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diff --git a/old/22676-doc.doc b/old/22676-doc.doc Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..72a3d4e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/22676-doc.doc diff --git a/old/22676-doc.zip b/old/22676-doc.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4931f82 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/22676-doc.zip diff --git a/old/22676-pdf.pdf b/old/22676-pdf.pdf Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..00d5cfd --- /dev/null +++ b/old/22676-pdf.pdf diff --git a/old/22676-pdf.zip b/old/22676-pdf.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c6d84a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/22676-pdf.zip diff --git a/old/22676.txt b/old/22676.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd73b5a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/22676.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6336 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Volume 4, by +E. Benjamin Andrews + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History of the United States, Volume 4 + +Author: E. Benjamin Andrews + +Release Date: September 19, 2007 [EBook #22676] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED STATES *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kostuch + + + + + +[Transcriber's notes] + +[1862] indicate the following text covers this period, until the +next such appearance. + +Here are the definitions of some unfamiliar (to me) terms. + +abatis + Barricade of trees with sharpened branches directed toward an enemy. + +acclivities + Upward slope. + +carpet-baggers + Politicians who move to a place for an opportunity to promote their + career. + +comity + Courtesy; civility. Comity of nations: respect of one country for the + laws and institutions of another. Law: courts of one jurisdiction give + effect to the decisions of another. + +Lethe of death + River in Hades; drinking it caused forgetfulness. + +mare clausum + Navigable body of water under the jurisdiction of one nation and + closed to all others. Latin: mare, sea + clausum, closed. + +modus vivendi + Manner of living; way of life. Temporary agreement between contending + parties pending a final settlement. + +Ney + Michel Ney--Duke of Elchingen, 1769-1815, French revolutionary and + Napoleonic military leader; marshal of France 1805-15. + +parole + A written promise by a prisoner of war, that if released he will not + take up arms against his captors. + +redintegration + Restoration of a lost or injured part. Evocation of a state of mind + by the recurrence of the elements making up the original experience. + +scalawag + A native white Southerner who collaborated with the occupying forces + during Civil War Reconstruction for personal gain. + +spiles + Post used as a foundation; a pile. Wooden plug; bung. Spigot used in + taking sap from a tree. + +windrows + Row of leaves or snow heaped up by the wind; row of cut hay or grain + left to dry in a field before being bundled. + +[End transcriber's notes] + + + +[Illustration: Sculpture of a boat carrying several classical figures.] +Drawn by Will H. Low. +The World's Fair at Chicago. +Central Portion of MacMonnies Fountain--Effect of Electric Light. + + + +HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES + + + +FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PRESENT TIME + +BY +E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS +CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA +FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY + +With 650 Illustrations and Maps + + +VOLUME IV. + +NEW YORK +CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS +1912 + +COPYRIGHT, 1894 AND 1903, BY +CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS + +[Illustration: Scribner's logo.] + + + +CONTENTS + +PERIOD IV + +CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION + +(Continued) + +1860--1868 + + + +CHAPTER V. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY + +Three Great Lines of Campaign. +Confederate Posts in Kentucky. +Surrender of Fort Henry. +Siege of Fort Donelson. +Capture. +Kentucky Cleared of Armed Confederates. +Pope Captures Island No. 10. +Gunboat Fight. +Memphis Ours. +Battle of Pittsburg +Landing. +Defeat and Victory. +Farragut and Butler to New Orleans. +Battle. +Victory. +The Crescent City Won. +On to Vicksburg. +Iuka. +Corinth. +Grant's Masterly Strategy. +Sherman's Movements. +McClernand's. +Gunboats pass Vicksburg. +Capture of Jackson, Miss. +Battle of Champion's Hill. +Siege of Vicksburg. +Famine within. +The Surrender. + + +CHAPTER VI. THE WAR IN THE CENTRE + +Bragg Invades Kentucky. +Buell Saves Louisville. +Battle of Perryville. +Of Stone River. +Losses. +Chickamauga. +Thomas the "Rock of Chickamauga." +Grant to the Front. +Bragg's Movements. +Chattanooga. +The "Battle above the Clouds." +Capture of Missionary Ridge. +Bragg's Army Broken Up. +Grant Lieutenant-General. +Plan of Campaign for 1864-65. +Sherman's Army. +Skirmishes. +Kenesaw Mountain. +Johnston at Bay. +Hood in Command. +Assumes the Offensive. +Sherman in Atlanta. +Losses. +Hood to Alabama and Tennessee. +The March to the Sea. +Living on the Country. +Sherman at Savannah. +Hardee Evacuates. +A Christmas Gift. +The Blow to the Confederacy. +Thomas Crushes Hood. +Sherman Marches North. +Charleston Falls. +Columbia. +Johnston Routed at Bentonville. +Sherman Master of the Carolinas. +Johnston Surrenders. + + +CHAPTER VII. THE VIRGINIA CAMPAIGNS OF 1862--63 + +McClellan to Fortress Monroe. +Yorktown. +Williamsburg. +Fair Oaks. +Lee in Command. +McDowell Retained at Fredericksburg. +Lee Assumes the Offensive. +Gaines's Mill. +The Seven Days' Retreat. +Malvern Hill. +Union Army at Harrison's Landing. +Discouragement. +McClellan Leaves the Peninsula. +Pope's Advance on Richmond. +Retreat. +Jackson in his Rear. +Second Battle of Bull Run. +Pope Defeated. +Chantilly. +McClellan again Commander. +Lee in Maryland. +South Mountain. +Antietam. +Lee Escapes. +McClellan Removed and Burnside in Command. +Fredericksburg. +The Battle. +Hooker General-in-Chief. +Chancellorsville. +Flank Movement by Jackson. +Battle of May 3d. +Lee in Pennsylvania. +Convergence to Gettysburg. +First Day's Battle. +Second Day. +Third. +Pickett's Charge. +Failure. +Lee Escapes. +Significance of this Battle. + + +CHAPTER VIII. COLLAPSE OF THE CONFEDERACY + +Grant Comes East. +Battle of the Wilderness. +Flanking. +Spottsylvania. +The "Bloody Angle." +Butler "Bottled Up" at Bermuda. +Grant at the North Anna. +At Cold Harbor. +Change of Base to the James. +Siege of Petersburg. +The Mine. +Washington in Peril. +Operations in Shenandoah Valley. +"Sheridan's Ride." +Further Work at Petersburg. +Distress at the South. +Lee's Problem. +Battle at Five Forks. +Blue-coats in Petersburg. +Davis and his Government Leave Richmond. +Union Army Enters. +Grant Pursues Lee. +The Surrender. +Assassination of President Lincoln. +Johnston Grounds Arms. +Capture of Jefferson Davis. + + +CHAPTER IX. THE WAR ON THE SEA + +Classification of Naval Deeds. +Our Navy when the War Began. +Enlargement. +Blockading. +Difficulty and Success. +Alternate Tediousness and Excitement. +Blockade-running Tactics. +Expeditions to Aid the Blockade. +To Port Royal. +To Roanoke Island. +Confederate Navy. +The Merrimac. +Sinks the Cumberland, Burns the Congress. +Monitor and Merrimac. +An Era in Naval Architecture and Warfare. +Operations before Charleston. +The Atlanta. +The Albemarle. +Blown Up by Cushing. +Farragut in Mobile Harbor. +Fort Fisher Taken. +Southern Cruisers upon the High Seas. +Destructive. +The Sumter. +The Alabama. +Her Career. +Fights the Kearsarge. +Sinks. + + +CHAPTER X. FOREIGN RELATIONS. FINANCE. EMANCIPATION. + +Views of the War Abroad. +England's Hostility. +Causes. +The Trent Affair. +Seward's Reasoning. +Great Britain's Breach of Neutrality. +Louis Napoleon's Hypocrisy. +Invasion of Mexico. +Maximilian. +War Expenditure. +How Met. +Duties. +Internal Revenue. +Loans. +Bonds. +Treasury Notes. +Treasurer's Report, July 1, 1865. +Errors of War Financiering. +Confederate Finances. +High Prices at South. +Problem of the Slave in Union Lines. +"Contraband of War." +Rendition by United States Officers. +Arguments for Emancipation. +Congressional Legislation. +Abolition in District of Columbia. +Negro Soldiers. +Preliminary Proclamation. +Final Effects. +Mr. Lincoln's Difficulties. +Republican Opposition. +Abolitionist. +Democratic. +Copperhead. +Yet he is Re-elected. + + +CHAPTER XI. RECONSTRUCTION + +Delicacy of the Task. +Reasons. +The Main Constitutional Question. +Different Views. +The Other Questions. +Answer. +Periods of Reconstruction. +During War. +President Lincoln. +Johnson. +His Policy. +Carried Out. +Congress Rips up his Work. +Why. +South's Attitude just after War. +Toward Negroes. +XIVth Amendment. +Rejected by Southern States. +Iron Law of 1867. +Carried through. +Antagonism between President Johnson and Congress. +Attempt to Impeach Johnson. +Fails. + + + +PERIOD V + + +THE CEMENTED UNION + +1868-1888 + + +CHAPTER I. POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE LAST TWO DECADES + +Grant's First Election. +His Work During Reconstruction. +Its Difficulty. +Bayonet Rule in the South. +The Force Act. +Danger to State Independence. +"Liberal Republican" Movement. +The Greeley Campaign, 1872. +Grant again Elected. +Fresh Turmoil at the South. +Culminates in Louisiana. +Blood Shed. +The Kellogg Government Sustained in that State. +A Solid South. +The Election of 1876. +In Doubt. +The Returns. +The Electoral Commission of 1877. +Hayes Seated. +The Electoral Count Act, 1886. +Hayes's Administration. +End of the Bayonet Regime. +Garfield's Nomination. +And Election. +And Assassination. +The Guiteau Trial. +Civil Service Reform. +Under Grant. +Under Hayes. +Need of it. +Credit Mobilier Scandal. +The Pendleton Act Passed. +Its Nature and Operation. +Recovery of Power by the Democracy. +Election of Cleveland. +The Civil Service. +Presidential Succession Act of 1886. +Its Necessity. +And Provisions. + + +CHAPTER II. THE TREATY OF WASHINGTON. 237 + +A Shining Instance of Peaceful International Methods. +Earlier Negotiations. +"ALABAMA CLAIMS" Insisted on. +A Joint Commission. +Its Personnel. +A Treaty Drafted and Ratified. +Its Provisions. +Northwest Boundary Question. +Minor Claims. +The Alabama Claims. +Geneva Tribunal. +Personnel. +No Pay for Indirect Losses. +Importance of the Case. +The Three Rules of the Washington Treaty. +Position of Great Britain Relative to These. +Their Meaning. +An Advance in International Law. +The Other Cruisers. +The Award. +Charles Francis Adams. +The Money Paid. +Its History. + + +CHAPTER III. THE FISHERIES DISPUTE. + +Fishery Clause of the Treaty of 1783. +Value of the Rights it Conveyed. +Effect of War of 1812. +Convention of 1818. +Its Fateful Provisions. +Troubles in Consequence. +The Reciprocity of 1854. +Repeal in 1865. +New Troubles. +Reciprocity by Treaty of Washington, from 1871. +Repealed in 1885. +Why +Friction in 1886. +Strict Enforcement by Canada of Convention of 1818. +Severities. +Their Animus. +Pleas of the United States Government. +Threat of Retaliation. +Commission to Draft New Treaty. +Indecisive Result. +Northwestern Fisheries Question Settled. + + +CHAPTER IV. THE SOUTH. + +The Results of Congressional Reconstruction. +Restoration of White Rule. +Ku-Klux-Klan. +Improvement. +Loyalty at the South. +Prosperity. +Cotton. +Manufacturing. +Iron. +Marble. +Southern Cities. +Country Parts. +State of Florida. + + +CHAPTER V. THE WEST. + +New States and Territories. +Alaska. +Its Resources. +Both Sides of the Rockies Filling Up. +Pacific Railways. +Colorado. +California. +Great American Desert. +Tabular View of the West's Growth. +Western Cities. +Minnesota. +St. Paul, Minneapolis, Duluth. +Duluth and Chicago. +Statistics of Immigration. + + +CHAPTER VI. THE EXPOSITION OF 1876. + +Origin of the Plan. +Organization. +Financial Basis. +Conclusion to Make it a World Affair. +To be at Philadelphia. +Building. +Opening Exercises. +The Main Building. +Arrangement and Contents. +The American Exhibit. +Machinery Hall. +The Corliss Engine. +Agricultural Hall. +Memorial Hall. +The Art Exhibit. +Horticultural Hall. +Minor Arrangements and Structures. +The Fourth of July Celebration. +Original Copy of the Declaration of Independence Read. +Interest in the Philadelphia Exposition. + + +CHAPTER VII. ECONOMIC POLITICS + +Reduction of National Debt. +Refunding. +Surplus. +Tariff. +Its History since the War. +Policy of the Political Parties. +Tariffs of 1890 and 1894. +Trusts. +The Dollar of the Fathers. +Resumption of Specie Payments. +The Promissory Greenback. +Fiat Greenback Theory. +And Party. +Great Strike of 1877. +Labor Movement and Labor Question. +Corporations. +Their Evil Influence. +Counter-organizations. +Growth of our Urban Population. + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE MARCH OF INDUSTRY. + +Progress in Cotton Manufacturing. +In Woollen, Iron, and Other. +In Travel. +New Submarine Cables. +First Pacific Railway. +Others. +Consolidation of Railways. +Electric Lighting. +Brooklyn Bridge. +Elevated Railways and New Modes of Surface Traction. +Telephone. +Black Friday. +Chicago Fire. +Boston Fire. +Hard Times of 1873. +Material Betterment for Last Two Decades. + + +CHAPTER IX. END OF THE PERIOD. + +Contrast of New Things with Old. +Postal Arrangements. +Art. +Extension of Suffrage. +Woman's Rights. +Higher Education for Women. +Socialism and State Socialism. +Widened Scope of Governmental Action. +Restriction of Immigration. +Catholics. +Their Attitude to Public Schools. +Peril to Family. +Mormonism. +Divorce. +Danger from a Secular Spirit. +New Sense of Nationality. +Benign Results. +Greely Expedition to Polar Regions. +Lesson of our National Success to Other Nations. +Our Nation's Duty in World Affairs. + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +THE WORLD'S FAIR AT CHICAGO. CENTRAL PORTION OF MACMONNIES +FOUNTAIN--EFFECT OF ELECTRIC LIGHT. + +GENERAL JOHN POPE. + +GENERAL WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. + +THE BATTLE OF THE RAMS AT MEMPHIS, JUNE 6, 1862. + +FARRAGUT IN THE MAIN-RIGGING. (From the original by William Page). + +GENERAL HENRY W. HALLECK. + +GENERAL WILLIAM S. ROSECRANS. + +GENERAL GEORGE H. THOMAS. + +GENERAL JOSEPH HOOKER. + +THE BATTLE OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. (The "Battle above the Clouds "). + +GENERAL JAMES B. McPHERSON. + +GENERAL DAVID D. PORTER. + +GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. + +GENERAL NATHANIEL P. BANKS. + +GENERAL J. E. B. STUART'S RAID UPON POPE'S HEADQUARTERS. + +AUGUST 22, 1862, WHEN POPE'S DESPATCH-BOOK FELL INTO THE HANDS OF THE +CONFEDERATES. + +GENERAL THOMAS J. ("STONEWALL") JACKSON. + +GENERAL EDWIN V. SUMNER. + +GENERAL WINFIELD S. HANCOCK. + +GENERAL AMBROSE E. BURNSIDE. + +THE STONE WALL AT FREDERICKSBURG. + +GENERAL OLIVER O. HOWARD. + +GENERAL JOHN SEDGWICK. + +GENERAL JAMES LONGSTREET. + +GENERAL GEORGE G. MEADE. + +DEATH OF GENERAL SEDGWICK AT SPOTTSYLVANIA, MAY 9, 1864. + +GENERAL DAVID HUNTER. + +GENERAL LEE SIGNING THE TERMS OF SURRENDER AT APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE. + +GIDEON WELLES. + +THE SINKING OF THE FRIGATE CUMBERLAND BY THE MERRIMAC IN HAMPTON ROADS, +MARCH 8, 1862. + +JOHN ERICSSON. + +SECTIONAL VIEW OF MONITOR THROUGH TURRET AND PILOT-HOUSE. + +THE ORIGINAL MONITOR. + +THE SINKING OF THE ALABAMA. + +THE LANDING OF THE ALLIED TROOPS AT VERA CRUZ. + +MAXIMILIAN WATCHING THE DEPARTURE OF THE LAST FRENCH TROOPS FROM THE +CITY OF MEXICO. + +SALMON PORTLAND CHASE, SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY DURING THE CIVIL WAR. + +FACSIMILE OF A PORTION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN'S DRAFT OF THE PRELIMINARY +PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION, SEPTEMBER, 1862. (From the original in the +Library of the State of New York, Albany). + +EDWIN M. STANTON. + +ULYSSES S. GRANT. + +SAMUEL J. TILDEN. (After a pastel by Sarony in the house at Gramercy Park). + +JAMES A. GARFIELD. + +JAMES G. BLAINE. + +PRESIDENT GROVER CLEVELAND. + +A FACSIMILE PUT IN EVIDENCE BEFORE THE CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEE. + +THE MOUTH OF THE MIAMI RIVER, FLORIDA. + +THE SITE OF CHICAGO. + +AN OHIO RIVER FLAT-BOAT. + +AN IRRIGATED ORANGE GROVE AT RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA. + +THE IRRIGATING RESERVOIR AT WALNUT GROVE, ARIZONA, SHOWING THE +ARTIFICIAL LAKE PARTLY FILLED. + +AT THE CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876. + +THE AMERICAN LINE STEAMSHIP ST. LOUIS, LAUNCHED FROM THE CRAMPS DOCKS, +NOVEMBER 12, 1894. (554 feet long, 11,000 tons, and 20,000 horse-power). + +CORNELIUS VANDERBILT. + +THE BIG LOOP ON THE GEORGETOWN BRANCH OF THE UNION PACIFIC, COLORADO. + +CHARLES F. BRUSH. + +MOSES G. FARMER. + +THOMAS A. EDISON. + +THE HOOSAC TUNNEL LIT BY GLOW LAMPS, AFTER THE PLAN OF THE MARR +CONSTRUCTION COMPANY. + +EDISON'S PLATINUM LAMP ON CARBON SUPPORT, 1879. + +EDISON'S PAPER CARBON LAMP. + +EDISON'S FIRST INCANDESCENT PLATINUM LAMP. + +THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE, LOOKING UP THE EAST RIVER. + +THE MANHATTAN ELEVATED RAILWAY, NEW YORK. + +UNDER SIDE OF A MODERN SWITCHBOARD, SHOWING 2,000 TELEGRAPH WIRES. + +PROFESSOR BELL SENDING THE FIRST MESSAGE, BY LONG-DISTANCE TELEPHONE, +FROM NEW YORK TO CHICAGO. + +THE NEW YORK GOLD ROOM ON "BLACK FRIDAY," SEPTEMBER 24,1869. + +A SCENE DURING THE CHICAGO FIRE. + +CATCHING THE MAIL POUCH FROM THE CRANE. + +IGLOOS, OR ESQUIMAU HUTS. + +A. W. GREELY. + + + +LIST OF MAPS + +THE CONFEDERATE LINE FROM COLUMBUS TO BOWLING GREEN. + +FORT HENRY. + +FORT DONELSON. + +NEW MADRID AND ISLAND NUMBER TEN. + +MEMPHIS TO IUKA, 1862. + +OPERATIONS IN LOUISIANA. FEBRUARY TO JULY, 1863. + +ATLANTA TO SAVANNAH. + +THE BATTLE-FIELD OF NASHVILLE. + +MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA. + +JACKSON'S ATTACK ON HOWARD, MAY 1, 1863. + +DIAGRAM OF THE ATTACK ON SICKLES AND SYKES. + +THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY. + +GENERAL EARLY'S MARYLAND CAMPAIGN. + +GRANT'S PURSUIT OF LEE, APRIL, 1865. + +MAP OF HAMPTON ROADS. + + + +PERIOD IV. + +CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION +(Continued) + +1860-1868 + +CHAPTER V. + +THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY + +The North conducted the war upon three great lines of campaign: 1. The +Western campaigns, to clear the Mississippi River and thus divide the +Confederacy. 2. The campaigns in the centre, to reach the sea at Mobile, +Savannah, or Charleston, cutting the Confederacy a second time. 3. The +Eastern campaigns, to take Richmond, and capture or destroy the main +Confederate army, ending the Confederacy. This chapter deals with the +Western campaigns alone. + +[1862] + +The opening of 1862 found the Confederates in possession of a strong +line across the southern portion of Western Kentucky, stretching from +Bowling Green, near the centre of the State, to Columbus on the +Mississippi. The two gates of this line were Forts Henry and Donelson, +on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, respectively, just over the +Tennessee border. If these forts could be taken the Confederates must +give up Kentucky. + + +[Illustration: Map of western Kentucky.] +The Confederate Line from Columbus to Bowling Green. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Fort Henry. + + +On February 6th, after a two hours' bombardment, Fort Henry surrendered +to General Grant, who had come up the river from Cairo with 17,000 +troops, and with seven gunboats commanded by Commodore Foote. Most of +the garrison, about 3,000, had been sent off before the fleet opened +fire, General Tilghman foreseeing that he could not hold the fort. The +land forces arrived too late to cut off their retreat, and they escaped +safely to Fort Donelson, some dozen miles to the east. + +Grant marched at once to invest Donelson, and sat down before it on the +12th with 15,000 men. The stronghold stood upon a bluff 100 feet high. +On the east it was protected by the Cumberland River; on the north and +south by two flooded creeks. Along a crest back of the fort a mile or +two ran a semicircular line of rifle-pits, with abatis in front. Nine +batteries were posted at various points along the line. Donelson was +garrisoned by 20,000 men under Generals Floyd, Pillow, and Buckner, who +quietly looked on while Grant's smaller army hemmed them in. On the 14th +the gunboats opened fire upon the water batteries between fort and +river. Commodore Foote steamed up boldly within 400 yards and pounded +the opposing works with his heavy guns. He did little damage, however, +while the Confederate fire proved very effective against him. His +flag-ship, the Hartford, was struck fifty-nine times. A shot crashed +into the pilothouse, destroying the wheel and wounding Foote himself. +The boat became unmanageable and drifted down-stream. A shot cut the +tiller-ropes of the Louisville. The other boats were also considerably +damaged, and after an action of an hour and a half, the entire fleet +withdrew. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Fort Donelson. + + +But Grant's army had been re-enforced to 27,000. Three divisions, under +Smith, Wallace, and McClernand, stretched in a semicircle about Donelson +from north to south. On the night of the 14th the Confederate generals +held a consultation, and decided to try cutting their way out. Most of +the troops were withdrawn from the rifle-pits during the night, and +massed on the Union right. The weather had suddenly turned frosty, and +the Union men, without tents or camp-fires, many even without blankets, +shivered all night in the intense cold. Before dawn the attacking column +from inside, 10,000 strong, rushed through the woods and fell upon +McClernand's division, which formed the Union right. For hours the woods +rang with musketry and the southern yell. Slowly the Confederates drove +the Unionists before them and gained the road running south to +Charlotte, opening to themselves the way of escape. + +This, however, they had not yet utilized, when, about one o'clock, +General Grant, who had been aboard the fleet consulting with Commodore +Foote, came upon the field. Learning that the foe had begun to fight +with full haversacks, he instantly divined that they were trying to make +their escape, and inferred that their forces had been mostly withdrawn +from opposite the Union left to make this attack against the right. +General Smith was therefore instantly ordered to fall upon the +Confederate right. As Grant had surmised, the intrenchments there were +easily carried. Meanwhile the demoralized soldiers of the Union right +and centre rallied, and drove the Confederates back to their +intrenchments. At daybreak Buckner sent to Grant for terms of +capitulation. "No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can +be accepted: I propose to move immediately upon your works," was the +answer. The resolute words rang through the North, carrying big hope in +their remotest echo. Donelson surrendered. Floyd and Pillow had sneaked +away during the night, the former monopolizing the few boats to +transport his own brigade. Fifteen thousand troops remained and were +taken prisoners. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General John Pope. + + +The capture of Henry and Donelson necessitated the evacuation of Bowling +Green and Columbus. Kentucky was now clear of Confederates, and the +Mississippi open down to Island Number Ten. This island lay in a bend of +the river at the extreme northwestern corner of Tennessee. The great +stream here runs northwest for a dozen miles, then sharply turns to the +south again. New Madrid stands at this northern bend. It was protected +by Confederate fortifications and gunboats. Early in March, General +Halleck, now at the head of the Western Department, sent General Pope +against New Madrid with 20,000 men. The enemy fled to Island Number Ten, +leaving thirty-three guns, besides ammunition and many tents. + +Island Number Ten was strongly fortified. Commodore Foote came down the +river with seventeen gunboats, and on March 16th began a bombardment +which was kept up for three weeks with little effect; but early in April +Pope got upon the Tennessee shore, in the undefended rear of the island, +and by intercepting its communication to the south, forced it to +surrender, April 8th. Seven thousand prisoners, one hundred heavy siege +guns, several thousand small arms, besides large stores of ammunition +and supplies, were thus secured, without the loss of a single Union +soldier. This exploit brought to Pope great fame. + +Pope now descended the river to Fort Pillow, 100 miles below, which he +prepared to take. He was just then transferred by Halleck to another +field, and the reduction of Pillow left to the gunboats. Pillow was +abandoned June 4th. The Union flotilla, increased by four rams, now ran +down the river to Memphis, where, on June 6th, in the presence of +thousands of spectators upon the bluffs, it fought a battle with a +southern fleet. Seven of the Confederate boats were destroyed, and the +next day Memphis surrendered. + +After the fall of Donelson the Confederates began concentrating their +forces at Corinth, in the northeast corner of Mississippi. Meanwhile the +Army of the Tennessee, under orders from Halleck, had moved up the +Tennessee River, and encamped, some 40,000 strong, at Pittsburg Landing +on the Tennessee River, 25 miles north of Corinth. Here Grant, who had +been temporarily removed, took command again on March 17th. Buell, with +40,000 men, was on the march thither from Central Tennessee. The +Confederate generals at Corinth, Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard, +wisely determined to strike Grant before Buell arrived. There ensued the +greatest battle which had up to that time shaken the solid ground of +this continent. +[footnote: Indifferently called the battle of Shiloh or the battle of +Pittsburg Landing.] + + +[Illustration: Map.] +New Madrid and Island Number Ten. + + +About six o'clock on the morning of April 6th the Confederates burst +through the thick woods upon the Union pickets and drove them in. It was +at least partially a surprise. Grant in person was nine miles down the +river. The Union officers hastily got their men into line, as the +attacking columns came sweeping in after the pickets. Three of the five +Union divisions were raw recruits, many of whom fled at the first fire. +Some colonels led their entire regiments off the field. Later in the day +Grant saw 4,000 or 5,000 of these runaways cowering under the shelter of +the bluffs. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General William T. Sherman. + + +But the bulk of the army made a stubborn resistance. General W. T. +Sherman, then comparatively unknown, inspired his division of raw troops +with his own intelligent courage. Their gallant and protracted fight +around the Shiloh log church made them the heroes of the day. But the +Confederates' onset was impetuous. Step by step they forced their +opponents back through the heavy woods, and by noon stood in possession +of the Union camps; Grant's army, badly shattered, being cooped up in a +narrow space along the edge of the river. + +The tide now turned. About two o'clock, General Johnston was killed, and +the Confederate advance flagged. Between the two armies lay a deep +ravine. Grant planted some fifty guns upon the edge, and two of the +gunboats took positions where they could rake the ravine. By these +dispositions Beauregard's advance was stayed. Night fell, and +hostilities ceased. + +Fortunately, 22,000 of Buell's men arrived during the night, and next +morning Grant ordered an advance. Beauregard made as desperate a +resistance as he could, seeing that his heavy losses the day before had +left him but 30,000 troops fit for duty. Buell's men showed the effects +of long training under that matchless disciplinarian, and fought +splendidly. The enemy were steadily pushed back, until more than all the +ground lost on the preceding day had been triumphantly regained, and the +battle of Pittsburg Landing, from being for the Union side a defeat +accomplished and a surrender threatened, was turned into a bright and +inspiring victory. Beauregard ordered a retreat, and, not being pursued, +regained his old position at Corinth. He had lost about 10,000 men. Our +loss was 12,000, including four regiments taken prisoners. The battle +was a severe check to both sides. + + +[Illustration: Several ships, one in the foreground listing; smoke +covers the sky.] +A.R. Ward H.R. Hall, JR. +The Battle of the Rams at Memphis, June 6, 1862. + + +On February 2d the largest fleet that had ever sailed under the American +flag left Fortress Monroe for the mouth of the Mississippi, commanded by +Commodore Farragut. It consisted of 16 gunboats, 21 mortar-schooners, +six sloops of war, and five other vessels. Fifteen thousand land troops, +under General Butler, soon followed. Thirty miles below New Orleans +Forts Jackson and St. Philip, mounting 100 guns, frowned at each other +across the Mississippi. Farragut's fleet sailed up the river and the +mortar-schooners were moored to the banks within range of the forts. +Boughs were tied to the top-masts so that the enemy could not +distinguish them from the trees along the shore. April 18th the mortars +began shelling the forts. An incessant fire was kept up night and day, +for six days, till nearly 6,000 shells had been thrown. + +[Illustration: Map.] +Memphis to Iuka. 1862. + + +As the forts sustained little damage, Farragut decided to run the +batteries. A gunboat stole up by night and cut the boom of hulks chained +together, which crossed the river just below the forts. Some of the +boats were rubbed over with mud to make them invisible, and chain cables +hung over the sides to protect the engines. About half past two in the +night of April 23d the fleet moved up the river through the gap in the +boom. The enemy, on the alert, launched fire-rafts and lit bonfires to +lift the cover of night. Old Jackson and St. Philip poured a hot fire +into the fleet as vessel after vessel slowly steamed past, answering +with its most spiteful broadsides. + +But the Union craft had more than the forts against them. Once past the +boom they were in the midst of a hostile fleet of fifteen vessels, +including a dangerous ironclad ram. A fierce water-fight followed. The +Union Varuna was sunk; the flag-ship Hartford set on fire by one of the +fire-rafts. The flames, however, were soon put out. Other vessels were +disabled. But every one of the Confederate ships was captured or +destroyed, and Jackson and St. Philip had to surrender. Farragut then +sailed up the river and took possession of New Orleans without +resistance. Butler at once occupied the city with his troops, and the +Stars and Stripes again waved over the Crescent City. Since that +eventful day New Orleans has never been in disunionist hands. + +After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Halleck himself came down from +St. Louis, and took the reins. Grant was nominally in command under him, +but had next to nothing to do. Re-enforced by 25,000 men under Pope, +Halleck slowly advanced toward Corinth, entering the place May 30th, +Beauregard having evacuated it May 29th. A few Quaker guns--logs mounted +on wagon-wheels--were the only trophies. Halleck now had 110,000 +effectives, Beauregard less than 60,000. Halleck lay inactive at Corinth +for six weeks, when he was summoned to Washington as General-in-Chief. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Farragut in the Main-Rigging. +From the original by William Page. + + +Grant once more took command of the forces about Corinth, which +re-enforcements to Eastern Tennessee soon reduced to 42,000. With these +he was expected to guard 200 miles of railroad, from Memphis to Decatur +in Northern Alabama. The Confederates under Van Dorn and Price attempted +to regain Corinth, but in the battles of Iuka, September 19th, and +Corinth, October 3d and 4th, were repulsed with heavy losses. Grant then +took the offensive. Vicksburg, about half-way from north to south on +Mississippi's western boundary, was the only stronghold left to the +Confederates on the great river. Its capture would ideally complete the +western campaign. Grant's plan was for Sherman to descend the river from +Memphis, while he himself simultaneously attacked Vicksburg by land. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Henry W. Halleck. + + +[1863] + +So long as the stout-hearted general continued his march south all his +supplies had to be brought over the Mississippi Central Railroad from +Holly Springs, near the Tennessee border. A troop of 3,500 Confederate +cavalry, making a long detour around his army, swooped down upon Holly +Springs, December 20th, captured the garrison of 1,300 men, and +destroyed all the stores, valued at $2,000,000. For two weeks the Union +army had to live from the enemy's country, and then after all to fall +back to Holly Springs. Meanwhile Sherman, ignorant of his superior's ill +fortune, descended the Mississippi, and with a force of 30,000 made +during the last days of the year an unsuccessful attack upon Vicksburg. + +Very early in January, 1863, McClernand arrived near Vicksburg with +re-enforcements. The last of the month, Grant, who had given up the land +expedition, took command in person. Sherman's repulse had shown that +Vicksburg could not be taken from the water side. A position must be +gained in the rear. This seemed, and indeed proved, an almost impossible +task. The Mississippi was unusually high, and the surrounding country a +vast network of bayous and swamps. The winter passed away in fruitless +labors to make some sort of a water passage to the rear of Vicksburg, +either above, via the Yazoo, or around through Louisiana to some point +below the city, whence the army could cross again to the Vicksburg side +of the Mississippi and strike Pemberton's stronghold from the southeast. +In most of these attempts Grant himself had little faith, but the army +was better at work than idle. At last he resolved, without attempting a +regular canal, partly by land but utilizing bayous and creeks as he +could, to swing his army across west of the river to New Carthage, south +of Vicksburg, run the Vicksburg batteries with the fleet, and, uniting +his land and water forces in the capture of Grand Gulf, to gain the rear +of Vicksburg by way of the Big Black River. It was a bold plan, but it +succeeded. + +In April, by building corduroy roads through miles of swamp and bridging +numberless bayous, the general succeeded in reaching New Carthage, some +twenty miles south of Vicksburg, with a good part of his land forces. On +the night of April 16th, the gunboats and provision transports ran the +gauntlet of Vicksburg's guns with little damage. The last of the month a +landing was effected just below Grand Gulf, on the east bank, fifteen or +twenty miles still farther south of Vicksburg. The enemy made some +resistance, but were driven back. + +Grant's position was now full of peril. He was in the heart of the +enemy's country. Pemberton was occupying Jackson and Vicksburg with +50,000 men. General Joseph E. Johnston was hurrying to his aid with +re-enforcements. Grant's forces available for an advance about equalled +Pemberton's. A bold policy was the only safe one. Taking five days' +rations, he cut loose from his base at Grand Gulf and marched north to +attack Pemberton before Johnston could join him. Jackson, forty-four +miles to the east of Vicksburg, was easily captured, May 14th. Grant had +thus thrust himself in between Johnston and Pemberton. Turning to the +left he smote Pemberton a heavy blow at Champion's Hill on the 16th, and +drove him into Vicksburg. Johnston fell back baffled. In eighteen days +Grant had marched 200 miles, defeated the enemy in four engagements, +inflicting a loss of 8,000 and taking 88 guns, and shut up a large army +in Vicksburg--all this upon five days' rations. It is a brilliant +record, equalled, if at all, only by some of Napoleon's campaigns. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Operations in Louisiana. February to July, 1863. + + +The bold commander now transferred his base of supplies to the Yazoo +River, which runs into the Mississippi a few miles above Vicksburg. +After an unsuccessful assault upon the city's strong intrenchments, he +sat down to a deliberate siege. Twelve miles of trenches were +constructed. Eighty-nine batteries, with more than 200 guns, day after +day rained shot and shell against the Vicksburg fortifications. The +lines of investment crept nearer and nearer the fated city. The pickets +chaffed with each other, and exchanged tobacco and newspapers. June +25th, a mine was exploded under one of the Vicksburg parapets, but it +made no effectual breach. A second explosion, July 1st, was equally +unavailing. Johnston kept menacing the rear, but feared to attack, as +Grant had been re-enforced to 60,000. + +Famine began to threaten the city, Porter's fleet blockading the water +front. Flour sold for $1,000 a barrel in Confederate money. Mule flesh +became the chief meat. Rats were hung up for sale in the market. The +inhabitants sought protection from the shells in cellars and caves. +Cave-digging became a regular business. The Vicksburg daily news sheet +was now printed on wall paper. July 3d. white flags appeared upon the +city's works. An armistice followed, and the next day Pemberton +surrendered. The prisoners, some 30,000 in number, were mostly released +on parole. With the fall of Vicksburg the western campaigns virtually +closed. The capture of Port Hudson, below, was assured from that moment, +and followed on July 8th. The "Father of Waters" once more rolled +"unvexed to the sea," and the Confederacy was cut in twain. + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE WAR IN THE CENTRE + +[1863] + +We have seen that the fall of Donelson had driven the Confederates out +of Kentucky. In the following September, 1862, Bragg invaded the State +from Tennessee with 40,000 men. Buell hurried north from Nashville, and +after an exciting race headed him off from Louisville. Bragg slowly fell +back, first east, then south. Kentucky was rich in food and clothing, +and his army plundered freely, coming out, it was boasted, with a +wagon-train forty miles long. At Perryville Bragg turned upon Buell +fiercely. An indecisive battle was fought, October 8, 1862, which gave +the richly loaded wagon-train time to escape into Tennessee, whither +Bragg followed. + + +The Christmas holidays of 1862 found the Confederate host at +Murfreesboro, Tenn., thirty miles southeast of Nashville, where the +Union army lay. Rosecrans, who had succeeded Buell, moved suddenly to +the banks of Stone River, within four miles of the gay town, and +prepared to attack. Bragg, like Wellington from Brussels on the morning +of Waterloo, hurried forth to meet him. At dawn, December 31st, the +gray-colored columns emerged from the fog that overhung the river, and +spiritedly beat up the Union right. Two divisions were swept back. +Sheridan's men, inspired by their dashing leader, held their ground for +awhile, but fell rearward at last, and, forming a new line, stood at bay +with fixed bayonets. Rosecrans recalled the troops who had crossed the +river to make a similar attack upon the Confederate right, and massed +all his forces at the point of assault. Six times the southrons charged, +six times they were tumbled back by the Union batteries double-shotted +with canister. Night fell on a drawn battle. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General William S. Rosecrans. + +The next day, January 1, 1863, was peaceful save for cavalry +skirmishing. January 2nd the awful combat was renewed. Rosecrans having +planted artillery upon commanding ground, Bragg must either carry this +or fall back. He attempted the first alternative, and was repulsed with +terrible slaughter, losing 1,000 men in forty minutes. He escaped south +under cover of a storm. In proportion to the numbers engaged, the battle +of Stone River was one of the bloodiest in the war. About 45,000 fought +on each side. The Union loss was 12,000, the Confederate nearly 15,000. + +Rosecrans did not advance again till June, although Bragg lay quite +near. The latter fell back as the Unionists approached, first into +Chattanooga and then over the Georgia line. Rosecrans followed. Bragg +was now re-enforced, and determined to retake Chattanooga, which lay on +the Tennessee River and was an important strategical point. The two +armies met on Chickamauga Creek, twelve miles south of Chattanooga. All +through the first day's battle, September 19th, there was hot +fighting--charges and countercharges--but no decisive advantage fell to +either side. During the night Bragg was reenforced by Longstreet's corps +from Virginia, and he opened the next day's fight with an assault upon +the Union left. Brigades were moved from the centre to support the left. +Through the gap thus made Longstreet poured his men in heavy columns, +cutting the Union army in two. Its right wing became demoralized, and +fled toward Chattanooga in wild confusion, Rosecrans after it at a +gallop, believing that all was lost. + +But all was not lost. General Thomas commanded the Union left. Like a +flinty rock he stood while Polk's and Longstreet's troops surged in +heavy masses against his front and flank. About three o'clock heavy +columns were seen pouring through a gorge almost in Thomas's rear. They +were Longstreet's men. It was a critical moment Granger's reserves came +rushing upon the field. Raw recruits though they were, they dashed +against Longstreet like veterans. In twenty minutes, at cost of +frightful slaughter, the gorge and ridge were theirs. Longstreet made +another assault, but was again repulsed. At nightfall Thomas fell back +to Chattanooga, henceforth named, and justly, the "Rock of Chickamauga." +For six hours he had held his own with 25,000 braves against twice that +number. Out of 70,000 troops Bragg lost probably 20,000. Rosecrans's +force was about 55,000, his loss 16,000. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General George H. Thomas. + + +Bragg proceeded to shut up the Union army in Chattanooga. Grant, now +commanding the Department of the Mississippi, was ordered to recover +Chattanooga, and his deeds along this front, though less often +mentioned, will glitter upon the page of history with little if any less +lustre than those about Vicksburg. Upon his arrival, late in October, he +found the city practically in a state of siege. Its railroad +communication with Nashville was cut off, and supplies had to be hauled +in wagons sixty miles over a rough mountain road. The men had been for +some time on half rations. Thousands of horses and mules had starved, +and the artillery could not be moved for lack of teams. There was not +ammunition enough for one day's fighting. In five days Grant wrested the +railroad from Bragg's men and bridged the Tennessee, so that an abundant +supply of food and ammunition came pouring in. + +Elated at his Chickamauga triumph, and unaware that he now had a greater +than Rosecrans in his front, Bragg deemed it a safe and promising +stratagem to despatch Longstreet's corps to Knoxville to capture +Burnside. It was a fatal step, and Grant was not slow to take advantage +of it. He telegraphed Sherman to put his entire force instantly en route +from Vicksburg to Chattanooga. + +Chattanooga lies on the south side of the Tennessee River, at the +northern end of a valley running north and south. Along the eastern edge +of the valley rises Missionary Ridge. On the western side and farther +south, stands Lookout Mountain. After passing Chattanooga, the river +turns and runs south till it laves the base of Lookout Mountain. The +Confederate fortifications, twelve miles in length, ran along Missionary +Ridge, across the southern end of the valley, and up over Lookout +Mountain. + +On November 23d, Thomas, who had succeeded Rosecrans, stormed the +breastworks half a mile from the base of Missionary Ridge. The next day +Grant sent "Fighting Joe Hooker" to sweep Bragg's detachment from +Lookout Mountain. Mist lay along the lofty slopes as the gallant Hooker +and his men moved up them, soon veiling the entire column from sight; +and it was only by the rattle of the musketry that Grant knew how the +fight progressed. This was the famous "Battle Above the Clouds." Hooker +pounded the enemy so lustily that they were glad to evacuate the +mountain in the night, and the next morning the Stars and Stripes +saluted the breezes of its topmost peak. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Joseph Hooker. + + +While Hooker had been thus engaged, and for some days before, Sherman +had been at a movement that was even more momentous. He had slyly thrust +his army up the Tennessee River above the city, placing it between the +river and Missionary Ridge, and had worked its flank to the left as far +as the mouth of Chickamauga Creek. He had thus gotten possession of the +entire northeastern spur of that ridge with hardly the loss of a +corporal's guard. + +The morrow after this was accomplished, November 25, 1863, was a day of +blood. Bragg's forces were now massed on Missionary Ridge, mainly in +front of Thomas and Sherman. Hooker had come down into the valley and +was to turn the enemy's left. If Bragg massed troops on either of the +two wings, Thomas's braves were to be let slip against the weakened +centre. Sherman got into action early in the morning, and fought his +painfully difficult way slowly up the rugged acclivities in his front. +Hooker had to bridge Chattanooga Creek, and did not attack till +afternoon. By three o'clock Sherman was so hard pressed that Grant found +it necessary to relieve him by sending Thomas forward at the centre. + + +[Illustration: Several hundred soldiers in battle.] +The Battle of Lookout Mountain. (The "Battle Above the Clouds.") + + +The signal guns boom--one, two, three, four, five, six. Up spring +Thomas's heroes from their breastworks, and rush like a whirlwind for +the first line of Confederate rifle-pits. Bragg sees the advance and +hurries help to oppose. His batteries open with shot and shell, then +with canister. The infantry rake Thomas with a withering fire. Yet on, +double quick, dash the lines of blue over the open plain, over rocks, +stumps, and breastworks, bayonetting back or capturing their +antagonists, till the first line of rifle-pits is theirs. + +The orders had been to halt at this point and re-form. But here, with +Bragg's artillery raining a veritable hell-fire upon them--here is no +place of resting, and as the men's blood is up, they sweep forward +unbidden, with a cheer. It is five hundred yards to the top--a steep +ascent, covered with bowlders and fallen timber. Over the rocks, under +and through the timber, each one scrambles on as he can. Half-way up is +a line of small works. It is carried with a rush, and on the men go, +right up to the crest of the ridge. Now they confront the heaviest +breastworks. The air is thick with whizzing musket-balls, and fifty +cannon belch flame and death. But nothing can stop that furious charge. +Sheridan's men reach the top first, the rest of the line close behind. +The "Johnnies" are routed after a short fight, and the guns turned +against them as they fly. By night Bragg's army is in full retreat, +Chattanooga is safe and free, Grant's lines of communication are +assured, and the keys of the State of Georgia in his hands. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General James B. McPherson. + + +The Union forces in this battle numbered about 60,000, the Confederate +half as many; but the latter fought with all the advantage which the +mountain and breastworks could give them. They lost nearly 10,000 +including 6,500 prisoners. The Union loss was between 5,000 and +6,000--2,200 in the one hour's charge against the centre. + +[1864] + +There was no halting, no resting. Scarcely had the sounds of yesterday's +cannonade died away, when Sherman's already jaded forces were put in +motion to the north, to make sure that Burnside was set free at +Knoxville; but Longstreet had already raised the siege and started east. +By December 6th, Bragg's redoubtable army, which, so recently as +September, swore to reconquer Tennessee and to invade Kentucky, was rent +in twain, one part of it fleeing to Virginia, the other to the heart of +Georgia. + +No important military movement occurred in the Centre during this winter +of 1863-64. In March Grant was made Lieutenant-General, with command of +all the Union armies, Sherman succeeding to the headship of the +Mississippi Department. The latter accompanied his superior toward +Washington as far as Cincinnati, and there, in a parlor of the Burnet +House, the two victorious generals, bending over their maps together, +planned in outline that gigantic campaign of 1864-65, which was to end +the war; then, grasping one another warmly by the hand, they parted, one +starting east, the other south, each to strike at the appointed time his +half of the ponderous death-blow. + +Sherman pushed out from Chattanooga May 6, 1864, with 100,000 men and +254 cannon. His force comprised the Army of the Cumberland, 60,000, +under Thomas; the Army of the Tennessee, 25,000, under Schofield; and +the Army of the Ohio, 15,000, under McPherson. Johnston, who had +superseded Bragg, lay behind strong works at Dalton, a few miles +southeast, with 64,000 men, his base being Atlanta, 80 miles away. +Sherman's supplies all came over a single line of railroad from +Nashville, nearly 150 miles from Chattanooga as the road ran. Every +advantage but numbers was on Johnston's side. + +Sherman calculated that the Army of the Cumberland could hold his +opponent at bay, while the two smaller armies crept around his flanks. +This plan was adhered to throughout, and with wonderful success. All +through May and the first of June a series of skilful flanking movements +compelled Johnston to fall back from one position to another, each +commander, like a tried boxer, constantly on the watch to catch his +opponent off guard. Heavy skirmishing day after day made the march +practically one long battle. + +June 10th Johnston planted his army upon three elevations--Kenesaw, +Pine, and Lost Mountains--and stubbornly stood at bay. A pouring rain, +which turned the whole country into a quagmire and the streams into +formidable rivers, made the usual flank manoeuvre impracticable. Sherman +resolved to assault in front. June 27th a determined onset was made +along the whole line for two hours but failed, though the troops gained +positions close to the hostile works and intrenched. They lost 2,500; +the Confederates not more than a third of this number. The roads having +now improved, Sherman resorted to his old tactics, the Confederates +having to fall back across the Chattahoochee, and come to bay under the +very guns of Atlanta. + +Just at the critical moment, when Sherman's army was slowly closing in +around Atlanta, General Johnston, so wary and cool, was superseded by +the young and fiery Hood, pledged to assume the offensive. On the 20th +Hood made a furious attack on Hooker's front, but was repulsed with +heavy losses. On the 22d he struck again, and harder. By a night march, +Hardee's corps at dawn fell upon the Union left flank and rear like a +thunderbolt out of a clear sky, rolling up the Army of the Tennessee in +great confusion. The brave and talented McPherson was killed early in +the action, Logan succeeding. "McPherson and revenge," he cried, as upon +his coal-black steed he careered from post to post of danger, inspiring +his men and restoring order. The veterans soon recovered from their +surprise. The Union lines were completely re-established, and by night +Hood's army was driven back into the city, having sacrificed probably +10,000 much-needed men, 2,500 of them killed. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Atlanta to Savannah. + + +Sherman now began to swing round to the south and southeast of Atlanta, +till at last he cut its communications with the Confederacy. Hood +evacuated the city and his opponent entered it, September 5th. The +northern troops, after their four months' incessant marching and +fighting, now got a little well-earned rest. Their total losses from +Chattanooga were 32,000. The Confederates had sacrificed about +35,000--the larger part under Hood. + +The last of September Hood struck out boldly for Tennessee, menacing, +and, in fact, temporarily rupturing Sherman's long supply-line from +Nashville. Leaving one corps to hold Atlanta, Sherman raced back for 100 +miles in pursuit. The railroad being well guarded, Hood could do no +serious damage, and finally turned west into Alabama. Sherman now +resolved on a march to the sea. Thomas, with three corps, was sent to +Tennessee to look out for Hood. The 62,000 troops remaining at Atlanta +were put into light marching trim, and the wagons filled with 20 days' +rations and 200 rounds of ammunition per man. All storehouses and other +property useful to the enemy were then destroyed, communications with +the North cut, and November 15th a splendid army of hardy veterans swung +off for the Atlantic or the Gulf, over 200 miles away. Their orders were +to live on the country, the rations being kept for emergencies; but no +dwellings were to be entered, and no houses or mills destroyed if the +army was unmolested. The dwelling-house prescription was, alas, too +often broken over. There was little resistance, Georgia having been +drained of its able-bodied whites. Negroes flocked, singly and by +families, to join "Massa Linkum's boys." The railroads were destroyed, +and the Carolinas thus cut off from the Gulf States. + +Each regiment detailed a certain number of foragers. These, starting off +in the morning empty-handed and on foot, would return at night riding or +driving beasts laden with spoils. "Here would be a silver-mounted family +carriage drawn by a jackass and a cow, loaded inside and out with +everything the country produced, vegetable and animal, dead and alive. +There would be an ox-cart, similarly loaded, and drawn by a nondescript +tandem team equally incongruous. Perched upon the top would be a ragged +forager, rigged out in a fur hat of a fashion worn by dandies of a +century ago, or a dress-coat which had done service at stylish balls of +a former generation. The jibes and jeers, the fun and the practical +jokes, ran down the whole line as the cortege came in, and no masquerade +in carnival could compare with it for original humor and rollicking +enjoyment. ... The camps in the open pine-woods, the bonfires along the +railways, the occasional sham battles at night with blazing pine-knots +for weapons whirling in the darkness, all combined to leave upon the +minds of officers and men the impression of a vast holiday frolic." +[footnote: The March to the Sea, by Major-General J. D. Cox. Campaigns +of the Civil War. Scribners.] + +At the start Sherman was uncertain just where he should strike the +coast. The blockade vessels were asked to be on the lookout for him from +Mobile to Charleston. By the middle of December the army lay before +Savannah. Hardee held the city with 16,000 men, but evacuated it +December 20, 1864, Sherman entering next day. He wrote to Lincoln, "I +beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah." The +capture of Fort McAllister a week before had opened the Ogeechee River, +and Sherman now established a new base of supplies on the sea-coast. + +The North rang with praises of the Great March, which had pierced like a +knife the vitals of the Confederacy. Georgia, with her arsenals and +factories, had been the Confederacy's workshop. Twenty thousand bales of +cotton had been burned upon the march, besides a great amount of +military stores. The 320 miles of railroad destroyed had practically +isolated Virginia from the South and the West. And all this had been +done with the loss of less than 1,000 men. + +[1865] + +Meanwhile Thomas had dealt the Confederacy another staggering blow. The +adventurous Hood had advanced with his army of 44,000 to the very gates +of Nashville. The deliberate Thomas, spite of prickings from Grant, +waited till he felt prepared. Then he struck with a Titan's hand. The +first day's fight, December 15th, drove the Confederate line back two +miles. Hood formed again on hills running east and west, and hastily +fortified. All next day the battle raged. Late in the afternoon the +works on the Confederate left were carried by a gallant charge. Total +rout of Hood's brave army followed. It fled south, demoralized and +scattered, never to appear again as an organized force. In the two days' +battle, 4,500 prisoners and 53 guns were taken. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +The Battle-Field of Nashville. + + +February 1, 1865, his troops all rested and equipped afresh, Sherman set +his face to the north. The days of frolic were over. Continuous rains +had made the Carolinas almost impassable. The march now begun was an +incessant struggle with mud, swamps, and swollen rivers. A pontoon and +trestle bridge three miles long was thrown across the Savannah, and +miles of corduroy road were built through continuous swamps. Charleston, +incessantly besieged since the war opened, where the United States had +wasted more powder and iron than at all other points together, fell +without a blow. Columbia was reached the middle of the month. It caught +fire--just how has never been settled--and the greater part of the city +was destroyed. Sherman's men helped to put out the flames, and left +behind provisions and a herd of five hundred cattle for the suffering +inhabitants. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Map of North Carolina. + + +The army pushed on toward North Carolina, destroying railroads as it +went. Johnston was athwart their path with 30,000 men. March 16th he +struck Sherman's army at Averysboro', N. C., and three days later at +Bentonville. In the latter battle he was completely routed, and re +treated during the night. Sherman swept on to Goldsboro', where +re-enforcements from the coast, under Schofield, increased his army to +90,000. He was undisputed master of the Carolinas. By this time the +Confederacy was hastening to its fall. April 11th the news of Lee's +surrender was hailed in Sherman's army with shouts of joy. A few days +later Johnston surrendered to the hero of Atlanta and of the March to +the Sea. + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE VIRGINIA CAMPAIGNS OF 1862-63 + +[1862] + +The Army of the Potomac lay inactive all through the winter of 1861-62. +The country cried "Forward," but it was March before McClellan was ready +to stir. Then he sailed down Chesapeake Bay to attack Richmond from the +south, with Fortress Monroe as base. The splendidly disciplined and +equipped army, 120,000 strong, began embarking March 17th. + +Fortress Monroe lies at the apex of a wedge-shaped peninsula formed by +the York and James Rivers, which converge as they flow toward the coast. +April 4th, McClellan started on his march up this peninsula. A line of +Confederate fortifications, twelve miles long, stretched across it, from +Yorktown to the James, defended by 10,000 men. Yorktown must be taken to +turn this line. A month was wasted in laborious siege preparations, for +early in May, just before an overwhelming cannonade was to begin, the +southern army evacuated the place and retreated toward Richmond. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General David D. Porter. + + +McClellan hurried after it. A desultory battle was fought all day on the +5th, near Williamsburg, the enemy withdrawing at night. McClellan now +moved slowly up the peninsula, the last of May finding his army within +ten miles of Richmond, encamped on both sides of the Chickahominy. By +this time nearly 70,000 troops had gathered for the defence of the +Confederate capital. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Robert E. Lee. + + +May 31st, the Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston fell upon the part +of McClellan's army south of the river, at Fair Oaks, and in a bloody +battle drove it back a mile. McClellan sent re-enforcements across the +river, and the retreat was stayed. The lost ground was regained next +day, and the enemy driven into Richmond. Johnston having been wounded, +General Robert E. Lee was now placed in command of the Army of Virginia, +destined to lay it down only at the collapse of the Confederate +government. + +McClellan waited three weeks for better weather. He also expected +McDowell's corps of 45,000, which had been kept near Fredericksburg to +defend Washington, but was under orders at the proper time to cooperate +with McClellan by moving against Richmond from the north. But Stonewall +Jackson came raiding down the Shenandoah Valley, hustling General Banks +before him. Washington was alarmed, and McDowell had to be retained. + +Lee boldly took the offensive, and the "Seven Days' Fight" began. June +26th he attacked McClellan's extreme right under Porter, on the north +side of the Chickahominy. He was repulsed, but Porter fell back farther +down the river to Gaines's Mill, there fought all the next day against +great odds, and was saved from total rout toward night only by the +arrival of re-enforcements. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Nathaniel P. Banks. + + +Jackson's army from the north had joined Lee's left, and McClellan's +communication with York River was in danger. He decided to change his +base to the James, where he would have placed it at first but for his +expectation of McDowell and his desire to connect with him. Everything +not transportable, including millions of rations and hundreds of tons of +ammunition, had to be destroyed. Five thousand loaded wagons, 2,500 head +of cattle, and the reserve artillery were then set in motion toward the +James, protected by the army in flank and rear. + +On discovering this movement Lee hastened to strike. A force was sent to +assail the retreating column in the rear; but the bridgeless +Chickahominy, guarded by artillery, held the pursuers at bay. Lee threw +other portions of his army against McClellan's right, at Savage's +Station on the 29th, at Frazier's Farm on the day following; but the +Union troops each time stood their ground till ready and then continued +their march. + +July 1st found the retreating host concentrated on Malvern Hill, a +plateau a mile and a half long and half as broad, with ravines toward +the advancing enemy. Here McClellan planted seventy cannon, rising tier +upon tier up the slope, seven heavy siege guns crowning the crest. The +position was impregnable, but Lee determined to attack. Shortly before +sunset his men advanced boldly to the charge, but were mowed down by the +terrible concentrated fire of the batteries. The hill swarmed with +infantry as well, sheltered by fences and ravines, while shells from the +gunboats in James River could reach every part of the Confederate line. +Yet not till nine in the evening did Lee let the useless carnage cease. +Badly demoralized as the opposing army was, McClellan at midnight +withdrew to Harrison's Landing, farther down the James. + + +[Illustration: Battle.] +General J. E. B. Stuart's Raid upon Pope's Headquarters, August 22, 1862, +when Pope's despatch book fell into the hands of the Confederates. + + +During the Seven Days' Retreat he had lost 15,000 men; the Confederates +somewhat more. Military authorities unite in pronouncing McClellan's +change of base "brilliantly executed;" but the campaign as a whole was a +failure, discouraging the country as much as Bull Run had done. +McClellan prepared and fully expected to move on Richmond again from +this new base, but early in August received orders to withdraw from the +Peninsula. By the middle of the month the dejected Army of the Potomac +was on its way north. + +The last of June the Union forces in West Virginia, the Shenandoah +Valley, and in front of Washington were consolidated into one army, and +the same General Pope who had recently won laurels by the conquest of +Island Number Ten, put in command. His headquarters, he announced, were +to be in the saddle, and those who had criticised McClellan gave out +that the Union army's days of retreating were past. McClellan was called +from the Peninsula to strengthen this new movement. + +Lee started north to crush Pope before McClellan should reach him. Pope +had but 50,000 men against Lee's 80,000, and fell back across the +Rappahannock. Lee sent Jackson on a far detour, via Thoroughfare Gap, to +get into his rear and cut his communications. Jackson moved rapidly +around to Manassas--one of the most brilliant exploits in all the +war--and destroyed Pope's immense supply depot there. On August 29th he +was attacked by Pope near the old battlefield of Bull Run. The first +day's fight was indecisive, but Confederate re-enforcements under +Longstreet arrived in time to join in the battle of the next. McClellan +was in no hurry to re-enforce his rival, but proposed "to leave Pope to +get out of his scrape as he might." Toward sunset in the battle of the +30th, Longstreet's column, doubling way around Jackson's right and +Pope's left, made a grand charge, taking Pope straight in the flank. +Porter's corps--the Fifth--part of McClellan's army, stood in the +"bloody angle" of cross-fire. His loss was dreadful--2,000 out of 9,000. +Pope was compelled to retire to Centreville. An engagement at Chantilly, +September 1st, forced a further retreat to Washington. Pope resigned, +and his army was merged in the Army of the Potomac, McClellan commanding +all. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Thomas J. ("Stonewall") Jackson. + + +Lee now invaded Maryland with 60,000 men. Already the alarmed North +heard him knocking at its gates. Hastily re-organizing the army, +McClellan gave chase. Leaving a force to hold Turner's Gap in South +Mountain, Lee pushed on toward Pennsylvania. By the battle of South +Mountain, September 14th, Hooker got possession of the gap, and the +Union army poured through. Seeing that he must fight, Lee took up a +position on Antietam Creek, a few miles north of Harper's Ferry. Jackson +had just received the surrender of the latter place, with 11,000 +prisoners, and now hurried to join Lee. + +By the night of September 16th, the two armies were in battle array on +either side of the creek. To the rear of the Confederate left lay a +cultivated area encircled by woods, a cornfield in its centre. At dawn +on the 17th, Hooker opened the battle by a furious charge against the +Confederate left, and tumbled the enemy out of the woods, across the +cornfield, and into the thickets beyond, where he was fronted by +Confederate reserves. The carnage was terrific. Re-enforcements under +Mansfield were sent to Hooker, but driven back across the cornfield. +Mansfield was killed and Hooker borne from the field wounded, Sumner +coming up barely in time to prevent a rout. Once more the Confederates +were pushed through the cornfield into the woods. Here, crouching behind +natural breastworks--limestone ridges waist-high--the southern ranks +delivered so hot a fire as to repulse Sumner's men. Thus, all the +morning and into the afternoon the tide of battle surged back and forth +through the bloody cornfield, strewn with wounded and dead. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Edwin V. Sumner. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Winfield S. Hancock. + + +On the Confederate right no action took place till late in the day. +Burnside then attacked and gained some slight advantage. But +re-enforcements from Harper's Ferry came up and were put in against him, +forcing him back to the creek. During the next day McClellan feared to +risk a battle. Being re-enforced, he intended to attack on the following +morning; but Lee, who should have been crushed, having but 40,000 men to +McClellan's 87,000, slipped away in the night and got safely across the +Potomac. The Union loss was 12,400; that of the Confederates probably +about the same. + +The general dissatisfaction with McClellan's slowness caused his removal +early in November, Burnside succeeding him. The new commander, who, as +the head of the army, was an amiable failure, proposed to move directly +against Richmond, but Lee flung himself in his path at Fredericksburg. + +Fredericksburg lies on the south bank of the Rappahannock. Behind the +city is a gradually ascending plain, bounded by heights which bend +toward the river. Lee's army, 80,000 strong, lay in a semicircle along +these heights, its wings touching the river above and below the town. +Two rows of batteries, planted on the heights, swept the plain in front +and flank. A sunken road, sheltered by a stone wall, ran along the base +of the declivity. Burnside's army of 125,000 men occupied a range of +hills on the north side of the river. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Ambrose E. Burnside. + + +Lee's position was very strong; but the country was impatient for +action, and Burnside too readily and without any definite plan gave the +order to attack. December 11th and 12th were spent in crossing the river +on pontoon bridges. The ominous 13th came. The first charge was made by +5,000 of Franklin's men against the Confederate right. The attacking +column broke through the lines and reached the heights; but it was not +supported, and Confederate reserves drove it back. + +About noon an attack was made by Hancock's and French's corps against +the Confederate left. They advanced over the plain in two lines, one +behind the other. Suddenly the batteries in front, to left, to right, +poured upon them a murderous fire. Great gaps were mowed in their ranks. +Union batteries, replying from across the river, added horror to the +din, but helped little. Still the lines swept on. They grew thinner and +thinner, halted, broke, and fled. + +Again they advanced, this time almost up to the stone wall. Behind it, +hidden from sight, lay gray ranks four deep. Suddenly that silent wall +burst into flame, and the advancing lines crumbled away more rapidly +than before. Three times more the gallant fellows came on, bayonets +fixed, to useless slaughter. That deadly wall could not be passed. + + + +[Illustration: Ditch full of dead soldiers, behind a four foot stone +wall.] +The Stone Wall at Fredericksburg. + + +[1863] + +The two wings having failed, the Union centre, under Fighting Joe +Hooker, was ordered to try. He kept his batteries playing till sunset, +hoping to make a breach. Four thousand men were then ordered into the +jaws of death. Stripping off knapsacks and overcoats, and relying on the +bayonet alone, they charged on the double-quick and with a cheer. They +got within twenty yards of the stone wall. Again that sheet of flame! In +fifteen minutes it was all over, and they returned as rapidly as they +advanced, leaving nearly half their number dead and dying behind. During +the day Burnside had had 113,000 men either across the river or ready to +cross. Lee's force was 78,000. + +Night put an end to the luckless carnage. Burnside's generals dissuaded +him from renewing the attack next day, and the army re-crossed the +river. They had lost 12,300 men; the Confederates 5,000. A writer to the +London Times from Lee's headquarters called this December 13th a day +"memorable to the historian of the Decline and Fall of the American +Republic." + +Burnside resigned in January, and Hooker took the command, but he did +not assume the offensive till the last of April. Then, leaving three +corps under Sedgwick to deceive Lee by a demonstration in front, he +marched up-stream with the other four of his corps, crossed the +Rappahannock and the Rapidan, partially turned Lee's left, and took up a +position near Chancellorsville. It was a perfect plan, and thus far +triumphantly executed. But here Hooker waited, and the pause was fatal. +On the night of April 30th Lee perceived that Sedgwick's movement was +only a feint, and gathered all his forces, 62,000 strong, to fight at +Chancellorsville. He fortified himself so firmly that Hooker with +64,000, or, including Sedgwick's two corps and the cavalry, 113,000, +made not a single step of further advance. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General Oliver O. Howard. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General John Sedgwick. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +R.D. Servoss, N.Y. +Jackson's Attack on Howard, May 1st, 1863. + + +Nor was this the worst. Hooker's right wing, under Howard, was weakly +posted. On the 2d of May Stonewall Jackson, who cherished the theory +that one man in an enemy's rear is worth ten in his front, making a +detour of fifteen miles, got upon Howard's right unobserved, and rolled +it up. The surprise was as complete as it was inexcusable. Arms were +stacked and the men getting supper. Suddenly some startled deer came +bounding into camp, gray-coats swarming from the woods hard behind. +Almost at the first charge the whole corps broke and flee! But the +victory cost the Confederates dear; Jackson was fatally wounded, +probably by his own men. + +All the next day the Union army fought on the defensive. Hooker was +stunned in the course of it by a cannon-ball stroke upon the +house-pillar against which he was leaning, and the army was left without +a commanding mind. Sedgwick, who was to come up from below +Fredericksburg and take Lee in the rear, found it impossible to do this +in time, having to fight his way forward with great loss. When he drew +near, Lee was enough at leisure to attend to him. Forty thousand troops, +aching for the fray, were left idle while Lee was hammering away against +the portion of the Union line commanded by Sickles. Ammunition gave out, +and charge after charge had to be repulsed with the bayonet. + +Sickles's brave men at last yielded. The Confederate attack of May 4th +was nearly all directed against Sedgwick, whose noble corps narrowly +escaped capture. That night the whole army fell back to nearly its old +position north of the Rappahannock. Except that at Fredericksburg it was +the most disgraceful fiasco on either side during the war. It cost +17,000 men, and accomplished less than nothing. The South was elated. It +proposed again to invade the North and this time dictate terms of peace. + +Early in June Lee's jubilant army, strengthened to 100,000, with 15,000 +cavalry and 280 guns, started on its second grand Northern Campaign. It +marched down the Shenandoah Valley, crossed the Potomac on the 25th, and +headed for Chambersburg, Penn. The Army of the Potomac marched parallel +with it, on the east side of the Blue Ridge, and crossed the Potomac a +day later. Hooker suddenly resigned, and Meade was put in command. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General James Longstreet. + + +Lee reached Chambersburg; his advance even pushed well on toward +Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania. At Chambersburg he waited +eagerly for those riots in northern cities by which the "copperheads" +had expected to aid his march. In vain. Meade was drawing near. "Pressed +by the finger of destiny, the Confederate army went down to Gettysburg," +and here the advance of both hosts met on July 1st. After some sharp +fighting the Union van was driven back in confusion through Gettysburg, +with a loss of 10,000 men, half of them prisoners. The brave General +Reynolds, commanding the First Corps, lost his life in this action. The +residue fell back to Cemetery Hill, south of the town. Meade, fifteen +miles to the south, sent Hancock on to take command of the field, and +see what it was best to do. This able and trusty officer hurried to the +scene of action in an ambulance, studying maps as he went. He saw at a +glance the strength of Cemetery Ridge and resolved to retreat no +farther. The remaining corps were ordered up, and by noon of July 2d had +mostly taken their positions. + +The Union army lay along an elevation some three miles in length, +resembling a fish-hook in shape. At the extreme southern end forming +the head of the shank rose "Round Top," four hundred feet in height. +Farther north was "Little Round Top," about three-fourths as high. +Cemetery Ridge formed the rest of the shank. The hook curved to the +east, with Culp's Hill for the barb. The Confederate army occupied +Seminary Ridge a mile to the west, its left wing, however, bending +around to the east through Gettysburg, the line being nearly parallel +with Meade's, but much longer. Each army numbered not far from 80,000. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General George G. Meade. + + +The battle of the second day began about three in the afternoon. Meade +had neglected to occupy Little Round Top, which was the key to the Union +line. Longstreet's men began climbing its rugged sides. Fortunately the +movement was seen in time, and Union troops, after a most desperate +conflict, seized and held the crest of the hill. + +Along the Union left centre General Sickles's corps had taken a position +in advance of the rest of the line, upon a ridge branching off from +Cemetery Ridge at an acute angle. Here he was fiercely attacked and most +of his force finally driven back into the line of Cemetery Ridge. The +Union right had been greatly weakened to strengthen the centre. The +Confederates charged here also, and carried the outer intrenchments at +Culp's Hill. The Union losses during the afternoon were +10,000--three-fifths in Sickles's corps, which lost half its numbers. + +The next morning was spent by Lee in preparing for a grand charge upon +the Union centre, that of yesterday upon the left having failed, and the +Confederates having this morning been driven from the ground gained the +night before on the right at Culp's Hill. The storm burst about one +o'clock. For two hours 120 guns on Seminary Ridge kept up a furious +cannonade, to which Meade replied with 80. About three the Union cannon +ceased firing. Lee mistakenly thought them silenced, and gave the word +to charge. + +An attacking column 18,000 strong, made up of fresh troops, the flower +of Lee's men, and commanded by the impetuous Pickett, the Ney of the +southern army, emerges from the woods on Seminary Ridge, and, drawn up +in three lines, one behind the other, with a front of more than a mile, +moves silently down the slope and across the valley toward the selected +spot. Suddenly the Union batteries again open along the whole line. +Great furrows are ploughed in the advancing ranks. They press steadily +on, and climb the slope toward Meade's lines. Two regiments behind rude +intrenchments slightly in advance pour in such a murderous fire that the +column swerves a little toward its left, exposing its flank. General +Stannard and his lusty Vermonters make an irresistible charge upon this. +Windrows of Pickett's poor fellows are mowed down by the combined +artillery and musketry fire. A part of the column breaks and flees. A +part rushes on with desperate valor and reaches the low stone wall which +serves for a Union breastwork. A venomous hand-to-hand fight ensues. +Union re-enforcements swarm to the endangered point. The three +Confederate brigade commanders are all killed or fatally wounded, whole +regiments of their followers surrounded and taken prisoners. The rest +are tumbled back, and the broken remnants of that noble column flee in +wild confusion across the valley. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Note: From A to K is just one mile. +R.D. Servos N.Y. +Diagram of the Attack on Sickles and Sykes. + + +The Confederate loss on this eventful day was 16,000, the Union loss not +one-fifth as great. General Hancock, whose command bore the brunt of the +charge, was severely wounded. Meade should have pressed his advantage, +but did not, and next day Lee retreated under cover of a storm and +escaped across the Potomac. His losses during the three days had been +frightful, amounting to 23,000. In one brigade, numbering 2,800 on July +1st, only 835 answered roll-call three days later. Meade's total losses +were also 23,000. Meade had had on the field in all 83,000 men and 300 +guns, Lee 69,000 and 250 guns. + +Gettysburg marks the turning of the tide. The South's dream of getting a +foothold in the North was forever past. She was soon to hear a gallant +Northerner's voice demanding the surrender of Richmond. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +COLLAPSE OF THE CONFEDERACY + +[1864] + +Gettysburg was the last general engagement in the East during 1863. The +next spring, as we have noticed, Grant was appointed Lieutenant-General, +with command of all the northern armies, now numbering over 600,000 +effectives. This vast body of men he proposed to use against the +fast-weakening Confederacy in concerted movements. Sherman's part in the +great plan has already been traced. The hardest task, that of facing +Lee, the hero of Vicksburg and Chattanooga [he] reserved for himself. +Greek thus met Greek, and the death-grapple began. + +May 4th the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan and entered the +Wilderness, Meade in immediate command, with 120,000 men present for +duty. Lee, heading an army of 62,000 veterans, engaged his new +antagonist without delay. For two days the battle raged in the gloomy +woods. There was no opportunity for brilliant manoeuvres. The men of the +two armies lay doggedly behind the trees, each blazing away through the +underbrush at an unseen foe, often but a few yards off, while a stream +of mangled forms borne on stretchers came steadily pouring to the rear. +The tide of battle surged this way and that, with no decisive advantage +for either side. + +But Grant, as Lee said of him, "was not a retreating man." If he had not +beaten, neither had he been beaten. Advance was the word. On the night +of the 7th he began that series of "movements by the left flank" which +was to force Lee forever from the Rappahannock front. The army stretched +nearly north and south, facing west. Warren's corps, at the extreme +right, quietly withdrew from the enemy's front, and marching south took +a position beyond Hancock's, hitherto the left. Sedgwick's corps +followed. By this sidling movement the army worked its way south, all +the while presenting an unbroken front to the enemy. Yet, on reaching +Spottsylvania, Grant found Lee's army there before him. Sharp fighting +began again on the 9th and continued three days, but was indecisive, +mainly from the wild nature of the country, heavily timbered, with only +occasional clearings. + + +[Illustration: Officer with arms outstretched, after being shot.] +Death of General Sedgwick at Spottsylvania. May 9, 1864. + + +An early morning attack on the 12th carried a salient angle in the +centre of the Confederate line, securing 4,000 prisoners and twenty +guns. All that day and far into the night Lee desperately strove to +dislodge the assailants from this "bloody angle." Five furious charges +were stubbornly repulsed, the belligerents between these grimly facing +each other from lines of rifle-pits often but a few feet apart. Bullets +flew thick as hail, a tree eighteen inches through being cut clean off +by them. Great heaps of dead and wounded lay between the lines, and "at +times a lifted arm or a quivering limb told of an agony not quenched by +the Lethe of death around." Lee did not give up this death-grapple till +three o'clock in the morning, when he fell back to a new position. His +losses here in killed and wounded were about 5,000; Grant's about 6,000. + +Rains now compelled both armies to remain quiet for several days. +Meantime news reached Grant that Butler, who was to have moved up the +James with his army of 20,000 and co-operate with the main army against +Richmond, had suffered himself to be "bottled up" at Bermuda Hundred, a +narrow spit of land between the James and Appomattox Rivers, the +Confederates having "driven in the cork." Re-enforcements reached Grant, +however, which made good all his losses. + +On the 19th, after an unsuccessful assault the day before, he resumed +the flanking movement, and reached and passed the North Anna. But Lee +pushed in like a wedge between the two parts of the Union army, +separated by crossing the river at different points, and after some +fighting, Grant re-crossed and resumed his march to the south. Lee, +again moving on shorter lines, reached Cold Harbor before Grant. + +The outer line of Confederate intrenchments at Cold Harbor was carried +on June 1st, and at early dawn on the 3d a charge made along the whole +front. Under cover of a heavy artillery fire the men advanced to the +enemy's rifle-pits and carried them. They then swept on toward the main +line. The ground was open, and the advancing columns were exposed to a +terrible storm of iron and lead. Artillery cross-fire swept through +their ranks from right to left. The troops pressed close up to the +works, but could not carry them. They intrenched, however, and held the +position gained, at some points within thirty yards of the hostile +ramparts. The Union loss was very heavy, not less than 6,000; the +Confederates, fighting under shelter, lost comparatively few. + +During the next ten days the men lay quietly in their trenches. Both +forces had now moved so far south that Grant's hope of getting between +Lee's army and Richmond had to be abandoned. He therefore decided to +cross the James and take a position south of Richmond, whence he could +threaten its lines of communication, while that river would furnish him +a secure base of supplies. + +The two hosts now began a race for Petersburg, an important railway +centre, twenty-two miles south of Richmond. Grant's advance reached the +town first, but delayed earnest attack, and on the morning of the 15th +Lee's veterans, after an all-night's march, flung themselves into the +intrenchments. Grant spent the next four days in vain efforts to +dislodge them. On the 19th he gave up this method of assault, and began +a regular siege. His losses in killed and wounded hereabouts had been +almost 9,000. + +Things now remained comparatively quiet till late in July. Both sides +were busy strengthening their intrenchments. Lee held both Richmond and +Petersburg in force, besides a continuous line between the two. Attempts +to break this line and to cut the railroads around Petersburg led to +several engagements which would have been considered great battles +earlier in the war. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +General David Hunter. + +Grant's total losses from the crossing of the Rapidan to the end of June +were 61,000, but re-enforcements promptly filled his ranks. The +Confederate loss cannot be accurately determined, but was probably about +two-thirds as great. + +Through July one of Burnside's regiments, composed of Pennsylvanians +used to such business, had been working at a mine under one of the main +redoubts in front of Petersburg. A shaft 500 feet long was dug, with a +cross gallery 80 feet in length at the end square under the redoubt. +This chamber was charged with 8,000 pounds of powder, which was fired +July 30th. The battery and brigade immediately overhead were blown into +the air, and the Confederate soldiers far to left and right stunned and +stupefied with terror. For half an hour the way in to Petersburg was +open. Why did none enter? The answer is sad. + +Grant had splendidly fulfilled his part by a feint to Deep Bottom across +the James, which had drawn thither all but about one division of Lee's +Petersburg force. But Meade, at a late hour on the 29th, changed the +entire plan of assault, which Burnside had carefully arranged, and to +lead which a fresh division had been specially drilled. Then there was +lamentable inefficiency or cowardice on the part of several subordinate +officers. The troops charged into the great, cellar-like crater, +twenty-five feet deep, where, for lack of orders, they remained huddled +together instead of pushing on. The Confederates rallied, and after +shelling the crater till more of its occupants were dead than alive, +charged and either routed the living or took them prisoners. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +The Shenandoah Valley. + + +During the summer and fall of 1864 the scene of active operations was +shifted to the Shenandoah Valley. The latter part of June Lee sent +Early, 20,000 strong, to make a demonstration against Washington, hoping +to scare Grant away from Petersburg. Early moved rapidly down the +valley, hustling Hunter before him, who escaped only by making a detour +to the west, thus leaving Washington open. Thither Early pushed with all +speed. + +General Lew Wallace hastily gathered up the few troops at his disposal +and hurried out from Baltimore to meet him. Wallace was defeated at the +Monocacy River July 9th, but precious time was gained for the +strengthening of Washington. When Early arrived before the city on the +11th, Grant's re-enforcements had not yet come, and the fate of the +capital trembled in the balance. Early happily delayed his attack till +the morrow, and that night two of Grant's veteran corps landed in +Washington, President Lincoln, in his anxiety, being on the wharf to +meet them. Once more Washington was safe, and Early fell back, pressed +by the newcomers. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +General Early's Maryland Campaign. + + +The pursuit was feeble, however, and the last of July Early swooped down +the valley again. A detachment pushed into Pennsylvania and burned +Chambersburg. All through the war the Confederate operations in the +Shenandoah Valley had been an annoyance and a menace. Grant now +determined to put a definite stop to this, and sent the dashing General +Sheridan for the work with 30,000 troops, including 8,000 cavalry. +Sheridan pushed Early up the Shenandoah, defeating him at Opequon Creek, +September 19th, and at Fisher's Hill two days later. + +One-half of Early's army had been destroyed or captured, and the rest +driven southward. Sheridan then, in accordance with Grant's orders, that +the enemy might no longer make it a base of operations against the +capital, laid waste the valley so thoroughly that, as the saying went, +not a crow could fly up or down it without carrying rations. Spite of +this, Early, having been re-enforced, entered the valley once more. The +Union army lay at Cedar Creek. Sheridan had gone to Washington on +business, leaving General Wright in command. On the night of October +18th, the wily Confederate crept around to the rear of the Union left, +and attacked at daybreak. Wright was completely surprised, and his left +wing fled precipitately, losing 1,000 prisoners and 18 guns. He ordered +a retreat to Winchester. The right fell slowly back in good order, +interposing a steady front between Early and the demoralized left. + +Meanwhile Sheridan, who had reached Winchester on his return, snuffed +battle, and hurried to the scene. Now came "Sheridan's Ride." Astride +the coal-black charger immortalized by Buchanan Read's verse, he shot +ahead and dashed upon the battle-field shortly before noon, his horse +dripping with foam. His presence restored confidence, and the army +steadily awaited the expected assault. It came, was repulsed, was +reciprocated. Early was halted, then pushed, then totally routed, and +his army nearly destroyed. It was one of the most signal and telling +victories of the war. In a month's campaign Sheridan had killed and +wounded 10,000 of the enemy and taken 13,000 prisoners. + +[1865] + +All this time the siege of Petersburg was sturdily pressed. In August, +Grant got possession of the Weldon Railroad, an important line running +south from Petersburg. During the next month fortifications on the +Richmond side of the James were carried and held. Through the winter +Grant contented himself with gradually extending his lines around +Petersburg, trying to cut Lee's communications, and preventing his +sending troops against Sherman. He had a death-grip upon the +Confederacy's throat, and waited with confidence for the contortions +which should announce its death. + +The spring of 1865 found the South reduced to the last extremity. The +blockade had shut out imports, and it is doubtful if ever before so +large and populous a region was so far from being self-sustaining. Even +of food-products, save corn and bacon, the dearth became desperate. +Wheat bread and salt were luxuries almost from the first. Home-made +shoes, with wooden soles and uppers cut from buggy tops or old +pocketbooks, became the fashion. Pins were eagerly picked up in the +streets. Thorns, with wax heads, served as hairpins. Scraps of old metal +became precious as gold. + +The plight of the army was equally distressing. Drastic drafting had +long since taken into the army all the able-bodied men between the ages +of eighteen and forty-five. Boys from fourteen to eighteen, and old men +from forty-five to sixty, were also pressed into service as junior and +senior reserves, the Confederacy thus, as General Butler wittily said, +"robbing both the cradle and the grave." Lee's army had been crumbling +away beneath the terrible blows dealt it by Grant. He received some +re-enforcements during 1864, but in no wise enough to make good his +losses. When he took the field in the spring of 1865, his total +effective force was 57,000. Grant's army, including Butler's and +Sheridan's troops, numbered 125,000. + + Lee now perceived that his only hope lay in escaping from the clutches + of Grant and making a junction with Johnston's army in North Carolina. + Grant was on the watch for precisely this. On March 29th Sheridan + worked around into the rear of the Confederate right. Lee descried the + movement, and extended his lines that way to obviate it. A force was + sent, which drove Sheridan back in some confusion. Re-enforced, he + again advanced and beat the forces opposed to him rearward to Five + Forks. Here, April 1st, he made a successful charge, before which the + foe broke and ran, leaving 4,500 prisoners. + +Fearing an attack on Sheridan in force which might let Lee out, Grant +sent re-enforcements, at the same time keeping up a roaring cannonade +along the whole line all night. At five on the morning of the 2d, a +grand assault was made against the Confederate left, which had been +weakened to extend the right. The outer, intrenchments, with two forts +farther in, were taken. Lee at once telegraphed to President Davis that +Petersburg and Richmond must be immediately abandoned. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Grant's Pursuit of Lee; April, 1865. + + +It was Sunday, and the message reached Mr. Davis in church. He hastened +out with pallid lips and unsteady tread. A panic-stricken throng was +soon streaming from the doomed city. Vehicles let for one hundred +dollars an hour in gold. The state-prison guards fled and the criminals +escaped. A drunken mob surged through the streets, smashing windows and +plundering shops. General Ewell blew up the iron-clads in the river and +burned bridges and storehouses. The fire spread till one-third of +Richmond was in flames. The air was filled with a "hideous mingling of +the discordant sounds of human voices--the crying of children, the +lamentations of women, the yells of drunken men--with the roar of the +tempest of flame, the explosion of magazines, the bursting of shells." +Early on the morning of the 3d was heard the cry, "The Yankees are +coming!" Soon a column of blue-coated troops poured into the city, +headed by a regiment of colored cavalry, and the Stars and Stripes +presently floated over the Confederate capital. + +The Confederacy was tottering to its fall. Lee had begun his retreat on +the night of the 2d, and was straining every nerve to reach a point on +the railroad fifty miles to the west, whence he could move south and +join Johnston. Grant was too quick for him. Sending Sheridan in advance +to head him off, he himself hurried after with the main army. Gray and +blue kept up the race for several days, moving on nearly parallel lines. +Sheridan struck the Confederate column at Sailor's Creek on the 6th, and +a heavy engagement ensued, in which the southern army lost many wagons +and several thousand prisoners. + +Lee's band was in a pitiable plight. Its supplies had been cut off, and +many of the soldiers had nothing to eat except the young shoots of +trees. They fell out of the ranks by hundreds, and deserted to their +homes near by. With all hope of escape cut off, and his army dropping to +pieces around him, Lee was at last forced to surrender. To this end he +met Grant, on April 9th, at a residence near Appomattox Court House. + +The personal appearance of the two generals at this interview presented +a striking, not to say ludicrous, contrast. Lee, who was a tall, +handsome man, was attired in a new uniform, showing all the insignia of +his rank, with a splendid dress-sword at his side. Grant, wholly +unprepared for the interview, wore a private's uniform, covered with mud +and dust from hard riding that day. His shoulder-straps were the only +mark of his high rank, and he had no sword. Having served together in +the Mexican War, they spent some time in a friendly conversation about +those old scenes. Grant then wrote out the terms of surrender, which Lee +accepted. The troops were to give their paroles not to take up arms +again until properly exchanged, and officers might retain their +side-arms, private horses, and baggage. Anxious to heal the wounds of +the South, Grant, with rare thoughtfulness, allowed privates also to +take home their own horses. "They will need them for the spring +ploughing," he said. The 19,000 prisoners captured during the last ten +days, together with deserters, left, in Lee's once magnificent army, but +28,356 soldiers to be paroled. The surrendering general was compelled to +ask 25,000 rations for these famished troops, a request which was +cheerfully granted. + + +[Illustration: Grant and eleven other officers watching Lee sign.] +General Lee Signing the Terms of Surrender at Appomattox Court-House. + + +While all loyal hearts were rejoicing over the news of Lee's surrender, +recognized as virtually ending the war, a pall suddenly fell upon the +land. On the evening of April 14th, while President Lincoln was sitting +in a box at Ford's Theatre in Washington, an actor, John Wilkes Booth, +crept up behind him, placed a pistol to his head, and fired. Brandishing +his weapon, and crying, "Sic semper tyrannis," the assassin leaped to +the stage, sustaining a severe injury. Regaining his feet, he shouted, +"The South is avenged!" and made his escape. + +The bullet had pierced the President's brain and rendered him +insensible. He was removed to a house near by, where he died next +morning. His body was taken to Springfield, Ill., for burial, and a +nation mourned above his grave, as no American since Washington had ever +been mourned for before. The South repudiated and deplored the foul +deed. Well it might, for, had Lincoln lived, much of its sorrow during +the next years would have been avoided. + +Booth was only one of a band of conspirators who had intended also to +take off General Grant and the whole Cabinet. By a strange good fortune +Secretary Seward, sick in bed, was the only victim besides the +President. He was stabbed three times with a bowie-knife, but not +fatally. After a cunning flight and brave defence Booth was captured +near Port Royal, and killed. Of the other conspirators some were hanged, +some imprisoned. + +The Confederacy collapsed. Johnston's army surrendered to Sherman on +April 26th. President Davis fled south. On May 10th he was captured in +Georgia, muffled in a lady's cloak and shawl, and became a prisoner at +Fortress Monroe. The war had called into military (land) service in the +two armies together hardly fewer than 4,000,000 men; 2,750,000, in round +numbers, on the Union side, and 1,250,000 on the other. The largest +number of northern soldiers in actual service at anyone time was +1,000,516, on May 1, 1865, 650,000 of them being able for duty. The +largest number of Confederate land forces in service at any time was +690,000, on January 1, 1863. The Union armies lost by death +304,369--44,238 of these being killed in battle, 49,205 dying of wounds. +Over 26,000 are known to have died in Confederate prisons. + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE WAR ON THE SEA + +[1861] + +Naval operations during the war fall into three great classes: Those +upon inland waters, the Mississippi especially; those along the coast; +and those upon the high seas. The first class has already been touched +upon in connection with the Mississippi campaigns. The naval work along +the coast and upon the high seas is the subject of the present chapter. +Only the more important features can be sketched. At the outbreak of the +Rebellion our navy was totally unprepared for war. Forty-two vessels +were in commission, but most of them were in distant seas or in southern +ports. The service was weak with secession sentiment. Between March and +July, 1861, 259 naval officers resigned or were dismissed. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Gideon Welles. + + +Secretary Welles went energetically to work. Vessels in foreign waters +were called home, the keels of new craft laid in northern dockyards, and +stout merchant ships bought and fitted up for the rough usage of war. By +the end of 1861 the navy numbered 264 vessels. At the close of the war +it had 671 ships, carrying 4,610 guns and 50,000 sailors. + +The first work--a gigantic one--was to blockade the southern ports. This +involved the constant patrolling of more than 3,000 miles of dangerous +coast, indented with innumerable inlets, sounds, and bays. But within a +year a fairly effective blockade was in force from Virginia to Texas, +drawn tighter and tighter as the navy increased in size. The +effectiveness of the blockade is sufficiently proved by the dearth at +the South. The South had cotton enough to sell--$300,000,000 worth in +gold at the end of the war--and Europe was greedy to buy; but she could +not get her wares to market. Fifteen hundred prizes, worth $30,000,000, +were taken during the war. + +The details of the blockade must be left to the reader's imagination. +Important as the work was, it was comparatively monotonous and +dull--ceaseless watching day and night in all weather, week after week +and month after month. Now and then the routine would be broken by the +excitement of a chase. A suspicious-looking sail would be spied in the +offing and pursued, perhaps, far out to sea. Again, the low hull of a +blockade-runner would be seen creeping around a point and heading for +the open sea. Or on a still night the throb of engines and the splash of +paddle-wheels would give warning that some guilty vessel was trying to +steal into port under cover of darkness. Then came the flare of rockets +to notify the rest of the blockading fleet, the hot pursuit with boilers +crowded to bursting, the boom of the big guns fired at random in the +dark, and the exultation of a capture or the disappointment of failure. + +Blockade-running became a regular business, enormously profitable. +Moonless and cloudy nights were of course the most favorable times for +eluding the blockade; but the swift steamers, sitting low in the water +and painted a light neutral tint, could not easily be detected by day at +a little distance, especially as they burned smokeless coal. The bolder +skippers would take all chances. Under cover of a fog they would steal +into or out of harbor at risk of going aground, or set sail boldly on a +bright moonlight night, when the blockaders would naturally relax their +vigilance a little. Occasionally some dare-devil would crowd on all +steam and dash openly through the sentinel fleet, trusting to speed to +escape being hit or captured. When hard pressed, the blockade-runner +would beach his craft, set it afire, and take to the woods. At the close +of the war thirty wrecks of blockade-runners were rotting on the sands +near Charleston Harbor. + +In connection with the blockade a number of naval expeditions were sent +against various points along the coast. In October, 1861, a fleet under +Flag-Officer Dupont, consisting of a steam frigate, a dozen or more +gunboats, with numerous transports and coaling-schooners, and carrying +12,000 troops under General T. W. Sherman, set sail from Hampton Roads +for Port Royal, S. C. After a stormy passage the fleet anchored off the +harbor on November 4th. On opposite sides of the entrance, two and a +half miles apart, stood Forts Walker and Beauregard--strong earthworks, +mounting one 23 the other 20 guns, and garrisoned by 1,700 men. The 7th +dawned bright and clear, the sea smooth as glass. About nine o'clock the +bombardment began. The fleet steamed slowly round and round in an +ellipse between the forts, each vessel as it came within range pouring +in its fire, then passing on and waiting its turn to fire again. The +cannonade was concentrated upon Fort Walker. The moving ships offered a +poor mark to the fort, while the aim of the fleet was very accurate, +covering the gunners with sand and dismounting the guns. After four +hours' action Fort Walker was evacuated, and soon Fort Beauregard also +in consequence. + + +[Illustration: Map.] +Map of Hampton Roads. + + +Port Royal was the finest harbor on the coast, and was of great value to +the navy all through the war as a repair and supply station. Dupont sent +out expeditions, and by the end of the year had possession of a large +part of the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. In the following spring +expeditions from Port Royal regained Fernandina and St. Augustine on the +Florida coast. In April Fort Pulaski, a strong brick work at the mouth +of the Savannah River, was reduced by eleven batteries planted on a +neighboring island, its surrender completing the blockade of Savannah. + +[1862] + +Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, on the coast of North Carolina, swarmed +with blockade-runners. Rivers, canals, and railroads formed a network of +communications with the interior, and vessels were constantly slipping +to sea with cargoes of cotton, to return with munitions of war. Hatteras +Inlet, seized in August, 1861, was not a sufficient basis for the +blockade. In February, 1862, a fleet bearing 11,500 soldiers, under +General Burnside, arrived at Roanoke Island, which lies between the two +great sounds. The troops were landed, and on the 8th, charging over +marshy ground, sometimes waist-deep in water, carried the batteries and +gained possession of the island. Newbern, one of the most important +ports of North Carolina, was captured a month later, and Fort Macon, +commanding the entrance to Beaufort Harbor, surrendered in April. + +Meanwhile what had the Confederates been doing in naval matters? When +the Norfolk navy-yard was abandoned in April, 1861, the fine old frigate +Merrimac was scuttled. She was raised by the Davis Government and +converted into an ironclad ram--a novelty in those days. The hull was +cut down to the water's edge, and a stout roof, 170 feet long, with +sloping sides and a flat top, built amidships and plated with four +inches of iron. This roof was pierced for ten guns--four rifles and six +nine-inch smooth-bores. + +On March 8, 1862, the Union fleet, consisting of the Cumberland, +Congress, Minnesota, and some smaller craft, rode lazily at anchor in +Hampton Roads. About noon a curious looking structure was seen coming +down Elizabeth River. It was the Merrimac. She steered straight for the +Cumberland. The latter poured in a broadside from her heavy ten-inch +guns, but the balls glanced off the ram's sloping iron sides like peas. +The Merrimac's iron beak crashed into the Cumberland's side, making a +great hole. In a few minutes the old warsloop, working her guns to the +water's edge, went down in fifty-four feet of water, 120 sick and +wounded sinking with her. + + +[Illustration: Sea battle a close quarters.] +The Sinking of the Frigate Cumberland by the Merrimac in Hampton Roads, +March 8, 1862. + + +The Congress had meanwhile been run aground. The Merrimac fired hot +shot, setting her afire. Nearly half the crew being killed or wounded, +she surrendered, her magazine exploding and blowing her up at midnight. +The Minnesota, hastening up with two other vessels from Fortress Monroe +to aid her sisters, had run aground. Being of heavy draught, the +Merrimac could not get near enough to do her much damage, and at +nightfall steamed back to her landing. As the telegraph that night +flashed over the land the news of the Merrimac's victory, dismay filled +the North, exultation the South. What was to stay the career of the +invulnerable monster? Could it not destroy the whole United States navy +of wooden ships? + +Next morning the Merrimac reappeared to complete her work of +destruction. As she drew near the stranded Minnesota, a strange little +craft moved out from the side of the big frigate and headed straight for +the iron-clad. It was Ericsson's Monitor, which had arrived from New +York at midnight. The Confederate characterization of it as a "cheese-box +on a raft" is still the best description of its appearance. Its +lower hull, 122 feet long and 34 wide, was protected by a raft-like +overhanging upper hull, 172 feet long and 41 wide. Midway upon her low +deck, which rose only a foot above the water, stood a revolving turret +21 feet in diameter and nine in height. It was made of iron eight inches +thick, and bore two eleven-inch guns throwing each a 180-pound ball. +Near the bow rose the pilot-house, made of iron logs nine inches by +twelve in thickness. The side armor of the hull was five inches thick, +and the deck was covered with heavy iron plates. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +John Ericsson. + + +[Illustration: Cross section of monitor.] +Sectional View of Monitor through Turret and Pilot House. + +[1863] + +For three hours the iron-clads fought. The Merrimac's shot glanced +harmlessly off the round turret, while her attempts to run the Monitor +down failed. Meanwhile the big guns in the Monitor's turret, firing +every seven minutes, were pounding the ram's sides with terrible blows. +The Merrimac's armor was at points crushed in several inches, but +nowhere pierced, About noon the fight stopped, as if by mutual consent. +It was a drawn battle, but the career of the Merrimac had ended. Upon +McClellan's advance, in May, she was blown up. The Monitor received no +serious injury in this action, but the next December she foundered in a +storm off Cape Hatteras. + +The invention of the Monitor revolutionized naval warfare, and set +European nations to building the ponderous iron-clad navies of the +present day. The United States Government soon contracted for twenty +single-turret monitors, and four double-turreted ones with fifteen-inch +guns. + +The Confederates now went to building iron-clads on the model of the +Merrimac. On the morning of January 31, 1863, the iron-clads Palmetto +State and Chicora steamed out of Charleston Harbor, in a dense fog, and +attacked the blockading fleet of wooden vessels. After ramming one ship +and sending a shot through the boiler of another, they put back to port. + +In April, Admiral Dupont tried to seize Charleston Harbor with his fleet +of seven monitors and two iron-clads. In a two hours' action the +monitors were seriously injured by the heavy guns of the forts, and the +fleet withdrew. In August, land batteries reduced Fort Sumter almost to +ruins, and in the following month Fort Wagner was abandoned. June 17th, +the iron-clad Atlanta, armed with a torpedo at the end of a spar, ran +down from Savannah to engage with two monitors guarding the mouth of the +river. She got aground, rendering the torpedo useless. The fifteen-inch +guns of the monitors pierced her armor, and in a few minutes she +surrendered. + +[1884] + +The Albemarle proved a more dangerous foe. The last of April, 1864, it +descended Roanoke River, smashed the gunboats at the mouth, and +compelled the surrender of the forts and the town of Plymouth. A few +days later it attacked a fleet of gunboats below the mouth of the river. +After a severe tussle, inflicting and receiving considerable damage, it +steamed back to Plymouth. Here it lay at the wharf till October, when it +was sunk by Lieutenant Cushing, already famous for daring exploits under +the very noses of the enemy. On the night of October 27th, young Cushing +approached the ironclad in a steam launch with a torpedo at the end of a +spar projecting from the bow. Jumping his boat over the log boom +surrounding the ram, in the thick of musketry fire from deck and shore, +Cushing calmly worked the strings by which the intricate torpedo was +fired. It exploded under the vessel's overhang, and she soon sunk. At +the moment of the explosion a cannonball crashed through the launch. +Cushing plunged into the river and swam to shore through a shower of +bullets. After crawling through the swamps next day, be found a skiff +and paddled off to the fleet. Of the launch's crew of fourteen, only one +other escaped. + + +[Illustration: Outside view.] +The Original Monitor. + + +The stronghold of the Confederacy on the Gulf was Mobile. Two strong +forts, mounting twenty-seven and forty-seven guns, guarded the channel +below the city, which was further defended by spiles and torpedoes. In +the harbor, August 5, 1864, lay the iron-clad ram, Tennessee, and three +gunboats, commanded by Admiral Buchanan, formerly captain of the +Merrimac. Farragut determined to force a passage. Before six o'clock in +the morning his fleet of four monitors and fourteen wooden ships, the +latter lashed together two and two, got under way, Farragut taking his +station in the main rigging of the Hartford. The action opened about +seven. One of the monitors struck a torpedo and sunk. The Brooklyn, +which was leading, turned back to go around what seemed to be a nest of +torpedoes. The whole line was in danger of being huddled together under +the fire of the forts. Farragut boldly took the lead, and the fleet +followed. The torpedo cases could be heard rapping against the ships' +bottoms, but none exploded. + +The forts being safely passed, the Confederate gunboats advanced to the +attack. One of these was captured, the other two escaped. The powerful +iron-clad Tennessee now moved down upon the Union fleet. It was 209 feet +long, with armor from five to six inches thick. Farragut ordered his +wooden vessels to run her down. Three succeeded in ramming her squarely. +She reeled under the tremendous blows, and her gunners could not keep +their feet. A monitor sent a fifteen-inch ball through her stern. Her +smoke-stack and steering-chains were shot away, and several port +shutters jammed. About ten A.M., after an action of an hour and a +quarter, the ram hoisted the white flag. The forts surrendered in a few +days. + +January 15, 1865, Fort Fisher, a strong work near Wilmington, N. C, +mounting seventy-five guns, was captured by a joint land and naval +expedition under General Terry and Admiral Porter. This was the last +great engagement along the coast. + +The story of the war upon the high seas is quickly told. Swift and +powerful cruisers were built in English ship-yards, with the connivance +of the British Government, whence they sailed to prey upon our commerce. +The Florida, Georgia, Shenandoah, Chameleon, and Tallahassee, were some +of the most famous in the list of Confederate cruisers. During 1861, +fifty-eight prizes were taken by them. American merchant vessels were +driven from the sea. The Shenandoah alone destroyed over $6,000,000 +worth in vessels and cargoes. + +[1862] + +The two most celebrated of these sea-rovers were the Sumter and the +Alabama, both commanded by Captain Semmes, formerly of the United States +Navy. The Sumter was a screw steamer of 600 tons, a good sailer and +sea-boat. She was bought by the Confederate Government and armed with a +few heavy guns. On June 30, 1861, she ran the blockade at Charleston, +and began scouring the seas. All through the fall she prowled about the +Atlantic, taking seventeen prizes, most of which were burned. Many +United States cruisers were sent after her, but she eluded or escaped +them all. Early in 1862 the Sumter entered the port of Gibraltar. Here +she was blockaded by two Union gunboats, and Semmes finally sold her to +take command of the Alabama. + +The Alabama was built expressly for the Confederacy at Laird's +ship-yard, Liverpool, and although her character was perfectly well +known, the British Government permitted her to go to sea. She was taken +to one of the Azores Islands, where she received her armament and her +captain. The officers were Confederates, the crew British. She began her +destructive career in August, 1862. By the last of October she had taken +twenty-seven prizes. In January she sunk the gunboat Hatteras, one of +the blockading fleet off Galveston, Tex. After cruising in all seas, the +Alabama, in 1864, returned to the European coast, having captured +sixty-five vessels and destroyed property worth between $6,000,000 and +$7,000,000. + +[1864] + +On June 11th, Semmes put into the harbor of Cherbourg, on the coast of +France. Captain Winslow, commanding the United States steamer Kearsarge, +cruising in the neighborhood, heard of the famous rover's arrival, and +took his station outside the harbor. About ten o'clock on the morning of +June 19, 1864, the Alabama was seen coming out of port, attended by a +French man-of-war and an English steam yacht. Captain Winslow +immediately cleared the decks for action. It was a clear, bright day, +with a smooth sea. The fight took place about seven miles from shore. +The two ships were pretty equally matched, each being of about 1,000 +tons burden. The Kearsarge had the heavier smooth-bore guns, but the +Alabama carried a 100-pound Blakely rifle. The Kearsarge was protected +amidships by chain cables. + +The Alabama opened the engagement. The Kearsarge replied with a cool and +accurate fire. The action soon grew spirited. Solid shot ricochetted +over the smooth water. Shells crashed against the sides or exploded on +deck. The two ships sailed round and round a common centre, keeping +about half a mile apart. In less than an hour the Alabama was terribly +shattered and began to sink. She tried to escape, but water put out her +engine fires. Semmes hoisted the white flag. In a few minutes the +Alabama went down, her bow rising high in the air. Boats from the +Kearsarge rescued some of the crew. The English yacht picked up others, +Semmes among them, thus running off with Winslow's prisoners. The +Kearsarge had received little damage. + + +[Illustration] +The Sinking of the Alabama. + + +The sinking of the Alabama ended the career of the Confederate cruisers. +American commerce had been nearly driven from the ocean, and, moreover, +the days of peace on land and sea alike were near at hand. + + + +CHAPTER X. + +FOREIGN RELATIONS--FINANCES--EMANCIPATION + +[1861] + +A civil war of vast proportions in the world's greatest republic +naturally aroused deep interest among the monarchies of Europe. Russia +evinced warm friendliness to the United States. The rest of the world, +save England and France, showed us no ill-will. + +England, with unfriendly haste, admitted the belligerent rights of the +Confederacy before Mr. Adams, our minister, could reach the British +court. The North was surprised and shocked that liberty-loving, +conservative England should so far side with "rebellious slave-holders." +It would seem that, besides sympathy with the aristocratic structure of +southern society, national envy helped to put England into this false +position. Commercial interests had greater weight. Four millions of +people in England depended upon cotton manufactures for support. +Three-fourths of the cotton they had used came from our southern ports, +which the blockade closed. Moreover, the Confederacy declared for free +trade, while the North adopted a high war tariff which drove many +English goods out of American markets. The London Times complained that +nearly $4,000,000 worth of English cutlery alone had been made worthless +by our tariff. + +An incident early in the war heightened the ill-will between the two +countries. On a dark night in October, 1861, Messrs. Mason and Slidell, +Confederate commissioners to England and France, ran the blockade at +Charleston, and soon after took passage at Havana on the English mail +steamer Trent. November 8th, 250 miles out from Havana, the United +States sloop of war San Jacinto, Captain Wilkes, compelled the Trent, by +a shot across her bows, to heave to, and took off the commissioners. + +All England was hot with resentment. Troops were shipped to Canada, and +other war preparations begun. A special messenger was hurried to +Washington, demanding an apology and the release of the prisoners. +Wilkes's action, though without authority in international law, was +warmly approved by the people. The House of Representatives tendered him +a vote of thanks. But the Government disavowed the seizure and gave up +the commissioners. Mr. Seward, Secretary of State, in a dignified reply +to England, insisted that the seizure was fully justified by England's +own practice of searching neutral vessels on the high seas; but that, as +the United States had always condemned this practice, the prisoners +would be released, especially as Captain Wilkes should have brought the +Trent before a prize court instead of deciding the validity of the prize +himself. The action of the Government, though unpopular at the time, was +undoubtedly as prudent as it was just. We could not afford to provoke +war with England. + + +[Illustration: Rowboats filled with soldier approaching city docks.] +The Landing of the Allied Troops at Vera Cruz. + + +Our real grievance against Great Britain was that the Queen's +proclamation of neutrality was not obeyed. Confederate cruisers were +built in English yards, whence they publicly and boastfully sailed to +prey upon our then vast merchant marine. Crews as well as ships were +English. The British ministry were perfectly aware of their destination, +but used all manner of artifices to avoid interfering. + +Our most vicious enemy abroad was Napoleon III., so profuse yet so +hypocritical in his professions of good-will. He, too, hastened to +accord belligerent rights to the Confederacy. Had England not been too +wary to join him, the two nations would certainly have recognized the +South's independence. Napoleon was on the point of doing this alone. +Seven war-vessels were, with his sanction, built for the Confederates at +Bordeaux and Nantes, though he was too wily to allow them to sail when +he became aware that their destination was fully known to our minister. + +Far-reaching political schemes were at the bottom of Napoleon's wish for +a dismembered Union. He was plotting to restore European influence in +America by setting up an empire on the ruins of the Mexican republic, +and he knew that the United States would never allow this while her +power was unbroken. In the latter part of 1861 a French army invaded +Mexico. The feeble government was overthrown after a year or two of +fighting. In 1863 an empire was established, and Napoleon offered the +throne to the Austrian archduke Maximilian. Meanwhile, the protests of +the United States were disregarded. But when our hands were freed by the +collapse of the Confederacy, Napoleon changed his tone. The French +troops were withdrawn early in 1867, and Maximilian was left to his +fate. The unhappy prince, betrayed by his own general, fell into the +hands of the old Mexican Government, now in the ascendant, and was tried +by court-martial and shot. It should be remembered, however, that +France's unfriendly attitude all through the Rebellion was maintained by +her unscrupulous emperor and did not reflect the wish of the French +people. + +The expenses of the war were colossal. From beginning to close they +averaged $2,000,000 a day, sometimes running up to $3,500,000. The +expenditure for the fiscal year ending July 1, 1865, was nearly +$2,000,000,000. Of this the War Department required, in round numbers, +$1,000, 000,000; the navy department, $123,000,000. These figures reveal +the vast scale upon which the war was waged by land and sea. The +national debt rose with frightful rapidity. It was $64,000,000 in 1860, +$1,100,000,000 in 1863, $2,800,000,000 (the highest point reached) in +1865. State and local war debts would swell the amount to more than +$4,000,000,000. + +The position of Secretary of the Treasury during the war was anything +but a bed of roses. The ordinary national income was hardly a drop in +the bucket compared with the enormous and constantly increasing +expenses. The total receipts for the year ending July 1, 1860, were only +$81,000,000. How should the vast sums needed to carryon the war be +raised? Resort was had to two sources of revenue--taxation and loans. + +A considerable revenue was already derived from customs imposed upon +imported goods. In 1861, and again in 1863, tariffs were raised +enormously, professedly to increase the revenue. These high rates in a +measure defeated their own purpose, altogether stopping the importation +of not a few articles. + +The war compelled the Government to resort to internal taxation--always +unpopular and now unknown in the United States for nearly half a +century. Taxes were laid upon almost everything--upon trades, incomes, +legacies, manufactures. The words of Sydney Smith will apply to our +internal taxes during the war: + +"Taxes on the ermine which decorates the judge, and the rope which hangs +the criminal; on the poor man's salt and the rich man's spice; on the +brass nails of the coffin and the ribands of the bride." The tax on many +finished products ranged from eight to fifteen per cent.; on some it +rose to twenty per cent. + + +[Illustration: Two men looking out a window.] +Maximilian Watching the Departure of the +Last French Troops from the City of Mexico. + +[1864] + +But these taxes, severe as they were, could furnish only a small part of +the necessary income. The Government must borrow. In the first year of +the war the banks loaned the United States $150,000,000 at 7.3 per cent. +interest. Many other loans were secured as the war went on--one for +$500,000,000, another for $900,000,000. As security the Government +issued bonds, bearing various rates of interest and payable after a +certain number of years. Treasury notes were also issued and made legal +tender for all debts public and private. As the Government paid its own +debts with them, they were in the nature of a forced loan. Of those +which bore no interest (commonly known as greenbacks) $433,000,000 were +issued from first to last. Also, when property was seized for the use of +the army, the owners were given certificates of indebtedness which +entitled the holders to payment at the United States Treasury. + +The proportion of revenue derived from each of the above sources is +illustrated by the report of the treasurer of the United States for the +year ending July 1, 1865. Customs yielded $85,000,000, internal revenue +$209,000,000, loans $1,470,000,000. + +Finance legislation during the war was more patriotic than wise, due +partly to necessary haste, largely to ignorance. The internal taxes bore +very unequally upon different classes. The tariff was ill-adjusted to +the internal taxes, letting in at low rates some classes of goods whose +home production was heavily taxed, thus discriminating in favor of the +foreigner. Millions of debt and half the other economic evil of the war +might have been saved by doing more to keep the paper dollar on a par +with gold. Thus the banks should not have been compelled to pay in gold +the loan of 1861. It forced them to suspend specie payment altogether, +December 31st of that year--those of New York City first, followed by +others everywhere, and by the United States itself. Gold had been at a +nominal premium all through 1861, but the first recorded sale at an +advance was on January 13, 1862. It would have been better, also, to +resort earlier to heavy loans, even at high rates, instead of flooding +the country with greenbacks. The national banks, which were created on +purpose to help the sale of government bonds, should have been forced to +purchase new bonds instead of supplying themselves with bonds already +issued, their purchase of which did the Government no good whatever. +Neglect in these regards caused the paper dollar to fall in value. In +July, 1864, it was worth only thirty-five cents in gold. + +The finances of the Confederacy went steadily from bad to worse. The +blockade cut off its revenue from import duties. Its poor credit forbade +large loans. The government had to rely mainly upon paper money. This +soon became almost worthless. In December, 1861, it took $120 in paper +money to buy $100 in gold; in 1863 it took $1,900; in 1864, $5,000. +Nearly $1,000,000,000 in paper money was issued in all. The Confederate +debt at the close of the war was $2,000,000,000. Under the combined +influence of depreciated currency and scarcity of goods, prices became +ludicrously high. As early as 1862 flour was $40 a barrel and salt $1 a +pound. Before the war was over, a pound of sugar brought $75, a spool of +thread $20. Toward the end of the war a Confederate soldier, just paid +off, went into a store to buy a pair of boots. The price was $200. He +handed the store-keeper a $500 bill. "I can't change this," "Oh, never +mind," replied the paper millionaire. "I never let a little matter like +$300 interfere with a trade." Of course when the Confederacy collapsed +all this paper money became absolutely worthless. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Salmon Portland Chase, +Secretary of the Treasury during the Civil War. + + +Mr. Lincoln and the Republican Party resorted to arms not intending the +slightest alteration in the constitutional status of slavery. But the +presence of Union armies on slave soil led to new and puzzling +questions. What should be done with slaves escaping to the Union lines? +Generals Buell and Hooker authorized slave-holders to search their camps +for runaway slaves. Halleck gave orders to drive them out of his lines. +Butler, alleging that since slaves helped "the rebels" by constructing +fortifications they were contraband of war, refused to return those +fleeing into his camp. Congress moved up to this position in August, +1861, declaring that slaves used for hostile purposes should be +confiscated. But when Fremont and Hunter issued orders freeing slaves in +their military districts, President Lincoln felt obliged to countermand +them, fearing the effect upon slave States that were still loyal. + +As the war went on the conviction grew that peace would never be safe or +permanent if slavery remained, and that the suppression of the Rebellion +was postponed, jeopardized, and made costlier by every hour of slavery's +life. Slaves raised crops, did camp work, and built fortifications, +releasing so many more whites for service in hostile ranks, instead of +doing all this, and fighting, even, for the Union. + +It is interesting to trace the growth of emancipation sentiment during +1862 as it is reflected in congressional legislation. In March army +officers were forbidden to return fugitive slaves. In April slavery was +abolished in the District of Columbia, with compensation to owners. At +the same time Congress adopted a pet scheme of Mr. Lincoln's, offering +compensation to any State that would free its slaves. None accepted. +There were about 3,000 slaves in the District. Upon the day of their +emancipation they assembled in churches and gave thanks to God. In June +slavery in the Territories--that bone of contention through so many +years--was forever prohibited. In July an act was passed freeing rebels' +slaves coming under the Government's protection, and authorizing the use +of negro soldiers. + +[1863] + +Already President Lincoln was meditating universal emancipation. +September 22d the friends of liberty were made glad by a preliminary +proclamation, announcing the President's intention to free the slaves on +January 1, 1863, should rebellion then continue to exist. It is said +that Mr. Lincoln would have given this notice earlier but for the gloomy +state of military affairs. The day comes. The proclamation goes forth +that all persons held as slaves in the rebellious sections "are and +henceforth shall be free." The blot which had so long stained our +national banner was wiped away. The Constitution of course does not +expressly authorize such an act by the President, but Mr. Lincoln +defended it as a "necessary war measure," "warranted by the Constitution +upon military necessity." + +This bold, epoch-making deed, the death-warrant of slavery here and +throughout the world, evoked serious hostility even at the North. The +elections in the fall of 1862 and the spring of 1863 showed serious +losses for the administration party. Emancipation, too, doubtless added +rancor and verve for a time to southern belligerency. But the fresh +union, spirit, and strength it soon brought to the northern cause were +tenfold compensation. Besides, it vastly exalted our struggle in the +moral estimate of Christendom, and lessened danger of foreign +intervention. + +The War President trod at no time a path of flowers. Strong and general +as was Union sentiment at the North, extremely diverse feelings and +views prevailed touching the methods and spirit which should govern the +conduct of the war. Certain timid, discouraged, or disappointed +Republicans, seeing the appalling loss of blood and treasure as the war +went on, and the Confederacy's unexpected tenacity of life, demanded +peace on the easiest terms inclusive of intact Union. Secretaries Seward +and Chase were for a time in this temper. The doctrinaire abolitionists +bitterly assailed President and Congress for not making, from the +outset, the extirpation of slavery the main aim of hostilities. Even the +great emancipation pacified them but little. + +The Democrats proper entered a far more sensible, in fact a not wholly +groundless, complaint exactly the contrary. They charged that the +Administration, in hopes to exhibit the Democracy as a peace party +(which from 1862 it more and more became), was making the overthrow of +slavery its main aim, waging war for the negro instead of for the Union. +They complained also that not only in anti-slavery measures but in other +things as well, notably in suspending habeas corpus, the Administration +was grievously infringing the Constitution. + +Yet a fourth class, a democratic rump of southern sympathizers, +popularly called "copperheads," wishing peace at any price, did their +best to encourage the Rebellion .. They denounced the war as cruel, +needless, and a failure. They opposed the draft for troops, and were +partly responsible for the draft riots in 1863. Many of them were in +league with southern leaders, and held membership in treasonable +associations. Some were privy to, if not participants in, devilish plots +to spread fire and pestilence in northern camps and cities, Partly +through influence of the more moderate, several efforts to negotiate +peace were made, fortunately every one in vain. + +[1864] + +But despite the attacks of enemies and the importunities of weak or +short-sighted friends, President Lincoln steadily held on his course. +The masses of the people rallied to his support, and in the presidential +election of 1864 he was re-elected by an overwhelming majority, +receiving 212 electoral votes against 21 for General McClellan, the +democratic candidate. + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +RECONSTRUCTION + +Though arms were grounded, there remained the new task, longer and more +perplexing, if not more difficult, than the first, of restoring the +South to its normal position in the Union. It was, from the nature of +the case, a delicate one. The proud and sensitive South smarted under +defeat and was not yet cured of the illusions which had led her to +secede. Salve and not salt needed to be rubbed in to her wounds. The +North stood ready to forgive the past, but insisted, in the name of its +desolate homes and slaughtered President, that the South must be +restored on such conditions that the past could never be repeated. The +difficulty was heightened by the lack of either constitutional provision +or historical precedent. Not strange, therefore, that the actors in this +new drama of reconstruction played their parts awkwardly and with many +mistakes. + + +[Illustration: Handwriting.] +Facsimile of a portion of President Lincoln's draft of the +Preliminary Proclamation of Emancipation, September. 1862 +From the original in the Library of the State of New York, Albany. + +[1865] + +A most interesting constitutional problem had to be faced at the outset: +What effect had secession had upon the States guilty of it; was it or +was it not an act of state suicide? This question was warmly debated in +Congress and out. Although ridiculed in some quarters as a mere +metaphysical quibble, it lay at the bottom of men's political thinking +on reconstruction, and their views of the proper answer to it powerfully +influenced their action. + +All loyal Democrats and most Republicans answered it in the negative. +Secession, they said, being an invalid act, had no effect whatever; the +rebellious tracts were still States of the Union in spite of themselves. +But the two parties reasoned their way to this conclusion by different +roads. The Democrats deduced the view from the State's intrinsic +sovereignty, the Republicans from the national Constitution as ordaining +"an indestructible Union of indestructible States." This class of +thinkers, in whichever party they were found, naturally preferred the +term "restoration" to "reconstruction." + +The theory of state suicide was held by many, but with a difference. +Sumner and a few others deemed that secession had destroyed statehood +alone; that over individuals the Constitution still extended its +authority and its protection, as in Territories. Thaddeus Stevens and +his followers viewed secession as having left the State not only defunct +but a washed slate governmentally, like soil won by conquest. Both these +parties conceived the work before Congress to be out-and-out +"reconstruction," involving the right to change old state lines and +institutions at will. Not even this position was more ultra than the +course which reconstruction actually took. + +Closely related to this main problem were several other questions nearly +or quite as vexing. Were any conditions to be imposed upon the peoples +seeking re-admission to the Union as States? If so, what, aside from the +loyalty of voters and officeholders, were these conditions? Was the +President to initiate and oversee the process of redintegration, +prescribing the conditions of re-admission, and determining when they +were fulfilled, or was all this the business of Congress? And, lastly, +did the right thus to oversee and impose conditions depend upon a +certain war power of Congress or of President, or upon the clause of the +Constitution which guarantees to every State a republican form of +government? Nearly the same question as this, in another form, would be, +Was this right explicitly constitutional or only impliedly so? + +The answer practically returned to these difficult inquiries was that +Congress, as a quasi war right, must exact of the States lately in +secession all the conditions necessary, in its view, to their permanent +loyalty and the peace of the Union. + +The history of reconstruction divides into three periods: Reconstruction +during the war, President Johnson's work, and Congressional +reconstruction. + +Restoration was the universal thought at first. Congressional +resolutions in 1861 declared that the war was not waged "for the purpose +of overthrowing or interfering with the rights or established +institutions" of the seceding States. Their action was looked upon as an +insurrection against the state government as well as against the United +States. Accordingly, when a handful of Virginia loyalists, in the summer +of 1861, formed a state government and elected national senators and +representatives, President and Congress recognized them as the true +State of Virginia. + +Following out the same idea, President Lincoln proclaimed in 1863 that +as soon as one-tenth of the voters of any seceded State would swear to +abide by the Constitution and the emancipation laws they might form a +state government. In this way Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee were +reconstructed during 1863 and 1865. + +The hand of the assassin removed Lincoln from the scene of action at a +time when North and South alike stood most in need of his kind heart, +tact, and firmness. Andrew Johnson succeeded to a task for which he was +ill-fitted. Conceited, obstinate, and pugnacious, he began by alarming +the South with threats of wholesale punishment for the "crime of +treason," and ended by alienating his own party through his slack +methods of re-establishing the States. Johnson declared, and no doubt +honestly, that he was carrying out Lincoln's ideas. In May, 1865, he +offered amnesty to all but certain excepted classes, mainly civil and +military leaders, upon condition of an oath to support the Constitution, +including its Thirteenth Amendment, forbidding slavery. Though the +proclamation declaring this to be in force did not issue till December +18, 1865, it had been approved by Congress the preceding February. + +President Johnson then proceeded to reorganize the state governments. +For each seceded State, except the four already reconstructed, he +appointed a provincial governor. The governor called a State convention. +Only whites who had taken the amnesty oath could elect delegates, or +themselves be elected, to this convention. At the instance of the +President the convention adopted a constitution or legislation which +forbade slavery, declared the ordinance of secession null and void, and +repudiated the Confederate debt. The convention then appointed times and +places for the election of a legislature and a permanent governor. In a +few months the governmental machinery had been set in motion in all the +late Confederate States, and in December senators and representatives +from all except Texas were knocking at the doors of Congress. + +Thus far the President had had full sway. But upon the re-assembling of +Congress in December, it became apparent that he and his party were not +in harmony. Congress, still overwhelmingly republican, refused to admit +the southern delegates, and appointed a committee to investigate the +condition of affairs in the southern States. Its report was anything but +re-assuring, and Congress, mainly under the lead of Thaddeus Stevens, +boldly proceeded to rip up the entire presidential work. + +Several considerations led Congress to this course. They denied the +President's right, on his own sole authority, to re-establish permanent +governments in the States in question. Furthermore, the new state +governments were declared unlawful because their constitutions had not +been submitted to the people for ratification. Congress also maintained +that only the law-making power could of right determine the conditions +of re-admission to the Union, and judge whether or not those conditions +had been fulfilled. + +But the consideration which outweighed all others in favor of the +congressional procedure was the alarming temper and acts of the South +itself. The Carolinas and Georgia had simply repealed the ordinance of +secession instead of declaring it null and void. The reconstructed +legislatures pensioned Confederate soldiers and their families. +"Notorious and unpardoned rebels" were elected as state officers and to +Congress. + +Worse than this, nearly all the southern States passed laws which went +far toward reducing the blacks again to slavery. In Virginia, if a negro +broke his labor-contract, the employer could pursue him and compel him +to work an extra month, with chain and ball if necessary. In Mississippi +negro children who were orphans, or whose parents did not support them, +were to be apprenticed till they became of age. Their masters could +inflict upon them "moderate corporal punishment," and re-capture such as +ran away. In South Carolina any negro engaging in business had to pay +one hundred dollars yearly as a license. Mechanics were fined ten +dollars each a year for prosecuting their trades. No negro could settle +in the State without giving bonds for his good behavior and support. In +Louisiana a farm laborer was required to make a year's contract; if he +failed to work out the time, he could be punished by forced labor upon +public works. Not all the new southern legislation was of this savage +character, and this itself must be viewed in the light of the fact that +the negroes, trained in irresponsibility, were inclined to idleness and +theft. But it was nevertheless unjust. In some sections only the +interposition of the military and of the Freedman's Bureau made life +tolerable to the blacks. + +[1866] + +As an offset to the above dangerous acts and tendencies, Congress, in +the spring of 1866, passed the Fourteenth Amendment [footnote: Declared +in force July 28, 1868, having been ratified by three-fourths of the +States] and submitted it to the States for ratification. It was meant to +insure to negroes in every State all the rights of citizens and the +equal protection of the laws. If and so long as negroes were in any +State forbidden to vote, it reduced that State's representation in +Congress proportionally; it excluded from national and state offices +certain specified Confederate leaders; and it guarded the national debt, +repudiating all indebtedness on behalf of the Rebellion. Every secession +State but Tennessee rejected the amendment. + +[1868] + +Congress replied by the "iron law" of March 2, 1867. "Secessia" was +divided into five districts and placed under military rule, there to +remain until certain conditions were fulfilled. These conditions were, +in brief, the calling of a state convention by the loyal citizens, +blacks included; the framing by the convention of a constitution +enfranchising negroes; the ratification of this constitution by the +people and its approval by Congress; the ratification of the Fourteenth +Amendment by the new legislature. Having conformed to these +prescriptions the State might be represented in Congress and consider +itself fully restored to the Union. A supplementary law of March 19th +hastened the process by giving the district commanders surveillance of +registration and the initiative in calling conventions. + +By June, 1868, a sufficient number of the southern States had complied +with the conditions to make the Fourteenth Amendment law. Virginia, +Mississippi, and Texas held out till 1870, and hence were forced to +ratify the Fifteenth Amendment also. Not till January 30, 1871, were all +the States again represented in both Houses of Congress as in 1860. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Edwin M. Stanton. + + +All through the days of congressional reconstruction the antagonism +between President and Congress steadily increased. Every step in the +progress encountered the President's uttermost opposition and spite. He +vetoed all important reconstruction measures, which were promptly +carried over his veto. There was much violent language and bitter +feeling on both sides. The irritation finally culminated when the House +entered articles of impeachment against Johnson--the only case of the +kind in our history involving a President. The charges were tried before +the Senate in March, 1868, the Chief Justice presiding, and occupied +three weeks. William M. Evarts was Johnson's counsel, and a glittering +array of legal talent appeared on both sides. The main charge was that +the President had wilfully violated the Tenure of Office Act in removing +Secretary Stanton from the Cabinet after the Senate had once refused to +concur in his removal. The House was hasty in bringing the prosecution. +The President was acquitted by a vote of 19 against and 35 for +impeachment--one vote less than the two-thirds necessary to impeach. The +Johnson-Congressional conflict proved one of the most mortifying +episodes in our country's history. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Ulysses S. Grant. + + + +PERIOD V. + +THE CEMENTED UNION + +1868-1888 + +CHAPTER I. + +POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE LAST TWO DECADES + +[1868] + +The presidential election of 1868 was decided at Appomattox. General +Grant was borne to the White House on a floodtide of popularity, +carrying twenty-six out of the thirty-four voting States. Schuyler +Colfax, of Indiana, became Vice-President. The Democrats had nominated +Horatio Seymour, of New York, and F. P. Blair, of Missouri. +Reconstruction was the great issue. The democratic platform demanded +universal amnesty and the immediate restoration of all the commonwealths +lately in secession, and insisted that the regulation of the franchise +should be left with States. + +[1870] + +The management of the South was the most serious problem before the new +administration. The whites were striving by fair means and foul to get +political power back into their own hands. The reconstructed state +governments, dependent upon black majorities, were too weak for +successful resistance. The Ku-Klux and similar organizations were +practically a masked army. The President was appealed to for military +aid, and he responded. Small detachments of United States troops hurried +hither and thither. Wherever they appeared resistance ceased; but when +fresh outbreaks elsewhere called the soldiers away, the fight against +the hated state government was immediately renewed. The negroes soon +learned to stay at home on election day, and the whites, once in the +saddle, were too skilful riders to be thrown. + +[1872] + +Congress, meanwhile, still strongly republican, was taking active +measures to protect the blacks. In 1870 it passed an act imposing fines +and damages for a conspiracy to deprive negroes of the suffrage. The +Force Act of 1871 was a much harsher measure. It empowered the President +to employ the army, navy, and militia to suppress combinations which +deprived the negro of the rights guaranteed him by the Fourteenth +Amendment. For such combinations to appear in arms was made rebellion +against the United States, and the President might suspend habeas corpus +in the rebellious district. By President Grant, in the fall of 1871, +this was actually done in parts of the Carolinas. State registrations +and elections were to be supervised by United States marshals, who could +command the help of the United States military or naval forces. + +The Force Act outran popular feeling. It came dangerously near the +practical suspension of state government in the South, and many at the +North, including some Republicans, thought the latter result a greater +evil than even the temporary abeyance of negro suffrage. The "Liberal +Republicans" bolted. In 1872 they nominated Horace Greeley for the +Presidency, and adopted a platform declaring local self-government a +better safeguard for the rights of all citizens than centralized power. +The platform also protested against the supremacy of the military over +the civil power and the suspension of habeas corpus, and favored +universal amnesty to men at the South. Charles Sumner, Stanley Matthews, +Carl Schurz, David A. Wells, and many other prominent Republicans +engaged in the opposition. + +Thinking their opportunity had come, the Democrats indorsed the +Liberals' platform and nominees. The Republicans re-nominated Grant by +acclamation, and joined with him on the ticket Henry Wilson, of +Massachusetts. + +As the campaign went on, the Greeley movement developed remarkable +strength and remarkable weakness. Speaking for years through the New +York Tribune, Mr. Greeley had won, in a remarkable degree, the respect +and even the affection of the country. His offer to give bail for +Jefferson Davis in his imprisonment, and his stanch advocacy of mercy to +all who had engaged in secession, so soon as they had grounded arms, +made him hosts of friends even in the South, He took the stump himself, +making the tour of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, and crowds of +Republicans came to see and hear their former champion. + +But the Democrats could not heartily unite in the support of such a +lifelong and bitter opponent of their party. Some supported a third +ticket, while many others did not vote at all. Mr. Greeley, too, an +ardent protectionist, was not popular with the influential free-trade +element among the Liberals themselves. The election resulted in a +sweeping victory for the republican ticket. The Democrats carried but +six States, and those were all in the South. Within a month after the +election, Mr. Greeley died, broken down by over-exertion, family +bereavement, and disappointed ambition. + +[1874] + +Troubles in the South continued during Grant's second term. The turmoil +reached its height in Louisiana in 1874. Ever since 1872 the whites in +that State had been chafing under republican rule. The election of +Governor Kellogg was disputed, and he was accused of having plunged the +State into ruinous debt. In August, 1874, a disturbance occurred which +ended in the deliberate shooting of six republican officials. President +Grant prepared to send military aid to the Kellogg government. Thereupon +Penn, the defeated candidate for Lieutenant-governor in 1872, issued an +address to the people, claiming to be the lawful executive of Louisiana, +and calling upon the state militia to arm and drive "the usurpers from +power." Barricades were thrown up in the streets of New Orleans, and on +September 14th a severe fight took place between the insurgents and the +state forces, in which a dozen were killed on each side. On the next day +the state-house was surrendered to the militia, ten thousand of whom +had responded to Penn's call. Governor Kellogg took refuge in the +custom-house. Penn was formally inducted into office. United States +troops were hurried to the scene. Agreeably to their professions of +loyalty toward the Federal Government, the insurgents surrendered the +state property to the United States authorities without resistance, but +under protest. The Kellogg government was re-instated. + +[1875] + +Troops at the polls secured quiet in the November elections. The +returning board decided that the Republicans had elected their governor +and fifty-four members of the legislature. Fifty-two members were +democratic, while the election of five members remained in doubt, and +was left to the decision of the legislature. The Democrats vehemently +protested against the decision of the returning board, claiming an +all-round victory. Fearing trouble at the assembling of the legislature +in January, 1875, President Grant placed General Sheridan in command at +New Orleans. The legislature met on January 4th. Our reports of what +followed are conflicting. The admitted facts are that the democratic +members, lawfully or unlawfully, placed a speaker in the chair. Some +disorder ensuing, United States soldiers were called in and, at the +request of the democratic speaker, restored quiet. The Republicans +meanwhile had left the house. The Democrats then elected members to fill +the five seats left vacant by the returning board. Later in the day, +United States troops, under orders from Governor Kellogg, to whom the +republican legislators had appealed, ejected the five new members. The +Republicans re-entered the house, and the Democrats thereupon withdrew. +Subsequently a congressional committee made unsuccessful attempts to +settle the dispute. The democratic members finally returned, and a +sullen acquiescence in the Kellogg government gradually prevailed. + +[1876] + +By 1876 every southern State was solidly democratic except Louisiana, +South Carolina, and Florida, and in these republican governments were +upheld only by the bayonet. + +The presidential election of 1876 was a contest of general tendencies +rather than of definite principles. The opposing parties were more +nearly matched than they had been since 1860. The Democrats nominated +Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. +Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York, +became the republican standard-bearers. The election passed off quietly, +troops being stationed at the polls in turbulent quarters. Mr. Tilden +carried New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut. With a solid +South, he had won the day. But the returning boards of Louisiana, +Florida, and South Carolina, throwing out the votes of several +democratic districts on the ground of fraud or intimidation, decided +that those States had gone republican, giving Hayes a majority of one in +the electoral college. The Democrats raised the cry of fraud. Suppressed +excitement pervaded the country. Threats were even muttered that Hayes +would never be inaugurated. President Grant quietly strengthened the +military force in and about Washington. The country looked to Congress +for a peaceful solution of the problem, and not in vain. + +The Constitution provides that "the President of the Senate shall, in +presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the +[electoral] certificates, and the votes shall then be counted." Certain +Republicans held that the power to count the votes lay with the +President of the Senate, the House and Senate being mere spectators. The +Democrats naturally objected to this construction, since Mr. Ferry, the +republican president of the Senate, could then count the votes of the +disputed States for Hayes. + +The Democrats insisted that Congress should continue the practice +followed since 1865, which was that no vote objected to should be +counted except by the concurrence of both houses. The House was strongly +democratic; by throwing out the vote of one State it could elect Tilden. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Samuel J. Tilden. +After a pastel by Sarony in the house at Gramercy Park. + + +[1877] + +The deadlock could be broken only by a compromise. A joint committee +reported the famous Electoral Commission Bill, which passed House and +Senate by large majorities; 186 Democrats voting for the bill and 18 +against it, while the republican vote stood 52 for and 75 against. The +bill created a commission of five senators, five representatives, and +five justices of the United States Supreme Court, the fifth justice +being chosen by the four appointed in the bill. Previous to this choice +the commission contained seven Democrats and seven Republicans. It was +expected that the fifth justice would be Hon. David Davis, of Illinois, +a neutral with democratic leanings; but his unexpected election as +democratic senator from his State caused Justice Bradley to be selected +to the post of decisive umpire. The votes of all disputed States were to +be submitted to the commission for decision. + +It was drawing perilously near to inauguration day. The commission met +on the last day of January. The cases of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon, and +South Carolina were in succession submitted to it by Congress. Eminent +counsel appeared for each side. There were double sets of returns from +everyone of the States named. In the three southern States the governor +recognized by the United States had signed the republican certificates. +The democratic certificates from Florida were signed by the state +attorney-general and the new democratic governor; those from Louisiana +by the democratic gubernatorial candidate, who claimed to be the lawful +governor; those from South Carolina by no state official, the Tilden +electors simply claiming to have been chosen by the popular vote and +rejected by the returning board. In Oregon the democratic governor +declared one of the Hayes electors ineligible because an office-holder, +and gave a certificate to Cronin, the highest Tilden elector, instead. +The other two Hayes electors refused to recognize Cronin, and, +associating with them the rejected republican elector, presented a +certificate signed by the secretary of state. Cronin, appointing two new +electors to act with him, cast his vote for Tilden, his associates +voting for Hayes. This certificate was signed by the governor and +attested by the secretary of state. + +After deciding not to go behind any returns which were prima facie +lawful, the commission, by a strict party vote of eight to seven, gave a +decision for the Hayes electors in every case. March 2d it adjourned, +and three days later Hayes was inaugurated without disturbance. + +The whole country heaved a sigh of relief. All agreed that provision +must be made against such peril in the future; but it was not till late +in 1886 that Congress could agree upon the necessary measure. The +Electoral Count Bill was then passed, and signed by the President on +February 3, 1887. It aims to throw upon each State, so far as possible, +the responsibility of determining how its own presidential vote has been +cast. It provides that the President of the Senate shall open the +electoral certificates in the presence of both houses, and hand them to +the tellers, two from each house, who are to read them aloud and record +the votes. + +If there has been no dispute as to the list of electors from a State, +such list, where certified in due form, is to be accepted as a matter of +course. In case of dispute, the procedure is as follows: If but one set +of returns appears and this is authenticated by a state electoral +tribunal constituted to settle the dispute, such returns shall be +conclusive. If there are two or more sets of returns, the set approved +by the state tribunal shall be accepted. If there are two rival +tribunals, the vote of the State shall be thrown out, unless both +houses, acting separately, agree upon the lawfulness of one tribunal or +the other. If there has been no decision by a tribunal, those votes +shall be counted which both houses, acting separately, decide to be +lawful. If the houses disagree, the votes certified to by the governor +shall be accepted. + +[1880] + +President Hayes's first important action was the withdrawal of troops +from South Carolina and Louisiana, where the rival governments existed +side by side. The republican governments at once fell to the ground. As +the Democrats had already got control in Florida, the "solid South" was +now an accomplished fact. Financial questions were those which chiefly +occupied the public mind during Hayes's administration. They are +referred to in Chapter VII., below. + +Returning from a remarkable tour around the world, General Grant became +in 1880 a candidate for a third-term nomination. The deadlock in the +republican convention between him and Mr. Blaine was broken by the +nomination of James A. Garfield, of Ohio. Chester A. Arthur, of New +York, was the vice-presidential candidate. The Democrats nominated the +hero of Gettysburg, the brave and renowned General W. S. Hancock, of +Pennsylvania, and William H. English, of Indiana. Garfield was elected, +receiving 214 electoral votes against 155 for Hancock. Hancock carried +every southern State; Garfield every northern State except New Jersey, +Nevada, and California. + +[1881] + +President Garfield had hardly entered upon his high duties when he was +cut down by the hand of an assassin. On the morning of July 2, 1881, the +President entered the railway station at Washington, intending to take +an eastern trip. Charles J. Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker, crept +up behind him and fired two bullets at him, one of which lodged in his +back. The President died on September 19th, after weeks of suffering. +Vice-President Arthur succeeded to the presidency, and had an uneventful +but respectable administration. + +[1882] + +Guiteau's trial began in November and lasted more than two months. The +defence was insanity. The assassin maintained that he was inspired to +commit the deed, and that it was a political necessity. The "stalwart" +Republicans, headed by Senator Conkling, had quarrelled with the +President over certain appointments unacceptable to the New York +senator; Guiteau pretended to think the removal of Mr. Garfield +necessary to the unity of the party and the salvation of the country. +The prosecution showed that Guiteau had long been an unprincipled +adventurer, greedy for notoriety; that he first conceived of killing the +President after his hopes of office were finally destroyed; and that he +had planned the murder several weeks in advance. Guiteau was found +guilty, and executed at Washington on June 30, 1882. The autopsy showed +no disease of the brain. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +James A. Garfield. +From a photograph by C. M. Bell, Washington, D. C. + + +[1881] + +Although it had no logical connection with the "spoils" system, the +assassination of President Garfield called the attention of the whole +country to the crying need of reform in the civil service. Ever since +the days of President Jackson, in 1829, appointments to the minor +federal offices had been used for the payment of party debts and to keep +up partisan interest. This practice incurred the deep condemnation of +Webster, Clay, Calhoun, and others, but no practical steps toward reform +were taken till 1871. The abuses of the spoils system had then become so +flagrant that Congress created a civil service commission, which +instituted competitive examinations to test the merits of candidates for +office in the departments at Washington. President Grant reported that +the new methods "had given persons of superior capacity to the service'" +But Congress, always niggardly in its appropriations for the work of the +commission, after 1875 cut them off altogether, and the rules were +suspended. + +Under President Hayes civil service reform made considerable progress in +an irregular way. Secretary Schurz enforced competitive examinations in +the Interior department. They were also applied by Mr. James to the New +York Post-office, and, as the result, one-third more work was done with +less cost. Similar good results followed the enforcement of the "merit +system" in the New York custom-house after 1879. President Hayes also +strongly condemned political assessments upon office-holders, but with +small practical effect. + +[1874] + +The alarming increase of corruption in political circles generally, +after the war, helped to create popular sentiment for reform. Corrupt +"rings" sprang up in every city. The "whiskey ring," composed of +distillers and government employees, assumed national proportions in +1874, cheating the Government out of a large part of its revenue from +spirits. Liberal appropriations for building a navy were squandered. + +During the campaign of 1872, the Democrats charged several prominent +Congressmen with having taken bribes, in 1867-68, to vote for +legislation desired by the Union Pacific Railroad. At the request of the +accused, an examination was had by a House committee. The committee's +report in 1873 recommended the expulsion of Representatives Oakes Ames +and James Brooks. Mr. Ames was accused of selling to Congressmen at +reduced rates, with intent to influence their votes, shares of stock in +the "Credit Mobilier," a corporation for the construction of the Union +Pacific Railroad. Mr. Brooks, who was a government director in the +railroad, was charged with receiving such shares. The House did not +expel the two members, but severely condemned them. Shadows of varying +density fell upon many prominent politicians and darkened their +subsequent careers. + +[1883] + +The tragic fate of President Garfield, following these and other +revelations of political corruption, brought public sentiment on civil +service reform to a head. A bill prepared by the Civil Service Reform +League, and introduced by Senator Pendleton, of Ohio, passed Congress in +January, 1883, and on the 16th received the signature of the President. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +James G. Blaine. + + +It authorized the President, with the consent of the Senate, to appoint +three civil service commissioners, who were to institute competitive +examinations open to all persons desiring to enter the government +employ. It provided that the clerks in the departments at Washington, +and in every customs district or post-office where fifty or more were +employed, should be arranged in classes, and that in the future only +persons who had passed the examinations should be appointed to service +in these offices or promoted from a lower class to a higher, preference +being given according to rank in the examinations. Candidates were to +serve six months' probation at practical work before receiving a final +appointment. The bill struck a heavy blow at political assessments, by +declaring that no official should be removed for refusing to contribute +to political funds. Congressmen or government officials convicted of +soliciting or receiving political assessments from government employees +became liable to a five thousand dollar fine, or three years' +imprisonment, or both. Persons in the government service were forbidden +to use their official authority or influence to coerce the political +action of anyone, or to interfere with elections. + +[1873-1884] + +Dorman B. Eaton, Leroy B. Thoman, and John M. Gregory were appointed +commissioners by President Arthur. By the end of the year the new system +was fairly in operation. Besides the departments at Washington, it +applied to eleven customs districts and twenty-three post-offices where +fifty or more officials were employed. The law could be thoroughly +tested only when a new party came into power; that time was near at +hand. + +The deepest and most significant political movement of the last twenty +years has been the gradual recovery of power by the Democracy. For some +years after the Rebellion, this party's war record was a millstone +around its neck. The financial distress in 1873 and the corruption +prevalent in political circles weakened the party in power, while the +Democracy, putting slavery and reconstruction behind its back, turned to +new issues, and raised the cry of "economy" and "reform." + +The state elections of 1874 witnessed a "tidal wave" of democratic +victories. Out of 292 members of the House in 1875, 198 were democratic. +Two-thirds of the Senators were still republican. Even by republican +reckoning, the democratic presidential ticket in 1876 received a popular +majority of 157,000 and lacked but one electoral vote. In 1879 both +houses of Congress were democratic, by small majorities, for the first +time since 1856. The tide ebbed in 1880, the Democrats losing control of +the House, and suffering a decisive defeat in the presidential election; +but with 1884 the fortune of the Democracy reached high-water mark. + +In this year James G. Blaine, of Maine, and John A. Logan, of Illinois, +received the republican nomination for President and Vice-President. A +number of Independent Republicans, including the most earnest advocates +of civil service reform, were strongly opposed to Mr. Blaine, alleging +him to be personally corrupt and the representative of corrupt political +methods. They met in conference, denounced the nominations, and later +indorsed the democratic nominees--Grover Cleveland, governor of New +York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. George W. Curtis, Carl +Schurz, and other prominent Republicans took part in the movement. +Several influential Independent Republican papers, including the New +York Times, Boston Herald, and Springfield Republican, joined the bolt. + +The campaign was bitterly personal, attacks upon the characters of the +candidates taking the place of a discussion of principles. Mr. Cleveland +was elected, receiving 219 electoral votes against 182 for Mr. Blaine. +He carried every southern State, besides New York, Connecticut, Indiana, +Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey. The total popular vote was over +10,000,000--the largest ever cast. Cleveland had 4,911,000, a plurality +of 62,000 over Blaine. The Democrats regained control of the House in +1883, and held it by a considerable majority to the end of Mr. +Cleveland's first term. In the Senate, until the election of 1892, the +Republicans continued to have a small majority. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Grover Cleveland. +From a photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell, Washington, D. C. + + +Upon the accession of the new administration to power, the country +waited with deep interest to see its effect upon the civil service. Mr. +Cleveland had pledged himself to a rigid enforcement of the new law, and +encouraged all to believe that with him impartial civil service would +not be confined to the few offices thus protected. After the first few +months of Cleveland's administration, one fact was apparent: for the +first time since the days of Jackson a change of the party in power had +not been followed by a clean sweep among the holders of offices. But, as +the subsequent record painfully shows, office-holders' pressure proved +too strong for Mr. Cleveland's resolution. + +There were then about 120,000 government employees. Of these, not far +from 14,000 were covered by the Pendleton law. All the other minor +places were held at the pleasure of superior officers. These latter +officers numbered about 58,000. In August, 1887, from 45,000 to 48,000 +of them had been changed, implying change in the offices dependent upon +them. There were some 55,000 postmasters, 2,400 of whom were appointed +by the President for a term of four years, the rest by the +postmaster-general at pleasure. At the date named, from 37,000 to 47,000 +changes had been made in this department. These changes, of course, were +not all removals, as many vacancies occur by expiration of terms, death +of incumbents, and other causes. + +[1886] + +An important statute regarding the presidential succession, introduced +by Senator Hoar, passed Congress in January, 1886. By previous statutes, +in case of the removal, death, resignation, or disability of the +President and Vice-President, the presidency passed in order to the +temporary President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House. The +latter two might be of the opposite party from the President's, so that +by the succession of either the will of the people as expressed in the +presidential election would manifestly be defeated. Moreover, in case of +a President's death and the accession of the Vice-President, the latter, +too, might die, and thus both the presidency and the vice-presidency +become vacant in the interim between two Congresses, when there is +neither President of the Senate nor Speaker of the House. Thus President +Garfield died September 19, 1881, and the XLVlllth Congress did not +convene to choose a Speaker until the next December. The Senate had +adjourned without electing a presiding officer. Had President Arthur +died at any moment during the intervening period--and it is said that he +was for a time in imminent danger of death--the distracting contingency +just spoken of would have been upon the country. + +According to the new law, in case of a vacancy in both presidency and +vice-presidency, the presidency devolves upon the members of the +cabinet in the historical order of the establishment of their +departments, beginning with the Secretary of State. Should he die, be +impeached, or disabled, the Secretary of the Treasury would become +President, to be followed in like crisis by the Secretary of War, he by +the Attorney-General, he by the Postmaster-General, he by the Secretary +of the Navy, he by the Secretary of the Interior, and he by the +Secretary of Agriculture. + +We have still no legal or official criterion of a President's +disability. We do not know whether, during Garfield's illness, for +instance--apparently a clear case of disability--it was proper for his +cabinet to perform his presidential duties, or whether Arthur should not +have assumed these. Barring this chance for conflict, it is not easy to +think of an emergency in which the chief magistracy can now fall vacant, +or the appropriate incumbent thereof be in doubt. + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE TREATY OF WASHINGTON + +[1871] + +The year 1871 was marked by the conclusion of an important treaty +between England and the United States. Besides settling certain +questions which threatened the friendly relations of the two countries, +the treaty enunciated important principles of international law, and +afforded the world a shining instance of peaceful arbitration as a +substitute for the horrors of war. + +Ever since 1863 the United States had been seeking satisfaction from +Great Britain for the depredations committed by the Alabama and other +Confederate cruisers sailing from English ports. Negotiations were +broken off in 1865 and again in 1868. The next year Reverdy Johnson, +American Minister to England, negotiated a treaty, but it was rejected +by the Senate. In January, 1871, the British Government proposed a +joint commission for the settlement of questions connected with the +Canadian fisheries. Mr. Fish, our Secretary of State, replied that the +settlement of the "Alabama Claims" would be "essential to the +restoration of cordial and amicable relations between the two +governments." England consented to submit this question also to the +commission, and on February 27th five high commissioners from each +country met at Washington. The British delegation included cabinet +officers, the minister to the United States, and an Oxford professor of +international law. The American commissioners were of equally high +station, the Secretary of State, an associate justice of the Supreme +Court, and our minister to England being of their number. + +On May 8th the commission completed a treaty which was speedily ratified +by both governments. It provided for arbitration upon the "Alabama +Claims," upon other claims by citizens of either country for damages +during the Rebellion, upon the fisheries, and upon the northwest +boundary of the United States. Provisions were also made by it for the +common use of the lakes, rivers, and canals along the Canadian border, +and for the transit of merchandise free of duty, under certain +conditions, across either country to and from certain ports. + +The fisheries part of the treaty is discussed in the next chapter. The +question of the northwest boundary was referred to the decision of the +German emperor, William I. The treaty of 1846 had left it doubtful +whether the boundary line through the channel between Vancouver Island +and the main-land should be so run as to include the island of San Juan, +with its group, in the United States or in Canada. The emperor's +decision, given in 1872, was in favor of the United States. + +Three commissioners--one appointed by each government and a third +appointed jointly--met in Washington, September 26, 1871, to pass +judgment upon the war claims other than the "Alabama Claims." The +American claims of this class, amounting to less than $1,000,000, were +all rejected on the ground that the British Government was not proved +responsible for the damages incurred. British subjects put in claims for +$96,000,000. The commission allowed less than $2,000,000, which the +United States Government promptly paid into the British treasury. + +But far the most important and interesting part of the treaty was the +provision for the settlement of the "Alabama Claims." England's +unfriendly attitude during the war and her subsequent refusal to submit +the "claims" to arbitration, had stirred up much hard feeling throughout +the United States. The graceful expression, in the preamble to the +treaty, of England's regret for the ravages of the cruisers was +therefore very gratifying. More material satisfaction was to follow. The +treaty provided that the claims should be submitted to a tribunal of +five persons--one appointed by each government and one each by the +Emperor of Brazil, the President of Switzerland, and the King of Italy. + +The tribunal met at Geneva, Switzerland, December 15, 1871. Charles +Francis Adams, our minister to England during the war, was the United +States member, and Lord Chief Justice Cockburn the English. Baron +Itajuba, the Brazilian minister plenipotentiary to France, Count +Sclopis, an Italian minister of State, and M. Jaques Staempfli, of +Switzerland, comprised the rest of the tribunal. Each side was +represented by counsel, Caleb Cushing, William M. Evarts, and Morrison +R. Waite appearing for the United States. An agent presented the printed +case of each government. + +[1872] + +The American claims included direct and indirect losses--direct, by the +destruction of vessels with their cargoes and by national expenditure in +chasing the Confederate cruisers; indirect, by the loss of a large part +of the United States ocean carrying trade, by increased marine insurance +rates, and by the prolongation of the war with proportionally increased +expense. Great Britain vehemently objected to the indirect claims coming +before the tribunal, and at one time seemed about to withdraw. Upon +reassembling in June, 1872, the tribunal decided that the indirect +claims were not admissible, and the case went forward. Counsel having +presented their respective arguments, the tribunal took up the case of +each cruiser separately. During the consideration of damages it sat with +closed doors, only the arbitrators being present. On September 14th, +after thirty-two conferences, the tribunal gave its decision. + +The Geneva case is of two-fold interest, first, for its decision of the +facts involved, and the consequent award; second, for its enunciation of +important principles of international law. + +The Treaty of Washington laid down three rules for the guidance of the +tribunal. They are such important contributions to international law +that they must be quoted in full. + +"A neutral government is bound, + +"First: To use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming or +equipping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has +reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry on war +against a power with which it is at peace, and also to use like +diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel +intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been +specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to +warlike use. + +"Secondly: Not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of its +ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other, or +for the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of military supplies or +arms, or the recruitment of men. + +"Thirdly: To exercise due diligence in its own ports and waters, and as +to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the +foregoing obligations and duties." + +Great Britain denied, in the text of the treaty, that these rules were a +true statement of the principles of international law in force during +the Rebellion, but consented that the "Alabama Claims" should be decided +in accordance with them. Both countries also agreed to abide by them in +future and to invite other maritime powers to do the same. + +Questions being raised by the counsel as to the interpretation of +certain terms and the scope of certain provisions in the three rules, +the tribunal found it necessary to make the following preliminary +decisions: + +1. The meaning of "due diligence." The tribunal took the ground that +what constitutes "due diligence" varies with the circumstances of the +case. The greater the probable damage to either belligerent, the greater +must be the care taken by the neutral government to prevent the escape +of cruisers from its ports. + +2. Should a neutral detain an escaped cruiser when it re-enters the +neutral's jurisdiction, the cruiser having in the meantime been +regularly commissioned by its government? The arbitrators decided that +the neutral had a right to detain such a cruiser, in spite of its +commission, but was under no positive obligation to do so. + +3. Does a neutral's responsibility end with the enforcement of its local +laws to prevent the escape of cruisers, even if those laws are +inadequate? Decision was given that the case must be determined by +international law and not by national legislation. If a country's +regulations for carrying out its acknowledged international duties are +ineffective, they ought to be changed. + +These decisions in international law, coming from so exalted a source, +were of world-wide significance. The verdict on the facts in the case +had, however, more immediate interest for the two contestants. + +The American case claimed damages for losses inflicted by fourteen +cruisers and four tenders. The award allowed for only the Alabama with +her tender, the Florida with her three tenders, and the Shenandoah +during a part of her career. With regard to the Alabama the culpability +of the British Government was so clearly shown that even the English +arbitrator voted in favor of the American claim. The Florida was +permitted to escape from Liverpool although Mr. Adams, the United States +minister, repeatedly called the attention of the authorities to her +notorious warlike character. The vessel was, furthermore, libelled at +Nassau, a British colonial port, but the British officials allowed her +to take in supplies and put to sea. The Shenandoah set sail from +Liverpool with the connivance of the Government, received her armament +at the Madeira Islands, and after a destructive career was welcomed at +the British port of Melbourne, repaired in a government slip, and +furnished with supplies and recruits. The award held Great Britain +responsible only for her career after leaving Melbourne. + +The American case further claimed damages for national expense in +chasing the cruisers, and for the prospective earnings of the lost +merchantmen, but these claims, along with those explicitly denounced as +indirect, were rejected. + +The tribunal awarded $15,500,000 damages in gold for the vessels and +cargoes destroyed by the three cruisers and their tenders. Of this sum, +about $2,000,000 was interest at six per cent. The only dissenting voice +was that of the British member, who submitted a long and able, but +somewhat spiteful, minority report. + +The award naturally gave great satisfaction in the United States. The +money compensation was in itself a source of considerable gratulation; +but the fact that stiff-backed England had by a clearly impartial +tribunal of the highest character been declared in the wrong was not the +least pleasurable side of the result. American citizens should never +forget the services, in this delicate and difficult matter, of Mr. +Adams. By his great knowledge of law, his careful gathering of evidence, +and his brave, sturdy and incessant, though apparently useless, +remonstrances with the British authorities while the cruisers were +building and their depredations going on, he established a case which +could not be gainsaid. Hardly had he opened his portfolio at Geneva when +the learned arbitrators saw that his suit must be allowed. + +England promptly handed over to the United States the price of her +sympathy with rebellion and slavery. The course of Congress in dealing +with the award was not very creditable. For four years the money lay in +the treasury vaults, piling up interest at five per cent. until it +amounted to $20,000,000. A Court of Alabama Claims was then convened, +where private claimants might press their suits. Insurance companies +which could show that their losses on vessels destroyed by the cruisers +exceeded the premiums received, were entitled to be paid the difference, +with interest at four per cent. + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE FISHERIES DISPUTE + +[1783 ] + +Our glance at the Treaty of Washington introduces us to an international +complication which has been transmitted from the very birthday of the +nation, and is, alas, still unsettled, spite of the earnest efforts to +this end made since 1885. Article 3 of the treaty of 1783 was as +follows: "It is agreed that the people of the United States shall +continue to enjoy unmolested the right to take fish of every kind on the +Grand Bank and on all the other banks of Newfoundland; also in the Gulf +of St. Lawrence and at all other places in the sea where the inhabitants +of both countries used at any time heretofore to fish; and also that the +inhabitants of the United States shall have liberty to take fish of +every kind on such part of the coast of Newfoundland as British +fishermen shall use [but not to dry or cure the same on that island]; +and also on the coasts, bays, and creeks of all other of his Britannic +Majesty's dominions in America, and that the American fishermen shall +have liberty to dry and cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbors, +and creeks of Nova Scotia, Magdalen Islands, and Labrador, so long as +the same shall remain unsettled; but so soon as the same, or either of +them, shall be settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to +dry or cure fish at such settlement without a previous agreement for +that purpose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the +ground." + +This provision conveyed to fishermen from the United States two valuable +privileges--that of fishing in British waters, namely, within three +miles of the British coast, and that of drying and curing fish, wherever +caught, upon certain convenient parts of the British