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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Volume 4, by 
+E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of the United States, Volume 4
+
+Author: E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2007 [EBook #22676]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kostuch
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's notes]
+
+[1862] indicate the following text covers this period, until the
+next such appearance.
+
+Here are the definitions of some unfamiliar (to me) terms.
+
+abatis
+  Barricade of trees with sharpened branches directed toward an enemy.
+
+acclivities
+  Upward slope.
+
+carpet-baggers
+  Politicians who move to a place for an opportunity to promote their
+  career.
+
+comity
+  Courtesy; civility. Comity of nations: respect of one country for the
+  laws and institutions of another. Law: courts of one jurisdiction give
+  effect to the decisions of another.
+
+Lethe of death
+  River in Hades; drinking it caused forgetfulness.
+
+mare clausum
+  Navigable body of water under the jurisdiction of one nation and
+  closed to all others. Latin: mare, sea + clausum, closed.
+
+modus vivendi
+  Manner of living; way of life. Temporary agreement between contending
+  parties pending a final settlement.
+
+Ney
+  Michel Ney--Duke of Elchingen, 1769-1815, French revolutionary and
+  Napoleonic military leader; marshal of France 1805-15.
+
+parole
+  A written promise by a prisoner of war, that if released he will not
+  take up arms against his captors.
+
+redintegration
+  Restoration of a lost or injured part. Evocation of a state of mind
+  by the recurrence of the elements making up the original experience.
+
+scalawag
+  A native white Southerner who collaborated with the occupying forces
+  during Civil War Reconstruction for personal gain.
+
+spiles
+  Post used as a foundation; a pile. Wooden plug; bung. Spigot used in
+  taking sap from a tree.
+
+windrows
+  Row of leaves or snow heaped up by the wind; row of cut hay or grain
+  left to dry in a field before being bundled.
+
+[End transcriber's notes]
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Sculpture of a boat carrying several classical figures.]
+Drawn by Will H. Low.
+The World's Fair at Chicago.
+Central Portion of MacMonnies Fountain--Effect of Electric Light.
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+
+FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PRESENT TIME
+
+BY
+E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS
+CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
+FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY
+
+With 650 Illustrations and Maps
+
+
+VOLUME IV.
+
+NEW YORK
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+1912
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1894 AND 1903, BY
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+[Illustration: Scribner's logo.]
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+PERIOD IV
+
+CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION
+
+(Continued)
+
+1860--1868
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+
+Three Great Lines of Campaign.
+Confederate Posts in Kentucky.
+Surrender of Fort Henry.
+Siege of Fort Donelson.
+Capture.
+Kentucky Cleared of Armed Confederates.
+Pope Captures Island No. 10.
+Gunboat Fight.
+Memphis Ours.
+Battle of Pittsburg
+Landing.
+Defeat and Victory.
+Farragut and Butler to New Orleans.
+Battle.
+Victory.
+The Crescent City Won.
+On to Vicksburg.
+Iuka.
+Corinth.
+Grant's Masterly Strategy.
+Sherman's Movements.
+McClernand's.
+Gunboats pass Vicksburg.
+Capture of Jackson, Miss.
+Battle of Champion's Hill.
+Siege of Vicksburg.
+Famine within.
+The Surrender.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. THE WAR IN THE CENTRE
+
+Bragg Invades Kentucky.
+Buell Saves Louisville.
+Battle of Perryville.
+Of Stone River.
+Losses.
+Chickamauga.
+Thomas the "Rock of Chickamauga."
+Grant to the Front.
+Bragg's Movements.
+Chattanooga.
+The "Battle above the Clouds."
+Capture of Missionary Ridge.
+Bragg's Army Broken Up.
+Grant Lieutenant-General.
+Plan of Campaign for 1864-65.
+Sherman's Army.
+Skirmishes.
+Kenesaw Mountain.
+Johnston at Bay.
+Hood in Command.
+Assumes the Offensive.
+Sherman in Atlanta.
+Losses.
+Hood to Alabama and Tennessee.
+The March to the Sea.
+Living on the Country.
+Sherman at Savannah.
+Hardee Evacuates.
+A Christmas Gift.
+The Blow to the Confederacy.
+Thomas Crushes Hood.
+Sherman Marches North.
+Charleston Falls.
+Columbia.
+Johnston Routed at Bentonville.
+Sherman Master of the Carolinas.
+Johnston Surrenders.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. THE VIRGINIA CAMPAIGNS OF 1862--63
+
+McClellan to Fortress Monroe.
+Yorktown.
+Williamsburg.
+Fair Oaks.
+Lee in Command.
+McDowell Retained at Fredericksburg.
+Lee Assumes the Offensive.
+Gaines's Mill.
+The Seven Days' Retreat.
+Malvern Hill.
+Union Army at Harrison's Landing.
+Discouragement.
+McClellan Leaves the Peninsula.
+Pope's Advance on Richmond.
+Retreat.
+Jackson in his Rear.
+Second Battle of Bull Run.
+Pope Defeated.
+Chantilly.
+McClellan again Commander.
+Lee in Maryland.
+South Mountain.
+Antietam.
+Lee Escapes.
+McClellan Removed and Burnside in Command.
+Fredericksburg.
+The Battle.
+Hooker General-in-Chief.
+Chancellorsville.
+Flank Movement by Jackson.
+Battle of May 3d.
+Lee in Pennsylvania.
+Convergence to Gettysburg.
+First Day's Battle.
+Second Day.
+Third.
+Pickett's Charge.
+Failure.
+Lee Escapes.
+Significance of this Battle.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. COLLAPSE OF THE CONFEDERACY
+
+Grant Comes East.
+Battle of the Wilderness.
+Flanking.
+Spottsylvania.
+The "Bloody Angle."
+Butler "Bottled Up" at Bermuda.
+Grant at the North Anna.
+At Cold Harbor.
+Change of Base to the James.
+Siege of Petersburg.
+The Mine.
+Washington in Peril.
+Operations in Shenandoah Valley.
+"Sheridan's Ride."
+Further Work at Petersburg.
+Distress at the South.
+Lee's Problem.
+Battle at Five Forks.
+Blue-coats in Petersburg.
+Davis and his Government Leave Richmond.
+Union Army Enters.
+Grant Pursues Lee.
+The Surrender.
+Assassination of President Lincoln.
+Johnston Grounds Arms.
+Capture of Jefferson Davis.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. THE WAR ON THE SEA
+
+Classification of Naval Deeds.
+Our Navy when the War Began.
+Enlargement.
+Blockading.
+Difficulty and Success.
+Alternate Tediousness and Excitement.
+Blockade-running Tactics.
+Expeditions to Aid the Blockade.
+To Port Royal.
+To Roanoke Island.
+Confederate Navy.
+The Merrimac.
+Sinks the Cumberland, Burns the Congress.
+Monitor and Merrimac.
+An Era in Naval Architecture and Warfare.
+Operations before Charleston.
+The Atlanta.
+The Albemarle.
+Blown Up by Cushing.
+Farragut in Mobile Harbor.
+Fort Fisher Taken.
+Southern Cruisers upon the High Seas.
+Destructive.
+The Sumter.
+The Alabama.
+Her Career.
+Fights the Kearsarge.
+Sinks.
+
+
+CHAPTER X. FOREIGN RELATIONS. FINANCE. EMANCIPATION.
+
+Views of the War Abroad.
+England's Hostility.
+Causes.
+The Trent Affair.
+Seward's Reasoning.
+Great Britain's Breach of Neutrality.
+Louis Napoleon's Hypocrisy.
+Invasion of Mexico.
+Maximilian.
+War Expenditure.
+How Met.
+Duties.
+Internal Revenue.
+Loans.
+Bonds.
+Treasury Notes.
+Treasurer's Report, July 1, 1865.
+Errors of War Financiering.
+Confederate Finances.
+High Prices at South.
+Problem of the Slave in Union Lines.
+"Contraband of War."
+Rendition by United States Officers.
+Arguments for Emancipation.
+Congressional Legislation.
+Abolition in District of Columbia.
+Negro Soldiers.
+Preliminary Proclamation.
+Final Effects.
+Mr. Lincoln's Difficulties.
+Republican Opposition.
+Abolitionist.
+Democratic.
+Copperhead.
+Yet he is Re-elected.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. RECONSTRUCTION
+
+Delicacy of the Task.
+Reasons.
+The Main Constitutional Question.
+Different Views.
+The Other Questions.
+Answer.
+Periods of Reconstruction.
+During War.
+President Lincoln.
+Johnson.
+His Policy.
+Carried Out.
+Congress Rips up his Work.
+Why.
+South's Attitude just after War.
+Toward Negroes.
+XIVth Amendment.
+Rejected by Southern States.
+Iron Law of 1867.
+Carried through.
+Antagonism between President Johnson and Congress.
+Attempt to Impeach Johnson.
+Fails.
+
+
+
+PERIOD V
+
+
+THE CEMENTED UNION
+
+1868-1888
+
+
+CHAPTER I. POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE LAST TWO DECADES
+
+Grant's First Election.
+His Work During Reconstruction.
