label">425</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-426" id="footnote-426"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 127&ndash;146.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-426" class="label">426</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-427" id="footnote-427"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp. 127,
+133.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-427" class="label">427</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-428" id="footnote-428"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt.
+II, Document No. 5, pp. 1054, 1055.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-428" class="label">428</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-429" id="footnote-429"></a> Riggs's <em>Mary and I, Forty Years with the Sioux</em>, pp. 41, 42.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-429" class="label">429</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-430" id="footnote-430"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp. 49&ndash;59.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-430" class="label">430</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-431" id="footnote-431"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 4, p. 315. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-431" class="label">431</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_239" name="Page_239"></a><span class="pagenum">[239]</span><a name="footnote-432" id="footnote-432"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol II, Pt.
+III, p. 439.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-432" class="label">432</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-433" id="footnote-433"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 343.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-433" class="label">433</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-434" id="footnote-434"></a> Pond's <em>Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas</em>, pp. 63, 64.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-434" class="label">434</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-435" id="footnote-435"></a> <em>Missionary Herald</em>, Vol. 41, p. 281, August, 1845; Vol. 32, pp.
+188, 189, May, 1836.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-435" class="label">435</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-436" id="footnote-436"></a> <em>The Spirit of Missions</em>, Vol. IV, p. 61, February, 1839; Tanner's
+<em>History of the Diocese of Minnesota</em>, p. 24; <em>Post Returns</em>, April,
+1839, in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-436" class="label">436</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-437" id="footnote-437"></a> Gear to Kemper, Nov. 29, 1841.--<em>Kemper Letters</em>, Vol. 25, No.
+103. See also <em>The Spirit of Missions</em>, Vol. 5, p. 68, March, 1840.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-437" class="label">437</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-438" id="footnote-438"></a> <em>Acta et Dicta</em>, Vol. I, No. 1, July, 1907, pp. 14&ndash;21; <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, pp. 222&ndash;230.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-438" class="label">438</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER XI</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-439" id="footnote-439"></a> Catlin's <em>Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition
+of the North American Indians</em>, Vol. II, p. 592.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-439" class="label">439</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-440" id="footnote-440"></a> Merrick's <em>Old Times on the Upper Mississippi</em>, p. 187. The
+following description was given by Philander Prescott, a fur trader:</p>
+
+<p><q>The Indians say they had dreamed of seeing some monster of the deep the
+night before, which frightened them very much. It appears they did not
+discover the boat until it had got into the mouth of the St. Peter's,
+below Mr. Sibley's. They stood and gazed with astonishment at what they
+saw approaching, taking the boat to be some angry god of the water,
+coughing and spouting water upwards, sideways and forward. They had not
+courage enough to stand until the boat came near them. The women and
+children took to the woods, with their hair floating behind them in the
+breeze, from the speed they were going, in running from supposed danger.
+Some of the men had a little more courage, and only moved off to a short
+distance from the shore, and the boat passed along and landed.
+Everything being quiet for a moment, the Indians came up to the boat
+again, and stood looking at the monster of the deep. All at once the
+boat began to blow off steam, and the bravest warriors could not stand
+this awful roaring, but took to the woods, men, women and children, with
+their <a id="Page_240" name="Page_240"></a><span class="pagenum">[240]</span>blankets flying in the wind; some tumbling in the brush
+which entangled their feet as they ran away--some hallooing, some
+crying, to the great amusement of the people on board the
+steamboat.</q>--Quoted in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III,
+p. 104, note 1.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-440" class="label">440</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-441" id="footnote-441"></a> Beltrami's <em>A Pilgrimage in Europe and America</em>, Vol. II, p. 199.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-441" class="label">441</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-442" id="footnote-442"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 191&ndash;193.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-442" class="label">442</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-443" id="footnote-443"></a> Beltrami published an account of his travels in French in New
+Orleans in 1824. The English version is entitled <em>A Pilgrimage in Europe
+and America, leading to the Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
+and Bloody River</em>, and was published in London in two volumes in 1828.
+It is composed of twenty-two letters addressed to <q>My Dear Countess</q> and
+dedicated <q>to the Fair Sex</q>.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-443" class="label">443</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-444" id="footnote-444"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 101.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-444" class="label">444</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-445" id="footnote-445"></a> The story of this exploration was published under the title of
+<em>Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, Lake
+Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, Etc. performed in the year 1823, by order
+of the Hon. J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, under the command of
+Stephen H. Long, U. S. T. E.</em> It was written by Professor Keating from
+the notes of the party. An English edition appeared in London in 1825.
+The references given are to this publication.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-445" class="label">445</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-446" id="footnote-446"></a> J. C. Calhoun to Major Long.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I, No.
+41.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-446" class="label">446</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-447" id="footnote-447"></a> Keating's <em>Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River</em>, Vol. I, p. 324, Vol. II, p. 112.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-447" class="label">447</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-448" id="footnote-448"></a> Keating's <em>Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River</em>, Vol. I, pp. 306&ndash;310.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-448" class="label">448</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-449" id="footnote-449"></a> Keating's <em>Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River</em>, Vol. I, p. 356.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-449" class="label">449</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-450" id="footnote-450"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 241.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-450" class="label">450</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-451" id="footnote-451"></a> Beltrami's <em>A Pilgrimage in Europe and America</em>, Vol. II, p. 414.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-451" class="label">451</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_241" name="Page_241"></a><span class="pagenum">[241]</span><a name="footnote-452" id="footnote-452"></a> <q>My head was covered with the bark of a tree, formed into the
+shape of a hat and sewed with threads of bark; and shoes, a coat, and
+pantaloons, such as are used by Canadians in the Indian territories, and
+formed of original skins sewed together by thread made of the
+muscles of that animal, completed the grotesque appearance of my
+person.</q>--Beltrami's <em>A Pilgrimage in Europe and America</em>, Vol. II, p.
+481. For a short summary of Beltrami's work see the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 183&ndash;196.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-452" class="label">452</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-453" id="footnote-453"></a> Keating's <em>Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River</em>, Vol. II, p. 200.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-453" class="label">453</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-454" id="footnote-454"></a> Catlin's <em>North American Indians</em>, Vol. II, pp. 599&ndash;602.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-454" class="label">454</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-455" id="footnote-455"></a> Catlin's <em>North American Indians</em>, Vol. II, pp. 602&ndash;607. This
+quotation is from page 607.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-455" class="label">455</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-456" id="footnote-456"></a> <em>Senate Documents</em>, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Vol. IV, Document
+No. 333.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-456" class="label">456</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-457" id="footnote-457"></a> Featherstonhaugh's <em>A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor</em>, Vol. I,
+p. 262.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-457" class="label">457</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-458" id="footnote-458"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 246.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-458" class="label">458</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-459" id="footnote-459"></a> Featherstonhaugh's <em>A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor</em>, Vol. I,
+pp. 261, 266, 288.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-459" class="label">459</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-460" id="footnote-460"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, pp. 187, 188.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-460" class="label">460</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-461" id="footnote-461"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. II,
+Document No. 52, p. 53.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-461" class="label">461</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-462" id="footnote-462"></a> Brower's <em>The Mississippi River and its Source</em> which comprises
+Vol. VII of the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>. See p. 162.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-462" class="label">462</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-463" id="footnote-463"></a> <em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 242&ndash;245; <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. I, p. 189.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-463" class="label">463</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-464" id="footnote-464"></a> In his reminiscences John C. Fr&eacute;mont has left a very interesting
+account of these two expeditions.--Fr&eacute;mont's <em>Memoirs of My Life</em>, Vol.
+I, pp. 30&ndash;54.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-464" class="label">464</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-465" id="footnote-465"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, p. 183.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-465" class="label">465</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-466" id="footnote-466"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 129, 133, 134.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-466" class="label">466</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_242" name="Page_242"></a><span class="pagenum">[242]</span><a name="footnote-467" id="footnote-467"></a> Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), pp. 914, 915.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-467" class="label">467</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-468" id="footnote-468"></a> <em>North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser</em>, June 26, 1840.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-468" class="label">468</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-469" id="footnote-469"></a> <em>North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser</em>, June 5, 1840.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-469" class="label">469</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-470" id="footnote-470"></a> <em>Louisville Journal</em> quoted in the <em>North Western Gazette and
+Galena Advertiser</em>, June 14, 1838.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-470" class="label">470</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-471" id="footnote-471"></a> Jackson Kemper was appointed missionary bishop of the Northwest in
+1835 and held the position until 1859 when he accepted the bishopric of
+Wisconsin. His papers and diaries are in the archives of the Wisconsin
+Historical Society. For an account of his work see Tiffany's <em>A History
+of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States</em>, pp. 448, 493.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-471" class="label">471</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-472" id="footnote-472"></a> <em>Kemper Papers</em>, Vol. XXVII, No. 113.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-472" class="label">472</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-473" id="footnote-473"></a> <em>Kemper Papers</em>, Vol. XXVII, No. 116.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-473" class="label">473</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER XII</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-474" id="footnote-474"></a> <em>Journals of Congress</em>, Vol. III, p. 589.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-474" class="label">474</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-475" id="footnote-475"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. I, p. 138.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-475" class="label">475</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-476" id="footnote-476"></a> <em>United States Statutes at Large</em>, Vol. XVI, p. 566.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-476" class="label">476</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-477" id="footnote-477"></a> <em>Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs</em>, 1890, p. xxix.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-477" class="label">477</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-478" id="footnote-478"></a> These figures are taken from an account of the proceedings of the
+council published in <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. XXIX, pp. 187&ndash;192.
+Taliaferro gives the number of his party as being 385 <q>Sioux and
+Chippewas, including the interpreters and attendants.</q>--<em>Auto-biography
+of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>,
+Vol. VI, p. 206.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-478" class="label">478</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-479" id="footnote-479"></a> The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs,
+Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp. 250&ndash;255.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-479" class="label">479</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-480" id="footnote-480"></a> These are the reasons given by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
+in his report on December 1, 1837.--<em>Senate Documents</em>, 2nd Session,
+25th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 526, 527.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-480" class="label">480</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-481" id="footnote-481"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 129.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-481" class="label">481</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-482" id="footnote-482"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 131; Vol. VI, p.
+214. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-482" class="label">482</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_243" name="Page_243"></a><span class="pagenum">[243]</span><a name="footnote-483" id="footnote-483"></a> For an account of the life of Flat Mouth see Coues's <em>The
+Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike</em>, Vol. I, p. 169, note 10.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-483" class="label">483</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-484" id="footnote-484"></a> Sketches of the life of Hole-in-the-Day are given in <em>The Spirit
+of Missions</em>, Vol. VIII, p. 461, December, 1843; <em>North Western Gazette
+and Galena Advertiser</em>, August 3, 1839; <em>Prairie du Chien Patriot</em>, June
+8, 1847.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-484" class="label">484</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-485" id="footnote-485"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. V, p. 353.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-485" class="label">485</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-486" id="footnote-486"></a> The names of the witnesses of the treaty are given in Kappler's
+<em>Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, p. 493.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-486" class="label">486</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-487" id="footnote-487"></a> A contemporary account of the proceedings of the council published
+in the <em>Iowa News</em> (Dubuque), Vol. I, Nos. 11 and 14, is reprinted in
+<em>The Iowa Journal of History and Politics</em>, Vol. IX, pp. 408&ndash;433.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-487" class="label">487</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-488" id="footnote-488"></a> <em>The Iowa Journal of History and Politics</em>, Vol. IX, p. 420.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-488" class="label">488</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-489" id="footnote-489"></a> Dodge to Harris, July 30, 1837.--<em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1837, No.
+226.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-489" class="label">489</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-490" id="footnote-490"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt.
+2, Document No. 5, p. 985. The Indians desired whiskey at the councils.
+In order to prove that it was not refused because of stinginess, two
+barrels were opened at Prairie du Chien and the whiskey allowed to run
+on the ground. The old Indian Wakh-pa-koo-tay mourned the loss: <q>It was
+a great pity, there was enough wasted to have kept me drunk all the days
+of my life.</q>--<em>Wisconsin Historical Collections</em>, Vol. V, p. 124.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-490" class="label">490</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-491" id="footnote-491"></a> <em>The Iowa Journal of History and Politics</em>, Vol. IX, pp. 409, 410.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-491" class="label">491</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-492" id="footnote-492"></a> <em>The Iowa Journal of History and Politics</em>, Vol. IX, pp. 424&ndash;426.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-492" class="label">492</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-493" id="footnote-493"></a> <em>The Iowa Journal of History and Politics</em>, Vol. IX, pp. 416, 417.</p>
+
+<p>Taliaferro was violently opposed to granting any funds to the
+traders.--<em>Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 215, 216.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-493" class="label">493</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-494" id="footnote-494"></a> <em>The Iowa Journal of History and Politics</em>, Vol. IX, pp. 431, 432.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-494" class="label">494</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_244" name="Page_244"></a><span class="pagenum">[244]</span><a name="footnote-495" id="footnote-495"></a> The text of the treaty is to be found in Kappler's <em>Indian
+Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp. 491&ndash;493.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-495" class="label">495</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-496" id="footnote-496"></a> <em>Niles' Register</em>, Vol. LIII, pp. 81, 82; Kappler's <em>Indian
+Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp. 493, 494.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-496" class="label">496</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-497" id="footnote-497"></a> See an account of the payment in 1849 at Fort Snelling in <em>The
+Minnesota Pioneer</em>, September 27, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-497" class="label">497</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-498" id="footnote-498"></a> <em>Post Returns</em>, November, 1852, October, 1853, October, 1854, in
+the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-498" class="label">498</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center">
+CHAPTER XIII</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><p><a name="footnote-499" id="footnote-499"></a> Turner's <em>The Significance of the Frontier in American History</em> in
+the <em>Annual Report of the American Historical Association</em>, 1893, p.
+211.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-499" class="label">499</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-500" id="footnote-500"></a> Beltrami's <em>A Pilgrimage in Europe and America</em>, Vol. II, p. 202.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-500" class="label">500</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-501" id="footnote-501"></a> Neill's <em>The History of Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), p. 453;
+<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. I, p. 468.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-501" class="label">501</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-502" id="footnote-502"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. III, p. 319.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-502" class="label">502</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-503" id="footnote-503"></a> Keating's <em>Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River</em>, Vol. II, p. 60.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-503" class="label">503</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-504" id="footnote-504"></a> Much has been written on the founding of this colony and the
+romantic events connected with the struggle between the Hudson's Bay
+Company and the North West Company, in which many of the colonists were
+the innocent victims. Interesting accounts are given in Kingsford's <em>The
+History of Canada</em>, Vol. IX, pp. 108&ndash;150; Bryce's <em>The Remarkable
+History of the Hudson's Bay Company</em>, pp. 202&ndash;257; Bryce's <em>Lord
+Selkirk</em> in <em>The Makers of Canada</em>, Vol. V, pp. 115&ndash;206; Laut's <em>The
+Conquest of the Great Northwest</em>, pp. 113&ndash;202; <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp. 75&ndash;89.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-504" class="label">504</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-505" id="footnote-505"></a> There is a summary of the early trading relations of the Red River
+Colony with the American settlements in the <em>Collections of the State
+Historical Society of North Dakota</em>, Vol. IV, pp. 251, 252. The arrival
+of these people at Fort Snelling is noted in the <em>Minnesota Historical
+Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 124, 127; VI, p. 350.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-505" class="label">505</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-506" id="footnote-506"></a> <q>Two families of Swiss emigrants who arrived here yesterday were
+robbed of almost everything they possessed</q>.--Snelling to <a id="Page_245" name="Page_245"></a><span class="pagenum">[245]</span>
+Taliaferro, October 19, 1824, in <em>Taliaferro Letters</em>, Vol. I, No. 50.
+See also the story of the Tully children in Van Cleve's <em><q>Three Score
+Years and Ten,</q> Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota</em>, pp.
+49&ndash;61.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-506" class="label">506</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-507" id="footnote-507"></a> The facts concerning the migrations of these Red River refugees
+are taken from the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams who was herself one
+of the travellers.--<em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, pp.
+75&ndash;95. See also Chetlain's <em>The Red River Colony</em>. This is a small
+pamphlet written by the son of one of the refugees.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-507" class="label">507</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-508" id="footnote-508"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XIV, p. 84.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-508" class="label">508</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-509" id="footnote-509"></a> Williams's <em>A History of the City of Saint Paul</em>, pp. 70, 71.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-509" class="label">509</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-510" id="footnote-510"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, p. 16.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-510" class="label">510</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-511" id="footnote-511"></a> Renville to Sibley, February 22, 1835.--<em>Sibley Papers,
+1830&ndash;1840</em>. A story is told of a certain <q>Simple-hearted, honest fellow</q>
+named Sinclair. <q>One time he was sick, at Mendota, and Surgeon Emerson,
+at the fort, sent by some one, a box of pills, for him to take a dose
+from. N. W. Kittson called on him a little while after this, and found
+that Sinclair had not only swallowed all the pills, but was then chewing
+up the box!</q>--Williams's <em>A History of the City of Saint Paul</em>, p. 123.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-511" class="label">511</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-512" id="footnote-512"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, pp. 127, 129.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-512" class="label">512</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-513" id="footnote-513"></a> Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--<em>Taliaferro Letters</em>,
+Vol. I, No. 50.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-513" class="label">513</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-514" id="footnote-514"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, July 13, 14, 1834; <em>Indian Office Files</em>,
+1834, No. 239.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-514" class="label">514</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-515" id="footnote-515"></a> <em>Taliaferro's Diary</em>, July 21, 1834.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-515" class="label">515</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-516" id="footnote-516"></a> <em>Indian Office Files</em>, 1837, Nos. 448, 447, 445.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-516" class="label">516</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-517" id="footnote-517"></a> <em>The Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro</em> in the <em>Minnesota
+Historical Collections</em>, Vol. VI, p. 231.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-517" class="label">517</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-518" id="footnote-518"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 14, 15.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-518" class="label">518</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-519" id="footnote-519"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 16, 17. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-519" class="label">519</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_246" name="Page_246"></a><span class="pagenum">[246]</span><a name="footnote-520" id="footnote-520"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 18, 23.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-520" class="label">520</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-521" id="footnote-521"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. II, p. 136; Williams's <em>A
+History of the City of Saint Paul</em>, pp. 66, 67.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-521" class="label">521</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-522" id="footnote-522"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 23, 24.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-522" class="label">522</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-523" id="footnote-523"></a> <em>Executive Documents</em>, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 26, 27.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-523" class="label">523</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-524" id="footnote-524"></a> <em>The Spirit of Missions</em>, Vol. V, p. 335, November, 1840. A recent
+sketch of Fort Snelling states that there were <q>no white neighbors
+except traders, agents of fur companies, refugees from civilization and
+disreputable hangers-on.</q>--Hammond's <em>Quaint and Historic Forts of North
+America</em>, p. 272. Many of the evicted settlers can not be classed among
+these.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-524" class="label">524</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-525" id="footnote-525"></a> This order is published in Williams's <em>A History of the City of
+Saint Paul</em>, p. 94.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-525" class="label">525</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="footnote-526" id="footnote-526"></a> <p>For the expulsion of the settlers see Williams's <em>A History of the
+City of Saint Paul</em>, pp. 99, 100; also, Neill's <em>The History of
+Minnesota</em> (Fourth Edition), p. 459. Williams (p. 100) says that in 1849
+and 1852 memorials were presented to Congress by those who had been
+expelled, in which they stated that <q>the soldiery fell upon them without
+warning, treated them with unjustifiable rudeness, broke and destroyed
+furniture wantonly, insulted the women, and, in one or two instances,
+fired at and killed cattle.</q></p>
+
+<p>Father Galtier, who was there at the time, wrote: <q>Consequently a deputy
+marshall from Prairie du Chien was ordered to remove the houses. He went
+to work, assisted by some soldiers, and, one after another, unroofed the
+cottages, extending about five miles along the river. The settlers were
+forced to seek new homes.</q> He makes no mention of personal
+violence.--<em>Acta et Dicta</em>, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 64.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-526" class="label">526</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-527" id="footnote-527"></a> Williams's <em>A History of the City of Saint Paul</em>, p. 111.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-527" class="label">527</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-528" id="footnote-528"></a> See the description of St. Paul in 1849 in Seymour's <em>Sketches of
+Minnesota, the New England of the West</em>, pp. 94&ndash;100.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-528" class="label">528</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-529" id="footnote-529"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, January 30, 1850.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-529" class="label">529</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-530" id="footnote-530"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, January 23, February 27, June 27, 1850.
+</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-530" class="label">530</a>
+</li>
+
+<li><p><a id="Page_247" name="Page_247"></a><span class="pagenum">[247]</span><a name="footnote-531" id="footnote-531"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, November 27, 1851.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-531" class="label">531</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-532" id="footnote-532"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, April 17, 1851.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-532" class="label">532</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-533" id="footnote-533"></a> <em>Minnesota Historical Collections</em>, Vol. XV, p. 534; <em>Post
+Returns</em>, July, 1855, in the archives of the War Department, Washington,
+D. C.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-533" class="label">533</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-534" id="footnote-534"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, February 20, 27, 1850.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-534" class="label">534</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-535" id="footnote-535"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, February 6, 13, 1850; <em>Minnesota
+Chronicle and Register</em>, February 10, 1851.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-535" class="label">535</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-536" id="footnote-536"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, February 13, 1850.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-536" class="label">536</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-537" id="footnote-537"></a> Bishop's <em>Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota</em>, pp. 152&ndash;163.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-537" class="label">537</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-538" id="footnote-538"></a> <em>The Minnesota Pioneer</em>, August 23, 1849.</p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-538" class="label">538</a></li>
+
+<li><p><a name="footnote-539" id="footnote-539"></a> These two treaties were the treaty with the Sisseton and Wahpeton
+bands of Sioux at Traverse des Sioux, July 23, 1851; and with the
+Mdewakanton and Wahpakoota bands of Sioux at Mendota on August 5,
+1851.--Kappler's <em>Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties</em>, Vol. II, pp.
+588&ndash;593. </p>
+<a title="Return to text" href="#anchor-539" class="label">539</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a id="Page_248" name="Page_248"></a></p>
+<p><a id="Page_249" name="Page_249"></a></p>
+<p><a id="Page_250" name="Page_250"></a></p>
+
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<p><a id="Page_251" name="Page_251"></a><span class="pagenum">[251]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul><li>  Abercrombie, John J., fort built by, <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+<li>  Adams, Mrs. Ann, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+<li>  Agency house, fire in, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>  Agriculture (see <a href="#farm">Farming</a>)</li>
+<li>  Aitkin, Mr., <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+<li>  Akin, Mr., information furnished by, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+<li>  Alcohol, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>  American Fur Company,
+<ul>
+<li>    fort purchased from, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>;</li>
+<li>    warehouse and store of, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>;</li>
+<li>    monopoly of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li>    reference to, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Americans, hostility of Indians to,
+<ul>
+<li>    during War of 1812, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>&ndash;12;</li>
+<li>    Indians impressed by supremacy of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>&ndash;118;</li>
+<li>    protection promised by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Ammunition, giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li>  Andrews, Joseph F., <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+<li>  Annuities, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    payment of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Apple River, massacre on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li>  Apples, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>  Ardourly, Jack, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>  Armorer's shop, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_079">79</a></li>
+<li>  Articles of Confederation, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+<li>  Assiniboine River, <a href="#Page_005">5</a></li>
+<li>  Astor, John Jacob, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+<li>  Atkinson, Henry, fort named in honor of, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    reference to, <a href="#Page_034">34</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  <em>Aunt Phyllis's Cabin</em>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>  Badger, The, murder of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+<li>  Bailly, Alexis, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    disagreement between Taliaferro and, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>    whiskey in store of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Baker, Benjamin, trading house of, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li>  Ball-plays, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    holding of, for Catlin, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Balls, music for, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li>  Band, fund for maintenance of, <a href="#Page_087">87</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    music by, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Barracks,
+<ul>
+<li>    building of, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>;</li>
+<li>    reference to, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>;</li>
+<li>    description of, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>;</li>
+<li>    taking of sick soldiers from, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Bean, J. L., boundary line surveyed by, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>  Bear, hunting of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>  Bear dance, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>  Bedford (Pennsylvania), <a href="#Page_071">71</a></li>
+<li>  Beef, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    ration of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Beggars' dance, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>  Belen Gate of City of Mexico, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>  Beltrami, J. C.,
+<ul>
+<li>    description of council by, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+<li>    reference to, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li>    visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>&ndash;163</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Bennington (Vermont), <a href="#Page_061">61</a></li>
+<li>  Benton, Thomas H., <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>  Berries, gathering of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>  Big Eagle, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>  Big Stone Lake, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>  Big Thunder, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    desire of, to raise corn, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Birthplace of soldiers, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>  Black Dog, village of, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>  Black Hawk War, position of Fort Snelling during, <a href="#Page_035">35</a></li>
+<li>  Black Hole, confinement of offenders in, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li>  Black River, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li>  Blacksmith shop, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>  Blacksmiths, work of, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li>  Blankets, giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    reference to, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Bliss, John H., <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    punishment inflicted by, <a href="#Page_090">90</a>, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>;</li>
+<li>    statement by, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Bliss, Mrs. John H., <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+<li>  Blockhouses, <a href="#Page_074">74</a></li>
+<li>  Blue Earth River, Winnebago reservation on, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>    reference to, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><a id="Page_252" name="Page_252"></a><span class="pagenum">[252]</span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Boarding-school, success of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>  Boatmen, foreigners as, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li>  <em>Bois brul&eacute;s</em>,
+<ul>
+<li>    difficulties with, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>&ndash;40;</li>
+<li>    location of, around fort, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>  Books, fund for purchase of, <a href="#Page_087">87</a></li>
+<li>  Boonesborough (Kentucky), <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>  Boston, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li>  Bougainville, Louis Antoine, report of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>  Boundary line of 1825, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li>  Brandy, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>  Braves, desire of, to take part in council, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li>  <q>Brazil</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>  Bread, character of, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>  Bread tickets, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>  Breakfast, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>  Brewers, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>  Briggs, Ansel, <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+<li>  Brock, General, <a href="#Page_008">8</a></li>
+<li>  Brooke, George M., site for fort chosen by, <a href="#Page_048">48</a></li>
+<li>  Broom, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>  Brown, Joseph R., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>  Brown, Private, purchases by, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>  Brown's Falls, <a href="#Page_081">81</a></li>
+<li>  Bruce, Amos J., <a href="#Page_071">71</a></li>
+<li>  Brunson, Alfred, work of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li>  Brunson, Ira B., <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li>  Buchanan County (Iowa), <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+<li>  Buck, Solon J., acknowledgments to, ix</li>
+<li>  Buffalo, hunting of, by half-breeds, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_040">40</a></li>
+<li>  Buffalo dance, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>  <q>Burlington</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+<li>  Butter, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Calhoun, John C., <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+<li>California, emigration to, <a href="#Page_043">43</a></li>
+<li>Camp Cold Water,
+<ul>
+<li>  establishment of, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_058">58</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Camp Missouri, sickness at, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li>Camp Pierce, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Campbell, Duncan, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>Campbell, Scott, service of, as interpreter, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a></li>
+<li>Canada, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>, <a href="#Page_057">57</a>, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  taking of furs to, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;</li>
+<li>  importance of fur trade to, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>;</li>
+<li>  visits of Indians to, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>  difficulties with half-breeds from, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>&ndash;40;</li>
+<li>  export of furs from, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Canal, <a href="#Page_020">20</a></li>
+<li>Canby, Edward R. S., sketch of life of, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>&ndash;65</li>
+<li>Candles, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Candy, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Canister shot, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Cannon, description of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Cannon River, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+<li>Canoes, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li>Cantonment Leavenworth, establishment of, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Cantonment New Hope, establishment of, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  removal of troops from, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_055">55</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Cards, playing of, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Carpenters, employment of soldiers as, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Cartridges, stock of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Carver, Jonathan, exploration by, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  statement by, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Cass, Lewis, visit of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li>  expedition of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Cat'o'nine tails, <a href="#Page_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Catholic chapel, <a href="#Page_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Catholics, religious work among, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+<li>Catlin, George, visit of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Catlin, Mrs. George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Cattle, feeding of, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Cellars, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Cemetery, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>, <a href="#Page_093">93</a></li>
+<li>Certificates, giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Chambers, John, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li>Chapel, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li>Chaplain, <a href="#Page_088">88</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  service of Gear as, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Chatel, Mr., work of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Checkers, playing of, <a href="#Page_099">99</a><a id="Page_253" name="Page_253"></a><span class="pagenum">[253]</span></li>
+<li>Cheese, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Cherokee Indians, removal of, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Cherubusco, Battle of, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Chess, playing of, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Chicago, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li>Chiefs, giving of certificates to, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  visit of, to Washington, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li>  council with, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Children, education of, at fort, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Chippewa, Battle of, <a href="#Page_055">55</a></li>
+<li>Chippewa Indians,
+<ul>
+<li>  early traders among, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_007">7</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
+<a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+<li>  unwillingness of, to make treaty, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty between Sioux and, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>&ndash;186;</li>
+<li>  land ceded by, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>;</li>
+<li>  home of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+<li>  war parties against, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>  hostility of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>  feuds between Sioux and, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>&ndash;134;</li>
+<li>  killing of, by Sioux, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li>  murderers killed by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>&ndash;124;</li>
+<li>  murder of Sioux warrior by, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+<li>  battle between Sioux and, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>  boundary line between Sioux and, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li>  trustworthiness of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>  language of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li>  summoning of, to council, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Chippewa River, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  murder of Sioux on, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Choctaw Indians, removal of, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Chouteau, Auguste, activities of, as commissioner, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Christianity, influence of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  method of preaching, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Church, organization of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  attendance at, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Churns, <a href="#Page_076">76</a></li>
+<li>Civil War,
+<ul>
+<li>  use of Fort Snelling during, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Eastman in, <a href="#Page_062">62</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Canby in, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Clark, Charlotte Ouisconsin, <a href="#Page_023">23</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li>Clark, Dan E., acknowledgments to, x</li>
+<li>Clark, Nathan, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Clark, Mrs. Nathan, <a href="#Page_023">23</a></li>
+<li>Clark, William, expedition under, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  Fort Shelby established by, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>;</li>
+<li>  activities of, as commissioner, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Clarke, Colonel, <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Clerks, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li>Cloud Man,
+<ul>
+<li>  resolution of, to become farmer, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Cloves, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Coe, Alvan, coming of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+<li>Coffee, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Colhoun, James E., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Colors, guarding of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Columbia, Department of, <a href="#Page_065">65</a></li>
+<li>Columbia Fur Company, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li>Columbia River, <a href="#Page_005">5</a></li>
+<li>Commanders of Fort Snelling,
+<ul>
+<li>  influence of, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>;</li>
+<li>  sketches of lives of, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>&ndash;65</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Commanding officer, quarters of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Commerce, extent of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Commissary, office of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Commissary department, storehouse of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Commissioner of Indian Affairs,
+<ul>
+<li>  report of, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Confederation, forming of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Congress, right of,
+<ul>
+<li>  to regulate Indian affairs, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+<li>  memorials to, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Connecticut, <a href="#Page_001">1</a></li>
+<li>Contreras, Battle of, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Coon, story about Scott and, <a href="#Page_060">60</a>, <a href="#Page_061">61</a></li>
+<li>Cooper, S., <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+<li>Co&ouml;peration in fur trade, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+<li>Copper, mining of, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>; block of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+<li>Corn, feeding of, to cattle, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  raising of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+<li>  giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Council, holding of, with Indians, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>&ndash;109, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>&ndash;183</li>
+<li>Council Bluff (Nebraska),
+<ul>
+<li>  fort at, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>;</li>
+<li>  route of road to Fort Snelling from, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>;</li>
+<li>  naming of fort at, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li>  sickness at, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Council Hall, description of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Council House, erection of, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;<a id="Page_254" name="Page_254"></a><span class="pagenum">[254]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>  description of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>;</li>
+<li>  burning of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>;</li>
+<li>  rebuilding of, <a href="#Page_078">78</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><em>Coureurs des bois</em>, activities of, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Court-martial, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li>Crane, The, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li>Crawford, Captain, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+<li>Crawford County (Wisconsin) volunteers from, <a href="#Page_035">35</a></li>
+<li>Credit, fur trade carried on by means of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li>Creek Indians, removal of, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Croghan, George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Cross Timbers (Indian Territory), <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Crow Wing, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li>Crow Wing River, <a href="#Page_047">47</a></li>
+<li>Currants, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li><em>Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling</em>,
+<a href="#Page_088">62</a></li>
+<li>Dana, Captain, <a href="#Page_049">49</a></li>
+<li>Dance of the braves, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Dances, holding of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Dakota, Department of, <a href="#Page_052">52</a></li>
+<li>Dakota Indians (see <a href="#sioux">Sioux Indians</a>)</li>
+<li>Dearborn, Major, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li>Deaths, number of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_093">93</a></li>
+<li>Debts, payment of, to traders, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li>De Courcy, Adolphine, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Deer, hunting of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>Delaware County (New York), <a href="#Page_055">55</a></li>
+<li>Delhi (New York), <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Democrats, charges of graft against, <a href="#Page_051">51</a></li>
+<li>Denny, St. Clair, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li>Des Moines River, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Deserters, dangers faced by, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Desertions, causes of, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  prevalence of, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Details, duties of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Detroit, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  departure of troops from, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>;</li>
+<li>  surrender of, <a href="#Page_057">57</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Devil's Lake, <a href="#Page_040">40</a></li>
+<li>Dickson, Robert, activities of, in behalf of English, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>  instructions to, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Diet, description of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Dinner, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Dixon, Private, desertion of, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Dodge, Henry, visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  council of, with Indians, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>&ndash;183</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Dog dance, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Dominoes, playing of, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Doty, James D., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li>Douglas, Thomas, settlement of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Draft riots, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Dragoons, expedition of, <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_039">39</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  activities of, in Iowa, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of, on survey, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+<li>  frontier service of, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>;</li>
+<li>  arrival of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Dress parade, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Drummond Island, visits of Indians to, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_014">14</a></li>
+<li>Drunkenness, prevalence of, in garrison, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>, <a href="#Page_090">90</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  punishment for, <a href="#Page_090">90</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Dubuque, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li>Dubuque, Diocese of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+<li>Ducks, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a></li>
+<li>Dueling, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li>Duluth, Daniel Greyloson, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Dunning, William A., <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Eagle dance, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Eastman, Mary Henderson, writings of, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Eastman, Seth, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  sketch of life of, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Eastman, Mrs. Seth, description by, <a href="#Page_094">94</a></li>
+<li>Eaton, John H., <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+<li>Eatonville (Minnesota), colony at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  success of colony at, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li>  Pond brothers in charge of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Education, work of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li><q>Education Families</q>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>Education of children, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Edwards, Ninian, activities of, as commissioner, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Eighth United States Infantry, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+<li><a id="Page_255" name="Page_255"></a><span class="pagenum">[255]</span></li>
+<li>Elk, hunting of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>Emerson, John, sketch of life of, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Emerson, Mrs. John, <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+<li>Emigration, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>, <a href="#Page_015">15</a></li>
+<li>England, <a href="#Page_070">70</a></li>
+<li>English, rule of, in West, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  activities of, in fur trade, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li>  power of, over Indians, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>&ndash;17;</li>
+<li>  support of, by Indians in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>&ndash;12;</li>
+<li>  medals given by, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  persistence of influence of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li>  use of Indians by, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>English River, <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+<li>English trading companies, <a href="#Page_002">2</a></li>
+<li>Episcopal Church, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Evans, William, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Exploring expeditions, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Factors, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  relations of, with officers of fort, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Factory System, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Fall, activities of Indians during, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li>Falls of St. Anthony, <a href="#Page_007">7</a>, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  journey of Long to, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;</li>
+<li>  plan to establish fort near, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>;</li>
+<li>  saw mill at, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;</li>
+<li>  fort named for, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>;</li>
+<li>  road to, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>;</li>
+<li>  description of, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li>  legend concerning, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>;</li>
+<li>  visits of travelers to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&ndash;175;</li>
+<li>  attempt to cross, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Falstrom, Jacob, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>Faribault, Jean Baptiste, house of, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+<li>  trading post of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Faribault, Pelagi, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li>Farmers, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  employment of soldiers as, <a href="#Page_095">95</a>;</li>
+<li>  work of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a name="farm" id="farm"></a>Farming, efforts to introduce, among Indians, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>&ndash;150;
+<ul>
+<li>  work of Indians at, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li>  assistance to Indians in, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li>  instruction of Indians in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><q>Fashionable Tour</q>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&ndash;175</li>
+<li>Fat Duty Win (Indian), <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li><q>Fayette</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Fayette County (Iowa), <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+<li>Featherstonhaugh, George William, visit of, to Fort Snelling,
+153, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+<li>Ferries, <a href="#Page_014">14</a></li>
+<li>Ferry house, <a href="#Page_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Ferryman, <a href="#Page_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Fifth United States Infantry, disembarkment of, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  orders to, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>;</li>
+<li>  location of parts of, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>:</li>
+<li>  journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>&ndash;24;</li>
+<li>  companies of, taken to Fort Crawford, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_058">58</a>, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Finley, Mr., home of, <a href="#Page_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Fireplaces, heating by means of, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Fires, epidemic of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>First United States Infantry, <a href="#Page_058">58</a>, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Fishing tackle, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Flag staff, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Flags, giving up of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  slur against, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Flat Mouth, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  career of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Flatboats, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li>Flogging, <a href="#Page_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Florida War, service of Eastman in, <a href="#Page_062">62</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  service of Canby in, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Flour, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Food, character of, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>&ndash;87</li>
+<li>Folles-Avoine Indians, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Fond du Lac, Department of, <a href="#Page_006">6</a></li>
+<li>Foraging, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Foreigners, permission to, to engage in fur trade, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li>Forests, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li>Forsyth, Thomas, journey of, up Mississippi, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  presents distributed by, <a href="#Page_023">23</a>;</li>
+<li>  arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>;</li>
+<li>  return trip of, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Abercrombie, facts concerning early history of, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+<li>Fort Armstrong, construction of, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>;</li>
+<li>  garrison for, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;</li>
+<li>  journey of Webb to, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Atkinson (Iowa), dragoons from, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  expedition from, <a href="#Page_038">38</a>;</li>
+<li>  Major Woods at, <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a id="Page_256" name="Page_256"></a><span class="pagenum">[256]</span></li>
+<li>Fort Atkinson (Nebraska), naming of, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  sickness at, <a href="#Page_093">93</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Benton, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Fort Bridger, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Fort Calhoun (Nebraska), <a href="#Page_020">20</a></li>
+<li>Fort Clarke, establishment of, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a></li>
+<li>Fort Crawford, establishment of, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>, <a href="#Page_023">23</a>, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
+<li>  arrival of troops at, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;</li>
+<li>  re&euml;nforcement of garrison of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>;</li>
+<li>  removal of troops from, <a href="#Page_033">33</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Dearborn, massacre at, <a href="#Page_010">10</a>, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>  re-occupation of, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Defiance, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Fort Des Moines, <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Fort Dodge, establishment of, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_049">49</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_057">57</a></li>
+<li>Fort Gaines, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a></li>
+<li>Fort Garry, <a href="#Page_040">40</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li>Fort Howard, erection of, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Leavenworth, establishment of, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Fort McKay, name of Fort Shelby changed to, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  re-occupation of site of, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Pierre, purchase of, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Ridgely, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+<li>Fort Ripley, <a href="#Page_048">48</a></li>
+<li>Fort St. Anthony, <a href="#Page_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Fort Shelby, establishment of, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  capture of, by English, <a href="#Page_012">12</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Snelling, significance of establishment of, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  establishment and early history of, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>&ndash;30;</li>
+<li>  range of influence of, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>;</li>
+<li>  erection of, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;</li>
+<li>  garden at, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;</li>
+<li>  route of road to, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>;</li>
+<li>  naming of, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of, in protection of frontier, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>&ndash;53;</li>
+<li>  attitude of War Department toward, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>;</li>
+<li>  Territorial jurisdictions over site of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>;</li>
+<li>  activities of troops at, during Winnebago outbreak, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>&ndash;34;</li>
+<li>  character and duties of garrison of, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of troops from, in removal of Winnebagoes, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>&ndash;37;</li>
+<li>  expeditions from, <a href="#Page_039">39</a>&ndash;45;</li>
+<li>  surveying party escorted by dragoons from, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>;</li>
+<li>  relation of, to other forts, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>;</li>
+<li>  fort built by troops from, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_050">50</a>;</li>
+<li>  history of later years of, <a href="#Page_050">50</a>&ndash;53;</li>
+<li>  desire to locate town on site of, <a href="#Page_050">50</a>&ndash;52;</li>
+<li>  officers' training camp at, <a href="#Page_053">53</a>;</li>
+<li>  biographical sketches of men connected with, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>&ndash;72;</li>
+<li>  Dred Scott at, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Indian agent at, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>&ndash;72;</li>
+<li>  description of, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>&ndash;83;</li>
+<li>  view from, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>;</li>
+<li>  glimpses of garrison life at, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>&ndash;102;</li>
+<li>  relation of, to Indian affairs, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>&ndash;118;</li>
+<li>  efforts of authorities at, to keep peace between Sioux and Chippewas,
+119&ndash;134;</li>
+<li>  regulation of fur trade by officers at, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>&ndash;139;</li>
+<li>  regulation of liquor traffic by officers at, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>&ndash;145;</li>
+<li>  work of missionaries at, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>&ndash;158;</li>
+<li>  religious activities at, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>&ndash;158;</li>
+<li>  visits of travelers to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&ndash;175, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+<li>  Indian treaty made at, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>&ndash;186;</li>
+<li>  part of, in opening country to settlement, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>  part of, in settlement of West, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>&ndash;201;</li>
+<li>  settlements around, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>&ndash;190;</li>
+<li>  removal of settlers from vicinity of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>&ndash;195;</li>
+<li>  relations between St. Paul and, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>&ndash;198;</li>
+<li>  withdrawal of troops from, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li>  unique facts concerning, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+<li>  arrival of troops at, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
+<li>  oil painting of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+<li>  effect of, on Indian affairs, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fort Sumter, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>Fort Ticonderoga, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>Fort Union, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Fort William, <a href="#Page_009">9</a></li>
+<li>Fort York, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Forts, resistance to building of, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  location of, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;</li>
+<li>  building of, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>&ndash;20, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+<li>  degeneration of Indians in vicinity of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><q>Four Hearts</q>, <a href="#Page_068">68</a></li>
+<li>Four Legs, attempt of, to delay troops, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Fourth United States Infantry, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Fowle, Major, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li><a id="Page_257" name="Page_257"></a><span class="pagenum">[257]</span></li>
+<li>Fox Indians, rumor of attack by, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li>  (see <a href="#sac">Sac and Fox Indians</a>)</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fox River, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  canal between Wisconsin River and, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>;</li>
+<li>  ascent of, by troops, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_022">22</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>France, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Franks, Mr., <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+<li>Fr&eacute;mont, John C., <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>French, rule of, in West, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  influence of, over Indians, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;</li>
+<li>  extent of trade during control of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>French traders, <a href="#Page_002">2</a></li>
+<li>Frontier, difficulties on, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  plan for protection of, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Fort Snelling in protection of, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>&ndash;53;</li>
+<li>  service of Taylor on, <a href="#Page_059">59</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fuel, use of wood for, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Funerals, conduct of, <a href="#Page_093">93</a></li>
+<li>Fur trade, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  activities of English in, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>&ndash;17;</li>
+<li>  importance of, to Canada, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>;</li>
+<li>  regulation of, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>&ndash;17, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>&ndash;139;</li>
+<li>  quantity of furs secured in, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>  use of liquor in, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li>  extent of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fur traders (see <a href="#traders">Traders</a>)</li>
+<li>Furs, taking of, to Canada, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  sorting and packing of, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>;</li>
+<li>  quantity and kind of, secured by traders, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+<li>  annual export of, from Canada, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Gaines, Edmund P., <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+<li>Gale, Captain, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>Galena (Illinois), <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Galtier, Lucian, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li>Game, killing of, <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+<li>Garden, products of, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  making of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Gardiner, Captain, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Gardner, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li>Garrison, life of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>&ndash;102</li>
+<li>Gear, Ezekiel, purchases made by, <a href="#Page_088">88</a>, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  service of, as chaplain, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Geese, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li><q>General Ashley</q> (keel boat), <a href="#Page_033">33</a></li>
+<li><q>General Brooke</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li><q>General Fatigue</q>, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Genoa (Italy), <a href="#Page_070">70</a></li>
+<li>Geological surveys, beginning of, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+<li>George the Third, medals of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Gettysburg, Battle of, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></li>
+<li>Ghent, negotiations at, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+<li>Good Road (Chief), <a href="#Page_083">83</a>; village of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Gooding, Mrs., <a href="#Page_023">23</a></li>
+<li>Gooding, Miss, <a href="#Page_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Goods for Indian trade, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li>Goose River, <a href="#Page_040">40</a></li>
+<li>Gorgets, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Gorman, W. A., <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li>Graft, charges of, <a href="#Page_051">51</a></li>
+<li>Graham's Point, <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+<li>Grant, Peter, trading post of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Grapeshot, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Gray, A., report by, <a href="#Page_008">8</a></li>
+<li>Great Britain, exploration of domain of, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  diplomatic correspondence with, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>Green, Platt Rogers, marriage of, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Green Bay, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  fort on, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;</li>
+<li>  fur trade at, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Greenly, Mr., <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Greenough, I. K., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Green's Villa, <a href="#Page_082">82</a></li>
+<li>Grist mill, <a href="#Page_082">82</a></li>
+<li>Grooms, Mr., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li>Groseilliers, Medard Chuart, exploration by, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Guardhouse, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Gull Lake, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li>Guns, giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Half-breeds, difficulties with, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>&ndash;40;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>  location of, around fort, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Hamilton, Mrs. Alexander, visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+<li>Hannibal (negro servant), <a href="#Page_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Harness, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Harriet (negro woman), <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+<li>Harriman, D. B., <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li>Harrison, William H., <a href="#Page_057">57</a><a id="Page_258" name="Page_258"></a><span class="pagenum">[258]</span></li>
+<li>Harrodstown (Kentucky), <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li>Hartford (Connecticut), <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Hastings (Minnesota), <a href="#Page_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Hay, raising of, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Hays, John, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Heald, Nathan, <a href="#Page_010">10</a></li>
+<li>Heiskell, William King, Fort Snelling reservation sold by, <a href="#Page_051">51</a></li>
+<li>Hennepin, Louis, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Henry, Alexander, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Herring, Elbert, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li><em>Hiawatha</em>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Higby, James, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li><q>Highland Mary</q>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a></li>
+<li>Hill, James J., <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+<li>Hivernants, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li>Hole-in-the-Day, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  career of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Holland, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Homesickness, <a href="#Page_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Horses, feeding of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  raising of hay for, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>;</li>
+<li>  exchange of, for liquor, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Hospital, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  taking of sick soldiers to, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>;</li>
+<li>  number of soldiers in, <a href="#Page_093">93</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Howitzers, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Hudson's Bay, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Hudson's Bay Company, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+<li>Huggins, Alexander G., <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Hull, William, <a href="#Page_010">10</a>, <a href="#Page_057">57</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  surrender of Detroit by, <a href="#Page_057">57</a>, <a href="#Page_058">58</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Hunt, Abigail, marriage of, <a href="#Page_057">57</a></li>
+<li>Hunting, skill of Scott in, <a href="#Page_060">60</a>, <a href="#Page_061">61</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  success of soldiers in, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>;</li>
+<li>  activities of Indians in, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li>  efforts to supplement, by farming, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Hunting grounds, <a href="#Page_082">82</a></li>
+<li>Hunting parties, size of, <a href="#Page_038">38</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  encounters by, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li>  watching of, by Indian agent, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Illinois, admission of, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  Indian outbreak in, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>&ndash;34</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Illinois River, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li>Indian affairs, regulation of, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_067">67</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  relation of Fort Snelling to, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>&ndash;118, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Indian agency, buildings of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  proposed removal of, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>;</li>
+<li>  councils with Indians at, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>&ndash;109</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Indian agent, protection for, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  service of Taliaferro as, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>&ndash;71;</li>
+<li>  relation between military authorities and, <a href="#Page_067">67</a>;</li>
+<li>  house of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>;</li>
+<li>  task of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li>  visit of Indians to, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+<li>  aid given to sick Indians by, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  efforts of, to promote peace between Sioux and Chippewas, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>&ndash;134;</li>
+<li>  service of, as mediator, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Indian ball, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Indian country, preparations for march into, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>&ndash;95</li>
+<li>Indian dances, holding of, for Catlin, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Indian schools, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Indian Territory, removal of Indians to, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li><em>Indian Tribes of the United States, History, Conditions, and Future
+Prospects of the</em>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Indian villages, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Indiana, admission of, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>reference to, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Indians, influence of French traders over, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  trade of English with, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>;</li>
+<li>  power of English over, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>&ndash;17, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li>  support of British by, in War of 1812, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>&ndash;12;</li>
+<li>  treaties with, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;</li>
+<li>  sending of presents to, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_023">23</a>;</li>
+<li>  visits of, to Drummond Island, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>;</li>
+<li>  proposals for dealing with, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>;</li>
+<li>  regulation of trade with, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>&ndash;17;</li>
+<li>  refusal of, to supply troops with food, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>;</li>
+<li>  relation of Fort Snelling to, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>;</li>
+<li>  hostility of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>&ndash;34;</li>
+<li>  opposition of, to half-breeds, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>;</li>
+<li>  power of agents over, <a href="#Page_067">67</a>;</li>
+<li>  tepees of, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>;</li>
+<li>  blacksmith work for, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>;</li>
+<li>  legend of, concerning Falls of St. Anthony, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>;</li>
+<li>  treatment of deserters by, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>;</li>
+<li>  plan for civilization of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+<li>  number of, around Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li>  character of life among, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>&ndash;106;</li>
+<li>  councils with, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>&ndash;109;<a id="Page_259" name="Page_259"></a><span class="pagenum">[259]</span></li>
+<li>  effect of military display on, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li>  relief of sufferings of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+<li>  visit of, to agent, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+<li>  help to, in sickness, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  vaccination of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  evidence of power of government given to, by Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>&ndash;118;</li>
+<li>  medals and certificates given to, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>  influence of Fort Snelling over, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>&ndash;118;</li>
+<li>  regulation of fur trade with, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>&ndash;139;</li>
+<li>  goods used in trade with, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+<li>  efforts to suppress liquor traffic with, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>&ndash;145;</li>
+<li>  evil effects of liquor on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li>  work of missionaries among, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>&ndash;158;</li>
+<li>  degeneration among, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
+<li>  log village for, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+<li>  work of, at farming, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li>  assistance to, in farming, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li>  boarding-school for, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li>  effect of religious work among, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li>  paintings of, by Catlin, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+<li>  relations of United States with, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>&ndash;178;</li>
+<li>  speeches by, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+<li>  disputes between settlers and, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>  drunkenness among, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li>  use of, by British, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+<li>  plans for permanent territory for, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+<li>  respect of, for Sabbath, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+<li>  steamboats feared by, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Indigo, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Intemperance, prevalence of, in garrison, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>, <a href="#Page_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Interior, Department of, Indian affairs placed under control of, <a href="#Page_067">67</a></li>
+<li>Interpreter, service of Campbell as, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  danger to, from fire, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>;</li>
+<li>  activities of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Renville as, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Interpreters, foreigners as, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li><q>Ione</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Iowa, journey of Kearny across, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  removal of Winnebagoes from, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>;</li>
+<li>  expeditions from Fort Snelling into, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>&ndash;45</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Iowa, Territory of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+<li>Iowa City, Major Woods at, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>;</li>
+<li>  description of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Iowa County, petition from, <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+<li>Iowa Indians, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Iowa River, difficulties with Indians along, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>&ndash;44;
+<ul>
+<li>  departure of Indians from, <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ireland, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  immigrants from, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Iron, mining of, <a href="#Page_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Irving, Washington, <a href="#Page_014">14</a></li>
+<li>Izard, George, <a href="#Page_057">57</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Jack, Captain, war with, <a href="#Page_065">65</a></li>
+<li>Jackson, Andrew, <a href="#Page_015">15</a></li>
+<li>Jail, use of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li>James, Edward, settlers removed by, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li>James River, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Jarvis, Doctor, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Jefferson, Thomas, statement of, concerning trade, <a href="#Page_004">4</a></li>
+<li>Jesuits, work of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>Jewellers, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Jews' harps, giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Johnson, George, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Johnson County (Iowa), <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Kansas State Historical Society, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+<li>Kaposia, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  missionary at, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>  abandonment of mission at, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+<li>  school at, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li>  battle near, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Kearny, Stephen Watts, survey of route for military road by, <a href="#Page_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Keating, William H., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Keelboats, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Kemper, Jackson, letters describing visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>&ndash;175;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Kentucky, settlement of, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Kickapoo Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li>Kinzie, John, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Kitchens, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Kittson, Norman W., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+<li>Knives, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>La Baye, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Laborers, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Lac du Flambeau, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Lac du Traverse, <a href="#Page_016">16</a></li>
+<li>Lac qui Parle, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Laidlaw, William, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><a id="Page_260" name="Page_260"></a><span class="pagenum">[260]</span></li>
+<li>Lake Calhoun, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  mission on, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lake Harriet, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  Indian boarding-school at, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lake Huron, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Lake Itasca, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+<li>Lake Julia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li>Lake Michigan, <a href="#Page_017">17</a>, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Lake Mini-Waken, <a href="#Page_040">40</a></li>
+<li>Lake of the Isles, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Lake of the Woods, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+<li>Lake Pepin, <a href="#Page_023">23</a>, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li>Lake Pokegama, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li>Lake St. Croix, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li>Lake Superior, trading posts on, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lake Traverse, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Lake Winnebago, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Lake Winnipeg, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Lakes, hunting in region of, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Landing at Fort Snelling, description of, <a href="#Page_073">73</a></li>
+<li>Lands, questions concerning, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li>Land's End, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li>Land-seekers, effect of coming of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  land cessions urged by, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Latrobe, Charles Joseph, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+<li><q>Laughing Water,</q> 82</li>
+<li>Laundresses, quarters of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Lead mines, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li>Leavenworth, Henry, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  message of, to Indian chief, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;</li>
+<li>  journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>&ndash;24;</li>
+<li>  arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>;</li>
+<li>  return of, to Prairie du Chien, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>;</li>
+<li>  camp moved by, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;</li>
+<li>  successor to, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;</li>
+<li>  sketch of life of, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lee, Francis, <a href="#Page_049">49</a></li>
+<li>Leech Lake, Pike at, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  trading post on, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Legend concerning Falls of St. Anthony, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>, <a href="#Page_082">82</a></li>
+<li><em>Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The</em>, <a href="#Page_014">14</a></li>
+<li>Lewis, Meriwether, expedition under, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_072">72</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Library, purchase of books for, <a href="#Page_087">87</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Licenses, granting of, to traders, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li>Linn County (Iowa), <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+<li>Liquor, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  effect of, on Indians, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+<li>  suppression of traffic in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+<li>  power of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+<li>  prices charged for, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li>
+<li>  destruction of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Liquor traffic, regulation of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>&ndash;145</li>
+<li>Little Crow, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Little Falls (Minnesota), <a href="#Page_006">6</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Little Thunder, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Lockwood, Judge, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+<li>Log cabins, erection of, <a href="#Page_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Log village for Indians, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+<li>Long, Stephen H., site for fort approved by, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_095">95</a>;</li>
+<li>  expedition of, to upper Mississippi, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>&ndash;163</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Longfellow, Henry W., <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Lookout platform, <a href="#Page_074">74</a></li>
+<li>Loomis, Gustavus, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li>  punishment inflicted by, <a href="#Page_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Loras, Mathias, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  activities of, at Mendota, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lords of the North, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>&ndash;72</li>
+<li>Louisiana, transfer of, <a href="#Page_007">7</a></li>
+<li>Louisiana Purchase, effect of, <a href="#Page_004">4</a></li>
+<li>Louisville (Kentucky), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Lover's rock, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+<li>Lower Red Cedar Lake, trading post on, <a href="#Page_006">6</a></li>
+<li><q>Loyal Hanna</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Lumber, making of, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_082">82</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>McCain, H. P., acknowledgments to, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></li>
+<li>M'Gillis, Hugh, <a href="#Page_006">6</a></li>
+<li>McGregor, John R., <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li>McKenny, T. L., <a href="#Page_017">17</a></li>