coast. They had, +of course, like the men of all nations, apart from any treaty +stipulation, the right to fish outside the three mile limit, but this +would avail them nothing, under the then mode of conducting the +industry, unless they could freely make harbor in case of storm, and +also land to cure their catch before lading it for the homeward cruise. +What worth these rights had will be clear if we remember that fishing +had always been one of New England's foremost trades, and that the +waters off Newfoundland and Nova Scotia had from, and probably before, +Columbus's time been known as the richest fishing grounds of the globe. + +[1812] + +The commissioners at Ghent, who drew up the treaty ending the War of +1812, wrangled long over the question whether or not the war had +nullified the just cited Article 3 of 1783. Unable to agree, they signed +their treaty without deciding the question, leaving this for the future +to settle as it might. Great Britain held that our former rights had +lapsed by the war, and excluded our fishing vessels from the bays, +harbors, and creeks named above. Several of our vessels were arrested on +charge of trespass. The utmost tension still existed, in spite of the +peace, especially as in the United States the view prevailed that our +rights by the old treaty had outlived the war, notwithstanding the +silence of the Ghent document. + +[1818 ] + +At length, in 1818, a new treaty was entered into upon the question, +signed October 20th, ratified by England November 2d, and by the United +States January 28, 1819. This instrument ignored our contention that +Article 3 of the treaty of 1783 was of perpetual obligation, and +restricted our right to fish in shore to the southern shores of the +Magdalen Islands, the west and southwest coasts of Newfoundland from the +Rameau Islands round to Quirpon Island, and the Labrador coast from +Mount Joly northward. Only here could our fishermen fish within the +three mile limit, and they could dry and cure only on the named parts of +Labrador and Newfoundland, Magdalen Islands being now excluded from this +use. Even on Labrador and Newfoundland the privilege of drying and +curing was to be cut off by settlement, except as agreement should be +made beforehand with the inhabitants. + +But the fateful clause of this treaty was the following: "And the United +States hereby renounce forever any liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed +by the inhabitants thereof, to take, dry, or cure fish on or within +three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, or harbors of his +Britannic Majesty's dominions in America not included within the +above-mentioned limits: Provided, however, that the American fishermen +shall be admitted to enter such bays or harbors for the purpose of +shelter and of repairing damages therein, of purchasing wood, and of +obtaining water, and for no other purposes whatever. But they shall be +under such restrictions as may be necessary to prevent their taking, +drying, or curing fish therein, or in any other manner whatever abusing +the privileges hereby reserved to them." + +[1854-1870] + +Troubles were soon as abundant as ever. The Canadians applied the word +"bay" to all indentations of their coast, affecting entirely to exclude +our fishermen from great bodies of water like Fundy, Chaleurs, and +Miramichi, however far parts of these might be from shore. This was the +famous "headland theory" for defining national waters. They also denied +our right to navigate the Gut of Canso, which separates Cape Breton +Island from Nova Scotia, thus forcing far out of their nearest course +our ships bound for the permitted inshore fisheries. United States +fishermen on their part persisted in exploiting the great bays, landed +upon the Magdalen Islands, pushed through the Gut, and were none too +careful at any point to find or heed the three mile line. + +June 5, 1854, was signed a treaty of reciprocity between the United +States and the British provinces, under which all the coasts of British +North America were opened to our fishing vessels, in return for similar +liberty to those of the provinces in all United States waters north of +Cape May, latitude 36 degrees, the salmon and shad fisheries of each +country being, however, reserved to itself. This arrangement was to +continue ten years at least, and then to be terminable on a year's +notice by either of the high contracting parties. Such notice having +been given by the United States one year before, reciprocity in fishing +privilege came to an end March 7, 1865. This, of course, renewed the wry +and perplexing rules of the 1818 convention, with all the naturally +consequent strife. The worst evils were, indeed, put off for a time, by +a continuance to our vessels of the right to fish in provincial water on +the payment of a small license fee. This favor was taken away in 1870, +for the alleged reason that American captains failed to procure +licenses, and in the course of this year many of our ships were seized +and confiscated. New sternness had been imparted to the provincial +policy by the Canadian Act of Confederation, valid from July I, 1867, +which joined Ontario and Quebec with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, thus +inspiring our neighbors to the north with a new sense of their strength +and importance. + +[1871-1886] + +Now came the Treaty of Washington, 1871. Its Article 18 revived Article +1 of the 1854 Reciprocity Treaty, except that Canadians could now go so +far south as the 39th parallel, and that two years' notice must precede +abrogation. Article 21 ordained between the two countries free trade in +fish-oil and in all salt-water fish. Both sides assumed that mere +reciprocity would advantage the United States the more, so that by +Article 22 a commission was provided for to award Canada a proper +balance in money. By bungling diplomacy on our part the real power in +this commission was swayed by M. Maurice Delfosse, Belgian minister at +Washington, a gentleman certain to favor Great Britain at our expense. +As a consequence, we were forced to pay for reciprocity to the round +note of $5,500,000. The money was a trifle; but its exorbitant amount +had the unhappy effect of prejudicing our people against the new +arrangement. The result was that at the earliest possible moment, viz., +July 1, 1883, our Government gave the notice necessary for its +abrogation. This followed on July 1, 1885, in the very midst of the +fishing season. A temporary diplomatic arrangement was effected, which +continued to our fishermen for the remainder of 1885 the advantages of +the recent treaty; but with the dawn of the new year, 1886, the old +convention of 1818 came once more into operation. + +So soon as the fishing season was opened the plan of the British +Government was evident. It was to deny the fishing vessels all +facilities not guaranteed by the treaty of 1818--that is, fishing +vessels of the United States would be permitted to enter Canadian ports +for shelter, repairs, wood, and water, and "for no other purposes +whatever;" also to compel all such vessels strictly to conform to both +customs and port laws. Circular letters of instruction, enjoining +vigilance, were sent to all customs officers, and swift cruisers fitted +out to look sharply after all fishing vessels from the States. On the +other hand our fishermen were not, as a whole, disposed to conform to +the existing regulations. The Treaty of Washington had been abrogated at +their request, and now many, probably most, of them were inclined to +exercise all the liberty possible in the Canadian waters. Least of all +were they willing to submit to the British interpretation of the treaty +of 1818. + +Complaints early reached Washington that the headland theory was being +applied by the provincial customs officials to exclude our vessels from +legitimate fishing places; but the Canadian Government denied that any +such thing had been done by its authority, and evidently did not incline +to push its old contention on this point. While the fishing schooner +Marion Grimes, of Gloucester, Mass., was under detention at Shelburne, +Nova Scotia, for an infraction of the customs rules, her captain having +hoisted the United States flag, this was pulled down by order of the +Canadian officer in temporary charge of her. The flag was again hoisted +and again forcibly lowered. This act awakened great resentment in the +United States, until it, too, was disavowed by the Governor-General in +Council. The Sarah H. Prior lost at sea a valuable net, which a Canadian +schooner picked up and wished to return. This was forbidden, and being +permitted to purchase no other seine, the ship came home with a broken +voyage and in debt. Captain Tupper, of the Jeannie Seaverns, having +entered the harbor of Liverpool, Nova Scotia, for shelter, was denied +permission to go and see his relatives near by or to receive them aboard +his vessel. The water-tank of the schooner Mollie Adams having burst, +her captain sought to buy two or three barrels to hold water for his +crew on their homeward voyage of five hundred miles. His request was +refused. + +The same Mollie Adams found a Nova Scotia vessel in distress and rescued +her crew. Captain Jacobs, of the Mollie, cared for the men several days, +and finally, as no assistance of any sort was proffered by the +Canadians, sent them home at his own expense. His aid to them delayed +his homeward journey, and he was also caught in a harbor from which his +vessel could pass only during very high water, which caused further +delay. Owing to these incidents his supply of provisions ran low, yet he +was denied permission to purchase anything, and as a result his homeward +tour was made on half rations or less. Many other aggravating +circumstances were connected with this case. + +In quite a number of instances American masters were refused water, the +only excuse being that they had not conformed to all the port or customs +regulations. There can be no doubt that many fishing captains were quite +too lax in this, presuming on the power of their nation and remembering +the liberties enjoyed under reciprocity, while too forgetful of the +stern letter of the treaty which the Canadians were executing against +them. It was plain on the other hand that however wrongly Canadian +subalterns may at times have acted, both the Canadian and the British +Government intended to keep within the letter of the law, while forcing +us to fish off their coasts at as great a disadvantage as possible. + +The real source of the difficulty was well characterized by Mr. Phelps, +our Minister to England. "It is to be found in the irritation that has +taken place among a portion of the Canadian people on account of the +termination by the United States Government of the treaty of Washington +on the 1st of July, 1885, whereby fish imported from Canada into the +United States, which so long as that treaty remained in force was +admitted free, is now liable to the import duty provided by the general +revenue laws; and the opinion appears to have gained ground in Canada +that the United States may be driven, by harassing and annoying their +fishermen, into the adoption of a new treaty, by which Canadian fish +shall be admitted free." + +In their efforts to carry out such a policy the treaty gave the +Canadians a very great advantage. As Mr. Secretary Bayard insisted, it +certainly trangressed usual international comity when our ships were +refused needed pilots, or our hungry crews were forbidden to purchase +food in Canadian ports; but our President and Senate had, in 1818, +agreed that such cruelty should be legal. To ask for comity in the +matter was to ask for the voidance of the treaty. + +As little could we, agreeably to the treaty, presume, by use of home +permits to "touch and trade," to turn a fishing vessel at will into a +merchant vessel, as was often tried in order to evade the offensive +restrictions, or demand the liberty of freighting fish home overland in +bond. It would equally have amounted to a quashing of the treaty, had +the British and Canadians interpreted it by the easy canon of Mr. +Phelps: "The question is not what is the technical effect of the words, +but what is the construction most consonant to the dignity, the just +interests, and the friendly relations of the sovereign powers." + +Interesting but also untenable was our Government's plea for freedom to +purchase bait for deep-sea fishing. Of old, mackerel had been caught +almost solely with hooks, by the "chumming" process. In 1850 the purse +seine was introduced. Soon after 1870 its use became general, and +entirely revolutionized the business of taking mackerel. Huge quantities +of the fish could now be captured far out in the open sea, making +fishing much more profitable near home, and greatly lessening the value +to us of Canada's fishing-grounds. From these premises Mr. Bayard +argued that the true intent of the 1818 agreement, which was to protect +inshore fishing territory, would not be violated should we be allowed to +buy bait in Canada. It was replied that the old treaty was meant to +prevent our fishermen from making Canadian harbors in any way a base of +operations. + +"It was framed with the object of affording a complete and exclusive +definition of the rights and liberties which the fishermen of the United +States were thenceforward to enjoy in following their vocation, so far +as those rights could be affected by facilities for access to the shores +or waters of the British Provinces, or for intercourse with their +people. It is therefore no undue expansion of the scope of that +convention to interpret strictly those of its provisions by which such +access is denied, except to vessels requiring it for the purposes +specifically described. Such an undue expansion would, upon the other +hand, certainly take place if, under cover of its provisions, or of any +agreements relating to general commercial intercourse which may have +since been made, permission were accorded to United States fishermen to +resort habitually to the harbors of the Dominion, not for the sake of +seeking safety for their vessels or of avoiding risk to human life, but +in order to use those harbors as a general base of operations from which +to prosecute and organize with greater advantage to themselves the +industry in which they are engaged. + +"Mr. Bayard suggests that the possession by a fishing vessel of a permit +to 'touch and trade,' should give her a right to enter Canadian ports +for other than the purposes named in the treaty, or, in other words, +should give her perfect immunity from its provisions. This would amount +to a practical repeal of the treaty, because it would enable a United +States collector of customs, by issuing a license, originally only +intended for purposes of domestic customs regulation, to give exemption +from the treaty to every United States fishing vessel. The observation +that similar vessels under the British flag have the right to enter the +ports of the United States for the purchase of supplies loses its force +when it is remembered that the convention of 1818 contained no +restriction on British vessels, and no renunciation of any privileges in +regard to them." + +[1887] + +For some weeks in the spring and summer of 1886, the fishery dispute +greatly excited our country. Even threats of war with Canada were +uttered in case its government should not recede from its aggravating +position, and careful estimates made of the force we could throw across +our northern border in three days. In May, 1886, Congress placed in the +President's hands power to suspend commercial intercourse between the +two countries. Later in the year a bill was introduced in the House +cutting off all commercial relations with Canada by land or water. The +Senate advanced a more moderate proposition, to limit the proposed +arrest of traffic to water commerce and to Canadian vessels, also to +leave its enforcement optional with the President. This became law on +March 3, 1887. Under this legislation the President, on being assured +that fishing masters or crews were treated in Canadian ports any less +favorably than masters or crews of trading vessels from the most favored +nations, could, "in his discretion, by proclamation to that effect, deny +vessels, their masters and crews, of the British dominions of North +America, any entrance into the waters, ports, or places of or within the +United States." + +[1888] + +The President, however, did not think best at once to use this fearful +power, likely enough to lead to war. He preferred to make another +attempt at a peaceful settlement, through a new treaty. This had +constantly been the wish of the British Government. Accordingly, later +in the year 1887, a joint commission, consisting of Secretary Bayard, +President Angell, of Michigan University, Hon. William L. Putnam, of +Maine, on the part of the United States, and of Rt. Hon. Joseph +Chamberlain, Sir Charles Tupper, of Canada, and Sir Lionel West, the +British minister, on the part of Great Britain, met at Washington. The +commission toiled nearly all winter, and passed to the President the +result of its deliberations on February 16, 1888. + +The treaty which it drafted was necessarily a compromise. Canada thought +the British commissioners had yielded too much; many in the United +States believed our commissioners to have done the same. The document, +approved by the President, went to the Senate, where, after long debate, +it was refused ratification, August 21st. + +The commission had agreed upon a modus vivendi, to hold good, unless +revoked by the Governor-General and Council of Canada, till February, +1890, under which our fishermen might obtain in Canadian ports, on +payment of a license, the privileges of merchantmen. Many such licenses +were taken out during the season of 1888, showing the advantages which +they conveyed. Most of the fishing-masters, however, did not seek +licenses and were averse to the new treaty, preferring the terms of 1818 +to granting their rivals any further rights in our markets. Fresh fish, +including frozen and slack-salted, was already free in our ports, +competing sharply with our own catch. No one longer cared to fish +inside, or, except in emergencies, to provision at Canadian towns. +Convenient as would be the power to obtain bait near the fishing-grounds +and to trans-ship fish home in bond, neither was indispensable. Cod are +still caught with trawls and baited hooks. The best bait is squid, whose +abundance upon the Banks is what causes the cod so to frequent them. The +squid can be had freshest as well as cheapest from the peasantry of the +Newfoundland and Nova Scotia coasts; but clams carried from home were +found to do nearly as well. They would remain fresh better than squid, +but got off the hooks more easily. Accordingly, few collisions occurred +in 1888, and as the season of that year closed there was prospect that, +even without a new convention, no necessity for American retaliation +would arise. + +[1892] + +This chapter shall close with a word touching the Alaska fisheries +question, which, fortunately, had advanced a good step. In 1870 the +United States leased the Pribylov, or Seal Islands off Alaska, to the +Alaska Commercial Co. Pressed by this company, which naturally wished +the completest possible monopoly of seal-fishing, our Government +foolishly affected to treat the entire Behring Sea as a mare clausum, +belonging to the United States. Several British craft engaged in taking +seals were seized by United States vessels considerably more than three +miles from land. Great Britain of course protesting, a treaty, ratified +in March, 1892, submitted to arbitration the question between the two +governments. Seven arbitrators sat, two from the United States, Justice +Harlan and Senator Morgan, and one each from Canada, Great Britain, +Sweden, France, and Italy. This Board decided against the American +contention, denying the right of the United States to assume the +protection of seals or any property in them outside the ordinary +three-mile limit. Happy provisions were, however, made for a joint +police of Behring Sea by the two nations, for an open and a closed +fishing season, and for the careful licensing of sealing vessels. + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE SOUTH + +[1886-1870] + +It cannot be denied that the radical method of reconstruction resorted +to by Congress occasioned dreadful evils. Among other things it ignored +the natural prejudices of the whites, many of whom were as loyal as any +citizens in the land. The South, subjected to a second conquest after +having laid down its arms, felt outraged and grew sullen. To most people +in that section, as well as to very many at the North, this dictation by +Congress to acknowledged States in time of peace seemed high-handed and +guilty usurpation. Northern Congressmen incessantly called slavery +barbarism, and yet combined to transmute to-day into electors and +law-makers those who but yesterday had been slaves. Black legislatures +inevitably abused their power, becoming the instruments of base +carpetbag leaders and rings in robbing white property-holders. + + +[Illustration: Political cartoon. Two men labeled "Ohio" hanging from +a tree.] +A Facsimile put in Evidence before the Congressional Committee. +"[From the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, September 1, 1868.]" +"A PROSPECTIVE SCENE IN THE CITY OF OAKS, 4TH OF MARCH, 1869." +"Hang, curs, hang! * * * * * Their complexion is perfect gallows, +Stand fast, good fate, to their hanging! * * * * * +If they be not born to be hanged, our case is miserable." +"The above cut represents the fate in store for those great pests of +Southern society--the carpet-bagger and scalawag--if found in Dixie's +land after the break of day on the 4th of March next." + + +Nor could any except doctrinaires or the stupid have expected that the +whites would long submit to such a regime. If the South was to become +again genuine part and parcel of this Union, it could not, nor would the +North consent that it should, be permanently under bayonet rule; and so +soon as bayonets were gone, fair means or foul would speedily remove the +sceptre from colored hands. Precisely this happened. In State after +State, the whites, without the slightest formal change of constitution +or law, recovered their ancient ascendency. Where their aims could not +be realized by persuasion or other mild means, resort was had to +merciless intimidation and violence. + +The Ku-Klux Klan, a great secret society, was organized for this rough +business, numbering at first, among either its members or its abettors, +citizens of the highest respectability. Its local lodges were called +"dens," its members "ghouls," " Giants," "goblins," "titans," "furies," +"dragons," and "hydras," were names of different classes among its +officers. Usually the very existence of a "den" in the vicinity was +sufficient to render every negro docile. If more was required, a +half-dozen ghouls, making their nocturnal rounds in their hideous masks +and uniforms, frightened all but the most hardy. Any who showed fight +were whipped, maimed, or killed, treatment which extended on occasion to +their "carpet-bag" and "scalawag" friends--these titles denoting +respectively northern and southern men bold enough to take the negroes' +side. The very violence of the order, which it at last turned against +the old Southrons themselves, brought it into disrepute with its +original instigators, who were not sorry when federal marshals, put up +to it by President Grant, hunted den after den of the law-breakers to +the death. + +Yet, after all, one cannot see how the giant problem of resuscitating +the South could, under the circumstances, have been solved more +successfully. The plan proposed by President Johnson had sufficient +trial to show that it must have led to ills worse than those actually +experienced. A qualified colored suffrage would, as things then were, +have been abused. It must be remembered that the war left in the South +much less of white loyalty than it found, and Congress was certainly +justified in insisting that the revived States should be placed on the +most loyal basis possible. + +Withal, considering the stupendous upheaval in southern society marked +by the erection of bondmen into full citizens, dark days were few. +Schools arose, partly from the application of a large fund left by Mr. +George Peabody for that purpose, partly from the beneficence of the +various religious denominations interested in the elevation of the +blacks, and partly from provision by the southern States themselves. The +ballot itself proved an educator, rough but thorough. The negro vote, +now that it had become a fixed fact, was little by little courted by the +jarring factions of whites, and hence protected. Political parties, +particularly in state elections, more and more divided on other lines +than that of color. The administration of President Cleveland taught the +negro that even in National affairs he had nothing to fear from +democratic dominance. And it was plainly to the freedman's infinite +advantage, meanwhile, that he was fighting not to acquire status and +rights, but for acquired status and rights guaranteed in the organic law +of his State and the Nation. + +[1875] + +Among the white people loyalty to the old flag increased with the days. +Of course none of them would ever confess regret at having drawn the +sword, or cease to think of the lost cause with a sigh. At the same time +a rational conviction settled down upon all its most thoughtful minds +that in secession the South had been misguided. Universal was the +admission that at least for the dominant race the death of slavery was a +blessing. Northern people and intelligent immigrants from Europe +thronged in. Coolly received at first, and in some cases maltreated if +freely expressing opinions which traversed those prevalent in the +section, in the end they were tolerated and even welcomed. + +The multiplication of railways facilitated the acquaintance of southern +with northern people far beyond what had been possible before the war. +Travelling salesmen from the North penetrated the remotest hamlets at +the South, inclined from every consideration to produce the most +favorable impression possible. The selection of southerners for +important national offices by Presidents Grant, Hayes, Arthur, and +Cleveland, the election of the last-named, a Democrat, as President in +1884 and 1892, and the existence of a democratic majority in the House +of Representatives almost constantly from 1874, all felicitously +combined to beget in the people of the South a conviction that they were +really and truly citizens of the Union again. The rise in several +southern States of a strong republican organization among the whites +wrought in the same direction. Nor must we overlook as another cementing +influence the fraternizing of northern and southern soldiers in great +reunions such as occurred at Gettysburg, Richmond, and Chickamauga. + +[1890] + +The South's material prosperity kept pace with her political advance. It +had always been said that cotton was to be produced only by slave labor. +Nothing could have been more false. The largest cotton crop under +slavery, that of 1860, reached 4,669,770 bales. In 1871, 1876, and 1877 +each, notwithstanding the economic chaos and the infinite destruction of +capital occasioned by the war, those figures were almost equalled; in +1878 they were surpassed; in 1879 and 1880 each, over 5,000,000 bales +were raised; in 1881, 1883, and 1886 each, over 6,000,000, the exact +figure for the year last named being 6,550,215. In 1890, 7,472,511 bales +were produced. + +This cotton exhibit was sufficiently gratifying, yet the post-bellum +crops might have been far larger had not much energy at the South been +happily diverted into manufacturing channels. This was one of the most +hopeful features of the New South. Nearly every department of industry +in this kind was now pushed there at many points. Nashville became a +great manufacturing and commercial city. It boasted one of the largest +foundries in the country, and several flourishing cotton factories. +Chattanooga, Birmingham, and Anniston were all thrifty with iron and +steel industries, which rivalled the most prosperous ones at the North; +nor were there wanting those who predicted that the region of those +cities, viz., Southern Tennessee with Northern Georgia and Alabama, was +speedily to become the centre of iron and steel production for the +world. + +The lumber trade of Chattanooga, particularly in the white woods, was +said to be second only to Chicago's. The city also had a tannery +believed to be the largest in the world, and more than one fully +appointed Bessemer steel manufactory. These steel works and the tannery +employed colored operatives almost alone, many of these exceedingly +skilful. Birmingham was entirely a creation of the days since the war, +yet it had in 1890 more than 26,000 inhabitants against 3,000 in 1880, +and enjoyed marvellous prosperity, hindered only by speculation in land. +Much of the marble in the mountains of Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia +was finer than any elsewhere to be found in this country. The block of +it which was forwarded from Alabama for the Washington monument, experts +condemned for the purpose as certainly Italian, nor was it permitted a +place in that structure till the Governor of the State and the Members +of Congress therefrom had certified upon honor, and the quarry-masters +made affidavit, that it came out of the Alabama hills. Atlanta had risen +from the ashes in which the war left it, to be a city of over 65,000 +people, with every manifestation of great industrial life and progress. + +Between 1870 and 1880, although the population of Mobile decreased, that +of Charleston rose about 1-1/5 per cent., that of Savannah about 5-1/4 +per cent., that of New Orleans about thirteen per cent., that of +Richmond about twenty-six per cent. Between 1880 and 1890 Mobile +advanced about 6-1/2 per cent., Charleston almost 10 per cent., Savannah +over 40 per cent., New Orleans over 12 per cent., and Richmond exactly +28 per cent. + +It would be misleading to suppose the progress in welfare indicated by +these and the foregoing statements to be true of every district at the +South. The merely agricultural regions were still far behind. Methods of +tilling the soil were the same as prevailed forty years earlier, and it +was not unlikely that the colored people, who for the most part had the +immediate charge of this work, prosecuted it, as yet, with less skill +than did overseers and planters before slavery was done away. Yet in +1890 the farm valuation of the South was found to exceed its highest +ante-bellum figure and almost to equal one-fifth of the entire farm +valuation of the country. + +To the general backwardness of southern agriculture there was one quite +striking exception. The State of Florida underwent after the war a most +astounding transition for the better. Her total railway mileage of 416 +miles when the war ended had grown to 2,470 miles by 1890. The farm +valuation was, in 1880, $20,500,000. The population in 1890 exceeded +that of 1880 by almost 50 per cent. Steamboats were upon every coast and +river. This was due not alone to the State's popularity as a winter +sanitarium for northern people. Florida was also the early market-garden +for the North. Its oranges largely supplied the trade, and were much +sought for their excellent quality. The State was excessively rich in +the finest ornamental woods, which were rapidly finding their way into +the market. Nearly all the crops of the temperate zone and the fruits of +the torrid flourished here with the utmost luxuriance, many of them +being natives, others taking to the soil with a greater friendliness +than they displayed for that whence they were transplanted. The State +bade fair to rival Louisiana in the production of sugar, and South +Carolina in that of rice, as well as one day to supply the entire +American demand for cocoanuts. The mulberry was indigenous to every part +of this new Eden, which promised to become at no late date an immense +producer of raw silk. Cattle fed and fattened everywhere without +shelter, in winter as in summer. + + +[Illustration: Small river reaching the ocean; palm trees in background.] +The Mouth of the Miami River, Florida + + +The future of the colored race no one could predict with certainty. +After the census of 1870, which reduced the percentage of our African +population from 14.13, the figure in 1860, to 12.7, many rushed to the +conclusion that these people might, in no long time, vanish from our +land. The census of 1880 dispelled this fancy, raising the percentage to +13.12. That of 1890 lowered it again to 11.93. Previously to 1870 the +race had been constantly decreasing in fecundity, but it was possible +that the better conditions afforded by freedom had changed this. Even +should the decrease go on, the colored people bade fair to be at least +eight or ten per cent. of our total population in 1900. As a matter of +fact the proportion was in 1900 11.6 per cent. These decreasing +proportions did not, of course, necessarily imply any positive decadence +in the black race, as they might be accounted for by greater prolificacy +or vitality on the part of the whites, or in part by immigration. The +subject will be resumed in Chapter IX. of Period VI. + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE WEST + +[1890] + +Aside from West Virginia, made during the war from the loyal part of +Virginia, the new States created between 1860 and 1900 were Kansas, +1861; Nevada, 1864; Nebraska, 1867; Colorado, 1876; North Dakota, 1889; +South Dakota, 1889; Montana, 1889; Washington, 1889; Idaho, 1890; +Wyoming, 1890; and Utah, 1896. The whole number of States had thus +become forty-five. We had also, in the year 1896, three organized +territories, Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, the last carved out of +Indian Territory in the year 1890. Alaska was as yet a partially +organized territory, having no territorial legislature, and being under +the laws of the United States and of the State of Oregon. It was +purchased by the United States from Russia in 1867, for the sum of +$7,200,000. It remained without any organization until the act of May +17, 1884, which gave it a governor, a district court, an attorney, a +marshal, and commissioners. + + + +[Illustration: Swampy area on shore of Lake Michigan.] +The Site of Chicago. + +The value to our Union of this new acquisition, with its 531,409 square +miles and a coast-line longer than that upon our Atlantic and Gulf +coasts together, was at first doubtful, and continued so till gold was +found on the Yukon and at Cape Nome. Clearly, however, the money had not +been thrown away. Governor Swineford, appointed over the Territory in +1885, declared that throughout Southern Alaska and the Aleutian Islands +the climate was moderate, even in winter; and he gave records of +thermometrical observations which seemed to prove this. He further +maintained that, in the parts named, all our hardier plants and crops +grew to maturity in summer, and attained extraordinary luxuriance. In +1890, 4,298 white people had homes in Alaska, besides 1,823 mixed, +23,531 Indians, and 2,288 Mongolians, a total population of 32,052. + +The Alaska Commercial Company paid the United States $55,000 yearly for +its monopoly of the Alaska seal-fur trade. The product of this business +was about $2,500,000 each year. An official report made to our +Government stated that in the year 1880, $2,181,832 worth of Alaska furs +found sale in London alone. Coal had been discovered in various places. +So had beautiful white marble. Gold-bearing ledges were numerous, and +the only one of these yet broached, that on Douglas Island, had +certainly yielded well. The mill connected with it, working only the +equivalent of two-thirds time, turned out during its first twelve months +a little over $750,000 worth of gold bullion. For the year 1889, +according to imperfect returns, the product from this remote patch of +our national domain was as follows: Seal fisheries, $314,925, a falling +off of over 80 per cent. in nine years; other fisheries, $1,059,365, an +increase of about 100 per cent. for the same period; 43,762 troy ounces +of gold and 9,219 troy ounces of silver. In 1890 there were ten +manufacturing establishments, whose product amounted to $58,440. + +After 1860 there was a steady filling up of the Pacific coast, and an +equally continual extension of population to the west on the east side +of the Rockies. All Iowa was in cultivation, and all Minnesota but the +extreme northwest corner. In fifteen years the rate of interest went +down in Iowa from ten to seven or eight per cent., in Michigan from ten +to six or seven per cent. Chicago, from being only a borrower of money, +grew to be an immense lender for enterprises in the West. Settlement in +Kansas, Nebraska, and Texas rolled westward with strength and rapidity. +Some of the finest new towns in these States were well toward their far +western border. + + +[Illustration: Four men navigating a boat with oars. It is about 10 feet +wide and 30 feet long, covered with barrels and other freight.] +An Ohio River Flat-Boat. + + +The construction of the five great Pacific railway lines, the Northern, +the Union, the Santa Fe, the Southern, and the Great Northern, with +their various branches, brought into valuable employ infinite reaches of +fertile land previously as good as desert. Texas made most remarkable +advance both in square miles occupied and in density of population, +brought about by great extension of railway mileage, and of cattle, +sheep, and wheat culture. Large patches of the Dakotas, Montana, and +Idaho filled with settlers. Colorado became a giant in production, the +rush of population thither in consequence of very extensive and rich +mineral discoveries having been a stampede almost like that of 1849-50 +to California. Every hill was black with miners. The growth of New +Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada, considering their natural wealth, was slow, +owing in part to Indian hostilities. New Mexico fell from rank 37 in +1870 to rank 43 in 1890. Tucson, Ariz., according to the best figures, +fell between 1880 and 1887, from 10,000 to 7,500 inhabitants. In +material things Utah prospered greatly under the thrift, economy, and +hard work of the Mormons. Here mining and speculation were less rigidly +pressed, and more energy devoted to agricultural pursuits. + + +[Illustration: Orange tree and small water channels.] +An Irrigated Orange Grove at Riverside, California. + + +In California, a smaller proportion than formerly of all industry was +now applied to mining, a larger to agriculture and cattle-raising. +Southern California became the competitor of Florida as a winter +residence. Oregon and Washington vied with Minnesota for the world-medal +in wheat culture. Over the infinite pasture lands at both feet of the +Rocky Mountains roamed herds of bullocks destined to feed distant cities +in America and in Europe. It was foreseen that many of these lands would +in the course of time be ploughed, and by the aid of irrigation turned +into corn-fields, wheat-fields, and market-gardens, a process which in +New Mexico had already gone far. Even the tract inclosed by the +parallels 31 and 45 degrees and the meridians 100 and 120 degrees, which +long seemed destined for perpetual sterility, spite of the many +enterprises conceived, and the others, like the scheme of the Colorado +River Irrigation Company, initiated for redeeming it, grew valuable when +it was believed that the National Government would undertake to irrigate +there. Crops in that region grew bountifully under irrigation, and +permanent water-supplies could easily be created. Natural woodland +existed there only near the few streams, and of the scanty trees which +grew scarcely a single variety of hard wood was found; but the state and +national afforestation of vast tracts bade fair to change this. The +region comprised in the States and Territories named was not only the +richest precious-metal field in America, but one of the very richest on +the globe. + +The picture we have presented is too glowing for the year 1893-94, +during which great depression afflicted the whole West; but this was +only temporary. Recovery was indicated by the success of the +Trans-Mississippi Exposition at Omaha, in 1898. There were 2,600,000 +admissions. The total cash receipts were $1,761,364, and the +stockholders in the enterprise were paid dollar for dollar. + +The city of San Francisco had 500 inhabitants in 1840, 34,776 in 1850, +56,802 in 1860, 149,473 in 1870, 233,959 in 1880, 298,997 in 1890. This +progress may be taken as in some sense an index to that of the West as a +whole, far more so than the apparently spasmodic increase in some of +California's smaller centres. Los Angeles mounted from a population of +5,728 in 1870, and of 11,183 in 1880, to one of 50,395 in 1890. Oakland +had but 10,500 in 1870. Ten years later the figure was 34,555; and in +1890 it was 48,682. Stockton leaped from 10,287 in 1880 to 14,424 in +1890. In 1858 Denver was uninhabited. In 1870 it numbered 4,759 souls; +in 1880, 35,629; in 1890, 106,713. Portland, Oregon, had in 1890, 46,000 +inhabitants; in 1900, 90,000. In the decade 1880-90 Wyoming grew from +20,789 to 60,705. + +The growth and prosperity of this great western section of our country +become apparent from an inspection of the following table, compiled from +authentic sources: + + Population. Property valuation. $ +STATES. 