+Its Difficulty.
+Bayonet Rule in the South.
+The Force Act.
+Danger to State Independence.
+"Liberal Republican" Movement.
+The Greeley Campaign, 1872.
+Grant again Elected.
+Fresh Turmoil at the South.
+Culminates in Louisiana.
+Blood Shed.
+The Kellogg Government Sustained in that State.
+A Solid South.
+The Election of 1876.
+In Doubt.
+The Returns.
+The Electoral Commission of 1877.
+Hayes Seated.
+The Electoral Count Act, 1886.
+Hayes's Administration.
+End of the Bayonet Regime.
+Garfield's Nomination.
+And Election.
+And Assassination.
+The Guiteau Trial.
+Civil Service Reform.
+Under Grant.
+Under Hayes.
+Need of it.
+Credit Mobilier Scandal.
+The Pendleton Act Passed.
+Its Nature and Operation.
+Recovery of Power by the Democracy.
+Election of Cleveland.
+The Civil Service.
+Presidential Succession Act of 1886.
+Its Necessity.
+And Provisions.
+
+
+CHAPTER II. THE TREATY OF WASHINGTON.   237
+
+A Shining Instance of Peaceful International Methods.
+Earlier Negotiations.
+"ALABAMA CLAIMS" Insisted on.
+A Joint Commission.
+Its Personnel.
+A Treaty Drafted and Ratified.
+Its Provisions.
+Northwest Boundary Question.
+Minor Claims.
+The Alabama Claims.
+Geneva Tribunal.
+Personnel.
+No Pay for Indirect Losses.
+Importance of the Case.
+The Three Rules of the Washington Treaty.
+Position of Great Britain Relative to These.
+Their Meaning.
+An Advance in International Law.
+The Other Cruisers.
+The Award.
+Charles Francis Adams.
+The Money Paid.
+Its History.
+
+
+CHAPTER III. THE FISHERIES DISPUTE.
+
+Fishery Clause of the Treaty of 1783.
+Value of the Rights it Conveyed.
+Effect of War of 1812.
+Convention of 1818.
+Its Fateful Provisions.
+Troubles in Consequence.
+The Reciprocity of 1854.
+Repeal in 1865.
+New Troubles.
+Reciprocity by Treaty of Washington, from 1871.
+Repealed in 1885.
+Why
+Friction in 1886.
+Strict Enforcement by Canada of Convention of 1818.
+Severities.
+Their Animus.
+Pleas of the United States Government.
+Threat of Retaliation.
+Commission to Draft New Treaty.
+Indecisive Result.
+Northwestern Fisheries Question Settled.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE SOUTH.
+
+The Results of Congressional Reconstruction.
+Restoration of White Rule.
+Ku-Klux-Klan.
+Improvement.
+Loyalty at the South.
+Prosperity.
+Cotton.
+Manufacturing.
+Iron.
+Marble.
+Southern Cities.
+Country Parts.
+State of Florida.
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE WEST.
+
+New States and Territories.
+Alaska.
+Its Resources.
+Both Sides of the Rockies Filling Up.
+Pacific Railways.
+Colorado.
+California.
+Great American Desert.
+Tabular View of the West's Growth.
+Western Cities.
+Minnesota.
+St. Paul, Minneapolis, Duluth.
+Duluth and Chicago.
+Statistics of Immigration.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. THE EXPOSITION OF 1876.
+
+Origin of the Plan.
+Organization.
+Financial Basis.
+Conclusion to Make it a World Affair.
+To be at Philadelphia.
+Building.
+Opening Exercises.
+The Main Building.
+Arrangement and Contents.
+The American Exhibit.
+Machinery Hall.
+The Corliss Engine.
+Agricultural Hall.
+Memorial Hall.
+The Art Exhibit.
+Horticultural Hall.
+Minor Arrangements and Structures.
+The Fourth of July Celebration.
+Original Copy of the Declaration of Independence Read.
+Interest in the Philadelphia Exposition.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. ECONOMIC POLITICS
+
+Reduction of National Debt.
+Refunding.
+Surplus.
+Tariff.
+Its History since the War.
+Policy of the Political Parties.
+Tariffs of 1890 and 1894.
+Trusts.
+The Dollar of the Fathers.
+Resumption of Specie Payments.
+The Promissory Greenback.
+Fiat Greenback Theory.
+And Party.
+Great Strike of 1877.
+Labor Movement and Labor Question.
+Corporations.
+Their Evil Influence.
+Counter-organizations.
+Growth of our Urban Population.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. THE MARCH OF INDUSTRY.
+
+Progress in Cotton Manufacturing.
+In Woollen, Iron, and Other.
+In Travel.
+New Submarine Cables.
+First Pacific Railway.
+Others.
+Consolidation of Railways.
+Electric Lighting.
+Brooklyn Bridge.
+Elevated Railways and New Modes of Surface Traction.
+Telephone.
+Black Friday.
+Chicago Fire.
+Boston Fire.
+Hard Times of 1873.
+Material Betterment for Last Two Decades.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. END OF THE PERIOD.
+
+Contrast of New Things with Old.
+Postal Arrangements.
+Art.
+Extension of Suffrage.
+Woman's Rights.
+Higher Education for Women.
+Socialism and State Socialism.
+Widened Scope of Governmental Action.
+Restriction of Immigration.
+Catholics.
+Their Attitude to Public Schools.
+Peril to Family.
+Mormonism.
+Divorce.
+Danger from a Secular Spirit.
+New Sense of Nationality.
+Benign Results.
+Greely Expedition to Polar Regions.
+Lesson of our National Success to Other Nations.
+Our Nation's Duty in World Affairs.
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+THE WORLD'S FAIR AT CHICAGO. CENTRAL PORTION OF MACMONNIES
+FOUNTAIN--EFFECT OF ELECTRIC LIGHT.
+
+GENERAL JOHN POPE.
+
+GENERAL WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.
+
+THE BATTLE OF THE RAMS AT MEMPHIS, JUNE 6, 1862.
+
+FARRAGUT IN THE MAIN-RIGGING. (From the original by William Page).
+
+GENERAL HENRY W. HALLECK.
+
+GENERAL WILLIAM S. ROSECRANS.
+
+GENERAL GEORGE H. THOMAS.
+
+GENERAL JOSEPH HOOKER.
+
+THE BATTLE OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. (The "Battle above the Clouds ").
+
+GENERAL JAMES B. McPHERSON.
+
+GENERAL DAVID D. PORTER.
+
+GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE.
+
+GENERAL NATHANIEL P. BANKS.
+
+GENERAL J. E. B. STUART'S RAID UPON POPE'S HEADQUARTERS.
+
+AUGUST 22, 1862, WHEN POPE'S DESPATCH-BOOK FELL INTO THE HANDS OF THE
+CONFEDERATES.
+
+GENERAL THOMAS J. ("STONEWALL") JACKSON.
+
+GENERAL EDWIN V. SUMNER.
+
+GENERAL WINFIELD S. HANCOCK.
+
+GENERAL AMBROSE E. BURNSIDE.
+
+THE STONE WALL AT FREDERICKSBURG.
+
+GENERAL OLIVER O. HOWARD.
+
+GENERAL JOHN SEDGWICK.
+
+GENERAL JAMES LONGSTREET.
+
+GENERAL GEORGE G. MEADE.
+
+DEATH OF GENERAL SEDGWICK AT SPOTTSYLVANIA, MAY 9, 1864.
+
+GENERAL DAVID HUNTER.
+
+GENERAL LEE SIGNING THE TERMS OF SURRENDER AT APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE.
+
+GIDEON WELLES.
+
+THE SINKING OF THE FRIGATE CUMBERLAND BY THE MERRIMAC IN HAMPTON ROADS,
+MARCH 8, 1862.
+
+JOHN ERICSSON.
+
+SECTIONAL VIEW OF MONITOR THROUGH TURRET AND PILOT-HOUSE.
+
+THE ORIGINAL MONITOR.
+
+THE SINKING OF THE ALABAMA.
+
+THE LANDING OF THE ALLIED TROOPS AT VERA CRUZ.
+
+MAXIMILIAN WATCHING THE DEPARTURE OF THE LAST FRENCH TROOPS FROM THE
+CITY OF MEXICO.
+
+SALMON PORTLAND CHASE, SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY DURING THE CIVIL WAR.
+
+FACSIMILE OF A PORTION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN'S DRAFT OF THE PRELIMINARY
+PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION, SEPTEMBER, 1862. (From the original in the
+Library of the State of New York, Albany).
+
+EDWIN M. STANTON.
+
+ULYSSES S. GRANT.
+
+SAMUEL J. TILDEN. (After a pastel by Sarony in the house at Gramercy Park).
+
+JAMES A. GARFIELD.
+
+JAMES G. BLAINE.
+
+PRESIDENT GROVER CLEVELAND.
+
+A FACSIMILE PUT IN EVIDENCE BEFORE THE CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEE.
+
+THE MOUTH OF THE MIAMI RIVER, FLORIDA.
+
+THE SITE OF CHICAGO.
+
+AN OHIO RIVER FLAT-BOAT.