+<li>McKenzie, Kenneth, trading house bought by, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>McLean, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+<li>McMahon, Doctor, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li>McNeil, Colonel, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Mackinac, capture of, by British, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>, <a href="#Page_010">10</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+<li>  transfer of, to Americans, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Madison, James, <a href="#Page_012">12</a><a id="Page_261" name="Page_261"></a><span class="pagenum">[261]</span></li>
+<li>Magazine, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  contents of, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ma-ghe-ga-bo, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li>Magruder, William T., <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+<li>Mahoney, Sergeant, purchases made by, <a href="#Page_089">89</a></li>
+<li>Mail, carrying of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>&ndash;99, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Maize, raising of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a></li>
+<li><q>Malta</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Man-of-the-sky, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li>Mandan (North Dakota), <a href="#Page_005">5</a></li>
+<li>Mandan Indians, Lewis and Clark among, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Maple sugar, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+<li>March, preparations for, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>&ndash;95</li>
+<li>Marengo (Iowa), difficulties with Indians near, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a></li>
+<li>Marion (Iowa), <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+<li>Marquette, Jacques, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>Marryat, Frederick, visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li>Marsh, John, letter from, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  service of, as tutor, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Marston, Major, <a href="#Page_022">22</a></li>
+<li>Massacre of 1862, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Massy, Louis, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li>Mather, William Williams, visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+<li>Mdewakanton Sioux Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li>Meals, character of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>&ndash;87</li>
+<li>Medals, giving up of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  giving of, by English, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  giving of, by United States, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>  slur against, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mendota, treaty of, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  settlement at, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>;</li>
+<li>  headquarters of fur trade at, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+<li>  factor at, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+<li>  religious activities at, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li>  traders at, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Menominee Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mess-rooms, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Mexican War, services of Taylor in, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  services of Scott in, <a href="#Page_061">61</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Canby in, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mexico, City of, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li>Michigan, Territory of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a></li>
+<li>Military frontier, forward movement of, <a href="#Page_017">17</a>, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+<li>Military posts, establishment of, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  permission for establishment of, <a href="#Page_007">7</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Military reservation, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  removal of settlers from, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>&ndash;195</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Military road, survey of route for, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Military rules, severity of, <a href="#Page_091">91</a></li>
+<li>Mille Lac, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li>Miller, John, <a href="#Page_019">19</a></li>
+<li>Mills, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  guarding of, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Minneapolis, real estate speculation at, <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+<li>Minnehaha Creek, <a href="#Page_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Minnehaha Falls, <a href="#Page_062">62</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+<li>Minnesota, Indians in, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  diocese of Dubuque extended over, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Minnesota, Territory of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  organization of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a name="minn_r" id="minn_r">Minnesota River</a>, Carver on, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
+<a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li>  cession of land at mouth of, secured by Pike, <a href="#Page_007">7</a>, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>;</li>
+<li>  promise of trading house at mouth of, <a href="#Page_017">17</a>;</li>
+<li>  selection of site for fort at mouth of, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;</li>
+<li>  arrival of troops at mouth of, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li>  fort located at junction of Mississippi River and, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;</li>
+<li>  concentration of Sioux Indians along, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>;</li>
+<li>  scenery at mouth of, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>;</li>
+<li>  Indian villages on, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>;</li>
+<li>  clearing of timber from banks of, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>;</li>
+<li>  expedition up, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li>  name of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Minnesota Valley, settlement of, <a href="#Page_039">39</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  geological survey in, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mission, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Missionaries, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>&ndash;158;
+<ul>
+<li>  methods of, suggested by Taliaferro, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Missionary societies, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li>Missions, activities at, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Mississippi River, Carver on, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_058">58</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
+<a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;<a id="Page_262" name="Page_262"></a><span class="pagenum">[262]</span></li>
+<li>  foreign jurisdictions over country west of, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;</li>
+<li>  expedition of Pike up, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>;</li>
+<li>  activities of British traders on, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>&ndash;8;</li>
+<li>  cession of land on, secured by Pike, <a href="#Page_007">7</a>, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaties with Indians on, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;</li>
+<li>  proposed trading posts on, <a href="#Page_017">17</a>;</li>
+<li>  forts on, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>;</li>
+<li>  fort located at junction of Minnesota River and, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;</li>
+<li>  exploration of, by Cass, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;</li>
+<li>  scenery along, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>;</li>
+<li>  road along, <a href="#Page_081">81</a>;</li>
+<li>  Indian villages on, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>;</li>
+<li>  low water in, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;</li>
+<li>  seizure of liquor on, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li>  first steamboat on upper, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li>  attempt to find source of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>  discovery of source of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+<li>  advertisements of trip on, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li>  description of journey up, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>&ndash;175;</li>
+<li>  reasons for cession of land east of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li>  cession of land east of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>&ndash;185, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>  military reservation on, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mississippi Valley, settlement of, <a href="#Page_039">39</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  erection of military posts in, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>;</li>
+<li>  work of missionaries in, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+<li>  opening of, to settlement, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Missouri, increase in population of, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Missouri, Territory of, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_032">32</a></li>
+<li>Missouri Compromise, <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+<li>Missouri Fur Company, murder of employees of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li>Missouri Indians, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Missouri River, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
+<a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  English traders on, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>;</li>
+<li>  Lewis and Clark expedition on, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaties with Indians on, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;</li>
+<li>  forts on, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>;</li>
+<li>  return of Sacs and Foxes from, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>;</li>
+<li>  removal of Indians to, <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Modoc Indians, war with, <a href="#Page_065">65</a></li>
+<li>Molino del Rey, Battle of, death of Scott in, <a href="#Page_060">60</a>, <a href="#Page_061">61</a>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Moncrief, W. T., <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li>Monroe, James, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li><em>Monsieur Tonson</em>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li><q>Monsoon</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Montreal, activities of merchants of, <a href="#Page_004">4</a></li>
+<li>Moores, Hazen, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Morgan's Bluff, <a href="#Page_089">89</a></li>
+<li>Morrill, Mr., <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+<li>Morse, Jedidiah, plan of, for civilizing Indians, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Mud Lake, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>Mumford, Mr., <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Murderers, surrender of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  killing of, by Chippewas, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>&ndash;124;</li>
+<li>  punishment of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Murphy, R. G., <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li>Musick, Peter, killing of cattle of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>Musket flints, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Muskrat furs, exchange of, for liquor, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+<li>Muskrats, trapping of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>Mutinies, causes of, <a href="#Page_091">91</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Nadin, complaint of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li>Nadoueseronoms, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+<li>Navajo Indians, expedition against, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Needles, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Nelson River, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Neutral Ground, removal of Winnebagoes from, <a href="#Page_047">47</a></li>
+<li>New Mexico, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>New Orleans, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>New Ulm (Minnesota), <a href="#Page_049">49</a></li>
+<li>New York City, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  draft riots in, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Niagara Falls, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li>Nichols, R. C., building of Fort Armstrong by, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+<li>Nicollet, Jean, exploration by, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Nicollet, Joseph N., explorations by, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Nine Mile River, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li>Nokay River, <a href="#Page_048">48</a></li>
+<li>North, Lords of, <a href="#Page_054">54</a>&ndash;72</li>
+<li>North Dakota, <a href="#Page_040">40</a></li>
+<li>North West Company, activities of, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  traders of, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>;</li>
+<li>  extent of commerce of, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>, <a href="#Page_009">9</a>, <a href="#Page_010">10</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><a id="Page_263" name="Page_263"></a><span class="pagenum">[263]</span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Northern Pacific Survey, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Northwest, period of foreign rule in, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>&ndash;17;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;</li>
+<li>  importance of Fort Snelling in, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>  guardian of, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>;</li>
+<li>  work of missionaries in, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>&ndash;158;</li>
+<li>  coming of first steamboat to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+<li>  missionary bishop of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+<li>  part of Fort Snelling in development of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+<li>  meaning of term, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Oak Grove, mission at, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Oats, raising of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a></li>
+<li>O'Fallon, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_016">16</a></li>
+<li>Officer of the day, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Officers' Mess, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Officers' quarters, description of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  fire in, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Officers' Training Camp, <a href="#Page_053">53</a></li>
+<li><q>O. H. Perry</q> (keelboat), <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_034">34</a></li>
+<li>Ojibway Indians, home of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>Old Northwest, settlement of, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Oliphant, Laurence, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li>Oliver, Lieutenant, experiences of, <a href="#Page_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Orderly-room, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Ordnance, alleged lack of, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  stock of, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ordnance sergeant, quarters of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Ordway, John, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Oregon treaty, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Orphan asylum, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Orphans, fund for relief of, <a href="#Page_087">87</a></li>
+<li>Osage Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li>Ottawa Indians, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li>Otter furs, exchange of, for liquor, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+<li>Otter Tail Lake, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>Otto, Helen, acknowledgments to, x</li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Pacific Coast, emigration to, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  necessity of railroad to, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>;</li>
+<li>  survey of route for railroad to, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pacific Northwest, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>Page, Captain, <a href="#Page_036">36</a></li>
+<li>Painted rock, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+<li>Painters, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li><q>Palmyra</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+<li>Paper, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Papermakers, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Parade ground, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  sweeping of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Parkman, Francis, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+<li>Parties, holding of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Pattern farms, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>Patterson, Robert, visit of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Pawnee Indians, campaign against, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Paymaster, office of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Peace conferences between Indians, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>Peace pipe, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  smoking of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pelzer, Louis, vii</li>
+<li>Pembina, hunting party from, <a href="#Page_038">38</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  expedition to, <a href="#Page_039">39</a>, <a href="#Page_040">40</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pemmican, making of, <a href="#Page_037">37</a></li>
+<li>Peoria (Illinois), <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Pepper, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Perrot, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Perry, Abraham, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li>Perry, Mrs. Abraham, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li>Pe-she-ke, speech by, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+<li>Pettijohn, Eli, purchase made by, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Phelan, Edward, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Physician at Fort Snelling, sketch of life of, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  service of, to settlers, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Piankashaw Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li>Picnic grounds, <a href="#Page_082">82</a></li>
+<li>Picnics, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Pike, Zebulon M., expedition under, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  activities of English traders investigated by, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>&ndash;8;</li>
+<li>  cession of land secured by, <a href="#Page_007">7</a>, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+<li>  promise made by, <a href="#Page_017">17</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pike's Island, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li>Pillager band of Chippewas, treaty with, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pilot Knob, <a href="#Page_080">80</a></li>
+<li>Pine Bend, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Pine Coulie, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li>Pine timber, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+<li>Pinisha, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Pipestone quarry, trip to, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+<li>Pioneers, protection of, against Indians, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;<a id="Page_264" name="Page_264"></a><span class="pagenum">[264]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>  coming of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li>  (see <a href="#settlers">Settlers</a>)</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li>Plattsburg, <a href="#Page_057">57</a></li>
+<li>Pleasures of soldiers, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a></li>
+<li>Plympton, J., <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li>Poage, Sarah, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Poinsett, J. R., <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li>Police guard, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Pond, Gideon, coming of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  work of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>&ndash;156</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pond, S. W., <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  coming of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+<li>  work of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>&ndash;156</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pontiac's conspiracy, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Pope, John, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+<li>Pork, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  ration of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li>  giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Portage des Sioux, <a href="#Page_017">17</a></li>
+<li>Post fund, <a href="#Page_087">87</a></li>
+<li>Post school, <a href="#Page_075">75</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  fund for maintenance of, <a href="#Page_087">87</a>;</li>
+<li>  organization of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Potatoes, raising of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a></li>
+<li>Potosi (Wisconsin), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li>Pottawattamie Indians, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Poupon, Isadore, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+<li>Powder, stock of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Poweshiek (Chief), <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Prairie du Chien, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_058">58</a>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
+<a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+<a href="#Page_246">246</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  establishment of Fort Shelby at, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>;</li>
+<li>  capture of, by British, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>;</li>
+<li>  round-about route to, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;</li>
+<li>  Fort Crawford at, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;</li>
+<li>  arrival of troops at, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;</li>
+<li>  return of Leavenworth to, <a href="#Page_024">24</a>;</li>
+<li>  carrying of mail between Fort Snelling and, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>&ndash;99, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty made at, in 1825, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pre&euml;mption, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li>Prescott, Philander, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li>Presents, giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_023">23</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li>President of United States, <a href="#Page_016">16</a></li>
+<li>Prevost, George, <a href="#Page_008">8</a></li>
+<li>Prices, fixing of, <a href="#Page_087">87</a></li>
+<li>Prison, number of soldiers in, <a href="#Page_091">91</a></li>
+<li>Prisoners, guarding of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Provencalle, Louis, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Provisions, distribution of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  character of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pump, <a href="#Page_074">74</a></li>
+<li>Punishments, character of, <a href="#Page_090">90</a>, <a href="#Page_091">91</a></li>
+<li>Puthuff, William H., <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Quaife, Milo M., acknowledgments to, ix</li>
+<li>Quarrels in garrison, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li>Quarrying, employment of soldiers at, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Quartermaster, trouble between physician and, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  office of, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Quebec, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Radisson, Pierre Esprit, exploration by, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Railroad, survey of route for, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a></li>
+<li>Rainville, Mr., <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+<li>Raisins, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Ramsey, Alexander, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  treaty made by, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>;</li>
+<li>  council called by, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Rations, character of, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>&ndash;87, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_095">95</a>;</li>
+<li>  issuance of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Real estate speculation, <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+<li>Reconnoitering, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Red Bird, hostility of Indians under, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_034">34</a></li>
+<li>Red Bird War, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+<li><q>Red Head,</q> 108, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+<li>Red River carts, caravans of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+<li>Red River of the North, trading posts on, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_050">50</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>  difficulties with half-breeds from, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>&ndash;40;</li>
+<li>  expeditions to, <a href="#Page_038">38</a>&ndash;40, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+<li>  Lord Selkirk's colony on, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Red River Trail, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Red Wing (Chief), <a href="#Page_092">92</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  village of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li>  payment of annuities to Indians under, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><em>Regulations for the Army, General</em>, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li><a id="Page_265" name="Page_265"></a><span class="pagenum">[265]</span></li>
+<li>Renville, Daniel, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Renville, Joseph, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  service of, as interpreter, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Renville, Rosalie, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Republicans, charges of graft made by, <a href="#Page_051">51</a></li>
+<li><em>Reveille</em>, <a href="#Page_084">84</a></li>
+<li>Revival, success of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Reynolds, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Riggs, S. R., <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+<li>Road to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>, <a href="#Page_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Robertson, Mr., work of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Robertson, Gustavus A., <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Rock Island, building of fort on, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  garrison for fort on, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Rock River, hostility of Indians on, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Rocky Mountains, <a href="#Page_016">16</a></li>
+<li>Roll call, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>, <a href="#Page_085">85</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  punishment for absence from, <a href="#Page_090">90</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Round Tower, Old, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  description of, <a href="#Page_074">74</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Routine duties, description of, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Rum, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  evil effect of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Rum River, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  battle on, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Runners, sending of, to Indian camps, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+<li>Rupel, J. B. F., <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Ryerson, Private, purchases by, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Sabbath, respect of Indians for, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li>Sac Indians, hostility of, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  pursuit of, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a name="sac" id="sac">Sac and Fox Indians</a>, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  return of, to Iowa, <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>St. Anthony (Minnesota), real estate speculation at, <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+<li>St. Croix River, trading posts on, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  cession of land at mouth of, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>St. Joseph's, <a href="#Page_010">10</a></li>
+<li>St. Lawrence River, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li>St. Louis, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>, <a href="#Page_005">5</a>, <a href="#Page_011">11</a>, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>, <a href="#Page_058">58</a>, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  troops from, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>;</li>
+<li>  bringing of supplies from, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>St. Paul, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_071">71</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  real estate speculation at, <a href="#Page_050">50</a>;</li>
+<li>  founding of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li>
+<li>  relations between fort and, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>&ndash;198</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad Company, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+<li>St. Peter's, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>St. Peter's agency, service of Taliaferro at, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>&ndash;71</li>
+<li>St. Peter's River (see <a href="#minn_r">Minnesota River</a>)</li>
+<li>St. Vincent (Minnesota), <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+<li>Salt, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Sandy Lake, trading post on, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sanford, John F. A., Dred Scott bought by, <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+<li>Santa Fe Trail, dangers on, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Sauk River, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li>Sault Ste. Marie, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li>Saw mill, erection of, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_082">82</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Saxton, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Say, Thomas, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Scalp dance, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Scalps, taking of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li>Scenery, description of, around Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_080">80</a></li>
+<li>School, organization of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Schoolcraft, Henry R., statement by, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Schools, success of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Scientific expeditions, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+<li>Scotland, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  immigrants from, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Scott, Dred, fugitive slave case of, <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+<li>Scott, Martin, sketch of life of, <a href="#Page_059">59</a>&ndash;62</li>
+<li>Scott, Winfield, naming of Fort Snelling suggested by, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_055">55</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><em>Scott vs. Sanford</em>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+<li>Scrub brush, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Scurvy, ravages of, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li>Second United States Infantry, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></li>
+<li>Secretary of War, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+<li>Selkirk, Lord, colony of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li>Settlement, opening up country to, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><a id="Page_266" name="Page_266"></a><span class="pagenum">[266]</span></li>
+<li>Settlements, protection for, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+<li><a name="settlers" id="settlers">Settlers</a>, annoyance of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_043">43</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  desire of, for land cession, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Fort Snelling to, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>&ndash;201;</li>
+<li>  disputes between Indians and, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>  memorial of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>  efforts to exclude from reservation, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>&ndash;195;</li>
+<li>  ejection of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Seymour, Samuel, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li>Shakopee (Minnesota), <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Shakpay, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Shambaugh, Benj. F., introduction by, v;
+<ul>
+<li>  acknowledgments to, vii, ix</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Shapaydan, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Shaw, Mr., <a href="#Page_022">22</a></li>
+<li>Sherman, W. T., military career of, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></li>
+<li>Sheyenne River, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li>Shields, James, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li>Shining Mountains, <a href="#Page_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Shipler, Jacob, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li>Shoemakers, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Shoes, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Shot, stock of, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Sibley, General, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Sibley, Henry H., description by, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  house of, <a href="#Page_080">80</a>;</li>
+<li>  hunting by, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
+<li>  relations between officers of fort and, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sibley House, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+<li>Sick, taking of, to hospital, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Sickness, prevalence of, among troops, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  losses because of, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>;</li>
+<li>  help to Indians in case of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sinclair, Mr., <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+<li><a name="sioux" id="sioux">Sioux Indians</a>, early traders among, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  land at mouth of Minnesota ceded by, <a href="#Page_007">7</a>, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>;</li>
+<li>  visits of, to Drummond Island, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>;</li>
+<li>  goods sent to, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty between Chippewas and, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;</li>
+<li>  unfriendliness of, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>;</li>
+<li>  part of, in Black Hawk War, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>;</li>
+<li>  hostility between half-breeds and, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+<li>  concentration of, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>:</li>
+<li>  massacre by, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>;</li>
+<li>  visit of, to Washington, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>;</li>
+<li>  villages of, <a href="#Page_083">83</a>;</li>
+<li>  home of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+<li>  number of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li>  migrations of, to Canada, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li>  vaccination of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  hostility of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>  disillusionment of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+<li>  influence of Fort Snelling over, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>&ndash;118;</li>
+<li>  rumor of attack by, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+<li>  feuds between Chippewas and, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>&ndash;134;</li>
+<li>  killing of Chippewas by, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li>  surrender of murderers by, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+<li>  battle between Chippewas and, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>  boundary line between Chippewas and, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li>  imprisonment of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li>  untrustworthiness of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+<li>  temperance society among, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+<li>  farmer for, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+<li>  language of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li>  delegation of, to Washington, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty made by, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li>  payment of annuities to, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li>  amount of land ceded by, in 1805, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sioux of the Lakes, treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li>Sioux of St. Peter's River, treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li>Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, <a href="#Page_048">48</a></li>
+<li>Sioux language, school books in, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+<li>Sisseton Sioux Indians, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sixth United States Infantry, company of, in Iowa, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_057">57</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+<li>  frontier service of, <a href="#Page_049">49</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Skunk River, <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+<li>Smallpox, efforts to check, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Smith, C. F., expedition under, <a href="#Page_040">40</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  site for fort recommended by, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_050">50</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Smith, William R., <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li>Smuggling of whiskey, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Snelling, Josiah, building of fort by, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  letter by, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>;</li>
+<li>  activities of, during Winnebago outbreak, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>&ndash;34;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_055">55</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li>  sketch of life of, <a href="#Page_056">56</a>&ndash;59;</li>
+<li>  punishments inflicted by, <a href="#Page_090">90</a>;</li>
+<li>  description by, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>  evil effects of liquor described by, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Snelling, Mrs. Josiah, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><a id="Page_267" name="Page_267"></a><span class="pagenum">[267]</span></li>
+<li>Snelling, William J., <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+<li>Soap, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Social life, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>&ndash;102</li>
+<li>Soiree, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Soldiers, building of fort by, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  surroundings of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>&ndash;83;</li>
+<li>  life of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>&ndash;102;</li>
+<li>  occupation of, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>;</li>
+<li>  birthplace of, <a href="#Page_092">92</a>;</li>
+<li>  journeys into Indian country enjoyed by, <a href="#Page_093">93</a>&ndash;95;</li>
+<li>  employments of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a>, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>;</li>
+<li>  pleasures of, <a href="#Page_096">96</a>, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>;</li>
+<li>  carrying of mail by, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>;</li>
+<li>  social life among, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>&ndash;102;</li>
+<li>  quarrels among, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li>  dependence of missionaries on, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+<li>  revival among, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
+<li>  church services for, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+<li>  expedition escorted by, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li>  drunkenness among, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
+<li>  arrival of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li>  ejection of settlers by, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Soup, character of, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>, <a href="#Page_087">87</a></li>
+<li>South Dakota, Indians in, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>Southwest Company, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li>Spain, exploration of domain of, <a href="#Page_001">1</a></li>
+<li>Spanish, rule of, in West, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  Indian trade won from, by English, <a href="#Page_004">4</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Speculators, desire of, for land cession, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li>Speeches, making of, by Indians, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li>Split Upper Lip, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+<li>Spring, eagerness for coming of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  activities of Indians in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Squad-rooms, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Squatters, huts of, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>
+<ul>
+<li>  (see <a href="#settlers">Settlers</a>)</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Starch, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Stairway, <a href="#Page_073">73</a></li>
+<li>Stanton, Edwin M., <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Steamboating, beginning of, on upper Mississippi, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li>Steamboats, use of, to bring supplies, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  mail carried by, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li>  advertisements of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+<li>  attitude of Indians toward, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Steele, Franklin, Fort Snelling reservation sold to, <a href="#Page_051">51</a>, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  adjustment with, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>;</li>
+<li>  home of, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>;</li>
+<li>  account books of, <a href="#Page_087">87</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Steen, Mr., <a href="#Page_043">43</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Stevens, Isaac I., survey of route for railroad by, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Stevens, Jedediah I., coming of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  work of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>  preaching by, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Stillwater (Minnesota), <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li>Stockade, erection of, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Store, purchase of goods at, <a href="#Page_087">87</a>&ndash;89</li>
+<li>Storehouse, <a href="#Page_075">75</a></li>
+<li>Storer, William, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>Stoves, use of, for heating, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Stowe, Harriet Beecher, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Straits of Mackinac, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Street, Joseph M., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li>Strong Earth, complaint of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  career of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Strong Ground, career of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li>Sugar, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sugar bush, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>Summer, activities of Indians during, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>Sumner, Edwin V., expedition under, <a href="#Page_038">38</a></li>
+<li>Superintendent of Indian Affairs, <a href="#Page_067">67</a>, <a href="#Page_071">71</a></li>
+<li>Supplies, character of, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  bringing of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;</li>
+<li>  amount of, furnished to Indians, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Supreme Court of United States, <a href="#Page_066">66</a></li>
+<li>Surveyors, destruction of landmarks of, <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+<li>Suspenders, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Sutler, home of, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  purchase of goods from, <a href="#Page_087">87</a>&ndash;89;</li>
+<li>  service of Brown as, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Swan, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Swan River, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li>Switzerland, immigrants from, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Taliaferro, Lawrence, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_066">66</a>, <a href="#Page_072">72</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a>, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_084">84</a>, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>, <a href="#Page_091">91</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,
+<a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  threat against, <a href="#Page_033">33</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of, as Indian agent, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>&ndash;71;</li>
+<li>  letters and papers of, <a href="#Page_069">69</a>, <a href="#Page_070">70</a>;<a id="Page_268" name="Page_268"></a><span class="pagenum">[268]</span></li>
+<li>  speech by, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li>
+<li>  suffering of Indians relieved by, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+<li>  visit of Indians to, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+<li>  aid given to sick Indians by, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li>  murderers demanded by, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>  efforts of, to civilize Indians, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li>  difficulties of, with Sioux and Chippewas, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>&ndash;134;</li>
+<li>  traders' licenses granted by, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+<li>  disagreement between Bailly and, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>  liquor laws enforced by, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>&ndash;144;</li>
+<li>  efforts of, to induce Indians to farm, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>&ndash;150;</li>
+<li>  co&ouml;peration of, with missionaries, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>&ndash;158;</li>
+<li>  wedding ceremony performed by, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of, as mediator, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Tatling, results of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li>Tattoo, <a href="#Page_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Taylor, Zachary, service of, at Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_059">59</a></li>
+<li>Tea party, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li>Teamsters, employment of soldiers as, <a href="#Page_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Temperance societies, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+<li>Tennessee, settlement of, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_015">15</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Tenth United States Infantry, expedition of companies of, <a href="#Page_040">40</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Tepees, repairing of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li>Teton Sioux Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li>Theatrical performances, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Thespian Players, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Third Artillery, <a href="#Page_063">63</a></li>
+<li>Third United States Infantry, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Thomas, Sergeant, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+<li>Throckmorton, Captain, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Timber, destruction of, <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+<li>Timber lands, opening up of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+<li>Tintatonwan village, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Tippecanoe, Battle of, <a href="#Page_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Toopunkah Zeze, killing of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li>Tourist traffic, extent of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Tourists, increase in number of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>
+<ul>
+<li>  (see <a href="#travelers">Travelers</a>)</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a name="traders" id="traders">Traders</a>, activities of, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>, <a href="#Page_004">4</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  regulation of activities of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>&ndash;145;</li>
+<li>  granting of licenses to, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+<li>  law suit begun by, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+<li>  opposition of, to farming, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+<li>  religious work among, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li>  desire of, for treaty, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li>  presence of, at council, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+<li>  speeches of Indians concerning, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+<li>  payment of debts to, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+<li>  location of, at Mendota, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Trading companies, development of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  profit of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Trading house, <a href="#Page_078">78</a>, <a href="#Page_079">79</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+<li>Trading houses, establishment of, <a href="#Page_017">17</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  protection for, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>;</li>
+<li>  cluster of, <a href="#Page_080">80</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Trading posts, location of, <a href="#Page_006">6</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  permission for establishment of, <a href="#Page_007">7</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Training camp, use of Fort Snelling as, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>, <a href="#Page_053">53</a></li>
+<li><a name="travelers" id="travelers">Travelers</a>, visits of, to Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&ndash;175</li>
+<li>Traverse des Sioux, treaty of, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li>Treaties, making of, with Indians, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>, <a href="#Page_028">28</a>, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>&ndash;186,
+<a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  making of, between tribes, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Treaty of Ghent, terms of, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>, <a href="#Page_018">18</a></li>
+<li>Treaty of Paris (1783), <a href="#Page_016">16</a></li>
+<li>Trinkets, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li>Troops, proposed employment of, in mining, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  troubles of, during first winter, <a href="#Page_025">25</a>&ndash;27;</li>
+<li>  ravages of scurvy among, <a href="#Page_026">26</a>;</li>
+<li>  new camp for, <a href="#Page_027">27</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of, in protection of frontier, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>&ndash;53;</li>
+<li>  withdrawal of, from Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+<li>  (also see Soldiers)</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Truces, making of, between tribes, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li>Turkey River, removal of Winnebagoes from, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_047">47</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Turner, F. J., <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li>Tutor, service of Marsh as, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li><em>Uncle Tom's Cabin</em>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a></li>
+<li>United States, establishment of military posts by, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>;<a id="Page_269" name="Page_269"></a><span class="pagenum">[269]</span>
+<ul>
+<li>  agreement of, to make peace with Indians, <a href="#Page_012">12</a>;</li>
+<li>  northern boundary of, <a href="#Page_016">16</a>;</li>
+<li>  expansion of, <a href="#Page_045">45</a>, <a href="#Page_046">46</a>;</li>
+<li>  hostility of Indians to, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li>  relations of, with Indians, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>&ndash;178;</li>
+<li>  agreement of, with Chippewas, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li>  land ceded to, by Sioux in 1805, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Upper country, extent of, <a href="#Page_002">2</a></li>
+<li>Utah, <a href="#Page_064">64</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Vaccination of Indians, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Vail, J., <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Valentine Ball, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li><q>Valley Forge</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+<li>Van Antwerp, Ver Planck, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li>Van Cleve, Horatio P., <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li>Van Cleve, Mrs., <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li>Vancouver (Washington), <a href="#Page_047">47</a></li>
+<li>Vevay (Indiana), <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+<li>Vinegar, <a href="#Page_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Vineyard, Miles, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li>Virginia, <a href="#Page_070">70</a></li>
+<li><q>Virginia</q> (steamboat), trip of, up Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li>Volga River, <a href="#Page_041">41</a></li>
+<li>Voyageurs, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Wabasha (Chief), <a href="#Page_033">33</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  land sold by, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>;</li>
+<li>  meeting of couriers at village of, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>;</li>
+<li>  missionary at village of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+<li>  village of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+<li>  payment of annuities to Indians under, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Wabasha's Prairie, <a href="#Page_035">35</a></li>
+<li>Wahpakoota Sioux Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li>Wahpeton Sioux Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li>Wall around Fort Snelling, description of, <a href="#Page_073">73</a>, <a href="#Page_074">74</a>, <a href="#Page_076">76</a></li>
+<li>Wakh-pa-koo-tay, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li>Wakinyantanka, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Wamditanka, <a href="#Page_083">83</a></li>
+<li>Wapsipinicon River, <a href="#Page_042">42</a></li>
+<li>War Department, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>, <a href="#Page_039">39</a>, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  naming of Fort Snelling by, <a href="#Page_029">29</a>, <a href="#Page_030">30</a>;</li>
+<li>  attitude of, toward Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_031">31</a>;</li>
+<li>  Indian affairs placed under control of, <a href="#Page_067">67</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>War of 1812, English supported by Indians during, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>&ndash;12;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_018">18</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Snelling during, <a href="#Page_057">57</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Taliaferro in, <a href="#Page_070">70</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>War parties, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li><a name="sioux_1" id="sioux_1"></a>Warfare, history of, between <ins class="corr" title="Spelled &apos;Siuox&apos; in original.">Sioux</ins> and Chippewas, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>&ndash;134</li>
+<li><q>Warrior</q> (steamboat), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+<li>Warriors, desire of, to take part in council, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li>Washington, George, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+<li>Washington (Connecticut), <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li>Washington, D. C., <a href="#Page_046">46</a>, <a href="#Page_058">58</a>, <a href="#Page_062">62</a>, <a href="#Page_064">64</a>, <a href="#Page_098">98</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  visit of Indians to, <a href="#Page_068">68</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty with Sioux at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Washington Monument Association, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li>Washington Territory, <a href="#Page_046">46</a></li>
+<li>Washington's birthday, celebration of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Water power, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li>Weapons, stock of, <a href="#Page_076">76</a>, <a href="#Page_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Webb, James, journey of, to Fort Armstrong, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Webster, Daniel, statement by, <a href="#Page_059">59</a></li>
+<li>Weddings, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>West, prediction of Carver concerning, <a href="#Page_001">1</a>, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  foreign jurisdictions in, <a href="#Page_002">2</a>, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;</li>
+<li>  English supported by Indians in, <a href="#Page_008">8</a>&ndash;12;</li>
+<li>  rapid development of, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>;</li>
+<li>  cause of trouble in, <a href="#Page_015">15</a>;</li>
+<li>  influence of Fort Snelling in, <a href="#Page_052">52</a>;</li>
+<li>  service of Canby in, <a href="#Page_065">65</a>;</li>
+<li>  work of missionaries in, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>West Point Military Academy, <a href="#Page_062">62</a>, <a href="#Page_063">63</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li>Westward movement, <a href="#Page_014">14</a>, <a href="#Page_015">15</a></li>
+<li>Wheat, spoiling of, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>; raising of, <a href="#Page_095">95</a></li>
+<li>Wheeling (West Virginia), <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+<li>Wheelwrights, <a href="#Page_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Whiskey, <a href="#Page_086">86</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  drinking of, by soldiers, <a href="#Page_089">89</a>;</li>
+<li>  efforts to suppress traffic in, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>&ndash;145;</li>
+<li>  smuggling of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+<li>  destruction of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+<li>  traffic in, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Whistler, Captain, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+<li>White Head, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Whitney, Asa, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+<li><a id="Page_270" name="Page_270"></a><span class="pagenum">[270]</span></li>
+<li>Whooping cough, epidemic of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>Widows, fund for relief of, <a href="#Page_087">87</a></li>
+<li>Wilcox, Captain, <a href="#Page_032">32</a></li>
+<li>Williams, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Williamson, Thomas S., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  work of, among Indians, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>&ndash;157</li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Williamson, Mrs. Thomas S., <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Wines, seizure of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  giving of, to Indians, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Winnebago Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, <a href="#Page_013">13</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  attempt of, to delay troops, <a href="#Page_021">21</a>, <a href="#Page_022">22</a>;</li>
+<li>  outbreak of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>&ndash;34;</li>
+<li>  removal of, to new reservation, <a href="#Page_035">35</a>&ndash;37, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>, <a href="#Page_042">42</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_047">47</a>;</li>
+<li>  new reservation for, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>;</li>
+<li>  disturbances among, <a href="#Page_048">48</a>, <a href="#Page_049">49</a>;</li>
+<li>  language of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Winnebago War, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+<li>Winnipeg, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li>Winona (Minnesota), <a href="#Page_035">35</a></li>
+<li>Winter, difficulty in securing mail during, <a href="#Page_097">97</a>&ndash;99;
+<ul>
+<li>  life at Fort Snelling during, <a href="#Page_099">99</a>&ndash;102;</li>
+<li>  life among Indians during, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Wisconsin, Nicollet in, <a href="#Page_003">3</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  Indian outbreak in, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>&ndash;34;</li>
+<li>  desire of Winnebagoes to return to, <a href="#Page_036">36</a>;</li>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+<li>  desire for land cession in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li>  bishop of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Wisconsin, Territory of, <a href="#Page_032">32</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  marshal of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Wisconsin Historical Society, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li>Wisconsin River, <a href="#Page_019">19</a>, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>, <a href="#Page_034">34</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  canal between Fox River and, <a href="#Page_020">20</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Women, social life of, at fort, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>&ndash;102</li>
+<li>Wood, Doctor, aid given to sick Indians by, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Wood, securing of, for fuel, <a href="#Page_099">99</a></li>
+<li>Woods, Samuel, expedition under, <a href="#Page_038">38</a>, <a href="#Page_041">41</a>&ndash;45;
+<ul>
+<li>  reference to, <a href="#Page_040">40</a>;</li>
+<li>  fort established by, <a href="#Page_044">44</a>, <a href="#Page_045">45</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Wool, John E., <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li>Wyandot Indians, treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Yankton Sioux Indians, half-breed killed by, <a href="#Page_037">37</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  treaty with, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Yeast powder, purchase of, <a href="#Page_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Yellowstone Expedition, <a href="#Page_020">20</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>  failure of, <a href="#Page_021">21</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Yellowstone River, fort at mouth of, <a href="#Page_019">19</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<p><a id="Page_271" name="Page_271"></a><span class="pagenum">[271]</span></p>
+
+</div>
+<div class="section">
+<div class="tnotes">
+<h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+
+<p>Note: There are a number of inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation
+which are left as in the original, as they were copied directly from
+various sources, such as personal journals.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_012">Page 12</a>, para, 3: Treaty of Ghent, 1914, changed to 1814.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_013">Page 13</a>: 'Menominees' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_098">Page 98</a>: 'inteligence' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_101">Page 101</a>: 'Dear' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_113">Page 113</a>: 'afraid to die. the' as in original. Note: This writer/source
+doesn't capitalize normally.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_128">Page 128</a>: Chippeways spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_129">Page 129</a>: 'liveing' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_134">Page 134</a>: 'Chippeways' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_143">Page 143</a>: 'Societties' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_156">Page 156</a>: 'revival among the the soldiers, and' (Removed extra the).</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_170">Page 170</a>: 'a-head' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_172">Page 172</a>: The latter apparently refers to winter, even though the phrase
+is 'winter and summer'.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_177">Page 177</a>: 'Menomonies' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_191">Page 191</a>: Falstrom also spelled Faustram on same page.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#footnote-8">Footnote 8</a>: 'tradeing' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#footnote-8">Footnote 8</a>: 'visit us. he' as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#footnote-8">Footnote 8</a>: 'Mandens' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#footnote-27">Footnote 27</a>: 'massacreing' spelled as in original.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#footnote-183">Footnote 183</a>: Part of year missing from original. Changed from '18&nbsp;&nbsp;' to
+'18__'.</p>
+
+<p>Index: <a href="#sioux_1">Warfare</a>, history of: <q>Siuox</q> changed to <q>Sioux</q>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Old Fort Snelling
+       1819-1858
+
+Author: Marcus L. Hansen
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2007 [EBook #22719]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLD FORT SNELLING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by K Nordquist, Sigal Alon, Leonard Johnson and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Book Cover]
+
+
+
+OLD FORT SNELLING
+
+From a painting by Captain Seth Eastman, reproduced in Mrs. Eastman's
+_Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_
+
+[Illustration: OLD FORT SNELLING]
+
+
+
+OLD FORT SNELLING
+
+1819-1858
+
+
+BY
+MARCUS L. HANSEN
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's Logo.]
+
+PUBLISHED AT IOWA CITY IOWA IN 1918 BY
+THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA
+
+
+
+THE TORCH PRESS
+CEDAR RAPIDS
+IOWA
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The establishment in 1917 of a camp at Fort Snelling for the training of
+officers for the army has aroused curiosity in the history of Old Fort
+Snelling. Again as in the days of the pioneer settlement of the
+Northwest the Fort at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi
+rivers has become an object of more than ordinary interest.
+
+Old Fort Snelling was established in 1819 within the Missouri Territory
+on ground which later became a part of the Territory of Iowa. Not until
+1849 was it included within Minnesota boundaries. Linked with the early
+annals of Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the
+Northwest, the history of Old Fort Snelling is the common heritage of
+many commonwealths in the Upper Mississippi Valley.
+
+The period covered in this volume begins with the establishment of the
+Fort in 1819 and ends with the temporary abandonment of the site as a
+military post in 1858.
+
+BENJ. F. SHAMBAUGH
+
+OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT AND EDITOR
+THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA
+IOWA CITY IOWA
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+The position which the military post holds in western history is
+sometimes misunderstood. So often has a consideration of it been left to
+the novelist's pen that romantic glamour has obscured the permanent
+contribution made by many a lonely post to the development of the
+surrounding region. The western fort was more than a block-house or a
+picket. Being the home of a handful of soldiers did not give it its real
+importance: it was an institution and should be studied as such. Old
+Fort Snelling is a type of the many remote military stations which were
+scattered throughout the West upon the upper waters of the rivers or at
+intermediate places on the interminable stretches of the westward
+trails.
+
+This study of the history and influence of Old Fort Snelling was first
+undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Louis Pelzer of the State University
+of Iowa, and was carried on under his supervision. The results of the
+investigation were accepted as a thesis in the Graduate College of the
+State University of Iowa in June, 1917. Upon the suggestion of Dr. Benj.
+F. Shambaugh, Superintendent of The State Historical Society of Iowa,
+the plan of the work was changed, its scope enlarged, many new sources
+of information were consulted, and the entire manuscript
+rewritten.
+
+Connected with so many of the aspects of western history, Old Fort
+Snelling is pictured in accounts both numerous and varied. The reports
+of government officials, the relations of travellers and explorers, and
+the reminiscences of fur traders, pioneer settlers, and missionaries
+show the Fort as each author, looking at it from the angle of his
+particular interest, saw it. These published accounts are found in the
+_Annual Reports_ of the Secretary of War, in the _Annual Reports_ of the
+Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and in the works of travellers and
+pioneers. Many of the most important sources are the briefer accounts
+printed in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_. The author's
+dependence upon these sources of information is evident upon every page
+of this volume.
+
+But not alone from these sources, which are readily accessible, is this
+account of the Old Fort drawn. A half-burned diary, the account books of
+the post sutler, letter books filled with correspondence dealing with
+matters which are often trivial, and statistical returns of men and
+equipment are sources which from their nature may never be printed. But
+in them reposes much of the material upon which this book is based. The
+examination of all the documents which offered any prospect of throwing
+light upon the subject was made possible for the author as Research
+Assistant in The State Historical Society of Iowa. And in this
+connection I wish to express my appreciation for the many courtesies
+which I have received from those in whose custody these sources are
+kept. To Dr. Solon J. Buck, Superintendent of the Minnesota Historical
+Society and the members of the library staff of that Society I am
+indebted for many kindnesses. Dr. M. M. Quaife, Superintendent of the
+State Historical Society of Wisconsin, placed at my disposal thousands
+of sheets of transcripts made from the records of the Indian Department
+at Washington and kept in the library of the Historical Society at
+Madison. At the Historical Department of Iowa at Des Moines, and in the
+library of the Kansas State Historical Society at Topeka opportunity was
+granted to examine valuable manuscripts. General H. P. McCain,
+Adjutant-General of the United States, had a search made of the records
+on file in the archives of the War Department at Washington, and such
+papers as dealt with Fort Snelling were consulted by the author.
+
+My fellow workers on the staff of The State Historical Society of Iowa
+have often aided me with suggestions and criticisms. To the
+Superintendent of the Society, Dr. Benj. F. Shambaugh, I wish to express
+my appreciation not only for the advice, encouragement, and inspiration
+which he freely gave, but also for the willingness with which he made
+possible the investigation of every clue to sources of information by
+correspondence or by personal visit.  Moreover, the manuscript has
+been carefully edited by him. The task of seeing the work through the
+press has been performed by Associate Editor Dr. Dan E. Clark, who also
+carefully read the manuscript and compiled the index. Miss Helen Otto
+assisted in the verification of the manuscript.
+
+MARCUS L. HANSEN
+
+THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA
+IOWA CITY IOWA
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS
+
+
+           Editor's Introduction                         v
+
+           Author's Preface                            vii
+
+      I.   A Century and a Half of Foreign Rule          1
+
+     II.   The Evolution of Fort Snelling               18
+
+    III.   Forty Years of Frontier Duty                 31
+
+     IV.   Lords of the North                           54
+
+      V.   A Soldier's World                            73
+
+     VI.   Glimpses of Garrison Life                    84
+
+    VII.   The Fort and Indian Life                    103
+
+   VIII.   The Sioux-Chippewa Feuds                    119
+
+     IX.   The Fur Trade                               135
+
+      X.   Soldiers of the Cross                       146
+
+     XI.   The Fashionable Tour                        159
+
+    XII.   The Chippewa Treaty of 1837                 176
+
+   XIII.   Citizens and Soldiers                       187
+
+           Notes and References                        205
+
+           Index                                       251
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+A CENTURY AND A HALF OF FOREIGN RULE
+
+
+On an autumn day in 1766 Captain Jonathan Carver stood upon the bluff
+which rises at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers and
+viewed the wonderful landscape of prairie and wooded valleys that lay
+before him. As a captain in the colonial troops of Connecticut he had
+served his king faithfully in the late war with France; and now in the
+days of peace which followed the glorious victory he sought to continue
+his usefulness by exploring the vast regions which had been added to the
+domains of Great Britain and Spain. Three years of travel in the
+wilderness taught him that those wild lands would not always be the
+haunt of savage animals and wandering tribes.
+
+"To what power or authority this new world will become dependent, after
+it has arisen from its present uncultivated state, time alone can
+discover", he later wrote. "But as the seat of Empire, from time
+immemorial has been gradually progressive towards the West, there is no
+doubt but that at some future period, mighty kingdoms will emerge from
+these wildernesses, and stately palaces and solemn temples, with gilded
+spires reaching the skies, supplant the Indian huts, whose only
+decorations are the barbarous trophies of their vanquished enemies."[1]
+
+Not until the twenty-fourth day of August, 1819, when less than a
+hundred soldiers of the Fifth United States Infantry disembarked
+opposite the towering height where a few years later rose the white
+walls of Fort Snelling, did the nation which was to rule assert its
+power. The event was, indeed, epochal. It not only marked a change in
+the sovereignty over the vast region, but it also made possible the
+development of those factors which were to bring about the great
+transformation.
+
+It was for the "upper country" that this fort was built--a country
+stretching from the Great Lakes across the wooded headwaters of the
+Mississippi and Minnesota rivers to the plains of the Missouri. The
+history of this region is marked by several distinct periods: the coming
+of the French traders, the supremacy of the English companies, the
+establishment of military posts of the United States, and the building
+of American communities.
+
+Although at the opening of the second decade of the nineteenth century
+the American troops quartered on the west banks of the Mississippi River
+were on soil that, in name, had been American for sixteen years, and
+although they looked over the river to land that had since 1783 belonged
+to their country, yet they had in fact taken possession of a foreign
+land. English, French, and Spanish flags had at various times waved over
+certain parts of it.  Foreign influence, during a century and a
+half, had become widespread and deeply rooted.
+
+When in 1634 Jean Nicollet visited the Wisconsin country the French
+advance into the upper Northwest had begun.[2] From 1658 to 1660
+Radisson and Groseilliers wandered among the tribes and brought the
+first canoe loads of furs to Canada from the far West. Then along with
+the missionaries, Hennepin and Marquette, came the _coureurs des bois_,
+Nicholas Perrot and Daniel Greyloson Duluth. It is unnecessary to recite
+in detail the exploits of these Frenchmen and their successors.[3] For a
+century the songs of unknown boatmen rose from the waters of the western
+rivers; unknown traders smoked in the lodges of Sioux and Chippewas; and
+hardy wanderers whose feats of discovery are unrecorded, leaving behind
+the Missouri River, saw from afar the wonders of the "Shining
+Mountains".[4] But if no record of them remains, their influence was
+lasting. Living with the natives, supplying their needs by barter, and
+marrying the Indian girls, the French gained a remarkable power over the
+northwestern tribes, which caused them to consider whoever came from
+Canada their friend, even after the English government had supplanted
+the French in power.
+
+West of the lakes the transition from the French to the English rule
+created no disturbances, such as Pontiac's conspiracy which so
+completely disrupted the trade in the East.[5] Continuing the French
+policy and also their posts and voyageurs, the Scottish merchants
+of Montreal, organized in 1784 as the North West Company, pushed
+westward from Green Bay and southward from Lake Winnipeg. This advance
+was continued until the opening years of the next century. Although on
+nominally Spanish territory, the tribes on the upper Missouri were won
+from the Spanish traders at St. Louis by such severe cutting in prices
+that the latter could not compete. The posts of the North West Company
+on the Red River of the North became the resort for many of the western
+tribes.[6]
+
+The diverting of the trade of these natives, who would naturally have
+come down the Missouri where American traders could meet them and be
+benefited, was noticed by President Jefferson, who, on January 18, 1803,
+wrote to Congress: "It is, however, understood, that the country on that
+river is inhabited by numerous tribes, who furnish great supplies of
+furs and peltry to the trade of another nation, carried on in a high
+latitude, through an infinite number of portages and lakes, shut up by
+ice through a long season." In this same message was included a
+recommendation that a small expedition be sent up to confer with the
+tribes with respect to the admission of American traders.[7]
+
+But the purchase of Louisiana altered matters. It was not only a matter
+of trade, but one of sovereignty. A double movement was initiated: one
+to ascend the Mississippi under Zebulon M. Pike, and the other the
+Missouri under Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark.
+The reports of these two expeditions indicate how firm a grip the
+English traders had upon the Indians of the upper Northwest.
+
+The expedition of Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri and passed over
+the mountains to the Columbia River which was followed to the coast. The
+first winter, from late in October, 1804, to early in April, 1805, was
+spent in a fort which was constructed in the village of the Mandans,
+near the location of the present city of Mandan in North Dakota. Here
+was abundant opportunity to investigate the fur trade. Nor had they long
+to wait. On the 27th of November, seven British traders arrived from the
+North West Company's post on the Assiniboine River to barter with the
+river tribes. The next day, in council with the Mandan chiefs, the
+Americans warned the Indians not to receive medals or flags from the
+foreigners if they wished to be friends with the "Great American
+Father". A day later this warning was communicated to the traders
+themselves who promised to refrain from any such acts.[8] How well they
+kept their promises later events showed. The Lewis and Clark expedition
+was only a passing pageant; for by the time of the War of 1812, the only
+American traders who ventured to do business on the upper waters were
+practically driven off by the foreign companies.[9]
+
+The report of Zebulon M. Pike indicates that conditions were much worse
+on the upper Mississippi. Leaving St. Louis on August 9, 1805, he
+returned to that place on April 30, 1806. About two months were
+spent at a fort erected near the site of Little Falls, where he left a
+few men and pushed on with the rest of the company to Leech Lake.
+Conversation with the fur traders and councils with the Indians revealed
+the extent of the commerce of the North West Company. He heard of
+permanent trading posts on the south side of Lake Superior and at the
+headwaters of the St. Croix River; and he saw at Lower Red Cedar Lake,
+Sandy Lake, and Leech Lake the rude stockades and log buildings which
+were called forts.[10] These three posts were included in the
+"Department of Fond du Lac" and were the centers from which in the year
+1805, trade with the Indians was carried on by one hundred and nine
+men.[11] By means of the rivers and portages of the wilderness the furs
+were brought to Canada without passing a custom house, and thus the
+United States was defrauded of duties which, it was estimated, would
+amount to $26,000 annually.[12]
+
+Pike objected to many of the evident signs of British sovereignty: the
+British flag flying above the headquarters of the department of Fond du
+Lac was shot down;[13] many of the Indians were induced to give up their
+British medals and flags;[14] and Hugh M'Gillis, agent of the company
+for the district, in response to Pike's letter of complaint, promised in
+the future to refrain from displaying the British flag, presenting
+medals, or talking politics to the Indians.[15] But his promises were no
+more seriously given than those of his brethren on the Missouri.
+
+Little of permanent value would have been accomplished if the
+acts of the explorer on September 23, 1805, had been omitted. The
+instructions issued to Pike on July 30, 1805, stated: "You will be
+pleased to obtain permission from the Indians who claim the ground, for
+the erection of military posts and trading-houses at the mouth of the
+river St. Pierre [the Minnesota River], the falls of St. Anthony, and
+every other critical point which may fall under your observation; these
+permissions to be granted in formal conferences, regularly recorded, and
+the ground marked off."[16]
+
+When Pike reached the mouth of the Minnesota River, the natural features
+of the locality convinced him of the advantages which would arise from a
+fort located at that point. From the high bluff lying between the
+Minnesota and the Mississippi rivers the course of both streams would be
+under the sweep of the guns. Sheer walls of stone rising from the
+Mississippi could prevent invasion; and the fur trading business could
+be regulated, as all boats entering or leaving the Indian country must
+use one or the other of the two rivers.
+
+A "bower" was constructed of sails, and on September 23rd Pike spoke to
+the Sioux Indians there assembled concerning the transfer of Louisiana,
+the futility of their wars with the Chippewas, and the evils of rum. He
+asked them to cede to the United States lands for military posts, and
+dwelt on the value of these posts to the Indians. To this the chiefs
+assented, receiving in return presents valued at $200 and sixty gallons
+of liquor. The terms of the treaty provided that the Sioux should
+cede to the United States tracts "for the purpose of establishment of
+military posts," at the mouth of the Minnesota and at the mouth of the
+St. Croix. A money consideration was also mentioned, but a blank was
+left which was later filled in by the Senate with $2000.[17]
+
+The government, busy with distressing foreign affairs, neglected to make
+a permanent occupation of the explored region. A struggle between the
+American and British governments was arising over events far remote from
+the northern lakes and woods. But the Canadian authorities saw the
+necessity of having Indian allies for the approaching struggle. As early
+as 1807 reports from the West indicated hostile feelings on the part of
+the Indians toward the Americans, and an official at Mackinac wrote on
+August 30, 1807, that this condition "is principally to be attributed to
+the influence of foreigners trading in the country."[18] Captain A.
+Gray, who was sent to inquire into the aid which the Hudson's Bay
+Company and the North West Company could furnish, reported to Sir George
+Prevost, commander of the British forces in Canada, on January 12, 1812:
+"By means of these Companies, we might let loose the Indians upon them
+throughout the whole extent of their Western frontier, as they have a
+most commanding influence over them." In a memorandum of plans for the
+defence of Canada, General Brock noted that "the Co-operation of the
+Indians will be attended with great expence in presents
+provisions &c."[19]
+
+To this alliance the Indians gave willing ears. Their interests lay with
+the British rather than with the Americans. The economic stability of
+Canada rested upon the fur trade, which in turn could survive only if
+the free life of the hunt and the chase, which the Indians loved so
+well, was left them. But with the Americans were associated the making
+of treaties and the ceding of land. The Indians preferred to see upon
+their rivers the canoe of the trader rather than the flatboat of the
+pioneer.[20]
+
+The coming of hostilities was received joyfully by all the inhabitants
+of the Northwest. To the Indian it meant an opportunity to avenge past
+wrongs; the Canadian hoped to make secure his present condition; and the
+American settler saw a chance to drive out both enemies--Indians and
+foreign traders alike. The news of the declaration of war reached the
+great rendezvous of the North West Company at Fort William on the
+northern shore of Lake Superior on the sixteenth of July, 1812, and the
+next day one of the traders left for the interior to rouse the natives.
+The agent of the company at this post wrote enthusiastically: "I have
+not the least doubt but our force, will in ten days hence, amount to at
+least five thousand effective men."[21]
+
+But already a sufficient number of Indians had come to the aid of the
+English to render service. On the very next day the English flag
+replaced the American above the fort at Mackinac. No sooner had
+the news of the beginning of hostilities become known at the neighboring
+British post at St. Joseph's than immediate preparations were made. The
+Indians were marshalled for the attack, and a vessel belonging to the
+North West Company was requisitioned. The morning of July 17th revealed
+the American fort surrounded by Indians and commanded by a cannon which
+had been dragged upon a height of land. Seeing the futility of
+resistance the garrison surrendered and marched out before noon. Of the
+total attacking force of 1021 there were Indians to the number of 715,
+of whom the British leader wrote, "although these people's minds were
+much heated, yet as soon as they heard the Capitulation was signed they
+all returned to their Canoes, and not one drop either of Man's or
+Animal's Blood was Spilt, till I gave an Order for a certain number of
+Bullocks to be purchased for them".[22] The ease with which the capture
+was made had the effect of bringing to the English standards all the
+Indians of the Northwest, except a part of the Miamis and Delawares, in
+spite of the fact that they had earlier made promises of neutrality.[23]
+
+Although the capture of the fort at Mackinac was accomplished without
+any Indian atrocities, the success of that day was to precipitate a
+massacre, long to rankle in the minds of the pioneers of the West.
+Immediately upon hearing of the capture of the fort, General Hull wrote
+to Captain Heald in command at Fort Dearborn ordering the evacuation of
+that post.  On the morning of August 15th, as the small garrison
+of fifty-five regulars and twelve militia were leaving the fort with
+their women and children, they were fallen upon by a force of five
+hundred Indians. Twenty-six regulars, all the militiamen, two women, and
+twelve children were murdered on the spot. An unknown number of wounded
+prisoners were that evening victims at what the Indians termed a
+"general frolic".[24]
+
+In the meantime Robert Dickson, who for many years had been a Prairie du
+Chien fur trader, was continuing his activities as recruiter of Indians
+for British service. This was the same Dickson who had in 1802 received
+an American commission as a justice of the peace,[25] and had later
+entertained Pike and his men "with a supper and a dram", impressing the
+American explorer as a man of "open, frank manners."[26] Now, in
+January, 1813, he was appointed by Great Britain "agent for the Indians
+of the several Nations to the Westward of Lake Huron".[27]
+
+By June 23, 1813, he had already sent eight hundred Indians to Detroit
+and had collected six hundred at Mackinac.[28] The summer of 1813 was
+spent in operations about Detroit, but in the winter he was again active
+in the West.[29] Great alarm was felt at St. Louis when rumors came
+telling of the great force he was collecting.[30] Accordingly, late in
+the spring of 1814, Governor William Clark of Missouri Territory
+proceeded up the Mississippi and at Prairie du Chien built a stockade
+named Fort Shelby.  It was garrisoned by about sixty men.[31] News
+of this movement soon came to Mackinac, and prompted the British
+commandant to prepare a counter-expedition. On the seventeenth of July
+the force composed of five hundred and fifty men, of whom four hundred
+were Indians, arrived outside the post. Immediately a summons to
+surrender was sent. The American commander at first refused, but two
+days later agreed to capitulate providing the Indians would be kept in
+check. The surrender took place on July 20th, and the captor christened
+the stockade Fort McKay in honor of himself.[32]
+
+Thus, the Indians about the Mississippi had been present at the
+surrender of two posts and had participated in a massacre. British arms
+had been successful, and the close of the war found British prestige
+very high.
+
+The Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, closed the war; and Article IX
+of that treaty provided that the United States should make peace with
+the Indian tribes and restore to them the "possessions, rights and
+privileges" which they had enjoyed before hostilities.[33] President
+Madison accordingly appointed William Clark, Ninian Edwards, and Auguste
+Chouteau as commissioners to enter into treaties of peace with the
+warring tribes of the upper Mississippi and the upper Missouri. Only
+with extreme difficulty was word of the negotiations sent to the tribes.
+The hostility of the Indians living about the mouth of the Rock River
+made it necessary that the messenger proceed to Prairie du Chien
+by way of the Missouri River, and then across country.[34]
+
+Although treaties were concluded with those who did come to the council,
+none were eager to negotiate. The Chippewas, Menominees, and Winnebagoes
+even refused to send delegations; and the Sacs of Rock River not only
+refused to attend, but also showed their contempt by continually
+harassing the frontier settlements during the time of the
+negotiations.[35] This opposition, the commissioners reported, was due
+to the presence of an unusual number of British traders among the
+Indians. The report closed with the opinion that "the exertion of the
+military power of the Government will be necessary to secure the peace
+and safety of this country."[36]
+
+For some years it had been customary for the British authorities to send
+presents to the Indians on the Mississippi, and Robert Dickson had
+promised the natives that the practice would be continued. But with the
+coming of peace this custom was not allowed by the Americans.
+Accordingly, in June, 1815, word was sent to the river tribes, that all
+who came to the British headquarters at Drummond Island in Lake Huron,
+would be supplied. By June 19th of the next year four hundred Indians
+had arrived at the post--mainly Sioux. To sympathetic ears they reported
+that they feared that the Americans were planning their extinction, and
+a confederation was being formed to resist the building of American
+forts on the Indian lands. As late as 1825, of the four thousand
+Indians in the habit of visiting Drummond Island, three thousand came
+from the region west and southwest of Lake Huron--that is from American
+territory.[37] These motley processions which trailed through the
+American woods, stopping to beg at the American posts, were not slow in
+being reported. It did not take a vivid imagination to see that the
+renewal of border warfare was inevitable.[38]
+
+This danger was increased by the rapid development of the West following
+the war. Just as over the mountain trails and down the rivers, Kentucky
+and Tennessee had been settled before the war, now the States of the Old
+Northwest received their pioneers. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who made his
+first trip down the Ohio at this time (1818), remarked: "I mingled in
+this crowd, and, while listening to the anticipations indulged in, it
+seemed to me that the war had not, in reality, been fought for 'free
+trade and sailors' rights' where it had commenced, but to gain a
+knowledge of the world beyond the Alleghanies.... To judge by the tone
+of general conversation, they meant, in their generation, to plow the
+Mississippi Valley from its head to its foot."[39]
+
+The flatboats on the rivers, the crowded ferries, and the caravans
+crossing the prairies were familiar scenes. In _The Legend of Sleepy
+Hollow_, which appeared in 1819, Washington Irving puts this fondest
+dream into the mind of his hero, Ichabod: "Nay, his busy fancy already
+realized his hopes, and presented to him the blooming Katrina with a
+whole family of children, mounted on the top of a wagon loaded
+with household trumpery, with pots and kettles dangling beneath; and he
+beheld himself bestriding a pacing mare, with a colt at her heels,
+setting out for Kentucky, Tennessee, or the Lord knows where." When he
+wrote this the author was not using his imagination: it was a picture he
+saw daily.[40]
+
+The extent of this westward movement is indicated by the provisions made
+for the political organization of these growing settlements. Indiana
+achieved statehood in 1816 and Illinois in 1818. Across the river in
+Missouri the population had grown from 20,000 in 1810 to 66,000 in
+1820,[41] and the weighty questions concerning her admission were being
+discussed in Washington.
+
+With an expanding frontier brought into contact with hostile Indians,
+trouble was bound to result. Various plans were proposed to deal with
+the problem. It was reported that General Jackson would take charge of
+active military operations against the Indians of the upper
+Mississippi.[42] One agent suggested that "three or four months' full
+feeding on meat and bread, even without ardent spirit, will bring on
+disease, and, in six or eight months, great mortality.... I believe more
+Indians might be killed with the expense of $100,000 in this way, than
+$1,000,000 expended in the support of armies to go against them."[43]
+
+Fortunately, wiser counsels than either of these prevailed to control
+the Indians: the control of the fur trade was necessary. It was felt,
+and rightly, that much of the trouble in the West was due to the
+power of the British traders. Accordingly, by an act of Congress of
+April 29, 1816, it was provided that "licenses to trade with the Indians
+within the territorial limits of the United States shall not be granted
+to any but citizens of the United States, unless by the express
+direction of the President of the United States, and upon such terms and
+conditions as the public interest may, in his opinion, require." To
+carry this act into effect the president was authorized to call upon the
+military force.[44]
+
+This legislation was most opportune, since by the commercial convention
+of October 20, 1818, the northern boundary was definitely agreed upon as
+the forty-ninth parallel westward from the Lake of the Woods to the
+Rocky Mountains.[45] Ever since the negotiators of the Treaty of Paris
+of 1783 had inserted a geographical impossibility by declaring that the
+boundary should extend due west from the Lake of the Woods to the
+Mississippi, there had existed a vagueness as to where the actual line
+should be drawn.[46] In 1806 the British traders thought it would be run
+from the lake to the source of the river;[47] and as late as 1818
+Benjamin O'Fallon wrote from Prairie du Chien that Robert Dickson "is
+directed to build a fort on the highest land between Lac du Travers and
+Red river, which he supposes will be the established line between the
+two countries."[48] But with the boundary now defined, the area where
+the trade laws were to be enforced was evident.
+
+The method of Indian trade by foreigners was to be supplanted by
+an extension of the United States trading house system. This was a group
+of trading houses, conducted by the government, where the Indians could
+exchange their furs for goods at cost price and thus avoid both the
+deceit and whiskey of the private merchant, although they were often
+willing to submit to the one for the sake of the other.[49] As early as
+1805 Pike had promised the Indians, in council assembled, that the
+government intended to build a trading house at the mouth of the
+Minnesota River.[50] The commissioners at Portage des Sioux, in 1815,
+had been instructed to inform the tribes that "it is intended to
+establish strong posts very high up the Mississippi, and from the
+Mississippi to Lake Michigan, and to open trading-houses at those posts,
+or other suitable places for their accommodation."[51] In 1818 T. L.
+McKenny, Superintendent of Indian Trade, recommended the building of
+seven additional trading houses, one of which was to be located on the
+"River St. Peters, at or about its junction with the Mississippi."[52]
+
+Thus, through the Indian department steps were being taken to inaugurate
+a new regime in the upper Northwest. But Indian agents and trading
+houses needed the protection and administrative arm of the military
+department in order to be effective. The forward movement of the
+military frontier during the years succeeding the war is significant as
+marking a trend towards the Americanization of a great region.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF FORT SNELLING
+
+
+When the War of 1812 broke out in the Northwest, the Americans had only
+two advanced posts--Mackinac and Fort Dearborn. Of these, one was
+captured during the hostilities, and the other was evacuated. An attempt
+was made to build a post at Prairie du Chien, but it quickly passed into
+English hands and remained in their possession until the news of peace
+had reached that frontier station. But after the Treaty of Ghent was
+signed the line of the military frontier was quickly advanced in order
+to safeguard the Indian agents, the trading houses, and the advancing
+settlements.