1870. 1890. 1880. 1890. +California 560,247 1,208,130 1,343,000,000 2,533,733,627 +Colorado 39,864 412,198 240,000,000 1,145,712,267 +Dakota, Total 14 181 118,000 000 + Dakota, North 182,719 337,006,506 + Dakota, South 328,808 425,141,299 +Idaho 14,999 84,335 29,000,000 207,896,591 +Kansas 364,399 1,427,096 760,000,000 1,799,343,501 +Minnesota 439,706 1,301,826 792,000,000 1,691,851,927 +Montana 20,595 132,159 40,000,000 453,135,209 +Nebraska 122,993 1,058,910 385,000,000 1,275,685,514 +Nevada 42,491 45,761 156,000,000 l80,323,668 +New Mexico 91,874 153,593 49,000,000 231,459,897 +Oregon 90,923 313,767 154,000,000 590,396,194 +Texas 818,579 2,235,523 825,000,000 2,105,576,766 +Utah 86,786 207,905 114,000,000 349,411,234 +Washington 23,955 349,390 62,000,000 760,698,726 +Wyoming 9,118 60,705 54,000,000 169,773,710 +TERRITORIES +Alaska 32,052 +Arizona 9,658 59,620 41,000,000 188,800,976 + + + Value of Farms. $ +STATES. 1880. 1890. +California 262,051,262 697,116,630 +Colorado 25,109,223 85,035,180 +Dakota, Total 22 401 084 + Dakota, North 75,310,805 + Dakota, South 107,466,335 +Idaho 2,832,890 17,431,560 +Kansas 235,178,936 559,726,046 +Minnesota 193,724,260 340,059,470 +Montana 3,284,504 25,512,340 +Nebraska 105,932,541 402,353,913 +Nevada 5,408,325 12,339,410 +New Mexico 5,514,399 8,140,800 +Oregon 56,906,575 115,819,200 +Texas 170,468,886 399,971,289 +Utah 14,015,178 28,402,780 +Washington 13,844,224 88,461,660 +Wyoming 835,895 14,460,880 +TERRITORIES +Alaska +Arizona 1,127,946 7,222,230 + + + Rail Mileage Periodicals Gold Troy Oz. Silver Troy Oz. + 1885. 1890. 1880 1893 1880 1889 1880 1889. +California 3,044 4,356 364 639 829,677 608,382 890,158 1,062,578 +Colorado 2,884 4,176 90 298 130,608 187,881 12,800,120 18,375,551 +Dakotas, 2877 66 159,920 54,770 +North Dakota 2,003 139 +South Dakota 2,470 269 149,538 104,672 +Idaho 944 8 58 71,578 95,983 359,309 3,137,508 +Kansas 4,441 8,306 349 759 +Minnesota 4,331 5,379 224 558 +Montana 1,047 2,181 18 90 87,354 151,861 2,246,938 13,511,455 +Nebraska 2,988 5,300 189 645 +Nevada 945 924 37 26 236,469 169,617 9,614,561 4,696,605 +New Mexico 1,195 1,324 18 59 2,387 39,457 303,455 1,251,124 +Oregon 1,181 1,433 74 194 53,101 46,648 21,496 17,851 +Texas 6,687 8,630 279 678 330 323,438 829,438 +Utah 1,085 1,085 24 71 14,105 23,591 3,668,566 7,005,193 +Washington 736 1,774 29 253 6,569 9,005 789 23,464 +Wyoming 617 941 10 43 838 711 +TERRITORIES +Alaska 4 238 43,762 39 9,219 +Arizona 906 1,096 17 35 10,254 44,029 1,738,921 1,812,961 + + +[Illustration: Small lake.] +The Irrigating Reservoir at Walnut Grove, Arizona, +showing the Artificial Lake partly filled. + + +We shall be pardoned for recurring again to Minnesota. So recently as +1838, where St. Paul and Minneapolis now stand, the former with a +population in 1890 of 133,156, the latter with one of 164,738, not a +white man's abode had risen. There were then but three cabins between +St. Paul and Prairie du Chien, a distance of 300 miles down the +Mississippi. Summit Avenue, St. Paul, was, in 1890, the finest street +in America, if not on the globe. West St. Paul, in 1880 a hamlet of a +few huts, had by 1890 20,000 to 30,000 people, with street-cars, large +business blocks, fine houses and stores. The pioneer railway in +Minnesota was laid in 1862, from St. Paul to St. Anthony, the first +shovelful of earth being lifted by a citizen of St. Paul, who probably +lived to see his State gridironed with 5,379 miles of track; his own +firm constructing over 1,100 miles in the single year 1887. Minneapolis +in 1887 turned out 5,000,000 barrels of flour, an average of 100,000 +barrels a week. + +Duluth had in 1880 but 3,740 people. In 1890, 33,115. The cause of +Duluth's advantage is obvious upon a glance at the map. It is by water +no farther from Lake Erie than Chicago is, while it is some hundreds of +miles nearer the great wheat-field. It is itself the very gate of +this--the gate of Minnesota--which in 1869 brought forth 18,000,000 +bushels; in 1886, 50,000,000 bushels. To this enormous yield, that of +the Dakotas, about the same, had now to be added, the one as the other +finding its way out to the hungry world largely through Duluth. + +The caravans of people necessary to populate these immense western +ranges were to a very great extent immigrants from Europe. The census of +1880 gave us 6,679,043 inhabitants of foreign nativity. We have no +figures for the exact proportion of the total immigration into the +country which found its home in the West, yet a glimpse at the total +from year to year is interesting at this point. The falling off in and +after 1893 is particularly noticeable. Immigrants arrived as follows: + +In +1868 282,189 +1869 352,768 +1870 387,203 +1871 321,350 +1872 404,806 +1873 459,803 +1874 313,339 +1875 227,498 +1876 169,986 +1877 141,857 +1878 138,469 +1879 177,826 +1880 457,257 +1881 669,431 +1882 788,992 +1883 603,322 +1884 518,592 +1885 395,346 +1886 334,203 +1890 455,302 +1891 560,319 +1892 579,663 +1893 439,730 +1894 285,631. + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE EXPOSITION OF 1876 + +[1876] + +It was fitting that the one hundredth anniversary of a great industrial +nation should be celebrated by a World's Fair. Such a plan was first +publicly proposed for the United States in 1870, by an association of +Philadelphia citizens. It was adopted by Congress in the following year, +when an act was passed creating a Centennial Commission, to consist of a +delegate and an alternate from each State and Territory. The commission +organized for the great and difficult work before them by choosing +General J. R. Hawley, of Connecticut, president, and by appointing an +executive committee, a board of directors, and heads of various +administrative bureaus. + +The Government declined to assume the financial responsibility of the +enterprise, but in 1872 Congress appointed a Centennial Board of Finance +with power to raise a capital stock of $10,000,000. Shares to the amount +of $2,400,000 were soon sold to private citizens. Philadelphia +appropriated $1,500,000, and Pennsylvania $1,000,000. In 1876 Congress +made a loan to the Board of $1,500,000. Thus the great problem of a +financial basis for the enterprise was solved. + + +[Illustration: Pedestrians walking among large buildings.] +At the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876. + + +The first thought had been to make the exposition exclusively national, +but subsequent deliberation made it seem best to widen the plan so that +the arts and industries of the entire world should be represented. +President Grant formally proclaimed the Exhibition in 1873, and in the +following year foreign governments were invited to participate. +Thirty-three cordially responded. + +Meanwhile, the commission was pushing preparations. Philadelphia, the +birth-place of the nation, was rightly chosen as the place for this +unique memorial of that event. In the beautiful and spacious Fairmount +Park, on the high bank of the Schuylkill River, an area of 285 acres was +inclosed, and here five main buildings were soon rising rapidly as by +magic. Besides these, there were at the time of opening, smaller +structures to the number of 175, filling every available space. + +On May 10th the Exposition was opened with appropriate exercises, in the +presence of 100,000 people. Wagner had composed a Centennial March for +the occasion. Whittier's Centennial Hymn was sung by a chorus of 1,000 +voices. The restored South chanted the praises of the Union in the words +of Sidney Lanier, the Georgia poet. President Grant, in a short speech, +then declared the International Exhibition open. A procession of +dignitaries moved to Machinery Hall, where the President of the United +States and Dom Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, set in motion the great +Corliss engine, and with the whirr of spindle and clatter of machinery +the world's seventh great fair began. + +Weeks and months of inspection were necessary to grasp the Exhibition as +a whole and in detail, but an imaginary stroll through the grounds will +give the reader some general idea of it. + +Entering through one of the 106 gates, the sight-seer naturally turned +his eye first toward the colossal Main Building. A parallelogram in +form, 1,880 feet long by 460 wide, and 70 high, it covered twenty acres. +At the centre and ends were projecting wings, large buildings in +themselves. In the middle and at the four corners rose towers. In spite +of its size the building seemed light and almost graceful. Its brick +sub-structure, seven feet high, stood upon massive masonry foundations. +The rest of the building was mainly glass and iron. The iron trusses of +the roof rested upon 672 slender iron pillars. This hall had been +erected in a year, at a cost of $1,700,000. + +In the Main Building manufactures were exhibited, also products of the +mine, along with various other evidences of the condition of science and +education. The broad aisles ran the whole length of the interior, +flanked on either side by exhibits. More than one-third of the space +was reserved for the United States, the rest being divided in varying +proportions among foreign countries. The products of all climates, +tribes, and times were here crowded together under one roof. The mighty +states of Great Britain, France, and Germany exhibited the work of their +myriad roaring looms side by side with the wares of the Hawaiian Islands +and the little Orange Free State. Here were the furs of Russia with +other articles from the frozen North; there the flashing diamonds of +Brazil and the rich shawls and waving plumes of India. At a step one +passed from old Egypt to the latest-born South American republic. +Chinese conservatism and Yankee enterprise confronted each other across +the aisle. All civilized nations but Greece were represented--more than +ever before took part in an international fair. + +From the novelty of the foreign display the American visitor returned +proudly to the display made by his own land. Textiles, metal work, arms +and tools, musical instruments, watches, carriages, cutlery, books, and +furniture--a bewildering array of all things useful and ornamental--made +Americans realize as never before the wealth, intelligence, and +enterprise of their native country and the proud station she had taken +among the nations of earth. + +Machinery Hall came next to the Main Building in size. Of plain +architecture, built of wood, with iron ties, 1,402 feet by 360, it +covered, with an annex, about thirteen acres. Here, with infinite +clatter and roar, thousands of iron slaves worked their master's will. +Three-fourths of the space was taken up with American machines. Visitors +from the foremost foreign nations marvelled at the ingenuity of the +Yankee mind here displayed. Great Britain led the foreign nations in the +size and number of articles exhibited. Canada, France, Russia, Sweden, +Brazil, and other countries sent ingenious or powerful machines. + +But as a Titan, towering above all these and all others, stood the great +Corliss engine, built by George H. Corliss, of Providence, R. I., one of +the most remarkable mechanicians and inventors of the century. A modern +Samson, dumb as well as blind, its massive limbs of shining steel moved +with voiceless grace and utmost apparent ease, driving the miles of +shafting and the thousands of connected machines. The cylinders were +forty inches in diameter; the piston stroke, ten feet. The great +walking-beams, nine feet wide in the centre, weighed eleven tons each. +The massive fly-wheel, thirty feet in diameter, and weighing fifty-six +tons, made thirty-six revolutions a minute. The whole engine, with the +strength of 1,400 horses, weighed 700 tons. + +Agricultural Hall, built of wood and glass in the form of a nave with +three transepts, covered ten acres. The display it contained of +agricultural products and implements was the largest ever made. Here the +United States stood forth far in advance of all sister nations. +Specimens of the rich and deep prairie soil excited the wonder and envy +of tillers of impoverished European lands. The great West, with its +monster steam-ploughs and threshing machines, placed before the eye the +farming methods of a race of giants. The choice and delicate fruits of +sunny lands mingled with the hardy cereals of Canada and Russia. + +Memorial Hall, a beautiful permanent building of granite, erected by +Pennsylvania and Philadelphia at a cost of $1,500,000, was given up to +art. This was on the whole the poorest feature of the Exposition. +America had few works of the first order to show. Foreign nations, with +the exception of England, feared to send their choicest art products +across the ocean. France, Germany, Spain, Belgium, and the Netherlands, +with some other countries, were all represented. Italy, besides +paintings, sent many pieces of sculpture. England contributed a noble +lot of paintings, including works by Gainsborough and Reynolds. In spite +of all, the collection was the largest and most notable ever seen in +this country, and throngs crowded the galleries. + +Horticultural Hall, built of iron and glass in the Moorish style of the +twelfth century, also a permanent structure, was erected by +Philadelphia. Here, one walked amid the glories of tropical vegetation. +Palm, orange, lemon, camphor, and india-rubber trees rose on every hand. +The cactus of the desert, rare English flowering plants, strange growths +from islands of the sea, here flourished each in its peculiar soil and +climate. Outside the building were beds of hardy flowering plants +covering twenty-five acres. Besides these five main structures, the +United States Building, where the working of the various administrative +departments of the Government was shown, attracted thousands of visitors +daily. A Woman's Pavilion contained products of female industry and +skill. A narrow-gauge railway ran in great loops from building to +building. + +Twenty-six States erected buildings of their own. These served mainly as +headquarters, but two or three contained large exhibits of state +products. Thirty or more buildings were put up by private enterprise to +illustrate various manufacturing and industrial processes. Before the +close of the Exposition more than two hundred buildings stood within the +enclosure. Several foreign Governments erected small structures of +various sorts. + +Through the summer months, in spite of the unusual heat that season, +thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the country found their way to +this shrine of the world's progress. The quiet old Quaker city was moved +with unwonted life. Amidst the crowds of new-comers its citizens became +strangers in their own streets. + +On July 4th, simple but impressive ceremonies were held in the public +square at the rear of Independence Hall. On temporary platforms sat +5,000 distinguished guests, and a chorus of 1,200 singers. The square +and the neighboring streets were filled with a dense throng. Richard +Henry Lee, grandson of the mover of the Declaration of Independence, +came to the front with the original document in his hands. At sight of +that yellow and wrinkled paper, the vast audience burst forth into +prolonged cheering. Mr. Lee then read the Declaration. The recitation of +an ode by Bayard Taylor and the delivery of an oration by Hon. William +M. Evarts were the other main features of the exercises. + +Through the early fall the interest in the Exposition spread farther and +farther over the land, and the attendance steadily increased. On +September 28th, Pennsylvania day, 275,000 persons passed through the +gates. During October, the visitors numbered over 2,500,000. From May +10th to November 10th, the total admissions were 9,900,000; 8,000,000 +admission fees were collected, amounting to $3,800,000. The fair was +brought to an end on November 10th. After brief closing exercises, +President Grant gave the signal to stop the Corliss engine. The giant +slowly came to a standstill, the hum of the machinery died away, and the +International Exhibition of 1876 was closed. + +The Centennial Exposition was not a complete financial success. After +returning the United States loan of $1,500,000, the stockholders could +not be paid in full. The attendance was, however, larger in the +aggregate than at any previous international exhibition, except that of +Paris in 1867. The admissions there reached 10,200,000, but the gates +were open fifty-one days longer than at Philadelphia. At Vienna, in +1873, there were but 7,255,000 admissions in 186 days against 159 days +at Philadelphia. + +The larger and more important results of this exposition cannot be +measured with precision. A thousand silent influences were set at work +upon our social, intellectual, and political life, which operated in +secret for years afterward. The most obvious, and perhaps the most +important, effect was the broadening of sympathies and mental outlook. +Visitors to Philadelphia got something of the benefit of foreign travel. +Local prejudices were broken down. New ideas of life and civilization +were planted in hitherto sterile minds. The plodding Eastern farmer +caught something of the Westerner's dash and swing. North and South, +East and West, drew nearer together. A narrow patriotism caught glimpses +of a great and noble world without. + +These influences touched the most careless observer. Special classes +derived each a peculiar benefit. Mechanical invention was stimulated. +Art received an impetus which can never cease to be felt. To our +household art, especially, came much quickening from the sight of +England's beautiful display of home decorations. + +The Exposition exalted the United States in the eyes of her foreign +guests. Many were amazed at such proofs of the wealth, intelligence, and +progressive spirit of the great republic. A correspondent of the London +Times wrote, in 1876: "The American invents as the Greek sculptured and +the Italian painted; it is genius." We may hope that the exhibits were +educators to Europe as well as to America. + +Lastly, the American returned from the great fair with an opinion of his +own country which, if more sober and just than he had previously +entertained, was not less proud but far prouder. The Nation laid aside +its holiday attire, and, despite manifest defects and dangers in our +national life, settled down to another century of work with increased +pride in its past and stronger confidence for its future. + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +ECONOMIC POLITICS + +[1887] + +The enormous strides with which we paid off our war debt amazed the +world. The debt had reached its highest point in August, 1865. At that +date the figure was $2,844,649,626, or, for the interest-bearing part +alone, $2,381,530,294, The total interest-bearing debt on April 30, +1888, was only $1,038,199,762. At the end of that fiscal year, June 30, +1888, the debt, less cash in the treasury, amounted to $1,165,584,656. +Its items at this time were $222,207,050 in bonds at 4-1/2 per cent., +payable in 1891; $714,315,450 in four per cent. bonds, payable in 1907; +four per cent. refunding certificates amounting to $141,300; the three +per cent. navy pension fund of $14,000,000, and the Pacific Railway six +per cent. bonds, $64,623,512. Thus on June 30,1888, more than half of +the largest total had been paid off, and the net debt, aside from the +Pacific Railway bonds, which that corporation was to pay, having fallen +to below a billion. The reduction proceeded for the entire twenty-three +years between the first and last dates named, at an average rate of +$62,906,975 yearly, or $5,225,581 each month, $174,186 each day, $7,258 +each hour, and $120.47 each minute. + +The interest-bearing legal tender notes were first paid off. Greenbacks, +or non interest-bearing legal tenders were still, October 1, 1894, +outstanding to the amount of $346,681,000; yet this division of the +debt, too, had been vastly reduced, having stood at $433,160,569 on +August 31, 1865. + +To the bonded obligations of the country the policy of refunding was +early applied, bonds of high rates being called in so soon as callable, +and replaced by others bearing lower rates. The income of the Government +was so immense that it proved unfortunate to have set so late a date as +1891 for the time at which the 4-1/2's could be paid off. To fix the +date of maturity for the 4's in 1907 was, of course, worse still. The +three per cents. of 1882, which supplanted earlier issues, were +fortunately made payable at the Government's option, and on May 20, +1887, the Secretary of the Treasury issued a call for the last of them, +amounting to $19,717,500, interest to cease with the first of the next +July. + +From this time there were no bonds subject to par payment at the +discretion of the Government, and as revenues were vast the surplus +began to pile up in the treasury. December 1, 1887, after every possible +obligation of the Government had been provided for, $55,258,701 +remained, a sum increased by the end of that fiscal year, namely, June +30, 1888, spite of considerable amounts in long bonds purchased at high +rates, to $103,220,464, There was no method at once legal and economical +for paying this out. The Secretary could of course buy 4's and 4-1/2's +in the open market, and during 1888 this was to some extent done. +Obviously, if entered upon in a large way, it must have greatly carried +up the price of those bonds. The question how to limit the surplus, how +to keep the money of the country from becoming locked up in the treasury +and sub-treasuries of the United States, was thus a grave one, and +entered hotly into the political campaign of the last-named year. + +[1890] + +On June 30, 1890, $109,015,750 in the 4-1/2 per cent. bonds, redeemable +September 1, 1891, were still outstanding. By April 1, 1891, they had, +by redemption or purchase, been reduced to $53,854,250, of which +one-half in value was held by national banks, to sustain their +circulation. To avoid contracting this circulation the Secretary of the +Treasury permitted holders of these bonds to retain them and receive +interest at two per cent. About $25,364,500 was so continued. Interest +on the remainder ceased at their maturity, and nearly all were soon paid +off. The bonds continued at two per cent. were all along quoted at par, +though payable at the will of the Government, revealing a national +credit never excelled in history. The national debt, less cash in the +treasury, stood on July 1, 1894, after an increase during the previous +fiscal year of $60,000,000, at $899,313,381. + +The old tariff issue had emerged again soon after the end of the war. +The Morrill tariff of 1861 about restored the rates of 1846, and even +those rates had, on many things, been very decidedly increased during +the war. Still further protective duties had been laid in the course of +the war, called compensating duties, to offset the internal revenues +which burdened manufacturers in various ways. After the war the internal +taxes were nearly all swept away at the earliest possible moment, until, +after July 1, 1883, only spirits, fermented liquors, tobacco, banks and +bankers yielded internal revenue. Customs duties were also removed from +nearly all so-called revenue articles, as spices, tea, and coffee, not +produced in this country--the tax, therefore, not being of a protective +nature. Slight reductions were, indeed, made in protective duties, first +in 1872--replaced, however, almost entirely in 1875--and again in 1883. +The act of 1883 lowered protection less than appeared, and its rates on +woollens, high grade cottons, iron ore, steel, and a few other articles, +were now made even higher than the same had previously borne. It will be +seen that our policy during the years under survey was to limit national +income sufficiently without lowering or removing any protective duties. + +In the republican platform of 1888 this policy was explicitly avowed. At +that time, as next to nothing could at present be done to pay off the +national indebtedness, both parties had to admit that some measure was +needed to lessen the revenue. The republican plan was to effect the +reduction mainly by lowering or removing the remaining internal taxes, +the democratic to secure the same result by changes in customs duties, +cutting down rates and enlarging the free list. President Cleveland's +message to Congress in December 1887, stated the issue with great +clearness, and this issue was the main one which divided the two parties +in the presidential election of the ensuing year. + +Anticipating a little we may remark in this place that the Republicans, +having acquired control of all three legislative branches of the +Government, passed, in 1890, the McKinley Tariff Act, considerably +raising rates, though somewhat enlarging the free list. It removed the +duty from raw sugar, affixing a bounty to the production of sugar in the +United States. But in 1892 the Democrats again acquired power, electing +Mr. Cleveland and controlling the Senate. In 1894 they passed the +Wilson-Senate Tariff Act, greatly reducing rates in general, and +free-listing the important commodities of wool, salt, and lumber. Raw +sugar was now taxed again, and the bounty upon its production abolished. + +[1873] + +The revenue question in this campaign was not a little complicated by +the existence of numerous and powerful Trusts, which anti-protectionists +believed to be fostered by our high tariff. The Trust System arose about +1876, and in the course of a few years almost every great enterprise in +the land was carried on under the form of a trust. The principal +corporations or men engaged in an industry would enter into combination, +more or less informal, for the regulation of production and prices. +Usually the result was an elevation of prices, and where the trust +constituted a necessary monopoly this rise might be indefinitely +perpetuated. High tariff as well as low tariff newspapers made great +outcry against these monopolies. The latter urged that a reduced tariff, +forcing these businesses more into competition with corresponding +producers abroad, was the only thing needful to break their solidarity +and consequent power. Advocates of high tariff denied this. + +[1878] + +The old silver dollar, "the Dollar of the Fathers," had, until 1873, +never ceased to be full legal tender, although it had since 1853 been +too valuable as compared with the gold dollar to circulate much. In 1873 +a law was passed demonetizing it, and making gold the exclusive form of +United States hard money. The new German Empire did the same this very +year. There at once began a great apparent depreciation of silver in +comparison with gold at the historic ratio. For a long time this change +involved no decrease in the value or purchasing power of silver even in +the form of bullion, but consisted rather in a rise of the value of +gold. + +In view of this, as all the Government bonds outstanding in 1873 had +been made payable in coin, it was as good as universally believed in +most sections of the Union that the demonetizing of silver, if persisted +in, would work hardship to taxpayers in liquidating the national debt. A +bill was therefore brought forward, and in 1878 passed, restoring to the +silver dollar its full legal tender character. In this legislation, +however, so great was the then disparity in value between gold and +silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, Congress did not venture to give back to +the white metal the right of free coinage, but instead required the +Secretary of the Treasury to purchase monthly not less than $2,000,000 +worth of silver and coin it into dollars. + +The act was disapproved by President Hayes, but immediately passed over +his veto, February 28, 1878. The advocates of gold monometallism +believed that the issue of these dollars would speedily drive gold from +the country. Owing to the limitation of the new coinage no such effect +was experienced, and the silver dollars, or the certificates +representing them, floated at par with gold, which, indeed, far from +leaving the country, was imported in vast amounts nearly every year. +After 1880 the money in circulation in the United States was gold coin, +silver coin gold certificates, greenbacks or United States notes, and +the notes of the national banks. The so-called Sherman Law, of 1890, +added a new category, the treasury notes issued in payment for silver +bullion. It stopped the compulsory coinage of full-tender silver, though +continuing and much increasing the purchase of silver bullion by the +Government. The repeal of the purchase clause of this law, in 1893, put +an end to the acquisition of silver by the United States. + +[1879] + +January 1, 1879, the next year after the silver bill was passed, the +United States, under the Resumption Act of January 14, 1875, began again +the payment, which had been suspended ever since 1862, of specie in +liquidation of greenbacks. The possibility of this had been under +discussion for some years, and was disbelieved in by many thoughtful +financiers and public men. The credit of the momentous step was mostly +due to John Sherman, Secretary of the Treasury in the cabinet of +President Hayes. He believed resumption to be as possible as it was +important. By the sale of 4-1/2 per cent. bonds redeemable in 1891, he +had accumulated before the appointed day $ 138,000,000 of coin, nearly +all in gold, amounting to about forty per cent. of the greenbacks then +outstanding. + +Resumption proved easier than even he anticipated. The greenbacks had +risen to par--the first time in seventeen years--December 18th, +thirteen days before the date fixed for beginning gold payments, and +when the day arrived only straggling applications for coin were made, +less in amount than was asked for in greenbacks as interest by +bondholders, who could have demanded coin. During the entire year only +$11,456,536 in greenbacks were offered for redemption, while over +$250,000,000 in them were paid out in coin obligations. It was found +that people preferred paper to metal money, and had no wish for gold +instead of notes when assured that the exchange could be made at their +option. Notwithstanding our acceptance of greenbacks for +customs--$109,467,456 during 1879--the treasury at the end of that year +experienced a dearth of these and a plethora of coin, having actually to +force debtors to receive hard money. + +[1876-1877] + +Such popularity of the greenbacks stimulated to fresh life the "fiat +greenback" theory, long in vogue and very influential in many parts of +the country. Its pith lay in the proposition that money requires in its +material no intrinsic value, its worth and purchasing power coming +entirely from the "fiat" of the government issuing it, so that paper +money put forth by authority of a solvent and powerful government will +be the peer of gold. This idea was the rallying point of the National +Labor Greenback Party, organized at its Indianapolis convention, May 17, +1876, when Peter Cooper was put in nomination for President. At the +subsequent presidential election in November, he received 82,640 votes. +The next year his party polled 187,095 votes; in 1878, 1,000,365. + +From the moment of its issue, there had been in the country many who +went to the opposite extreme with reference to the greenback. They +believed it unconstitutional and pernicious, a menace to the nation's +credit and financial weal. The question came to the Supreme Court during +the war, and this form of contracting debt on the part of the Government +was then justified as a war measure. When the war was over the question +whether the greenback's legal tender quality could still be maintained, +also had to be passed upon by the court. The first decision was in the +negative, but it was subsequently reversed. Still a third question was +whether a man could be forced to take greenbacks in liquidation of debt +after the resumption of specie payments. This was tried out in the +famous case of Juilliard vs. Greenman, and the decision was, as on the +other two occasions, in favor of the greenback. In spite of all this, +however, the zeal for the fiat or non-promissory theory and practice of +paper money almost totally died away after about 1880. + +The most desperate and extensive strike that had yet occurred in this +country was that of 1877, by the employees of the principal railway +trunk lines, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the New +York Central, and their western prolongations. At a preconcerted time +junctions and other main points were seized. Freight traffic on the +roads named was entirely suspended, and the passenger and mail service +greatly impeded. When new employees sought to work, militia and United +States troops had to be called out to preserve order. Baltimore and +Pittsburgh were each the scene of a bloody riot. At the latter place, +where the mob was immense and most furious, the militia were overcome +and besieged in a roundhouse, which it was then attempted to burn by +lighting oil cars and pushing them against it. Fortunately the soldiers +escaped across the river. The torch was applied freely and with dreadful +effect. Machine-shops, warehouses, and 2,000 freight-cars were pillaged +or burnt. The loss of property was estimated at $10,000,000. In +disturbances at Chicago nineteen were killed, at Baltimore nine, at +Reading thirteen, and thrice as many wounded. One hundred thousand +laborers were believed to have taken part in the movement, and at one +time or another 6,000 or 7,000 miles of road were in their power. The +agitation began on July 14th and was serious till the 27th, but had +mostly died away by the end of the month, the laborers nearly all +returning to their work. + +Hosts of Pennsylvania miners went out along with the railroad men. The +railway strike itself was largely sympathetic, the ten per cent. +reduction in wages assigned as its cause applying to comparatively few. +The next decade witnessed continual troubles of this sort, though rarely +if in any case so serious, between wage-workers and their employers in +nearly all industries. The worst ones befell the manufacturing portions +of the country. Strikes and lock-outs were part of the news almost every +day. The causes were various. One lay in the vast numbers of immigrants +hither and the low, ignorant character of many of them--clay for the +hand of the first unscrupulous demagogue. + +Another cause was the wide and sedulous inculcation in this country of +the communist and anarchist doctrines long prevalent in Europe. +Influences concurrent with both these were the actual injustice and the +proud, overbearing manner of many employers. Capital had been mismanaged +and wasted. The war had brought unearned fortunes to many, sudden wealth +to a much larger number, while the unexampled prosperity of the country +raised up in a perfectly normal manner a wealthy class, the like of +which, in number and power, our country had never known before. As +therefore immigration along with much else multiplied the poor, the +eternal, angry strife of wealth with poverty, of high with low, of +classes with masses, crossed over from Europe and began on our shores. + +The rise of trusts and gigantic corporations was connected with this +struggle. Corporations worth nigh half a billion dollars apiece were +able to buy or defy legislatures and make or break laws as they pleased; +and as such corporations, instead of individuals, more and more became +the employers of labor, not only did the old-time kindliness between +help and hirers die out, but men the most cool and intelligent feared +the new power as a menace to democracy. Strikes therefore commanded +large public sympathy. Stock-watering and other vicious practices, +involving the ruin of corporations themselves by the few holders of a +majority of the shares, in order to re-purchase the property for next to +nothing, contributed to this hostility; as did the presence in many +great corporations of foreign capital and capitalists, and also the +mutual favoritism of corporations, showing itself, for instance, in +special freight rates to privileged concerns. Minor interests and +individual employees, powerless against these Titan agencies by any of +the old legal processes, resorted to counter organization. + +The Patrons of Husbandry grew up in the West, with influence longer than +the Order's nominal life, of which the often unwise "Granger" railroad +legislation was one sign. In the East trades-unions secured rank +development, and the Knights of Labor, intended as a sort of Union of +them all, attained in 1887 a membership of a million. The manufacturers' +"black list," to prevent any "agitator" laborer from securing work, was +answered by the "boycott," to keep the products of obnoxious +establishments from finding sale. Labor organizations, so strong, often +tyrannized over their own members, and boycotting became a nuisance that +had to be abated by law. + +[1880] + +Labor agitation had of late years become greatly easier owing to the +extraordinarily increased percentage of our urban population. In 1790 +only 3.3 per cent. of the people in the country lived in places of 8,000 +inhabitants and upward, and so late as 1840 only 8.5 per cent. In 1850 +the percentage was 12.5; in 1860, 16.1; in 1870, 20.9; in 1880, 22.5; +and in 1890, 29.2. The year 1880 saw within our borders twenty cities +each with a population of over 100,000; 286 each with over 8,000. In +1890 there were twenty-eight cities each having 100,000 inhabitants or +more, and 448 having 8,000 or more. It was mostly manufacturing and +mechanical industry which thus brought these hordes of human beings +together. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE MARCH OF INDUSTRY + +[1869] + +We can give but little idea of the advance in industrial artifice and +appliances of all kinds made in the United States in the two decades +after the Civil War. Take it first in textile manufacturing. A century +earlier one person in every family had to work incessantly at spinning +and weaving to keep the whole of them in clothing. Now one day's work a +year per person sufficed for this. The speed of spindles had risen since +1860 from 5,000 to 7,500 revolutions a minute. Looms had gone from 120 +picks to 160, and one hand tended from 25 to 50 per cent. more work. The +"slasher" dresser accomplished ten times more than the old machine, +supplying 400 looms in place of forty, and requiring to manage it only +one man and a boy instead of two men and ten girls. A generation earlier +one operative made three yards an hour, now he made ten. In the twenty +years under survey the annual production of cotton mills rose from two +and one-half to three and one-half tons per hand. One man formerly +tended forty spindles, now he tended sixty. In 1890 a single operative +in America could make cotton cloth enough to supply 1,500 persons. + + +[Illustration: Large ship.] +The American Line Steamship St. Louis, launched from the Cramps Docks, +November 12. 1894. (554 feet long 11,000 tons, and 20,000 horse-power.) + + +The improvements in woollen, iron, and miscellaneous manufacturing had +perhaps not been quite as great, but were remarkable notwithstanding. +Power and automatic machinery were the order of the day. The Corliss +engine got 23 per cent. more heat and energy from a given amount of coal +than had ever been obtained before it was invented. Instead of the +twenty-five days which the first transatlantic steamer required for the +passage from America to England, many vessels now went from New York to +Liverpool in considerably less than six days, or at an average rate of +more than twenty miles an hour. The speed of passenger trains on the +main railways had doubled. So had the weight of the freight-car load and +the amount of freight which an engine could pull. The newest locomotives +weighed nearly or quite one hundred tons each. + +In 1869 a submarine cable was laid which joined the United States to the +continent of Europe. It extended about 3,050 miles, from Duxbury, Mass., +to Brest, France, via the Island of St. Pierre, south of Newfoundland. +The company owning the cable was chartered by the waning empire of Louis +Napoleon. In 1875 a new cable was stretched between the United States +and Great Britain. It was called the United States Direct Cable, and at +first operated in opposition to the original one. The rates for cable +messages were greatly reduced in consequence. The price, once ten +dollars a word, fell in anticipation of the competition to fifty cents, +and to twenty-five after the competition actually began. The two +Anglo-American lines were subsequently united. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Cornelius Vanderbilt. + + +[1863-1869] + +The year 1869 witnessed the junction of the Union Pacific with the +Central Pacific Railway, forming a continuous railway line between the +Atlantic and Pacific shores. The last rail was put down on May 12th, and +on the 15th trains began to run. This work had been in process of +construction ever since 1863. It traversed the Rocky Mountain range at +an elevation of 8,243 feet above sea-level. The Northern Pacific Railway +Company was chartered by Congress in 1864. The road was not completed +till August, 1883, nor opened to traffic before September. Its length +from Duluth to its then terminus on the Columbia River, Washington, was +1,674 miles. The Southern Pacific and the Atlantic and Pacific, both +traversing the Rockies, soon followed. Still another line, the Great +Northern, connecting St. Paul with the extreme Northwest, was opened in +1893. The country's total railway mileage in 1885 was 128,967 miles; in +1893 it was 170,607 miles. + +In the same years with the opening of these continental lines began the +consolidation of the older ones into great systems. The New York Central +had already been formed out of sixteen different fragments, but the +process of consolidation in a large way may be said to have been +instituted by Cornelius Vanderbilt in 1869, when he joined the Lake +Shore and Michigan Southern with the New York Central, thus placing +under a single administration the entire route from New York to Chicago. +The first train pierced the Hoosac Tunnel, in Western Massachusetts, +February 9, 1875, completing another artery between East and West. The +tunnel passed through the Hoosac Mountain, a distance of four miles and +three-quarters, and had been in process of boring, though not +continuously, about fifteen years. + + +[Illustration: Rail line looping through a steep, narrow valley.] +The Big Loop on the Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, Colorado. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Charles F. Brush. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Moses G. Farmer. + + +[1875-1878] + +The lighting of large spaces by electricity in a profitable manner may +be dated from 1875. The possibility of producing a brilliant light with +this fluid had been well known to physicists ever since Sir Humphry +Davy's experiments in 1813, but no method of generating the electricity +cheaply had hitherto been invented. Utilizing among others the +inventions of Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Charles G. Brush, of Cleveland, 0., +gave to the world in 1875 his remarkably efficient dynamo or generator, +and from that time the illumination of streets and squares by +electricity began to be somewhat common. There was, to be sure another +difficulty to be overcome, even for lighting on a grand scale, that of +maintaining a steady and continuous light. In this the Jablochkoff +candle, used in the Paris streets by 1878, was measurably successful. It +was a voltaic arc arrangement, in which, by making each of the two +carbon pencils alternately positive and negative, their ends were +consumed with equal rapidity and so kept perpetually the same distance +apart. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +Thomas A. Edison. + + +[Illustration: Three men watching a train passing through a long tunnel.] +The Hoosac Tunnel Lit by Glow Lamps, after the Plan of the Marr +Construction Company. + + +But the voltaic light was too brilliant for a small area. How to divide +and subdue it so as to render it suitable for house lighting, was still +a difficult problem. Farmer, Sawyer, Mann, and Edison, all attacked it +at nearly the same time, going back with singular accord from the +voltaic arc principle to that of incandescence in a vacuum. Edison, the +prodigy of the century in inventive genius, was the most successful. +Besides improving the dynamo, he perfected with little difficulty a +cheap vacuum-globe. After long experimenting he succeeded in the more +arduous task of securing an automatic checking of the current before it +became hot enough to consume the incandescent carbon. He also found that +a large current could be divided into smaller ones by splitting up the +conductor into minor filaments. Triumph in household illumination was +thus achieved, and when, in October, 1878, the results of Edison's +experimenting were announced to the world, gas fell from twelve to +twenty per cent. The alarm was premature, however, since the new +illumination did not, after all, prove so satisfactory as to displace +the old. It largely did so for streets, factories, and halls, but to no +very great extent for residences. + + +[Illustration: Drawing of lamp.] +Edison's Platinum Lamp on Carbon Support, 1879. + + +[Illustration: Drawing of lamp.] +Edison's Paper Carbon Lamp. + + +[Illustration: Drawing of lamp.] +Edison's First Incandescent Platinum Lamp. + + +[1883-1884] + +The most stupendous engineering work yet accomplished by man, the great +bridge spanning East River between Brooklyn and New York, was completed +in May, 1883, excavations for its foundations having begun so early as +1870. This wonder of the world was designed by John A. Roebling, and +after his death in 1869 finished by his son, W. A. Roebling. It cost +about $16,000,000, two-thirds coming from the city of Brooklyn, +one-third from New York. A gigantic stone tower, 277 feet high, was +built on each side of the river. Through arched apertures in these +toward the top ran the roadway, its ends being 119 feet above the water. +The centre of the bridge was supported by four steel wire cables, 16 +inches in diameter, which passed from solid masonry structures nearly +1,000 feet away from the water's edge on either shore, up over the two +towers, dipping, at the centre of the river, to nearly the level of the +roadway. On account of their great weight they had to be braided, strand +by strand, in their permanent position. Suspenders from these cables +grappled the body of the bridge at frequent intervals. The main span was +I,595-1/2 feet long, the entire work about 6,000 feet. There were five +passageways--two on the outside for carriages, the next two for cable +cars, the middle one for foot passengers. The bridge curved upward from +each tower, being at the middle 135 feet above the water in summer, and +three feet higher in winter, owing to contraction by the cold. All but +the very largest ships sailed under without shortening their masts. + +In connection with the great bridge, as likewise in a way possessing an +importance for the whole nation, we may mention the ingenious deepening +of Hell-gate Channel, East River, by tunnelling beneath the water and +using dynamite; and also the introduction of elevated railways in New +York City and Brooklyn. This project had been mooted by 1868. Exactly +ten years later two sections of railway were open for travel in New +York. The first elevated road in Brooklyn began operation in 1885. These +new avenues of travel at once became immensely popular. In 1884, no +fewer than 250 engines and 800 cars were in use by the New York lines, +carrying over 300,000 passengers daily, or about 103,000,000 for the +year. Nearly at the same time with the introduction of these roads in +New York, new methods of traction for surface street railways, by +electricity and by cable, were introduced in various cities of the +country, bidding fair soon to do away with horses for this service. + + +[Illustration: Bridge and surrounding city.] +The Brooklyn Bridge, looking up the East River. + + +[Illustration: Tracks elevated about 30 feet on iron beams.] +The Manhattan Elevated Railway, New York. + + +[1877-1887] + +One of the most interesting and valuable inventions of this or any +century was that of the telephone, devised by Alexander Graham Bell, and +first put to business use in 1877. For ten years Mr. Bell had been +experimenting upon the possibility of conveying sound by means of the +electric wire. In 1876 he had so far succeeded as to exhibit a pair of +his instruments in successful operation at the Philadelphia Centennial +Exhibition. In April of the next year the Cambridge Water Board, the +Pennsylvania Railroad, and many other corporations ordered the +instrument for practical service. From this time the business grew with +incredible rapidity. The American Bell Telephone Company was +incorporated, and in January, 1886, had in use 330,000 telephones. There +were this year in various cities of the United States 752 telephone +exchanges. The total length of telephone wires operated by this company +was 114,371 miles. In addition to the system which centred in the Bell +Company there were several competing telephone establishments in +continual litigation with the Bell. The total mileage of telephone wires +in the United States in 1887 was estimated at 130,000 miles. There were +the same year 170,000 miles of telegraph wire, besides private lines. In +1893, the aggregate length of telegraph lines in the United States open +to the public exceeded 210,000 miles. There were, besides, government +and private lines to a length vast but not ascertainable. In addition to +all this, the Bell Telephone Company, which conducted the main telephone +business of the country, owned, the same year, 307,748 miles of wire, +which the lines of other companies increased to 440,750 miles. + +[Illustration: Mass of wiring about 10 by 20 feet.] +Under Side of a Modern Switchboard, showing 2,000 Telegraph Wires. + + +[1862-1877] + +From this account of our country's material advance after the war we +purposely omit mention of the great economic progress at the South, as +that has been already reviewed in Chapter IV. We must, instead, notice +several events which decidedly checked the prosperity of these years. + +So soon as gold had ceased to circulate in 1862, speculation in it +began, which was one of the most pernicious results of the depreciation +of paper. The ups and downs in the gold price of the greenback from week +to week and from day to day during the war were largely due to this +cause. In 1869 a clique of speculators in New York thought to realize an +immense fortune by cornering gold, a large proportion of the stock east +of the Rocky Mountains being known to be in New York City. + +By Wednesday, September 22d, they had pushed up the price of gold in +greenbacks from 131 to 141, causing a disastrous tumble in stocks and +almost a panic. The money market grew tight, and interest enormous. +Loans were to be had only on the very best securities. On Thursday gold +still advanced, showing that the corner remained solid. At the last call +it stood at 144; at the first on Friday, September 24th, 105 was the +figure. The ring was believed at this time to hold in gold and in +contracts to deliver the same, over $100,000,000, while all the gold in +New York outside the United States Sub-Treasury was hardly over +$10,000,000. Only the Government could break the corner. At eleven +o'clock gold was at 155, whence in half an hour it rose to 160, then to +162, then to 164. In the midst of an excitement never paralleled in the +Gold Room before or since, it was announced on authority that the +Government would sell. The price at once went down to 135, and the power +of the clique was instantly broken. This day passed into history under +the name of "Black Friday." + +[Illustration: Several men watching Bell using a phone.] +Professor Bell Sending the First Message by Long-distance Telephone, +from New York to Chicago. + + +[Illustration: Hysterical traders shouting and waving their arms. The +room has a 30 foot ceiling and a balcony. ] +The New York Gold Room on "Black Friday," September 24, 1869. + + +The Chicago fire of October, 1871, was the most disastrous yet in the +chronicles of our country. It began in the evening of October 8th and +raged for over twenty-four hours. According to the best estimates 250 +lives were lost, 98,500 persons made homeless, 17,500 buildings +consumed, and $192,000,000 worth of property destroyed. The main +business portion of the city was included in the tract burned. Thirteen +months later the most destructive conflagration that had ever visited +Boston swept the district below Washington Street from Summer nearly to +State, and eastward to the water's edge, being the most solid business +portion of the city. The loss was placed at $75,000,000. + + +[Illustration: People running away from smoke and fire.] +A Scene during the Chicago Fire. + + +The shocking destruction of wealth by these fires was part cause of the +hard times which began in 1873. But others concurred. During 1872 the +balance of trade was strongly against the United States. The +circulation of depreciated paper money had brought to many an apparent +prosperity which was not real, leading to the free contraction of debts +by individuals, corporations, towns, cities, and States. An +unprecedented mileage of railways had just been constructed. During the +half decade ending with 1873, $1,700,000,000 had thus been spent in the +country. The supposed wealth of many consisted in the bonds of these +roads and of other newly created concerns, as mining and manufacturing +corporations. Thus the entire business of the country was on a basis of +inflation, and when contraction came by the resumption of specie +payments and the demonetization of silver, disaster was inevitable. + +In the course of the summer solid values began to be hoarded and +interest rates consequently to rise. In September panic came. Credit in +business was refused, debtors were pressed for payment, securities were +rushed into the market and fell greatly in price, railway stocks from +ten to forty per cent., even United States bonds from five to ten. There +was a run upon savings banks, many of which succumbed. For ten days, +beginning September 20th, the New York Stock Exchange had to suspend, so +dubious was the value of most stock contracts. Manufactured products +were little salable, and the prices of agricultural painfully sank. +Factories began to run on short time, many closed entirely, many +corporations failed. The peculiarity of this crisis was the slowness +with which it abated. No date indeed can be set as its term, its evil +effects dragging on through years, so that the ill times of 1893-94 may +be regarded as the same fever, intermittent in the meantime. + +[1880] + +Notwithstanding all these drawbacks, the material progress of the United +States for the two decades which we are studying was something enormous. +We have no room for details. Our total population by 1880 had swollen to +50,155,783, by 1890 to 62,622,250. The census valuation of our national +wealth, which had been for 1860, $16,159,616,068. was, for 1870, +$30,068,518,507; for 1880, $43,642,000,000; and for 1890, +$65,037,091,197. The per capita wealth was, according to the census of +1860, $514, by that of 1870, $780, by that of 1880, $870, by that of +1890, $1,036. In 1870 the United States was in wealth the third nation +on the globe; in 1880 it had distanced France and stood second. "The +country whose population has been developed within two hundred and +eighty years, does already one-third of the world's mining, one-fourth +of its manufacturing, and one-fifth of its agriculture; and at least +one-sixth of the world's wealth is already concentrated in the strip of +territory in Central North America which is the home of the United +States." These words were written after the census of 1880. Still +stronger ones would have been true in 1895. + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +END OF THE PERIOD + +[1890] + +It is a long way that we have taken the reader, from the days of +Columbus to where we can espy the dawn of the twentieth century. Yet, in +comparison with the times which our narrative has here reached, those of +three decades earlier would seem almost as remote as Columbus's own, so +swiftly did the wheels of progress turn. Everything declared that a new +age had opened. In addition to the signs of this which have been set +down in the preceding chapters, we have only space for the bare mention +of a few others. + +In 1888 the United States mails flew from point to point across the +continent with a rapidity which would have astounded people so few years +back as the close of the war. Their distribution effected through the +post-office cars that ran on all the main lines and by immediate +delivery in cities and large towns, was quite as great an improvement as +the speed. The postal-car system had origin in Chicago in 1864, +spreading thence East and West. Speedy delivery was introduced in 1886. +Postal rates were lower than ever before, and destined soon to be lower +still. Much business formerly left to the express companies was now done +by mail, and much carried on in this way which formerly was not done at +all. + +Our country had developed an attention to art in all its forms far +beyond anything of the kind to be observed at the end of the war. In all +the principal cities concerts of the highest order were provided and +numerously attended. Our art galleries already vied with many of those +in the Old World. Students of art were found in abundance in our own +multiplying schools for them, while many from this country sought art +instruction in Europe. Not a few Americans attained eminence in this +department year by year. In one artistic line we already excelled every +other people, viz., the application of the principles of taste in +beautifying homes, churches, structures intended for business, such as +exchanges, railway stations, and bridges, cars, and all kinds of +machinery. We led the world, too, in propriety and neatness of apparel, +at least, for men. + +After the war the right to vote was extended in nearly all the States, +until by 1890 manhood suffrage was legally the rule from North to South +and from East to West. In this, indeed, we were only keeping pace with +Great Britain, France, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. The agitation +for woman's suffrage had, however, progressed further here than in any +other land. There was a large party, quasi-political, intent upon +bringing it about. A national convention was held in that interest each +year. In Wyoming and Utah the suffrage had already been enjoyed by women +since 1869. In Kansas, by a law going into effect February 16, 1887, +they voted on all municipal affairs. In many other localities they had +the privilege of voting on certain questions, as the election of school +committees, and were eligible to membership in these committees. +Occupations of honor and profit were, more and more as the years passed, +open to the female sex. Women preached, practised law and medicine, and +furnished many of the best bookkeepers, sales-people, and principals of +schools. Vassar College, the first institution in the world for the full +collegiate education of women, was opened in 1861. Smith and Wellesley +Colleges, for the same, were opened in 1875, Bryn Mawr following in +1885. Cornell, Michigan, and all the State Universities in the West, +like a number of the best universities in the East, educated young women +on the same terms as young men. Harvard opened its Radcliffe College for +female pupils. At its commencement in 1886, Columbia College, of which +the Barnard College for women became virtually a part, conferred the +degree of Doctor in Philosophy upon a woman. Yale University and the +University of Pennsylvania opened their graduate departments to women on +the same terms as to men. Brown University did the same, besides +providing for the undergraduate instruction of women. + + +[Illustration: Man holding his hat, leaning from a moving train.] +Catching the Mail Pouch from the Crane. + + +Another sign of the times, still more striking, was our advance toward +socialism and state socialism. This occurred for the most part in ways +so recondite as to escape observation, yet in many respects the course +of things in this direction was perfectly obvious. The powerful movement +for the legal prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxicants was +one instance. The extension and perfection of our public school system, +all at the expense of the taxpayers, was another, it being possible by +1890 in nearly every State for a young person of either sex to secure, +without paying a cent of tuition money, a better education than the +finest universities in the land could give a hundred years previous. The +extent of governmental surveillance over great industries was another +illustration. The Trusts spoken of in a preceding chapter were +unhesitatingly assumed to be subject to legislative investigation and +command. Great corporations and combinations, it was now well +understood, could not pursue their ends merely for profit, irrespective +of public interest. The Inter-State Railway Law of February 4, 1887, +instituting a National Commission, to which all railways crossing state +lines were responsible for obedience to certain rules which the same law +enjoined, was the boldest assertion of state supervision yet made; but +there was a great and growing number of thinkers who believed that mere +state oversight would not suffice, and that at least gigantic businesses +like telegraph, railway, and mining, must sooner or later be bought and +operated out and out by public authority. Nothing had done so much to +promote this conviction as the rise, procedure, and wealth of these +Trusts, for from the oppressive greed of many of them no legislative +regulation seemed sufficient to protect the people. + +This tendency to over-exalt the State's industrial function was not the +only danger which confronted us. Another was that from immigration. So +enormous was the influx of foreigners that we were threatened with a +fatal emasculation of our national character. The manner in which we +incorporated alien elements theretofore was among the wonders of +history, but it was at least a question whether we could continue to do +this always. It seemed in part therefore a healthy sentiment which by +the law of 1882 excluded Chinese labor-immigrants. New-comers from other +lands were also refused domicile here if imported under contract, +[Footnote: Law of February 26, 1885] or unable to support themselves. +The stronger law against the Chinese at first sight seemed invidious, +but there was some justification for it in the fact that those people +almost never settled down permanently as citizens of the United States, +but returned to their native land so soon as they earned a competence. +Italians of the lowest class did this to some extent, but the great bulk +of our foreign-born population came here with the purpose of becoming +American. + +Our Irish-American fellow-citizens gave concern to many. One complaint +was that they brought hither their anti-English prejudices, by the loud +and continual assertion of which they tended ever to embroil us with +England. There proved to be slight danger from this source, particularly +after the rise of a powerful pro-Irish sentiment and party among the +English themselves. Others had great fear of the Irish as Catholics, +they being the chief representatives of that faith in the United States. +The growth of the Roman Catholic Church in our borders was certainly +very rapid. An American clergyman, McCloskey, was made Cardinal in 1875. +A University, subject to the Catholic Church was erected in Washington. +Catholicism in America was no longer a mission church as it had been +until quite recently, but had a full national organization as in the +other great nations of the earth. + +A strong movement was developed among the Catholic clergy against our +common schools as usually administered. Parochial schools were erected +in most Eastern cities and large towns, and efforts made to fill them +with children who, but for their existence, would be in the public +schools. Public schools were denounced as godless because they did not, +as of course they could not, give positive religious instruction. This +opposition was doubtless a menace to our time-honored and on the whole +very efficient school system, so that what the future of this was to be +no one could confidently predict. It was to be remarked, however, that +some of the warmest defenders of the public schools appeared in the +Catholic ranks; nor was there any evidence that, as a class, American +citizens of Irish birth and descent prized the free institutions of this +nation a whit less than the rest of the people. + +A greater peril beset the nation in the decay which slowly crept over +our family life. The family has in every civilized age been justly +regarded as the pillar of the state, but the integrity which it +possessed among our fathers, their children invaded in many ways. +Mormonism, decadent if not dead, about which so much had been said, was +but one of these, and perhaps not the worst. If crimes of a violent +nature were becoming less frequent, crimes against chastity were on the +increase. Easy divorce was considerably responsible for this. The +diversity of marriage and divorce laws in the various States was a great +abomination. How to remedy it did not appear. Many called for a +constitutional amendment, lodging solely in Congress the power of making +laws upon this vital subject. + +We proved very fortunate as a people in that our material prosperity +itself did not prove a greater curse. More than every other disaster was +to be feared the growth of a temper for mere material thinking and +enjoyment, the love of lucre and of those merely material comforts and +delights which lucre can buy. There was among us quite too little care +for the ideal side of life. Too many who purchased books loved them +only for the money they cost. Rich engravings and bindings were often +sought rather than edifying matter. Costly daubs were purchased at +enormous prices for lack of true artistic taste or relish. In sadly +frequent cases the great captain of industry was nothing but a plodder. +There was too great rush for wealth. We became nervous. Nervous diseases +increased alarmingly. We read, but only market reports. Think, we did +not; we only reckoned. + +The outlook, notwithstanding, embraced much that was hopeful. Very +worthful as well as very beautiful was the new sense of nationality that +had been developed in this country in consequence of the war. While men +still differed as to the original nature of our Union, while the State +remained as yet a vital though a decreasingly important organ of the +political frame, its real status offering to reward study as never +before because no longer a sectional issue, yet the war, as unmistakably +pronouncing the national will, laid the question of Nation's supremacy +over State forever at rest, having hereupon virtually the effect of a +constitutional amendment. Close construction of the Constitution could +never again throttle this Union. Whether such quasi-amendment altered +the Constitution, Stephens's view, or served but to bring out more +clearly its old meaning, our view, practically the war had entailed +enormous new exaltation and centralization of the Union, with answering +subordination of the State. + + +[Illustration: Several people standing outside small domes of snow blocks.] +Igloos, or Esquimau Huts. + + +[Illustration: Portrait.] +A. W. Greely. + + +A quickened sense of our duty as a nation might likewise be observed at +work in various directions. Our treatment of the Indians had been, since +the administration of President Grant, more humane than ever before. +Earnest and successful efforts were made, very largely at the national +expense, to educate them and prepare them for citizenship. They were +better protected from the rapacity of heartless agents and frontiersmen, +while the land in severalty legislation of 1887 opened the red man's way +to the actual attainment of civil rights and to all the advance in +civilization of which he was capable. + +The part which our Government had begun to take in the advancement of +science was greatly to its credit. We have space to instance only the +expedition of 1881-1884, headed by Lieutenant Greely, to the northern +polar regions for scientific observation, reaching a point nearer to the +pole than had ever before been attained. The whole world admired the +daring and sympathized with the sufferings of these gallant explorers, +several of whom perished of cold and hunger before relief reached them, +the others rescued barely in season to save them from like fate. + +The revision of King James's version of our English Bible, New Testament +finished in 1881, Old Testament in 1885, was an eminent historical event +falling in this period. American divines took prominent part in it, +though of course not under any commission from our Government. + +Being the most trying crisis ever successfully met by a self-governed +people, the war lent powerful stimulus and tonic to the cause of free +institutions everywhere, proving republican loyalty to be as firm and +trustworthy as monarchical, and government by and for the governed to be +not necessarily either inefficient or ephemeral. It demonstrated that a +republic, without lessening its freedom, may become a great military +power, generals of highest genius passively obeying a popularly elected +Congress and Executive, these in turn maintaining full mastery, yet not +hampering military movements. + +The achievement of this firmer national unity, with the success and the +martial and financial prodigies attending the struggle therefor, gave us +new and far higher place in the esteem of nations, with correspondingly +enlarged influence in mankind's greater affairs. + +By 1890 one might observe a more or less conscious disposition on the +part of thoughtful Americans to insist that this influence be exerted, +to have the nation break over the policy wisely laid down by Washington, +for earlier times, and assert itself more in the Parliament of Man. It +was felt that our place and power among the nations of the earth had not +been given us for naught, and that, as the weal of mankind is to a +considerable degree determined by international politics, we had no +right longer to hold ourselves aloof from this field. The feeling was +emphasized by the annihilation of space between us and other nations, +brought about through steam navigation and ocean telegraphy. + +Not only Great Britain and France, but Germany, Russia, and China were +now at our very doors. They would influence our weal whether or not we +reacted upon them. Why should we not, without being meddlesome, strive +to disseminate our ideas, extend our civilization, and make our national +personality felt? It was to President Arthur's praise that he caused the +United States to be represented at Berlin in the Congo Conference of +1884-85. Next, men said, our delegates would be present with voice and +vote in all regular Congresses of the Great Powers. Americans did not +prophesy, as more than one voice out of Europe itself had of late done, +that the United States would some day cross the Atlantic as a conqueror. +This, indeed, was a somewhat natural thought. The Old World reeled under +its crushing burden of national debts and military taxes, and in +material resources could not long compete with us, free from such +burdens. But the American thought was that we should express our +superiority in the form of ideas, not of arms, and use it in elevating +mankind to richer culture and a nobler life. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Volume 4, by +E. 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