+
+AN IRRIGATED ORANGE GROVE AT RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA.
+
+THE IRRIGATING RESERVOIR AT WALNUT GROVE, ARIZONA, SHOWING THE
+ARTIFICIAL LAKE PARTLY FILLED.
+
+AT THE CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION, PHILADELPHIA, 1876.
+
+THE AMERICAN LINE STEAMSHIP ST. LOUIS, LAUNCHED FROM THE CRAMPS DOCKS,
+NOVEMBER 12, 1894. (554  feet long, 11,000 tons, and 20,000 horse-power).
+
+CORNELIUS VANDERBILT.
+
+THE BIG LOOP ON THE GEORGETOWN BRANCH OF THE UNION PACIFIC, COLORADO.
+
+CHARLES F. BRUSH.
+
+MOSES G. FARMER.
+
+THOMAS A. EDISON.
+
+THE HOOSAC TUNNEL LIT BY GLOW LAMPS, AFTER THE PLAN OF THE MARR
+CONSTRUCTION COMPANY.
+
+EDISON'S PLATINUM LAMP ON CARBON SUPPORT, 1879.
+
+EDISON'S PAPER CARBON LAMP.
+
+EDISON'S FIRST INCANDESCENT PLATINUM LAMP.
+
+THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE, LOOKING UP THE EAST RIVER.
+
+THE MANHATTAN ELEVATED RAILWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+UNDER SIDE OF A MODERN SWITCHBOARD, SHOWING 2,000 TELEGRAPH WIRES.
+
+PROFESSOR BELL SENDING THE FIRST MESSAGE, BY LONG-DISTANCE TELEPHONE,
+FROM NEW YORK TO CHICAGO.
+
+THE NEW YORK GOLD ROOM ON "BLACK FRIDAY," SEPTEMBER 24,1869.
+
+A SCENE DURING THE CHICAGO FIRE.
+
+CATCHING THE MAIL POUCH FROM THE CRANE.
+
+IGLOOS, OR ESQUIMAU HUTS.
+
+A. W. GREELY.
+
+
+
+LIST OF MAPS
+
+THE CONFEDERATE LINE FROM COLUMBUS TO BOWLING GREEN.
+
+FORT HENRY.
+
+FORT DONELSON.
+
+NEW MADRID AND ISLAND NUMBER TEN.
+
+MEMPHIS TO IUKA, 1862.
+
+OPERATIONS IN LOUISIANA. FEBRUARY TO JULY, 1863.
+
+ATLANTA TO SAVANNAH.
+
+THE BATTLE-FIELD OF NASHVILLE.
+
+MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA.
+
+JACKSON'S ATTACK ON HOWARD, MAY 1, 1863.
+
+DIAGRAM OF THE ATTACK ON SICKLES AND SYKES.
+
+THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY.
+
+GENERAL EARLY'S MARYLAND CAMPAIGN.
+
+GRANT'S PURSUIT OF LEE, APRIL, 1865.
+
+MAP OF HAMPTON ROADS.
+
+
+
+PERIOD IV.
+
+CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION
+(Continued)
+
+1860-1868
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY
+
+The North conducted the war upon three great lines of campaign: 1. The
+Western campaigns, to clear the Mississippi River and thus divide the
+Confederacy. 2. The campaigns in the centre, to reach the sea at Mobile,
+Savannah, or Charleston, cutting the Confederacy a second time. 3. The
+Eastern campaigns, to take Richmond, and capture or destroy the main
+Confederate army, ending the Confederacy. This chapter deals with the
+Western campaigns alone.
+
+[1862]
+
+The opening of 1862 found the Confederates in possession of a strong
+line across the southern portion of Western Kentucky, stretching from
+Bowling Green, near the centre of the State, to Columbus on the
+Mississippi. The two gates of this line were Forts Henry and Donelson,
+on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, respectively, just over the
+Tennessee border. If these forts could be taken the Confederates must
+give up Kentucky.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map of western Kentucky.]
+The Confederate Line from Columbus to Bowling Green.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Fort Henry.
+
+
+On February 6th, after a two hours' bombardment, Fort Henry surrendered
+to General Grant, who had come up the river from Cairo with 17,000
+troops, and with seven gunboats commanded by Commodore Foote. Most of
+the garrison, about 3,000, had been sent off before the fleet opened
+fire, General Tilghman foreseeing that he could not hold the fort. The
+land forces arrived too late to cut off their retreat, and they escaped
+safely to Fort Donelson, some dozen miles to the east.
+
+Grant marched at once to invest Donelson, and sat down before it on the
+12th with 15,000 men. The stronghold stood upon a bluff 100 feet high.
+On the east it was protected by the Cumberland River; on the north and
+south by two flooded creeks. Along a crest back of the fort a mile or
+two ran a semicircular line of rifle-pits, with abatis in front. Nine
+batteries were posted at various points along the line. Donelson was
+garrisoned by 20,000 men under Generals Floyd, Pillow, and Buckner, who
+quietly looked on while Grant's smaller army hemmed them in. On the 14th
+the gunboats opened fire upon the water batteries between fort and
+river. Commodore Foote steamed up boldly within 400 yards and pounded
+the opposing works with his heavy guns.  He did little damage, however,
+while the Confederate fire proved very effective against him. His
+flag-ship, the Hartford, was struck fifty-nine times. A shot crashed
+into the pilothouse, destroying the wheel and wounding Foote himself.
+The boat became unmanageable and drifted down-stream. A shot cut the
+tiller-ropes of the Louisville. The other boats were also considerably
+damaged, and after an action of an hour and a half, the entire fleet
+withdrew.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Fort Donelson.
+
+
+But Grant's army had been re-enforced to 27,000. Three divisions, under
+Smith, Wallace, and McClernand, stretched in a semicircle about Donelson
+from north to south. On the night of the 14th the Confederate generals
+held a consultation, and decided to try cutting their way out. Most of
+the troops were withdrawn from the rifle-pits during the night, and
+massed on the Union right. The weather had suddenly turned frosty, and
+the Union men, without tents or camp-fires, many even without blankets,
+shivered all night in the intense cold. Before dawn the attacking column
+from inside, 10,000 strong, rushed through the woods and fell upon
+McClernand's division, which formed the Union right. For hours the woods
+rang with musketry and the southern yell. Slowly the Confederates drove
+the Unionists before them and gained the road running south to
+Charlotte, opening to themselves the way of escape.
+
+This, however, they had not yet utilized, when, about one o'clock,
+General Grant, who had been aboard the fleet consulting with Commodore
+Foote, came upon the field. Learning that the foe had begun to fight
+with full haversacks, he instantly divined that they were trying to make
+their escape, and inferred that their forces had been mostly withdrawn
+from opposite the Union left to make this attack against the right.
+General Smith was therefore instantly ordered to fall upon the
+Confederate right. As Grant had surmised, the intrenchments there were
+easily carried. Meanwhile the demoralized soldiers of the Union right
+and centre rallied, and drove the Confederates back to their
+intrenchments. At daybreak Buckner sent to Grant for terms of
+capitulation. "No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can
+be accepted: I propose to move immediately upon your works," was the
+answer. The resolute words rang through the North, carrying big hope in
+their remotest echo. Donelson surrendered. Floyd and Pillow had sneaked
+away during the night, the former monopolizing the few boats to
+transport his own brigade. Fifteen thousand troops remained and were
+taken prisoners.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General John Pope.
+
+
+The capture of Henry and Donelson necessitated the evacuation of Bowling
+Green and Columbus. Kentucky was now clear of Confederates, and the
+Mississippi open down to Island Number Ten. This island lay in a bend of
+the river at the extreme northwestern corner of Tennessee. The great
+stream here runs northwest for a dozen miles, then sharply turns to the
+south again. New Madrid stands at this northern bend. It was protected
+by Confederate fortifications and gunboats. Early in March, General
+Halleck, now at the head of the Western Department, sent General Pope
+against New Madrid with 20,000 men. The enemy fled to Island Number Ten,
+leaving thirty-three guns, besides ammunition and many tents.
+
+Island Number Ten was strongly fortified. Commodore Foote came down the
+river with seventeen gunboats, and on March 16th began a bombardment
+which was kept up for three weeks with little effect; but early in April
+Pope got upon the Tennessee shore, in the undefended rear of the island,
+and by intercepting its communication to the south, forced it to
+surrender, April 8th. Seven thousand prisoners, one hundred heavy siege
+guns, several thousand small arms, besides large stores of ammunition
+and supplies, were thus secured, without the loss of a single Union
+soldier. This exploit brought to Pope great fame.
+
+Pope now descended the river to Fort Pillow, 100 miles below, which he
+prepared to take. He was just then transferred by Halleck to another
+field, and the reduction of Pillow left to the gunboats. Pillow was
+abandoned June 4th. The Union flotilla, increased by four rams, now ran
+down the river to Memphis, where, on June 6th, in the presence of
+thousands of spectators upon the bluffs, it fought a battle with a
+southern fleet. Seven of the Confederate boats were destroyed, and the
+next day Memphis surrendered.