+
+Fort Dearborn was re-occupied on July 4, 1815. Mackinac was transferred
+to American hands on July 18, 1815. In the fall of the same year Colonel
+R. C. Nichols of the Eighth United States Infantry attempted to ascend
+the Mississippi to Rock Island, but was compelled to pass the winter in
+the vicinity of the mouth of the Des Moines River. On May 10, 1816,
+however, he reached Rock Island, where the construction of Fort
+Armstrong was undertaken. June 21st of the same year saw the
+re-occupation of the site of Fort McKay at Prairie du Chien; and Fort
+Crawford soon protected this important point at the junction of
+the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers. One other point, vital in all
+western transportation was at the head of Green Bay at the mouth of the
+Fox River. Colonel John Miller of the Third Infantry arrived at this
+place on August 7, 1816, and soon began the erection of Fort Howard.[53]
+
+But the government was not content with these movements. In a report
+dated December 22, 1817, the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, wrote to
+the House of Representatives that "a board of the most skilful officers
+in our service has been constituted to examine the whole line of our
+frontier, and to determine on the position and extent of works that may
+be necessary to the defence of the country."[54] Plans had already been
+made. During the summer of 1817 Major Stephen H. Long, a topographical
+engineer in the United States Army, had made a journey to the Falls of
+St. Anthony in a six-oared skiff and had approved the position at the
+mouth of the Minnesota River as a location for a fort.[55] Other plans
+were soon announced. In the spring of 1818 _The Washington City Gazette_
+stated that a fort would be built on the Missouri River at the mouth of
+the Yellowstone River;[56] and a second report of the Secretary of War
+on December 11, 1818, indicated that the site at the mouth of the
+Minnesota would soon be occupied.[57]
+
+On the tenth of February, 1819, the War Department ordered the Fifth
+Infantry to concentrate at Detroit, after which it would be transported
+across Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, up the Fox River,  and down
+the Wisconsin River to Prairie du Chien, where a part would garrison
+Fort Crawford, a part would proceed to Fort Armstrong, and the remainder
+would ascend the Mississippi and near the Falls of St. Anthony erect a
+post which would be the headquarters of the regiment.[58] This movement
+was closely associated with that on the Missouri River called the
+Yellowstone Expedition. Both movements were part of one system--a
+comprehensive attempt to possess the northwestern frontier. The
+thoroughness of the plan is shown by the program outlined for the troops
+for the year 1820: three forts were to be built on the Missouri River;
+the navigation of that river was to be improved; roads were to be opened
+between the two diverging lines of posts (those on the Missouri and
+those on the Mississippi); and the Fox and Wisconsin rivers were to be
+connected by a canal. Thus the transportation of supplies would be
+facilitated, and in case of hostilities the forts could cooeperate in the
+military operations.[59]
+
+The western part of this general movement was a failure. Indeed, the
+only result was the construction of a post at the point then known as
+Council Bluff (now Fort Calhoun, Nebraska), which after an existence of
+eight years was abandoned. Congress, disgusted with the management of
+the undertaking, refused to vote the funds necessary for the complete
+fulfillment of the project.[60] Accordingly, no permanent military post
+existed upon the upper Missouri until 1855, when the United States
+government purchased from the American Fur Company their station
+called Fort Pierre and transformed it into a military establishment.[61]
+The failure of the Yellowstone Expedition made more difficult the work
+of Fort Snelling. The range of its influence extended to the Missouri,
+and for forty years it was of more importance than even its originators
+had planned.
+
+The Fifth Infantry, to which the difficult task of establishing a fort
+at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers was assigned was
+stationed at various places. Lieutenant Colonel Henry Leavenworth, who
+was the commanding officer of the regiment, had been located at Prairie
+du Chien as Superintendent of Indian Affairs.[62] Lieutenant Nathan
+Clark was living at Hartford, Connecticut.[63] But by May 14th the main
+part of the regiment was ready to leave Detroit. Schooners brought them
+through Lake Huron, the Straits of Mackinac, and across Lake Michigan to
+Fort Howard on Green Bay. Captain Whistler of the Third United States
+Infantry, then stationed at this post, had prepared bateaux for the use
+of the troops, and on June 7th the ascent of the Fox River was
+commenced.[64] The Winnebago chief "Four Legs", whose village was at the
+outlet of Lake Winnebago, had the custom of exacting tribute from
+travellers using the Fox-Wisconsin route. When the troops of the Fifth
+Infantry came to the site, "Four Legs" sent the message, "The Lake is
+locked." Whereupon Colonel Leavenworth, showing the messenger his rifle,
+replied: "tell him, that this is the key, and I shall unlock it and go
+on."  Upon receiving this belligerent reply, the chief allowed the
+troops to pass; and finally on June 30th the bateaux were moored near
+Fort Crawford and Prairie du Chien.[65]
+
+At Fort Crawford there was a tedious wait. Provisions, ordnance,
+ammunition, and recruits were expected from St. Louis. On July 5th Major
+Thomas Forsyth arrived from St. Louis. He had been ordered by the War
+Department to bring two thousand dollars worth of goods to the Sioux
+Indians in payment for the reservation ceded by them to Pike.[66] Day
+after day passed. Finally, on July 17th a certain Mr. Shaw came with
+news that the recruits could be expected soon. On July 31st this curt
+entry is made in Forsyth's journal: "no boats, no recruits, no news, nor
+anything else from St. Louis." The next day Major Marston was sent with
+twenty-seven troops to garrison Fort Armstrong at Rock Island; and on
+August 2nd Forsyth recorded: "Thank God a boat loaded with ordnance and
+stores of different kinds arrived to-day, and said a provision boat
+would arrive to-morrow, but no news of the recruits."[67]
+
+Colonel Leavenworth at once made preparations to ascend the river. The
+two large boats that had brought up supplies were engaged, and at eight
+o'clock on the morning of Sunday, August 8th, the flotilla set out--the
+two large boats, fourteen bateaux, the boat of Major Forsyth, and the
+barge of Colonel Leavenworth. In the party were ninety-eight soldiers
+and twenty boatmen. There were others also whose presence in that wild
+region would not be expected: Mrs. Gooding, the wife of one of
+the captains; Mrs. Nathan Clark, the wife of the commissary; and little
+Charlotte Ouisconsin Clark, who had been born scarcely an hour after the
+regiment reached Fort Crawford. The knowledge that they were upon the
+last stage of their journey caused a feeling of cheerfulness among the
+soldiers, and the first day they proceeded a distance of eighteen
+miles.[68]
+
+For sixteen days the boatmen poled their bateaux up the river. Once when
+there was a "Great appearance of wind" the sails were hoisted. At other
+times the heavily loaded boats were moved with difficulty through the
+shallow water. Occasionally fog and rain impeded their progress. Bad
+water made half of the soldiers sick before the journey was ended; and
+to avoid the mosquitoes on the river, the men preferred to sleep on the
+banks, although every morning there was a heavy dew. On August 17th the
+lower end of Lake Pepin was reached and here a delay of several hours
+occurred while the men drew provisions from the supply boats, and washed
+their dirty linen.[69]
+
+Major Forsyth stopped at the Indian villages to distribute presents and
+to announce to the natives the object of the coming of the troops, and
+the value they would derive from having a fort in their midst. On
+Sunday, August 22nd, he encamped a few miles ahead of the main body of
+the expedition, but by eight o'clock the next morning all the boats had
+come up. Impatient to reach the end of the journey,  Major Forsyth
+again pushed forward and at four o'clock in the afternoon reached the
+mouth of the Minnesota River. On the morning of Tuesday, August 24,
+1819, Colonel Leavenworth arrived in his barge ahead of the troops and
+spent almost the entire day in looking over the sites available for a
+camp. Finally, he decided upon a spot on the right bank of the Minnesota
+River, just above its mouth. There was no rest for the troops when their
+boats reached the chosen place. "They were immediately set to work in
+making roads up the bank of the river, cutting down trees, etc."[70]
+
+If the soldiers had any spare time in their labors in which to become
+interested in their surroundings, there was novelty in everything about
+them. During the next few days all the nearby chiefs came to call upon
+their new neighbors: they left satisfied with the presents and the
+whiskey which they had received. On Saturday a party ascended to the
+Falls of St. Anthony; and on Sunday a visit was made to the Indian
+villages up the Minnesota River. It was on Monday that Major Forsyth
+began his return trip, and as the supplies in store were few and the
+long-expected recruits were needed for the erection of the camp
+buildings, Colonel Leavenworth set out with him for Prairie du Chien. On
+September 1st they met on Lake Pepin two boats and a bateau with one
+hundred and twenty soldiers on board. But Colonel Leavenworth continued
+to Prairie du Chien, where he remained some time to urge on any boats
+which might arrive. On September 5th the one hundred and twenty
+recruits landed at the new camp.[71]
+
+Log cabins and a stockade were erected while the party still lived in
+the boats on the river. By November the temporary barracks were ready
+for occupation. Looking forward to a pleasant winter, the name
+"Cantonment New Hope" was applied to the embryo fort. The more
+scientific among the men examined the country round about, and saw in
+the hills visions of mines of precious metals. "Would not the employment
+of the troops in the manufacture of Copper and Iron be advantageous to
+the government?", wrote one of these energetic soldiers. But the
+succeeding months were not to give an opportunity for such
+occupations.[72]
+
+Added to the natural monotony of a wilderness post, there was
+homesickness and suffering during the first winter. The quarters that
+had been built were inadequate for protection from the cold of that
+climate. "Once during that memorable six months", runs the account of
+one of the inhabitants of Cantonment New Hope, "the roof of our cabin
+blew off, and the walls seemed about to fall in. My father, sending my
+mother and brother to a place of safety, held up the chimney to prevent
+a total downfall; while the baby, who had been pushed under the bed in
+her cradle, lay there.... until the wind subsided, when, upon being
+drawn out from her hiding-place, she evinced great pleasure at the
+commotion, and seemed to take it all as something designed especially
+for her amusement." That baby lived to recall the incident almost
+seventy years later.[73]
+
+Toward the close of the winter there came sickness, chiefly on account
+of a lack of proper provisions. Late in the fall Lieutenant Oliver had
+left Prairie du Chien with supplies in a keel boat. But the river froze
+and the boat was unable to progress farther than the vicinity of
+Hastings, Minnesota. Here it was necessary to keep a guard all winter to
+protect the food from the Indians and the wolves. The Indians refused to
+sell them game; no vegetables could be purchased; and the bread was "two
+inches in the barrels thick with mould".[74] With such food it is no
+wonder that scurvy, the dreaded disease of all frontier posts, broke out
+among the troops. Forty soldiers died before the progress of the disease
+was arrested by home-made remedies and groceries brought up by the
+sutler.[75]
+
+This visitation of disease left a profound impression upon the
+survivors. Henry H. Sibley, who had often spoken with those who passed
+through the weary months of suffering and sickness, wrote that "scurvy
+broke out in a most malignant form, and raged so violently that, for a
+few days, garrison duty was suspended, there being barely well men
+enough in the command to attend to the sick, and to the interment of the
+dead. So sudden were the attacks, that soldiers in apparent good health
+when they went to bed, were found dead in the morning. One man who was
+relieved from his tour of sentinel duty, and stretched himself upon the
+bench of the guard room,  four hours after, when he was called
+upon to resume his post, was discovered to be lifeless."[76]
+
+Thinking that much of the sickness was caused by the unhealthful
+location, Colonel Leavenworth, on May 5, 1820, moved the soldiers to a
+place on the west bank of the Mississippi north of the Minnesota where
+there was a great spring of cold water. Here the troops were quartered
+in tents--naming their community "Camp Cold Water".[77] The immediate
+need was the erection of the permanent post. Colonel Leavenworth chose
+for the site a position three hundred yards west of the crest of the
+cliff. Some material was brought to this place, but no building was
+done. In August Colonel Leavenworth was superseded in command by Colonel
+Josiah Snelling, who located the position at the extreme point of land
+between the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers.[78] The work of erecting
+the buildings was done by the soldiers, it being customary at that time
+to pay the soldiers fifteen cents a day in addition to their regular pay
+for this extra work.[79]
+
+Steps were taken during the summer of 1820 to obtain the necessary
+material. A saw mill was needed to make the lumber with which the
+interior of the buildings would be finished and the furniture
+constructed. As the water in Minnehaha Creek was very low that year, it
+was decided to erect the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. Some men were
+sent up the Mississippi River to Rum River to examine the timber, and
+during the winter of 1820-1821 a party of soldiers was employed in
+cutting logs and dragging them to the river bank. With the coming
+of spring the logs were floated down to the Falls of St. Anthony, where
+they were sawed into lumber and then hauled to the fort by teams.[80]
+
+The progress made on the building was slow. On the tenth of September,
+1820, the cornerstone was laid.[81] More than a year later, on November
+7, 1821, Colonel Snelling wrote to the Indian agent, Lawrence
+Taliaferro, that "nothing new has occurred since my return excepting
+that the other stone barrack is up & the rafters on."[82] The fort was
+partially occupied, probably in the fall of 1822, before all the
+surrounding wall had been completed.[83] But it is evident that most of
+the fort was finished by July, 1823, for at that time the troops erected
+the Indian Council House.[84]
+
+In the meantime other events had been occurring. On July 31, 1820,
+Governor Cass of Michigan Territory, who had been on an exploring
+expedition to the upper Mississippi, passed down the river and remained
+with the troops until the morning of August 2nd. A council was held with
+the Indians, during which a peace was made between the Sioux and the
+Chippewas. That the garrison had been busy at duties other than erecting
+buildings is evident from the fact that Governor Cass found ninety acres
+planted with corn and potatoes and wheat. From the garden green peas had
+been obtained as early as June 15th, and green corn on July 20th.[85]
+
+In accordance with the plans outlined for the year 1820 it was proposed
+to open a road between Council Bluff and the new post on the
+upper Mississippi. To survey the route Captain Stephen Watts Kearny led
+a party which consisted of four other officers, fifteen soldiers, four
+servants, an Indian guide and his wife and papoose, eight mules, and
+seven horses. The route led from Council Bluff across what is now the
+northern and northwestern part of the State of Iowa to Lake Pepin, and
+then along the Mississippi to the new post. From July 25th to July 29th
+they remained with Leavenworth's men, visiting the Falls of St. Anthony,
+examining the country, and on July 26th going with Lieutenant Green and
+Miss Gooding to the east side of the Mississippi. Here Lieutenant Green
+and Miss Gooding were married by Colonel Leavenworth, who as Indian
+agent for the "Northwest Territory" could perform his duties on the east
+bank of the river, but not on the west, which was in the Missouri
+Territory.[86]
+
+The fact that the Falls of St. Anthony constituted the most noticeable
+landmark of the vicinity led to the application of its name to the
+military works. The first official inspection of Fort St. Anthony
+occurred some time between May 13, 1824, and June 13, 1824. General
+Winfield Scott, as the inspector, was received with all the honor and
+entertainment that the frontier post could provide. He left favorably
+impressed with the work that had been done.
+
+"I wish to suggest to the general-in-chief," wrote General Scott in his
+report, "and through him to the War Department, the propriety of calling
+this work _Fort Snelling_, as a just compliment to the meritorious
+ officer under whom it has been erected. The present name is
+foreign to all our associations, and is, besides, geographically
+incorrect, as the work stands at the junction of the Mississippi and
+Saint Peter's rivers, eight miles below the great falls of the
+Mississippi, called after Saint Anthony. Some few years since the
+Secretary of War directed that the work at the Council Bluffs should be
+called Fort Atkinson in compliment to the valuable services of General
+Atkinson on the upper Missouri. The above proposition is made on the
+same principle."
+
+A general order on January 7, 1825, directed that the suggested change
+should be made. Thereupon Fort Snelling began its career as the guardian
+of the Northwest.[87]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+FORTY YEARS OF FRONTIER DUTY
+
+
+It was not the intention of the War Department that the influence of the
+frontier military post should be limited by the range of the guns
+mounted upon its walls. The post was to be the center of the Indian life
+for those tribes that dwelt in the vicinity. At the same time
+expeditions, the base of which was to be at the fort, were to carry the
+authority of the government out upon the wild Indian lands, and the
+frontier settlements were to look to the soldiers for protection.[88]
+
+How, in its origin, Fort Snelling became part of a comprehensive system
+for the protection of the frontier, has been detailed. The events of the
+forty years that followed indicate very clearly the wisdom of the men
+who chose the site. Every phase of frontier duty was performed by the
+troops stationed at the mouth of the Minnesota River; and although these
+tasks often took them hundreds of miles from the post, and although they
+often cooeperated with men from other forts, yet these expeditions may
+well be considered as part of the history of Fort Snelling. They were a
+test of the training received on the parade ground, and the successful
+accomplishment of many a difficult duty shows that the post was
+fulfilling the objects of those who built it.
+
+Prior to 1848 the governmental organization in the jurisdiction of which
+Fort Snelling was located was very weak. When first erected in 1819 the
+fort was in the Territory of Missouri (1812-1821). Then followed a
+number of years in which it was in unorganized territory (1821-1834).
+The Territory of Michigan (1834-1836), the Territory of Wisconsin
+(1836-1838), and the Territory of Iowa (1838-1846) successively had
+jurisdiction over it; while in 1849 it fell within the newly-organized
+Territory of Minnesota. Lying far from the seats of government, in a
+region of wandering traders and red men, the fort became the exponent of
+the government--the only symbol of governmental restriction in a region
+almost entirely without law.
+
+During the first years of its existence while the buildings were being
+erected and the fort was making its place in the Indian life and the fur
+trade of the surrounding region, the frontier was comparatively quiet.
+The first outbreak occurred in Illinois and Wisconsin, where the
+Winnebagoes were constantly coming into contact with the lead miners
+about Galena. During the summer of 1826 rumors came to Fort Snelling of
+the hostility of this tribe, and Colonel Snelling thought it prudent to
+reenforce the garrison of Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien. Three
+companies of the Fifth Infantry were sent away from Fort Snelling on the
+afternoon of August 18th under the command of Captain Wilcox.[89]
+Although no actual conflict occurred, the continued uneasiness
+felt because of the presence of the Winnebagoes led the authorities to
+remove all the troops from Fort Crawford to the upper post in the fall
+of that year.[90]
+
+The lack of soldiers among them intensified the unruly spirit in the
+Winnebagoes. In June of the next year two keel boats, the "General
+Ashley" and the "O. H. Perry", which were carrying supplies to Fort
+Snelling noticed an unfriendly feeling among the Sioux at Wabasha's
+village. Fifty warriors with their faces painted black and with black
+streaks on their blankets visited the "O. H. Perry", but refused to
+shake hands. Apprehensive of danger on the return journey, Colonel
+Snelling furnished the crews with guns and cartridges before the descent
+was commenced.[91]
+
+There soon arrived at Fort Snelling a letter from John Marsh, the
+sub-agent at Prairie du Chien. It stated that rumors were current that
+Prairie du Chien was to be attacked and that the Sioux and Winnebagoes
+threatened to kill Taliaferro "and any American that they can find at a
+distance from the Fort". The letter closed with the request that steps
+be taken for the defense of Prairie du Chien.[92] No doubt preparations
+were commenced immediately; but they were hastened by news which soon
+came up the river. On June 26th the Winnebago chief, Red Bird, with
+three of his men had attacked a farm house near Prairie du Chien and
+obtained the scalp of a child. Returning to their village, they had seen
+ the keel boats coming down the river. With their fighting blood
+up they attacked the "O. H. Perry", and in a battle which lasted several
+hours they killed two of the crew and lost seven of their own warriors.
+The report of this attack, together with the murder near Prairie du
+Chien, spread consternation among the white men.[93]
+
+Without delay Colonel Snelling with four companies started down the
+river.[94] A few days after reaching Prairie du Chien, he was reenforced
+by troops brought up from St. Louis by Colonel Atkinson. It was thought
+necessary that Fort Snelling should be maintained during the critical
+period, and as it was short of provisions, Colonel Snelling was ordered
+back to his post with a supply of flour, and directed to procure boats
+which could be used in the pursuit of the Winnebagoes up the Wisconsin
+River. On the 16th of August Colonel Snelling arrived at his post, and
+on the following day Major Fowle started downstream with four other
+companies of the Fifth Infantry in two keel boats and nine mackinac
+boats, arriving at Fort Crawford on August 21st. The Indians, overawed
+by the rapidity of these military movements and the size of the force
+sent against them, immediately became peaceable. As a precaution,
+however, Major Fowle was kept at Fort Crawford, and the post was
+provisioned for a year.[95]
+
+During the next twenty years the force maintained at Fort Snelling was
+small, and the garrison was occupied in routine tasks, the regulation of
+Indian affairs, and the fur trade. At the time of the Black Hawk
+War there was quiet about Fort Snelling, and Major Taliaferro offered
+his services and those of the Sioux warriors in the campaign against the
+Sacs and Foxes. But the government did not think it advisable to
+formally accept the proffered help, although a number of the Sioux did
+take part in pursuing the remnants of Sacs who succeeded in crossing the
+river.[96]
+
+In June, 1848, the company of infantry stationed at Fort Snelling
+received an urgent call to come to Wabasha's Prairie--near Winona,
+Minnesota. The Winnebago Indians were being transferred from their
+former home in the Turkey Valley region in Iowa to a new reservation
+obtained for them from the Chippewas. But when the Prairie was reached,
+the Winnebagoes visited with Wabasha and he sold it to them for a home.
+When Captain Seth Eastman arrived from Fort Snelling he was put in
+charge of the military forces which had been hastily brought together to
+force the Winnebagoes to continue their march. There were volunteers
+from Crawford County, Wisconsin, dragoons from Fort Atkinson, Iowa, and
+the infantry from Fort Snelling, besides sixty armed teamsters.
+
+These military forces lay encamped, separated from the Indians by a
+slough. In the morning a deputation of Indians came to ask the meaning
+of the martial appearance of the whites when all _they_ desired was a
+council. This suggestion of a council was quickly assented to, but the
+Indians approached with such a rush and with such blood-curdling
+yells that the cannon were loaded and the soldiers stood ready to fire.
+During the council the Winnebagoes refused to move until one small band
+gave in to the entreaties of the agent and were taken up to Fort
+Snelling. This was an opening wedge, for when the steamboat returned
+1700 were ready to move. The total journey of three hundred and ten
+miles from the old to the new home occupied the time from June 8th to
+July 30th, 1848.[97]
+
+By the next summer they were ready to return--anywhere, but especially
+to Wisconsin, their earliest home.[98] In July the whole tribe,
+stimulated by whiskey, started; but Governor Ramsey called on Colonel
+Loomis of Fort Snelling for aid, and a force under Captain Monroe
+proceeded to the north where their presence aided in quieting the
+disturbers. Again, on September 9th about a hundred had approached
+within sixteen miles of St. Paul, when Captain Page and forty men from
+Fort Snelling frightened them so much that they fled into the swamps and
+returned home quietly. Smaller parties were captured on the river and
+sent back under a military guard.[99] Not all the efforts, however, were
+successful. It was reported that one evening in November over a hundred
+red men floated down quietly under the very guns of Fort Snelling, and
+two weeks later the newspaper accounts tell of three hundred Winnebagoes
+in camp near the mouth of the Black River.[100] The need for a company
+of dragoons at Fort Snelling was imperative. The next summer it was
+obtained,  and in 1851 this military force was described as being
+"an indispensable and invaluable auxiliary."[101] Not until 1855 was the
+Winnebago spirit of migration broken, and then only after a new
+reservation had been obtained for them at the mouth of the Blue Earth
+River.[102]
+
+In his report of November 25, 1844, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
+called attention to the fact that no longer was there any need of
+entertaining fears on account of the visits made by American Indians to
+the Canadian posts, as these pilgrimages were indulged in only by a few
+"worthless vagrants". But an evil of a different character was imminent.
+Twice a year hundreds of Red River half-breeds--_bois brules_--left
+their homes on the British side of the international boundary to hunt
+buffalo on the American plains which bordered on the Missouri River.
+Here they came into contact with Indians who naturally resented this
+intrusion upon their hunting grounds. During the summer of 1844 a
+half-breed had been killed by a party of Yankton Sioux, and the invaders
+had retaliated by killing eight Sioux of another band. This so inflamed
+the Indians that they went upon the war path and without stopping to
+reason about the matter, they attacked a party of whites whom they met
+on Otter Tail Lake.[103]
+
+To hunt the buffalo freely, even on foreign soil, seemed to the _bois
+brules_ to be their natural right. On the pemmican which they made from
+these buffaloes they depended for their winter's food. Five
+hundred and forty carts trailed out of Pembina on the summer hunt of
+1820, and from year to year the number increased until in 1840 there
+were 1210 carts, accompanied by 1630 people. Nowhere else in the new
+world at least, was there such a hunting party. Thirteen hundred and
+seventy-five buffalo tongues were counted as the result of one day's
+hunt in 1840.[104] It was estimated that every year these Red River
+hunters killed twenty thousand buffaloes on American soil.[105]
+
+In this there was a real grievance. Though small in itself the incident
+could easily develop into a war when there were other factors urging in
+the same direction.[106] The exact condition of affairs on the border
+was so confused that the United States made occasional military displays
+in order to impress the invaders and also to satisfy its own curiosity.
+The first of these expeditions occurred in 1845. Captain Edwin V.
+Sumner, then in command at Fort Atkinson, in the Iowa country, visited
+the Red River of the North during the summer of that year with Companies
+B and I of the First Regiment of Dragoons. But the difficulty was that
+while the invaders would promise to remain off American soil and would
+retire as soon as a military force appeared, yet no sooner would the
+troops depart than they would be back again on the hunting grounds.[107]
+
+When complaints continued to come in the Adjutant General proposed to
+establish a post on the Red River. As a preliminary movement Brevet
+Major Samuel Woods, Captain of the Sixth Infantry located at Fort
+Snelling, was ordered to proceed with Company D of the dragoons to the
+border and make recommendations to the War Department in regard to a
+suitable site. On June 6, 1849, the start was made from Fort Snelling,
+and the weary march directed to the northwest over the swollen rivers
+and the marshy swamps with the mosquitoes a constant torment, until on
+August 1st the soldiers reached the collection of Indian lodges and the
+trading establishment that was known as Pembina. During the twenty-five
+days spent at this point observations were made of the topographical
+features of the land, the character of the Indians, and the pursuits of
+the half-breeds.
+
+Major Woods urged the American Indians and half-breeds to prevent by
+force the invasions, promising that the United States would support
+them. But it would be useless, he reported, to build a fort at Pembina
+unless at least two hundred fifty men were stationed there. It would be
+better to concentrate a large force at Fort Snelling, from whence
+expeditions could be made into the Indian country in all directions as
+necessity might arise. The return to the fort occupied twenty-three and
+a half days, and on September 18th the total journey of almost a
+thousand miles was completed with the loss of only one horse and one
+mule.[108]
+
+During the next few years conditions remained unchanged, and as the
+settlement of the Minnesota and Mississippi valleys was pushing the
+Indian tribes farther to the westward, more and bitter conflicts
+with the half-breeds would be liable to occur. In order to give a final
+warning to the foreign hunters and to select a site for a post which
+could serve the double purpose of protecting the frontier settlements
+from the Indians and the Indians from the foreigners, Lieutenant Colonel
+C. F. Smith of the Tenth Infantry was ordered on June 9, 1856, to tour
+the region with Companies B and F. As far as the Goose River, in the
+North Dakota country, the route followed from Fort Snelling was
+practically the same as that of Major Woods; but instead of proceeding
+by the usual route northward to Pembina, a detour was made to Lake
+Mini-Waken (Devil's Lake). On the return the less travelled and more
+difficult road on the east side of the Red River was followed.
+
+On August 19th the trail of the annual hunting party was crossed; but
+the nine hundred men, women, and children who had made the trip had
+returned to their homes three weeks before, and kept away from the
+military party. Since no warning could be given to them in person, a
+notice written in both English and French was circulated in Pembina and
+in the British settlements to the north. But the natives obtained sweet
+revenge when Colonel Smith attempted to buy from the farmers in the
+vicinity of the principal trading post--Fort Garry--a sufficient supply
+of oats for his troops. The half-breeds declined to bring the grain,
+giving as their excuse that they did not desire to trespass on American
+soil when warned to keep off.[109]
+
+Not only to the north did the troops from Fort Snelling make
+expeditions. The wide range of its influence is illustrated by the task
+which occupied the attention of its soldiers during the summer of 1850.
+On August 8, 1849, Governor Ansel Briggs of Iowa forwarded to the
+Secretary of War a petition, signed by over a hundred citizens of Iowa
+County, in which they complained of the presence of a great number of
+Indians who were destroying the timber, removing the section corners,
+and even demanding rent from some of the settlers--claiming that they
+owned the land on the Iowa River.[110]
+
+To investigate conditions and to report upon what steps would be
+necessary to remove the cause of complaint, Brevet Major Samuel Woods,
+stationed at Fort Snelling, was ordered to proceed to the State of Iowa.
+On the twenty-fifth of September he left for Prairie du Chien, and
+arriving here set out for Fort Atkinson, thinking that probably the
+Winnebagoes were the Indians causing the trouble. But he discovered that
+many of them had just set out for the upper Mississippi, and those
+remaining behind were so few in number that they could cause little
+inconvenience to the frontier. From Fort Atkinson Major Woods passed
+southward through Fayette, Buchanan, Linn, and Johnson counties to Iowa
+City. At this time the region traversed was sparsely settled. For a
+hundred miles south of Fort Atkinson there were only two
+settlements--one, consisting of a few families, high upon the Volga
+River, and the other larger in numbers clustered about some mills
+on the Wapsipinicon River. About fifteen miles north of Marion the
+inhabitants became more numerous. Here were found Indians--Sacs and
+Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes--but they were not hostile and
+their presence caused no objection.
+
+It was at Iowa City that Major Woods heard that the inhabitants on the
+Iowa, English, and Skunk Rivers had been making the loudest complaints.
+Accordingly he started up the Iowa River to the vicinity of Marengo.
+Here he learned that a few days before the settlers near the town,
+becoming tired of having Indians about them, armed themselves and by
+force broke up the Indian encampment. Only one lodge remained, that on
+the lands of a farmer who gave permission to three of the red men to
+live under his protection.
+
+The total number of Indians, Major Woods reported, consisted of five or
+six hundred Sacs and Foxes, Pottawattomies, and Winnebagoes. Among these
+the Sacs and Foxes were the most numerous. They had by treaty sold their
+lands some years earlier and had been removed to the Missouri River; but
+they preferred their old home, and so had returned in straggling bands,
+sometimes going back to the Missouri to get their annuities. The
+Winnebagoes were those who had escaped when the tribe was being
+transferred to the new reservation north of Fort Snelling.
+
+The complaints against these Indians were that they destroyed a great
+deal of timber, removed the surveyors' landmarks, killed the game,
+annoyed the settlers, and that when intoxicated they were an
+actual source of danger. Believing that these reasons were well founded,
+Major Woods advised that the Indians be removed as soon as possible.
+Conditions did not demand a winter campaign, but preparations should be
+made for the removal during the early summer.[111]
+
+In the early part of April of the next year it was known that two
+companies of infantry from Fort Snelling, and one company of dragoons
+from Fort Gaines had been detailed for this task.[112] On the twelfth of
+May the "Highland Mary" left Fort Snelling, having on board the infantry
+and cavalry and part of the equipment, while in tow was a barge full of
+horses and mules.[113] The soldiers were disembarked at Dubuque, whence
+they followed the trail to Iowa City, along which they "saw nothing
+except the ravages of California emigration." Proceeding to the vicinity
+of Marengo, a council was held with the Indians. But the latter marched
+into the council ten abreast carrying their war clubs and manifesting
+such a hostile disposition that it was impossible for Major Woods to
+accomplish anything.[114]
+
+For a while it seemed that active military operations would be
+necessary. The Indians becoming convinced that this would be the result,
+and fearing that all the expenses of the campaign would be deducted from
+the annuities of the tribe, suggested to two men of the neighborhood--a
+Mr. Steen and a Mr. Greenly--that they would go back to their homes if
+these two men could be appointed their guides. When Mr. Steen and
+Mr. Greenly broached the subject to Major Woods he considered it
+thoughtfully, and finally an arrangement was made. For every Indian who
+left the Iowa River and was turned over to their agent west of the
+Missouri River, the government was to pay three dollars and fifty cents.
+Five hundred dollars was to be advanced to pay for the provisions of the
+party. Upon June 6th a second council was held with the Indians, during
+which Major Woods impressed upon Chief Poweshiek and his men the
+necessity of their returning and the advisability of their doing it
+peaceably.[115]
+
+During the month of July the Indians started upon their journey. For
+several days they encamped near Fort Des Moines, and on July 16th
+seventy of the warriors, armed and painted, paraded on horseback through
+the streets of the town to the public square where for an hour they
+danced for the amusement of the two or three hundred interested
+spectators in the frontier town.[116]
+
+These events made necessary a change in the plans of the troops. Company
+E of the Sixth Infantry remained at their camp on the Iowa River for
+some time, but upon the last day of July set out under the command of
+Major Woods for a site on the Des Moines River which had been chosen by
+the War Department as the location of a new military post. On August 23,
+1850, the troops arrived at the designated place and began the erection
+of a fort which they named Fort Clarke in honor of Colonel Clarke
+the commanding officer of the Sixth Infantry. The name, however, was
+soon changed to Fort Dodge.
+
+The company of dragoons was occupied during August and September in
+making a tour of the western part of the State of Iowa, and it was not
+until October that the cavalry company and the other infantry company
+returned to their station at Fort Snelling.[117]
+
+Occupation for the company of dragoons was furnished during the next
+summer when Governor Ramsey was sent to Pembina to draw up a treaty with
+the Pillager band of Chippewa Indians. On August 18, 1851, the party set
+out from Fort Snelling. Besides the Governor and a number of gentlemen
+who accompanied him, the party consisted of twenty-five dragoons, and
+eight French-Canadian and half-breed drivers who had charge of six
+baggage wagons and several light Red River carts. The march was very
+difficult and the dragoons were kept busy repairing the roads over the
+swamp lands and dragging with ropes the heavy wagons over the quickly
+made causeways. The treaty which was made after this difficult journey
+was not ratified by the Senate.[118]
+
+The wonderful expansion of the Nation, which occurred in the latter half
+of the fifth decade of the century, turned all eyes toward the fertile
+valleys and the mountains of fabulous wealth on the Pacific Coast. Even
+before the acquisition of this territory some visionary minds had
+pictured it bound to the United States, if not by political ties, at
+least by bonds of steel.[119] The Oregon treaty of 1846 brought
+part of the coveted land under the jurisdiction of the United States,
+and the necessity of a railroad to the Pacific was soon realized. But
+sectional interests prevented agreement upon any certain route, and it
+was decided to survey the most promising and choose the one agreed upon
+by the engineers. Accordingly, the army appropriation bill of 1853
+provided $150,000 for this purpose.[120]
+
+Isaac I. Stevens, the newly appointed Governor of Washington Territory,
+led the party which examined the country between the parallels of
+forty-seven and forty-nine degrees north latitude--called the Northern
+Pacific Survey. He left Washington, D. C, on May 9, 1853, and reached
+St. Paul on May 27th. According to his instructions he was authorized to
+call upon one sergeant, two corporals, one musician, and sixteen
+privates of Company D First Dragoons, who were still stationed at Fort
+Snelling.[121] Captain Gardiner, who had preceded his leader up the
+river, had selected the escort and collected the party on May 24th in
+Camp Pierce--a temporary encampment located three miles northwest of the
+fort.[122] Early in June camp was broken and the start for the far West
+was made, at first, over the Red River Trail, and then across the
+prairies to Fort Union, where on August 1st they were joined by others
+who had been sent up the Missouri with supplies. Fort Benton was reached
+on September 1st There they remained until the twelfth of the month when
+Lieutenant Saxton, leading a similar party eastward from
+Vancouver, arrived. Thus a survey from the Mississippi to the Pacific
+had been completed.[123]
+
+On the journey the entire party had been divided into small groups, who
+conducted surveys and explorations in various directions. To each of
+these groups were detailed a few of the dragoons, who were in all
+respects an integral part of the expedition and not merely a guard for
+protection. Accordingly, no special mention of their work was made in
+the report.[124]
+
+After thirty years, the distinction of being the most northwestern post
+in the upper Mississippi region was lost by Fort Snelling. Other
+military stations were erected, and thereafter many of its former
+activities were conducted from these stations on the extreme frontier.
+Yet in everything contributed by these newer posts, the older had a
+part; accounts of them reveal their dependence on Fort Snelling, the
+parent post.
+
+As early as 1844 the Secretary of War had reported that plans were being
+made to erect two new forts between Lake Superior and the River St.
+Peter's.[125] But nothing was done at this time. By a treaty of October
+13, 1846, the Winnebagoes living on the "Neutral Ground" in the Turkey
+River Valley of the Iowa country agreed to exchange this reservation for
+one "north of St. Peter's and west of the Mississippi Rivers".[126] By
+treaties in the following August, the Chippewas ceded to the government
+a tract lying south of the Crow Wing River and west of the
+Mississippi River, and north and east of the so-called Sioux-Chippewa
+boundary line.[127] This was the area agreed on by the government as
+being suitable for the Winnebagoes. In view of the reputation of
+unruliness possessed by this tribe, and the fact that they were to be
+placed between the warring tribes--the Sioux and the Chippewas--the
+establishment of a post on the reservation was thought desirable.
+
+The transfer of the tribe took place during the summer of 1848; and in
+the same fall Brigadier General George M. Brooke of St. Louis,
+accompanied by a squadron of dragoons, chose a point opposite the Nokay
+River as a desirable location.[128] This company and a company of the
+Sixth Infantry from Fort Snelling were employed in building the fort,
+and when cold weather prevented further operations, they were withdrawn
+to Fort Snelling, where the winter was passed.[129] In the spring the
+troops returned, and Fort Gaines--rechristened Fort Ripley--was occupied
+on the thirteenth of April, 1849.[130]
+
+But this post alone was unable to keep the Winnebagoes in check. They
+celebrated the first fourth of July by attacking a frontier store and
+"causing one gentleman to escape _en dishabille_ to the woods, where he
+danced to the tune of the mosquitoes during some three days and
+nights."[131] Again and again reports of riotous revels and rumors of
+impending outbreaks caused help to be sent from Fort Snelling to assist
+the troops higher up the river.[132] In the spring of 1857 the fort was
+abandoned, but Indian disturbances during the summer caused a
+detachment to be sent from the older post. These troops remained at that
+point until in the summer of 1858 they were transferred to the newly
+founded Fort Abercrombie.[133]
+
+The treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota, concluded in 1851,
+concentrated the Sioux Indians on a long irregular reservation along the
+upper Minnesota River.[134] The Indians were not transferred until the
+summer of 1853, but in the fall of the previous year the need of a post
+among so many half civilized people, placed in a small territory, was
+obvious. Accordingly, Colonel Francis Lee, commandant at Fort Snelling,
+and Captain Dana of the quartermaster's department, escorted by a troop
+of dragoons, selected a suitable site on the north side of the Minnesota
+River, a dozen miles upstream from the town of New Ulm.
+
+On February 24, 1853, seven privates of Company D of the First Dragoons,
+and two sergeants and thirteen privates of the Sixth Infantry were sent
+to the location to begin the erection of the fort. In April the dragoons
+were ordered to return to Fort Snelling and Companies C and K of the
+Sixth Infantry went up the river under the command of Captain James
+Monroe and became part of the permanent garrison of newly-founded Fort
+Ridgely. One other company came up from Fort Dodge--the post in Iowa
+which was abandoned with this withdrawal.[135]
+
+Colonel C. F. Smith, who led the expedition from Fort Snelling to the
+Red River during the summer of 1856, was instructed to recommend
+a site for a post. His choice of Graham's Point on the Red River was
+accepted; and here, in the fall of 1857, Colonel John J. Abercrombie
+constructed the fort which was named in his honor. Colonel Smith,
+writing from Fort Snelling, gave among his reasons for the choice of
+Graham's Point "the additional advantage of greater facility for
+receiving stores from the depot here".[136]
+
+With the building of these posts, Fort Snelling lost much of its
+importance. The garrison was small and the fort was almost nothing more
+than a depot for supplying the more advanced forts with food, clothing,
+and ammunition.[137] With the decline of its military position, the idea
+became prevalent that some day it would be abandoned entirely, and the
+land thrown open to settlement.
+
+The neighboring cities of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and St. Anthony were in
+the throes of real estate speculation. There were some who saw in Fort
+Snelling a site more advantageous than any of these. "It is a position
+which has attracted also a good deal of attention on account of its
+superior beauty of location, its agricultural advantages, and its more
+notable advantages for a town site", said Mr. Morrill during a debate on
+the floor of the House of Representatives. "Whatever witnesses in this
+case may have differed upon as to other matters, they nearly all agree
+that, as a point for a town site, it possesses superior advantages over
+any other in that part of the country."[138]
+
+Successful efforts were made to secure this site. On June 6, 1857, Mr.
+William King Heiskell, a commissioner appointed by the Secretary of War,
+sold to Mr. Franklin Steele, who was acting for himself and three
+others, the entire reservation for $90,000. The President approved the
+act on the second of July. Other parties who were interested in securing
+the site were not aware that the sale was to be made until everything
+had been accomplished.[139]
+
+Immediately there arose the cry of graft: the Republicans saw in the
+transaction the corruption of the existing Democratic regime. A
+committee was appointed by the House of Representatives to investigate
+the matter, and the testimony which they took covers three hundred and
+seven pages. Some witnesses said that the post should have been retained
+for military purposes; others insisted that there was no such need. Some
+said that the site was admirable for a city; a few stated that it
+possessed no such advantages. Some said that it was necessary as a
+supply station for the upper posts; others insisted that these posts
+could be supplied more cheaply by a direct route.[140]
+
+Bitter debates marked the consideration of the report. The objects,
+character, and ability of the witnesses were questioned. One member of
+the House said that "Fort Snelling is a very elegant appanage to very
+elegant gentlemen, who have a very elegant place for parade and
+show."[141] Another remarked that "the officers at Fort Snelling were
+opposed to the sale and it was natural that they should be. They
+had a beautiful place of residence, they had the most comfortable
+quarters, and a superabundance of stores for their subsistence. There
+they were living upon the fat of the land, without anything under God's
+heaven to do. Society was near at hand in a city populous, and
+furnishing all the luxuries of life. They of course did not want to
+surrender such quarters and such comforts for the hardships and trials
+of a frontier station."[142]
+
+Finally, on June second the whole matter was laid on the table. On May
+27, 1858, the troops had been withdrawn,[143] and on July 19, 1858, the
+quartermaster turned the buildings over to Mr. Steele. But with the
+opening of the Civil War Fort Snelling was used by the government as a
+training station, and after the war it was continued as a permanent
+post. Mr. Steele had been unable to pay the entire $90,000, and as he
+claimed rent at the rate of $2000 a month for the time it had been used
+by the government, the matter was again taken up. It was finally
+adjusted in an agreement whereby Mr. Steele retained the greater part of
+the land, and the government kept the buildings and 1521.20 acres
+surrounding the fort. Later some of the land was re-purchased from Mr.
+Steele.[144]
+
+The history of Old Fort Snelling closes with the removal of the troops
+in 1858. The story of its use during the Civil War, of the part it
+played during the Sioux massacre of 1862, of its influence throughout
+the West during the years when the headquarters of the Department of
+Dakota were located within its walls, of the Officers' Training
+Camp established during the summer of 1917, lies outside the scope of
+this volume. The life of the new Fort Snelling revives the traditions of
+patriotism, loyalty, and sacrifice, which have centered about the post
+since that day in August, 1819, which witnessed its beginning.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+LORDS OF THE NORTH
+
+
+An old settler, speaking of the expulsion of the squatters on the
+military reservation remarked: "At that time, and both before and since,
+the commanding officers of the fort were the lords of the north. They
+ruled supreme. The citizens in the neighborhood of the fort were liable
+at any time to be thrust into the guard-house. While the chief of the
+fort was the king, the subordinate officers were the princes, and
+persons have been deprived of their liberty and imprisoned by those
+tyrants for the most trivial wrong, or some imaginary offense."[145]
+This statement is doubtless rather extreme; but the fact remains that
+the fort was the only agency of government in the region, and so the
+commanding officer was indeed the supreme ruler in so far as he directed
+the policy and activities of the post.
+
+Interest in Old Fort Snelling is not primarily in the logs and stones
+which made up its building, but in the men and women who lived within
+its walls. Many were the lives influenced by a residence in its
+barracks. Characters were formed by the stern rigors of frontier
+service. Far from busy cities, in the tiresome routine of army life, men
+were being trained who were to be leaders in the political and
+military life of the Nation. Others never rose to a higher position; but
+they command attention because in their faithful performance of daily
+duties, year after year, they were quietly helping to make the history
+of the Northwest. It is impossible to consider every man who might be
+classed among the "Lords of the North", but a review of the careers of a
+few of them indicates the type of men whose natural ability was
+supplemented by the self-confidence and the grim determination which are
+the products of frontier service.[146]
+
+
+The memory of the man who led the troops to the mouth of the Minnesota
+River in 1819 is commemorated by a fort and a city in another State. The
+trials which he endured during that first winter at Cantonment New Hope
+were only harbingers of greater difficulties which were to bring to him
+the death of a frontier martyr. Although he had been educated for the
+lawyer's profession, Henry Leavenworth raised a company of volunteers in
+Delaware County, New York, in 1812, and was elected its captain. He
+served under General Winfield Scott and won honors for distinguished
+service at the Battle of Chippewa and at Niagara Falls. After the war he
+continued in the army, being appointed lieutenant colonel of the Fifth
+United States Infantry on February 10, 1818. After conducting the troops
+up the Mississippi River in 1819 and remaining through the winter, he
+was superseded by Colonel Snelling.
+
+Expeditions and Indian duties occupied his attention during the
+next few years, and in May, 1827, he established "Cantonment
+Leavenworth" on the west bank of the Missouri River. On February 8,
+1832, the name was changed to Fort Leavenworth. During a campaign
+against the Pawnee Indians, who were harassing the caravans of the Santa
+Fe traders, Colonel Leavenworth was taken sick with fever and died on
+July 21, 1834, in a hospital wagon at Cross Timbers in Indian Territory.
+The body was wrapped in spices and sent by way of St. Louis, New
+Orleans, and New York City, to Delhi, New York, where it remained until
+in 1902 it was reinterred in the national cemetery at Fort Leavenworth.
+A granite shaft some twelve feet high marks his resting-place.[147]
+
+
+The monument to the man under whose direction the fort was built is the
+modern military establishment named Fort Snelling. The erection of this
+fort was the last achievement of a life which, though comparatively
+brief, had already accomplished much. Josiah Snelling was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, in 1782. His first commission was as a first
+lieutenant in the Fourth Infantry and bears the date of May 3, 1808. In
+the Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811, he commanded one of the
+companies that were attacked in their camp in the early morning. An
+attempt was made by a company of dragoons to drive off the groups of
+Indians whose fire was the heaviest, but the officer who was leading was
+wounded and the attempt failed. "The Indians",  reported General
+Harrison, "were, however, immediately and gallantly dislodged from their
+advantageous position by Captain Snelling, at the head of his
+company."[148] During the War of 1812 he served with Hull's army about
+Detroit, and when the fort was surrendered he was taken a prisoner and
+brought to Canada. But he was exchanged and ordered to Plattsburg, and
+later was sent to Fort Erie on the staff of General George Izard. At the
+close of the war he was retained as lieutenant colonel of the Sixth
+Infantry and was stationed at Plattsburg for four years.[149]
+
+Bravery and impetuosity were two of Colonel Snelling's traits. During
+the campaign about Detroit he was married to Abigail Hunt by the
+chaplain of General Hull's army. The general and other officers were
+present. An account of the life of his wife states that "the ceremony
+had been performed but a few moments when the drum beat to arms; and
+Capt. Snelling instantly started up to go in search of his sword. All
+rushed to the door except Gen. Hull, who laying his hand on the young
+officer's shoulder as he was about leaving the house, said, 'Snelling,
+you need not go, I will excuse you.' 'By no means,' was the reply, 'I
+feel more like doing my duty now than ever.' 'Stay, it is a false alarm
+by my order,' said the General."[150] The ignoble surrender of Detroit
+by General Hull was deplored by many of the men under him. The story is
+told that while General Hull's aid was trying to place the white flag in
+position he called, "Snelling, come and help me fix this flag."
+Whereupon that officer replied, "No, sir; I will not soil my hands with
+that flag."[151]
+
+On June 1, 1819, he was appointed colonel of the Fifth Infantry, and
+ordered to St. Louis, where the following winter was passed. In the
+summer he started up the Mississippi, but was detained at Prairie du
+Chien by a court-martial of which he was the president, and it was not
+until August that he reached the troops at Camp Cold Water. From that
+time until the fall of 1827 Colonel Snelling was in command of the post,
+when not absent on official business. Except when he had been drinking
+too much, he was a favorite with the troops, and as he had red hair and
+was somewhat bald, they nicknamed him the "prairie-hen".[152]
+
+In the fall of 1827 the Fifth Infantry was withdrawn from the post and
+was succeeded by the First Infantry. The Snelling family located at St.
+Louis, while Colonel Snelling proceeded to Washington to settle some
+accounts. While here he was suddenly taken sick and died on August 20,
+1828.[153]
+
+The man whose name was applied to the post which has become so historic
+was a typical soldier of his day. Along with the bravery and zeal of the
+army, he possessed also its failings. "Of myself I have little to say",
+he wrote on one occasion. "I entered the army a subaltern, almost
+eighteen years ago. From obscurity I have passed through every grade to
+the command of a regiment. I owe nothing to executive patronage, for I
+have neither friend or relation connected with the government: I
+have obtained my rank in the ordinary course of promotion, and have
+retained it by doing my duty; and I really flatter myself that I still
+possess the confidence of the government, and the respect of those who
+serve with and under me."[154]
+
+
+Daniel Webster, speaking in the Senate on July 9, 1850, remarked that it
+was not in Indian wars that heroes were celebrated, but it was there
+that they were formed.[155] The occasion of this speech was the death of
+the President, Zachary Taylor, who had served for many years upon the
+Indian frontier. As lieutenant colonel of the First Infantry, he came to
+Fort Snelling during the summer of 1828 and remained there for a year,
+when he established his headquarters at Fort Crawford. His achievements
+on the frontier and in the Mexican War, which finally brought him to the
+presidency are a familiar story, and the training which he received in
+Old Fort Snelling was only a part of that which gave him the name of
+"Rough and Ready". It is a remarkable fact that at Fort Snelling he was
+remembered less for his own actions than for those of his four pretty
+daughters whose presence spread commotion in the hearts of the homesick
+young officers.[156]
+
+
+In 1837 the First Infantry was withdrawn and part of the Fifth Infantry
+returned to its former station. Among the familiar faces seen about the
+garrison again was that of a man whose eccentricities and
+personality are closely associated with the life of the fort.[157] In
+reporting the casualties of the battle of Molino del Rey, September 8,
+1847, the general commanding the American forces applied an adjective to
+only one of the dead. The report reads, "the service mourns the
+high-souled Scott, brevet lieutenant colonel 5th infantry".[158] This
+was Martin Scott, one of the most human, most lovable, and most
+energetic men who ever reviewed troops on the parade ground of Old Fort
+Snelling. Only from July 15, 1837, until August 20, 1837, was he in
+command, but for many years he was a familiar figure around the barracks
+and in the surrounding country.
+
+Hunting was his favorite pastime, and many a time the prairie rang with
+the yelping of the twenty or twenty-five dogs which he kept under the
+care of a special negro servant at the fort. His deadly aim was known to
+all. An army officer who insulted him was severely wounded in a duel; he
+often played the part of William Tell by shooting with his pistol
+through an apple placed upon the head of his negro; and if credence is
+to be given to the stories which are told, even the animals were aware
+that from him there was no escape. A coon sitting high on a tree was
+shot at by several hunters in succession, but still remained in its
+position. Captain Scott came along and took aim, whereupon the coon
+asked, "Who is that?" The reply was, "My name is Scott." "Scott? what
+Scott?" continued the coon. "Captain Martin Scott." "Are you Captain
+Martin Scott?" There was a pause before the voice in the tree-top
+continued, "Then hold on--don't shoot; I may as well come down."[159]
+
+Martin Scott was born in Bennington, Vermont, on January 17, 1788. His
+family was extremely poor, but because of his freedom from army
+vices--gambling and drinking--he was able in later years to do them many
+favors. His kindness was equalled only by his bravery. For gallant
+conduct during the Mexican War he received several promotions, and held
+a commission as lieutenant colonel when he met death leading his
+regiment in the battle of Molino del Rey.[160]
+
+A newspaper correspondent who went over the field of battle, saw a
+gray-headed soldier spreading the blanket over the corpse of a fallen
+comrade. "I rode up to him", wrote the reporter to his newspaper, "and
+asked him whether that was an officer. He looked up, and every lineament
+of his face betokening the greatest grief, replied, 'you never asked a
+question sir, more easily answered, it is an officer.' I then asked him
+who he was. He again replied, 'The best soldier of the 5th infantry,
+sir.' I then alighted from my horse and uncovering the face, found it
+was Col. Martin Scott. As I again covered the face, the soldier
+continued, without apparently addressing himself to any person in
+particular--'They have killed him--they will be paid for this--if it had
+only been me--I have served with him almost four enlistments but what
+will his poor family say?' And as he concluded thus the tears coursed
+down his furrowed cheeks, and the swelling of his bosom showed
+how deeply he was affected by the death of his veteran and gallant
+commander."[161]
+
+When the Fifth Infantry was transferred in 1840 there was a second
+home-coming at Fort Snelling in that it was succeeded by parts of the
+First Infantry which remained until the year 1848. Captain Seth Eastman
+was in command at four different times during this period, and it was
+through his eyes that we can see Old Fort Snelling as it was.[162] After
+his graduation from the Military Academy he was an assistant teacher of
+drawing at West Point. Following this he served in the Florida War and
+on the frontier until 1850, when he was called to Washington to
+illustrate the _History, Condition, and Future Prospects of the Indian
+Tribes of the United States_. Active service on the frontier and in the
+Civil War followed, and in 1866 he was breveted a brigadier
+general.[163]
+
+Mary Henderson Eastman, his wife, also commands attention. The intimate
+association of the fort with the surrounding Indians brought to her
+knowledge many incidents connected with their life which she embodied in
+a volume published in 1849 and entitled: _Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends
+of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_. In this volume Longfellow read of
+the Falls of Minnehaha, which he describes so picturesquely in
+_Hiawatha_.[164] Other literary work was done by Mrs. Eastman, one of
+her volumes being _Aunt Phyllis's Cabin_, a reply to Mrs. Stowe's _Uncle
+Tom's Cabin_.[165]
+
+Parts of the Sixth Infantry were garrisoned in Fort Snelling from 1848
+to 1852, and beginning in 1850 there was also a company of the First
+Dragoons who engaged in many of the expeditions narrated in the
+preceding chapter. Among the officers who commanded during this period
+was Lieutenant William T. Magruder, who was killed on July 3, 1863, at
+the Battle of Gettysburg while serving in the ranks of the Confederate
+army.[166] One company of the Third Artillery was located at the post
+from 1853 to 1856. At the head of this company was Captain W. T. Sherman
+who, after serving in the Indian wars and the Mexican War, rose to
+prominence in the Civil War during which he was brevetted a major
+general. After the Civil War he was appointed commander of the
+Department of the East.[167]
+
+Among the last troops which occupied Fort Snelling before it was
+abandoned in 1858 was a part of the Tenth Infantry. Major E. R. S. Canby
+of this regiment was in command of the fort during the summer and autumn
+of 1856. His was a wonderful record of achievement upon the frontier and
+in the Civil War, and like Colonel Leavenworth he met his death in
+service. Born in Kentucky the year that Fort Snelling was founded, he
+moved to Indiana as a boy. He was appointed to the Military Academy at
+West Point in 1835 and graduated in 1839. For the next three years he
+was engaged as a second lieutenant in the Second Infantry in the Florida
+War, and upon the successful termination of the campaigns he was
+employed in removing the Cherokees,  Choctaws, and Creeks to
+Indian Territory. After a few years in garrison duty and the recruiting
+service he participated in the Mexican War, being promoted "for gallant
+and meritorious service" at Contreras, Cherubusco, and the Belen Gate of
+the City of Mexico. On March 3, 1855, a promotion made him major in the
+Tenth Infantry; and it was while holding this position that he served at
+Fort Snelling.
+
+In 1858 Major Canby was transferred to Fort Bridger, Utah, where he
+commanded an expedition against the Navajo Indians. While stationed at
+Fort Defiance, New Mexico, during the early years of the Civil War, he
+repelled the Confederate general, Sibley, who left one-half of his force
+behind him in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On March 31, 1862, he was
+made a brigadier general of volunteers and summoned to Washington to
+assist Secretary of War Stanton. While here General Canby was called
+upon to take charge of a difficult position. Draft riots in New York
+City from July 13th to July 16th resulted in the killing and wounding of
+about a thousand people and the destruction of about one and a half
+million dollars worth of property.[168] On July 17th General Canby was
+put in charge of the Federal troops in the city, and he was later able
+to enforce the provisions of the draft without difficulties.[169]
+Following this came an appointment as commander of the military division
+of West Mississippi, where he was wounded by Confederate guerrillas.
+
+At the close of the war, Edward Canby, then a major general of
+volunteers was sent to the far West as commander of the Department of
+the Columbia. Here the United States was engaged in a war with the Modoc
+Indians led by their chief "Captain Jack". On April 11, 1873, General
+Canby held a peace parley with the Indians. It had been agreed that both
+parties should be unarmed, but in the middle of the negotiations
+"Captain Jack" suddenly drew a revolver from his breast, and shot Canby
+through the head killing him instantly.[170]
+
+
+Other officers at the post who had real power were the garrison
+physicians. One of these, Dr. John Emerson was a giant in body and
+impulsive in spirit. On a certain day in early winter when the
+quartermaster was distributing stoves to the officers, Dr. Emerson asked
+for one for his negro servant. This the quartermaster refused, saying
+that there were not enough in store; whereupon the doctor insinuated
+that the statement was a lie. Upon being insulted thus the quartermaster
+struck his companion between the eyes. Emerson turned on his heels
+immediately, but he returned in a few minutes with a brace of pistols
+which he pointed at his assailant. The fighting spirit of the
+quartermaster fell at the appearance of these weapons, and he started
+across the parade ground on a run followed by the doctor. A third
+character appeared in the person of Major Plympton, the commanding
+officer, who arrested Dr. Emerson. This episode gave rise to a great
+commotion in the garrison. One group who wanted some excitement
+urged that only in blood could the quarrel be settled; while the other
+group sought for peace, knowing that there was no other physician nearer
+than Prairie du Chien. Not for several days was the quarrel patched up,
+and then the terms were never made public.[171]
+
+The cause of all this trouble was Dred Scott, man of color, and the
+slave of Dr. Emerson. He had been brought to Fort Snelling by his master
+in 1836, and here he was married to Harriet, also colored, who had been
+sold by Major Taliaferro to the doctor. When Dr. Emerson was transferred
+to Missouri, he took Dred Scott with him. After the death of his master,
+Scott began proceedings in the courts for his freedom on the ground that
+his residence at the military post made him free--Fort Snelling being
+located on soil where slavery was prohibited by the Missouri Compromise
+of 1820. Mrs. Emerson, who wanted to avoid an appearance in the courts,
+made over the control of Scott to John F. A. Sanford, and the case was
+finally brought to the Supreme Court of the United States. Thus Old Fort
+Snelling was connected with the case of _Scott vs. Sanford_, which was
+so important among the events leading up to the Civil War.[172]
+
+
+Were battles and military operations alone considered, the annals of
+Fort Snelling would comprise few pages; and were only military men
+characterized one of the most potent factors in the life of the fort
+would be omitted. The influence of the fort on the Indians was
+felt more through the quiet daily work of the Indian agent who was their
+official friend. Although he was an officer entirely distinct from the
+military organization at the fort, his work may legitimately be
+accredited among the other activities of the post. He was, in fact, an
+army official. The act of August 7, 1789, which organized the War
+Department, placed Indian affairs in the hands of the Secretary;[173] on
+July 9, 1832, a commissioner of Indian affairs was authorized;[174] and
+on June 30, 1834, the relations of the Indian agents to the military
+department were more clearly defined. The Superintendent of Indian
+Affairs, the Indian agents, and the sub-agents were given the right to
+call upon the military forces to remove all trespassers in the Indian
+country, to procure the arrest and trial of all Indians accused of
+committing any crime, and to break up any distillery set up in the
+Indian country.[175]
+
+By the act of March 3, 1849, the Department of the Interior was
+organized. Section Five of the act stipulated that "the Secretary of the
+Interior shall exercise the supervisory and appellate powers now
+exercised by the Secretary of the War Department, in relation to all the
+acts of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs".[176] On the whole this law
+did not disturb the cooeperation between the two branches of the
+government service, although the commander at Fort Snelling intimated to
+the agent that his privileges were "not of right but by courtesy".[177]
+
+One name more than any other is associated with the agency at Fort
+Snelling--usually called the agency of St. Peter's. From 1820 to
+1840 regiments came and went, and the officers who ruled as "Lords of
+the North" were soon transferred to other posts. The military
+establishment was itself known by several different names in succession,
+but the Indian agent remained the same--Lawrence Taliaferro. His was a
+lasting influence--lasting because of the position he held in the
+memories of his wards and his associates, and lasting because of the
+records that he left.
+
+To the Indians he was a real "Father". Americans, Scotch, Sioux, and
+French could all find within his breast, they said, a kindred spirit,
+and they bestowed upon him the name of "Four Hearts" because of the
+impartiality of his actions to all nationalities.[178] In June, 1858, a
+number of Sioux chiefs were in Washington and came to see him. "My old
+Father," said Little Crow, "we have called upon you; we love you; we
+respect you.... Since you left us a dark cloud has hung over our nation.
+We have lost confidence in the promises of our Great Father, and his
+people; bad men have nearly destroyed us.... We failed to get a friend
+in anyone like you; they all joined the traders. We know your heart, it
+feels for your old children."[179]
+
+Those who were associated with him at the fort also had kind words for
+him. "He belonged to a class more common then than now", remarked the
+son of Colonel Bliss. "He imagined it to be his imperative duty to see
+that every Indian under his charge had the enjoyment of all his rights,
+and never seemed to realize his opportunities for arranging with
+contractors for the supply of inferior goods and for dividing the
+profits."[180] Of this honesty Taliaferro wrote: "I have the Sad
+Consolation of leaving after twenty Seven years--the public Service as
+poor as when first I entered--The only evidence of my integrity".[181]
+
+No one can write of Fort Snelling without using the papers which
+Lawrence Taliaferro left. The diary kept by him during these twenty
+years shows the meager pleasures and grim duties of his task. Of this
+diary only a few fragmentary pages are extant--three roughly bound
+collections of sheets, many of them torn, many of them half-burned, and
+their writing faded. But from almost every page that is legible some
+information is gleaned, concerning the life of the soldiers, the visits
+of the Indians, the state of the weather, and reflections on Indian
+relations and the best time for planting potatoes.[182] His wide
+acquaintance and the great extent of territory which his agency covered
+led to correspondence with many men. These letters also passed through a
+fire, and those that were rescued are now bound in four volumes.[183]
+
+His reports to General William Clark, Superintendent of Indian Affairs
+at St. Louis, were forwarded to Washington where they are now kept in
+the files of the Indian office.[184] With methodical care Governor Clark
+copied the letters which he received into letter books. The existence of
+these letter books was not known until a few years ago, when some
+of them were found in the hands of a junk dealer in Lawrence, Kansas,
+and were rescued--a great gain to the history of the West.[185]
+
+Many years after he closed his connection with the agency Lawrence
+Taliaferro wrote an "Autobiography"--a narrative that shows all the
+quaintness and egotism of the man. "Not until after the year 1840", he
+wrote "did the government become unfortunate in the selection of their
+agents for Indian affairs."[186] From this account can be gleaned
+information to supplement the bare facts usually given about his life.