+
+After the fall of Donelson the Confederates began concentrating their
+forces at Corinth, in the northeast corner of Mississippi. Meanwhile the
+Army of the Tennessee, under orders from Halleck, had moved up the
+Tennessee River, and encamped, some 40,000 strong, at Pittsburg Landing
+on the Tennessee River, 25 miles north of Corinth.  Here Grant, who had
+been temporarily removed, took command again on March 17th. Buell, with
+40,000 men, was on the march thither from Central Tennessee. The
+Confederate generals at Corinth, Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard,
+wisely determined to strike Grant before Buell arrived. There ensued the
+greatest battle which had up to that time shaken the solid ground of
+this continent.
+[footnote: Indifferently called the battle of Shiloh or the battle of
+Pittsburg Landing.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+New Madrid and Island Number Ten.
+
+
+About six o'clock on the morning of April 6th the Confederates burst
+through the thick woods upon the Union pickets and drove them in. It was
+at least partially a surprise. Grant in person was nine miles down the
+river. The Union officers hastily got their men into line, as the
+attacking columns came sweeping in after the pickets. Three of the five
+Union divisions were raw recruits, many of whom fled at the first fire.
+Some colonels led their entire regiments off the field. Later in the day
+Grant saw 4,000 or 5,000 of these runaways cowering under the shelter of
+the bluffs.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General William T. Sherman.
+
+
+But the bulk of the army made a stubborn resistance. General W. T.
+Sherman, then comparatively unknown, inspired his division of raw troops
+with his own intelligent courage. Their gallant and protracted fight
+around the Shiloh log church made them the heroes of the day. But the
+Confederates' onset was impetuous. Step by step they forced their
+opponents back through the heavy woods, and by noon stood in possession
+of the Union camps; Grant's army, badly shattered, being cooped up in a
+narrow space along the edge of the river.
+
+The tide now turned. About two o'clock, General Johnston was killed, and
+the Confederate advance flagged. Between the two armies lay a deep
+ravine. Grant planted some fifty guns upon the edge, and two of the
+gunboats took positions where they could rake the ravine. By these
+dispositions Beauregard's advance was stayed. Night fell, and
+hostilities ceased.
+
+Fortunately, 22,000 of Buell's men arrived during the night, and next
+morning Grant ordered an advance. Beauregard made as desperate a
+resistance as he could, seeing that his heavy losses the day before had
+left him but 30,000 troops fit for duty. Buell's men showed the effects
+of long training under that matchless disciplinarian, and fought
+splendidly. The enemy were steadily pushed back, until more than all the
+ground lost on the preceding day had been triumphantly regained, and the
+battle of Pittsburg Landing, from being for the Union side a defeat
+accomplished and a surrender threatened, was turned into a bright and
+inspiring victory. Beauregard ordered a retreat, and, not being pursued,
+regained his old position at Corinth. He had lost about 10,000 men. Our
+loss was 12,000, including four regiments taken prisoners. The battle
+was a severe check to both sides.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several ships, one in the foreground listing; smoke
+covers the sky.]
+A.R. Ward        H.R. Hall, JR.
+The Battle of the Rams at Memphis, June 6, 1862.
+
+
+On February 2d the largest fleet that had ever sailed under the American
+flag left Fortress Monroe for the mouth of the Mississippi, commanded by
+Commodore Farragut. It consisted of 16 gunboats, 21 mortar-schooners,
+six sloops of war, and five other vessels. Fifteen thousand land troops,
+under General Butler, soon followed. Thirty miles below New Orleans
+Forts Jackson and St. Philip, mounting 100 guns, frowned at each other
+across the Mississippi. Farragut's fleet sailed up the river and the
+mortar-schooners were moored to the banks within range of the forts.
+Boughs were tied to the top-masts so that the enemy could not
+distinguish them from the trees along the shore. April 18th the mortars
+began shelling the forts. An incessant fire was kept up night and day,
+for six days, till nearly 6,000 shells had been thrown.
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Memphis to Iuka. 1862.
+
+
+As the forts sustained little damage, Farragut decided to run the
+batteries. A gunboat stole up by night and cut the boom of hulks chained
+together, which crossed the river just below the forts. Some of the
+boats were rubbed over with mud to make them invisible, and chain cables
+hung over the sides to protect the engines. About half past two in the
+night of April 23d the fleet moved up the river through the gap in the
+boom. The enemy, on the alert, launched fire-rafts and lit bonfires to
+lift the cover of night. Old Jackson and St. Philip poured a hot fire
+into the fleet as vessel after vessel slowly steamed past, answering
+with its most spiteful broadsides.
+
+But the Union craft had more than the forts against them. Once past the
+boom they were in the midst of a hostile fleet of fifteen vessels,
+including a dangerous ironclad ram. A fierce water-fight followed. The
+Union Varuna was sunk; the flag-ship Hartford set on fire by one of the
+fire-rafts. The flames, however, were soon put out. Other vessels were
+disabled. But every one of the Confederate ships was captured or
+destroyed, and Jackson and St. Philip had to surrender. Farragut then
+sailed up the river and took possession of New Orleans without
+resistance. Butler at once occupied the city with his troops, and the
+Stars and Stripes again waved over the Crescent City. Since that
+eventful day New Orleans has never been in disunionist hands.
+
+After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Halleck himself came down from
+St. Louis, and took the reins. Grant was nominally in command under him,
+but had next to nothing to do. Re-enforced by 25,000 men under Pope,
+Halleck slowly advanced toward Corinth, entering the place May 30th,
+Beauregard having evacuated it May 29th. A few Quaker guns--logs mounted
+on wagon-wheels--were the only trophies. Halleck now had 110,000
+effectives, Beauregard less than 60,000. Halleck lay inactive at Corinth
+for six weeks, when he was summoned to Washington as General-in-Chief.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Farragut in the Main-Rigging.
+From the original by William Page.
+
+
+Grant once more took command of the forces about Corinth, which
+re-enforcements to Eastern Tennessee soon reduced to 42,000. With these
+he was expected to guard 200 miles of railroad, from Memphis to Decatur
+in Northern Alabama. The Confederates under Van Dorn and Price attempted
+to regain Corinth, but in the battles of Iuka, September 19th, and
+Corinth, October 3d and 4th, were repulsed with heavy losses. Grant then
+took the offensive. Vicksburg, about half-way from north to south on
+Mississippi's western boundary, was the only stronghold left to the
+Confederates on the great river. Its capture would ideally complete the
+western campaign. Grant's plan was for Sherman to descend the river from
+Memphis, while he himself simultaneously attacked Vicksburg by land.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Henry W. Halleck.
+
+
+[1863]
+
+So long as the stout-hearted general continued his march south all his
+supplies had to be brought over the Mississippi Central Railroad from
+Holly Springs, near the Tennessee border. A troop of 3,500 Confederate
+cavalry, making a long detour around his army, swooped down upon Holly
+Springs, December 20th, captured the garrison of 1,300 men, and
+destroyed all the stores, valued at $2,000,000. For two weeks the Union
+army had to live from the enemy's country, and then after all to fall
+back to Holly Springs. Meanwhile Sherman, ignorant of his superior's ill
+fortune, descended the Mississippi, and with a force of 30,000 made
+during the last days of the year an unsuccessful attack upon Vicksburg.
+
+Very early in January, 1863, McClernand arrived near Vicksburg with
+re-enforcements. The last of the month, Grant, who had given up the land
+expedition, took command in person. Sherman's repulse had shown that
+Vicksburg could not be taken from the water side. A position must be
+gained in the rear. This seemed, and indeed proved, an almost impossible
+task. The Mississippi was unusually high, and the surrounding country a
+vast network of bayous and swamps. The winter passed away in fruitless
+labors to make some sort of a water passage to the rear of Vicksburg,
+either above, via the Yazoo, or around through Louisiana to some point
+below the city, whence the army could cross again to the Vicksburg side
+of the Mississippi and strike Pemberton's stronghold from the southeast.
+In most of these attempts Grant himself had little faith, but the army
+was better at work than idle. At last he resolved, without attempting a
+regular canal, partly by land but utilizing bayous and creeks as he
+could, to swing his army across west of the river to New Carthage, south
+of Vicksburg, run the Vicksburg batteries with the fleet, and, uniting
+his land and water forces in the capture of Grand Gulf, to gain the rear
+of Vicksburg by way of the Big Black River. It was a bold plan, but it
+succeeded.
+
+In April, by building corduroy roads through miles of swamp and bridging
+numberless bayous, the general succeeded in reaching New Carthage, some
+twenty miles south of Vicksburg, with a good part of his land forces. On
+the night of April 16th, the gunboats and provision transports ran the
+gauntlet of Vicksburg's guns with little damage. The last of the month a
+landing was effected just below Grand Gulf, on the east bank, fifteen or
+twenty miles still farther south of Vicksburg. The enemy made some
+resistance, but were driven back.