+His ancestors had come to England from Genoa, Italy, and later they
+emigrated to Virginia. Here Lawrence Taliaferro was born on February 28,
+1794. At the age of eighteen he joined the army and served through the
+War of 1812, being a first lieutenant when it closed. Although he
+received no other promotion he was always known among his associates as
+"Major".[187]
+
+He was appointed Indian agent for St. Peter's on March 27, 1819, and on
+April 1, 1819, he accepted--resigning the same day from the army.[188]
+He reached his new station probably in the summer of 1820, and was
+immediately engaged in the duties connected with Indian affairs.[189]
+During his term of office he was continually troubled by ill-health
+which resulted from his campaigns in the late war. In 1824 he resigned
+because of this ill-health, and although he continued in service,
+Governor Clark at one time wrote to the Secretary of War that "his fate
+is considered as very doubtful."[190]
+
+As early as 1831 he confided to his diary that "there is something of a
+Combination of Persons at work day after day to pick at my Actions both
+public and private".[191] His resignation finally came in 1839, and he
+closed his connection with the Department on January 1, 1840, because he
+could no longer endure the machinations of the traders.[192] Thereafter
+he made his home at Bedford, Pennsylvania, serving as a military
+storekeeper from 1857 to 1863, when he was put on the retired list. Mr.
+Taliaferro visited his old home at Fort Snelling in 1856 and wrote
+characteristically: "We were in St. Paul on the twenty-fourth of June,
+the 'widow's son' was Irving's Rip Van Winkle; after a nap of fifteen
+years, we awoke in the midst of _fast_ times. We truly felt bewildered
+when we found all the haunts and resting-places of the once noble sons
+of the forest, covered by cities, towns, and hamlets. We asked but few
+questions, being to our mind received as a strange animal; if nothing
+worse."[193]
+
+
+Among the others who served before 1858 as Indian agent were Amos J.
+Bruce, R. G. Murphy, and Nathaniel McLean. The influx of whites had
+greatly increased the difficulties of their position, and the memory of
+their former agent made the Indians suspicious of their new advisers.
+The Governor of the Territory became the Superintendent of Indian
+Affairs, and his presence so near the agency took from the agent much of
+his power.[194]
+
+Scott Campbell, the interpreter at Fort Snelling,  was the
+intermediary between the Indians and their lords. He was a half-breed
+whom Meriwether Lewis had met on his expedition up the Missouri River.
+He took the boy with him back to St. Louis; and when Lewis died,
+Campbell returned to his Sioux relatives and finally drifted to the
+agency at Fort Snelling.[195] Having a knowledge of four languages, and
+possessing the confidence of all the tribes within four hundred miles of
+the post, he was indispensable. From August, 1825, to April, 1826, he
+was engaged in the fur trade, but was lured back into service by a
+salary of thirty-four dollars per month and one ration per day. By 1843,
+however, he had become such a drunkard that he had to be dismissed.[196]
+
+The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, in recalling early days wrote that
+"Scott Campbell no longer sits smoking his long pipe, and conversing in
+low tones with the listless loungers around the old Agency House; but
+who that resided in this country thirty or forty years ago can pass by
+the old stone houses near Fort Snelling and not think of Major
+Taliaferro and of his interpreter?"[197]
+
+And who can pass the Old Round Tower without thinking of those men who
+as officers at Fort Snelling ruled supreme over a vast region, and who
+left the fort for places of greater trust and greater influence?
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+A SOLDIER'S WORLD
+
+
+Instead of a world of city streets and country towns, of tilled fields
+and rivers busy with commerce, the raw recruit at Old Fort Snelling
+entered upon a world of stone barracks and Indian tepees, of tangled
+prairies and rushing rivers.[198] The landing was directly under the
+cliff which towered above to a height which to many a wanderer in a
+frail canoe seemed twice the one hundred and six feet which the
+scientist's instruments ascribed to it.[199] In later years a stairway
+led to the quarters of the commanding officer, but the wagon road which
+crept upwards along the sandstone wall--"nearly as white as
+loaf-sugar"[200]--where the swallows flew in and out from their holes,
+gained the summit at the rear of the fort.
+
+Following the road through the gate, and passing between the buildings
+to the center of the parade ground, the recruit probably paused to look
+about him.[201] Visible in the openings between the buildings was the
+stone wall about ten feet high which surrounded the barracks, quarters,
+and storehouses. This wall took the place of the picket-stockade which
+was so prominent a feature in earlier and ruder fortifications.
+Conforming to the arrangement of the buildings which it enclosed, the
+wall was diamond-shaped,  one point being at the edge of the
+promontory where the valley of the Minnesota River met that of the
+Mississippi River. A second point was on the edge of the steep bluff
+which rose from the Mississippi. A third point, at a distance of about
+four hundred and fifty feet directly opposite the second, was on the
+summit of the Minnesota bluff. The fourth point was situated on the
+level ground of the plateau, at a distance of about seven hundred feet
+from the first point.
+
+As he stood in the middle of the parade ground and gazed beyond the pump
+and the magazine at the western or fourth point, the recruit saw rising
+to a height twice that of the wall, the Old Round Tower. To-day this
+tower is a vine-clad relic--a vestige remaining from the days of the
+past. But to the soldier of Old Fort Snelling it was a more practical
+structure--a place of lookout from which he was often to scan the swells
+of the prairie for approaching Indians or returning comrades. At the
+second and third points were blockhouses--buildings of stone, each
+giving a view of the river below it. At the first point there was also a
+tower--a wooden lookout platform at the very edge of the precipice from
+which was visible the landscape surrounding the fort.
+
+But the soldier was doubtless more interested in the buildings in which
+he was to live. The barracks for the men were under the north wall and
+consisted of two buildings one story in height. The larger of these,
+which was intended to accommodate two companies was divided
+into sets, each set having on the main floor an orderly-room and three
+squad-rooms, while below in the basement were a mess-room and a kitchen.
+The other barrack was intended to be occupied by one company only; and
+the orderly-room, squad-rooms, mess-rooms, and a kitchen were on the
+same floor. The cellars below were damp and were used only for storage
+purposes.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF OLD FORT SNELLING
+
+From a survey by Captain Arthur Williams, reproduced in the _Collections
+of the Minnesota Historical Society_, Vol. VIII, opposite p. 430]
+
+Occupying the same position under the south wall, and facing the
+barracks, were two other buildings, similar in appearance. In one of
+these the officers' quarters were located. It was divided into twelve
+sets, each consisting of two rooms, the front one sixteen by fourteen
+feet, and the back one, eight by fifteen and a half feet. In the
+basement were located kitchens for each set. The other building
+contained the offices of the commanding officer, the paymaster, the
+quartermaster, and the commissary. Here was a room used by the post
+school, and another filled with harness. An ordnance sergeant and five
+laundresses found quarters in the same structure.
+
+The quarters of the commanding officer with the flag staff directly in
+front, faced the parade ground and the Old Round Tower. There were four
+rooms on the main floor and in the basement were kitchens and pantries.
+Other buildings were also included within the fort. The storehouse of
+the commissary department was located near the southern blockhouse; and
+on either side of the gate were two buildings, shunned by all--the
+guardhouse and the hospital.
+
+Such was the plan of the fort, convenient in arrangement and beautiful
+in appearance; but the report of an official inspection in 1827
+complained that "the main points of _defence against an enemy_ appear to
+have been in some respects sacrificed in the effort to secure the
+comfort and convenience of the troops in peace. These are important
+considerations; but at an exposed frontier post the primary object must
+be _security against the attack of an enemy_. Health and comfort come
+next. The buildings are too large, too numerous, and extending over a
+space entirely too great; enclosing a uselessly large parade, five times
+greater than is at all desirable in that climate."[202]
+
+A traveller who at a later day was entertained within the fort wrote of
+it facetiously in these words: "The idea is further suggested, that the
+strong stone wall was rather erected to keep the garrison in, than the
+enemy out. Though adapted for mounting cannon if needful, the walls were
+unprovided with those weapons; and the only piece of ordnance that I
+detected out of the magazine, was an old churn thrust gallantly through
+one of the embrasures. We were however far from complaining of the extra
+expense and taste which the worthy officer whose name it bears had
+expended on the erection of Fort Snelling, as it is in every way an
+addition to the sublime landscape in which it is situated."[203]
+
+But an examination of the contents of the magazine would have revealed
+weapons more formidable than churns. Among the equipment reported in
+ 1834 one reads of two iron twelve-pounder cannon of the garrison
+type; three six-pounder iron cannon of the field type; and two five and
+eight-tenths inch iron howitzers. There was also equipment for these
+pieces of artillery--carriages, sponges and rammers, lead aprons, dark
+lanterns, gunners' belts, gunners' haversacks, and tarpaulins. There
+were stored ready for service, 440 balls for the twelve-pounders, 1255
+balls for the six-pounders, 546 pounds of mixed loose grapeshot, and
+many other sizes of strapped and canister shot. For the use of the
+infantry there were 7749 musket flints, 1825 pounds of musket powder,
+1513 pounds of rifle powder, 31,390 cartridges, and 2047 blank
+cartridges.[204]
+
+Other structures closely connected with the work of the fort were
+located outside the wall. The buildings of the Indian agency were
+situated a quarter of a mile west, on the prairie.[205] These consisted
+of a council house, the agent's house, and an armorer's shop. The
+original council house was built by the troops in 1823, but Agent
+Taliaferro claimed that most of the inside work was done at his own
+expense. The building was of logs and stone, eighty-two feet long,
+eighteen feet wide, and presenting in the front a piazza of seventy
+feet. Within, there were six rooms, lined with pine planking and
+separated from each other by panel doors.[206]
+
+At one o'clock on the morning of August 14, 1830, the sentinels at the
+fort discovered that the council house was on fire. But the flames had
+gained so much headway that it was impossible to save any of the
+contents. The interpreter and his family who lived in this building
+barely escaped with their lives. In reporting the loss to the
+superintendent, Major Taliaferro wrote that "the general impression here
+is that fire was put to the house by Some drunken Indians &
+circumstances are strong in justifying such a conclusion."[207] This
+surmise was right, for on April 7, 1831, the Indians delivered at the
+fort one of their number who they claimed was guilty of the act.[208]
+
+That steps were taken to build a new council house is evident from the
+record in Taliaferro's diary under date of March 8, 1831, that four men
+had been hired "at $12 per Month to cut & carry timber out of the pine
+Swamp for the Agency Council House."[209] But in 1839 Taliaferro
+recommended that the agency be moved to a point seven miles up the
+river; and in 1841 there was a movement on foot to buy Baker's stone
+trading house for the same purpose.[210]
+
+Near the location of the old council house were two other buildings. One
+of these was the agent's house. This was made entirely of stone, and was
+one and a half stories high. It contained four rooms and a passage on
+the lower floor and two rooms above.[211] Hastily built by troops at an
+early day, its comforts were few. "Since the Rainy Season Set in",
+complained the agent in 1834, "both the hired Men and Myself have not
+had a Spot in our houses that Could be called dry, Not even our
+beds".[212] An armorer's shop, where blacksmith work was done for the
+Indians, was made of logs and measured sixteen by eighteen feet.
+Nearer the fort was the home of Franklin Steele, the sutler of the
+post.[213]
+
+At Camp Cold Water, B. F. Baker had erected a large stone trading house,
+which in 1841 was valued at six thousand dollars. While he had no legal
+title to the land on which this house was built, the officers at the
+post allowed him to remain. Later it was sold to Kenneth McKenzie, who
+in 1853 built an addition, renovated the entire building, and used it as
+a hotel. In the vicinity of this structure were several small huts which
+had been the homes of some squatters on the reservation. But after their
+expulsion these huts rapidly fell into decay.[214]
+
+In his duties and recreations the soldier was often brought into touch
+with other features of the world about him--the points of scenic
+interest and the Indian villages. From the wooden lookout tower near the
+commanding officer's quarters a glimpse of the surrounding land was
+revealed.
+
+"The view from the angle of the wall at the extreme point, is highly
+romantic", wrote one who saw the wild scene before civilization had left
+its traces on the landscape. "To your left lies the broad deep valley of
+the Mississippi, with the opposite heights, descending precipitously to
+the water's edge; and to the right and in front, the St. Peter's, a
+broad stream, worthy from its size, length of course, and the number of
+tributaries which it receives, to be called the Western Fork of the
+Great River itself. It is seen flowing through a comparatively open
+vale, with swelling hills and intermingling forest and prairie,
+for many miles above the point of junction. As it approaches the
+Mississippi, the volume of water divides into two branches; that on the
+right pursues the general course of the river above, and enters the
+Mississippi, at an angle of perhaps fifty degrees, directly under the
+walls of the fort; while the other, keeping to the base of the high
+prairie lands which rise above it to a notable summit called the Pilot
+Knob, enters the Mississippi lower down. The triangular island thus
+formed between the rivers lies immediately under the fort. Its level
+surface is partially cultivated, but towards the lower extremity thickly
+covered with wood. Beyond their junction, the united streams are seen
+gliding at the base of high cliffs into the narrowing valley below.
+Forests, and those of the most picturesque character, interspersed with
+strips of prairie, clothe a great portion of the distant view.
+
+"A little cluster of trading houses is situated on the right branch of
+the St. Peter's, and here and there on the shores, and on the island,
+you saw the dark conical tents of the wandering Sioux. A more striking
+scene we had not met with in the United States, and hardly any that
+could vie with it for picturesque beauty, even at this unfavourable
+season. What must it be in spring, when the forests put forth their
+young leaves, and the prairies are clothed in verdure!"[215]
+
+This "little cluster of trading houses" was the town of Mendota. Here
+was the stone house of Henry H. Sibley, and that of J. B. Faribault.
+Near the river was the ferry house and the home of Mr. Finley the
+ferryman.[216] Upon the hillside lay the little Catholic chapel,
+surrounded by the graves in the cemetery. But the center of interest was
+in the warehouse and store of the American Fur Company, where the skins
+of buffalo, elk, deer, fox, beaver, otter, muskrat, mink, martin,
+raccoon, and other animals were sorted and divided into packs weighing
+about a hundred pounds. Indians, Frenchmen, half-breeds, and restless
+wanderers from the East were always loitering about the
+establishment.[217]
+
+From the fort a road led along the Mississippi to the Falls of St.
+Anthony, on the way crossing Minnehaha Creek on the bridge built in
+early days by the soldiers. Here a stop was made to view the beauty of
+the cascade then known as Little Falls or Brown's Falls. It was the
+common practice for travellers to descend to the foot of the falls,
+clinging to the shrubs along the slippery pathway, and then go behind
+the sheet of falling water.[218] Continuing, at a distance of eight
+miles up the Mississippi from the fort, the Falls of St. Anthony was
+reached. Although only sixteen feet high, the breadth of almost six
+hundred yards, broken in the middle by a rocky island gave to it an
+impressive majesty, and the thick vegetation on the island and banks
+returned a gloomy reflection from the whirling waters.[219]
+
+It is no wonder that in that wild and picturesque locality the Indians
+saw things ghostly and supernatural. "They tell you that here a young
+Dacota mother, goaded by jealousy,--the husband [sic] of her
+children having taken another wife,--unmoored her canoe above the Great
+Fall, and seating herself and her children in it,--sang her death song,
+and went over the foaming acclivity in the face and amid the shrieks of
+her tribe. And often, the Indian believes, when the nights are calm, and
+the sky serene,--and the dew-drops are hanging motionless on the sprays
+of the weeping birch on the island,--and the country far and wide is
+vibrating to the murmur of the cataract,--that then the misty form of
+the young mother may be seen moving down the deceitful current above,
+while her song is heard mingling its sad notes with the lulling sound of
+'the Laughing Water!'"[220]
+
+Here at the Falls, on the west bank of the river, were three buildings:
+a saw mill, a grist mill, and a one-story frame dwelling, where a
+detachment of soldiers always remained to guard the property. The saw
+mill had provided much of the lumber used in the construction of the
+fort, and in the grist mill the corn was cracked that was fed during the
+winter to the cattle--a drove being delivered every fall for the use of
+the garrison. These buildings were still standing in 1858, although they
+were then in a bad state of decay.[221]
+
+Among the lakes on the prairie the most important were the Lake of the
+Isles, Lake Calhoun, and Lake Harriet. These were favorite picnic and
+hunting grounds for the men and women of the garrison. An old map made
+in 1823 shows "Green's Villa" on Lake Calhoun--probably a hunting lodge
+or shelter built by Lieutenant Platt Rogers Green.[222] Here on
+Lake Calhoun was located the missionary establishment which was so
+closely connected with the life of the fort.[223]
+
+There were other Indian villages near the fort. Nine miles below, on the
+bank of the Mississippi was the Sioux village of Kaposia. Here
+Wakinyantanka, or Big Thunder, reigned over his band which numbered one
+hundred and eighty-three in 1834. Two or three miles upstream from its
+mouth on the banks of the Minnesota was the group of wigwams called
+Black Dog's village, although the chief was Wamditanka or Big Eagle.
+About nine miles from Fort Snelling was Pinisha, reported as having one
+hundred and forty-eight inhabitants ruled over by Good Road. The largest
+group, three hundred and sixty-eight souls, was that of the Tintatonwan
+band, located twenty-four miles from Fort Snelling and near the present
+town of Shakopee. Shapaydan or Shakpay was the chief, the father of the
+warrior of the same name who was executed at Fort Snelling for
+participating in the Sioux massacre of 1862.[224]
+
+These villages were very much the same in appearance, large bark lodges
+being occupied by the Indians in the summer. The villages swarmed with
+children, squaws, painted warriors, and yelping dogs. About the lodges
+were the corn fields, the scaffolds where the corn was dried, and the
+more mournful scaffolds where, wrapped in buffalo skins, reposed the
+bones of the hunters who had followed the milky way to the "Land of the
+Ghosts".[225]
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+GLIMPSES OF GARRISON LIFE
+
+
+What sort of a life did the soldier live in the barracks and on the
+parade ground, and in the world of prairies, rivers, and woods that lay
+about him? No person who was ever quartered within the walls of Old Fort
+Snelling seems to have left an account of what was included in the tasks
+and recreations of a day. Doubtless the routine duties repeated day
+after day were thought too ordinary to be worth recording. The pleasures
+were so simple and came so much as a matter of course that they also
+receive scant mention in the annals of the fort. It is from the _General
+Regulations for the Army_ that one gets the daily program of a military
+post; and the few fragmentary pages of Taliaferro's diary and letters,
+together with the stray remarks of travellers and pioneers, indicate the
+joys and sorrows of a very human garrison.[226]
+
+No sooner was dawn visible over the Mississippi bluffs than the
+musicians of the post were summoned to the parade ground and five
+minutes later the _reveille_ was sounded. At the signal both officers
+and men arose. Soon the rolls of the companies were called in front of
+the quarters; the quarters were put in order; the ground in front swept;
+and the horses fed and watered. At eight-thirty the sick in the
+barracks were taken to the hospital, and at nine o'clock breakfast was
+served, preceded by a second roll-call. Then the various tasks of the
+day were performed under the direction of a captain or subaltern daily
+detailed as the "officer of the day".
+
+A party termed the "General Fatigue" swept the entire parade
+ground--unless there were enough prisoners in the guard house to perform
+this unpleasant duty. A police guard furnished sentinels to watch over
+the prisoners, the colors, the quarters of the commanding officer, and
+the arms of the regiment. Other soldiers were posted at the front and
+the rear of the fort. Certain detachments were formed for reconnoitering
+and foraging--the nature of the tasks depending on the season of the
+year and the needs of the garrison.
+
+At three o'clock in the afternoon the third roll-call was followed by
+dinner; and thirty minutes before sunset the music called out the
+regiment for dress parade, where various maneuvers were gone through and
+orders were read. After the parade, when the regiment was again in its
+quarters, the arms were placed in the arm-racks, the horses attended to,
+a fifth roll-call endured, and tattoo sounded. Then the lights were
+extinguished and all were expected to be quiet for the night.
+
+This monotony of the daily program was equalled only by the monotony of
+the meals. The regulation diet prescribed by Congress in 1802 consisted
+of a pound and a quarter of beef, or three-quarters of a pound of
+pork; eighteen ounces of bread or flour; one gill of rum, whiskey, or
+brandy; and for every hundred rations were supplied two quarts of salt,
+four quarts of vinegar, four pounds of soap, and one pound and a half of
+candles. In 1832 coffee and sugar were substituted for the liquor.[227]
+
+During the early years of Fort Snelling these supplies were brought from
+St. Louis in flatboats. With the development of steamboat traffic, the
+steamboat was utilized, but it did not entirely displace the earlier
+method. Difficulties often hindered the transportation of supplies. The
+summer of 1829 was extremely dry. The average monthly rainfall was less
+than an inch, and steamboat navigation was impossible. Even keelboats
+found difficulty in ascending the river; sixty days were spent by
+Lieutenant Reynolds in bringing up a load of supplies. A sand bar at
+Pine Bend was impassable, so half of the load was taken off and the rest
+hurried up the river. When the crew arrived the garrison was upon its
+last barrel of flour.[228]
+
+"Bread and soup", runs a clause in the _General Regulations for the
+Army_, "are the great items of a soldier's diet, in every
+situation".[229] The bread was made from the wheat grown by the
+soldiers, and was ground in the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony. For
+some reason the crop of 1823 had become mouldy and the bread was black
+and bitter. When forced to eat it, the troops almost mutinied, bringing
+it out upon the parade ground and throwing it down.[230] Nor does it
+seem likely that the soup was more appetizing when one reads the
+following recipe which guided the company cooks: "To make soup, put into
+the vessel at the rate of five pints of water to a pound of fresh meat;
+apply a quick heat to make it boil promptly; skim off the foam, and then
+moderate the fire; salt is then put in, according to the palate. Add the
+vegetables of the season one or two hours, and sliced bread some
+minutes, before the simmering is ended. When the broth is sensibly
+reduced in quantity, that is, after five or six hours cooking, the
+process will be complete."[231]
+
+Fortunately the soldier did not have to depend entirely on these
+rations. Out of his modest cash income of six dollars per month he could
+buy at the sutler's store small necessities and some luxuries. The
+sutler was the authorized merchant of the post, and in order that his
+monopoly might not lead him to demand unreasonable sums for his wares,
+the prices were fixed by a "council of administration" composed of three
+officers. For every officer and enlisted soldier serving at the post the
+sutler paid into the "post fund", from ten to fifteen cents per month.
+This sum was to be used for the relief of the widows or orphans of
+soldiers, the maintenance of a post school and band, and the purchase of
+books for a library.[232]
+
+The books of Franklin Steele, who was the sutler at Fort Snelling from
+1838 to 1858, may still be examined; and from their dreary lists of
+accounts, the human wants of a soldier at Old Fort Snelling are clearly
+indicated.[233] On March 12, 1849, Private Brown bought a pound
+of currants and a pound of raisins for fifty cents. Shoes, soap, and
+currants totalled $1.50 on April 7th; and on March 20th, two pounds of
+butter sold for thirty cents and a pound of cheese for forty-two cents.
+Private Ryerson had more varied needs. On March 7th, 1849, he purchased
+indigo; on March 16th, paper; on April 9th, alcohol and suspenders; five
+days later, needles and sugar; and on April 23rd, apples, butter, and a
+tin cup. The quiet waters in the neighboring lakes tempted Eli Pettijohn
+on a spring day in 1855 to invest $2.50 in "Fishing Tackel".
+
+That the officers did not live upon the same fare as the soldiers is
+indicated by the entries under the title "Officers Mess". On July 31,
+1855, there was purchased ten cents worth of cloves, ten cents worth of
+pepper, and ninety-five cents worth of cheese. Under the date of August
+8th "Bread tickets" were purchased to the amount of one dollar; and on
+August 30th, fifty cents worth of "Yeast Powd'r" was charged to their
+account.
+
+Saint and sinner both patronized this store. The Reverend Ezekiel Gear,
+who was the chaplain at the fort, evidently believed that cleanliness
+was next to godliness, for on July 31, 1855, he paid thirty cents for a
+scrub brush; on August 4th, he bought a broom for fifty cents; on August
+30th, he purchased twenty-five cents worth of starch, and on October
+19th, a large broom. Indulging in some luxuries, on August 2nd, 1855, he
+bought five cents worth of candy. Probably this was a treat for those
+ two boys, his son and his grandson, whom a visitor two years
+later found sleeping in the little cemetery at Morgan's Bluff near the
+fort, their resting place marked by a rude slab with a Latin
+inscription: "Lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in death not
+divided."[234]
+
+None the less clearly is the character of Sergeant Mahoney portrayed in
+these accounts. On July 31, 1855, it is recorded under his name: "1
+Flask $.75". On August 20th, the same officer paid seventy-five cents
+for a bottle of cider. And the chaplain would have had an excellent
+illustration for his next sermon on intemperance if he could have read,
+as we can to-day, this melancholy note made in the sutler's book on
+October 17th: "Sergeant Mahoney, Cash Loaned 20.00".
+
+There was need for sermons on intemperance. During the early years
+whiskey was issued as a part of the soldier's ration, and this only
+served to stimulate the desire for more. The class of men in the army
+was not always of the highest, and there were enough civilians who were
+willing to pander to their appetites. The following extract from
+Taliaferro's diary for March 22, 1831, is undoubtedly characteristic of
+many a forgotten episode: "Nothing of importance transpired this day.
+Two drunken Soldiers in crossing the SPeters broke through the Ice &
+were near being drowned. They were exceeding alarmed & made a hedious
+Noise & yelling for Assistance--the men from the Fort relieved them
+although late at night." Not always was assistance on hand in
+such circumstances. A report was made in March, 1840, of a certain
+officer who "disappeared on the evening of the 5th of March, supposed to
+have been drowned by falling through the ice."[235]
+
+Drunkenness and absence from roll-call were among the infractions of
+rules for which punishment was most often inflicted. The character and
+severity of the punishment depended upon the mood of the commanding
+officer. Colonel Snelling, who was usually a very gentle man, was
+particularly severe in his treatment of offenders. "He would take them
+to his room", wrote one who spent several years in the Snelling
+household, "and compel them to strip, when he would flog them
+unmercifully. I have heard them beg him to spare them, 'for God's
+sake.'"[236] This punishment by flogging was often performed with a
+"cat"--an instrument made of nine thongs about eighteen inches long,
+knotted in every inch, and attached to a small stick. When the culprit
+was stripped to the waist and tied to the flagstaff, the drummers took
+turns in applying the "cat" to the bare back.[237]
+
+Other officers used less painful methods. Thus, Major Loomis was known
+as "Old Ring", since his favorite punishment was to place a log of wood
+upon the prisoner's shoulder and compel him to walk around and around in
+a circle under the vigilant eye of a sentinel. To Major John Bliss, who
+was in command at Fort Snelling from 1833 to 1836, the name "Black
+Starvation" might well have been applied. The negro servant, Hannibal,
+who clandestinely sold spruce beer to the soldiers was confined
+in the Black Hole for forty-eight hours; and Private Kelly, who refused
+to do his part in the fatigue party spent more than seventy-two hours in
+the Black Hole before the pangs of starvation persuaded him to promise
+Major Bliss to be good in the future.[238] On one occasion, which may be
+taken as typical of usual conditions, out of a total garrison of three
+hundred and twenty-nine, twenty-six were confined in prison. But at
+another time the commanding officer could report: "No Convicts at this
+Post".[239]
+
+The severity of the military rules and the monotony of the life led to
+two undesirable consequences--mutinies and desertions. Of the former
+there is apparently no description, and the brief entry in Taliaferro's
+diary for February 3, 1831, leaves much to the imagination: "Mutiny of
+Most of the Troops of the 1st Infantry, Stationed at Fort Snelling this
+Morning".[240] What grievances led to the uprising on that wintry day,
+and by what diplomacy or by what punishments it was put down, are
+unrecorded.
+
+Concerning the extent of desertions there is specific information
+regarding three years. Desertion was prevalent in the army at this time,
+and in order to provide methods of combating it the Secretary of War
+presented to Congress a great deal of information covering the years
+from 1823 to 1825.[241] During these three years there were stationed at
+Fort Snelling an aggregate of two hundred and fifty-one soldiers in
+1823; three hundred and thirty-five in 1824;  and two hundred and
+forty-six in 1825.[242] Of these, six deserted in 1823, eight in 1824,
+and twenty-nine in 1825. In this total of forty-three desertions,
+fifteen left in their first year of service, seventeen in the second,
+eighteen in the third, one in the fourth, and two in the fifth.
+Interesting facts regarding the kind of men who lived at the old
+frontier post can be gleaned from the data presented. Most of them were
+between the ages of twenty-one and thirty. In occupation there were
+laborers, farmers, painters, shoemakers, papermakers, wheelwrights,
+jewellers, and brewers. Among these forty-three, twenty-six were born in
+the United States, five in Ireland, two in Scotland, one in France, one
+in Holland, and one in Canada.
+
+The soldier who sought freedom by stealthily climbing over the stone
+wall of Fort Snelling and appropriating some canoe drawn up on the river
+bank, left monotony and discipline behind him; but in doing so he faced
+many dangers. There was no settlement nearer than Prairie du Chien--a
+military establishment. Indians were not afraid to injure those whom
+they knew to be deserters. A certain man by the name of Dixon who
+deserted was captured by Indians who brought him back to Fort Snelling
+and received a reward of twenty dollars. Dixon was court-martialed and
+sentenced to receive fifty lashes from the "cat" and then to be drummed
+out of the Fort.[243] Four soldiers who escaped were killed by the
+Indians of Red Wing's band, and their bodies were left on the
+shores of Lake Pepin, where they were later found half-eaten by the
+birds.[244]
+
+Sickness and death reduced the number on duty at the post. From the
+doctor the sick received professional aid. In 1826 when the force at
+Fort Snelling amounted to three hundred and twenty-nine men there were
+in the hospital one subaltern, one non-commissioned officer, one
+musician, and fifteen privates. That Fort Snelling was at a healthful
+location is indicated by the fact that during the same period at Fort
+Atkinson, with a force of only one hundred more, there was a total of
+one hundred and twenty-five sick persons.[245]
+
+The number of deaths was proportionately small. In the year ending on
+September 30, 1823, there was only one death; the next year the toll was
+the same; and in 1825 it amounted to five.[246] On the occasion of a
+funeral six men, detailed from those of the same rank as the deceased,
+carried the coffin to the little cemetery outside the fort. A salute was
+fired over the grave and the band played solemn music, the drums being
+covered with black crepe. The mounds in the cemetery, unmarked by any
+stones, were soon obliterated; but if the departed soldier had been a
+cheerful companion his barrack-songs were missed by his comrades, and
+many friends, half-way across a continent, would mourn for one who was
+lying in an unknown grave, "somewhere in the West".[247]
+
+On account of monotonous drills and tedious routine, any pretext to go
+into the Indian country was hailed with delight. The bustle,
+excitement, and troubles connected with the departure of these
+expeditions are best described by Mrs. Seth Eastman, who as the wife of
+the commanding officer had often waved farewell to the departing
+company.[248]
+
+"Now for excitement, the charm of garrison life. Officers are of course
+always ready to 'go where glory waits' them, but who ever heard of one
+being ready to go when the order came?
+
+"Alas! for the young officer who has a wife to leave; it will be weeks
+before he meets again her gentle smile!
+
+"Still more--alas for him who has no wife at all! for he has not a shirt
+with buttons on it, and most of what he has are in the wash. He will
+have to borrow of Selden; but here's the difficulty, Selden is going
+too, and is worse off than himself. But no matter! What with pins and
+twine and trusting to chance, they will get along.
+
+"Then the married men are inquiring for tin reflectors, for hard bread,
+though healthy, is never tempting. India rubber cloaks are in
+requisition too.
+
+"Those who are going, claim the doctor in case of accidents. Those who
+stay, their wives at least, want him for fear of measles; while the
+disciple of Esculapius, though he knows there will be better cooking if
+he remain at home, is certain there will be food for fun if he go. It is
+soon decided--the doctor goes.
+
+"Then the privates share in the pleasure of the day. How should a
+soldier be employed but in active service? besides, what a capital
+chance to desert! One, who is tired of calling 'All's well' through the
+long night, with only the rocks and trees to hear him, hopes that it
+will be his happy fate to find out there is danger near, and to give the
+alarm. Another vows, that if trouble wont come, why he will bring it by
+quarrelling with the first rascally Indian he meets. All is ready.
+Rations are put up for the men;--hams, buffalo tongues, pies and cake
+for the officers. The batallion marches out to the sound of the drum and
+fife;--they are soon down the hill--they enter their boats;
+handkerchiefs are waved from the fort, caps are raised and flourished
+over the water--they are almost out of sight--they are gone."
+
+Apart from these trips abroad and the stated drills and terms of guard
+duty the tasks which occupied the time of the soldiers depended upon the
+season of the year. A general order of September 11, 1818, had commanded
+the making of gardens at all the military posts.[249] In the fall of
+1819 when the temporary cabins at New Hope Cantonment had been built,
+the soldiers began ploughing for the crop of the next summer.[250] Major
+Long, in 1823, found two hundred and ten acres under cultivation--one
+hundred of wheat, sixty of maize, fifteen of oats, fourteen of potatoes,
+and twenty acres in gardens.[251] All through the history of Old Fort
+Snelling the soldiers were employed as farmers. A visitor in 1852
+observed that "its garrison is rather deficient in active
+employment, and we noticed a number of the rank and file taking exercise
+in a large corn and vegetable field attached to the Fort. It was
+certainly not exactly soldierly employment, but it was more manly, to
+our mind, than shooting and stabbing at $8 a month, and no question
+asked."[252]
+
+For the horses and cattle kept at the fort a great deal of hay was
+necessary for the winter months. This was obtained from the broad
+prairies of the military reservation. A group of men called the "Hay
+Party" were employed during the summer in cutting and stacking the long
+grass. But one officer was of the opinion that this task caused
+discontent--the enlisted man was no more than a common laborer and hence
+he lost the pride of a soldier.
+
+The diverse tasks at which a soldier might be called to labor are
+indicated by a summary of the employment of the troops in 1827. Seven
+soldiers were acting as teamsters, five were performing carpenters'
+duties, two were quarrying stone, two men and a sergeant composed the
+party guarding the mills at the Falls of St. Anthony, and eight others
+were "Procuring forage by order of Col. Snelling".[253]
+
+Summer brought its own pleasures as well as duties. At Lake Calhoun,
+Lake Harriet, Lake of the Isles, and Minnehaha Falls, many were the
+picnics held when visitors came to the garrison.[254] Swan, geese, and
+ducks were numerous about the lakes and swamps, and with the famous
+hunter H. H. Sibley as a guide, the game bags were soon filled. During
+ a period of three years, Mr. Sibley, alone, shot 1798 ducks--a
+fact which indicates what success a soldier-sportsman could have in his
+few hours of recreation.[255]
+
+But it was when the prairies were impassable because of drifts of snow
+from six to fifteen feet high,[256] and when the course of the river
+could be traced only by a streak of white between the gray of its wooded
+banks that there appeared those features which are peculiar to the life
+of a remote garrison. The isolation was almost complete. There was no
+traffic upon the frozen river, and the traders were wintering in the
+Indian villages. Only through the mail was communication with the
+outside world possible. It was planned to have a monthly mail service,
+soldiers being sent to Prairie du Chien with the letters. Here they
+delivered about two-thirds of the mail to the persons to whom it was
+addressed and the rest was deposited in the post office.[257]
+
+In summer the mail was carried by the soldiers in canoes, but in winter
+the journey had to be made on foot. In summer the labor was lightened
+when a passing steamer overtook the rowing soldiers and picked up the
+canoe with its crew. In winter no such aid was possible. A hard day's
+tramp was followed by a night among the drifts, unless the tepee of some
+friendly Indian gave a temporary respite for a few hours.[258]
+
+Nor was this task free from perils. A system was arranged whereby a
+courier from Fort Snelling and one from Prairie du Chien set out at
+about the same time, meeting at Wabasha's village where the packs
+were exchanged and each returned to his own post. On one occasion a
+spring thaw overtook the carrier from Prairie du Chien, who had
+proceeded beyond the meeting place because the messenger from the north
+was late. Suddenly the ice groaned and cracked, and the postman with
+difficulty found safety on a small island where, to his great surprise,
+he found the postman from Fort Snelling who had been caught in the same
+manner. Their provisions soon gave out; for a while they had only
+rose-apples to eat. It was not until almost two weeks later that the two
+half-starved messengers were picked up by the canoes of some friendly
+Sioux.[259]
+
+Such accidents rendered the mail service uncertain, and it was with
+impatience that the watchers at the fort looked down the river for the
+coming of the news-carriers. On April 2, 1831, Taliaferro wrote: "The
+Express departed--4 men in a Skiff--to convey the Mail to the Post
+Office at Prairie du Chiens--our return Express daily expected." But
+they hoped too early and on April 5th it was recorded that "Our
+Express--1st which left for Prairie du Chiens on the 2d of March--has
+now been Absent more than a Month & progressing in the Seccond. We have
+not had inteligence from Washington City--since the 6th of December
+last". Not until April 10th did the mail arrive. But even when the
+messengers were safe in the fort it was not certain that they brought
+what was so eagerly looked for, as the entry on February 27th clearly
+shows:  "Lieut Williams & Mr Bailly returned this eveng from
+Prairie du Chiens but brought no Mail there having been no arrival since
+December."[260] It was during this winter that even Prairie du Chien was
+shut off from the outside, the amount of snow between Peoria and Prairie
+du Chien stopping the mail service for two months. Again and again
+during the winter months the commanding officer complained to
+headquarters that "no Orders have been received within the Month".[261]
+
+The duties of the soldiers during the winter were few. From the time it
+was built up to 1833 the quarters at Fort Snelling were heated by
+fireplaces. At that time, however, stoves were substituted.[262] Wood
+was used for fuel--to obtain which was a never-ending task in winter.
+When Captain Seth Eastman was in command at various periods from 1844 to
+1848 the garrison had to go from eight to ten miles for wood. The banks
+of the Minnesota River were bordered by a forest varying from one
+hundred to three hundred yards wide; but by 1858 all of this for a
+distance of twelve miles had been cleared off.[263]
+
+Colonel John H. Bliss, who was a boy at Fort Snelling when his father
+was in command during the thirties, wrote that the winters "were
+undeniably tedious, but had their uses; we had a good library, and I
+read a great deal, which has stood by me well; then there was of course
+much sociability among the officers, and a great deal of playing of
+cards, dominoes, checkers, and chess. The soldiers, too, would
+get up theatrical performances every fortnight or so, those taking
+female parts borrowing dresses from the soldiers' wives, and making a
+generous sacrifice to art of their cherished whiskers and
+mustaches."[264]
+
+During October, 1836, Inspector General George Croghan visited Fort
+Snelling, and on the evening of the seventh of the month the Thespian
+Players presented _Monsieur Tonson_ in his honor. And here, far from
+city streets and French barbers, on a rude stage, Jack Ardourly fell in
+love with the beautiful Adolphine de Courcy--who probably only a few
+hours before had been hurrying to finish a task of cleaning guns so that
+she could call on the generous women of the garrison and beg from them
+capes and bonnets and hoops skirts![265]
+
+Many of the officers were graduates of West Point, and their wives were
+from the best families of the East and South. On January 20, 1831, the
+ladies and gentlemen of the garrison had a party at the fort. "The room
+was tastefully decorated--- and the evening passed pleasantly". On
+February 22nd of the same year the quarters of the commanding officer
+were the scene of another party in commemoration of Washington's
+birthday.[266]
+
+Efforts were made to provide for the education of the children of the
+fort. Mrs. Snelling at first taught her own children; but it is evident
+that there was soon a tutor, as the correspondence of Colonel Snelling
+shows that John Marsh received his board and seventy-five dollars for
+acting as tutor during the winter of 1823-1824. This schoolmaster
+also carried the mail to Prairie du Chien in return for forty
+dollars.[267] Soon after the appointment of a regular chaplain in 1838
+the post school was more thoroughly organized.[268]
+
+Occasionally there was some excitement at the fort. During the month of
+February in 1831 there was an epidemic of fires. First, the officers row
+of buildings caught on fire in the room of Lieutenant Greenough on
+February 10th. On the next day a second fire broke out; and on February
+24th the agency house took fire both from the inside and the outside in
+such a manner that it was evident that an incendiary had been at
+work.[269]
+
+But such events were of unusual occurrence. A letter written at Fort
+Snelling on February 11, 1842, pictures the usual winter life. "We of
+the garrison are as usual at this season rather dull, stale &
+unprofitable--small parties for Tea are a good deal the fashion, &
+tattle is used as formerly. Indian Ball plays are coming in season. One
+comes off today in which stacks of property are to be invested. The
+Sioux have been hunting about Rum River this winter and have killed
+great numbers of Dear--Our winter has been mild, one day only 30 below
+zero, and the rest comfortable.... Tonight Mumford gives a Soiree to the
+good folks of the garrison and this is the most exciting event of the
+week. What is the use of writing to you as I cannot find enough
+wherewith to fill two pages."[270]
+
+Such close confinement was tolerable when the garrison was
+composed of congenial spirits, but occasionally it brought about
+dissensions and quarrels. Taliaferro on one occasion wrote that the
+"Society here is not in the most pleasant State from a System of tatling
+which has been reduced to a Science--not to be envied."[271]
+Occasionally open encounters took place. One soldier stabbed another
+with a butcher's knife, and the victim died.[272] In February, 1826, two
+officers of the garrison engaged in a duel.[273] Even those in authority
+were not free from participation in these "affairs of honor". A certain
+young officer challenged Colonel Snelling, and upon his refusing, his
+son, William Joseph Snelling, accepted and was slightly wounded. When
+the officer was court-martialed he accused one of the witnesses of being
+an infidel. Whereupon the latter challenged the officer in his turn, and
+a second duel was fought--which was bloodless.[274]
+
+With such conditions prevailing during the winter months it is no wonder
+that from day to day spring was eagerly looked for. Undoubtedly it was a
+happy occasion when the agent could record on the evening of Sunday,
+March 27, 1831, that the weather was "more pleasant--Wild geese seen
+this day--gentlemen generally [illegible] out and Walking--The Ladies
+also".[275] It meant a speedy return of summer pleasures and summer
+visitors. For when, even at a remote military post did these fail as
+three sure signs of spring--pleasant weather, flocks of geese, and
+ladies and gentlemen out walking together?
+
+They were very human, those men and women of Old Fort Snelling.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+THE FORT AND INDIAN LIFE
+
+
+It was a humane but visionary plan which Reverend Jedidiah Morse in 1822
+presented to the Secretary of War as the correct method of procedure in
+the task of civilizing the Indians. At various centers in the Indian
+country were to be established "Education Families"--groups of honest,
+industrious whites who were to have houses and farms, where the natives
+could observe their activities. And without any forcing it was expected
+that the red men, seeing the superior advantages of civilization, would
+be themselves gradually transformed.[276]
+
+To the north and east of Fort Snelling was the home of the Chippewa or
+Ojibway Indians--extending from the Mississippi to the Great Lakes. To
+the west, on the great prairies, the Dakota, or Sioux Indians lived and
+hunted. The veteran missionary, S. W. Pond, estimated that the five
+bands of Sioux, which most often came into direct touch with the
+government at Fort Snelling, numbered in 1834, seven thousand, and
+wandered over southern Minnesota and South Dakota, near the lakes of Big
+Stone and Traverse.[277] Major Taliaferro reported in 1834 that the
+number of Indians in his agency was 6721, and that they extended as far
+as the Sheyenne fork of the Red River.[278] To one man, the agent, was
+given the task of civilizing these thousands of Sioux. While it
+was for this tribe that the agency at Fort Snelling was established, yet
+the Chippewas often frequented its headquarters. One hundred and seventy
+warriors of these northern Indians arrived at the agent's house on the
+evening of August 4, 1830.[279] The presence of these red men more than
+doubled the work of the agent, because there was now the difficulty of
+keeping peace between two warring tribes.
+
+Indian life was not so worthless as sometimes pictured. It is true that
+one could see laziness and poverty during the months of January and
+February, if he came upon an Indian village pitched near a wooded slope
+and above a frozen stream. There could be seen the smoke curling from
+the dingy tepee, the women dragging home wood for the ever-diminishing
+pile outside the door, and a few of the hardier men fishing through
+holes in the ice. About the tepee the snow was banked, and within the
+air was warm and heavy from the open fire and the long pipes of the
+reclining braves, who gambled with their neighbors at the game of "the
+shot and the mitten".
+
+Thus through the two stormy months the Indians frittered away the time,
+eating their corn and wild rice seasoned with tallow. But when the first
+thaws of spring caused the sap in the maple trees to run, and when some
+of the more venturesome came back from a winter visit to the trading
+house with the word that the trader was waiting for skins in return for
+the blankets and ammunition he had given them the preceding fall,
+the village divided--part going to the sugar bush, and part going to the
+prairie lakes and swamps for muskrats. In May they returned on the
+swollen streams with heavily freighted canoes to their villages of bark
+houses. During the summer there were many tasks--blue berries to be
+gathered in the woods, canoes to be built, tepees to be repaired,
+turnips to be dug, and pipestone to be brought from the far distant
+quarry. All through the hot months the women toiled in the corn fields;
+and when the corn was in the milk, all the village children screamed and
+waved their arms to frighten away the blackbirds. When the harvest had
+been carefully placed in bark barrels and buried, part of the village
+had already left to hunt the fox or gather wild rice along the lakes and
+cranberries in the marshes.
+
+And now came October and the deer hunt. There were only the extremely
+old people and the invalids to wave good-bye as the procession set out
+over the prairie--old men who could scarcely walk, bands of shouting
+children, hunters already on the alert, women with their bundles, and
+horses and dogs dragging on two poles the provisions and the skins of
+the tepees. For more than two months the program was the same: the march
+through the drifts and across the icy rivers, the morning council about
+a blazing fire before scattering over the prairie, and the triumphal
+return of the successful hunter at evening with the carcass of a bear,
+deer, or elk, across his shoulders and his name shouted through
+the camp by the children gathered to welcome him. By January they were
+all back again at their villages.[280]
+
+It was this scheme of life which was to be gradually transformed. There
+were, of course, variations when war parties crept against the
+Chippewas, when drunken debaucheries resulted from a keg of whiskey that
+had escaped the vigilant eyes of the soldiers, and when migrations to
+the Canadian posts were prompted by the hope that there they could
+obtain enough supplies to support them without work and that there they
+could enjoy some ceremony to break the monotony of life. But these
+migrations were few on the part of the Sioux: they could enjoy councils
+just as good near home.
+
+On the occasion of a visit to Old Fort Snelling and the agency near by,
+the authorities were careful to see that there was a due amount of
+ceremony. Probably a whole band of Indians would come down from the
+headwaters of the Minnesota River. Their chiefs and braves gathered in
+the log Council Hall, and there took place the scene so picturesquely
+described by the eccentric traveller, J. C. Beltrami.
+
+"The council-hall is, as it ought to be, a great room built of trunks of
+trees. The flag of the United States waves in the centre, surrounded by
+English colours, and medals hung to the walls. They are presented by the
+Indians to their _Father_, the agent, as a proof that they abjure all
+cabal or alliance with the English. Pipes, or calumets and other little
+Indian presents, offered by the various tribes as pledges of
+their friendship, decorate the walls and give a remarkable and
+characteristic air to the room." The dignitaries of the post are seated
+about a table and the braves recline upon the ground during the council.
+
+"The _seance_ opens with a speech of the chief, who rises and addresses
+the agent. He generally begins with the Great Spirit, or the sun, or the
+moon 'whose purity is equalled by that of his own heart,' &c. &c. always
+finishing with a petition for presents;--_whiskey_ is sure to find
+honourable mention: these are what English lawyers call the _common
+counts_."[281]
+
+After the reply of the agent the peace pipe was solemnly passed from one
+to another, and the council ended with the distribution of presents.
+These presents were of tobacco, gunpowder, vermilion, pipes, kettles,
+blankets, snuff-boxes, armbands, looking-glasses, horse bells,
+jews'-harps, ivory combs, and shawls.[282] Not the least popular of
+these were the jews'-harps, which had their uses--in spite of the
+sarcastic invective delivered against them by Senator Benton in 1822
+when the abolition of the Factory System was being considered. "They
+were innocent", observed the Senator, "and on that account precisely
+adapted to the purposes of the superintendent, in reclaiming the savage
+from the hunter state. The first state after that, in the road to
+refined life, is the pastoral, and without music the tawny-colored
+Corydons and the red-skinned Amaryllises, '_recubans sub tegmine fagi_,'
+upon the banks of the Missouri and Mississippi, could make no
+progress in the delightful business of love and sentiment."[283]
+
+These councils were frequent occurrences, and their importance lies in
+the fact that through them certain principles could be instilled into
+the minds of the natives under the most favorable circumstances. The
+words spoken by the agent on these occasions had probably as much effect
+in controlling the Indians as a like number of bullets would have had.
+Major Taliaferro has recorded one of the orations which he delivered to
+his listening wards. He referred to the presence of the Great Spirit,
+told of his long service among them, eulogized their departed
+elders--"the old branches which have fallen from the Trunk of the old
+oak of your Nation"--and then inserted a few wise admonitions as to the
+futility of their wars with the Chippewas.
+
+"Your Great Father", he said, "has had much to do with war--but his
+heart is changed for peace & he wishes all his red children as well as
+his white ones to follow his good example--he knows this course to be
+best for all--we should endeavor to please him--for by doing so we shall
+please the Great Spirit also--You will see your children growing up
+around you and your wives smiling as you approach from your days hunt."
+
+The speech ended with the announcement of the coming of "something good
+from below" and an approaching visit to the village of the Red
+Head.[284]
+
+During these meetings at the agency the sound of the fort's cannon and
+the sight of the well-uniformed guards impressed the Indians even
+more than did the words of the agent. There they became acquainted with
+white men other than traders, and when exploring and scientific
+expeditions came over the plains with a guard of soldiers, they were
+wise enough not to interfere. These visits in themselves were pleasant,
+and the rations of bread and pork offered an agreeable respite from
+their usual fare.[285]
+
+At the time of the treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1825 one ration
+consisted of one pound of bread or one pint of corn and either one pound
+of beef or three-quarters of a pound of pork. This may be taken as a
+fair standard of the kind of rations issued at the agency.[286] It was
+during the winter months especially when starvation or suffering would
+otherwise result that this aid was given to the Indians. During the
+summer when other means of subsistence were present, all appeals for
+food were refused.[287] This custom of granting rations was formally
+incorporated in the law of June 30, 1834, with the only restriction that
+they were to be given only if "they can be spared from the army
+provisions without injury to the service".[288]
+
+The condition of the tribes was often appalling, and many deaths would
+have occurred without this aid. At one time Taliaferro wrote that "400
+Indians encamped near the Agency--many from a distance and in a starving
+condition."[289] Often he had to take from his own private funds, after
+he had drawn all he could from the public stores.[290] The winter of
+1842-1843 was particularly severe. On the first of November the
+ground was covered with snow which as late as April still lay from two
+to two and a half feet deep. No hunting was possible because of the
+drifts, and fishing through the ice was impracticable, the wind blowing
+the holes full of snow as soon as they were cut. The Indians living
+about Lac qui Parle, about two hundred miles up the Minnesota River,
+came with the missionary Dr. Thomas Williamson to winter on the site of
+old Camp Cold Water, knowing that only from the fort could they obtain
+relief.
+
+Everything that was possible was done. Blankets, guns, and ammunition to
+the value of $2500 were granted the Indians. Indeed, so many provisions
+were distributed that on April 3rd it was computed that there was only
+enough left to supply the garrison until the opening of navigation. The
+officers and soldiers saved all the remains from the tables and once a
+day the squaws and children were allowed to enter and receive these
+crumbs. The Indians who were away from the post were not neglected.
+Sixty bushels of corn and several barrels of pork were furnished by
+Major Dearborn to Mr. H. H. Sibley who sent them to destitute Indians on
+the Minnesota River. Still there was much suffering, for not enough food
+could be spared to satisfy all. Before spring arrived many of the
+Indians lived upon a syrup made of hickory chips and the boiled bark of
+the bitter sweet. All became greatly emaciated and some were unable to
+walk.[291]
+
+From time to time a solitary Indian on a business visit to the
+trader would drop in to chat with the "Father". Here he could make any
+complaints which he had to offer and be sure of a sympathetic if not
+satisfactory answer. "I have had more than fourteen hundred Indians on
+visits from all Sections of this Agency during the Month past--and all
+with Grieveances of Some Sort to redress", wrote Taliaferro on June 30,
+1838.[292] In all matters concerning lands, hunting, treaties,
+annuities, and the like, the Indian looked only to the agent for advice
+or explanation. Instigated by the traders, many of whom were hostile to
+him, the Indians considered him responsible for the acts of the
+soldiers.[293] If a provision of a treaty was not carried out, the
+Indians thought it was Taliaferro's fault "for they know nothing of
+Congress or of their Multifarious and protracted debates, and
+proceedings."[294]
+
+A personal present was due the visitor at these "shake hands" occasions.
+If he were a headman or a brave he received a pound of powder, two
+pounds of lead, a fish line, a knife, four fish hooks, and six plugs of
+tobacco. If he were "any respectable Individual" he was sure of a knife,
+four fish hooks, and six plugs of tobacco.[295] These individual visits
+did much to acquaint the natives personally with the agent, in the same
+way that the council impressed them with the agent's great power.
+
+But even more appreciated was the help offered in time of sickness. On
+December 25, 1830, Taliaferro records in his diary: "I rode up the
+SPeters to See an Indian.... Doctor Wood went up also--I dressed
+her wound--I Sent my Interpreter up with other restoratives--she being
+delerious."[296] On Saturday, June 28, 1834, there came to him a brave
+saying that both his son and daughter were ill. "Sent a message to Doct
+Jarvis to call & see the girl." The Sioux boy died two days later. But
+there the ministration did not end. To the mourners were given cotton
+and calico, or a blanket in order that the body might be decently
+covered.[297]
+
+The dread scourge of smallpox raged in the vicinity of Fort Snelling
+during the summer of 1832. Two Indians coming from the Missouri River
+were suffering from violent attacks. Immediately the disease spread. But
+Dr. Wood, the post's physician, was called upon by Major Taliaferro and
+at the end of five days three hundred and thirty Sioux had been
+vaccinated. It is interesting to notice that in case the Indians came to
+the agency Dr. Wood received six dollars for every hundred he treated,
+but if he went to their villages he received six dollars per day.[298]
+
+Besides these services the visits to the fort offered direct opportunity
+for the giving of tangible evidence of American supremacy. The English
+government had lavishly distributed signs of authority. During the first
+two years of his term of service, Taliaferro collected no less than
+thirty-six medals of George the Third, twenty-eight British flags, and
+eighteen gorgets.[299] Some of these were presented to the agent as
+direct evidence of submission to American authority. In 1820 two
+employees of the Missouri Fur Company were murdered on the
+Missouri River. The surrender of the murderers was demanded by
+Taliaferro, and while he was away the tribe came to Fort Snelling with
+one of the culprits and a hostage. Colonel Snelling, then acting as
+agent, described the scene in a letter.
+
+"These unfortunate wretches were delivered up last evening with a great
+deal of ceremony, & I assure you with affecting solemnity; the guards
+being first put under arms, they formed a procession in the road beyond
+the bake house; in front marched a Sussitong bearing a British flag,
+next came the Murderer & the devoted chief, their arms pinioned & large
+splinters of wood thrust through them above the elbows, intended as I
+understood to show us that they did not fear pain & were not afraid to
+die. the Murderer wore a large British medal suspended to his neck &
+both of the prisoners bore offerings of skins, &c. in their hands. last
+came the chiefs of the Sussitongs, in this order they moved, the
+prisoners singing their death song & the Sussitongs joining in chorus
+until they arrived in front of the guard house where a fire being
+previously prepared, the British flag was burnt, and the medal worn by
+the murderer given up."[300]
+
+In return for these greatly coveted signs of respect the agent delivered
+to the most prominent chiefs the medals and certificates of the United
+States. And thus by flattering the leaders control over the Indians was
+assured. What chief was not proud to carry with him this certificate,
+even if he could not read it himself? "The bearer _The Whole in
+the day_ is a respectable Man, and wears a Seccond Size Monroe Medal
+Presented to him for his uniform Good Conduct and great attachment to
+the United States--His Residence is at Sandy Lake Law Taliaferro Indian
+Agent at St. Peters".[301]
+
+But the memory of the days of English rule was still alive, the
+suggestion being made to the government that "the gordgets would be More
+Acceptable were they to be fashioned after those introduced formerly by
+the British Government--with the difference only of the Eagle engraved
+upon each."[302] To counteract this feeling it was necessary that the
+government should be lavish in the distribution of presents. British
+influence and example, wrote Taliaferro to Clark in 1831, were not yet
+"fairly purged of their baneful effects".[303] Even as late as 1834 a
+few extracts from the reports of Major Bliss indicate that this feeling
+was still noticeable. "The Sioux Indians expecting and favourable to an
+English war with the U. States", he wrote in April. The next month he
+reported "Sioux and Chippewas pacific but dissatisfied with U. States",
+and in July 1835 he informed headquarters that "the Chippewas & Sioux
+are dissatisfied & both exhibit symptoms of hostility to the U. States &
+to each other. The Sioux the most decided."[304]
+
+English visitors at a much later period congratulated their government
+because the Indians, as they said, still had a greater fondness for the
+British than for the Americans.[305] Except, however, along the
+border, among the tribes outside of the sphere of the agent at Fort
+Snelling, this feeling manifested itself only as a sentiment which could
+lead to trouble if a break between the two nations should occur.
+
+To emphasize the power of the Nation, the agent brought to Washington in
+1824, and again in 1837, delegations of chiefs.[306] On these occasions
+they were taken to the largest and busiest cities, entertained in the
+most delightful manner, and shown the most impressive sights. As crowds
+were always drawn together to see the Indians, the latter received a
+lasting opinion as to the numbers of the Americans.[307] Previously the
+Sioux bands had thought that if ever they should unite their forces,
+they would be able to win in a war against all the whites; but now they
+were disillusioned.[308]
+
+Undoubtedly the Indians were pleased with their journey. "Since the
+treaty was signed", stated a contemporary newspaper, "each of them has
+received a coat, hat, blanket, leggins, epaulettes, bands, and scarfs,
+and when dressed in full uniform, they exhibit more lively pleasure than
+would have been expected from the apathy of Indian character."[309] The
+magnificence which they had seen was described amid the squalor of their
+home villages. "The effect produced by the visit of their chiefs to
+Washington is wonderful, since their return, the power, wealth, and
+numbers of the American people have been their constant themes, many of
+their stories approach so near the marvellous as to be discredited, such
+for example is the account of casting a cannon which they
+witnessed, and the magnitude of our ships. Old _black dog_ shakes his
+head & says 'all travellers are liars'."[310] The memory of these trips
+lingered long. Little Crow came to call upon the agent in 1831. "The old
+chief left much delighted with his reception and my Talk--he departed
+singing the song which was often repeated when on his trip to Washington
+City in 1824."[311]
+
+The Indians touched by these relations with the fort were not only its
+immediate neighbors. The surrender of murderers from the tribes on the
+Missouri has been noted. On March 11, 1831, Taliaferro wrote that "I
+observe Indians from the Missouri & various sections of the Sioux
+country."[312] During the entire winter of 1831, a party of Missouri
+River Indians encamped about Fort Snelling.[313] The Indians on the
+prairies were wide travellers. "There are a good many Indians about
+here", says a letter from Lac qui Parle. "There have arrived 120 lodges
+of Missouri at Lake Traverse and 200 lodges at James River."[314] By
+this continual movement, the influence of Fort Snelling was enlarged.
+
+How great was this influence? No one has contradicted the statement of
+Mr. Taliaferro that "it is due the Sioux of your territory to record one
+fact as to them, and that is, from the commencement of our agency to its
+close, our frontier pioneers were never even molested in their homes,
+nor did they shed one drop of American blood".[315] It was when this
+frontier encroached on their lands that hostility broke out. If
+the Indians had been left in peace by covetous land-seekers, their
+civilization might in time have been accomplished.