+
+Grant's position was now full of peril. He was in the heart of the
+enemy's country. Pemberton was occupying Jackson and Vicksburg with
+50,000 men. General Joseph E. Johnston was hurrying to his aid with
+re-enforcements. Grant's forces available for an advance about equalled
+Pemberton's. A bold policy was the only safe one. Taking five days'
+rations, he cut loose from his base at Grand Gulf and marched north to
+attack Pemberton before Johnston could join him. Jackson, forty-four
+miles to the east of Vicksburg, was easily captured, May 14th. Grant had
+thus thrust himself in between Johnston and Pemberton. Turning to the
+left he smote Pemberton a heavy blow at Champion's Hill on the 16th, and
+drove him into Vicksburg. Johnston fell back baffled. In eighteen days
+Grant had marched 200 miles, defeated the enemy in four engagements,
+inflicting a loss of 8,000 and taking 88 guns, and shut up a large army
+in Vicksburg--all this upon five days' rations. It is a brilliant
+record, equalled, if at all, only by some of Napoleon's campaigns.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Operations in Louisiana. February to July, 1863.
+
+
+The bold commander now transferred his base of supplies to the Yazoo
+River, which runs into the Mississippi a few miles above Vicksburg.
+After an unsuccessful assault upon the city's strong intrenchments, he
+sat down to a deliberate siege. Twelve miles of trenches were
+constructed. Eighty-nine batteries, with more than 200 guns, day after
+day rained shot and shell against the Vicksburg fortifications. The
+lines of investment crept nearer and nearer the fated city. The pickets
+chaffed with each other, and exchanged tobacco and newspapers. June
+25th, a mine was exploded under one of the Vicksburg parapets, but it
+made no effectual breach. A second explosion, July 1st, was equally
+unavailing. Johnston kept menacing the rear, but feared to attack, as
+Grant had been re-enforced to 60,000.
+
+Famine began to threaten the city, Porter's fleet blockading the water
+front. Flour sold for $1,000 a barrel in Confederate money. Mule flesh
+became the chief meat. Rats were hung up for sale in the market. The
+inhabitants sought protection from the shells in cellars and caves.
+Cave-digging became a regular business. The Vicksburg daily news sheet
+was now printed on wall paper. July 3d. white flags appeared upon the
+city's works. An armistice followed, and the next day Pemberton
+surrendered. The prisoners, some 30,000 in number, were mostly released
+on parole. With the fall of Vicksburg the western campaigns virtually
+closed. The capture of Port Hudson, below, was assured from that moment,
+and followed on July 8th. The "Father of Waters" once more rolled
+"unvexed to the sea," and the Confederacy was cut in twain.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE WAR IN THE CENTRE
+
+[1863]
+
+We have seen that the fall of Donelson had driven the Confederates out
+of Kentucky. In the following September, 1862, Bragg invaded the State
+from Tennessee with 40,000 men. Buell hurried north from Nashville, and
+after an exciting race headed him off from Louisville. Bragg slowly fell
+back, first east, then south. Kentucky was rich in food and clothing,
+and his army plundered freely, coming out, it was boasted, with a
+wagon-train forty miles long. At Perryville Bragg turned upon Buell
+fiercely. An indecisive battle was fought, October 8, 1862, which gave
+the richly loaded wagon-train time to escape into Tennessee, whither
+Bragg followed.
+
+
+The Christmas holidays of 1862 found the Confederate host at
+Murfreesboro, Tenn., thirty miles southeast of Nashville, where the
+Union army lay. Rosecrans, who had succeeded Buell, moved suddenly to
+the banks of Stone River, within four miles of the gay town, and
+prepared to attack. Bragg, like Wellington from Brussels on the morning
+of Waterloo, hurried forth to meet him. At dawn, December 31st, the
+gray-colored columns emerged from the fog that overhung the river, and
+spiritedly beat up the Union right. Two divisions were swept back.
+Sheridan's men, inspired by their dashing leader, held their ground for
+awhile, but fell rearward at last, and, forming a new line, stood at bay
+with fixed bayonets. Rosecrans recalled the troops who had crossed the
+river to make a similar attack upon the Confederate right, and massed
+all his forces at the point of assault. Six times the southrons charged,
+six times they were tumbled back by the Union batteries double-shotted
+with canister. Night fell on a drawn battle.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General William S. Rosecrans.
+
+The next day, January 1, 1863, was peaceful save for cavalry
+skirmishing. January 2nd the awful combat was renewed. Rosecrans having
+planted artillery upon commanding ground, Bragg must either carry this
+or fall back. He attempted the first alternative, and was repulsed with
+terrible slaughter, losing 1,000 men in forty minutes. He escaped south
+under cover of a storm. In proportion to the numbers engaged, the battle
+of Stone River was one of the bloodiest in the war. About 45,000 fought
+on each side. The Union loss was 12,000, the Confederate nearly 15,000.
+
+Rosecrans did not advance again till June, although Bragg lay quite
+near. The latter fell back as the Unionists approached, first into
+Chattanooga and then over the Georgia line. Rosecrans followed. Bragg
+was now re-enforced, and determined to retake Chattanooga, which lay on
+the Tennessee River and was an important strategical point. The two
+armies met on Chickamauga Creek, twelve miles south of Chattanooga. All
+through the first day's battle, September 19th, there was hot
+fighting--charges and countercharges--but no decisive advantage fell to
+either side. During the night Bragg was reenforced by Longstreet's corps
+from Virginia, and he opened the next day's fight with an assault upon
+the Union left. Brigades were moved from the centre to support the left.
+Through the gap thus made Longstreet poured his men in heavy columns,
+cutting the Union army in two. Its right wing became demoralized, and
+fled toward Chattanooga in wild confusion, Rosecrans after it at a
+gallop, believing that all was lost.
+
+But all was not lost. General Thomas commanded the Union left. Like a
+flinty rock he stood while Polk's and Longstreet's troops surged in
+heavy masses against his front and flank. About three o'clock heavy
+columns were seen pouring through a gorge almost in Thomas's rear. They
+were Longstreet's men. It was a critical moment Granger's reserves came
+rushing upon the field. Raw recruits though they were, they dashed
+against Longstreet like veterans. In twenty minutes, at cost of
+frightful slaughter, the gorge and ridge were theirs. Longstreet made
+another assault, but was again repulsed. At nightfall Thomas fell back
+to Chattanooga, henceforth named, and justly, the "Rock of Chickamauga."
+For six hours he had held his own with 25,000 braves against twice that
+number. Out of 70,000 troops Bragg lost probably 20,000. Rosecrans's
+force was about 55,000, his loss 16,000.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General George H. Thomas.
+
+
+Bragg proceeded to shut up the Union army in Chattanooga. Grant, now
+commanding the Department of the Mississippi, was ordered to recover
+Chattanooga, and his deeds along this front, though less often
+mentioned, will glitter upon the page of history with little if any less
+lustre than those about Vicksburg. Upon his arrival, late in October, he
+found the city practically in a state of siege. Its railroad
+communication with Nashville was cut off, and supplies had to be hauled
+in wagons sixty miles over a rough mountain road. The men had been for
+some time on half rations. Thousands of horses and mules had starved,
+and the artillery could not be moved for lack of teams. There was not
+ammunition enough for one day's fighting. In five days Grant wrested the
+railroad from Bragg's men and bridged the Tennessee, so that an abundant
+supply of food and ammunition came pouring in.
+
+Elated at his Chickamauga triumph, and unaware that he now had a greater
+than Rosecrans in his front, Bragg deemed it a safe and promising
+stratagem to despatch Longstreet's corps to Knoxville to capture
+Burnside. It was a fatal step, and Grant was not slow to take advantage
+of it. He telegraphed Sherman to put his entire force instantly en route
+from Vicksburg to Chattanooga.
+
+Chattanooga lies on the south side of the Tennessee River, at the
+northern end of a valley running north and south. Along the eastern edge
+of the valley rises Missionary Ridge. On the western side and farther
+south, stands Lookout Mountain. After passing Chattanooga, the river
+turns and runs south till it laves the base of Lookout Mountain. The
+Confederate fortifications, twelve miles in length, ran along Missionary
+Ridge, across the southern end of the valley, and up over Lookout
+Mountain.
+
+On November 23d, Thomas, who had succeeded Rosecrans, stormed the
+breastworks half a mile from the base of Missionary Ridge. The next day
+Grant sent "Fighting Joe Hooker" to sweep Bragg's detachment from
+Lookout Mountain. Mist lay along the lofty slopes as the gallant Hooker
+and his men moved up them, soon veiling the entire column from sight;
+and it was only by the rattle of the musketry that Grant knew how the
+fight progressed. This was the famous "Battle Above the Clouds." Hooker
+pounded the enemy so lustily that they were glad to evacuate the
+mountain in the night, and the next morning the Stars and Stripes
+saluted the breezes of its topmost peak.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Joseph Hooker.
+
+
+While Hooker had been thus engaged, and for some days before, Sherman
+had been at a movement that was even more momentous. He had slyly thrust
+his army up the Tennessee River above the city, placing it between the
+river and Missionary Ridge, and had worked its flank to the left as far
+as the mouth of Chickamauga Creek.  He had thus gotten possession of the
+entire northeastern spur of that ridge with hardly the loss of a
+corporal's guard.
+
+The morrow after this was accomplished, November 25, 1863, was a day of
+blood. Bragg's forces were now massed on Missionary Ridge, mainly in
+front of Thomas and Sherman. Hooker had come down into the valley and
+was to turn the enemy's left. If Bragg massed troops on either of the
+two wings, Thomas's braves were to be let slip against the weakened
+centre. Sherman got into action early in the morning, and fought his
+painfully difficult way slowly up the rugged acclivities in his front.
+Hooker had to bridge Chattanooga Creek, and did not attack till
+afternoon. By three o'clock Sherman was so hard pressed that Grant found
+it necessary to relieve him by sending Thomas forward at the centre.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several hundred soldiers in battle.]
+The Battle of Lookout Mountain. (The "Battle Above the Clouds.")
+
+
+The signal guns boom--one, two, three, four, five, six. Up spring
+Thomas's heroes from their breastworks, and rush like a whirlwind for
+the first line of Confederate rifle-pits. Bragg sees the advance and
+hurries help to oppose. His batteries open with shot and shell, then
+with canister. The infantry rake Thomas with a withering fire. Yet on,
+double quick, dash the lines of blue over the open plain, over rocks,
+stumps, and breastworks, bayonetting back or capturing their
+antagonists, till the first line of rifle-pits is theirs.
+
+The orders had been to halt at this point and re-form. But here, with
+Bragg's artillery raining a veritable hell-fire upon them--here is no
+place of resting, and as the men's blood is up, they sweep forward
+unbidden, with a cheer. It is five hundred yards to the top--a steep
+ascent, covered with bowlders and fallen timber. Over the rocks, under
+and through the timber, each one scrambles on as he can. Half-way up is
+a line of small works. It is carried with a rush, and on the men go,
+right up to the crest of the ridge. Now they confront the heaviest
+breastworks. The air is thick with whizzing musket-balls, and fifty
+cannon belch flame and death. But nothing can stop that furious charge.
+Sheridan's men reach the top first, the rest of the line close behind.
+The "Johnnies" are routed after a short fight, and the guns turned
+against them as they fly. By night Bragg's army is in full retreat,
+Chattanooga is safe and free, Grant's lines of communication are
+assured, and the keys of the State of Georgia in his hands.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General James B. McPherson.
+
+
+The Union forces in this battle numbered about 60,000, the Confederate
+half as many; but the latter fought with all the advantage which the
+mountain and breastworks could give them. They lost nearly 10,000
+including 6,500 prisoners. The Union loss was between 5,000 and
+6,000--2,200 in the one hour's charge against the centre.
+
+[1864]
+
+There was no halting, no resting. Scarcely had the sounds of yesterday's
+cannonade died away, when Sherman's already jaded forces were put in
+motion to the north, to make sure that Burnside was set free at
+Knoxville; but Longstreet had already raised the siege and started east.
+By December 6th, Bragg's redoubtable army, which, so recently as
+September, swore to reconquer Tennessee and to invade Kentucky, was rent
+in twain, one part of it fleeing to Virginia, the other to the heart of
+Georgia.
+
+No important military movement occurred in the Centre during this winter
+of 1863-64. In March Grant was made Lieutenant-General, with command of
+all the Union armies, Sherman succeeding to the headship of the
+Mississippi Department. The latter accompanied his superior toward
+Washington as far as Cincinnati, and there, in a parlor of the Burnet
+House, the two victorious generals, bending over their maps together,
+planned in outline that gigantic campaign of 1864-65, which was to end
+the war; then, grasping one another warmly by the hand, they parted, one
+starting east, the other south, each to strike at the appointed time his
+half of the ponderous death-blow.
+
+Sherman pushed out from Chattanooga May 6, 1864, with 100,000 men and
+254 cannon. His force comprised the Army of the Cumberland, 60,000,
+under Thomas; the Army of the Tennessee, 25,000, under Schofield; and
+the Army of the Ohio, 15,000, under McPherson. Johnston, who had
+superseded Bragg, lay behind strong works at Dalton, a few miles
+southeast, with 64,000 men, his base being Atlanta, 80 miles away.
+Sherman's supplies all came over a single line of railroad from
+Nashville, nearly 150 miles from Chattanooga as the road ran. Every
+advantage but numbers was on Johnston's side.
+
+Sherman calculated that the Army of the Cumberland could hold his
+opponent at bay, while the two smaller armies crept around his flanks.
+This plan was adhered to throughout, and with wonderful success. All
+through May and the first of June a series of skilful flanking movements
+compelled Johnston to fall back from one position to another, each
+commander, like a tried boxer, constantly on the watch to catch his
+opponent off guard. Heavy skirmishing day after day made the march
+practically one long battle.
+
+June 10th Johnston planted his army upon three elevations--Kenesaw,
+Pine, and Lost Mountains--and stubbornly stood at bay. A pouring rain,
+which turned the whole country into a quagmire and the streams into
+formidable rivers, made the usual flank manoeuvre impracticable. Sherman
+resolved to assault in front. June 27th a determined onset was made
+along the whole line for two hours but failed, though the troops gained
+positions close to the hostile works and intrenched. They lost 2,500;
+the Confederates not more than a third of this number. The roads having
+now improved, Sherman resorted to his old tactics, the Confederates
+having to fall back across the Chattahoochee, and come to bay under the
+very guns of Atlanta.
+
+Just at the critical moment, when Sherman's army was slowly closing in
+around Atlanta, General Johnston, so wary and cool, was superseded by
+the young and fiery Hood, pledged to assume the offensive. On the 20th
+Hood made a furious attack on Hooker's front, but was repulsed with
+heavy losses. On the 22d he struck again, and harder. By a night march,
+Hardee's corps at dawn fell upon the Union left flank and rear like a
+thunderbolt out of a clear sky, rolling up the Army of the Tennessee in
+great confusion. The brave and talented McPherson was killed early in
+the action, Logan succeeding. "McPherson and revenge," he cried, as upon
+his coal-black steed he careered from post to post of danger, inspiring
+his men and restoring order. The veterans soon recovered from their
+surprise. The Union lines were completely re-established, and by night
+Hood's army was driven back into the city, having sacrificed probably
+10,000 much-needed men, 2,500 of them killed.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Atlanta to Savannah.
+
+
+Sherman now began to swing round to the south and southeast of Atlanta,
+till at last he cut its communications with the Confederacy. Hood
+evacuated the city and his opponent entered it, September 5th. The
+northern troops, after their four months' incessant marching and
+fighting, now got a little well-earned rest. Their total losses from
+Chattanooga were 32,000. The Confederates had sacrificed about
+35,000--the larger part under Hood.
+
+The last of September Hood struck out boldly for Tennessee, menacing,
+and, in fact, temporarily rupturing Sherman's long supply-line from
+Nashville. Leaving one corps to hold Atlanta, Sherman raced back for 100
+miles in pursuit. The railroad being well guarded, Hood could do no
+serious damage, and finally turned west into Alabama. Sherman now
+resolved on a march to the sea. Thomas, with three corps, was sent to
+Tennessee to look out for Hood. The 62,000 troops remaining at Atlanta
+were put into light marching trim, and the wagons filled with 20 days'
+rations and 200 rounds of ammunition per man. All storehouses and other
+property useful to the enemy were then destroyed, communications with
+the North cut, and November 15th a splendid army of hardy veterans swung
+off for the Atlantic or the Gulf, over 200 miles away. Their orders were
+to live on the country, the rations being kept for emergencies; but no
+dwellings were to be entered, and no houses or mills destroyed if the
+army was unmolested. The dwelling-house prescription was, alas, too
+often broken over. There was little resistance, Georgia having been
+drained of its able-bodied whites. Negroes flocked, singly and by
+families, to join "Massa Linkum's boys." The railroads were destroyed,
+and the Carolinas thus cut off from the Gulf States.
+
+Each regiment detailed a certain number of foragers. These, starting off
+in the morning empty-handed and on foot, would return at night riding or
+driving beasts laden with spoils. "Here would be a silver-mounted family
+carriage drawn by a jackass and a cow, loaded inside and out with
+everything the country produced, vegetable and animal, dead and alive.
+There would be an ox-cart, similarly loaded, and drawn by a nondescript
+tandem team equally incongruous. Perched upon the top would be a ragged
+forager, rigged out in a fur hat of a fashion worn by dandies of a
+century ago, or a dress-coat which had done service at stylish balls of
+a former generation. The jibes and jeers, the fun and the practical
+jokes, ran down the whole line as the cortege came in, and no masquerade
+in carnival could compare with it for original humor and rollicking
+enjoyment. ... The camps in the open pine-woods, the bonfires along the
+railways, the occasional sham battles at night with blazing pine-knots
+for weapons whirling in the darkness, all combined to leave upon the
+minds of officers and men the impression of a vast holiday frolic."
+[footnote: The March to the Sea, by Major-General J. D. Cox. Campaigns
+of the Civil War. Scribners.]