+
+There was practically no hostility manifested against the garrison by
+the surrounding Indians. In January, 1822, Colonel McNeil, who was in
+command at Fort Dearborn, received word from John Kinzie, the pioneer
+Chicago trader, that the Sioux and Fox Indians were planning an attack
+on Fort Snelling. Lieutenant James Webb immediately volunteered to bring
+the news to Fort Armstrong on Rock Island, from whence it could be sent
+to the upper post. After a journey rendered terrible by the extreme cold
+and the danger from hostile Indians, he was successful in reaching Fort
+Armstrong.[316]
+
+In due time the letter was delivered to Colonel Snelling. "When I first
+received Col McNeils letter," he wrote later, "I was disposed to smile
+at the absurdity of connecting the Sioux & Foxes, in a design to attack
+this post". But he later found out that the Foxes had sent wampum and
+tobacco to the bands of Wabasha and Little Crow, asking them not to
+stand in the way of any movements they might make. Wabasha accepted the
+wampum but Little Crow came to the fort to make known the danger. The
+vagueness of the rumors, however, made it impossible to act, and later
+developments showed that there was no truth in the report--at least no
+violence was attempted.[317]
+
+Fear of the strength of the fort prevented hostilities.  It was
+the Indian fashion to attack by ambush. They did not have the patience
+to endure a protracted siege. The Americans did not belittle the
+strength of the military works. Little Thunder and White Head, two
+Indians who had escaped from the jail at Mackinac by cutting through the
+log walls, met an American, George Johnson, at Lac du Flambeau. They
+were very inquisitive about the strength of Fort Snelling and the number
+of Americans stationed there. Regarding this incident the white man
+wrote: "I answered saying, that the fort at River St. Peters was as
+strong as Quebec, and more Americans there than in any other post."[318]
+
+The government did not adopt Dr. Morse's plan for civilizing the
+Indians, but the agent tried to carry out the policy therein suggested.
+The colony at Eatonville, located on Lake Calhoun, and the Indian
+schools soon passed into the hands of the missionaries. After the making
+of treaties a blacksmith shop was added to the agency. In line with his
+policy of providing for all classes of Indians, Taliaferro urged the
+erection of an orphan asylum where "all poor blind, and helpless women"
+would also be accommodated.[319]
+
+If time had been given doubtless a new form of Indian life would have
+arisen about the fort; but the coming of the land-seekers destroyed the
+plan. The failure was to result in a great massacre in 1862. This much
+at least can be said for Old Fort Snelling; it kept the Indians friendly
+while the foundations of American life were being laid in the Northwest.
+
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE SIOUX-CHIPPEWA FEUDS
+
+
+One of the reasons given for the building of Fort Snelling was that it
+would prevent the disastrous wars existing between the Sioux and
+Chippewa Indians.[320] Beginning so far in the past that no cause could
+be ascribed for the hostility, each encounter was in itself both the
+result of preceding conflicts and the excuse for further warfare. Pierre
+Esprit de Radisson, who was the first writer to leave an account of the
+Chippewas, said that even at the time of his visit in about 1660 they
+were carrying on "a cruell warre against the Nadoueseronoms
+[Sioux]."[321]
+
+Lurking in the bushes to waylay their enemies on the woodland paths,
+hiding on the river banks to intercept hostile canoes, pretending peace
+and enjoying hospitality in order to have an opportunity for treachery
+were the military tactics of the Sioux and Chippewa warriors. To prevent
+such warfare, a military post was almost powerless. In fact, so
+insidious was the hostility that even the very grounds of Fort Snelling
+were the scene of bloody encounters.
+
+Attempts were made to keep the Chippewas away from Fort Snelling by
+attaching them to the agency of H. R. Schoolcraft at Sault Ste.
+Marie.[322] But the distance was so great and the route so
+difficult that the Chippewas did not make the journey to consult that
+agent. On the other hand, Fort Snelling was so close, and the
+Mississippi such a natural outlet from their country, that a trader
+declared that "you might as well try to Stop the Water in the
+Mississippi from going to St Louis, as attempt to keep the Chippeway
+Indians from St Peters."[323]
+
+During the last days of the month of May, 1827, Flat Mouth, chief of the
+Sandy Lake band of Chippewa Indians was encamped near Fort Snelling. A
+number of men, women, and children were with him, bringing maple sugar,
+which they had gathered in the northern woods during the winter, and
+other articles to sell to the garrison. Major Taliaferro was away at the
+time, but on May 24th the steamboat "Pilot" landed him safely at Fort
+Snelling. To welcome their "Father" home, and perchance to see if he had
+any presents or promises for them, a large number of Sioux came from
+their villages to the fort, as was usual on such occasions. The agent
+took the opportunity presented by the presence of both Sioux and
+Chippewas to deliberate with them in regard to peace, and also to
+request the Chippewas not to visit Fort Snelling again, in accordance
+with instructions which he had received from the Indian Department. To
+this Flat Mouth replied sorrowfully: "I feel myself now like a Dog
+driven away from your door to find another--I am ashamed of this--but I
+know you are doing this not by your wish."[324]
+
+The twenty-eighth day of the month proved the value of the advice
+Major Taliaferro had given. Several Sioux came to visit at a Chippewa
+lodge pitched directly under and in front of the agency house on the
+flats that border the Minnesota River. The guns of the fort could easily
+have been trained upon the spot. There was feasting and friendly revelry
+at the lodge that afternoon and evening. Meat, corn, and sugar were
+served in wooden platters; a dog was roasted and eaten. The peace pipe
+was smoked, and the conversation was peaceful regarding exploits in the
+hunt and the chase.
+
+At nine o'clock when the party broke up, as the Chippewas were calling
+friendly good-byes to the departing Sioux who had advanced a few steps,
+the latter turned and fired into the midst of the unsuspecting
+inhabitants of the tepee. There was instant confusion. With a shout of
+triumph the Sioux ran off. The sentinel on the hill above heard the
+shots and cries and called for the guard. In a few moments there was at
+the gate of the fort a crowd of panic-stricken Chippewas carrying their
+wounded and crying for protection. Six men, one woman, and a girl about
+eight years old were handed over to the surgeon of the post, Doctor
+McMahon.
+
+Immediately Major Taliaferro notified the Sioux that they had insulted
+the flag that waved over the land, and that ample satisfaction must be
+made to the Chippewas who had been treated in such a cowardly manner. In
+council with the agent, Strong Earth, a chief of the Chippewas,
+complained of the lack of protection: "Father: You know that two
+Summers ago we attended a Great Council at Prairie du Chien, when by the
+advice of Our White Friends, we made Peace with the Sioux--We were then
+told, that the Americans would Guarantee our Safety under their
+Flags--We have Come here under that Assurance. But Father, look at Your
+Floor it is stained with the blood of our people shed while under Your
+Walls. If you are great and powerful why do You not protect us? _If
+Not_, of what use are Your Soldiers?"[325]
+
+On the morning following the massacre a large body of Sioux--estimated
+at about three hundred and fifty--appeared on the prairie west of the
+fort. Brevet Major Fowle was ordered to march against them with two
+companies. Upon his appearance they fled, but he followed and was
+successful in capturing some of them. Nine Sioux--one of whom Major
+Taliaferro reports was given up voluntarily--were delivered up to the
+Chippewas. Identifying two of these as being among the murderers, they
+requested permission to execute them immediately.
+
+Upon the broad prairie the two prisoners were given their freedom. They
+were told to run, and when a few paces away the Chippewa warriors fired,
+and the Sioux fell dead. Then followed a hideous scene which a spectator
+described many years later. "The bodies, all warm and limp, are dragged
+to the brow of the hill. Men who at the sight of blood, become almost
+fiends, tear off the reeking scalps and hand them to the chief, who
+hangs them around his neck. Women and children with tomahawks and
+knives cut deep gashes in the poor dead bodies, and scooping up the hot
+blood with their hands, eagerly drink it; then, grown frantic, they
+dance, and yell, and sing their horrid scalp songs, recounting deeds of
+valor on the part of their brave men, and telling off the Sioux scalps,
+taken in different battles, until tired and satiated at last with their
+horrid feast, they leave the mutilated bodies--festering in the
+sun."[326] At evening the bodies were thrown over the cliff into the
+river below.
+
+On the morning of the thirty-first the Sioux delivered up to the
+Chippewas two others who, they claimed, had been the principal men in
+the affair. If the Chippewas did not shoot them, they said, they would
+do it themselves, as trouble had come to their nation on their account.
+But the Chippewas were willing.
+
+About this second execution there has grown up an interesting story. One
+of the offenders, Toopunkah Zeze, was a favorite among the children of
+the fort. Tall and handsome and athletic and brave, he was the ideal of
+Indian manhood. The other, called the Split Upper Lip, was well known as
+a thief, and was as much detested as his companion was respected. He
+cried and begged for his life, saying that his gun had missed fire--he
+had killed no one. The other calmly distributed his clothes among his
+friends, upbraiding his companion for his cowardice. "You lie, dog.
+Coward, old woman, you know that you lie. You know that you are as
+guilty as I am.  Hold your peace and die like a man--die like me."
+
+The two were brought out upon the prairie. Again the thirty yards were
+allowed; again the Chippewa guns were fired. For once it seemed that
+this Indian punishment of "running the gantlet" would lose a victim. For
+Toopunkah Zeze was still running. The bullet had cut the rope that bound
+him to his falling companion. With new hope he leaped forward. There was
+a shout of triumph from a group of Sioux hidden in the bushes; and the
+children of the fort, who had climbed upon the buildings to view the
+bloody scene from afar, clapped their hands. But the Chippewas were cool
+in their vengeance. Guns were reloaded and deliberate aim taken. The
+flints struck, and Toopunkah Zeze, now a hundred and fifty yards away
+and a second's distance from a place where the straggling groves of the
+prairie offered life, fell dead. Two more bodies were thrown over the
+precipice into the river.[327]
+
+For ten years the hostility continued, but the environs of the fort were
+sacred places. An effective lesson had been taught in 1827. But on
+August 2, 1838, Hole-in-the-Day, a Chippewa chief, and five of his band
+came to Fort Snelling on a visit. That spring there had been a
+treacherous massacre by Hole-in-the-Day at a Sioux camp. It was true, as
+he said in the poetic simplicity of Indian style: "You See I cannot keep
+my face Clean--as fast as it is Washed--I am Compelled to black it
+Again.--but My heart towards you is the Same.--My Fathers Bones Sleep by
+your house--My Daughter at the Falls Near the Grave of my
+Uncle--My Wife lies at the Mouth of Sauk River--and a few days past I
+buried My Son."[328]
+
+On the following evening some Sioux of Mud Lake, hearing of the presence
+of the Chippewas, rode over to Baker's trading house where the Chippewas
+were encamped. Major Taliaferro had heard of the departure of the war
+party and had hurried to the scene. Just as he arrived the Sioux fired
+upon their enemies, killing one outright and wounding another in the
+knee. All but one of the Chippewas had laid aside their guns, thinking
+that they were upon neutral ground. This one, seeing a Sioux in the act
+of scalping the fallen Chippewa, fired upon him and wounded him
+mortally. But aided by the dusk the wounded Sioux was able to run more
+than a mile before he fell from loss of blood.
+
+The Chippewas were immediately brought into the fort for protection. On
+the next day Major Plympton and the Indian agent called together the
+chiefs of the neighboring villages. There was a long council until Major
+Plympton broke it up by saying peremptorily: "It is unnecessary to talk
+much. I have demanded the guilty--they must be brought."
+
+At half past five that evening the Sioux were delivered up. Three
+brothers had been accused of being guilty of the murder. One of them
+could not be brought because he was dying of the wound received the
+evening before. Much ceremony attended the proceedings as the Indian
+mother led her sons to the officers saying: "Of seven sons three only
+are left; one of them is wounded, and soon will die, and if the
+two now given up are shot, my all is gone. I called on the head men to
+follow me to the Fort. I started with the prisoners, singing their death
+song, and have delivered them at the gate of the Fort. Have mercy on
+them for their youth and folly."[329]
+
+Because of the attack which Hole-in-the-Day had made on the Sioux a
+short time before, Major Plympton decided not to execute the prisoners.
+They were turned over to their own people to be flogged in the presence
+of the officers. More humiliating than death was their punishment. Their
+blankets, leggins, and breech-cloths were cut into small pieces, and
+finally the braves whipped them with long sticks while the women stood
+about crying.[330]
+
+Although there was now a deep desire for revenge in each of the tribes,
+they manifested outward friendliness when they met at the fort. During
+the month of June, 1839, there came to Fort Snelling over twelve hundred
+Chippewas thinking that there they would be paid their annuities for the
+land they had ceded in 1837. There were two main groups--one which came
+down from the headwaters of the Mississippi, and the other which came up
+the river from the vicinity of the St. Croix. At the same time Sioux
+numbering eight hundred and seventy were encamped near the agency. This
+was considered an opportune time to conclude a peace, and so the long
+calumet with its mixture of tobacco and bark of the willow tree was
+smoked while friendly athletic contests were held on the prairie.
+On July 1st the two parties of Chippewas started for home. But in one of
+the bands were the two sons of the man who had been murdered the year
+before. In the evening before beginning their homeward journey, they
+visited the graveyard of the fort to cry over the grave of their father.
+Here the thought of vengeance came to them, and morning found them
+hidden in the bushes near the trail that skirted the shore of Lake
+Harriet. The Badger, a Sioux warrior, was the first to pass that way as
+he went out in the early morning to hunt pigeons. A moment later he was
+shot and scalped. The murderers then hurried away and hid behind the
+water at Minnehaha Falls.
+
+A few hours later, when the news had spread throughout all the Sioux
+villages, two bands set out to take revenge upon the departing
+Chippewas. The old men, the women, and the children remained at home,
+eagerly awaiting the result of the coming battle and cutting their arms
+and legs with their knives in grief over the losses which they knew
+their bands would have to undergo.
+
+It happened that at that time the Right Reverend Mathias Loras, the
+first Bishop of Dubuque, was at Fort Snelling. He had been an interested
+spectator at the Sioux-Chippewa peace parleys, had watched the departure
+of the determined avengers, and now was anxiously awaiting the result of
+the conflict. On the morning of July 4th as he was praying at his altar
+for the prosperity of his country he was startled by the shrill notes of
+the Sioux death-song,  and gazing through the window saw a bloody
+throng, dancing about the long poles from which dangled scalps with
+parts of the skulls still attached. Two terrible struggles had taken
+place the day before. On the Rum River seventy Chippewa scalps had been
+taken, and on the banks of Lake St. Croix twenty-five more were
+obtained. In both cases the losses of the Sioux were smaller. These
+trophies were brought to the villages, where they were danced about
+nightly until the leaves began to fall in the autumn, when they were
+buried.[331]
+
+These incidents which centered about Fort Snelling have led to the
+charge made against it, that instead of preventing the conflicts the
+fort intensified them. The fort was a convenient meeting place, it is
+argued, whither both parties resorted only to become involved in
+altercations and disputes which resulted in a flaring-up of old
+flames.[332] But it must be remembered that the murders away from the
+fort were more numerous;[333] and it is easier to recall the spectacular
+encounters which occurred at the fort, than the many occasions when the
+two tribes met peacefully as the guests of the officials.
+
+A military officer who was stationed there wrote: "At Fort Snelling I
+have seen the Sioux and Chippeways in friendly converse, and passing
+their pipes in the most amicable manner when if they had met away from
+the post each would have been striving for the other's scalp."[334] The
+Indian agent, whose success depended upon the continuation of peace,
+noted with pleasure these friendly gatherings.  "The Crane and the
+Hole in the Day--and other Chippeways at the Agency this day--Several
+Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency."[335] These visits were often
+protracted for several weeks without trouble. "Chippeways--a number of
+these people also at the agency--some have been here for nearly 30
+days--fishing & liveing better & more independently than the
+Sioux."[336] On the 29th and 30th of June, 1831, Chippewas to the number
+of one hundred and fifty met five villages of Sioux.[337]
+
+Efforts to combat the evil were made in council with the Indians. "Your
+wars with the Chippeways can never be of service to anyone", reasoned
+their "Father", "for as fast as you destroy one--two or three more young
+men are ready to take the track of their deceased friends--The old
+people among you ought to know this--after the long wars between
+you".[338] Most of the encounters took place either when the warriors
+were emboldened by liquor, or when the rival hunting parties met on the
+plains. The strict enforcement of the law of 1832 prohibiting the
+introduction of spirits had a tranquilizing effect in the country of the
+Chippewas. Indeed, the principal object of all efforts to suppress the
+liquor traffic was the prevention of inter-tribal wars.[339]
+
+Constant watching of the hunting parties and admonition as to their
+conduct were among the duties of the agent. "Sent my interpreter up the
+Mississippi among the Indians", he writes, "to see how they are
+progressing in their hunts and as to the present hunting grounds of the
+Chippeways."  Eight days later record is made of the fact that
+"the Rum River Chippeways left for their camp this morning--Sent word to
+their people to hunt on their own Lands & not by any Means to intrude
+upon the Soil of the Sioux." When the interpreter returned he reported
+that everything was quiet between the two tribes.[340] The sending of
+"runners" to the camps was a frequent occurrence during the winter of
+1831, the region covered being eighty miles to the east and two hundred
+miles to the north.[341]
+
+In the treaty of Prairie du Chien of 1825 a dividing line between the
+two tribes, beyond which neither should pass, was agreed upon.[342] But
+this provision was for many years a dead letter. As long as the line was
+unsurveyed the natives could urge indefiniteness of territory as an
+excuse for murder and depredations--claiming that the other party was
+the trespasser. When Schoolcraft met the chiefs of the Chippewas in
+council at Leech Lake in 1832, the latter complained that the provisions
+of the treaty had not been carried out. "The words of the Long-knives
+have passed through our forests as a rushing wind, but they have been
+words merely. They have only _shaken_ the trees, but have not stopped to
+break them down, nor even to make the rough places smooth."[343] As a
+result Mr. Schoolcraft urged upon the Secretary of War the necessity of
+marking the line.[344]
+
+Seven thousand dollars were appropriated by the act of June 26, 1834,
+for the purpose of running this line,[345] and the next spring Major J.
+L. Bean, accompanied by Duncan Campbell, the Sioux interpreter of
+the agency, commenced the survey.[346] Later an escort of troops from
+Fort Snelling was sent him under the command of Lieutenant William
+Storer, with the result that the reduced garrison was unable to enforce
+order.[347] When the survey had been completed from the Chippewa River
+to Otter Tail Lake the return of the military escort put an end to the
+work, but the agent was of the opinion that the most important part had
+been marked.[348]
+
+Efforts were made by the government to keep down the warlike spirit of
+the tribes. Thus, when Captain Gale allowed the Indians to come into the
+fort and dance the scalp dance in June, 1830, his act was disapproved
+of, and he had to stand trial.[349] Likewise peace conferences were
+fostered in order to put the seal of the authority of the government
+upon the transactions. During the winter of 1831 truces were made
+between several of the bands through the efforts of Agent
+Taliaferro.[350] On August 2, 1843, a great gathering of the two nations
+was held at the fort, where a treaty of peace was drawn up under the
+auspices of the civil and military authorities.[351] During the first
+year it was kept inviolate, "if we except two or three individual cases
+of outrage."[352]
+
+Even as late as June, 1850, an assemblage of both tribes was called
+together by Governor Ramsey. The Chippewas were encamped north of the
+fort on the bluff above the Mississippi. In front of them a detachment
+of infantry was drawn up. Within the fort the artillery was in
+readiness. When word was sent to the Sioux that all things were ready,
+they approached, about three hundred strong, on horseback, all armed and
+painted, their whoops mingling with the jingling of their arms,
+ornaments, and the bells of their horses. Making a feint as if to rush
+around the soldiers, they suddenly wheeled to one side and became quiet;
+while the Chippewas on the other side of the line of infantry continued
+to dance and wave their weapons. It was amid such stirring war-like
+scenes that attempts for peace were made.[353]
+
+The earliest policy of the government had been to interfere as little as
+possible, and to allow retribution to be made by one tribe on another.
+But such inactivity did not appeal to a red-blooded officer like Colonel
+Snelling, who wrote after the trouble in 1827: "I have no hesitation in
+Saying that the Military on this frontier are useless for want of
+discretionary power, and that if it is not intrusted to the Commander,
+Men of Straw with Wooden Guns and Swords will answer the purpose as well
+as a Regt of Infantry."[354]
+
+But later the policy was adopted of confining in the "Black Hole" of the
+fort any culprits who were captured. Thirteen of the Sioux who
+participated in a massacre at Apple River were imprisoned;[355] and on
+one occasion Little Crow's band performed the scalp dance near Fort
+Snelling in commemoration of the murder of two Chippewas, while the
+murderers themselves languished in the fort.[356] Probably this method
+of dealing with the problem would have been adopted earlier; but
+"the force at this point", wrote an officer, "has been too small to send
+a sufficient force to take the offenders, even should an order to that
+effect be issued."[357]
+
+To determine how influential Fort Snelling was in maintaining order is
+impossible. As was the case with the liquor traffic, conditions were bad
+but could have been worse. From time to time there were events that
+indicated some success. After a peace had been concluded on the fourth
+of June, 1823, a small quarrel almost precipitated a general conflict on
+the sixth. Much to the chagrin of the Italian traveller, J. C. Beltrami,
+who was then a guest at the fort, the officers were successful in
+preventing bloodshed. "Everything conspired against my poor notes", he
+wrote, "I had already perched myself on an eminence for the purpose of
+enriching them with an Indian battle, and behold I have nothing to write
+but this miserable article!... I almost suspected that the savages were
+in a league with the gentlemen of the fort to disappoint me."[358]
+
+Peace was maintained during the winter of 1831 on a line of three
+hundred and forty miles above and below Fort Snelling, and on one
+occasion there occurred the pleasant sight of Sioux and Chippewas
+departing in company for their hunting grounds on the Sauk River.[359]
+Man-of-the-sky, who was chief of the Lake Calhoun band of Sioux, boasted
+that although he was only twenty-five years old at the time, he had
+already killed six Chippewas when Fort Snelling was erected, and added:
+"Had it not been for that I should have killed many more, or have
+been myself killed ere this."[360] It is interesting to note in
+connection with the sacredness of these treaties the comment of Major
+Taliaferro that "much more reliance is to be placed in the good faith of
+the Chippeways than in that of the Sioux."[361]
+
+These spasmodic successes at least acquainted the Indians with
+governmental restraint. A paragraph from the manuscript diary of the
+agent refutes the argument that Fort Snelling intensified rather than
+alleviated these struggles. "From January 1833 up to this day", wrote
+Taliaferro, "there has been no difficulty between the Sioux and
+Chippeways--I once kept these tribes at peace for two years and Six
+Months lacking 15 days. And this between the years 1821 & 1825 till June
+8th of the latter year. Colonel Robert Dickson remarked to me that Such
+a thing had never occurred before even when he headed the tribes against
+Us in the War of 1812."[362]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE FUR TRADE
+
+
+The Indian trading-house which had been planned for the agency at Fort
+Snelling never materialized. Failure of the houses in operation to pay
+expenses and the opposition of the private traders led to their
+abolition in 1822. Thereafter, whatever attention the government
+directed toward the trade was influenced by the desire to prevent
+tampering with the allegiance of the Indians on the part of foreigners
+and to control this traffic which could contribute so much good or so
+much evil to the lives of the government's wards.[363]
+
+With the Indian trade left to the private traders, great trading
+companies developed, since the fur trade easily lent itself to the
+corporation system. Cooeperation in the marketing of furs and in the
+buying of goods eliminated many of the difficulties which a single
+individual would meet. The American Fur Company, so long guided by John
+Jacob Astor, had a practical monopoly of the trade during the time that
+Old Fort Snelling was in existence. Mendota was the headquarters of a
+vast region which extended from the Mississippi to the headwaters of the
+streams flowing into the Missouri. At various places throughout this
+territory were trading posts called "forts", although they
+consisted of no more than a few huts within a stockade. These were all
+subsidiary to the post at Mendota.
+
+Goods for the Indian trade were much the same as those given as presents
+by the government officials--blankets, trinkets, tobacco, knives, and
+the like. These goods were sent in great Mackinac boats from the East to
+be distributed among the posts. Each Indian hunter received on credit
+goods valued at forty or fifty dollars in payment for which he pledged
+the spoils of his winter's hunt. If the trader did not go with his band,
+he visited them occasionally or sent his engages to see that they were
+hunting and that no other trader was tampering with them to secure their
+furs. In the spring the Indian would deliver furs valued at twice the
+amount of the goods received. The trading company's profit was,
+accordingly, about one hundred per cent. To carry out the details of the
+traffic there grew up within the company a complicated system of
+factors, clerks, voyageurs, and hivernants.[364]
+
+With the entire system of the fur trade the military officials had
+little to do except in the matter of regulation. Not much military
+protection was necessary as the Indian looked upon the trader more as a
+friend than an enemy.[365] Care in respect to the character of the men
+engaged and supervision of the method of carrying on trade were the two
+things necessary. According to the act of March 30, 1802, which was
+supplemented by the acts of April 29, 1816, and June 30, 1834, no one
+could carry on trade with the Indians without obtaining a license
+from an Indian agent, which was subject to revocation by the
+superintendent of the district.[366]
+
+Many were the problems which Major Taliaferro was obliged to consider
+when he granted a license. A license was valid for trade only at a
+certain place and among a certain tribe. The trader must be an American
+citizen. He was not allowed to carry with him any insignia of a foreign
+power. An invoice of his goods was presented to the agent, who had to
+certify to its correctness. Liquor was prohibited, and the trader was
+responsible for the conduct of all the members of his party in this
+matter. To guarantee the fulfillment of all these requirements, bond had
+to be given at the time of obtaining the permit.[367]
+
+To examine all the applicants, to keep in touch with them in the field,
+and to obtain the truth in regard to their conduct was enough to keep
+both agent and officers at Fort Snelling busy. In 1826 twenty-five
+licenses were granted; in 1827, eleven; in 1830, thirteen; and in 1831,
+fourteen.[368] The amount of this trade was very large, as is indicated
+by the case of Mr. Faribault who traded on the Cannon River. One year he
+marketed 50 buffalo-robes, 39,080 muskrats, 2050 pounds of deer skins,
+125 pounds of beaver, 130 martin, 1100 mink, 663 raccoons, 331 otter, 25
+lynx, and 5 foxes.[369]
+
+There was a great deal of vagueness as to the application of the trade
+laws--"a mist of uncertainty" as Taliaferro called it.[370] Governor
+Cass of Michigan Territory allowed foreigners to enter into
+expeditions as interpreters or boatmen, who upon entering the wilderness
+took active charge of the crew and all operations.[371] As far as Fort
+Snelling was concerned there was little call for the ejection of
+foreigners by force. In 1833 it was rumored that a foreigner was trading
+on the Sheyenne River--a tributary of the Red River. But with the
+despatch of a company of troops and the rumor of their approach, the
+culprit immediately decamped.[372]
+
+The building of the fort was in itself enough to impress British
+subjects with the firmness of the United States government. Joseph
+Renville, Kenneth McKenzie, and William Laidlaw, former employees of the
+English companies, in 1822 organized the Columbia Fur Company, and
+obtained a license from Major Taliaferro. In five years they had posts
+from Green Bay to the Missouri River, with their headquarters at Land's
+End, a short distance up the Minnesota River from Fort Snelling. But in
+1827 a union with the American Fur Company was brought about.[373]
+
+Traders licensed by the agent at Fort Snelling covered the territory as
+far west as the Missouri River. No post could be established without his
+approval; and he even attempted to regulate the form in which the
+establishment should be built.[374] On the whole, cooeperation between
+the factors of the fur companies and the officials at the post was
+desired by both parties. The most notable disagreement is that which
+existed between Alexis Bailly, the chief factor at Mendota, and
+Major Taliaferro. This disagreement continued until September 15, 1834,
+when the agent reported that he had refused to allow Bailly to hold
+further intercourse with the natives, "not only in Consequence of his
+bad tongue, but on account also of his frequent Violations of the
+intercourse laws". In this action he was seconded by the authorities of
+the fur company, who sent Mr. H. H. Sibley to fill Mr. Bailly's
+place.[375] The pleasant relations which existed between Mr. Sibley and
+all the government officials--civil and military--is one of the charming
+chapters in the history of the fort.[376]
+
+Intimately connected with the fur trade was the liquor traffic. Not that
+the traders were always responsible for the introduction of the tabooed
+commodity, but they were connected with it to such an extent as to be
+always under suspicion. Nor was the attitude of the government
+consistent. When Pike ascended the Mississippi he spoke of the evil
+effects of rum to the chiefs who ceded to the United States the military
+reservation; but the explorer closed with the words: "before my
+departure I will give you some liquor to clear your throats."[377] Even
+Taliaferro, foe that he was of liquor, knew its power. When a
+neighboring chief and thirty of his men visited the agency, he recorded:
+"After council--gave him 30 Rats Bread--50 Rats Pork--10 lbs Tobacco--3
+gallons of whiskey--the last for good Conduct towards the
+Chippeways."[378]
+
+Liquor was an important asset in carrying on the fur trade. The object
+was to please the red man,  not to stupefy him to such an extent
+that he could be swindled. With the growth of the great companies and
+the influx of numbers of private traders there were many bidders for
+each Indian's furs. Complaint was continual that the British traders
+about the Lake of the Woods successfully offered whiskey as an
+inducement to get the trade of the American Indians.[379] Governor Cass,
+thinking it would be worse to lose the trade than admit the liquor,
+allowed its introduction, in "limited quantities", by those engaged in
+business along the boundary.[380] But the act of July 9, 1832, provided,
+that "no ardent spirits shall be hereafter introduced, under any
+pretence, into the Indian country."[381] This put an end to the stock
+excuse. At the same time Americans suffered to such an extent that Mr.
+Norman W. Kittson at Pembina wanted permission to destroy all liquor and
+punish all offenders, promising "that very little would be introduced
+after a short time".[382] So acute was the difficulty that it became the
+subject of diplomatic correspondence with Great Britain; but the
+authorities of the Hudson's Bay Company retorted that "spirits are even
+clandestinely introduced into the Company's territories by citizens of
+the United States."[383]
+
+During the first years stringent measures were in force at the mouth of
+the Minnesota River. At Prairie du Chien, Taliaferro had seen the
+barrels rolled out from the river vessels and they foretold to him
+coming murders and depredations. His cooeperating friend, Colonel
+Snelling, graphically described its evil effects. "Herds of
+Indians", he said, "are drawn together by the fascinations of whisky,
+and they exhibit the most degraded picture of human nature I ever
+witnessed."[384] The drunken Indian did not molest the trader; his
+peaceful fellow-tribesman suffered more. "An Indian killed at Al [?]
+Faribault's Trading house--whiskey was given the Indian for his furs--by
+Mr. F.--The deceased then invited one of his friends to drink with
+him--the invitation was accepted--when this friend becoming inflamed
+with the Liquor very inhospitably sunk his Tomahawk into the head of his
+host--whiskey it is said does no harm in the Trade by persons
+interested--but the foregoing is only one of the many hundred fatal
+occurrences from its use in procuring furs unlawfully."[385]
+
+In fact, the Indians were continually agitated. If they received the
+spirits they naturally revelled. When their supply was exhausted they
+raged and fumed until they secured more. Sometimes the disease was more
+desirable than the cure. "I have thus far seen but few of the indians of
+this place and I am in hopes of passing on North without much trouble
+there has just arrived a fresh supply of whiskey which will keep them
+busy for a few days and by that time my carts will be almost out of
+their reach."[386]
+
+The eagerness for liquor on the part of the Indians made its
+introduction all the more easy. For it they were willing to pay much:
+eight horses were at one time exchanged for eight kegs of whiskey,[387]
+and the current rate at which it sold is indicated by the
+complaint which a Chippewa chief poured into the ears of the agent: "My
+Father--Is it right for our traders to make us pay 200 Musk Rats, and 3
+otters for a 3 gallon keg of mixed whiskey?"[388] They would undergo
+extreme physical suffering, lying out in the rain and wading rivers and
+swamps, to bring the precious liquid to their villages.[389]
+
+The officers were never successful in entirely banishing the prohibited
+article. Conditions depended upon the eagerness of the military and
+civil agents, on the number of soldiers stationed at the fort, and on
+the wiliness of the culprits. On one occasion liquor "was found secreted
+in barrels of corn, buried on the beach and in other secret places, and
+destroyed."[390]
+
+Major Taliaferro was not lax in enforcing the laws. Every boat passing
+Fort Snelling was searched, and no liquor was allowed to enter the
+Indian country.[391] A few stray references seem to indicate what was a
+usual occupation of the troops. "The Sub Agent Mr. Grooms left with 10
+men on his 2d expedition below Lake Pepin in quest of whiskey
+Smuglers--as our Indians even entering the country with it from Prairie
+du Chiens and the Traders of the Am Fur Cpy are geting whiskey over the
+country by land and water".[392] During May, 1827, the agent called the
+attention of Colonel Josiah Snelling to the fact that in Mr. Bailly's
+store at Mendota there was whiskey which had been introduced into the
+Indian country contrary to law. Accordingly a detachment of
+soldiers was sent under the command of Lieutenant J. B. F. Rupel, who
+succeeded in finding two barrels which were taken away and stored in the
+fort.[393]
+
+The year 1832 saw especial activity in the destruction of liquor. The
+boat of one trader passed up the Mississippi during April, having on
+board eighteen barrels of whiskey.[394] Later in the season the
+vigilance of the officers had direct results. In July eleven kegs of
+high wines, very strong in quality, and in quantity amounting to one
+hundred and ten gallons, were taken from the boat of Hazen Moores by
+Captain J. Vail. The value of this liquor was $330. In October of the
+same year, five kegs of high wines and one keg of whiskey were found by
+Lieutenant I. K. Greenough in the boat of Louis Provencalle. These
+confiscated kegs were stored in the fort, and an interesting side-light
+on their ultimate fate is contained in the report of Major Taliaferro "I
+am of opinion", he wrote, "from what I hear that the High Wines, and
+Whiskey Seized by Lieuts Vail and Greenough, and in Store here will soon
+be of little account in Consequence of loss by leakage, and the property
+Not in charge of any responsible person--Other than its mere deposite
+in the public store." Whether any efforts were made to stop the leaks is
+not mentioned.[395]
+
+These energetic movements caused "consternation among those natives who
+have not yet joined the temperance Societties".[396] But they also
+caused violent opposition from the men whose goods had been
+seized. These traders commenced a suit in the courts at Prairie du Chien
+against the commanding officer at Fort Snelling, arguing that while the
+law prohibited the introduction of liquor into the Indian country, this
+seizure had been made on the Mississippi River--"a common highway open
+to all the Citizens of the United States".[397]
+
+It is impossible to follow the course of the whiskey traffic through its
+ups and downs. Numerous cases are recorded where the soldiers "knocked
+in the head" the whiskey barrels.[398] But it was probably true, as the
+missionary S. R. Riggs wrote from Lac qui Parle on June 15, 1847, to the
+Indian agent: "The whiskey destroyed by the efforts of yourself and the
+commanding officer at Fort Snelling forms the glorious exception, and
+not the rule."[399]
+
+Under the regulations existing in 1830 the traders were allowed to take
+with them into the Indian country one gallon per month for every person
+engaged in the party. Under plea of this they brought in high wines
+which were later diluted with water and distributed among the Indians.
+Of the amount brought in, the employees actually saw only one-third, and
+this they paid for at the rate of from eight to sixteen dollars per
+gallon.[400] Accordingly, Major Taliaferro issued a circular letter in
+which he stated that high wines and whiskey would be allowed to be
+brought in "in no case whatever".[401] Actions such as these by the
+agent, who was still a young man, brought about the remark which Mr.
+Aitkin, a trader among the Chippewas, is reported to have made to
+some chiefs: "The Medals and Flags which you received at St Peters are
+nothing more than pewter and dish rags, and were given to you by a boy,
+and with a boys paw."[402]
+
+Much of the good which should have resulted from the activities of the
+officers was lost because the Indian could not be punished. If liquor
+was found in his possession and seized there was nothing to prevent his
+going back and obtaining more, taking the chance of being more
+successful in evading the authorities the second time.[403] Accordingly
+prevention as well as cure was tried, and Captain Eastman, Mr. Sibley,
+and others sought, with some success, to persuade the Indians to refuse
+to accept liquor.[404] Two years later the Indian agent, R. G. Murphy,
+organized a temperance society among the Sioux, who, an observer stated,
+were careful in living up to the pledge when once taken; and added, "One
+such man as Major Murphy does more _real, practical good_ than all the
+missionary societies of New York and Boston."[405]
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+SOLDIERS OF THE CROSS
+
+
+Since the days of Father Marquette the Mississippi Valley has owed much
+to the missionaries. Parkman has recounted their sufferings and their
+glorious achievements in discovery, in exploration, and in inspiring
+others with their stories of the wonderful West. But when the
+black-robed Jesuit departed, and mass was no longer said in the log
+chapels about the lakes and tributary streams, the influence of
+Christianity still abided. There came a new generation of soldiers of
+the cross who served the great valley in a later stage of development as
+unselfishly and as thoroughly as their predecessors had done in the
+earlier days.
+
+The Indian in the Northwest in 1830 was not unacquainted with or hostile
+to the whites; he did not fall down in awe to worship one of a different
+color. His grandfather had traded with the wandering traveller who often
+lived a whole winter in the village, and with his tribe had visited the
+great commercial center at Mackinac. His father remembered the day when
+the second class of strangers entered--the uniformed soldiers led by
+Pike--and now the sound of the big gun in the fort at the mouth of the
+Minnesota was no longer a dread portent.
+
+But the missionary was a novelty. His purpose was unknown. He did not
+ask for furs; he did not stealthily give them whiskey; he did not come
+to summon them to councils at the agent's house; and he did not ask for
+cessions of land. If they would respect the white man's "medicine
+day"[406] and let their boys and girls attend the school, if they would
+listen patiently while he talked to them of things they did not
+understand, this newcomer was content. Out in the woods he cleared a
+patch of ground and grew corn. If the red men wanted to help he was very
+glad. When the winter storms came, and game was scarce, and the small
+supply of corn that the squaws had safely cached in the fall was eaten,
+then the missionary helped them in their difficulty. He often went with
+them on their hunts, shared all their privations, and eased their pain
+if accident or sickness befell them. As the activities of the mission
+broadened and its personnel enlarged, the Indian became more and more
+acquainted with whites who lived on farms and tilled the soil. So when
+at last the land was opened to settlement, the transition from the
+missionary's establishment to that of the American farmer was not
+sudden.
+
+Much has been written of the degeneration which came to the Indians
+about a fort through their association with the soldiers. That such
+degeneration did result is true, but it came about in spite of the
+efforts of the officers. On the other hand, distinct steps were taken to
+improve the condition of the neighboring tribes; and although these
+efforts were soon transferred to the missionaries, yet these
+missionaries depended so much on support and encouragement from the
+soldiers that their enterprises may be considered as part of the history
+of Fort Snelling. The freedom from annoyance enjoyed by the missionaries
+living near the fort as compared with those at a distance indicates the
+influence of the post.[407]
+
+Soon after Fort Snelling was established, Taliaferro attempted to
+persuade some Indians to undertake farming in order to supplement their
+hunting. But they preferred leaving this work to the rather desultory
+efforts of the squaws. One chief, however, remembered the advice during
+the next winter. Far out on the plains that border on the Missouri River
+he and his party were overtaken by a blizzard. Each one wrapped himself
+in his blanket and let the snow drift about and over him. With a little
+dried buffalo meat which they divided among them, they kept alive until
+the storm was over. While lying here, knowing not whether his companions
+were dead or alive, expecting himself to be a victim of either the cold
+or hunger or both, Chief Cloud Man resolved that if he ever returned to
+the vicinity of Fort Snelling he would not depend entirely upon the hunt
+for his living, but would also engage in farming under the direction of
+the Indian agent. This was no mere death-bed conversion. Many of his
+companions refused to follow him in the movement; other chiefs openly
+opposed him; but in the spring eight Indians settled upon the shores of
+Lake Calhoun to begin the life of agriculturists. This community
+was named Eatonville in honor of Secretary of War John H. Eaton.[408]
+
+On September 1, 1829, there arrived at the fort, the Reverend Alvan Coe
+and the Reverend Jedediah I. Stevens, two missionaries on a religious
+exploring expedition to locate a site for an establishment. They bore
+with them letters of introduction from Joseph M. Street, the agent at
+Prairie du Chien, who commended them to Taliaferro's care with a
+convincing array of scriptural quotations.[409] The agent offered them
+the use of the buildings connected with the grist mill and the saw mill
+at the Falls and his own colony at Eatonville. After preaching a few
+times to the garrison, the ministers left. It was not until 1835 that
+Mr. Stevens located permanently near the post.[410]
+
+Major Taliaferro was left alone to carry on the difficult enterprise of
+civilizing the natives. In 1830 he wrote to the Secretary of War telling
+of the progress he had made and of his plans for a log village in which
+the Indians could live, instead of in the flimsy bark houses, and a log
+house for the protection of the Indians' property. He begged for
+financial aid, saying that "Six or eight hundred dollars would mature
+what has happily been begun, and this sum from the Civilization fund
+would enable me to progress with great efficiency, and without further
+tax on the Government."[411] The need for his supervision was constant.
+From his diary can be seen how continual was his interest in the
+experiment. On April 18, 1831, he ordered the hoes and plows
+repaired, and on May 1 he went to the colony taking the implements with
+him. Here he found "most of them at work--Cuting down trees, Grubbing
+out the roots &c--What was more encouraging some few of the Men were at
+this unusual kind of labour for them--they laughed when they saw Me--I
+praised them, in every agreable way that could be conveyed to them in
+their language." Again on June 8th he was pleased to see the Indians all
+at work hoeing their corn and potatoes.[412]
+
+The success of the colony was gratifying. In 1833 they raised from eight
+hundred to a thousand bushels of corn, and the population of the village
+was one hundred and twenty-five. Only one death had occurred in three
+years.[413] There was much to contend with, however, since the traders
+were "violently opposed to Indians commencing to seek a living in this
+way."[414] One trader stated that it was a loss to him of five hundred
+dollars whenever an Indian learned to read and write.[415]
+
+With all his duties it is no wonder that the agent was anxious to
+receive the help of the missionaries, and although he was himself "a
+Deacon in the 'Old School Presbyterian Church'",[416] his basis for
+aiding the red men, as he expressed it in a report, was that he had
+"endeavored to impress all missionaries with the true fact that
+Christianity must be preceded by civilization among the wild tribes. I
+hazard nothing in this, for an Indian must be taught all the _temporal_
+benefits of this life first, before you ask him to seek for eternal
+happiness; teach him to worship the true and living God through
+the self-evident developments of his mother earth. In fine, let
+agriculture and the arts precede the preaching of the gospel, after
+which, Christianity inculcate if practicable."[417]
+
+The men who were to be Taliaferro's first helpers were living in the
+little village of Washington, Connecticut--two brothers, one
+twenty-three years old and the other twenty-one. Here a great revival
+occurred and among those whose lives were changed were Samuel Pond and
+Gideon Pond. The next year the older of the two went to the West and
+drifted into the frontier town of Galena. Hearing from a traveller from
+Red River of the Sioux about Fort Snelling he decided to dedicate his
+life to uplifting them. Upon broaching the subject to his brother the
+latter agreed, and on May 1, 1834, they left Galena on the "Warrior". No
+missionary society was supporting them; they had only a little money;
+they did not know a word of the "Dakota" tongue; they were uneducated
+for missionary work. Living the roving life of the Indians as members of
+the tribe, they hoped to be able to gradually influence their lives and
+religion.[418]
+
+On May 6, 1834, the "Warrior" reached Fort Snelling. At the agency
+house, Mr. Grooms, who was the acting agent in the absence of Major
+Taliaferro, rented them a room. Major Bliss, then in command at the
+fort, immediately summoned them to appear before him and explain their
+presence in the Indian country without permission.[419] When he heard of
+ their plans, they fitted immediately into a problem that had been
+puzzling him. Big Thunder, chief of the Kaposia village, wanted to raise
+more corn. But by using the customary Indian method of hoeing up the
+ground before planting, it was impossible to get much land under
+cultivation. At Fort Snelling were oxen and a plow, but there was no one
+to do the plowing or teach the art to the Indians. Accordingly Samuel
+Pond volunteered to take charge of the proposition.
+
+The plow was taken down the river in a canoe, while the oxen were driven
+by land. But the warriors were reluctant about touching the plow until
+Big Thunder, chief of the band, had seized the handles himself. For a
+week Samuel Pond continued the work. But the dogs had stolen the
+provisions he had taken from the fort, and so he was obliged not only to
+sleep in the Indian tepee, but also to live upon the ordinary Indian
+fare.[420]
+
+This task of plowing had just been performed when Major Taliaferro
+returned from the East. The success of the work done by Big Thunder led
+him to ask the Ponds to take charge of the Eatonville colony. As this
+would give them an opportunity of carrying out their plans, the brothers
+accepted. Their position is indicated by the following entry in
+Taliaferro's diary: "I am to furnish out of my private funds--Hay for
+the Oxen--belonging to the Indians, & those young men are to have Charge
+of them for the Winter--They will plough some this fall and again in the
+Spring for the Indians, & go on thereafter to instruct them in
+the arts & habits of civilized life."[421]
+
+Cloud Man, chief of the Calhoun band of Indians, chose a site near the
+lake, where a cabin was erected which cost a shilling--for nails. The
+walls were of tamarack logs from a neighboring grove; slabs obtained at
+the mill at the Falls of St. Anthony furnished a roof; and Major
+Taliaferro presented the missionaries with a window. Major Bliss gave
+them some potatoes, and Mrs. Bliss presented them with a ham. Knowing
+the thievishness of the natives, the Indian agent also added a padlock
+to the newly-finished cabin.[422]
+
+Near the house about four acres of land were cleared and fenced with
+logs. A quarter of a mile distant was the Indian village of fourteen
+bark lodges, each containing two or three families. This village was
+surrounded by corn fields and was reached through a narrow lane made by
+putting up posts and tying poles to them with strips of bark.[423]
+According to Featherstonhaugh, who visited the establishment a year
+later, thirty acres were under cultivation and the yield of corn
+amounted to eight hundred bushels. It is interesting to note that this
+critical traveller found only one thing about Fort Snelling to commend
+and that was the self-sacrifice of the two Pond brothers.[424]
+
+They entered immediately into the life of the Indians. An extract from a
+letter written by one of the brothers shows the wide variety of their
+duties. "One Indian," he said, "has been here to borrow my axe,
+another to have me help him split a stick; another now interrupts me to
+borrow my hatchet; another has been here after a trap which he left with
+me; another is now before my window at work with his axe, while the
+women and children are screaming to drive the black-birds from their
+corn. Again I am interrupted by one who tells me that the Indians are
+going to play ball near our house to-day. Hundreds assemble on such
+occasions."[425]
+
+The work that was thus started soon expanded. In the spring of 1835 Rev.
+Thomas Smith Williamson arrived at Fort Snelling with his wife, a child,
+Miss Sarah Poage, and Alexander G. Huggins. At about the same time Rev.
+Jedediah I. Stevens returned to the post he had visited in 1829, and
+with the help of the Pond brothers built a mission school at Lake
+Harriet. Dr. Williamson went up the Minnesota River to Lac qui Parle,
+where another station was established. On May 19, 1837, Rev. Alfred
+Brunson came to Fort Snelling for a similar purpose, and after
+consulting with the agent and the commandant he chose the village of
+Kaposia for his headquarters. But these mission stations and their
+personnel were not permanent. The work of the Ponds was soon amalgamated
+with that of Mr. Stevens. In 1839 when the Sioux-Chippewa feuds were at
+their height and the Indians were afraid to remain at Lake Calhoun, Mr.
+Stevens tore down the little cabin the Ponds had built and used the
+material for breastworks and moved down the river to Wabasha's
+village--outside the influence of Fort Snelling. At the same time
+the Ponds moved nearer the fort, where they remained until in 1842 they
+established a mission at Oak Grove, eight miles up the Minnesota River.
+This same war spirit and the hostility to the missionaries who preached
+against it led to the abandonment of the Kaposia enterprise in 1841. In
+1846, however, Little Crow asked for a school, and Dr. Williamson came
+from Lac qui Parle to take charge of it. These missions remained in
+existence throughout the period of Old Fort Snelling.[426]
+
+The activities of the missions took on two forms--industrial and
+educational. By the treaty of 1837 a farmer was provided for the Sioux
+about the fort. This position was offered to Gideon Pond who in 1838
+accepted. In return for his salary of six hundred dollars he had to plow
+the cornfields, cut hay for the cattle and feed them during the winter,
+and build such shelters as the animals might need. As he could not do
+all this work alone--and he wanted it thoroughly done--much of his
+salary was spent in hiring others to help him. His services were offered
+in the same spirit of sacrifice which first brought him to the
+region.[427]
+
+Blacksmiths were maintained at some of the villages. In 1849 Mr. Chatel,
+blacksmith for Good Road's village, made among other things, 73 chains
+to hang kettles on for cooking, 23 traps, 230 axes, 50 rat spears, 208
+pairs of fish spears, 24 pairs of stirrups, 63 crooked knives, and 199
+hoes. During the same year, Mr. Robertson, the farmer for Little Crow's
+village, ploughed 75 acres of land, made 500 yards of fence, put
+up 20 tons of hay, and hauled corn for seventeen days. To be sure,
+Robertson and Chatel were not missionaries, but they were part of the
+movement for civilizing the Indians which was fostered and encouraged by
+the officers of the fort.[428]
+
+In 1837 at Lake Harriet there was an Indian boarding-school, where some
+half dozen half-breed girls were learning to read, write, and sew.[429]
+The Pond brothers had made the beginnings of an alphabet of the Sioux
+language, and books and primers for the use of the scholars were soon
+printed.[430] At all the stations surrounding Fort Snelling schools were
+maintained, but here as elsewhere "the children in pleasant weather
+prefer playing to reading".[431] Some progress was made, however, as is
+indicated by the school reports. In 1851 at the school maintained at
+Kaposia it is reported that Daniel Renville, Gustavus A. Robertson,
+Rosalie Renville, and Fat Duty Win can spell and read in English in
+_McGuffy's Eclectic Primer_, and can spell and read in the Sioux
+language in _Wowape Metawa_.[432]
+
+The success of these pioneer efforts depended much on the encouragement
+received at the beginning; and by a coincidence this encouragement was
+brought about the second summer that the Ponds were in the vicinity.
+During the winter Major Gustavus Loomis initiated "a red-hot revival
+among the soldiers", and although many of the converts backslid with the
+simultaneous appearance of spring and whiskey,[433] yet there were so
+many that remained faithful that on June 11, 1835, when Dr.
+Williamson arrived, a church was organized in one of the company rooms
+at Fort Snelling. This church was composed of soldiers, missionaries,
+and fur traders and was a basis of support in the difficult task of
+civilizing the Indians.[434] The officers protected and encouraged the
+workers under all circumstances, the post doctor gave his services to
+them free, and once a month Mr. Stevens preached at the fort.[435]
+
+In 1838 the church was strengthened by the appointment of a chaplain,
+Rev. Ezekiel Gear of Galena. But on December 11, 1838, as he was leaving
+Fort Crawford in a sleigh, the horse started up sooner than was expected
+and he was thrown out, breaking his right thigh bone. He was kept at the
+hospital at Fort Crawford for some months and did not arrive at Fort
+Snelling until April 28, 1839.[436] As there was no room large enough to
+hold all the soldiers, they were at first not compelled to attend the
+services. In 1841, however, the chaplain reported that all the soldiers
+attended regularly, but answered feebly to the responses, although the
+chaplain believed they were attentive to what was said. These movements,
+which were undertaken to elevate the character of the soldiers, could
+not but have an effect upon the success of the missionaries.[437]
+
+Under the protection of Fort Snelling efforts were also made to do
+religious work among the fur traders. The inhabitants of Mendota were
+old voyageurs and traders, French and half-breeds, and most of them,
+having lived long without the ministrations of the church, remembered
+the faith of their childhood days in Canada. When in 1838 the
+Minnesota country west of the Mississippi was made a part of the
+Territory of Iowa, the Diocese of Dubuque was extended to correspond
+with the political area. In the following summer Bishop Loras of Dubuque
+visited the upper Mississippi and was entertained at the fort and by the
+faithful Catholics at Mendota. These amounted in number to one hundred
+and eighty-five, fifty-six of whom were baptized, eight were confirmed,
+and four couples were given the nuptial benediction. The need for
+permanent work was great. Plans were made to bring one or two Sioux to
+Dubuque to pass the winter and teach the language to some worker. In the
+spring of 1840 Rev. Lucian Galtier was sent up to be the pastor of this
+flock.[438]
+
+It was often with despair that the missionaries saw the Indians still
+clinging to their heathen rites, and the few additions to the churches
+do not indicate any great transformation of an Indian nation. But if the
+lives of the natives were not elevated by their contact with the whites
+it was not because they had no opportunity. The forces which led to
+their degeneration had the start of the civilizing forces, and they also
+appealed more to the Indian's nature. At the same time both romance and
+lustre is added to the relations of Old Fort Snelling with the
+surrounding Indians by the story of the attempts of the men who had a
+vision of what Indian life could be, and who unselfishly tried to make
+that vision a reality, encouraged and supported by the military men at
+the fort.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE FASHIONABLE TOUR
+
+
+George Catlin, whose wanderings in the West had acquainted him with the
+most beautiful and the most accessible scenic spots of the country,
+urged upon his readers the adoption of a trip to the Falls of St.
+Anthony as the "Fashionable Tour".[439] Primitive life and unspoiled
+landscapes could be seen from the comfortable decks of the steamboat.
+The objective point of these trips was the Falls of St. Anthony, but it
+was at Fort Snelling that the passengers were dropped. Only because of
+the necessity of bringing supplies to the troops at the post did the
+steamboats make the journey. It is in the writings of these visitors
+that there have been preserved many pictures of life in and about Fort
+Snelling. Moreover, these visits from the outside world brought pleasure
+and satisfaction to the smaller world about the fort.
+
+In the month of May, 1823, occurred an event which was epochal, not only
+in regard to the commercial development of the Northwest, but also in
+respect to the growth of the upper Mississippi as a Mecca for
+travellers. The steamboat "Virginia", one hundred and twenty feet long
+with a twenty foot beam, commanded by Captain Crawford, left St. Louis
+with supplies for Fort Snelling; on the tenth of May it was
+received by the soldiers at the fort with a salute of cannon and by the
+assembled Indians with awe and consternation.[440] "I know not what
+impression the first sight of the Phoenician vessels might make on the
+inhabitants of the coasts of Greece," wrote one who was a passenger on
+that eventful voyage, "or the Triremi of the Romans on the natives of
+Iberia, Gaul, or Britain; but I am sure it could not be stronger than
+that which I saw on the countenances of these savages at the arrival of
+our steam-boat."[441]
+
+The man who wrote these words was J. C. Beltrami, an Italian refugee,
+who for political reasons had fled from his native land. In 1823 he met
+Major Taliaferro at Pittsburgh and requested permission to accompany him
+to the Falls of St. Anthony. This was granted, and in company with the
+Indian agent he arrived at Fort Snelling on the first steamboat to brave
+the current of the upper Mississippi.[442] Here for almost two months he
+was entertained by the officials at the post, visiting the Indian bands,
+attending their councils, writing letters to "My Dear Countess",[443]
+and conversing with Mrs. Snelling who alone could speak French with
+him.[444] He was on the point of setting out overland for Council Bluffs
+when another party arrived at the post.
+
+In the list of the exploring expeditions which traversed the region
+about the head of Lake Superior, by far the most important was the one
+led by Stephen H. Long and conducted under the auspices of the War
+Department. The permanent members of the party were Major Long of
+the Topographical Engineers, Thomas Say, zooelogist and antiquary,
+William H. Keating, mineralogist and geologist, Samuel Seymour,
+landscape painter and designer, and James E. Colhoun, astronomer and
+assistant topographer. The start was made at Philadelphia on April 30,
+1823, and the route led by way of Wheeling and Chicago to Fort Crawford
+at Prairie du Chien. From this point Major Long and Mr. Colhoun
+travelled by land and the others by water, the two parties arriving at
+the fort on July 2nd and July 3rd respectively. After a few days wait
+the journey was again resumed late on the afternoon of July 9th.[445]
+
+In the meantime much had been done. The orders issued to Major Long had
+authorized him to call upon the commanding officer at any post for men,
+horses, camp equipage, provisions, boats, clothing, medicines, and goods
+to the value of three hundred dollars to be distributed among the
+Indians.[446] Biscuits were baked in the ovens of the fort; Joseph
+Renville was engaged as an interpreter; and the detachment of troops
+which had accompanied them from Prairie du Chien was exchanged for a new
+guard, consisting of a sergeant, two corporals, and eighteen soldiers
+under the command of Lieutenant St. Clair Denny.[447]
+
+But these preparations did not prevent them from enjoying the scenic
+views about Fort Snelling. On the sixth of July a walk was taken to the
+Falls of St. Anthony. An island in the river which divided the falls
+into two parts tempted Mr. Say, Mr. Colhoun,  and Mr. Keating to
+cross, the water being only two feet deep. But the ford was located only
+a few feet above the ledge of the rock, and the slippery footing
+rendered the exploit extremely dangerous. When this had been safely
+accomplished, Mr. Say and Mr. Colhoun crossed in the same way the
+eastern half of the falls, while Mr. Keating with great difficulty
+returned to the western bank. Later when the others were crossing the
+dangerous passage, they were seen to be in great difficulties whereupon
+one of the soldiers went out and aided them to the shore. Only after
+they had been strengthened by a dinner, prepared by the old sergeant who
+was in charge of the government mills, were they able to return to the
+fort.[448]
+
+The expedition went up the Minnesota River to its source, then down the
+Red River to Lake Winnipeg and returned to the East by way of the fur
+trader's route along the international boundary and Lake Superior. Fear
+of the Indians living about the mouth of the Blue Earth River, one of
+whose number had been arrested and sent to St. Louis for murder, had
+suggested the necessity of the military escort. But when the place was
+reached no trouble resulted, as the Indians had gone on their summer
+hunt. Accordingly nine of the soldiers were sent back with canoes--some
+of the supplies having been destroyed by accidents. Those who remained
+had no easy task. There were only nine horses, and these were reserved
+for the officers and "gentlemen" of the company, so that the privates
+were obliged to walk.[449]
+
+On August 9th when the party left Pembina behind, their number had
+dwindled. Joseph Snelling, son of Colonel Snelling, who had gone with
+them thus far, returned by the same route with three soldiers. J. C.
+Beltrami, who had been allowed to cast his lot with theirs, and who had
+been equipped and supplied by the Indian agent, who had presented him
+with the "noble steed 'Cadmus'",[450] also left them. In company with
+two Chippewas and a _bois-brule_ of Red River, he set out for the
+southeast with the purpose of there finding the source of the
+Mississippi. Upon a small lake, which he named Lake Julia, he conferred
+the honor of being the head of the great river, while it seemed to him
+that the "shades of Marco Polo, of Columbus, of Americus Vespucius, of
+the Cabots, of Verazani, of the Zenos, and various others, appeared
+present, and joyfully assisting at this high and solemn ceremony".[451]
+After a journey of great suffering he was welcomed at Fort
+Snelling--wearing a hat made of the bark of a tree, and clothes of
+skins.[452]
+
+Not until late in the fall did the connection of Fort Snelling with this
+expedition cease, when the soldiers who had accompanied the party as far
+as Sault Ste. Marie returned to their post by the Fox-Wisconsin route
+after a journey rendered exceedingly disagreeable by the cold.[453]
+
+In the summer of 1835 George Catlin and his wife spent several months at
+Fort Snelling. Mr. Catlin was an artist who made a specialty of Indian
+scenes, and his time was occupied in painting scenes of Indian
+life and portraits of Indian chiefs. His studio was a room in the
+officers' quarters, and his models were the natives who lingered about
+the agency.
+
+Mr. Catlin was extremely desirous of painting some pictures of Indian
+dances and ball-plays. In order to persuade the Indians to do their
+part, Lawrence Taliaferro told them on July 3rd that if they would come
+the next day and entertain the visitors, the great gun at the fort would
+be fired twenty-one times for their amusement. As this was the salute
+for the national holiday, he was safe in making the prophecy.
+Accordingly, on the fourth of July the prairie near the fort, for two
+hours, rang with the excited shouts of the ball-players; and when this
+pastime was finished the "beggar's-dance", the "buffalo-dance", the
+"bear-dance", the "eagle-dance", and the "dance-of-the-braves" furnished
+entertainment for three hours more.[454]
+
+On the sixteenth of July General Robert Patterson of Philadelphia with
+his sister and daughter arrived on the steamboat "Warrior". For their
+amusement the Indians staged the "dog-dance", using for their victims
+two dogs which were presented to them by the officers of the garrison.
+Accompanied by a soldier George Catlin left for Prairie du Chien on July
+27th. "About this lovely spot", he wrote, "I have whiled away a few
+months with great pleasure, and having visited all the curiosities, and
+all the different villages of Indians in the vicinity, I close my
+notebook and start in a few days for Prairie du Chien, which is three
+hundred miles below this; where I shall have new subjects for my
+brush and new themes for my pen, when I may continue my epistles."[455]
+
+In the thirties began that series of geological surveys which has
+continued ever since, under both the national and State governments. In
+the fall of 1835 George William Featherstonhaugh and William Williams
+Mather, geologists in the service of the government, made a survey of
+the Minnesota Valley. The detailed scientific report of the survey was
+published by the government;[456] while a popular description of the
+trip, written by Mr. Featherstonhaugh, appeared in London in 1847
+entitled, "A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor".