+
+At the start Sherman was uncertain just where he should strike the
+coast. The blockade vessels were asked to be on the lookout for him from
+Mobile to Charleston. By the middle of December the army lay before
+Savannah. Hardee held the city with 16,000 men, but evacuated it
+December 20, 1864, Sherman entering next day. He wrote to Lincoln, "I
+beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah." The
+capture of Fort McAllister a week before had opened the Ogeechee River,
+and Sherman now established a new base of supplies on the sea-coast.
+
+The North rang with praises of the Great March, which had pierced like a
+knife the vitals of the Confederacy. Georgia, with her arsenals and
+factories, had been the Confederacy's workshop. Twenty thousand bales of
+cotton had been burned upon the march, besides a great amount of
+military stores. The 320 miles of railroad destroyed had practically
+isolated Virginia from the South and the West. And all this had been
+done with the loss of less than 1,000 men.
+
+[1865]
+
+Meanwhile Thomas had dealt the Confederacy another staggering blow. The
+adventurous Hood had advanced with his army of 44,000 to the very gates
+of Nashville. The deliberate Thomas, spite of prickings from Grant,
+waited till he felt prepared. Then he struck with a Titan's hand. The
+first day's fight, December 15th, drove the Confederate line back two
+miles. Hood formed again on hills running east and west, and hastily
+fortified. All next day the battle raged. Late in the afternoon the
+works on the Confederate left were carried by a gallant charge. Total
+rout of Hood's brave army followed. It fled south, demoralized and
+scattered, never to appear again as an organized force. In the two days'
+battle, 4,500 prisoners and 53 guns were taken.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+The Battle-Field of Nashville.
+
+
+February 1, 1865, his troops all rested and equipped afresh, Sherman set
+his face to the north. The days of frolic were over. Continuous rains
+had made the Carolinas almost impassable. The march now begun was an
+incessant struggle with mud, swamps, and swollen rivers. A pontoon and
+trestle bridge three miles long was thrown across the Savannah, and
+miles of corduroy road were built through continuous swamps. Charleston,
+incessantly besieged since the war opened, where the United States had
+wasted more powder and iron than at all other points together, fell
+without a blow. Columbia was reached the middle of the month. It caught
+fire--just how has never been settled--and the greater part of the city
+was destroyed. Sherman's men helped to put out the flames, and left
+behind provisions and a herd of five hundred cattle for the suffering
+inhabitants.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Map of North Carolina.
+
+
+The army pushed on toward North Carolina, destroying railroads as it
+went. Johnston was athwart their path with 30,000 men. March 16th he
+struck Sherman's army at Averysboro', N. C., and three days later at
+Bentonville. In the latter battle he was completely routed, and re
+treated during the night. Sherman swept on to Goldsboro', where
+re-enforcements from the coast, under Schofield, increased his army to
+90,000. He was undisputed master of the Carolinas. By this time the
+Confederacy was hastening to its fall. April 11th the news of Lee's
+surrender was hailed in Sherman's army with shouts of joy. A few days
+later Johnston surrendered to the hero of Atlanta and of the March to
+the Sea.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE VIRGINIA CAMPAIGNS OF 1862-63
+
+[1862]
+
+The Army of the Potomac lay inactive all through the winter of 1861-62.
+The country cried "Forward," but it was March before McClellan was ready
+to stir. Then he sailed down Chesapeake Bay to attack Richmond from the
+south, with Fortress Monroe as base. The splendidly disciplined and
+equipped army, 120,000 strong, began embarking March 17th.
+
+Fortress Monroe lies at the apex of a wedge-shaped peninsula formed by
+the York and James Rivers, which converge as they flow toward the coast.
+April 4th, McClellan started on his march up this peninsula. A line of
+Confederate fortifications, twelve miles long, stretched across it, from
+Yorktown to the James, defended by 10,000 men. Yorktown must be taken to
+turn this line. A month was wasted in laborious siege preparations, for
+early in May, just before an overwhelming cannonade was to begin, the
+southern army evacuated the place and retreated toward Richmond.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General David D. Porter.
+
+
+McClellan hurried after it. A desultory battle was fought all day on the
+5th, near Williamsburg, the enemy withdrawing at night. McClellan now
+moved slowly up the peninsula, the last of May finding his army within
+ten miles of Richmond, encamped on both sides of the Chickahominy. By
+this time nearly 70,000 troops had gathered for the defence of the
+Confederate capital.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Robert E. Lee.
+
+
+May 31st, the Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston fell upon the part
+of McClellan's army south of the river, at Fair Oaks, and in a bloody
+battle drove it back a mile. McClellan sent re-enforcements across the
+river, and the retreat was stayed. The lost ground was regained next
+day, and the enemy driven into Richmond. Johnston having been wounded,
+General Robert E. Lee was now placed in command of the Army of Virginia,
+destined to lay it down only at the collapse of the Confederate
+government.
+
+McClellan waited three weeks for better weather. He also expected
+McDowell's corps of 45,000, which had been kept near Fredericksburg to
+defend Washington, but was under orders at the proper time to cooperate
+with McClellan by moving against Richmond from the north. But Stonewall
+Jackson came raiding down the Shenandoah Valley, hustling General Banks
+before him. Washington was alarmed, and McDowell had to be retained.
+
+Lee boldly took the offensive, and the "Seven Days' Fight" began. June
+26th he attacked McClellan's extreme right under Porter, on the north
+side of the Chickahominy.  He was repulsed, but Porter fell back farther
+down the river to Gaines's Mill, there fought all the next day against
+great odds, and was saved from total rout toward night only by the
+arrival of re-enforcements.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Nathaniel P. Banks.
+
+
+Jackson's army from the north had joined Lee's left, and McClellan's
+communication with York River was in danger. He decided to change his
+base to the James, where he would have placed it at first but for his
+expectation of McDowell and his desire to connect with him. Everything
+not transportable, including millions of rations and hundreds of tons of
+ammunition, had to be destroyed. Five thousand loaded wagons, 2,500 head
+of cattle, and the reserve artillery were then set in motion toward the
+James, protected by the army in flank and rear.
+
+On discovering this movement Lee hastened to strike. A force was sent to
+assail the retreating column in the rear; but the bridgeless
+Chickahominy, guarded by artillery, held the pursuers at bay. Lee threw
+other portions of his army against McClellan's right, at Savage's
+Station on the 29th, at Frazier's Farm on the day following; but the
+Union troops each time stood their ground till ready and then continued
+their march.
+
+July 1st found the retreating host concentrated on Malvern Hill, a
+plateau a mile and a half long and half as broad, with ravines toward
+the advancing enemy. Here McClellan planted seventy cannon, rising tier
+upon tier up the slope, seven heavy siege guns crowning the crest. The
+position was impregnable, but Lee determined to attack. Shortly before
+sunset his men advanced boldly to the charge, but were mowed down by the
+terrible concentrated fire of the batteries. The hill swarmed with
+infantry as well, sheltered by fences and ravines, while shells from the
+gunboats in James River could reach every part of the Confederate line.
+Yet not till nine in the evening did Lee let the useless carnage cease.
+Badly demoralized as the opposing army was, McClellan at midnight
+withdrew to Harrison's Landing, farther down the James.
+
+
+[Illustration: Battle.]
+General J. E. B. Stuart's Raid upon Pope's Headquarters, August 22, 1862,
+when Pope's despatch book fell into the hands of the Confederates.
+
+
+During the Seven Days' Retreat he had lost 15,000 men; the Confederates
+somewhat more. Military authorities unite in pronouncing McClellan's
+change of base "brilliantly executed;" but the campaign as a whole was a
+failure, discouraging the country as much as Bull Run had done.
+McClellan prepared and fully expected to move on Richmond again from
+this new base, but early in August received orders to withdraw from the
+Peninsula. By the middle of the month the dejected Army of the Potomac
+was on its way north.
+
+The last of June the Union forces in West Virginia, the Shenandoah
+Valley, and in front of Washington were consolidated into one army, and
+the same General Pope who had recently won laurels by the conquest of
+Island Number Ten, put in command. His headquarters, he announced, were
+to be in the saddle, and those who had criticised McClellan gave out
+that the Union army's days of retreating were past. McClellan was called
+from the Peninsula to strengthen this new movement.
+
+Lee started north to crush Pope before McClellan should reach him. Pope
+had but 50,000 men against Lee's 80,000, and fell back across the
+Rappahannock. Lee sent Jackson on a far detour, via Thoroughfare Gap, to
+get into his rear and cut his communications. Jackson moved rapidly
+around to Manassas--one of the most brilliant exploits in all the
+war--and destroyed Pope's immense supply depot there. On August 29th he
+was attacked by Pope near the old battlefield of Bull Run. The first
+day's fight was indecisive, but Confederate re-enforcements under
+Longstreet arrived in time to join in the battle of the next. McClellan
+was in no hurry to re-enforce his rival, but proposed "to leave Pope to
+get out of his scrape as he might." Toward sunset in the battle of the
+30th, Longstreet's column, doubling way around Jackson's right and
+Pope's left, made a grand charge, taking Pope straight in the flank.
+Porter's corps--the Fifth--part of McClellan's army, stood in the
+"bloody angle" of cross-fire. His loss was dreadful--2,000 out of 9,000.