+
+From September 12th to September 15th on the up-journey and from October
+16th to October 22nd on the return, the scientist was entertained at the
+fort. The reception which he received did not impress him with its
+cordiality. "I could not but reflect upon the contrast betwixt the very
+kind attentions I had received at the other American posts, and the want
+of them I experienced here."[457] But the feeling was mutual. The keen
+Indian agent characterized him by saying: "He attempted to pass current
+for that which he possessed not--superior talent and modesty in his
+profession."[458] Mr. Featherstonhaugh was an Englishman in whose
+narrative American institutions were not praised. Even the presence of
+his American co-laborer, Mr. Mather, is not suspected by reading the
+entertaining story, for his name is not mentioned once.
+
+It is difficult, therefore, to judge how accurate the account of
+his stay at Fort Snelling really is. The room which was given to him for
+his use was "an old dirty, ill-smelling, comfortless store-room", and
+Major L---- (Loomis?) who was asked by the commandant to provide
+accommodations for the visitor bored him with his psalm-singing and
+exhortations, being "a living rod in soak to tickle up sluggish
+Christians". But, probably unwittingly, Featherstonhaugh admitted that
+Fort Snelling was of some service to him. For the supplies and
+vegetables taken from the post gardens brought the gunwale of the canoe
+to within four inches of the water![459]
+
+Further exploration of the upper Mississippi was made by Joseph N.
+Nicollet during the summer of the next year. This French scientist was
+aided in part by the War Department, and in part by the fur traders, P.
+Chouteau, Jr., & Co., of St. Louis.[460] While at Fort Snelling he
+determined to visit the sources of the great river, and in his
+enterprises he was greatly assisted by Lawrence Taliaferro, H. H.
+Sibley, and the officers at the fort. Some of the soldiers wished to
+accompany him, but the absence of many of the garrison at Prairie du
+Chien made their presence at the post necessary. Some Chippewa Indians,
+some half-breeds, and a Frenchman, Desire Fronchet, were his only
+companions when the ascent of the river was commenced. But at the first
+stopping place, near the Falls of St. Anthony, a band of thieving Sioux
+robbed him of many of his supplies, and the attempt would have been
+given up had not Major Taliaferro made good the loss from his own
+means.[461] Nicollet visited Lake Itasca and indicated its principal
+tributary, so that some authors have credited him with being the
+discoverer of the true source of the Mississippi.[462]
+
+After the return from this perilous journey, the winter was spent at
+Fort Snelling in working over the notes and a map. For the kindness
+shown him Mr. Nicollet expressed great appreciation, though the rude
+hospitality of the frontier post could provide no supper better than
+wild rice, mush, and milk, and no sleeping quarters better than the
+storehouse. But here he was entertained, as the agent wrote, in Virginia
+fashion where a call lasts six months and a visit one year; and the
+nights were made merry with the music of the violin and piano, and with
+the animated conversation of Taliaferro and Nicollet. For many hours on
+cold winter nights he studied through his telescope the stars in the
+clear heavens.[463]
+
+Mr. Nicollet devoted two more seasons to examining the country between
+the Mississippi and Missouri rivers in company with John C. Fremont. In
+1838 a trip was made from Fort Snelling to the pipestone quarry; and in
+1839 his party ascended the Missouri River to Fort Pierre, and then
+passed over the prairies to the Mississippi.[464] The accounts of these
+journeys were widely read, and coming from the pen of such an able
+scientist and pleasing writer, the interest of the country was turned to
+the rich possibilities of this new Northwest.[465]
+
+In addition to these well-known travellers there was a host of
+people who made the trip as a vacation jaunt. On June 1, 1836, the
+"Palmyra" arrived with thirty passengers. The steamboat "Burlington"
+tied up at Fort Snelling on June 13, 1838, having among its many
+passengers Captain Frederick Marryat, the popular English novelist. Only
+two days later the "Brazil" was moored near the "Burlington", the
+presence of two boats at the same time being considered a novel sight.
+The family of Governor Henry Dodge was on this second boat.[466]
+
+On June 26, 1838, the "Burlington" was again at Fort Snelling. Among the
+tourists on this trip was Mrs. Alexander Hamilton who had embarked at
+Galena where she had been visiting her son, W. S. Hamilton, who was
+connected with lead mining enterprises in Wisconsin. The fact that Mrs.
+Hamilton had been a belle in society during the time of George
+Washington, and the general sympathy felt for her ever since the tragic
+death of her husband in 1804, caused her to be received with more
+attention than was usually bestowed on tourists. At nine o'clock she was
+taken in a carriage to the Falls of St. Anthony, and when she returned
+to the fort in the afternoon the officers met her at the gate and led
+her to a chair placed upon a carpet in the center of the parade ground.
+After the troops had been reviewed she was entertained at the
+headquarters of the fort until the "Burlington" left that same
+evening.[467]
+
+The extent of this tourist traffic is well illustrated in the newspapers
+of the time. Advertisements tell of the interesting features to
+be seen on a trip to the upper Mississippi, of the pleasures of
+steamboat travel, and promise that "A first rate band of music will be
+on board."[468] An editor paused long enough in the exciting
+presidential "Log Cabin" campaign of 1840 to remark that "Pleasure trips
+to these Falls appear to be quite the go. Large parties of ladies and
+gentlemen have passed up on the steamboats Loyal Hanna and Malta. And we
+noticed in a late St. Louis paper, the advertisements of the Valley
+Forge, Ione, Brazil and Monsoon, all for 'pleasure excursions to St.
+Peters'. We see also in the same paper, that the steamboat Fayette is
+advertised 'for Harrison and Reform'--rather an extensive country we
+should think, at the present time."[469] Even as far away as Louisville,
+Kentucky, steamboats were chartered for trips to the upper waters of the
+Mississippi River.[470]
+
+The pleasures of such a journey, the scenery enjoyed, the people met,
+the events of the day spent at Fort Snelling are well illustrated by two
+letters written by the Right Reverend Jackson Kemper, who was the
+missionary bishop of the Northwest of the Episcopal Church.[471] In the
+month of August, 1843, he was the guest of Captain Throckmorton on the
+steamboat "General Brooke"; and he made the trip to Fort Snelling to
+confer with Rev. Ezekiel Gear who was the chaplain at the post. The
+first letter was dated August 25, 1843, and was written to his daughter.
+
+"Here we are snug and almost dry on a sand bar and not more than
+13 miles below St. Peters", he wrote. "While the Captain and his men are
+using all kinds of methods to get us off--the chief of which is to put
+our freight into a large barge aside of us--I will write you a few
+lines. It is now past 8 o'c. P. M. We still hope to get to the fort
+before night (mid-night I mean). Then the Captain says he will give us
+an early breakfast tomorrow and send us off to see the falls (5 Miles
+distant) and we must return so as to start down the river by noon. This
+is too bad in many respects; but what can we do? I have not time to stay
+with Mr. Gear until the next boat arrives; that may not be for a week or
+two; so I will say to Mr. G. when I see him: Here I am, & I have come
+not to see the falls but you, and I am at your disposal as long as I am
+here. If you choose to take me to the falls, it is well; if you prefer
+that I should remain in your house I am content. It is still probable
+that I shall be at Potosi next tuesday Morning. To travel on Sunday, and
+particularly to do so without an opportunity of preaching, will be very
+hard. There will probably be only 4 passengers besides myself on the
+return. There was a little boat the other [day?] a-head of us, and I
+hoped she might be detained at the fort until Monday--but that prospect
+has vanished, for she has just past us descending to Galena.
+
+"It is supposed to be 500 miles from St. Louis to Prairie du Chien and
+300 from there to St. Peters. We stopt at Prairie du Chien for some
+hours and a Judge Lockwood came on board who with his wife is an
+Episcopalian. He told me there are several in and about the town & he
+thought the prospect of organizing a church a fair one if a Missionary
+could be obtained (We are off the sand bar). From the prairie our voyage
+has been delightful. At the distance of a mile or two from the river on
+each side are ranges of lofty hills, in a great variety of shapes. Many
+of them appeared as if the river had flowed for ages near to their tops.
+Some of them looked as if they had been cut in two; and on the peaks of
+several were large blocks of rock. As we were woodding I spoke of going
+up to one of them but was told it was dangerous on account of
+rattle-snakes. There is a curious fact connected with that reptile.
+Cannon river flows into the Mis^i from the west--it is a long & narrow
+stream--nine miles above Lake Pepin. They are never found north of that
+stream, although they abound below it. One of the hills we saw yesterday
+had 3 or 4 large blocks of rock upon it, called the pot and kettles from
+their resemblance to those useful utensils. The prairies were frequent &
+some peculiarly attractive. On Wabasa's we saw a Sioux village--and a
+farmer's establishment--he being sent there by the U. S. to civilize the
+Indians. This morning we passed another village called Red Wings but saw
+very few of the inhabitants. The corn field was very ... [illegible] and
+there were in it elevated frames where the boys are kept to scare away
+the blackbirds. I saw smoke near the frames, the boys having kindled a
+fire to roast ears of corn for their comfort. The Sioux have winter &
+summer houses. The latter are conical made of buffalo robes
+covering poles. The summer lodges looked something like poor log huts &
+are made of poles & elm bark. Near Red Wings village there is a Miss^y
+establishment from Switzerland.--Lake Pepin is a beautiful sheet of
+water thro wh the M. flows or is an expanse of the M. & is 25 miles by
+3. It apparently abounded in large fish, for they were constantly
+jumping out of the water. Its banks you know are celebrated for
+agates--but we have not time to stop a moment.--The settlements above P.
+du Chien are very few--now and then a solitary dwelling & a wood yard.
+At one of these places the man told me his nearest neighbor was 20 miles
+off. In winter there is a good deal of travelling on the river in
+sleighs. About half way up Lake Pepin is the lover's rock of which you
+have heard, the Chippeway river enters from the East just below the
+commencement of the Lake, & its Mouth is 100 Miles below St. Peters. Up
+it & like wise up the St. Croix are saw mills, as that country abounds
+with Pine. The Mouth of the St. Croix is 30 miles below St. Peters. Here
+is a beautiful lake as large as L. Pepin thro' which the St. C. flows
+just before it joins the M.--We have a Mr. Akin on board whose trading
+establishment is 300 Miles north of the St. Peters & 60 west of Lake
+Superior. Then he has been among the Chippeways 33 yrs. He has been
+thro' Lake Superior 30 times to New York for goods & returned as often;
+and now for the first time he has traded with St. Louis. He knows
+perfectly all the languages around him. The most copious is the
+Chippeway. He says they have some what of a written language, and he has
+frequently seen an Indian write off a ... [illegible] for another on a
+piece of bark. He thinks the characters are something like those of the
+Mexicans.--Now I suppose you would like to receive a letter with the S.
+Peter's post Mark; and if I ascertain it will not take more than a Month
+on its journey you shall receive this thro that channel; otherwise I
+will reserve it for the p. o. of P. du Chien".[472]
+
+The narrative is continued in a letter of August 29, 1843, written from
+Potosi, Wisconsin, to his son:
+
+"Although you may not have a very high opinion of the West, yet I think
+you would have liked to be with me in my late trip to St. Peters. The
+weather was delightful and the scenery grand and very novel. You have
+probably seen my letter to your sister; I will therefore say, we arrived
+at the end of our voyage last friday night, and as the fog was very
+thick the next morning we could not see where we were until 8 oclock.
+Then the fort on a high hill, with its flag flying, had a fine
+appearance. Mr. Gear the chaplain soon called at the boat and appeared
+greatly rejoiced to see me. I accompanied him to his quarters and saw
+his family and some of the officers and ladies of the garrison, and then
+he and I rode out 8 miles to the falls of St. Anthony. Though very
+inferior to those of Niagara, they are still well worth seeing. The
+scenery is wild--there are many immense rocks in the river, evidently
+broken off from the precipice over which the water is dashed with
+considerable noise--the water in its fall is frequently broken--but even
+when it is not so, the height is not more than 17-1/2 feet. Returning we
+went to a hill from whence we could see the whole of the fall for there
+is an island in the middle of the river which hides one half of it when
+you are near. A mile or two further brought us to a most beautiful and
+lofty cascade on Nine Mile river. The quantity of water was not large,
+but it fell amidst the wildest scene, unbroken, over a ledge of rock
+which extended far beyond its foundation.--There were not many Indians.
+The few I saw were Sioux who looked much degenerated by their contact
+with the Whites. The families of the officers appeared very happy; the
+ladies told me they were like sisters. For months they have no visitors
+but wild Indians--Sioux or Chippeways. An old Scotchman who had been in
+this country 50 years told me that all the tribes to the North and West
+speak the Chippeway language or its dialects; that the Sioux is entirely
+different from it, but that a dialect of it is spoken by the
+Winnebagoes, with this difference that the Sioux language has not the
+sound of the letter R in it while almost every word of the Winnebago
+abounds with Rs. He thinks that a person knowing the two languages--the
+C. and S. could travel through the indian country from Mexico to the N.
+Pole and make himself understood.--We had to return to the boat by one
+oclock, and soon after we started down the river. Near the Mouth of the
+St. Croix--about 45 miles below St. Peters, I saw on a prairie a
+large stone painted a bright red, to which the Indians offer sacrifices
+of tobacco &c. and consider a _Wa-Kon_ or Spirit.--As we were on our
+journey sunday afternoon I saw a bark canoe paddling towards us with
+great rapidity containing as I first thought an Indian and a white Man.
+The steamer was stopt, and soon the chattels (kettle, coffee-pot, &c)
+then the men afterwards the boat itself were on board. They proved to be
+a miner who had gone from Galena and a stout lad. Eight months ago a
+number of persons were induced by offers of land from Government to go
+to Lake Superior in search of copper; and a large party had lately been
+occupied in removing an immense block of copper from the bed of a river
+which empties into the Lake. This miner had been thus occupied; and he
+informed me that the task was done--that the block weighed three
+tons--that it was to be taken to New York &c as an object of curiosity.
+A fortnight ago he had started from the spot--skirted the Lake to a
+certain river, ascended that to its source, then carried the canoe with
+its contents 2 or 3 miles on their shoulders until they met the head
+waters of the St. Croix, and descended that river to the
+Mississippi."[473]
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE CHIPPEWA TREATY OF 1837
+
+
+The relations of the United States government to the Indians prior to
+1871 shows a dual attitude. On the one hand, the Indians were the
+government's wards. By the ninth of the Articles of Confederation,
+Congress was given the right of "regulating the trade and managing all
+affairs with the Indians who were not members of any of the
+states";[474] and by the act regulating Indian trade no cession of land
+could be valid unless made by treaty or convention.[475] On the other
+hand, these treaties were negotiated and proclaimed with all the pomp
+and ceremony which would appeal to the Indian's mind and impress him
+with his importance as a member of a sovereign nation. This was
+distinctly a "legal fiction", but it continued as the customary method
+of procedure until the act of March 3, 1871, abolished the practice of
+considering the tribes as independent nations.[476]
+
+As the nation increased in strength and the agricultural and commercial
+forces of the country were pushing westward and coming into contact with
+the distant tribes, the treaties increased in number and importance.
+Urged by the cries of hungry land-seekers the cession of land by the
+natives gradually became the most important phase of all treaties; and
+ in order that the new settlements might be protected from
+vengeful Indians the title to the land rested on legal cession rather
+than on conquest. It is stated on the authority of the Commissioner of
+Indian Affairs that "Except only in the case of the Sioux Indians in
+Minnesota, after the outbreak of 1862, the Government has never
+extinguished an Indian title as by right of conquest; and in this case
+the Indians were provided with another reservation, and subsequently
+were paid the net proceeds arising from the sale of the land
+vacated."[477]
+
+The negotiation of a treaty was not an easy affair. There were no
+recognized representatives of the tribe. In order that a treaty might be
+satisfactory it was necessary that all factions be consulted; and the
+braves who gathered often numbered into the hundreds. Thus, in planning
+the negotiations a satisfactory place and an opportune time must be
+selected, while the red men must be supported while away from home and
+protected from lurking enemies. It was in these phases of treaty-making
+that the military posts showed their importance.
+
+The first important treaty with which the tribes living about Fort
+Snelling were concerned was that made at Prairie du Chien in 1825. The
+little frontier village presented a gala appearance during the month of
+August when the great convocation was held. There were Chippewas, Sioux,
+Sacs and Foxes, Menomonies, Iowas, Winnebagoes, and a portion of the
+Ottawa, Chippewa, and Pottawattomie tribes living on the Illinois River
+gathered to consult with Governor Lewis Cass of Michigan and
+General William Clark, the government's commissioners. Of the 1054
+drawing rations on the last day, 386 were of the delegation of Sioux and
+Chippewas gathered by Major Taliaferro at Fort Snelling and brought down
+in safety to make a triumphal entry in true Indian style with flags
+flying, drums beating, and guns firing.[478]
+
+Although there was no cession of land, distinct progress was made in
+that the territories of the various tribes were defined, thus making
+negotiations easier for the future. Of especial importance was the
+Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, which made clear the territory of each
+tribe, so that when the year 1837 arrived and treaties were made to
+obtain the lands east of the Mississippi, the areas with which each was
+concerned were clearly understood.[479]
+
+By the year 1837 many conditions called for the cession of these lands.
+The forests, the water-power, the mines of lead and other ores aroused
+the desires of speculators. Settlers were thronging to Wisconsin, and it
+was felt that if the land could be purchased and the Indians removed,
+the people would be safe from any attacks, and the Indians would be
+removed from the contaminating influence of many of the undesirable
+whites.[480] There were also the traders who for years past had given
+credit to many worthless Indians who had never brought back from the
+hunt furs sufficient to pay for the goods advanced them; and they hoped
+that in the payment for the lands certain sums would be reserved
+for the liquidation of these debts.[481]
+
+In the early summer of 1837 Major Taliaferro was ordered to organize a
+delegation of Sioux Indians who could be taken to Washington, where the
+Sioux negotiations would take place. At the same time orders were issued
+to summon the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi to a council to be held
+at Fort Snelling. To both of these groups the subject of the purchase of
+the Indian lands east of the Mississippi would be broached.[482]
+
+Miles Vineyard, who was the sub-agent at Fort Snelling, was immediately
+sent to the villages of the Chippewas. Early in July the red men began
+to arrive, and by July 20th about a thousand men, women, and children
+had pitched their tepees near the fort. Many were the notable chiefs
+gathered there with their warriors. With the Pillager band from Leech
+Lake was Chief Flat Mouth, who had twenty-five times been on the warpath
+without receiving a wound, who had delivered his English medal to Pike
+in 1806, and whose band had been attacked by the Sioux under the walls
+of Fort Snelling in 1827. The most famous of the Chippewa chiefs, he was
+still living in 1852, being then seventy-eight years old.[483]
+
+The chief of the bands from Gull Lake and Swan River was
+Hole-in-the-Day. Energetic, brave, and intelligent, he gained a great
+influence over the Chippewas of the upper Mississippi. His name, which
+literally meant a bright spot in the sky, is often written
+Hole-in-the-Sky. He was a frequent visitor at Fort Snelling and came to
+his death at that place in 1847 when he fell from a wagon, breaking his
+neck and dying instantly.[484] His brother Strong Ground or Strong Earth
+was also present at the council. He had been a member of Flat Mouth's
+band at the time of the massacre in 1827. Thirty-six eagle plumes waved
+from his head-dress at the time of his death, each of them representing
+the scalp of an enemy. The first of these he obtained when as a small
+boy he dashed into the ranks of the Sioux during a conflict and scalped
+a fallen warrior.[485] Chiefs and warriors from the St. Croix River,
+Mille Lac, and Sandy Lake, with their followers, were also encamped near
+the fort.
+
+There were also notables among the white men gathered there. The United
+States commissioner was Henry Dodge, known as an Indian fighter, and at
+that time Governor of Wisconsin Territory. General William R. Smith of
+Pennsylvania, who had been appointed by the President to serve as a
+commissioner with Governor Dodge, was unable to come. Lawrence
+Taliaferro, the Indian agent, was busied with many duties connected with
+the safety of the visitors. Four hundred Sioux hovered about, and these
+had to be kept at a safe distance to avoid conflicts. Verplanck Van
+Antwerp, the secretary of the commission; J. N. Nicollet, the explorer;
+H. H. Sibley; and many other fur traders watched the negotiations and
+put their names to the treaty as witnesses.[486]
+
+The council began on July 20th. It was with the chiefs that Governor
+Dodge parleyed, but the warriors and braves felt that they also should
+have some part in the proceedings. On one occasion several hundred of
+them, streaked with their brightest paint, waving their tomahawks and
+spears and carrying the war flag of the Chippewas, together with the
+flag of the United States, interrupted the council with their whoops and
+drums; and when they had approached the chair of the Governor, paused
+while two of the warriors harangued the crowd on the kindness of the
+traders and the debts owed them.[487]
+
+The negotiations were carried on in a bower near the house of the agent.
+The chiefs were assembled daily; the peace pipe was smoked; and the red
+men, dressed only in leggings and breech cloths, with their long hair
+hanging over their shoulders under the eagle feathers upon their heads,
+and medals dangling from their necks, spoke of lands, of the traders,
+and of wars. The speeches of the Indians seemed interminable. From day
+to day action was postponed as they were waiting for other bands to
+arrive.
+
+To prolong the council as long as possible was satisfying to the
+appetite of the Indian. The rations issued by the commissary at Fort
+Snelling were not to be eagerly exchanged for the fare of a Chippewa
+lodge in the northern woods. But at first the menu was not satisfactory.
+Nadin (the Wind) complained on July 24th: "You have everything around
+you, and can give us some of the cattle that are around us on the
+prairie. At the treaty of Prairie du Chien,  the case was as
+difficult as this. The great Chief then fed us well with cattle."[488]
+Evidently this hint was acted upon, as the old records show that by July
+30th ten beeves weighing 6123 pounds had been furnished the Chippewas
+who were assembled to the number of 1400.[489] The amount of supplies
+used on such an occasion is indicated by instructions given to Alexander
+Ramsey and John Chambers who in 1849 were commissioned to treat with the
+Sioux Indians at Fort Snelling. They were authorized to obtain from the
+commissary at Fort Snelling 15,000 rations of flour, 10,000 of pork,
+10,000 of salt, 10,000 of beans, and 5000 of soap.[490]
+
+At the first meeting Governor Dodge spoke to the Chippewas of the
+purpose of the council. Their lands east of the Mississippi, he informed
+them, were not valuable in game and were not suited for agricultural
+purposes. They were said to be covered with pine trees, which the white
+men were eager to obtain, and accordingly the government was willing to
+pay the Chippewa nation for them. Thus, by selling the land they could
+obtain money for that which actually was of little value to them.[491]
+
+There evidently was no intention on the part of the Indians not to sell
+the lands, but the council was protracted, pending the arrival of other
+bands. Not until July 27th did they make any movement to close the deal.
+On that day, Ma-ghe-ga-bo, a warrior of the Pillager band, dressed in
+his most fantastic costume, covered a map of the land in question with a
+piece of paper, remarking that when the paper was removed the
+land would be considered sold. He added a final request: "My father, in
+all the country we sell you, we wish to hold on to that which gives us
+life--the streams and lakes where we fish, and the trees from which we
+make sugar."
+
+Finally he asked all the chiefs who agreed to sell the land to rise.
+About thirty arose at his word. Immediately Ma-ghe-ga-bo raised the
+paper from the map and seized the hand of Governor Dodge. The sale was
+made. There remained only to agree upon the terms of the cession.[492]
+
+During the negotiations, reference had been made continually by the
+Indians to the traders and the payment of the debts owed them. Pe-she-ke
+said: "I have been supported by the trader, and without his aid, could
+not get through the winter with naked skin. The grounds where your
+children have to hunt are as bare as that on which I now stand, and have
+no game upon them.... We have not much to give the traders, as our lands
+and hunting grounds are so destitute. Do us a kindness by paying our old
+debts." That he was coached to make the remark is evident from his
+statement that "No-body--no trader has instructed me what to say to
+you."[493]
+
+On July 29th the terms were finally agreed upon, and while the secretary
+was writing out the treaty the braves of the Chippewas held a dance
+under the walls of Fort Snelling. This indicated not only their
+satisfaction at the successful conclusion of the council, but was also
+intended as a compliment to the commissioner. Three hundred
+warriors circled about in their gaudy costumes, recounting during the
+pauses of the dance the deeds of bravery they had done and the number of
+Sioux scalps they had obtained. At a distance a great number of Sioux
+looked upon the scene, not daring to interfere when the troops of the
+fort were so near.[494]
+
+By this treaty the Chippewas ceded an immense tract of land east of the
+Mississippi. In return the United States agreed to pay annually for
+twenty years $9500 in money, $19,000 in goods, $3000 for blacksmiths,
+$1000 for farmers, $2000 in provisions, and $500 in tobacco. One hundred
+thousand dollars was to be paid to the half-breeds, and $70,000 was set
+aside to pay the claims of the fur traders. The privilege of hunting,
+fishing, and gathering wild rice along the lakes and rivers of the ceded
+territory was reserved for the Indians.[495]
+
+This cession of land by the Chippewas had its counterpart in a treaty
+concluded by Sioux chiefs on September 29, 1837, in Washington, whither
+they had been taken by Major Taliaferro. All their lands east of the
+Mississippi--the land between the Black River and the Mississippi River
+as far north as the Sioux-Chippewa boundary line was given up for
+various considerations amounting in total to almost one million
+dollars.[496]
+
+By these two treaties all the lands east of Fort Snelling were opened to
+settlement and commercial exploitation. As soon as the news of their
+ratification came, developments immediately began--developments
+which had an important bearing upon the future history of Old Fort
+Snelling. The days when the Chippewa treaty was being drawn up are
+important, not only because they present an interesting sight of the
+picturesque features of an Indian council, but also because they show
+how Fort Snelling was assisting in the opening up of the rich timber
+lands and fertile prairies that border the Mississippi River.
+
+For many years the payment of annuities that had been promised the Sioux
+was an annual reminder of these treaties. It was necessary that each
+Indian receive his portion of the goods and money in person in order to
+prevent fraud. In the late summer of each year all the warriors of Red
+Wing's and Wabasha's villages would leave their homes for the fort. In
+the agency building the United States officers, with the roll of the
+Sioux nation before them, called the names of the individuals, who one
+by one stepped up, touched the pen of the secretary, received the money,
+and deposited it in the box of his band. Outside was the typical Indian
+group--squaws, children, dogs, and braves smoking their pipes and
+talking of past achievements. And in order that the Indians might always
+be conscious of the presence of the soldiers of the "Great Father", the
+band of the fort played patriotic and thrilling airs.[497]
+
+With the transfer of the Indians to reservations higher up on the
+Minnesota River the payment of these annuities became a task which could
+no longer be performed at the fort. But the guarding of the funds
+was a necessity. Captain James Monroe spent the latter half of the month
+of November, 1852, at Traverse des Sioux with one subaltern and
+forty-seven men of the dragoons and infantry, protecting the money from
+bandits and Indians. William T. Magruder was ordered on October 23,
+1853, to proceed in command of a detachment of troops to escort the
+money being sent to Fort Ridgely; and exactly a year later, an officer
+and thirteen men were detailed to perform a similar task.[498]
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+CITIZENS AND SOLDIERS
+
+
+"The frontier army post," writes Professor F. J. Turner, "serving to
+protect the settlers from the Indians, has also acted as a wedge to open
+the Indian country, and has been a nucleus for settlement."[499] When
+the Fifth Infantry built its cantonment on the Minnesota River there
+were no other habitations in the neighborhood. Traders yearly frequented
+the region and wintered on the banks of the Mississippi and Minnesota
+rivers, but their headquarters were located at Prairie du Chien.
+Immediately after the beginning of the military establishment, however,
+the movement mentioned by Professor Turner was initiated.
+
+In the spring of 1820 J. B. Faribault came up with cattle for the
+garrison and decided to locate in the vicinity as a fur trader. On
+August 9th the Indians granted Pike's Island to his wife, Pelagi
+Faribault, who was the daughter of a Frenchman and a Sioux woman.
+Faribault immediately built houses upon the island, but high water
+washed them away. Thereupon he removed to the east side of the
+Mississippi. It is probably to this establishment that Beltrami referred
+in 1823 when he wrote that "there are no buildings round the fort,
+except three or four log-houses on the banks of the river, in
+which some subaltern agents of the Southwest Company live among the
+frogs."[500] This position was also upon low land, and on April 21,
+1826, when the ice began to move, Faribault's houses were carried away,
+while he and his family escaped in canoes.[501] After this second
+disaster Faribault's establishment was erected at Mendota, where Alexis
+Bailly had already located.[502] The growth of this village was very
+slow. But gradually old fur traders settled about it with their
+families; voyageurs, when not employed on the rivers, lounged about the
+trading house; and the agents and clerks of the American Fur Company had
+their permanent homes in the rude log cabins which were clustered about.
+
+In the meantime a new element had been added to the surroundings of the
+fort. It was already three-quarters of a century since the traders had
+erected the first trading post upon the Red River of the North. The
+early French voyageurs had left a race of half-breeds, popularly called
+_bois-brules_, who were the vassals of the two great companies. When
+their strength had been spent in the labors of hunting and trapping,
+they retired to the vicinity of some post--the largest of these
+settlements being Fort Garry, the germ of the modern city of Winnipeg,
+which as early as 1823 boasted of a population of about six
+hundred.[503]
+
+But not all of these half-breeds were traders. Thomas Douglas, the fifth
+Lord Selkirk had secured from the Hudson's Bay Company the grant of an
+ immense tract of land on the Red River, and in 1811 he began the
+colonization of the region with poor immigrants from Scotland and
+Ireland. But the knowledge of the internal troubles of the company put
+an end to the immigration from these two countries, and Lord Selkirk
+turned to Switzerland for new recruits. In 1821 a ship full of Swiss
+sailed for Fort York on Hudson's Bay, and late in the fall the party
+reached the Red River after a toilsome journey up the Nelson River and
+across Lake Winnipeg. Being artisans and city-dwellers they were unable
+to endure the rough agricultural labors in the bleak north. Cold,
+floods, grasshoppers, and uncongenial neighbors rendered the location
+unpleasant.[504]
+
+Travellers from the south brought news of a better locality, and towards
+this place there soon began a movement which, while not great in any one
+year, was long continued. In 1821 five families made the journey to Fort
+Snelling, and their success inspired others. In 1823 thirteen families
+made the perilous journey of four hundred miles. From year to year, as
+families became discouraged they left the colony. Four hundred and
+eighty-nine persons had arrived at Fort Snelling up to 1835.[505]
+
+The many hardships endured by these travellers, and their pitiful
+condition, appealed to the sympathy of the Americans,[506] and they were
+welcomed and aided by the officers at Fort Snelling. During their stay
+one party was granted the use of the old barracks at Camp Cold Water.
+Employment was given the men upon the reservation, and those who
+preferred to remain were allowed to settle upon the military
+grounds. Comparatively few, however, made their homes here, the greater
+number proceeding to Galena, Illinois, and Vevay, Indiana. On one
+occasion provisions for the down-river journey in government keel-boats
+were issued by Colonel Snelling.[507]
+
+A third class of settlers around the fort was composed of discharged
+soldiers. Men stationed at Fort Snelling saw the agricultural value of
+the surrounding lands, or the possibility of riches in the fur trade.
+Joseph R. Brown, who came as a drummer boy with Colonel Leavenworth in
+1819, entered the employ of the post sutler when he ceased his
+connection with the army, and later he became an Indian trader.[508]
+Edward Phelan, John Hays, and William Evans, whose terms of service at
+Fort Snelling expired about this time were among the first settlers on
+the land ceded in the treaty of 1837.[509]
+
+In the fall of 1837 it was revealed by a survey that there were one
+hundred and fifty-seven white persons, not connected with the fort,
+living on the reservation. Of these, eighty-two had their homes in the
+vicinity of Camp Cold Water and seventy-five at the fur trading
+establishments. Approximately two hundred horses and cattle were owned
+by these persons.[510]
+
+For many years pleasant relations existed between the officers at the
+post and the civilians. The physician of the garrison willingly
+responded to calls for his aid made by the people living outside the
+fort.
+
+"I am compelled", wrote Joseph Renville to H. H. Sibley, "to ask you for
+some assistance in regard to a disease which is very bad here--the
+whooping cough. I pray you to ask the doctor for some medicine,
+particularly for some camphor."[511] Many a time Lawrence Taliaferro
+presided at a frontier wedding, when in one of the rude huts on the
+reservation the picturesque figure of the fur trader mingled with the
+glittering uniform of the officer, and dusky faces peered in at the
+windows awaiting the end of the ceremony when they also could partake of
+such a feast as only the prairies, lakes, and sutler's store could
+provide.[512]
+
+In the troubles which naturally arose between the settlers and the
+Indians, the agent was the mediator. Thirty of Peter Musick's cattle
+were killed by Indians who, wanting only powder horns, left the
+carcasses to the wolves.[513] On July 13, 1834, Jacob Falstrom came to
+the agency bringing the feet and hams of an ox which he claimed had been
+shot by a Sioux Indian at Mud Lake. He claimed thirty-five dollars from
+the Indian Department for the loss which he had sustained. As he was a
+poor man and had a large family to support Major Taliaferro was moved to
+make an effort to aid him. "I proposed", he wrote in his diary the same
+evening, "to contribute $5 for the benefit of J. Faustram to Several of
+the Gentlemen of the Post--but not meeting with a corresponding
+Sentiment--the poor fellow must be informed of my bad success in his
+behalf".[514]
+
+Only a week later Joseph R. Brown asked to be paid for a hog
+which the Indians had killed.[515] During the summer of 1837 Louis Massy
+claimed $150; Abraham Perry $50; and Benjamin F. Baker $750 for similar
+damages.[516] Many years later the agent wrote of these unpleasant
+duties: "The traders would make a detective of the agent if practicable.
+All thefts on each other were reported to the agent for justice.
+Deserting boatmen (fed on corn and tallow) must be forced to proceed up
+the St. Peter's with their outfits for the trade, right or wrong. Every
+ox, cow, calf or hog lost by persons on the Indian lands, the agents
+were expected to find the culprits or pay for these often fictitious
+losses."[517]
+
+A new era in the history of these settlers began when the treaties of
+1837 opened the lands east of the Mississippi to settlement. Some time
+before they had heard rumors of the coming negotiations at Washington,
+and those living west of the Mississippi sent a memorial to the
+President stating that they had settled upon the land thinking it was
+part of the public domain and believing that they would have the right
+of preemption upon their claims. But now, if a new treaty was made and
+the land west of the Mississippi purchased for a military reservation,
+they asked that they be allowed reasonable compensation for the
+improvements they had made. However, in the treaty no mention was made
+of a military reservation, the title to the land around the fort being
+allowed to rest upon Pike's treaty of 1805.[518]
+
+But to Major J. Plympton, who became the commanding officer at Fort
+Snelling during the summer of 1837, the presence of these people
+was undesirable, and so in a letter written to the Adjutant-General he
+called attention to the settlement and complained of the difficulty of
+obtaining fuel for the garrison when the squatters were also engaged in
+the same task. In his reply on November 17, 1837, the Adjutant-General
+directed that a reservation be marked off--the extent of Pike's purchase
+being indefinite.[519]
+
+On March 26, 1838, Major Plympton sent a map of the territory which he
+chose to have considered as a military reservation. This reservation,
+contrary to the expectations of many, included land on the east side of
+the Mississippi. Thus there were many who thought that they had been
+using their legal rights of preemption when in reality they were only
+squatters. Order No. 65 issued at the post on July 26, 1838, forbade the
+erection of any buildings or fences upon the reservation, and prohibited
+the cutting of timber except for public use.[520] During this same time
+there seems to have been, on the part of those living on the west bank
+of the Mississippi, a movement to the east side. Mrs. Abraham Perry came
+to Agent Taliaferro on October 18, 1838, and complained that the Indians
+had killed three of her cattle "just below the stone cave"--that is,
+Fountain Cave which was on the east bank of the river.[521] Yet her
+husband was among those who had signed the petition of August 16, 1837,
+as residents on the west side.
+
+Within these lands were also a number of shacks along the river
+bank a few miles below Fort Snelling. Here whiskey was clandestinely
+transferred from the boats before they proceeded upstream. During the
+winter of 1839 the presence of these resorts had a deteriorating effect
+upon the garrison. Surgeon Emerson wrote to the Surgeon General of the
+United States on April 23, 1839: "Since the middle of winter we have
+been completely inundated with ardent spirits, and consequently the most
+beastly scenes of intoxication among the soldiers of this garrison and
+the Indians in its vicinity, which no doubt will add many cases to our
+sick-list.... I feel grieved to witness such scenes of drunkenness and
+dissipation where I have spent many days of happiness, when we had no
+ardent spirits among us, and consequently sobriety and good conduct
+among the command."[522]
+
+Brigadier General John E. Wool inspected Fort Snelling on June 2nd, and
+in a letter on June 28th he urged that the settlers be driven off the
+reservation. "Such is the character of the white inhabitants of that
+country", he wrote, "that if they cannot be permitted to carry on their
+nefarious traffic with the Indians, it will sooner or later involve them
+in a war with the United States."[523]
+
+Influenced by these letters and reports Secretary of War J. R. Poinsett
+determined to compel all the settlers to leave. It is, however, wrong to
+suppose that all were guilty of whiskey-peddling. In a letter in which
+he commented on the number of persons present at the Sunday services in
+the fort the chaplain wrote that "Some of the inhabitants also in
+the vicinity who were regular in their attendance have removed."[524]
+
+The instructions for the removal were made out on October 21, 1839, and
+sent to Edward James, Marshal of the Territory of Wisconsin. They stated
+that if force should prove necessary to compel the people to leave, the
+Marshal should call upon the commanding officer at Fort Snelling for
+such aid. In that case he was instructed to act "with as much
+forbearance, consideration, and delicacy as may be consistent with the
+prompt and faithful performance of the duties hereby assigned to
+you".[525]
+
+The orders were not received by Marshal James until February 18, 1840,
+and he immediately forwarded them to his deputy, Ira B. Brunson of
+Prairie du Chien. As soon as navigation opened in the spring he left for
+Fort Snelling. Notice was at once given to the settlers to move, and
+when they refused a detachment of soldiers was called out on May 6th and
+under the direction of a lieutenant and Marshal Brunson the household
+goods of the settlers were carried out and their cabins destroyed.[526]
+
+These ejected settlers found new homes a few miles down the river. In
+the midst of their rude homes a log chapel was dedicated in November,
+1841, to the Apostle St. Paul by the Reverend Lucian Galtier.[527] As
+the ceded lands were more and more occupied, the little village enjoyed
+a corresponding growth. Gradually the name of the chapel was adopted as
+the name of the settlement. In 1849 the Territory of Minnesota
+was organized with the seat of the legislature at St. Paul. The new
+community prospered, and the town swarmed with settlers, Indians,
+travellers, and adventurers who lived in tents or slept in barns in lieu
+of better accommodations. There were also capitalists, tradesmen, and
+officials who here made their homes.[528]
+
+It was inevitable that between this new community and Fort Snelling
+close relations should exist. The Territorial government was weak; to
+enforce order it was necessary for the Governor to make requisition on
+the fort for troops.[529] The jail at Fort Snelling was also utilized
+for the punishment of many undesirable characters always drawn to a new
+region. James Higby who sold a promissory note which had already been
+paid, and Jacob Shipler who was arrested on a charge of assault and
+battery were both given terms in the jail at the fort. John R. McGregor,
+who became angry and threw his wife against a cooking stove, was
+separated from his help-meet for a period of three months while he
+languished in the fort.[530]
+
+The soldiers, in return, visited the frontier town, conducting
+themselves in the eyes of one observer "with much dignity and
+sobriety".[531] Not always, however, could their actions be thus
+described. Two soldiers who had just returned from an expedition to the
+Indian country, started for St. Paul on the evening of their return,
+carrying with them their blankets which they meant to sell for
+"refreshment".  But their birch canoe upset and before aid could
+reach them they were drowned.[532]
+
+But relations of a more innocent and more desirable sort also existed.
+In the officials of the Territory the officers at the fort found
+congenial spirits. One of the popular pastimes of the little city was to
+ride out upon the frozen Mississippi in sleighs to Fort Snelling. "This
+command", narrates an official report, "had the honor of receiving His
+Excellency W. A. Gorman Gov. of Minnesota and the Hon. James Shields
+late of the U. S. Senate, on the 9th inst. by whom the Command was
+reviewed &c. in presence of a large concourse of Citizens."[533] The
+band of the Sixth Regiment which had paraded through the streets of
+Mexico City playing "Yankee Doodle" now found occupation in playing for
+the balls and parties of the frontier town. Even the inhabitants of
+Stillwater, twenty-five miles distant, called on the fort to furnish the
+music for the Valentine Ball on February 14, 1850.[534] During the same
+month a concert was given, the proceeds going to the Washington Monument
+Association. A year later the ladies who had arranged to give a tea
+party to raise money for the benefit of the poor children of the
+community changed their plans and accepted the offer of the band who
+volunteered to give a concert for the purpose.[535] The value of this
+association of citizens with the soldiers led to the remark of an editor
+that "We consider this band as well as the whole garrison, with its high
+intelligence--but especially the band, of infinite value to St.
+Paul--in fact, it is the most powerful element of influence amongst us,
+for our good, next to the pulpit and the press."[536]
+
+The tourists who for many years had been frequenting the upper
+Mississippi now increased in numbers. In the "Drive of All Visitors"
+were included the Falls of St. Anthony, Lake Harriet, Minnehaha Falls,
+and Fort Snelling.[537] From the lookout tower of the fort on the edge
+of the cliff, could be viewed the same scenery which had charmed Carver
+a hundred years before. Undoubtedly many thought as did the newspaper
+man who wrote: "In the contemplation of this scene from Ft. Snelling,
+one is ravished with a desire to get upon it; and to appropriate a
+little domain for his home. It has the look of home. How can the Sioux
+ever consent to part with these lands?"[538]
+
+But two years later they did part with them. The two treaties in which
+the cession was acknowledged were brought about without military
+aid.[539] This was in itself prophetic of the new status of the fort.
+With the growth of the Territorial organization, one by one the duties
+connected with Indian affairs, liquor troubles, and the protection of
+life and property were taken over by the civil officers, with the
+military men as the executors of their laws only when the regular forces
+of administration were unable to handle the difficulties.
+
+And now the fort which had so long looked down upon the canoes of the
+Indians and traders saw on its two rivers a new procession.
+Flatboats, steamboats, and canoes bore upstream the hardy pioneers and
+their families, and returned loaded with the products of the farm and
+the forest. The post which could have successfully resisted the attack
+of Indian warriors, or even the siege of a civilized enemy was to fall
+before the invasion of the pioneers. The frontier had suddenly leaped
+far to the westward. In 1858, when the troops were withdrawn, there was
+no need of an establishment such as had existed during the first forty
+years. It was the passing of Old Fort Snelling which for so many years
+had been the remotest outpost of American law.
+
+The development of the Northwest was not brought about by the
+spectacular and romantic incidents which the chroniclers loved to
+record. So gradual was its progress that the factors contributing to it
+can be seen only in the perspective of fifty years. It was the result of
+the monotonous details of the life of the fur trader who was the
+unwitting explorer of the Northwest, and the forerunner of the permanent
+resident. The routine duties of garrison life and expeditions to the
+Indian country, often barren of any visible result, added to its
+progress, as also did the weary marches of the explorer and the minute
+notations of the scientist who accompanied him. The patient sacrifices
+of the missionary who toiled at unaccustomed labors in the half-cleared
+cornfield and taught his primitive pupils in the log mission-house,
+introduced a new civilization. The daily contact of the Indian
+and the white man at the fort and agency were prophetic of a new
+relationship between the two races.
+
+But because these events were so commonplace the contemporary
+chroniclers have bequeathed only a brief though eloquent epitome of this
+old Mississippi River post. It was the exception and not the rule to
+note that a company of soldiers was up the river watching the movements
+of the Indians, that a missionary had been presented with a ham, or that
+an explorer took with him so many vegetables from the gardens of the
+fort that the gunwale of his boat was brought within four inches of the
+water. But such are the stray references which indicate the almost
+complete dependence upon the fort of all the factors in the development
+of the Northwest.
+
+
+In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to gather together from
+all sources the references which bear upon each particular phase of the
+process. In most cases they are few, not because the military men were
+not concerned with them, but because at every post in the Mississippi
+Valley conditions were practically the same and the public, being
+acquainted with these routine duties, was more interested in the
+picturesque Indian legends or in the duels between the officers. Of
+these latter incidents the pages of the history of Fort Snelling are
+full and in this respect it was typical of the American army post. But
+it is also an example of that which is of more importance--the
+contribution of the army to the transformation of the Mississippi
+Valley.
+
+In many ways Fort Snelling is unique in the list of American forts. The
+British flag was borne in triumph to wave from the flagstaff of Fort
+Ticonderoga after it had been evacuated by the colonial patriots during
+the dark days of 1777; but never was a foreign flag borne into Fort
+Snelling except to be burned in the sight of awestruck Indians. The guns
+of Fort Sumter announced the opening of the Civil War; never were the
+cannon at Fort Snelling fired at a foe. Mackinac was successively
+garrisoned by French, English, and American soldiers; whenever occupied
+by troops Fort Snelling flew the stars and stripes. The stockades at
+Boonesborough and Harrodstown were besieged by hundreds of savages who
+fought to gain entrance and obtain the scalps of the pioneer men and
+women there gathered for safety; no hostile demonstration was ever
+staged near Fort Snelling. Its history was not made by the rifles and
+sabers of the soldiers; the axe and the plow of the pioneer who worked
+in safety beneath its potential protection have left their history upon
+the landscape of the great Northwest.
+
+
+
+
+NOTES AND REFERENCES
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+[1] Carver's _Travels through the Interior Parts of North-America_, pp.
+vii, viii.
+
+[2] To the region lying on the upper waters of three great river
+systems--the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the Red River of the
+North--the writer has applied the name "Upper Northwest" to distinguish
+it from the "Old Northwest" and the "Pacific Northwest".
+
+[3] For a summary of the French explorations see Folwell's _Minnesota_,
+pp. 1-29. Thwaites's _France in America_, p. 74, contains an excellent
+map of the French operations in the West.
+
+[4] The report of Louis Antoine Bougainville, written in 1757 and based
+on the reports of Canadian officials, shows the extent of French
+commerce at the close of the period of French control. At Green Bay (La
+Baye) trade was carried on with the Folles-Avoines, Sacs, Foxes, Sioux,
+and other tribes, the annual output being from five to six hundred
+packages of furs. In the North, extending westward along what is now the
+international boundary to the Lake of the Woods and then along the lakes
+and rivers of the Lake Winnipeg system, was the territory of the post
+known as "The Sea of the West". This included seven forts and produced a
+yearly supply of from three to four hundred packages. "These regions are
+everywhere vast prairies; this is the route to take for the upper
+Missouri."--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XVIII, pp. 167-195.
+A picturesque account of the life of the French traders is given in
+Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 115-119.
+
+[5] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XVIII, p. 251; Turner's
+_The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wisconsin_ in the
+_Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science_,
+Vol. IX, pp. 584, 585.
+
+[6] Thwaites's _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_,
+Vol. VII, p. 373. In 1792, Peter Grant built a trading house on the site
+of St. Vincent, Minnesota, on the east bank of the Red River, and in
+1800-1801 the fort of Pembina was erected by the great traveller,
+Alexander Henry, the younger.--_South Dakota Historical Collections_,
+Vol. I, p. 138.
+
+[7] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 684.
+
+[8] Thwaites's _Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition_,
+Vol. I, pp. 227, 228. Traders of the Hudson's Bay Company also
+frequented the spot. Sergeant John Ordway records in his journal for
+December 1, 1804, that "a Scotsman who is tradeing at the Mandens came
+to visit us. he belonged to the hudson bay company.... he brought over
+Tobacco Beeds & other kinds of Goods. & traded with the Mandens for
+their furs & buffalow Robes. they bring Some Guns to trade for horses &.
+C. this hudsons bay comp^y lay Garrisoned near the N. W. Comp^y....
+Eight or 10 days travel by land a North course from this."--_Wisconsin
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XXII, p. 169.
+
+[9] Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far
+West_, Vol. II, p. 556.
+
+[10] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 279, 280.
+
+[11] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 286.
+
+[12] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 280.
+
+[13] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 156.
+
+[14] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 171.
+
+[15] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 252.
+
+[16] Wilkinson's instructions to Pike are printed in Coues's _The
+Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. II, pp. 842-844. Before the
+founding of Fort Snelling the Minnesota River was called by the French
+voyageurs the "St. Pierre". When the Americans were established on its
+banks they anglicized this name into "St. Peter's". The fort, the
+agency, and the fur traders' establishment are commonly referred to in
+early literature as "St. Peter's". By a joint resolution of Congress on
+June 19, 1852, the name Minnesota was ordered to be used in all public
+documents in which the river was mentioned. This was the Indian name for
+the river.--_United States Statutes at Large_,  Vol. X, p. 147. In
+mentioning this river use is made in this volume of the modern name,
+except when quoting.
+
+[17] The account of the treaty is given in Coues's _The Expeditions of
+Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 83, 84. The treaty itself is printed on
+page 231 and Pike's speech on pages 226-230. Article I contains the land
+cession: "That the Sioux nation grant unto the United States, for the
+purpose of establishment of military posts, nine miles square at the
+mouth of the St. Croix, also from below the confluence of the
+Mississippi and St. Peters up the Mississippi to include the falls of
+St. Anthony, extending nine miles on each side of the river, that the
+Sioux nation grants to the United States the full sovereignty and power
+over said district forever." The meaning of all this is extremely vague.
+
+[18] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 798.
+
+[19] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp. 11,
+13.
+
+[20] A petition of the London merchants to the English government stated
+that before the war the annual export of furs from Canada amounted to
+L250,000. Updyke's _The Diplomacy of the War of 1812_, p. 204.
+
+[21] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp. 72,
+73.
+
+[22] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, pp.
+66-69. The figures are given on page 69.
+
+[23] _Publications of the Canadian Archives, No. 7, Documents Relating
+to the Invasion of Canada and the Surrender of Detroit, 1812_, p. 184.
+
+[24] The best account of the massacre at Fort Dearborn is given in
+Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest_, 1673-1835, pp. 211-231.
+
+[25] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIX, p. 323.
+
+[26] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, pp. 120, 194.
+
+
+[27] _Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, p. 219. It
+must be stated that the British in no way sought intentionally to use
+the Indians for the purpose of massacreing the whites. The instructions
+to Dickson declared that he "should restrain them by all the means in
+your power from acts of Cruelty and inhumanity". On March 16, 1813,
+Dickson reported to the military secretary at Quebec that he had taken
+steps to redeem the soldiers, women, and children of the ill-fated Fort
+Dearborn garrison, who were still captives.--_Michigan Pioneer and
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, pp. 258, 259.
+
+[28] _Michigan Pioneer and Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, pp. 321,
+322.
+
+[29] There is a summary of Dickson's activities in the _Wisconsin
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 133-153.
+
+[30] _Niles' Register_, Vol. VI, p. 176.
+
+[31] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, p. 10; _Niles'
+Register_, Vol. VI, p. 242.
+
+[32] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XI, pp. 254-270.
+
+[33] _Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of
+America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, pp. 404, 405.
+
+[34] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 10, 11;
+Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West_,
+Vol. II, p. 561.
+
+[35] These treaties were concluded: on July 18th with the Pottawattomies
+and Piankashaws; on July 19th with the Tetons and Sioux of the Lakes,
+Sioux of St. Peter's River, and Yankton Sioux; September 2nd with the
+Kickapoos; September 8th with the Wyandots; September 12th with the
+Osages; September 13th with the Sacs of the Missouri; September 14th
+with the Foxes; September 16th with the Iowas. The treaties are
+published in Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+110-123. The reports of the commissioners and also the treaties are
+printed in the _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, pp.
+1-11.
+
+[36] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 9.
+
+[37] For these migrations see the _Michigan Pioneer and Historical
+Collections_, Vol. XXIII, pp. 97, 443; Kingsford's _The History of
+Canada_, Vol. IX, p. 69; _Report on Canadian Archives_, 1896, p. 157.
+ During the negotiations at Ghent the British commissioners had
+sought to have established a permanent Indian territory to be a barrier
+state between the two powers.--Updyke's _The Diplomacy of the War of
+1812_, p. 204.
+
+The Indians felt they had been abandoned by the English. Hence the
+liberality in gift distribution was an attempt to appease them.
+
+[38] See the reports of W. H. Puthuff in the _Wisconsin Historical
+Collections_, Vol. XIX, pp. 430-433, 472-474.
+
+[39] Schoolcraft's _Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with
+the Indian Tribes_, p. 19.
+
+[40] Irving's _The Sketch-Book_ (Hudson Edition), p. 489.
+
+[41] Carr's _Missouri_, p. 121.
+
+[42] _Niles' Register_, Vol. VIII, p. 436, August 19, 1815.
+
+[43] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 86.
+
+[44] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. III, p. 332. John Jacob
+Astor of the American Fur Company has received the credit for the
+passage of this law.--Folwell's _Minnesota_, p. 54; Coman's _Economic
+Beginnings of the Far West_, Vol. I, pp. 344, 345. This is neglecting
+the fact that there was a unanimous outcry against foreign traders--one
+of the signs that the War of 1812 marks the rise of American
+nationality. The legislation of April 29, 1816, was not wholly
+satisfactory to Astor. "I have seen a letter", wrote William H. Puthuff,
+Indian agent at Mackinac, "addressed by J. J. Astor to a Mr. Franks a
+British trader now at this place in which Mr. Astor expresses surprise
+and regret at the passage of a law forbidding British subjects from
+trading with Indians, within the American limits etc."--_Wisconsin
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XIX, p. 423. What Mr. Astor wanted was the
+prohibition of trade by American private citizens as well as by British
+private citizens. If his American Fur Company were given a monopoly as
+he desired, he also wanted to be free to employ such persons--American
+or British--as he needed.
+
+[45] Or, more correctly from the point where a north and south line
+drawn through the most northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods would
+intersect this parallel.--_Treaties and Conventions concluded between
+the United States of America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, p.
+416.
+
+[46] _Treaties and Conventions concluded between the United States of
+America and other powers since July 4, 1776_, p. 377.
+
+[47] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 279.
+
+[48] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XIV, pp. 387-389.
+
+[49] There is an excellent account of the United States trading house
+system in Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, pp.
+289-309.
+
+[50] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 228.
+
+[51] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 6.
+
+[52] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 39.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+[53] For the erection of these posts see Quaife's _Chicago and the Old
+Northwest, 1673-1835_, p. 265; Thwaites's _Wisconsin_, pp. 180-182;
+Gue's _History of Iowa_, Vol. I, pp. 137, 138.
+
+[54] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 669.
+
+[55] Major Long's journal is printed in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 9-88.
+
+[56] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XIV, p. 192.
+
+[57] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 779.
+
+[58] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 319.
+
+[59] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 32.
+
+[60] The story of the Yellowstone Expedition is narrated in detail in
+Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far West_,
+Vol. II, pp. 562-587. See also the preface to James's _Account of an
+Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_ in Thwaites's _Early
+Western Travels_, Vol. XIV, pp. 9-26. For the site of this fort see
+Thwaites's _Early Western Travels_, Vol. XXII, p. 275, note 231.
+
+[61] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 34th Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 2,
+Document No. 1, p. 21.
+
+[62] Leavenworth's _A Genealogy of the Leavenworth Family in the United
+States_, p. 152.
+
+[63] Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 7.
+
+[64] In the _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820, Vol. III, No. 135,
+there is reprinted from the _National Intelligencer_ an "Extract of a
+letter from a gentleman of the expedition to the Falls of St. Anthony,
+to his friend in Washington, dated Cantonment of the 5th regt. U. S.
+Infantry, St. Peter's River, Nov. 10, 1819." It is from this letter that
+the dates of arriving at and leaving the various places are taken. The
+Adjutant General in an order praised the garrison at Fort Howard "for
+the economy and expedition with which the command constructed transport
+boats for the accommodation of the 5th regiment in its passage to the
+Mississippi."--_Detroit Gazette_, September 10, 1819.
+
+[65] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 96, note. Mrs. Van
+Cleve gives another version of this affair: "When all was in order,
+Colonel Leavenworth stepped forth, and, through an interpreter, formally
+requested of the Chief permission to pass peaceably through their
+country. The Chief, a very handsome young brave, advanced, and, with his
+right arm uncovered, said, with most expressive gestures: 'My brother,
+do you see the calm, blue sky above us? Do you see the lake that lies so
+peacefully at our feet? So calm, so peaceful are our hearts towards you.
+Pass on!'"--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories
+of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 11.
+
+That these Indians were not so friendly as this account would indicate
+is apparent from the statement in Major Forsyth's narrative that Captain
+Whistler of Fort Howard had been fired at, at different times during the
+summer of 1819 by these Winnebagoes.--_Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, p. 167.
+
+[66] Major Forsyth's narrative, covering the time from his departure
+from St. Louis on June 7th until his arrival there again on September
+17th, is published in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III,
+pp. 139-167; also in the _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. VI,
+pp. 188-219. It is from this narrative that the facts regarding the
+progress of the expedition were obtained.
+
+[67] Major Forsyth's narrative in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 147, 148, 149.
+
+[68] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 149; Van Cleve's
+ _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort
+Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 15.
+
+[69] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 149-153, 159.
+Mrs. Van Cleve says that a few days were spent on the shores of Lake
+Pepin.--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 16. Mrs. Ellet in her sketch of Mrs. Clark
+says a week was spent at this place.--Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the
+West_, p. 350.
+
+[70] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 153, 154. Neill
+records that the troops did not reach the Minnesota River "until
+September".--Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p.
+320. But in Appendix L., p. 891, he gives the same dates as Forsyth. In
+Folwell's _Minnesota_, p. 55, the statement is made that "the command
+arrived at Mendota August 23". As the main body of soldiers did not
+arrive until August 24th, this latter date should be taken as the
+birthday of Fort Snelling.
+
+[71] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 154-157; _Detroit
+Gazette_, October 22, 1819, February 18, 1820.
+
+[72] _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820.
+
+[73] Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of
+Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp. 18, 19. The baby was Charlotte Ouisconsin
+Clark who married General Horatio P. Van Cleve. In 1888 she published a
+book of reminiscences. It possesses all the merits and defects of a book
+of reminiscences--vividness of pictures--inaccuracy in regard to
+specific facts.
+
+[74] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 351; _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 48.
+
+[75] Mrs. Van Cleve, who received her information from her father, gives
+the number as forty.--Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years and Ten,"
+Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, p. 19. James Doty, who
+kept the official journal of the Cass Expedition of 1820, and who
+received his information from the officers at Camp Cold Water, gives the
+number as forty.--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, p. 214.
+Philander Prescott in his reminiscences states that "Some fifty or sixty
+had died, and some ten men died after I arrived".--_Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 478. L. Grignon wrote on April 3, 1820, that
+"They tell me that fifty Soldiers of the river St. Pierre have
+died of Scurvy".--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 161.
+
+In writing of the attack of scurvy Mr. H. H. Sibley remarks: "It was
+doubtless caused by the bad quality of the provisions, especially of the
+pork, which was spoiled by the villany of the contractors, or their
+agents, in drawing the brine from the barrels that contained it, after
+leaving St. Louis, in order to lighten the load, and causing the barrels
+to be refilled with river water, before their delivery at the post,
+to avoid detection. The troops were compelled to live on this
+unwholesome fare for two successive seasons, before the fraud was
+discovered."--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 473, 474.
+Nowhere else is this explanation given. Sickness could easily come at a
+frontier post without such villainy. During the same winter at Camp
+Missouri over half of the garrison of seven hundred men were sick, and
+nearly one hundred of them died. At Council Bluff there was also a great
+deal of sickness.--_Detroit Gazette_, July 21, September 1, 1820.
+
+[76] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 473.
+
+[77] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 103.
+
+[78] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479.
+
+[79] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, p. 136.
+
+[80] These facts are from the reminiscences of Philander Prescott in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 478, 479.
+
+[81] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 105.
+
+[82] Snelling to Taliaferro, November 7, 1821.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 30.
+
+[83] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 107. Mrs. Van Cleve
+states that the fort was occupied in the fall of 1821.--Van Cleve's
+_"Three Score Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling,
+Minnesota_, p. 32.
+
+[84] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153.
+
+[85] Schoolcraft's _Narrative Journal of Travels from Detroit Northwest
+through the Great Chain of American Lakes to the sources of the
+Mississippi River_, pp. 292-315. The official journal was kept by James
+Doty. The time spent with Leavenworth's troops is described in the
+_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XIII, pp. 212-216.
+
+[86] Captain Kearny's journal is printed in the _Missouri Historical
+Society Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 8-29, 99-131. Pages 104-110 are
+devoted to the time spent at Camp Cold Water.
+
+[87] These facts regarding the change of the name are taken from Upham's
+_The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, Later named Fort Snelling_
+in the _Magazine of History_, Vol. XXI, pp. 38, 39. Dr. Upham received
+his information from a letter from the Adjutant General of the United
+States.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+[88] See Miss Gallaher's article on _The Military-Indian Frontier
+1830-1835_ in _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. XV, pp.
+393-428.
+
+[89] Langham to Taliaferro, August 19, 1820.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol.
+I, No. 62.
+
+[90] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 117.
+
+[91] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 901.
+
+[92] Marsh to Taliaferro, June 26, 1827.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I,
+No. 76.
+
+[93] This was the opening of the Winnebago War, often called the "Red
+Bird War". Accounts of it are given in William Joseph Snelling's _Early
+Days at Prairie du Chien_ in the _Wisconsin Historical Collections_,
+Vol. V, pp. 144-153; and _State Papers_, 1st Session, 20th Congress,
+Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150-163.
+
+[94] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 118.
+
+[95] For the movement of troops see _State Papers_, 1st Session, 20th
+Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 150-163.
+
+[96] Taliaferro to Cass, October 4, 1832.--_Indian Office Files_, 1832,
+No. 226.
+
+[97] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 439, 440, 459; Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth
+Edition), pp. 483-487.
+
+[98] For an account of the Winnebagoes and their many migrations see
+Jackson's _A Century of Dishonor_, pp. 218-256.
+
+[99] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt. 2,
+Document No. 5, pp. 1028, 1029; _The Minnesota Pioneer_, September 13,
+1849.
+
+[100] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 28, December 12, 1849.
+
+[101] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3,
+Document No. 2, p. 421. "The recent arrival at Fort Snelling of a
+company of dragoons, so long wanted, will greatly assist in intercepting
+the migration southward of this discontented people."--Report of
+Alexander Ramsey, October 21, 1850, in _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session,
+31st Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 81.
+
+[102] This reservation was agreed upon by the treaty concluded at
+Washington, D. C., on February 27, 1855; Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws
+and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 690-693.
+
+[103] _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 316, 423.
+
+[104] Bryce's _The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, pp.
+365-372. A description of a hunt, written in French by Rev. M. Belcourt,
+is given in _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol.
+VIII, Document No. 51, pp. 44-52.
+
+[105] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII,
+Document No. 51, p. 4.
+
+[106] This was during the period that Professor William A. Dunning
+describes as "The Roaring Forties". "And the far flung interests of the
+British Empire need no more striking illustration than the fact that in
+whatever direction the Americans sought to expand their bounds, whether
+on the Atlantic or on the Pacific, in the Gulf of the tropics or under
+the Arctic circle, they found subjects of the Queen, with vested rights,
+opposing the movement."--Dunning's _The British Empire and the United
+States_, pp. 96, 97.
+
+[107] Captain Sumner's report is printed in the _Executive Documents_,
+1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 2, pp. 217-220. It is
+reprinted with explanatory notes in _The Iowa Journal of History and
+Politics_, Vol. XI, pp. 258-267.
+
+[108] The report of Major Woods is printed in _Executive Documents_, 1st
+Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII, Document No. 51. It contains
+fifty-five pages. Accompanying the expedition was John Pope, Brevet
+ Captain of the Topographical Engineers. His report is published
+in _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. X, Document No.
+42. There is an excellent map attached to the report.
+
+[109] Colonel Smith's report is printed in the _Executive Documents_,
+2nd Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Pt. II, Document No. 1, pp.
+426-454.
+
+[110] Ansel Briggs to the Secretary of War.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1849, No. 206. The petition was dated Washington, Iowa, July 31,
+1849.--_Indian Office Files_, 1849, No. 208.
+
+[111] Major Woods's report is found in the _Indian Office Files_, 1849,
+No. 174.
+
+[112] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, April 3, 1850.
+
+[113] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 16, 1850.
+
+[114] See the letter of William Hutchinson, who was one of the party. It
+is published in _The Minnesota Pioneer_, June 13, 1850. "Iowa City looks
+as it did five years ago", he wrote. "A few houses were built since that
+time; but evidently were not the capitol located at this place, it would
+be no _great shakes_, though in time it is bound to come out. Some years
+since, Uncle Sam erected expensive bridges for the good citizens of
+Iowa, betwixt Dubuque and Iowa City; and strange to say the people are
+suffering them to rot down without covering them. Iowa City has grown in
+ten years as large as Saint Paul, which is not 2 years old. Steamboats
+often get up to this place, but all will not suffice."
+
+[115] Report of Major Woods.--_Indian Office Files_, 1850, No. 363.
+
+[116] _The Iowa Star_ (Fort Des Moines), July 18, 1850.
+
+[117] _The Annals of Iowa_ (First Series), Vol. VII, pp. 284, 285.
+
+"Part of Company D. 1st regiment of U. S. Dragoons under command of
+Lieut. Gardner passed through here on their way to the Missouri river.
+We understand they intend to pay a visit to the Indian tribes on the
+upper Missouri and from thence across Minnesota Territory to their
+quarters at Ft. Snelling."--Quoted from the _Fort Des Moines Gazette_ in
+the _Miners' Express_ (Dubuque), September 4, 1850. The return of the
+troops to Fort Snelling is noted in _The Minnesota Pioneer_, October 3,
+1850.
+
+[118] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol. II, Pt. 3,
+Document No. 2, p. 284. An account of the journey is printed in _The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, February 12, 1852.
+
+[119] Asa Whitney, a New York merchant, petitioned Congress in January,
+1845, for a franchise and a grant of land to make this dream a
+reality.--_Congressional Globe_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, pp. 218,
+219.
+
+[120] Act of March 3, 1853.--_United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. X,
+p. 219.
+
+[121] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No.
+91, pp. 1, 13, 74.
+
+[122] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 36th Congress, Document No.
+56, p. 36; _Post Returns_, May, 1853, in the archives of the War
+Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[123] A brief account of the expedition is given in Paxson's _The Last
+American Frontier_, pp. 197-203. The reports of all the surveys were
+published by the government. That of Governor Stevens consists of 651
+pages, added to the report of the Secretary of War, published in
+_Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91. In
+1859 Governor Stevens submitted a _Narrative and Final Report_,
+published in two parts in the _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 36th
+Congress, Document No. 56. The various reports of all the explorers are
+bound in a set of twelve volumes, in which Governor Stevens's first
+account may be found in Vol. I, and the later narrative in Vol. XII,
+Pts. I and II.
+
+[124] Order No. 7 stated: "It is considered of great consequence that
+the several trains should not be intermingled; and the dragoons attached
+to the several parties will continue with them, camping and working with
+them, receiving their orders only from their particular chiefs, even
+when the whole force is brought together."--_Executive Documents_, 2nd
+Session, 33rd Congress, Document No. 91, p. 46.
+
+[125] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 2, p. 112.
+
+[126] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, p. 566.
+
+[127] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+567-570.
+
+[128] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. X, Pt. I, p. 181.
+
+[129] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 161.
+
+[130] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, pp. 180-183.
+
+[131] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, July 19, 1849.
+
+[132] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, September 6, 1849, July 11, November 21,
+1850.
+
+[133] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. X, Pt. I, pp. 193, 199.
+
+[134] Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+588-593.
+
+[135] Holcombe's _Minnesota in Three Centuries_, Vol. II, pp. 327, 328;
+_Annals of Iowa_ (First Series), Vol. VII, p. 290; _Post Returns_,
+March, April, 1853, in the archives of the War Department, Washington,
+D. C.
+
+[136] For Colonel Smith's expedition see above, Note 109. For the
+building of Fort Abercrombie see the _Collections of the State
+Historical Society of North Dakota_, Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 7.
+
+[137] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, pp. 10-12.
+
+[138] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2595.
+
+[139] For the sale of Fort Snelling see Dr. Folwell's paper on _The Sale
+of Fort Snelling_, 1857, in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol.
+XV, pp. 393-410.
+
+[140] The report of the committee may be found in _Reports of
+Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351.
+
+[141] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2614.
+
+[142] _Congressional Globe_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Pt. III, p.
+2618.
+
+[143] Minnesota Historical Collections, Vol. VIII, p. 431.
+
+[144] For papers relating to the readjustment see _Executive Documents_,
+3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+[145] Quoted in Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp.
+58, 59.
+
+[146] In the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, pp. 430,
+431, there is a list of the commanding officers from September, 1819 to
+May, 1858.
+
+[147] For the life of Henry Leavenworth see the _Kansas Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VII, pp. 577, 578, Vol. IX, p. 569, Vol. XI, p. xxi;
+Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from 1779
+to 1900_, p. 428; Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of
+the Far West_, Vol. II, pp. 630-632; Leavenworth's _A Genealogy of the
+Leavenworth Family in the United States_, pp. 150-154.
+
+[148] _American State Papers, Indian Affairs_, Vol. I, p. 777.
+
+[149] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, pp. 310-323, contains a
+sketch of the activities of Captain Snelling during the war.
+
+[150] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, pp. 313, 314.
+
+[151] Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 316.
+
+[152] From the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 96, 97. Mrs. Adams, as a child,
+lived several years in the Snelling household.
+
+[153] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 599; Ellet's _Pioneer Women of the West_, p. 334.
+
+[154] From a manuscript entitled "Remarks on General Wm. Hull's Memoirs
+of the Campaign of the Northwestern Army, 1812", by Josiah
+Snelling.--_Draper Collection_, 8 U. 114, pp. 42, 43.
+
+[155] _The Works of Daniel Webster_, Vol. V, p. 410.
+
+[156] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, pp. 440, 441.
+
+[157] See the sketch of Captain Scott in Van Cleve's _"Three Score Years
+and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp. 28, 29.
+
+[158] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 367.
+
+[159] There is a sketch of Martin Scott in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 180-187, from which this story is taken.
+
+[160] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 577.
+
+[161] _Niles' Register_, Vol. 73, p. 130.
+
+[162] The frontispiece of Mrs. Eastman's _Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends
+of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_ was painted by Captain Eastman.
+
+[163] Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. II, p. 292.
+
+[164] In his notes to _Hiawatha_ Longfellow quotes from the introduction
+of Mrs. Eastman's book, p. ii.--_Longfellow's Complete Poetical Works_
+(Cambridge Edition), p. 666.
+
+[165] Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. II, p. 292.
+
+[166] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 449; _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p.
+441.
+
+[167] _The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography_, Vol. VIII, pp.
+89, 90.
+
+[168] Rhodes's _History of the United States_, Vol. IV, p. 328.
+
+[169] _The American Annual Cyclopaedia_, 1863, p. 816.
+
+[170] Bancroft's _History of Oregon_, Vol. II, pp. 611, 612. For the
+career of General Canby see Appletons' _Cyclopaedia of American
+Biography_, Vol. I, pp. 517, 518.
+
+[171] This incident is taken from Folsom's _Fifty Years in the
+Northwest_, pp. 755, 756. Mr. Folsom says he took it "from a St. Paul
+paper of 1887".
+
+[172] For the Dred Scott case see McMaster's _A History of the People of
+the United States_, Vol. VIII, pp. 278, 279.
+
+[173] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. I, p. 50.
+
+[174] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 564.
+
+[175] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, pp. 729-739.
+
+[176] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IX, p. 395.
+
+[177] Quoted from the complaint of the agent, Nathaniel McLean,
+September 25, 1850, in _Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 31st Congress,
+Vol. I, Document No. 1, p. 106.
+
+[178] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 249.
+
+[179] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 253, 254.
+
+[180] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 353.
+
+[181] Taliaferro to Crawford, July 15, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 512.
+
+[182] These papers are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical
+Society. The dates covered in these diaries are from December, 1830, to
+June, 1831; May 25 to September 21, 1833; May 23 to August 28, 1834.
+
+[183] These letters are in the possession of the Minnesota Historical
+Society. In Volume I of these letters is the following notice: "These
+326 letters, are part of the great mass of correspondence received by
+Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro, Indian Agent at Fort Snelling, 1819-1840. They
+constitute but a small part of his accumulations in twenty years. The
+rest were burned in his house at Bedford, Pa., in 18__. It was a great
+loss to us, as, had they been spared, we would have received all of
+them. But even these 326 contain a large amount of valuable material for
+Minnesota history. Even as autographs they are valuable, [see
+autobiography of Taliaferro, Vol. 6, Coll.] These letters were given by
+Maj. T. in March, 1868. Arranged, bound and indexed (by J. F. W.) 1891."
+
+[184] Photostatic copies of many of these letters were taken and are to
+be found in the library of the Wisconsin Historical Society, where they
+were consulted.
+
+[185] These letter books are now in the possession of the Kansas State
+Historical Society at Topeka, where they were consulted. The only volume
+containing letters from Major Taliaferro is referred to as the _William
+Clark Papers, Correspondence, 1830-1832_.
+
+[186] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 253.
+
+[187] Powell's _List of Officers of the Army of the United States, from
+1779 to 1900_, p. 620. In the _Taliaferro Letters_ are many letters from
+William Clark and Elbert Herring in which they address Mr. Taliaferro as
+"major".
+
+[188] _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 11. A note on this letter gives
+these dates.
+
+[189] Nowhere is the date of his arrival at Fort Snelling given. In his
+autobiography he writes of his journey: "Jean Baptiste Faribault and
+family, had gone through by land, in charge of Colonel Leavenworth's
+horses and cows".--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 198.
+It was in the spring of 1820 that Faribault performed this
+service.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 103.
+
+[190] Clark to the Secretary of War, August 20, 1832.--_Indian Office
+Files_, 1832, No. 285. For his resignation see _Indian Office Files_,
+1824, No. 39.
+
+[191] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 24, 1831.
+
+[192] Taliaferro to Crawford, December 12, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 516.
+
+[193] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 337-339.
+
+[194] In the report for 1850 the agency at St. Peter's is designated a
+"Sub-Agency".--_Senate Documents_, 2nd Session, 31st Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 103.
+
+[195] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 339, 340.
+
+[196] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 213, 1827, No. 54, 1843, No. 222.
+
+[197] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, p. 341.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+[198] See _Notes on Canada and the North-West States of America_ in
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, Vol. LXXVIII, p. 323, September, 1855. These
+articles by Laurence Oliphant were later published in book form under
+the title of _Minnesota and the Far West_.
+
+[199] This is the height given in Nicollet's _Report intended to
+illustrate a Map of the Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi
+River_, p. 69.
+
+[200] Seymour's _Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West_, p.
+103.
+
+[201] This sketch of the fort is obtained from the map of Fort Snelling
+in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p. 431; and from a
+_Report of the capacity and condition of the barracks, quarters,
+hospital, storehouses, &c., at Fort Snelling, Minnesota Territory, made
+to the Quartermaster General_. This report was made on August 23, 1856.
+It is printed in _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress,
+Vol. II, Report No. 351, pp. 407-409.
+
+[202] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. IV, p. 122.
+
+[203] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, p. 295.
+
+[204] A statement of the equipment at the various posts during the
+fourth quarter of 1834 is printed in the _American State Papers,
+Military Affairs_, Vol. V, p. 853-900.
+
+[205] Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 492.
+
+[206] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153.
+
+[207] Taliaferro to William Clark, August 17, 1830.--_Indian Office
+Files_, 1830, No. 139.
+
+[208] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 7, 1831.
+
+[209] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 8, 1831.
+
+[210] Taliaferro to Lucas, September 30, 1839.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1839, No. 492; _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol.
+VII, Document No. 9, p. 19.
+
+[211] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153.
+
+[212] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 207.
+
+[213] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 153. In the Sibley House at
+Mendota is hung an oil painting of Fort Snelling made by Sergeant Thomas
+who was stationed at Fort Snelling sometime between 1836 and 1842. This
+painting, which was made from the hill behind Sibley House, shows the
+location of these various buildings.
+
+[214] For Baker's house see _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th
+Congress, Vol. VII, Document No. 9, pp. 19, 33, 34; also _Reports of
+Committees_, 1st session, 35th Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p.
+400.
+
+[215] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, pp. 295, 296.
+Charles Joseph Latrobe visited the post in the fall of 1833.
+
+[216] These buildings are shown in the picture mentioned in note 213,
+above.
+
+[217] There is a description of Mendota given in Seymour's _Sketches of
+Minnesota, the New England of the West_, pp. 101, 102.
+
+[218] Seymour's _Sketches of Minnesota, the New England of the West_, p.
+117; Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, pp. 156, 157.
+
+[219] These figures are taken from Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition
+to the Source of St. Peter's River_, Vol. I, p. 309.
+
+[220] Latrobe's _The Rambler in North America_, Vol. II, p. 302.
+
+[221] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 37, 38; _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th
+Congress, Vol. II, Report No. 351, p. 148.
+
+[222] Upham's _The Women and Children of Fort St. Anthony, later named
+Fort Snelling_ in _The Magazine of History_, Vol. XXI, p. 37.
+
+[223] See below, the chapter entitled _Soldiers of the Cross_.
+
+[224] This enumeration of the Indian villages is from Pond's _The
+Dakotas or Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 320-330. The spelling of the
+names follows that used by Pond, although they were all written in many
+ways. The population figures are from Taliaferro's report in 1834, found
+in _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 203.
+
+[225] See the description of an Indian village in Latrobe's _The Rambler
+in North America_, Vol. II, pp. 288, 289; also, Keating's _Narrative of
+an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River_, Vol. I, pp. 342, 343.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+[226] On December 22, 1819, the House of Representatives passed a
+resolution directing the Secretary of War, J. C. Calhoun, to prepare a
+system of martial law and field service. His report was communicated to
+the House on December 26, 1820, and was entitled _Systems of Martial
+Law, and Field Service, and Police_. It is composed of two parts,
+namely, _General Regulations for the Army_, and _A System of Martial
+Law_. It is from these regulations that the following sketch of the
+routine life at a military post is built up. The report is
+published in the _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp.
+201-274.
+
+[227] Ingersoll's _A History of the War Department of the United
+States_, pp. 205, 206.
+
+[228] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 119.
+
+[229] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 210.
+
+[230] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 95.
+
+[231] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 210.
+
+[232] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 217, 218.
+
+[233] These account books are in the possession of the Minnesota
+Historical Society.
+
+[234] Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, p. 161.
+
+[235] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 22, 1831; _Post Returns_, March, 1840,
+in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[236] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 97.
+
+[237] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 345.
+
+[238] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 336, 344.
+
+[239] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342;
+_Post Returns_, September, 1828, in the archives of the War Department,
+Washington, D. C.
+
+[240] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 3, 1831.
+
+[241] This report is published in _the American State Papers, Military
+Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 273-277.
+
+[242] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, pp. 558, 706,
+Vol. III, p. 115.
+
+[243] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 345.
+
+[244] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 476.
+
+[245] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, pp. 341, 342.
+
+[246] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. III, p. 277.
+
+[247] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 205;
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 101.
+
+[248] Eastman's _Dahcotah; or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort
+Snelling_, pp. 144, 145.
+
+[249] _American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. II, p. 265.
+
+[250] _Detroit Gazette_, February 18, 1820.
+
+[251] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, p. 305.
+
+[252] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, July 15, 1852.
+
+[253] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, p. 26; _Post Returns_, July, 1827, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[254] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 340.
+
+[255] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VIII, p. 432.
+
+[256] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 115.
+
+[257] Joseph M. Street to Postmaster General Barry, April 27,
+1831.--_Street Papers_, No. 15, Historical Department, Des Moines, Iowa.
+
+[258] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 44.
+
+[259] _Proceedings of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin_, 1913,
+pp. 116, 117.
+
+[260] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 2, 5, 10, February 27, 1831.
+
+[261] Street to Clark, March 10, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 132; _Post Returns_, March, 1830. See
+also _Post Returns_, December, 1829, December, 1830, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[262] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 342.
+
+[263] _Reports of Committees_, 1st Session, 35th Congress, Vol. II,
+Report No. 351, p. 131.
+
+[264] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 342.
+
+[265] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 130. "Monsieur
+Tonson" was a very popular farce written by W. T. Moncrief in 1821. The
+French barber, Morbleu, is greatly troubled by a steady stream of
+visitors who come to make inquiries regarding a certain fictitious Mr.
+Thompson, hoping thereby to gain information regarding Adolphine de
+Courcy who has been traced to his door.--Walsh's _Heroes and Heroines of
+Fiction_, p. 360.
+
+[266] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 20, February 22, 1831.
+
+[267] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, July 25, 1824.--_Taliaferro
+Letters_, Vol. I, Nos. 50, 56.
+
+[268] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 28, 1849.
+
+[269] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 10, 11, 24, 1831.
+
+[270] George F. Turner to H. H. Sibley, February 11, 1842.--_Sibley
+Papers, 1840-1850_.
+
+[271] Taliaferro to Street, March 30, 1831.--_Street Papers_, No. 12.
+
+[272] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 100.
+
+[273] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 112.
+
+[274] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 920.
+General Edmund P. Gaines inspected the post shortly afterwards and
+reported: "From a conversation with the colonel, I can have no doubt
+that he has erred in the course pursued by him in reference to some of
+those controversies, inasmuch as he has intimated to his officers his
+willingness to sanction, in certain cases, and even to participate in
+_personal conflicts_, contrary to the twenty-fifth article of
+war."--_American State Papers, Military Affairs_, Vol. IV, p. 123.
+
+[275] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 27, 1831.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+[276] Morse's _A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on
+Indian Affairs_, pp. 78, 79.
+
+[277] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 321, 322.
+
+[278] _Indian Office Files_, 1834, No. 203.
+
+[279] Taliaferro to Clark, August 5, 1830.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 2.
+
+[280] This description of Indian life is based on Pond's _The Dakotas or
+Sioux in Minnesota as they were in 1834_ in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 319-501.
+
+[281] The quotations are taken from Beltrami's description of an Indian
+council which he attended at Fort Snelling in 1823.--Beltrami's _A
+Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, pp. 217-219.
+
+[282] These are taken from a list which is typical of the character of
+the presents, among the papers of Thomas Forsyth.--_Draper Manuscripts_,
+2T2.
+
+[283] _Annals of Congress_, 1st session, 17th Congress, Vol. I, pp. 319,
+320.
+
+[284] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 19, 1831. The speech of the chief
+closes thus: "We know you have nothing on hand for your children, but we
+hope you will give us some Pork & Bread & a little Tobacco--as our pipes
+are out & have been for some time our old men will be pleased." The
+village of the Red Head was St. Louis, the Red Head being General
+William Clark, the superintendent of Indian affairs.
+
+[285] "The Crane and the Hole in the Day--and other Chippeways at the
+Agency this day--Several Sissiton Sioux also at the Agency. Issued 24
+Rats Bread 20 pounds of Pork--15 lbs. of tobacco."--_Taliaferro's
+Diary_, January 23, 1831. See also the diary under the dates of December
+24, 1830, January 13, 17, 1831.
+
+[286] Cass to Taliaferro, July 28, 1825.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I,
+No. 57.
+
+[287] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 19, 1834.
+
+[288] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 738.
+
+[289] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 4, 1831.
+
+[290] Taliaferro to Harris, February 21, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1838, No. 631.
+
+[291] For the suffering during the winter of 1842-1843 and the steps
+taken to relieve it see the letter from Dr. Williamson in the
+_Missionary Herald_, Vol. 39, p. 355, September, 1843; and Bruce to
+Chambers, April 3, 1843, in _Indian Office Files_, 1843, No. 222.
+
+[292] Taliaferro to Dodge, June 30, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_, 1838,
+No. 690.
+
+[293] Taliaferro to Clark, March 3, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 129.
+
+[294] Taliaferro to Clark, September 14, 1834.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1834, No. 206.
+
+[295] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 7, 1834.
+
+[296] _Taliaferro's Diary_, December 25, 1830.
+
+[297] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 28, 30, 1834. On January 17, 1831, he
+gave a blanket in which to bury a woman.
+
+[298] _Indian Office Files_, 1832, Nos. 287, 294, 295, 296.
+
+[299] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 236.
+
+[300] Snelling to Taliaferro, November 13, 1820.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 21.
+
+[301] Found among the _Sibley Papers, 1830-1840_.
+
+[302] Taliaferro to Cass, March 3, 1832.--_Indian Office Files_, 1832,
+No. 289.
+
+[303] Taliaferro to Clark, July 15, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 235.
+
+[304] _Post Returns_, April, May, 1834, July, 1835, in the archives of
+the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[305] "These warriors of Mr. Rainville's were constantly with me, for
+they knew that I was an English warrior, as they called me, and they are
+very partial to the English."--Marryat's _A Diary in America_, Vol. II,
+p. 91. Captain Marryat, the English novelist, visited the upper
+Mississippi region in 1837.
+
+"Many and strong are the recollections of the Sioux and other tribes, of
+their alliance with the British in the last and revolutionary wars, of
+which I have met many curious instances".--Catlin's _Letters and Notes
+on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians_,
+Vol. II, p. 657, footnote.
+
+[306] _Niles' Register_, Vol. XXVI, p. 363, July 31, 1824; Vol. LIII, p.
+33, September 16, 1837.
+
+[307] Marryat'a _A Diary in America_, Vol. III, pp. 221, 222.
+
+[308] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, p. 320.
+
+[309] _Niles' Register_, Vol. LIII, p. 82, October 7, 1837.
+
+[310] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 50.
+
+[311] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 18, 1831.
+
+[312] _Taliaferro's Diary_, March 11, 1831.
+
+[313] Taliaferro to Clark, April 3, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence_, 1830-1832, p. 161.
+
+[314] Renville to Sibley, August 21, 1840.--_Sibley Papers, 1830-1840_.
+
+[315] Quoted in Neill's _The History of Minnesota_, pp. 338, 339. The
+two men murdered on the Missouri River in 1820 were Isadore Poupon, a
+French half-breed, and Joseph F. Andrews, a Canadian.
+
+[316] Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, p. 283.
+
+[317] Snelling to Taliaferro, March 19, 1822.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 32. The quotation is taken from this letter. See also
+Calhoun to Snelling, September 18, 1822.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I,
+No. 40.
+
+[318] Letter of George Johnson, November 2, 1825.--_Indian Office
+Files_, 1825-1826, No. 4.
+
+[319] Taliaferro to Harris, September 10, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1838, No. 663.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+[320] Morse's _A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on
+Indian Affairs_, p. 28.
+
+[321] Kellogg's _Early Narratives of the Northwest, 1634-1699_, p. 50.
+
+[322] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 209.
+
+[323] Baker to Taliaferro, May 19, 1829.--_Indian Office Files_, 1829,
+No. 64.
+
+[324] Speech of Flat Mouth, May 27, 1827.--_Indian Office Files_, 1827,
+No. 14.
+
+[325] _Indian Office Files_, 1827, No. 9.
+
+[326] From Mrs. Van Cleve's reminiscences in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. III, p. 80.
+
+[327] The information upon which the entire incident is built is
+contained in the letter of Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827, in
+_Indian Office Files_, 1827, No. 10; the letter of Taliaferro to Clark,
+May 31, 1827, in Indian Office Files, 1827, No. 12; Neill's _The History
+of Minnesota_, pp. 391-394; _Reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams_ in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 107-110; _A
+Reminiscence_ _of Ft. Snelling_, by Mrs. Charlotte O. Van Cleve,
+in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 76-81; _Running
+the Gantlet_ by William J. Snelling (the son of Colonel Snelling) in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 439-456.
+
+The last mentioned account was originally published as a magazine
+article, and much of it is undoubtedly the product of the author's
+imagination. It is from this that the writer drew the story of Toopunkah
+Zeze. The article by Mrs. Van Cleve is full of errors and there are some
+mistakes in Mrs. Adams's reminiscences. For the facts of the attack the
+writer depended upon the two reports in the _Indian Office Files_. In a
+letter written from Prairie du Chien the next winter Joseph Street says
+that a hostage, an innocent man, was among the Sioux who were
+executed.--Street to Dr. Alexander Posey, December 11, 1827, in the
+_Street Papers_, No. 7.
+
+Of those who were shot, says Sibley in his reminiscences, all
+recovered.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 475. On the
+other hand Flat Mouth complained to Schoolcraft in 1832 that four of the
+number died.--Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the
+Upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 85.
+
+[328] _Indian Office Files_, 1829, No. 63.
+
+[329] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 135. As here given
+the mother's speech is partly direct, and partly indirect discourse. The
+writer has changed it all to the direct discourse.
+
+[330] The attack on Hole-in-the-Day's band is narrated in the letter of
+Plympton to General Jones, August 13, 1838.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1838, No. 618. See also _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp.
+134-136; Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 136,
+137.
+
+[331] The particulars of the encounter in 1839 are given in a letter
+written by the Right Reverend Mathias Loras in July 1839, and published
+in _Acta et Dicta: A Collection of historical data regarding the origin
+and growth of the Catholic Church in the Northwest_, Vol. I, No. 1, pp.
+18-21; and Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp.
+139-147.
+
+[332] "Instead of lessening the disasters of Indian warfare, the
+building of Fort Snelling in the heart of the Indian country and upon
+the line dividing the ranges of the Dakotas and the Chippewas, had the
+direct effect of vastly increasing the horrors of that warfare.
+Depending upon the protection of the military, both tribes brought their
+women and children into the disputed territory, where before the coming
+of the soldiers they would never have dared to expose them, and it soon
+developed that the fort afforded no protection to the children of the
+forest against the savagery of their hereditary enemies, who made
+treaties of peace only to thereby gain better opportunity for
+butchery."--Robinson's _A History of the Dakota or Sioux Indians_, p.
+154. This is Part II of the _South Dakota Historical Collections_, Vol.
+II.
+
+[333] At the forks of the Chippewa River in 1838, eleven Sioux were
+killed while asleep, by Chippewas whom they were entertaining. The
+mission at Lake Pokegama was attacked in 1840. In 1842, a battle was
+fought at Pine Coulie near the Indian village of Kaposia. In 1850, on
+Apple River in Wisconsin, fourteen Chippewas were scalped. See the
+article by Rev. S. W. Pond on _Indian Warfare in Minnesota_ in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 129-138. As late as
+1854, D. B. Herriman, the Chippewa agent, reported that during the
+preceding year nearly one hundred Chippewas had been killed and scalped
+by the Sioux. But none of these massacres took place at the
+fort.--_Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 33rd Congress, Vol. I, Pt. 1,
+Document No. 1, p. 260.
+
+[334] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. VIII,
+Document No. 51, p. 31.
+
+[335] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 23, 1831.
+
+[336] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 4, 1831. For other occasions during the
+winter and spring of 1831 when the agent records the presence of both
+Sioux and Chippewas see the diary under date of January 31, March 5, May
+2, June 15.
+
+[337] Taliaferro to Clark, July 6, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 231.
+
+[338] Speech of Taliaferro to the Sioux.--_Taliaferro's Diary_, February
+19, 1831.
+
+[339] Report of J. N. Nicollet in _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session,
+28th Congress, Vol. II, Document No. 52, p. 66.
+
+[340] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 10, 18, 26, 1831.
+
+[341] Taliaferro to Clark, February 8, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 121.
+
+[342] The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's _Indian Affairs,
+Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 250-255. The treaty was signed on
+August 19, 1825.
+
+[343] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. XXX, p. 223, June, 1834. Reverend W. T.
+Boutwell accompanied Mr. Schoolcraft on this journey, and his account of
+it is published in the religious paper.
+
+[344] Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper
+Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 265.
+
+[345] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 684.
+
+[346] Taliaferro to William Clark, May 31, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. III, No. 234.
+
+[347] Taliaferro to Herring, July 16, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol.
+III, No. 238.
+
+[348] Taliaferro to William Clark, September 2, 1835; Taliaferro to E.
+Herring, September 20, 1835.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. III, Nos. 251,
+252.
+
+[349] Taliaferro to William Clark, May 26, 1831.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 195.
+
+[350] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 25, 1831.
+
+[351] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 28th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 269.
+
+[352] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 490.
+
+[353] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 2, 1851.
+
+[354] Snelling to Atkinson, May 31, 1827.--_Indian Office Files_, 1827,
+No. 10.
+
+[355] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 16, 1850. Other occasions when
+Indians were imprisoned for similar causes are mentioned in _The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, September 23, 1852, April 20, 1854.
+
+[356] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, October 14, 1852.
+
+[357] Report of Agent A. J. Bruce, September 1, 1846.--_Executive
+Documents_, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 4, p. 246.
+
+
+[358] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, pp. 233,
+234.
+
+[359] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 31, 1831; Taliaferro to Captain W.
+R. Lovett, June 30, 1831, in _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. II, No. 150.
+
+[360] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 138.
+
+[361] Taliaferro to Clark, October 4, 1830.--_William Clark Papers,
+Correspondence, 1830-1832_, p. 68.
+
+[362] _Taliaferro's Diary_, June 29, 1834.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+[363] For an account of the attack on the trading house system see
+Quaife's _Chicago and the Old Northwest, 1673-1835_, pp. 301-309; also
+_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, pp. xiii-xviii.
+
+[364] This account of the fur trade is based upon the reminiscences of
+Mr. H. H. Sibley in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III,
+pp. 245-247; and Turner's _The Character and Influence of the Indian
+Trade in Wisconsin_ in the _Johns Hopkins University Studies in
+Historical and Political Science_, Vol. IX, pp. 601-607.
+
+[365] If an Indian failed continually in paying up his credits, the
+trader would refuse him any more goods. This would bring on the enmity
+of the hunter and his whole family. Such was the case of Joseph R. Brown
+mentioned in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 247.
+
+[366] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. II, pp. 139-146, Vol. III,
+pp. 332, 333, Vol. IV, pp. 729-735.
+
+[367] A copy of an American trading license is published in the _Report
+from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company_, p. 282.
+
+[368] _Indian Office Files_, 1831, No. 70.
+
+[369] _Indian Office Files_, 1831, No. 82.
+
+[370] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 200.
+
+[371] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 43
+
+[372] Sibley to Featherstonhaugh.--_Sibley Papers_. This letter is
+printed in Holcombe's _Minnesota in Three Centuries_, Vol. II, p. 57.
+
+
+[373] Chittenden's _The History of the American Fur Trade of the Far
+West_, Vol. I, p. 323.
+
+[374] A list of the posts in the agency in 1826 is given in the
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 113, 114.
+
+"The Secretary of War directs that the traders in the St Peters Agency,
+who have been directed by you to build their houses in a particular
+form, as designated by you, be informed that they are at liberty to
+adapt the shape of their building to their own convenience. He moreover
+directs that the term of Forts, by which they are designated, be changed
+into Posts."--William Clark to Taliaferro, March 26, 1827, in
+_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 72.
+
+[375] Taliaferro to Herring, September 15, 1834, in _Indian Office
+Files_, 1834, No. 210; _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 74.
+
+[376] See Sibley's story of a tea party given to a number of traders at
+Fort Snelling.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 248,
+249.
+
+[377] Coues's _The Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 230.
+
+[378] _Taliaferro's Diary_, February 22, 1831.
+
+[379] Schoolcraft's _Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper
+Mississippi to Itasca Lake_, p. 44.
+
+[380] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, pp. 306, 307.
+
+[381] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. IV, p. 564.
+
+[382] Norman W. Kittson to Sibley, March 2, 1846.--_Sibley Papers,
+1840-1850_. Mr. Kittson was the manager of the American Fur Company's
+business along the international boundary, with his headquarters at
+Pembina. He, with the late James J. Hill, was one of the promoters of
+the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railroad Company.
+
+[383] _Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company_, p.
+370.
+
+[384] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 383.
+
+[385] _Taliaferro's Diary_, January 30, 1831.
+
+[386] Kittson to Sibley, August 7, 1846.--_Sibley Papers, 1840-1850_.
+
+Mr. Kittson was the organizer of the picturesque caravans of Red River
+carts (at one time called "Kittson's carts") which carried on the
+extensive commerce between the Canadian and American settlements. At an
+early date this trade assumed large proportions. "The van of the Red
+River train numbering from an hundred to two hundred carts made entirely
+of wood and green hides and drawn by oxen and ponies in harness, reached
+St. Paul on Sunday with furs, hides, buffalo robes, dried buffalo
+tongues, pemmican, etc. They have been forty days on the route."--_The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, July 26, 1849.
+
+[387] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 38, p. 58, February, 1842.
+
+[388] _Indian Office Files_, 1839, No. 62.
+
+[389] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 40, p. 281, August, 1844.
+
+[390] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 563.
+
+[391] _Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. XX, p. 383.
+
+[392] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 23, 1834.
+
+[393] _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 74.
+
+[394] Marsh to Street, April 28, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 20.
+
+[395] _Indian Office Files_, 1835, No. 326.
+
+[396] Bailly to Street, August 3, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 28.
+
+[397] Street to Cass, October 3, 1832.--_Street Papers_, No. 69.
+
+[398] "Several persons have been arrested near Crow Wing for selling
+whiskey to the Winnebago Indians; and twelve or fifteen barrels of
+whiskey have been overtaken and knocked in the head, by Capt. Monroe's
+troops."--_The Minnesota Pioneer_, August 9, 1849.
+
+[399] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 922.
+
+[400] Taliaferro to Clark, August 17, 1830.--_Indian Office Files_,
+1830, No. 143.
+
+[401] _Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 140.
+
+[402] Taliaferro to Clark, August 2, 1829.--_Indian Office Files_, 1829,
+No. 65.
+
+[403] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 1, p. 444.
+
+[404] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 30th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 919.
+
+[405] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, May 12, 1849.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+[406] Taliaferro writes: "It was some length of time before he could
+induce the Indians to respect the Sabbath-day--all days being alike to
+them. It so happened that hundreds of important peace conventions were
+made and confirmed by the hostile tribes on the Lord's day. But time and
+patience brought them to reason, and for many years they respected the
+white man's great 'medicine day.' The sign given for the day of rest was
+the agency flag floating from the flagstaff, at the agency council
+house."--_Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 236.
+
+[407] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 45, p. 429, December, 1849.
+
+[408] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 326, 327;
+_Taliaferro's Diary_, August 14, 1833.
+
+[409] Street to Taliaferro, August 12, 1829.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol.
+II, No. 108.
+
+[410] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 119-121.
+
+[411] Taliaferro to Eaton.--_Indian Office Files_, 1830, No. 151.
+
+[412] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 18, May 1, June 8, 1831.
+
+[413] _Taliaferro's Diary_, August 14, 1833.
+
+[414] _Taliaferro's Diary_, April 18, 1831.
+
+[415] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. iv.
+
+[416] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 255.
+
+[417] _Senate Documents_, 3rd Session, 25th Congress, Vol. I, Document
+No. 1, p. 523.
+
+[418] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 12-30.
+This volume, written by the son of Samuel Pond, tells of the work of his
+father and uncle.
+
+[419] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 30.
+Among the _Kemper Papers_ (Vol. XX, No. 34) the writer found the
+following permit to enter the Indian country:
+
+"The Right Reverend, Jackson Kemper, Missionary Bishop of the Protestant
+Episcopal Church, having signified to this Department, his desire to
+visit and remain sometime in the Indian country, and requested the
+permission required by law to enable him to do so, such permission is
+hereby granted; and he is commended to the friendly attention of civil
+and military officers and agents, and of citizens, and if at any time it
+shall be necessary to their protection.
+
+  Given under my hand and
+  the Seal of the War Department
+  this 1st day of October 1838.
+
+  S. Cooper.
+  Acting Secretary of War."
+
+[420] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 31, 32;
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XII, pp. 324, 325.
+
+[421] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 7, 1834.
+
+[422] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 38-42.
+
+[423] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 47.
+
+[424] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. II,
+p. 11.
+
+[425] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, p. 43.
+
+[426] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 127-146.
+
+[427] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 127,
+133.
+
+[428] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt.
+II, Document No. 5, pp. 1054, 1055.
+
+[429] Riggs's _Mary and I, Forty Years with the Sioux_, pp. 41, 42.
+
+[430] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 49-59.
+
+[431] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 29th Congress, Vol. I,
+Document No. 4, p. 315.
+
+[432] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 32nd Congress, Vol II, Pt.
+III, p. 439.
+
+[433] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 343.
+
+[434] Pond's _Two Volunteer Missionaries among the Dakotas_, pp. 63, 64.
+
+[435] _Missionary Herald_, Vol. 41, p. 281, August, 1845; Vol. 32, pp.
+188, 189, May, 1836.
+
+[436] _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. IV, p. 61, February, 1839; Tanner's
+_History of the Diocese of Minnesota_, p. 24; _Post Returns_, April,
+1839, in the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+[437] Gear to Kemper, Nov. 29, 1841.--_Kemper Letters_, Vol. 25, No.
+103. See also _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. 5, p. 68, March, 1840.
+
+[438] _Acta et Dicta_, Vol. I, No. 1, July, 1907, pp. 14-21; _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. III, pp. 222-230.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+[439] Catlin's _Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition
+of the North American Indians_, Vol. II, p. 592.
+
+[440] Merrick's _Old Times on the Upper Mississippi_, p. 187. The
+following description was given by Philander Prescott, a fur trader:
+
+"The Indians say they had dreamed of seeing some monster of the deep the
+night before, which frightened them very much. It appears they did not
+discover the boat until it had got into the mouth of the St. Peter's,
+below Mr. Sibley's. They stood and gazed with astonishment at what they
+saw approaching, taking the boat to be some angry god of the water,
+coughing and spouting water upwards, sideways and forward. They had not
+courage enough to stand until the boat came near them. The women and
+children took to the woods, with their hair floating behind them in the
+breeze, from the speed they were going, in running from supposed danger.
+Some of the men had a little more courage, and only moved off to a short
+distance from the shore, and the boat passed along and landed.
+Everything being quiet for a moment, the Indians came up to the boat
+again, and stood looking at the monster of the deep. All at once the
+boat began to blow off steam, and the bravest warriors could not stand
+this awful roaring, but took to the woods, men, women and children, with
+their blankets flying in the wind; some tumbling in the brush
+which entangled their feet as they ran away--some hallooing, some
+crying, to the great amusement of the people on board the
+steamboat."--Quoted in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III,
+p. 104, note 1.
+
+[441] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 199.
+
+[442] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 191-193.
+
+[443] Beltrami published an account of his travels in French in New
+Orleans in 1824. The English version is entitled _A Pilgrimage in Europe
+and America, leading to the Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
+and Bloody River_, and was published in London in two volumes in 1828.
+It is composed of twenty-two letters addressed to "My Dear Countess" and
+dedicated "to the Fair Sex".
+
+[444] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 101.
+
+[445] The story of this exploration was published under the title of
+_Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, Lake
+Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, Etc. performed in the year 1823, by order
+of the Hon. J. C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, under the command of
+Stephen H. Long, U. S. T. E._ It was written by Professor Keating from
+the notes of the party. An English edition appeared in London in 1825.
+The references given are to this publication.
+
+[446] J. C. Calhoun to Major Long.--_Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No.
+41.
+
+[447] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, p. 324, Vol. II, p. 112.
+
+[448] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, pp. 306-310.
+
+[449] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. I, p. 356.
+
+[450] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 241.
+
+[451] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 414.
+
+
+[452] "My head was covered with the bark of a tree, formed into the
+shape of a hat and sewed with threads of bark; and shoes, a coat, and
+pantaloons, such as are used by Canadians in the Indian territories, and
+formed of original skins sewed together by thread made of the
+muscles of that animal, completed the grotesque appearance of my
+person."--Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p.
+481. For a short summary of Beltrami's work see the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 183-196.
+
+[453] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. II, p. 200.
+
+[454] Catlin's _North American Indians_, Vol. II, pp. 599-602.
+
+[455] Catlin's _North American Indians_, Vol. II, pp. 602-607. This
+quotation is from page 607.
+
+[456] _Senate Documents_, 1st Session, 24th Congress, Vol. IV, Document
+No. 333.
+
+[457] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. I,
+p. 262.
+
+[458] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 246.
+
+[459] Featherstonhaugh's _A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor_, Vol. I,
+pp. 261, 266, 288.
+
+[460] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, pp. 187, 188.
+
+[461] _Executive Documents_, 2nd Session, 28th Congress, Vol. II,
+Document No. 52, p. 53.
+
+[462] Brower's _The Mississippi River and its Source_ which comprises
+Vol. VII of the _Minnesota Historical Collections_. See p. 162.
+
+[463] _Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 242-245; _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. I, p. 189.
+
+[464] In his reminiscences John C. Fremont has left a very interesting
+account of these two expeditions.--Fremont's _Memoirs of My Life_, Vol.
+I, pp. 30-54.
+
+[465] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 183.
+
+[466] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 129, 133, 134.
+
+
+[467] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), pp. 914, 915.
+
+[468] _North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser_, June 26, 1840.
+
+[469] _North Western Gazette and Galena Advertiser_, June 5, 1840.
+
+[470] _Louisville Journal_ quoted in the _North Western Gazette and
+Galena Advertiser_, June 14, 1838.
+
+[471] Jackson Kemper was appointed missionary bishop of the Northwest in
+1835 and held the position until 1859 when he accepted the bishopric of
+Wisconsin. His papers and diaries are in the archives of the Wisconsin
+Historical Society. For an account of his work see Tiffany's _A History
+of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States_, pp. 448, 493.
+
+[472] _Kemper Papers_, Vol. XXVII, No. 113.
+
+[473] _Kemper Papers_, Vol. XXVII, No. 116.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+[474] _Journals of Congress_, Vol. III, p. 589.
+
+[475] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. I, p. 138.
+
+[476] _United States Statutes at Large_, Vol. XVI, p. 566.
+
+[477] _Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs_, 1890, p. xxix.
+
+[478] These figures are taken from an account of the proceedings of the
+council published in _Niles' Register_, Vol. XXIX, pp. 187-192.
+Taliaferro gives the number of his party as being 385 "Sioux and
+Chippewas, including the interpreters and attendants."--_Auto-biography
+of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota Historical Collections_,
+Vol. VI, p. 206.
+
+[479] The text of the treaty is printed in Kappler's _Indian Affairs,
+Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 250-255.
+
+[480] These are the reasons given by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
+in his report on December 1, 1837.--_Senate Documents_, 2nd Session,
+25th Congress, Vol. I, Document No. 1, pp. 526, 527.
+
+[481] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 129.
+
+[482] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 131; Vol. VI, p.
+214.
+
+[483] For an account of the life of Flat Mouth see Coues's _The
+Expeditions of Zebulon M. Pike_, Vol. I, p. 169, note 10.
+
+[484] Sketches of the life of Hole-in-the-Day are given in _The Spirit
+of Missions_, Vol. VIII, p. 461, December, 1843; _North Western Gazette
+and Galena Advertiser_, August 3, 1839; _Prairie du Chien Patriot_, June
+8, 1847.
+
+[485] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 353.
+
+[486] The names of the witnesses of the treaty are given in Kappler's
+_Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, p. 493.
+
+[487] A contemporary account of the proceedings of the council published
+in the _Iowa News_ (Dubuque), Vol. I, Nos. 11 and 14, is reprinted in
+_The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 408-433.
+
+[488] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, p. 420.
+
+[489] Dodge to Harris, July 30, 1837.--_Indian Office Files_, 1837, No.
+226.
+
+[490] _Executive Documents_, 1st Session, 31st Congress, Vol. III, Pt.
+2, Document No. 5, p. 985. The Indians desired whiskey at the councils.
+In order to prove that it was not refused because of stinginess, two
+barrels were opened at Prairie du Chien and the whiskey allowed to run
+on the ground. The old Indian Wakh-pa-koo-tay mourned the loss: "It was
+a great pity, there was enough wasted to have kept me drunk all the days
+of my life."--_Wisconsin Historical Collections_, Vol. V, p. 124.
+
+[491] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 409, 410.
+
+[492] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 424-426.
+
+[493] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 416, 417.
+
+Taliaferro was violently opposed to granting any funds to the
+traders.--_Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 215, 216.
+
+[494] _The Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, Vol. IX, pp. 431, 432.
+
+
+[495] The text of the treaty is to be found in Kappler's _Indian
+Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 491-493.
+
+[496] _Niles' Register_, Vol. LIII, pp. 81, 82; Kappler's _Indian
+Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp. 493, 494.
+
+[497] See an account of the payment in 1849 at Fort Snelling in _The
+Minnesota Pioneer_, September 27, 1849.
+
+[498] _Post Returns_, November, 1852, October, 1853, October, 1854, in
+the archives of the War Department, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+[499] Turner's _The Significance of the Frontier in American History_ in
+the _Annual Report of the American Historical Association_, 1893, p.
+211.
+
+[500] Beltrami's _A Pilgrimage in Europe and America_, Vol. II, p. 202.
+
+[501] Neill's _The History of Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 453;
+_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. I, p. 468.
+
+[502] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. III, p. 319.
+
+[503] Keating's _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's
+River_, Vol. II, p. 60.
+
+[504] Much has been written on the founding of this colony and the
+romantic events connected with the struggle between the Hudson's Bay
+Company and the North West Company, in which many of the colonists were
+the innocent victims. Interesting accounts are given in Kingsford's _The
+History of Canada_, Vol. IX, pp. 108-150; Bryce's _The Remarkable
+History of the Hudson's Bay Company_, pp. 202-257; Bryce's _Lord
+Selkirk_ in _The Makers of Canada_, Vol. V, pp. 115-206; Laut's _The
+Conquest of the Great Northwest_, pp. 113-202; _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. VI, pp. 75-89.
+
+[505] There is a summary of the early trading relations of the Red River
+Colony with the American settlements in the _Collections of the State
+Historical Society of North Dakota_, Vol. IV, pp. 251, 252. The arrival
+of these people at Fort Snelling is noted in the _Minnesota Historical
+Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 124, 127; VI, p. 350.
+
+[506] "Two families of Swiss emigrants who arrived here yesterday were
+robbed of almost everything they possessed".--Snelling to
+Taliaferro, October 19, 1824, in _Taliaferro Letters_, Vol. I, No. 50.
+See also the story of the Tully children in Van Cleve's _"Three Score
+Years and Ten," Life-Long Memories of Fort Snelling, Minnesota_, pp.
+49-61.
+
+[507] The facts concerning the migrations of these Red River refugees
+are taken from the reminiscences of Mrs. Ann Adams who was herself one
+of the travellers.--_Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, pp.
+75-95. See also Chetlain's _The Red River Colony_. This is a small
+pamphlet written by the son of one of the refugees.
+
+[508] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XIV, p. 84.
+
+[509] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp. 70, 71.
+
+[510] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, p. 16.
+
+[511] Renville to Sibley, February 22, 1835.--_Sibley Papers,
+1830-1840_. A story is told of a certain "Simple-hearted, honest fellow"
+named Sinclair. "One time he was sick, at Mendota, and Surgeon Emerson,
+at the fort, sent by some one, a box of pills, for him to take a dose
+from. N. W. Kittson called on him a little while after this, and found
+that Sinclair had not only swallowed all the pills, but was then chewing
+up the box!"--Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 123.
+
+[512] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, pp. 127, 129.
+
+[513] Snelling to Taliaferro, October 19, 1824.--_Taliaferro Letters_,
+Vol. I, No. 50.
+
+[514] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 13, 14, 1834; _Indian Office Files_,
+1834, No. 239.
+
+[515] _Taliaferro's Diary_, July 21, 1834.
+
+[516] _Indian Office Files_, 1837, Nos. 448, 447, 445.
+
+[517] _The Auto-biography of Maj. Lawrence Taliaferro_ in the _Minnesota
+Historical Collections_, Vol. VI, p. 231.
+
+[518] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 14, 15.
+
+[519] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 16, 17.
+
+[520] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 18, 23.
+
+[521] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. II, p. 136; Williams's _A
+History of the City of Saint Paul_, pp. 66, 67.
+
+[522] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 23, 24.
+
+[523] _Executive Documents_, 3rd Session, 40th Congress, Vol. VII,
+Document No. 9, pp. 26, 27.
+
+[524] _The Spirit of Missions_, Vol. V, p. 335, November, 1840. A recent
+sketch of Fort Snelling states that there were "no white neighbors
+except traders, agents of fur companies, refugees from civilization and
+disreputable hangers-on."--Hammond's _Quaint and Historic Forts of North
+America_, p. 272. Many of the evicted settlers can not be classed among
+these.
+
+[525] This order is published in Williams's _A History of the City of
+Saint Paul_, p. 94.
+
+[526] For the expulsion of the settlers see Williams's _A History of the
+City of Saint Paul_, pp. 99, 100; also, Neill's _The History of
+Minnesota_ (Fourth Edition), p. 459. Williams (p. 100) says that in 1849
+and 1852 memorials were presented to Congress by those who had been
+expelled, in which they stated that "the soldiery fell upon them without
+warning, treated them with unjustifiable rudeness, broke and destroyed
+furniture wantonly, insulted the women, and, in one or two instances,
+fired at and killed cattle."
+
+Father Galtier, who was there at the time, wrote: "Consequently a deputy
+marshall from Prairie du Chien was ordered to remove the houses. He went
+to work, assisted by some soldiers, and, one after another, unroofed the
+cottages, extending about five miles along the river. The settlers were
+forced to seek new homes." He makes no mention of personal
+violence.--_Acta et Dicta_, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 64.
+
+[527] Williams's _A History of the City of Saint Paul_, p. 111.
+
+[528] See the description of St. Paul in 1849 in Seymour's _Sketches of
+Minnesota, the New England of the West_, pp. 94-100.
+
+[529] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 30, 1850.
+
+[530] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, January 23, February 27, June 27, 1850.
+
+
+[531] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, November 27, 1851.
+
+[532] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, April 17, 1851.
+
+[533] _Minnesota Historical Collections_, Vol. XV, p. 534; _Post
+Returns_, July, 1855, in the archives of the War Department, Washington,
+D. C.
+
+[534] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 20, 27, 1850.
+
+[535] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 6, 13, 1850; _Minnesota
+Chronicle and Register_, February 10, 1851.
+
+[536] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, February 13, 1850.
+
+[537] Bishop's _Floral Home; or, First Years of Minnesota_, pp. 152-163.
+
+[538] _The Minnesota Pioneer_, August 23, 1849.
+
+[539] These two treaties were the treaty with the Sisseton and Wahpeton
+bands of Sioux at Traverse des Sioux, July 23, 1851; and with the
+Mdewakanton and Wahpakoota bands of Sioux at Mendota on August 5,
+1851.--Kappler's _Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties_, Vol. II, pp.
+588-593.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abercrombie, John J., fort built by, 50
+  Adams, Mrs. Ann, 245
+  Agency house, fire in, 101
+  Agriculture (see Farming)
+  Aitkin, Mr., 144
+  Akin, Mr., information furnished by, 172
+  Alcohol, purchase of, 88
+  American Fur Company,
+    fort purchased from, 21;
+    warehouse and store of, 81;
+    monopoly of, 135;
+    reference to, 138, 142, 188, 209
+  Americans, hostility of Indians to,
+    during War of 1812, 8-12;
+    Indians impressed by supremacy of, 112-118;
+    protection promised by, 122
+  Ammunition, giving of, to Indians, 110
+  Andrews, Joseph F., 230
+  Annuities, 42, 43, 111, 126;
+    payment of, to Indians, 184, 185
+  Apple River, massacre on, 132, 232
+  Apples, purchase of, 88
+  Ardourly, Jack, 100
+  Armorer's shop, 77, 78, 79
+  Articles of Confederation, 176
+  Assiniboine River, 5
+  Astor, John Jacob, 135, 209
+  Atkinson, Henry, fort named in honor of, 30;
+    reference to, 34
+  _Aunt Phyllis's Cabin_, 62
+
+  Badger, The, murder of, 127
+  Bailly, Alexis, 99, 188;
+    disagreement between Taliaferro and, 138, 139;
+    whiskey in store of, 142, 143
+  Baker, Benjamin, trading house of, 78, 79, 125, 192
+  Ball-plays, 101;
+    holding of, for Catlin, 164
+  Balls, music for, 197
+  Band, fund for maintenance of, 87;
+    music by, 197
+  Barracks,
+    building of, 25;
+    reference to, 73;
+    description of, 74, 75;
+    taking of sick soldiers from, 85
+  Bean, J. L., boundary line surveyed by, 130, 131
+  Bear, hunting of, 105
+  Bear dance, 164
+  Bedford (Pennsylvania), 71
+  Beef, 85;
+    ration of, 109
+  Beggars' dance, 164
+  Belen Gate of City of Mexico, 64
+  Beltrami, J. C.,
+    description of council by, 106, 107;
+    reference to, 133, 187;
+    visit of, to Fort Snelling, 160-163
+  Bennington (Vermont), 61
+  Benton, Thomas H., 107
+  Berries, gathering of, 105
+  Big Eagle, 83
+  Big Stone Lake, 103
+  Big Thunder, 83;
+    desire of, to raise corn, 152
+  Birthplace of soldiers, 92
+  Black Dog, village of, 83
+  Black Hawk War, position of Fort Snelling during, 35
+  Black Hole, confinement of offenders in, 91, 132
+  Black River, 36, 184
+  Blacksmith shop, 118
+  Blacksmiths, work of, 78, 155
+  Blankets, giving of, to Indians, 110;
+    reference to, 136
+  Bliss, John H., 68, 114, 151, 153;
+    punishment inflicted by, 90, 91;
+    statement by, 99, 100
+  Bliss, Mrs. John H., 153
+  Blockhouses, 74
+  Blue Earth River, Winnebago reservation on, 37;
+    reference to, 162
+
+  Boarding-school, success of, among Indians, 156
+  Boatmen, foreigners as, 138
+  _Bois brules_,
+    difficulties with, 37-40;
+    location of, around fort, 188, 189
+  Books, fund for purchase of, 87
+  Boonesborough (Kentucky), 201
+  Boston, 56, 145
+  Bougainville, Louis Antoine, report of, 205
+  Boundary line of 1825, 130, 131, 178, 184
+  Brandy, 86
+  Braves, desire of, to take part in council, 181
+  "Brazil" (steamboat), 168, 169
+  Bread, character of, 86
+  Bread tickets, 88
+  Breakfast, 85
+  Brewers, 92
+  Briggs, Ansel, 41
+  Brock, General, 8
+  Brooke, George M., site for fort chosen by, 48
+  Broom, purchase of, 88
+  Brown, Joseph R., 190, 191
+  Brown, Private, purchases by, 88
+  Brown's Falls, 81
+  Bruce, Amos J., 71
+  Brunson, Alfred, work of, among Indians, 154
+  Brunson, Ira B., 195
+  Buchanan County (Iowa), 41
+  Buck, Solon J., acknowledgments to, ix
+  Buffalo, hunting of, by half-breeds, 37, 38, 40
+  Buffalo dance, 164
+  "Burlington" (steamboat), 168
+  Butter, purchase of, 88
+
+  Calhoun, John C., 19, 224
+  California, emigration to, 43
+  Camp Cold Water,
+    establishment of, 27;
+    reference to, 58, 110, 189, 190, 212
+  Camp Missouri, sickness at, 213
+  Camp Pierce, 46
+  Campbell, Duncan, 131
+  Campbell, Scott, service of, as interpreter, 71, 72
+  Canada, 3, 8, 57, 92, 158;
+    taking of furs to, 6;
+    importance of fur trade to, 9;
+    visits of Indians to, 37, 106;
+    difficulties with half-breeds from, 37-40;
+    export of furs from, 207
+  Canal, 20
+  Canby, Edward R. S., sketch of life of, 63-65
+  Candles, 86
+  Candy, purchase of, 88
+  Canister shot, 77
+  Cannon, description of, 77
+  Cannon River, 137
+  Canoes, 199
+  Cantonment Leavenworth, establishment of, 56
+  Cantonment New Hope, establishment of, 25;
+    removal of troops from, 27;
+    reference to, 55
+  Cards, playing of, 99
+  Carpenters, employment of soldiers as, 96
+  Cartridges, stock of, 77
+  Carver, Jonathan, exploration by, 1;
+    statement by, 1, 2;
+    reference to, 198
+  Cass, Lewis, visit of, at Fort Snelling, 28;
+    reference to, 137, 140, 178;
+    expedition of, 212
+  Cat'o'nine tails, 90
+  Catholic chapel, 81
+  Catholics, religious work among, 158
+  Catlin, George, visit of, at Fort Snelling, 163, 164
+  Catlin, Mrs. George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 163, 164
+  Cattle, feeding of, 82, 96
+  Cellars, 75
+  Cemetery, 81, 89, 93
+  Certificates, giving of, to Indians, 113, 114
+  Chambers, John, 182
+  Chapel, 81, 195
+  Chaplain, 88, 101, 194, 195;
+    service of Gear as, 157
+  Chatel, Mr., work of, 155, 156
+  Checkers, playing of, 99
+
+  Cheese, purchase of, 88
+  Cherokee Indians, removal of, 63, 64
+  Cherubusco, Battle of, 64
+  Chess, playing of, 99
+  Chicago, 161
+  Chiefs, giving of certificates to, 113, 114;
+    visit of, to Washington, 115, 116;
+    council with, 181
+  Children, education of, at fort, 100, 101
+  Chippewa, Battle of, 55
+  Chippewa Indians,
+    early traders among, 3;
+    reference to, 7, 48, 104, 108, 139, 142, 144,
+            163, 177, 178, 228, 231, 242;
+    unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13;
+    treaty between Sioux and, 28;
+    treaty with, 45, 176-186;
+    land ceded by, 47, 48;
+    home of, 103;
+    war parties against, 106;
+    hostility of, 114;
+    feuds between Sioux and, 119-134;
+    killing of, by Sioux, 121, 125;
+    murderers killed by, 122-124;
+    murder of Sioux warrior by, 127;
+    battle between Sioux and, 127, 128, 232;
+    boundary line between Sioux and, 130, 131, 178;
+    trustworthiness of, 134;
+    language of, 172, 173, 174;
+    summoning of, to council, 179
+  Chippewa River, 131, 172;
+    murder of Sioux on, 232
+  Choctaw Indians, removal of, 63, 64
+  Chouteau, Auguste, activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13
+  Christianity, influence of, 146;
+    method of preaching, 150, 151
+  Church, organization of, at Fort Snelling, 157;
+    attendance at, 194, 195
+  Churns, 76
+  Civil War,
+    use of Fort Snelling during, 52;
+    service of Eastman in, 62;
+    reference to, 63, 201;
+    service of Canby in, 64
+  Clark, Charlotte Ouisconsin, 23, 212
+  Clark, Dan E., acknowledgments to, x
+  Clark, Nathan, 21
+  Clark, Mrs. Nathan, 23
+  Clark, William, expedition under, 4, 5;
+    Fort Shelby established by, 11;
+    activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13;
+    reference to, 69, 70, 114, 178, 221, 228
+  Clarke, Colonel, 44
+  Clerks, 136
+  Cloud Man,
+    resolution of, to become farmer, 148;
+    reference to, 153
+  Cloves, purchase of, 88
+  Coe, Alvan, coming of, to Fort Snelling, 149
+  Coffee, 86
+  Colhoun, James E., 161, 162
+  Colors, guarding of, 85
+  Columbia, Department of, 65
+  Columbia Fur Company, 138
+  Columbia River, 5
+  Commanders of Fort Snelling,
+    influence of, 54;
+    sketches of lives of, 54-65
+  Commanding officer, quarters of, 75
+  Commerce, extent of, 205
+  Commissary, office of, 75
+  Commissary department, storehouse of, 75
+  Commissioner of Indian Affairs,
+    report of, 37;
+    reference to, 67, 177
+  Confederation, forming of, among Indians, 13
+  Congress, right of,
+    to regulate Indian affairs, 176;
+    memorials to, 246
+  Connecticut, 1
+  Contreras, Battle of, 64
+  Coon, story about Scott and, 60, 61
+  Cooper, S., 238
+  Cooeperation in fur trade, 135
+  Copper, mining of, 25; block of, 175
+  Corn, feeding of, to cattle, 82;
+    raising of, by Indians, 105;
+    giving of, to Indians, 110
+  Council, holding of, with Indians, 35, 36, 43, 106-109, 129, 179-183
+  Council Bluff (Nebraska),
+    fort at, 20;
+    route of road to Fort Snelling from, 28, 29;
+    naming of fort at, 30;
+    reference to, 160;
+    sickness at, 213
+  Council Hall, description of, 106, 107
+  Council House, erection of, 28;
+
+    description of, 77;
+    burning of, 77, 78;
+    rebuilding of, 78
+  _Coureurs des bois_, activities of, 3
+  Court-martial, 102
+  Crane, The, 129, 228
+  Crawford, Captain, 159
+  Crawford County (Wisconsin) volunteers from, 35
+  Credit, fur trade carried on by means of, 136
+  Creek Indians, removal of, 63, 64
+  Croghan, George, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 100
+  Cross Timbers (Indian Territory), 56
+  Crow Wing, 236
+  Crow Wing River, 47
+  Currants, purchase of, 88
+
+  _Dahcotah: or, Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling_,
+            62
+  Dana, Captain, 49
+  Dance of the braves, 164
+  Dances, holding of, by Indians, 164
+  Dakota, Department of, 52
+  Dakota Indians (see Sioux Indians)
+  Dearborn, Major, 110
+  Deaths, number of, at Fort Snelling, 93
+  Debts, payment of, to traders, 183, 184
+  De Courcy, Adolphine, 100
+  Deer, hunting of, 105
+  Delaware County (New York), 55
+  Delhi (New York), 56
+  Democrats, charges of graft against, 51
+  Denny, St. Clair, 161
+  Des Moines River, 18, 44
+  Deserters, dangers faced by, 92
+  Desertions, causes of, 91;
+    prevalence of, 91, 92
+  Details, duties of, 85
+  Detroit, 11, 19;
+    departure of troops from, 21;
+    surrender of, 57
+  Devil's Lake, 40
+  Dickson, Robert, activities of, in behalf of English, 11;
+    reference to, 13, 16, 134;
+    instructions to, 208
+  Diet, description of, 85
+  Dinner, 85
+  Dixon, Private, desertion of, 92
+  Dodge, Henry, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168;
+    council of, with Indians, 180-183
+  Dog dance, 164
+  Dominoes, playing of, 99
+  Doty, James D., 212
+  Douglas, Thomas, settlement of, 188, 189
+  Draft riots, 64
+  Dragoons, expedition of, 38, 39, 45, 216;
+    activities of, in Iowa, 44, 45;
+    service of, on survey, 46, 47;
+    reference to, 48, 56, 63, 186, 217;
+    frontier service of, 49;
+    arrival of, 215
+  Dress parade, 85
+  Drummond Island, visits of Indians to, 13, 14
+  Drunkenness, prevalence of, in garrison, 89, 90, 194;
+    punishment for, 90
+  Dubuque, 43, 158, 216
+  Dubuque, Diocese of, 158
+  Ducks, 96, 97
+  Dueling, 102
+  Duluth, Daniel Greyloson, 3
+  Dunning, William A., 215
+
+  Eagle dance, 164
+  Eastman, Mary Henderson, writings of, 62
+  Eastman, Seth, 35, 99, 145;
+    sketch of life of, 62
+  Eastman, Mrs. Seth, description by, 94
+  Eaton, John H., 149
+  Eatonville (Minnesota), colony at, 118, 149;
+    success of colony at, 150;
+    Pond brothers in charge of, 152
+  Education, work of, among Indians, 156
+  "Education Families", 103
+  Education of children, 100, 101
+  Edwards, Ninian, activities of, as commissioner, 12, 13
+  Eighth United States Infantry, 18
+
+  Elk, hunting of, 105
+  Emerson, John, sketch of life of, 65, 66;
+    reference to, 194, 245
+  Emerson, Mrs. John, 66
+  Emigration, 14, 15
+  England, 70
+  English, rule of, in West, 2, 3;
+    activities of, in fur trade, 3, 4, 140;
+    power of, over Indians, 5-17;
+    support of, by Indians in War of 1812, 8-12;
+    medals given by, 112;
+    persistence of influence of, 114, 115;
+    use of Indians by, 208
+  English River, 42
+  English trading companies, 2
+  Episcopal Church, 169
+  Evans, William, 190
+  Exploring expeditions, 109
+
+  Factors, 136;
+    relations of, with officers of fort, 138, 139
+  Factory System, 107
+  Fall, activities of Indians during, 105, 106
+  Falls of St. Anthony, 7, 24, 29, 30, 86, 96, 149, 153, 198, 207;
+    journey of Long to, 19;
+    plan to establish fort near, 20;
+    saw mill at, 27, 28;
+    fort named for, 29;
+    road to, 81;
+    description of, 81, 173, 174;
+    legend concerning, 81, 82;
+    visits of travelers to, 159-175;
+    attempt to cross, 161, 162
+  Falstrom, Jacob, 191
+  Faribault, Jean Baptiste, house of, 80;
+    reference to, 137, 141, 222;
+    trading post of, 187, 188
+  Faribault, Pelagi, 187
+  Farmers, 92;
+    employment of soldiers as, 95;
+    work of, among Indians, 155, 156
+  Farming, efforts to introduce, among Indians, 148-150;
+    work of Indians at, 150;
+    assistance to Indians in, 152, 153;
+    instruction of Indians in, 155
+  "Fashionable Tour", 159-175
+  Fat Duty Win (Indian), 156
+  "Fayette" (steamboat), 169
+  Fayette County (Iowa), 41
+  Featherstonhaugh, George William, visit of, to Fort Snelling,
+            153, 165, 166
+  Ferries, 14
+  Ferry house, 81
+  Ferryman, 81
+  Fifth United States Infantry, disembarkment of, 2;
+    orders to, 19, 20;
+    location of parts of, 21:
+    journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, 21-24;
+    companies of, taken to Fort Crawford, 32;
+    reference to, 55, 58, 59, 62, 187
+  Finley, Mr., home of, 81
+  Fireplaces, heating by means of, 99
+  Fires, epidemic of, 101
+  First United States Infantry, 58, 59, 62
+  Fishing tackle, purchase of, 88
+  Flag staff, 75
+  Flags, giving up of, by Indians, 6;
+    reference to, 112;
+    slur against, 145
+  Flat Mouth, 120;
+    career of, 179
+  Flatboats, 14, 86, 199
+  Flogging, 90
+  Florida War, service of Eastman in, 62;
+    service of Canby in, 63
+  Flour, 86
+  Food, character of, 26, 85-87
+  Folles-Avoine Indians, 205
+  Fond du Lac, Department of, 6
+  Foraging, 85, 96
+  Foreigners, permission to, to engage in fur trade, 138
+  Forests, 178
+  Forsyth, Thomas, journey of, up Mississippi, 22;
+    presents distributed by, 23;
+    arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, 24;
+    return trip of, 24;
+    reference to, 211, 228
+  Fort Abercrombie, facts concerning early history of, 49, 50
+  Fort Armstrong, construction of, 18;
+    reference to, 20;
+    garrison for, 22;
+    journey of Webb to, 117
+  Fort Atkinson (Iowa), dragoons from, 35;
+    expedition from, 38;
+    Major Woods at, 41
+
+  Fort Atkinson (Nebraska), naming of, 30;
+    sickness at, 93
+  Fort Benton, 46
+  Fort Bridger, 64
+  Fort Calhoun (Nebraska), 20
+  Fort Clarke, establishment of, 44, 45
+  Fort Crawford, establishment of, 18;
+    reference to, 20, 23, 59, 157, 161;
+    arrival of troops at, 22;
+    reenforcement of garrison of, 32, 34;
+    removal of troops from, 33
+  Fort Dearborn, massacre at, 10, 11, 208;
+    reference to, 18, 117;
+    re-occupation of, 18
+  Fort Defiance, 64
+  Fort Des Moines, 44
+  Fort Dodge, establishment of, 44, 45;
+    reference to, 49
+  Fort Erie, 57
+  Fort Gaines, 43, 48
+  Fort Garry, 40, 188
+  Fort Howard, erection of, 19;
+    reference to, 21, 211
+  Fort Leavenworth, establishment of, 56
+  Fort McKay, name of Fort Shelby changed to, 12;
+    re-occupation of site of, 18
+  Fort Pierre, purchase of, 21;
+    reference to, 167
+  Fort Ridgely, 49, 186
+  Fort Ripley, 48
+  Fort St. Anthony, 29
+  Fort Shelby, establishment of, 11, 12;
+    capture of, by English, 12
+  Fort Snelling, significance of establishment of, 2;
+    establishment and early history of, 18-30;
+    range of influence of, 21;
+    erection of, 27, 28;
+    garden at, 28;
+    route of road to, 28, 29;
+    naming of, 29, 30;
+    service of, in protection of frontier, 31-53;
+    attitude of War Department toward, 31;
+    Territorial jurisdictions over site of, 32;
+    activities of troops at, during Winnebago outbreak, 32-34;
+    character and duties of garrison of, 34, 35;
+    service of troops from, in removal of Winnebagoes, 35-37;
+    expeditions from, 39-45;
+    surveying party escorted by dragoons from, 46, 47;
+    relation of, to other forts, 47;
+    fort built by troops from, 48, 49, 50;
+    history of later years of, 50-53;
+    desire to locate town on site of, 50-52;
+    officers' training camp at, 53;
+    biographical sketches of men connected with, 54-72;
+    Dred Scott at, 66;
+    service of Indian agent at, 66-72;
+    description of, 73-83;
+    view from, 79, 80;
+    glimpses of garrison life at, 84-102;
+    relation of, to Indian affairs, 103-118;
+    efforts of authorities at, to keep peace between Sioux and Chippewas,
+            119-134;
+    regulation of fur trade by officers at, 135-139;
+    regulation of liquor traffic by officers at, 139-145;
+    work of missionaries at, 146-158;
+    religious activities at, 156-158;
+    visits of travelers to, 159-175, 198;
+    Indian treaty made at, 176-186;
+    part of, in opening country to settlement, 184, 185;
+    part of, in settlement of West, 187-201;
+    settlements around, 187-190;
+    removal of settlers from vicinity of, 192-195;
+    relations between St. Paul and, 196-198;
+    withdrawal of troops from, 199;
+    unique facts concerning, 201;
+    arrival of troops at, 212, 215;
+    oil painting of, 223;
+    effect of, on Indian affairs, 231, 232
+  Fort Sumter, 201
+  Fort Ticonderoga, 201
+  Fort Union, 46
+  Fort William, 9
+  Fort York, 189
+  Forts, resistance to building of, 13;
+    location of, 18;
+    building of, 18-20, 47;
+    reference to, 136;
+    degeneration of Indians in vicinity of, 147
+  "Four Hearts", 68
+  Four Legs, attempt of, to delay troops, 21
+  Fourth United States Infantry, 56
+  Fowle, Major, 34, 122
+
+  Fox Indians, rumor of attack by, 117;
+    reference to, 205;
+    treaty with, 208
+    (see Sac and Fox Indians)
+  Fox River, 19, 163;
+    canal between Wisconsin River and, 20;
+    ascent of, by troops, 21, 22
+  France, 1, 92
+  Franks, Mr., 209
+  Fremont, John C., 167, 241
+  French, rule of, in West, 2, 3;
+    influence of, over Indians, 3;
+    extent of trade during control of, 205
+  French traders, 2
+  Frontier, difficulties on, 15;
+    plan for protection of, 19;
+    service of Fort Snelling in protection of, 31-53;
+    service of Taylor on, 59
+  Fuel, use of wood for, 99
+  Funerals, conduct of, 93
+  Fur trade, 2, 3, 35;
+    activities of English in, 3, 4, 5-17;
+    importance of, to Canada, 9;
+    regulation of, 15-17, 135-139;
+    quantity of furs secured in, 137;
+    use of liquor in, 139, 140;
+    extent of, 205
+  Fur traders (see Traders)
+  Furs, taking of, to Canada, 6;
+    sorting and packing of, 81;
+    quantity and kind of, secured by traders, 137;
+    annual export of, from Canada, 207
+
+  Gaines, Edmund P., 227
+  Gale, Captain, 131
+  Galena (Illinois), 32, 151, 168, 170, 175, 190
+  Galtier, Lucian, 158, 195
+  Game, killing of, 42
+  Garden, products of, 28;
+    making of, 95, 96
+  Gardiner, Captain, 46
+  Gardner, Lieutenant, 216
+  Garrison, life of, at Fort Snelling, 84-102
+  Gear, Ezekiel, purchases made by, 88, 89;
+    service of, as chaplain, 157;
+    reference to, 169, 170, 173
+  Geese, 96
+  "General Ashley" (keel boat), 33
+  "General Brooke" (steamboat), 169
+  "General Fatigue", 85
+  Genoa (Italy), 70
+  Geological surveys, beginning of, 165
+  George the Third, medals of, 112
+  Gettysburg, Battle of, 63
+  Ghent, negotiations at, 209
+  Good Road (Chief), 83; village of, 155
+  Gooding, Mrs., 23
+  Gooding, Miss, 29
+  Goods for Indian trade, 136
+  Goose River, 40
+  Gorgets, 112, 114
+  Gorman, W. A., 197
+  Graft, charges of, 51
+  Graham's Point, 50
+  Grant, Peter, trading post of, 206
+  Grapeshot, 77
+  Gray, A., report by, 8
+  Great Britain, exploration of domain of, 1;
+    diplomatic correspondence with, 140
+  Great Lakes, 2, 103
+  Green, Platt Rogers, marriage of, 29;
+    reference to, 83
+  Green Bay, 4, 21, 138;
+    fort on, 19;
+    fur trade at, 205
+  Greenly, Mr., 43, 44
+  Greenough, I. K., 101, 143
+  Green's Villa, 82
+  Grist mill, 82
+  Grooms, Mr., 142, 151
+  Groseilliers, Medard Chuart, exploration by, 3
+  Guardhouse, 75
+  Gull Lake, 179
+  Guns, giving of, to Indians, 110
+
+  Half-breeds, difficulties with, 37-40;
+    reference to, 157, 184;
+    location of, around fort, 188, 189
+  Hamilton, Mrs. Alexander, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168
+  Hannibal (negro servant), 90
+  Harness, 75
+  Harriet (negro woman), 66
+  Harriman, D. B., 232
+  Harrison, William H., 57
+
+  Harrodstown (Kentucky), 201
+  Hartford (Connecticut), 21
+  Hastings (Minnesota), 26
+  Hay, raising of, 96
+  Hays, John, 190
+  Heald, Nathan, 10
+  Heiskell, William King, Fort Snelling reservation sold by, 51
+  Hennepin, Louis, 3
+  Henry, Alexander, 206
+  Herring, Elbert, 221
+  _Hiawatha_, 62
+  Higby, James, 196
+  "Highland Mary", 43
+  Hill, James J., 235
+  Hivernants, 136
+  Hole-in-the-Day, 124, 126, 129, 228, 231;
+    career of, 179, 180
+  Holland, 92
+  Homesickness, 25
+  Horses, feeding of, 85;
+    raising of hay for, 96;
+    exchange of, for liquor, 141
+  Hospital, 75;
+    taking of sick soldiers to, 85;
+    number of soldiers in, 93
+  Howitzers, 77
+  Hudson's Bay, 189
+  Hudson's Bay Company, 8, 140, 188, 206, 244
+  Huggins, Alexander G., 154
+  Hull, William, 10, 57;
+    surrender of Detroit by, 57, 58
+  Hunt, Abigail, marriage of, 57
+  Hunting, skill of Scott in, 60, 61;
+    success of soldiers in, 96, 97;
+    activities of Indians in, 105, 106;
+    reference to, 111, 188;
+    efforts to supplement, by farming, 148
+  Hunting grounds, 82
+  Hunting parties, size of, 38;
+    encounters by, 129;
+    watching of, by Indian agent, 129, 130
+
+  Illinois, admission of, 15;
+    Indian outbreak in, 32-34
+  Illinois River, 177
+  Indian affairs, regulation of, 34, 35, 67;
+    relation of Fort Snelling to, 103-118, 231
+  Indian agency, buildings of, 77;
+    proposed removal of, 78;
+    councils with Indians at, 106-109
+  Indian agent, protection for, 18;
+    service of Taliaferro as, 66-71;
+    relation between military authorities and, 67;
+    house of, 77, 78;
+    task of, 103, 104;
+    visit of Indians to, 111;
+    aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112;
+    efforts of, to promote peace between Sioux and Chippewas, 119-134;
+    service of, as mediator, 191, 192;
+    reference to, 220
+  Indian ball, 101
+  Indian country, preparations for march into, 93-95
+  Indian dances, holding of, for Catlin, 164
+  Indian schools, 118
+  Indian Territory, removal of Indians to, 63, 64
+  _Indian Tribes of the United States, History, Conditions, and Future
+            Prospects of the_, 62
+  Indian villages, 83
+  Indiana, admission of, 15;
+   reference to, 63
+  Indians, influence of French traders over, 3;
+    trade of English with, 4;
+    power of English over, 5-17, 114, 115;
+    support of British by, in War of 1812, 8-12;
+    treaties with, 12, 13;
+    sending of presents to, 13, 23;
+    visits of, to Drummond Island, 13, 14;
+    proposals for dealing with, 15;
+    regulation of trade with, 15-17;
+    refusal of, to supply troops with food, 26;
+    relation of Fort Snelling to, 31;
+    hostility of, 32-34;
+    opposition of, to half-breeds, 37;
+    power of agents over, 67;
+    tepees of, 73;
+    blacksmith work for, 78;
+    legend of, concerning Falls of St. Anthony, 81, 82;
+    treatment of deserters by, 92, 93;
+    plan for civilization of, 103;
+    number of, around Fort Snelling, 103, 104;
+    character of life among, 104-106;
+    councils with, at Fort Snelling, 106-109;
+
+    effect of military display on, 108, 109;
+    relief of sufferings of, 109, 110;
+    visit of, to agent, 111;
+    help to, in sickness, 111, 112;
+    vaccination of, 112;
+    evidence of power of government given to, by Fort Snelling, 112-118;
+    medals and certificates given to, 113, 114;
+    influence of Fort Snelling over, 116-118;
+    regulation of fur trade with, 135-139;
+    goods used in trade with, 136;
+    efforts to suppress liquor traffic with, 139-145;
+    evil effects of liquor on, 141;
+    work of missionaries among, 146-158;
+    degeneration among, 147;
+    log village for, 149;
+    work of, at farming, 150;
+    assistance to, in farming, 152, 153;
+    boarding-school for, 156;
+    effect of religious work among, 158;
+    paintings of, by Catlin, 163, 164;
+    relations of United States with, 176-178;
+    speeches by, 181, 182;
+    disputes between settlers and, 191, 192;
+    drunkenness among, 194;
+    use of, by British, 208;
+    plans for permanent territory for, 209;
+    respect of, for Sabbath, 237;
+    steamboats feared by, 239, 240
+  Indigo, purchase of, 88
+  Intemperance, prevalence of, in garrison, 89, 90
+  Interior, Department of, Indian affairs placed under control of, 67
+  Interpreter, service of Campbell as, 71, 72;
+    danger to, from fire, 78;
+    activities of, 129, 130, 131;
+    service of Renville as, 161
+  Interpreters, foreigners as, 138
+  "Ione" (steamboat), 169
+  Iowa, journey of Kearny across, 29;
+    removal of Winnebagoes from, 35, 36, 47;
+    expeditions from Fort Snelling into, 41-45
+  Iowa, Territory of, 32, 158
+  Iowa City, Major Woods at, 41, 42;
+    reference to, 43;
+    description of, 216
+  Iowa County, petition from, 41
+  Iowa Indians, 177;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Iowa River, difficulties with Indians along, 41, 42-44;
+    departure of Indians from, 44
+  Ireland, 92;
+    immigrants from, 189
+  Iron, mining of, 25
+  Irving, Washington, 14
+  Izard, George, 57
+
+  Jack, Captain, war with, 65
+  Jackson, Andrew, 15
+  Jail, use of, 196
+  James, Edward, settlers removed by, 195
+  James River, 116
+  Jarvis, Doctor, 112
+  Jefferson, Thomas, statement of, concerning trade, 4
+  Jesuits, work of, 146
+  Jewellers, 92
+  Jews' harps, giving of, to Indians, 107
+  Johnson, George, 118
+  Johnson County (Iowa), 41
+
+  Kansas State Historical Society, 221
+  Kaposia, 83, 152;
+    missionary at, 154;
+    abandonment of mission at, 155;
+    school at, 156;
+    battle near, 232
+  Kearny, Stephen Watts, survey of route for military road by, 29
+  Keating, William H., 161, 162
+  Keelboats, 86
+  Kemper, Jackson, letters describing visit of, to Fort Snelling, 169-175;
+    reference to, 238, 242
+  Kentucky, settlement of, 14;
+    reference to, 15, 63
+  Kickapoo Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Kinzie, John, 117
+  Kitchens, 75
+  Kittson, Norman W., 140, 235, 245
+  Knives, 136
+
+  La Baye, 205
+  Laborers, 92
+  Lac du Flambeau, 118
+  Lac du Traverse, 16
+  Lac qui Parle, 110, 116, 144, 154, 155
+  Laidlaw, William, 138
+
+  Lake Calhoun, 82, 96, 118, 133, 148, 153, 154;
+    mission on, 83
+  Lake Harriet, 82, 96, 127, 154, 198;
+    Indian boarding-school at, 156
+  Lake Huron, 13, 14, 19, 21
+  Lake Itasca, 167
+  Lake Julia, 163
+  Lake Michigan, 17, 19, 21
+  Lake Mini-Waken, 40
+  Lake of the Isles, 82, 96
+  Lake of the Woods, 16, 140, 209
+  Lake Pepin, 23, 24, 29, 93, 142, 171, 172, 212
+  Lake Pokegama, 232
+  Lake St. Croix, 128
+  Lake Superior, trading posts on, 6;
+    reference to, 9, 47, 160, 162, 172
+  Lake Traverse, 103, 116
+  Lake Winnebago, 21
+  Lake Winnipeg, 4, 162, 189, 205
+  Lakes, hunting in region of, 82, 83
+  Landing at Fort Snelling, description of, 73
+  Lands, questions concerning, 111
+  Land's End, 138
+  Land-seekers, effect of coming of, 117, 118;
+    land cessions urged by, 176
+  Latrobe, Charles Joseph, 223
+  "Laughing Water," 82
+  Laundresses, quarters of, 75
+  Lead mines, 178
+  Leavenworth, Henry, 21, 29, 63, 190, 211;
+    message of, to Indian chief, 21, 22;
+    journey of, to mouth of Minnesota River, 22-24;
+    arrival of, at mouth of Minnesota River, 24;
+    return of, to Prairie du Chien, 24;
+    camp moved by, 27;
+    successor to, 27;
+    sketch of life of, 55, 56
+  Lee, Francis, 49
+  Leech Lake, Pike at, 6;
+    trading post on, 6;
+    reference to, 130, 179
+  Legend concerning Falls of St. Anthony, 81, 82
+  _Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The_, 14
+  Lewis, Meriwether, expedition under, 4, 5;
+    reference to, 72
+  Library, purchase of books for, 87;
+    reference to, 99
+  Licenses, granting of, to traders, 16, 137, 138
+  Linn County (Iowa), 41
+  Liquor, 86;
+    effect of, on Indians, 129, 141;
+    suppression of traffic in, 129;
+    power of, among Indians, 139, 140;
+    prices charged for, 141, 142;
+    destruction of, 143, 144
+  Liquor traffic, regulation of, 139-145
+  Little Crow, 68, 116, 117, 132, 155
+  Little Falls (Minnesota), 6, 81
+  Little Thunder, 118
+  Lockwood, Judge, 170
+  Log cabins, erection of, 25
+  Log village for Indians, 149
+  Long, Stephen H., site for fort approved by, 19;
+    reference to, 95;
+    expedition of, to upper Mississippi, 160-163
+  Longfellow, Henry W., 62
+  Lookout platform, 74
+  Loomis, Gustavus, 36, 156, 166;
+    punishment inflicted by, 90
+  Loras, Mathias, 127, 231;
+    activities of, at Mendota, 158
+  Lords of the North, 54-72
+  Louisiana, transfer of, 7
+  Louisiana Purchase, effect of, 4
+  Louisville (Kentucky), 169
+  Lover's rock, 172
+  Lower Red Cedar Lake, trading post on, 6
+  "Loyal Hanna" (steamboat), 169
+  Lumber, making of, 27, 28, 82
+
+  McCain, H. P., acknowledgments to, ix
+  M'Gillis, Hugh, 6
+  McGregor, John R., 196
+  McKenny, T. L., 17
+  McKenzie, Kenneth, trading house bought by, 79;
+    reference to, 138
+  McLean, Nathaniel, 71, 220
+  McMahon, Doctor, 121
+  McNeil, Colonel, 117
+  Mackinac, capture of, by British, 9, 10;
+    reference to, 11, 12, 18, 118, 146, 201, 209;
+    transfer of, to Americans, 18
+  Madison, James, 12
+
+  Magazine, 74;
+    contents of, 76, 77
+  Ma-ghe-ga-bo, 182, 183
+  Magruder, William T., 63, 186
+  Mahoney, Sergeant, purchases made by, 89
+  Mail, carrying of, to Fort Snelling, 97-99, 101
+  Maize, raising of, 95
+  "Malta" (steamboat), 169
+  Man-of-the-sky, 133
+  Mandan (North Dakota), 5
+  Mandan Indians, Lewis and Clark among, 5;
+    reference to, 206
+  Maple sugar, 120
+  March, preparations for, 93-95
+  Marengo (Iowa), difficulties with Indians near, 42, 43
+  Marion (Iowa), 42
+  Marquette, Jacques, 3, 146
+  Marryat, Frederick, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 168, 229
+  Marsh, John, letter from, 33;
+    service of, as tutor, 100, 101
+  Marston, Major, 22
+  Massacre of 1862, 118
+  Massy, Louis, 192
+  Mather, William Williams, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 165
+  Mdewakanton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247
+  Meals, character of, 85-87
+  Medals, giving up of, by Indians, 6;
+    giving of, by English, 112;
+    giving of, by United States, 113, 114;
+    slur against, 145
+  Mendota, treaty of, 49, 247;
+    settlement at, 80, 81;
+    headquarters of fur trade at, 135, 136;
+    factor at, 139;
+    reference to, 142, 212, 223, 245;
+    religious activities at, 157, 158;
+    traders at, 188
+  Menominee Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13;
+    reference to, 177
+  Mess-rooms, 75
+  Mexican War, services of Taylor in, 59;
+    services of Scott in, 61;
+    reference to, 63;
+    service of Canby in, 64
+  Mexico, City of, 64, 197
+  Michigan, Territory of, 32
+  Military frontier, forward movement of, 17, 18
+  Military posts, establishment of, 2;
+    permission for establishment of, 7
+  Military reservation, 192;
+    removal of settlers from, 192-195
+  Military road, survey of route for, 28, 29
+  Military rules, severity of, 91
+  Mille Lac, 180
+  Miller, John, 19
+  Mills, 82, 149;
+    guarding of, 96
+  Minneapolis, real estate speculation at, 50
+  Minnehaha Creek, 27
+  Minnehaha Falls, 62, 96, 127, 198
+  Minnesota, Indians in, 103;
+    diocese of Dubuque extended over, 158;
+    reference to, 177
+  Minnesota, Territory of, 32, 216;
+    organization of, 196
+  Minnesota River, Carver on, 1;
+    reference to, 2, 21, 30, 31, 47, 55, 74, 106, 110, 111, 118, 121, 138,
+            140, 146, 154, 155, 185, 187, 207;
+    cession of land at mouth of, secured by Pike, 7, 8;
+    promise of trading house at mouth of, 17;
+    selection of site for fort at mouth of, 19;
+    arrival of troops at mouth of, 24, 212;
+    fort located at junction of Mississippi River and, 27;
+    concentration of Sioux Indians along, 49;
+    scenery at mouth of, 79, 80;
+    Indian villages on, 83;
+    clearing of timber from banks of, 99;
+    expedition up, 162;
+    name of, 206
+  Minnesota Valley, settlement of, 39;
+    geological survey in, 165
+  Mission, 83
+  Missionaries, 3, 118, 146-158;
+    methods of, suggested by Taliaferro, 150, 151;
+    service of, 199
+  Missionary societies, 145
+  Missions, activities at, 155
+  Mississippi River, Carver on, 1;
+    reference to, 2, 13, 15, 21, 30, 48, 55, 58, 74, 103, 107, 120, 126,
+            129, 131, 135, 143, 158, 167, 179, 187, 205, 207;
+
+    foreign jurisdictions over country west of, 2, 3;
+    expedition of Pike up, 4;
+    activities of British traders on, 5-8;
+    cession of land on, secured by Pike, 7, 8;
+    treaties with Indians on, 12, 13;
+    proposed trading posts on, 17;
+    forts on, 18, 19;
+    fort located at junction of Minnesota River and, 27;
+    exploration of, by Cass, 28;
+    scenery along, 79, 80;
+    road along, 81;
+    Indian villages on, 83;
+    low water in, 86;
+    seizure of liquor on, 144;
+    first steamboat on upper, 159, 160;
+    attempt to find source of, 163;
+    discovery of source of, 167;
+    advertisements of trip on, 168, 169;
+    description of journey up, 169-175;
+    reasons for cession of land east of, 178, 179;
+    cession of land east of, 182-185, 192;
+    military reservation on, 193
+  Mississippi Valley, settlement of, 39;
+    erection of military posts in, 47;
+    work of missionaries in, 146;
+    opening of, to settlement, 185;
+    reference to, 200
+  Missouri, increase in population of, 15;
+    reference to, 66
+  Missouri, Territory of, 29, 32
+  Missouri Compromise, 66
+  Missouri Fur Company, murder of employees of, 113
+  Missouri Indians, 116
+  Missouri River, 2, 3, 6, 13, 21, 30, 37, 46, 56, 72, 107, 112, 113, 116,
+            135, 138, 148, 167, 205, 216, 230;
+    English traders on, 4;
+    Lewis and Clark expedition on, 4, 5;
+    treaties with Indians on, 12, 13;
+    forts on, 19, 20;
+    return of Sacs and Foxes from, 42;
+    removal of Indians to, 44
+  Modoc Indians, war with, 65
+  Molino del Rey, Battle of, death of Scott in, 60, 61, 62
+  Moncrief, W. T., 226
+  Monroe, James, 36, 49, 186, 236
+  _Monsieur Tonson_, 100
+  "Monsoon" (steamboat), 169
+  Montreal, activities of merchants of, 4
+  Moores, Hazen, 143
+  Morgan's Bluff, 89
+  Morrill, Mr., 50
+  Morse, Jedidiah, plan of, for civilizing Indians, 103, 118
+  Mud Lake, 125, 191
+  Mumford, Mr., 101
+  Murderers, surrender of, by Indians, 113;
+    killing of, by Chippewas, 122-124;
+    punishment of, 125, 126, 132
+  Murphy, R. G., 71, 145
+  Musick, Peter, killing of cattle of, 191
+  Musket flints, 77
+  Muskrat furs, exchange of, for liquor, 142
+  Muskrats, trapping of, 105
+  Mutinies, causes of, 91
+
+  Nadin, complaint of, 181
+  Nadoueseronoms, 119
+  Navajo Indians, expedition against, 64
+  Needles, purchase of, 88
+  Nelson River, 189
+  Neutral Ground, removal of Winnebagoes from, 47
+  New Mexico, 64
+  New Orleans, 56
+  New Ulm (Minnesota), 49
+  New York City, 56, 145, 172, 175;
+    draft riots in, 64
+  Niagara Falls, 55, 173
+  Nichols, R. C., building of Fort Armstrong by, 18
+  Nicollet, Jean, exploration by, 3
+  Nicollet, Joseph N., explorations by, 166, 167;
+    reference to, 180
+  Nine Mile River, 174
+  Nokay River, 48
+  North, Lords of, 54-72
+  North Dakota, 40
+  North West Company, activities of, 4;
+    traders of, 5;
+    extent of commerce of, 6;
+    reference to, 8, 9, 10, 244
+
+  Northern Pacific Survey, 46
+  Northwest, period of foreign rule in, 1-17;
+    reference to, 18;
+    importance of Fort Snelling in, 55, 118;
+    guardian of, 30;
+    work of missionaries in, 146-158;
+    coming of first steamboat to, 159, 160;
+    missionary bishop of, 169, 242;
+    part of Fort Snelling in development of, 199, 200;
+    meaning of term, 205
+
+  Oak Grove, mission at, 155
+  Oats, raising of, 95
+  O'Fallon, Benjamin, 16
+  Officer of the day, 85
+  Officers' Mess, 88
+  Officers' quarters, description of, 75;
+    fire in, 101
+  Officers' Training Camp, 53
+  "O. H. Perry" (keelboat), 33, 34
+  Ojibway Indians, home of, 103
+  Old Northwest, settlement of, 14;
+    reference to, 205
+  Oliphant, Laurence, 222
+  Oliver, Lieutenant, experiences of, 26
+  Orderly-room, 75
+  Ordnance, alleged lack of, 76;
+    stock of, 76, 77
+  Ordnance sergeant, quarters of, 75
+  Ordway, John, 206
+  Oregon treaty, 46
+  Orphan asylum, 118
+  Orphans, fund for relief of, 87
+  Osage Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Ottawa Indians, 177
+  Otter furs, exchange of, for liquor, 142
+  Otter Tail Lake, 37, 131
+  Otto, Helen, acknowledgments to, x
+
+  Pacific Coast, emigration to, 45;
+    necessity of railroad to, 46;
+    survey of route for railroad to, 46, 47
+  Pacific Northwest, 205
+  Page, Captain, 36
+  Painted rock, 175
+  Painters, 92
+  "Palmyra" (steamboat), 168
+  Paper, purchase of, 88
+  Papermakers, 92
+  Parade ground, 73;
+    sweeping of, 85
+  Parkman, Francis, 146
+  Parties, holding of, 100, 101
+  Pattern farms, 103
+  Patterson, Robert, visit of, to Fort Snelling, 164
+  Pawnee Indians, campaign against, 56
+  Paymaster, office of, 75
+  Peace conferences between Indians, 131
+  Peace pipe, 107;
+    smoking of, 126
+  Pelzer, Louis, vii
+  Pembina, hunting party from, 38;
+    expedition to, 39, 40, 45;
+    reference to, 140, 163
+  Pemmican, making of, 37
+  Peoria (Illinois), 99
+  Pepper, purchase of, 88
+  Perrot, Nicholas, 3
+  Perry, Abraham, 192
+  Perry, Mrs. Abraham, 193
+  Pe-she-ke, speech by, 183
+  Pettijohn, Eli, purchase made by, 88
+  Phelan, Edward, 190
+  Philadelphia, 161, 164
+  Physician at Fort Snelling, sketch of life of, 65, 66;
+    service of, to settlers, 190, 191
+  Piankashaw Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Picnic grounds, 82
+  Picnics, 96
+  Pike, Zebulon M., expedition under, 4;
+    activities of English traders investigated by, 5-8;
+    cession of land secured by, 7, 8;
+    reference to, 11, 22, 139, 146, 179, 192, 193;
+    promise made by, 17
+  Pike's Island, 187
+  Pillager band of Chippewas, treaty with, 45;
+    reference to, 179, 182
+  Pilot Knob, 80
+  Pine Bend, 86
+  Pine Coulie, 232
+  Pine timber, 172
+  Pinisha, 83
+  Pipestone quarry, trip to, 167
+  Pioneers, protection of, against Indians, 116;
+
+    coming of, 199
+    (see Settlers)
+  Pittsburgh, 160
+  Plattsburg, 57
+  Pleasures of soldiers, 96, 97
+  Plympton, J., 65, 125, 126, 192, 193
+  Poage, Sarah, 154
+  Poinsett, J. R., 194
+  Police guard, 85
+  Pond, Gideon, coming of, to Fort Snelling, 151;
+    work of, among Indians, 152-156
+  Pond, S. W., 72, 103;
+    coming of, to Fort Snelling, 151;
+    work of, among Indians, 152-156
+  Pontiac's conspiracy, 3
+  Pope, John, 215
+  Pork, 86;
+    ration of, 109;
+    giving of, to Indians, 110
+  Portage des Sioux, 17
+  Post fund, 87
+  Post school, 75;
+    fund for maintenance of, 87;
+    organization of, 101
+  Potatoes, raising of, 95
+  Potosi (Wisconsin), 170, 173
+  Pottawattamie Indians, 42, 177;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Poupon, Isadore, 230
+  Powder, stock of, 77
+  Poweshiek (Chief), 44
+  Prairie du Chien, 11, 16, 20, 21, 26, 32, 33, 34, 41, 58, 66, 92, 122,
+            140, 142, 149, 161, 164, 170, 172, 173, 181, 187, 195, 243,
+            246;
+    establishment of Fort Shelby at, 11, 12;
+    capture of, by British, 12;
+    round-about route to, 13;
+    Fort Crawford at, 18;
+    arrival of troops at, 22;
+    return of Leavenworth to, 24;
+    carrying of mail between Fort Snelling and, 97-99, 101;
+    treaty made at, in 1825, 130, 177, 178
+  Preemption, 192
+  Prescott, Philander, 212
+  Presents, giving of, to Indians, 13, 23, 107, 111
+  President of United States, 16
+  Prevost, George, 8
+  Prices, fixing of, 87
+  Prison, number of soldiers in, 91
+  Prisoners, guarding of, 85
+  Provencalle, Louis, 143
+  Provisions, distribution of, to Indians, 110;
+    character of, 213
+  Pump, 74
+  Punishments, character of, 90, 91
+  Puthuff, William H., 209
+
+  Quaife, Milo M., acknowledgments to, ix
+  Quarrels in garrison, 102
+  Quarrying, employment of soldiers at, 96
+  Quartermaster, trouble between physician and, 65, 66;
+    office of, 75
+  Quebec, 118, 208
+
+  Radisson, Pierre Esprit, exploration by, 3;
+    reference to, 119
+  Railroad, survey of route for, 46, 47
+  Rainville, Mr., 229
+  Raisins, purchase of, 88
+  Ramsey, Alexander, 36, 182;
+    treaty made by, 45;
+    council called by, 131, 132
+  Rations, character of, 85-87, 109;
+    reference to, 95;
+    issuance of, to Indians, 181, 182
+  Real estate speculation, 50
+  Reconnoitering, 85
+  Red Bird, hostility of Indians under, 33, 34
+  Red Bird War, 214
+  "Red Head," 108, 228
+  Red River carts, caravans of, 235, 236
+  Red River of the North, trading posts on, 4, 206;
+    reference to, 16, 49, 50, 103, 138, 151, 188, 205, 236;
+    difficulties with half-breeds from, 37-40;
+    expeditions to, 38-40, 162;
+    Lord Selkirk's colony on, 188
+  Red River Trail, 46
+  Red Wing (Chief), 92;
+    village of, 171, 172;
+    payment of annuities to Indians under, 185
+  _Regulations for the Army, General_, 84, 86
+
+  Renville, Daniel, 156
+  Renville, Joseph, 138, 191;
+    service of, as interpreter, 161
+  Renville, Rosalie, 156
+  Republicans, charges of graft made by, 51
+  _Reveille_, 84
+  Revival, success of, 156
+  Reynolds, Lieutenant, 86
+  Riggs, S. R., 144
+  Road to Fort Snelling, 73, 81
+  Robertson, Mr., work of, 155, 156
+  Robertson, Gustavus A., 156
+  Rock Island, building of fort on, 18;
+    garrison for fort on, 22;
+    reference to, 117
+  Rock River, hostility of Indians on, 12, 13
+  Rocky Mountains, 16
+  Roll call, 84, 85;
+    punishment for absence from, 90
+  Round Tower, Old, 72;
+    description of, 74
+  Routine duties, description of, 84, 85
+  Rum, 86;
+    evil effect of, 139
+  Rum River, 27, 101, 130;
+    battle on, 128
+  Runners, sending of, to Indian camps, 130
+  Rupel, J. B. F., 143
+  Ryerson, Private, purchases by, 88
+
+  Sabbath, respect of Indians for, 237
+  Sac Indians, hostility of, 13;
+    pursuit of, 35;
+    reference to, 205;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Sac and Fox Indians, 35, 42, 177;
+    return of, to Iowa, 42
+  St. Anthony (Minnesota), real estate speculation at, 50
+  St. Croix River, trading posts on, 6;
+    cession of land at mouth of, 8;
+    reference to, 126, 172, 174, 175, 180, 207
+  St. Joseph's, 10
+  St. Lawrence River, 205
+  St. Louis, 4, 5, 11, 22, 48, 56, 58, 69, 72, 120, 159, 162, 169, 170,
+            172, 213, 228;
+    troops from, 34;
+    bringing of supplies from, 86
+  St. Paul, 36, 46, 71, 216, 236;
+    real estate speculation at, 50;
+    founding of, 195, 196;
+    relations between fort and, 196-198
+  St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railroad Company, 235
+  St. Peter's, 170, 172, 173, 175, 206
+  St. Peter's agency, service of Taliaferro at, 68-71
+  St. Peter's River (see Minnesota River)
+  St. Vincent (Minnesota), 206
+  Salt, 86
+  Sandy Lake, trading post on, 6;
+    reference to, 114, 120, 180
+  Sanford, John F. A., Dred Scott bought by, 66
+  Santa Fe Trail, dangers on, 56
+  Sauk River, 133
+  Sault Ste. Marie, 119, 163
+  Saw mill, erection of, 27;
+    reference to, 82, 172
+  Saxton, Lieutenant, 46
+  Say, Thomas, 161, 162
+  Scalp dance, 123, 128, 131, 132
+  Scalps, taking of, 128
+  Scenery, description of, around Fort Snelling, 79, 80
+  School, organization of, 101
+  Schoolcraft, Henry R., statement by, 14;
+    reference to, 119, 130
+  Schools, success of, among Indians, 156
+  Scientific expeditions, 109
+  Scotland, 92;
+    immigrants from, 189
+  Scott, Dred, fugitive slave case of, 66
+  Scott, Martin, sketch of life of, 59-62
+  Scott, Winfield, naming of Fort Snelling suggested by, 29, 30;
+    reference to, 55
+  _Scott vs. Sanford_, 66
+  Scrub brush, purchase of, 88
+  Scurvy, ravages of, 26, 213
+  Second United States Infantry, 63
+  Secretary of War, 19, 103, 130, 149
+  Selkirk, Lord, colony of, 188, 189
+  Settlement, opening up country to, 184, 185
+
+  Settlements, protection for, 18
+  Settlers, annoyance of, by Indians, 42, 43;
+    desire of, for land cession, 178;
+    service of Fort Snelling to, 187-201;
+    disputes between Indians and, 191, 192;
+    memorial of, 192;
+    efforts to exclude from reservation, 192-195;
+    ejection of, 195, 246
+  Seymour, Samuel, 161
+  Shakopee (Minnesota), 83
+  Shakpay, 83
+  Shambaugh, Benj. F., introduction by, v;
+    acknowledgments to, vii, ix
+  Shapaydan, 83
+  Shaw, Mr., 22
+  Sherman, W. T., military career of, 63
+  Sheyenne River, 103, 138
+  Shields, James, 197
+  Shining Mountains, 3
+  Shipler, Jacob, 196
+  Shoemakers, 92
+  Shoes, purchase of, 88
+  Shot, stock of, 77
+  Sibley, General, 64
+  Sibley, Henry H., description by, 26, 27;
+    house of, 80;
+    hunting by, 96, 97;
+    reference to, 110, 145, 180, 213, 231, 239;
+    relations between officers of fort and, 139
+  Sibley House, 223
+  Sick, taking of, to hospital, 85
+  Sickness, prevalence of, among troops, 26, 213;
+    losses because of, 93;
+    help to Indians in case of, 111, 112
+  Sinclair, Mr., 245
+  Sioux Indians, early traders among, 3;
+    land at mouth of Minnesota ceded by, 7, 8;
+    visits of, to Drummond Island, 13, 14;
+    goods sent to, 22;
+    treaty between Chippewas and, 28;
+    unfriendliness of, 33;
+    part of, in Black Hawk War, 35;
+    hostility between half-breeds and, 37;
+    reference to, 48, 98, 101, 151, 158, 171, 177, 178, 179, 180, 184,
+            198, 205, 229, 231, 242;
+    concentration of, 49:
+    massacre by, 52, 83;
+    visit of, to Washington, 68;
+
+    villages of, 83;
+    home of, 103;
+    number of, 103, 104;
+    migrations of, to Canada, 106;
+    vaccination of, 112;
+    hostility of, 114;
+    disillusionment of, 115;
+    influence of Fort Snelling over, 116-118;
+    rumor of attack by, 117;
+    feuds between Chippewas and, 119-134;
+    killing of Chippewas by, 121, 125;
+    surrender of murderers by, 122, 125, 126;
+    battle between Chippewas and, 127, 128, 232;
+    boundary line between Chippewas and, 130, 131, 178;
+    imprisonment of, 132;
+    untrustworthiness of, 134;
+    temperance society among, 145;
+    farmer for, 155;
+    language of, 174;
+    delegation of, to Washington, 179;
+    treaty made by, 184, 247;
+    payment of annuities to, 185, 186;
+    amount of land ceded by, in 1805, 207
+  Sioux of the Lakes, treaty with, 208
+  Sioux of St. Peter's River, treaty with, 208
+  Sioux-Chippewa boundary line, 48
+  Sioux language, school books in, 156
+  Sisseton Sioux Indians, 113, 129, 228;
+    treaty with, 247
+  Sixth United States Infantry, company of, in Iowa, 44;
+    reference to, 48, 57, 63, 197;
+    frontier service of, 49
+  Skunk River, 42
+  Smallpox, efforts to check, 112
+  Smith, C. F., expedition under, 40;
+    site for fort recommended by, 49, 50
+  Smith, William R., 180
+  Smuggling of whiskey, 142, 143
+  Snelling, Josiah, building of fort by, 27, 28;
+    letter by, 28;
+    activities of, during Winnebago outbreak, 32-34;
+    reference to, 55, 96, 100, 102, 117, 132, 142, 163, 190;
+    sketch of life of, 56-59;
+    punishments inflicted by, 90;
+    description by, 113;
+    evil effects of liquor described by, 140, 141
+  Snelling, Mrs. Josiah, 100, 160
+
+  Snelling, William J., 102, 163
+  Soap, 86;
+    purchase of, 88
+  Social life, 99-102
+  Soiree, 101
+  Soldiers, building of fort by, 27;
+    surroundings of, at Fort Snelling, 73-83;
+    life of, at Fort Snelling, 84-102;
+    occupation of, 92;
+    birthplace of, 92;
+    journeys into Indian country enjoyed by, 93-95;
+    employments of, 95, 96;
+    pleasures of, 96, 97;
+    carrying of mail by, 97, 98;
+    social life among, 100-102;
+    quarrels among, 102;
+    dependence of missionaries on, 148;
+    revival among, 156;
+    church services for, 157;
+    expedition escorted by, 162, 163;
+    drunkenness among, 194;
+    arrival of, at Fort Snelling, 212;
+    ejection of settlers by, 246
+  Soup, character of, 86, 87
+  South Dakota, Indians in, 103
+  Southwest Company, 188
+  Spain, exploration of domain of, 1
+  Spanish, rule of, in West, 2, 3;
+    Indian trade won from, by English, 4
+  Speculators, desire of, for land cession, 178
+  Speeches, making of, by Indians, 181, 182
+  Split Upper Lip, 123
+  Spring, eagerness for coming of, 102;
+    activities of Indians in, 104, 105
+  Squad-rooms, 75
+  Squatters, huts of, 79
+    (see Settlers)
+  Starch, purchase of, 88
+  Stairway, 73
+  Stanton, Edwin M., 64
+  Steamboating, beginning of, on upper Mississippi, 159, 160
+  Steamboats, use of, to bring supplies, 86;
+    mail carried by, 97;
+    reference to, 159, 199;
+    advertisements of, 169;
+    attitude of Indians toward, 239, 240
+  Steele, Franklin, Fort Snelling reservation sold to, 51, 52;
+    adjustment with, 52;
+    home of, 79;
+    account books of, 87
+  Steen, Mr., 43, 44
+  Stevens, Isaac I., survey of route for railroad by, 46;
+    reference to, 217
+  Stevens, Jedediah I., coming of, to Fort Snelling, 149;
+    work of, among Indians, 154;
+    preaching by, 157
+  Stillwater (Minnesota), 197
+  Stockade, erection of, 25;
+    reference to, 73, 136
+  Store, purchase of goods at, 87-89
+  Storehouse, 75
+  Storer, William, 131
+  Stoves, use of, for heating, 99
+  Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 62
+  Straits of Mackinac, 21
+  Street, Joseph M., 149, 231
+  Strong Earth, complaint of, 121;
+    career of, 180
+  Strong Ground, career of, 180
+  Sugar, 86;
+    purchase of, 88
+  Sugar bush, 105
+  Summer, activities of Indians during, 105
+  Sumner, Edwin V., expedition under, 38
+  Superintendent of Indian Affairs, 67, 71
+  Supplies, character of, 26;
+    bringing of, to Fort Snelling, 86;
+    amount of, furnished to Indians, 182
+  Supreme Court of United States, 66
+  Surveyors, destruction of landmarks of, 42
+  Suspenders, purchase of, 88
+  Sutler, home of, 79;
+    purchase of goods from, 87-89;
+    service of Brown as, 190
+  Swan, 96
+  Swan River, 179
+  Switzerland, immigrants from, 172, 189
+
+  Taliaferro, Lawrence, 28, 35, 66, 72, 77, 78, 84, 89, 91, 98, 102, 103,
+            114, 116, 139, 140, 160, 167, 178, 179, 180, 184, 193, 221;
+    threat against, 33;
+    service of, as Indian agent, 68-71;
+    letters and papers of, 69, 70;
+
+    speech by, 108;
+    suffering of Indians relieved by, 109, 110;
+    visit of Indians to, 111;
+    aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112;
+    murderers demanded by, 113;
+    efforts of, to civilize Indians, 118;
+    difficulties of, with Sioux and Chippewas, 120-134;
+    traders' licenses granted by, 137, 138;
+    disagreement between Bailly and, 138, 139;
+    liquor laws enforced by, 142-144;
+    efforts of, to induce Indians to farm, 148-150;
+    cooeperation of, with missionaries, 149-158;
+    wedding ceremony performed by, 191;
+    service of, as mediator, 191, 192
+  Tatling, results of, 102
+  Tattoo, 85
+  Taylor, Zachary, service of, at Fort Snelling, 59
+  Tea party, 197
+  Teamsters, employment of soldiers as, 96
+  Temperance societies, 143, 145
+  Tennessee, settlement of, 14;
+    reference to, 15
+  Tenth United States Infantry, expedition of companies of, 40;
+    reference to, 63, 64
+  Tepees, repairing of, 105
+  Teton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 208
+  Theatrical performances, 100
+  Thespian Players, 100
+  Third Artillery, 63
+  Third United States Infantry, 19, 21
+  Thomas, Sergeant, 223
+  Throckmorton, Captain, 169
+  Timber, destruction of, 42
+  Timber lands, opening up of, 185
+  Tintatonwan village, 83
+  Tippecanoe, Battle of, 56
+  Toopunkah Zeze, killing of, 123, 124, 231
+  Tourist traffic, extent of, 168, 169
+  Tourists, increase in number of, 198
+    (see Travelers)
+  Traders, activities of, 3, 4;
+    regulation of activities of, 135-145;
+    granting of licenses to, 137, 138;
+    law suit begun by, 144;
+    opposition of, to farming, 150;
+    religious work among, 157, 158;
+    desire of, for treaty, 178, 179;
+    presence of, at council, 180;
+    speeches of Indians concerning, 181;
+    payment of debts to, 183, 184;
+    reference to, 187, 192;
+    location of, at Mendota, 188;
+    service of, 199
+  Trading companies, development of, 135;
+    profit of, 136
+  Trading house, 78, 79, 135
+  Trading houses, establishment of, 17;
+    protection for, 18;
+    cluster of, 80
+  Trading posts, location of, 6, 135, 136, 138;
+    permission for establishment of, 7;
+    reference to, 187, 188
+  Training camp, use of Fort Snelling as, 52, 53
+  Travelers, visits of, to Fort Snelling, 159-175
+  Traverse des Sioux, treaty of, 49, 247
+  Treaties, making of, with Indians, 12, 13, 28, 47, 48, 176-186,
+          208, 247;
+    making of, between tribes, 131, 132
+  Treaty of Ghent, terms of, 12, 18
+  Treaty of Paris (1783), 16
+  Trinkets, 136
+  Troops, proposed employment of, in mining, 25;
+    troubles of, during first winter, 25-27;
+    ravages of scurvy among, 26;
+    new camp for, 27;
+    service of, in protection of frontier, 31-53;
+    withdrawal of, from Fort Snelling, 52, 199
+    (also see Soldiers)
+  Truces, making of, between tribes, 131
+  Turkey River, removal of Winnebagoes from, 35, 36;
+    reference to, 47
+  Turner, F. J., 187
+  Tutor, service of Marsh as, 100, 101
+
+  _Uncle Tom's Cabin_, 62
+  United States, establishment of military posts by, 2;
+
+    agreement of, to make peace with Indians, 12;
+    northern boundary of, 16;
+    expansion of, 45, 46;
+    hostility of Indians to, 114;
+    relations of, with Indians, 176-178;
+    agreement of, with Chippewas, 184;
+    land ceded to, by Sioux in 1805, 207
+  Upper country, extent of, 2
+  Utah, 64
+
+  Vaccination of Indians, 112
+  Vail, J., 143
+  Valentine Ball, 197
+  "Valley Forge" (steamboat), 169
+  Van Antwerp, Ver Planck, 180
+  Van Cleve, Horatio P., 212
+  Van Cleve, Mrs., 231
+  Vancouver (Washington), 47
+  Vevay (Indiana), 190
+  Vinegar, 86
+  Vineyard, Miles, 179
+  Virginia, 70
+  "Virginia" (steamboat), trip of, up Mississippi River, 159, 160
+  Volga River, 41
+  Voyageurs, 136, 157, 188
+
+  Wabasha (Chief), 33, 117;
+    land sold by, 35;
+    meeting of couriers at village of, 98;
+    missionary at village of, 154;
+    village of, 171;
+    payment of annuities to Indians under, 185
+  Wabasha's Prairie, 35
+  Wahpakoota Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247
+  Wahpeton Sioux Indians, treaty with, 247
+  Wall around Fort Snelling, description of, 73, 74, 76
+  Wakh-pa-koo-tay, 243
+  Wakinyantanka, 83
+  Wamditanka, 83
+  Wapsipinicon River, 42
+  War Department, 19, 22, 39, 44, 160;
+    naming of Fort Snelling by, 29, 30;
+    attitude of, toward Fort Snelling, 31;
+    Indian affairs placed under control of, 67
+  War of 1812, English supported by Indians during, 8-12;
+    reference to, 18, 209;
+    service of Snelling during, 57;
+    service of Taliaferro in, 70
+  War parties, 106
+  Warfare, history of, between Sioux and Chippewas, 119-134
+  "Warrior" (steamboat), 151, 164
+  Warriors, desire of, to take part in council, 181
+  Washington, George, 168
+  Washington (Connecticut), 151
+  Washington, D. C., 46, 58, 62, 64, 98, 192;
+    visit of Indians to, 68, 115, 116, 179;
+    treaty with Sioux at, 184
+  Washington Monument Association, 197
+  Washington Territory, 46
+  Washington's birthday, celebration of, 100
+  Water power, 178
+  Weapons, stock of, 76, 77
+  Webb, James, journey of, to Fort Armstrong, 117
+  Webster, Daniel, statement by, 59
+  Weddings, 191
+  West, prediction of Carver concerning, 1, 2;
+    foreign jurisdictions in, 2, 3;
+    English supported by Indians in, 8-12;
+    rapid development of, 14;
+    cause of trouble in, 15;
+    influence of Fort Snelling in, 52;
+    service of Canby in, 65;
+    work of missionaries in, 146
+  West Point Military Academy, 62, 63, 100
+  Westward movement, 14, 15
+  Wheat, spoiling of, 86; raising of, 95
+  Wheeling (West Virginia), 161
+  Wheelwrights, 92
+  Whiskey, 86;
+    drinking of, by soldiers, 89;
+    efforts to suppress traffic in, 139-145;
+    smuggling of, 142, 143;
+    destruction of, 143, 144, 243;
+    traffic in, 194, 236
+  Whistler, Captain, 21, 211
+  White Head, 118
+  Whitney, Asa, 217
+
+  Whooping cough, epidemic of, 191
+  Widows, fund for relief of, 87
+  Wilcox, Captain, 32
+  Williams, Lieutenant, 99
+  Williamson, Thomas S., 110;
+    work of, among Indians, 154-157
+  Williamson, Mrs. Thomas S., 154
+  Wines, seizure of, 143;
+    giving of, to Indians, 144
+  Winnebago Indians, unwillingness of, to make treaty, 13;
+    attempt of, to delay troops, 21, 22;
+    outbreak of, 32-34;
+    removal of, to new reservation, 35-37, 48;
+    reference to, 41, 42, 177, 211, 236;
+    treaty with, 47;
+    new reservation for, 48;
+    disturbances among, 48, 49;
+    language of, 174
+  Winnebago War, 214
+  Winnipeg, 188
+  Winona (Minnesota), 35
+  Winter, difficulty in securing mail during, 97-99;
+    life at Fort Snelling during, 99-102;
+    life among Indians during, 104, 109, 110
+  Wisconsin, Nicollet in, 3;
+    Indian outbreak in, 32-34;
+    desire of Winnebagoes to return to, 36;
+    reference to, 168;
+    desire for land cession in, 178;
+    bishop of, 242
+  Wisconsin, Territory of, 32, 180;
+    marshal of, 195
+  Wisconsin Historical Society, 242
+  Wisconsin River, 19, 20, 34;
+    canal between Fox River and, 20
+  Women, social life of, at fort, 100-102
+  Wood, Doctor, aid given to sick Indians by, 111, 112
+  Wood, securing of, for fuel, 99
+  Woods, Samuel, expedition under, 38, 41-45;
+    reference to, 40;
+    fort established by, 44, 45
+  Wool, John E., 194
+  Wyandot Indians, treaty with, 208
+
+  Yankton Sioux Indians, half-breed killed by, 37;
+    treaty with, 208
+  Yeast powder, purchase of, 88
+  Yellowstone Expedition, 20;
+    failure of, 21
+  Yellowstone River, fort at mouth of, 19
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Note: There are a number of inconsistencies in spelling and
+hyphenation which are left as in the original, as they were
+copied directly from various sources, such as personal journals.
+
+Page 12, para, 3: Treaty of Ghent, 1914, changed to 1814.
+
+Page 13: 'Menominees' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 98: 'inteligence' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 101: 'great numbers of Dear--Our' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 113: 'afraid to die. the Murderer' as in original. Note: This
+writer/source doesn't capitalize normally.
+
+Page 128: Chippeways spelled as in original.
+
+Page 129: 'liveing' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 134: 'Chippeways' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 143: 'Societties' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 156: 'revival among the the soldiers, and' (Removed extra 'the').
+
+Page 170: 'a-head' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 172: 'The Sioux have winter & summer houses. The latter are
+conical made....' apparently refers to winter, even though the
+phrase is 'winter & summer'.
+
+Page 177: 'Menomonies' spelled as in original.
+
+Page 191: Falstrom also spelled Faustram on same page.
+
+Footnote 8: 'tradeing' spelled as in original.
+
+Footnote 8: 'visit us. he' as in original.
+
+Footnote 8: 'Mandens' spelled as in original.
+
+Footnote 27: 'massacreing' spelled as in original.
+
+Footnote 183: Part of year missing from original. Changed
+from '18 ' to '18__'.
+
+Index: Warfare, history of: Siuox changed to Sioux.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Old Fort Snelling, by Marcus L. Hansen
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