+Pope was compelled to retire to Centreville. An engagement at Chantilly,
+September 1st, forced a further retreat to Washington. Pope resigned,
+and his army was merged in the Army of the Potomac, McClellan commanding
+all.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Thomas J. ("Stonewall") Jackson.
+
+
+Lee now invaded Maryland with 60,000 men. Already the alarmed North
+heard him knocking at its gates. Hastily re-organizing the army,
+McClellan gave chase. Leaving a force to hold Turner's Gap in South
+Mountain, Lee pushed on toward Pennsylvania. By the battle of South
+Mountain, September 14th, Hooker got possession of the gap, and the
+Union army poured through. Seeing that he must fight, Lee took up a
+position on Antietam Creek, a few miles north of Harper's Ferry. Jackson
+had just received the surrender of the latter place, with 11,000
+prisoners, and now hurried to join Lee.
+
+By the night of September 16th, the two armies were in battle array on
+either side of the creek. To the rear of the Confederate left lay a
+cultivated area encircled by woods, a cornfield in its centre. At dawn
+on the 17th, Hooker opened the battle by a furious charge against the
+Confederate left, and tumbled the enemy out of the woods, across the
+cornfield, and into the thickets beyond, where he was fronted by
+Confederate reserves. The carnage was terrific. Re-enforcements under
+Mansfield were sent to Hooker, but driven back across the cornfield.
+Mansfield was killed and Hooker borne from the field wounded, Sumner
+coming up barely in time to prevent a rout. Once more the Confederates
+were pushed through the cornfield into the woods. Here, crouching behind
+natural breastworks--limestone ridges waist-high--the southern ranks
+delivered so hot a fire as to repulse Sumner's men. Thus, all the
+morning and into the afternoon the tide of battle surged back and forth
+through the bloody cornfield, strewn with wounded and dead.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Edwin V. Sumner.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Winfield S. Hancock.
+
+
+On the Confederate right no action took place till late in the day.
+Burnside then attacked and gained some slight advantage. But
+re-enforcements from Harper's Ferry came up and were put in against him,
+forcing him back to the creek. During the next day McClellan feared to
+risk a battle. Being re-enforced, he intended to attack on the following
+morning; but Lee, who should have been crushed, having but 40,000 men to
+McClellan's 87,000, slipped away in the night and got safely across the
+Potomac. The Union loss was 12,400; that of the Confederates probably
+about the same.
+
+The general dissatisfaction with McClellan's slowness caused his removal
+early in November, Burnside succeeding him. The new commander, who, as
+the head of the army, was an amiable failure, proposed to move directly
+against Richmond, but Lee flung himself in his path at Fredericksburg.
+
+Fredericksburg lies on the south bank of the Rappahannock. Behind the
+city is a gradually ascending plain, bounded by heights which bend
+toward the river. Lee's army, 80,000 strong, lay in a semicircle along
+these heights, its wings touching the river above and below the town.
+Two rows of batteries, planted on the heights, swept the plain in front
+and flank. A sunken road, sheltered by a stone wall, ran along the base
+of the declivity. Burnside's army of 125,000 men occupied a range of
+hills on the north side of the river.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Ambrose E. Burnside.
+
+
+Lee's position was very strong; but the country was impatient for
+action, and Burnside too readily and without any definite plan gave the
+order to attack. December 11th and 12th were spent in crossing the river
+on pontoon bridges. The ominous 13th came. The first charge was made by
+5,000 of Franklin's men against the Confederate right. The attacking
+column broke through the lines and reached the heights; but it was not
+supported, and Confederate reserves drove it back.
+
+About noon an attack was made by Hancock's and French's corps against
+the Confederate left. They advanced over the plain in two lines, one
+behind the other. Suddenly the batteries in front, to left, to right,
+poured upon them a murderous fire. Great gaps were mowed in their ranks.
+Union batteries, replying from across the river, added horror to the
+din, but helped little. Still the lines swept on. They grew thinner and
+thinner, halted, broke, and fled.
+
+Again they advanced, this time almost up to the stone wall. Behind it,
+hidden from sight, lay gray ranks four deep. Suddenly that silent wall
+burst into flame, and the advancing lines crumbled away more rapidly
+than before. Three times more the gallant fellows came on, bayonets
+fixed, to useless slaughter. That deadly wall could not be passed.
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Ditch full of dead soldiers, behind a four foot stone
+wall.]
+The Stone Wall at Fredericksburg.
+
+
+[1863]
+
+The two wings having failed, the Union centre, under Fighting Joe
+Hooker, was ordered to try. He kept his batteries playing till sunset,
+hoping to make a breach. Four thousand men were then ordered into the
+jaws of death. Stripping off knapsacks and overcoats, and relying on the
+bayonet alone, they charged on the double-quick and with a cheer. They
+got within twenty yards of the stone wall. Again that sheet of flame! In
+fifteen minutes it was all over, and they returned as rapidly as they
+advanced, leaving nearly half their number dead and dying behind. During
+the day Burnside had had 113,000 men either across the river or ready to
+cross. Lee's force was 78,000.
+
+Night put an end to the luckless carnage. Burnside's generals dissuaded
+him from renewing the attack next day, and the army re-crossed the
+river. They had lost 12,300 men; the Confederates 5,000. A writer to the
+London Times from Lee's headquarters called this December 13th a day
+"memorable to the historian of the Decline and Fall of the American
+Republic."
+
+Burnside resigned in January, and Hooker took the command, but he did
+not assume the offensive till the last of April. Then, leaving three
+corps under Sedgwick to deceive Lee by a demonstration in front, he
+marched up-stream with the other four of his corps, crossed the
+Rappahannock and the Rapidan, partially turned Lee's left, and took up a
+position near Chancellorsville. It was a perfect plan, and thus far
+triumphantly executed. But here Hooker waited, and the pause was fatal.
+On the night of April 30th Lee perceived that Sedgwick's movement was
+only a feint, and gathered all his forces, 62,000 strong, to fight at
+Chancellorsville. He fortified himself so firmly that Hooker with
+64,000, or, including Sedgwick's two corps and the cavalry, 113,000,
+made not a single step of further advance.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General Oliver O. Howard.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General John Sedgwick.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+R.D. Servoss, N.Y.
+Jackson's Attack on Howard, May 1st, 1863.
+
+
+Nor was this the worst. Hooker's right wing, under Howard, was weakly
+posted. On the 2d of May Stonewall Jackson, who cherished the theory
+that one man in an enemy's rear is worth ten in his front, making a
+detour of fifteen miles, got upon Howard's right unobserved, and rolled
+it up. The surprise was as complete as it was inexcusable. Arms were
+stacked and the men getting supper. Suddenly some startled deer came
+bounding into camp, gray-coats swarming from the woods hard behind.
+Almost at the first charge the whole corps broke and flee! But the
+victory cost the Confederates dear; Jackson was fatally wounded,
+probably by his own men.
+
+All the next day the Union army fought on the defensive. Hooker was
+stunned in the course of it by a cannon-ball stroke upon the
+house-pillar against which he was leaning, and the army was left without
+a commanding mind. Sedgwick, who was to come up from below
+Fredericksburg and take Lee in the rear, found it impossible to do this
+in time, having to fight his way forward with great loss. When he drew
+near, Lee was enough at leisure to attend to him. Forty thousand troops,
+aching for the fray, were left idle while Lee was hammering away against
+the portion of the Union line commanded by Sickles. Ammunition gave out,
+and charge after charge had to be repulsed with the bayonet.
+
+Sickles's brave men at last yielded. The Confederate attack of May 4th
+was nearly all directed against Sedgwick, whose noble corps narrowly
+escaped capture. That night the whole army fell back to nearly its old
+position north of the Rappahannock. Except that at Fredericksburg it was
+the most disgraceful fiasco on either side during the war. It cost
+17,000 men, and accomplished less than nothing. The South was elated. It
+proposed again to invade the North and this time dictate terms of peace.
+
+Early in June Lee's jubilant army, strengthened to 100,000, with 15,000
+cavalry and 280 guns, started on its second grand Northern Campaign. It
+marched down the Shenandoah Valley, crossed the Potomac on the 25th, and
+headed for Chambersburg, Penn. The Army of the Potomac marched parallel
+with it, on the east side of the Blue Ridge, and crossed the Potomac a
+day later. Hooker suddenly resigned, and Meade was put in command.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General James Longstreet.
+
+
+Lee reached Chambersburg; his advance even pushed well on toward
+Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania. At Chambersburg he waited
+eagerly for those riots in northern cities by which the "copperheads"
+had expected to aid his march. In vain. Meade was drawing near. "Pressed
+by the finger of destiny, the Confederate army went down to Gettysburg,"
+and here the advance of both hosts met on July 1st. After some sharp
+fighting the Union van was driven back in confusion through Gettysburg,
+with a loss of 10,000 men, half of them prisoners. The brave General
+Reynolds, commanding the First Corps, lost his life in this action. The
+residue fell back to Cemetery Hill, south of the town. Meade, fifteen
+miles to the south, sent Hancock on to take command of the field, and
+see what it was best to do. This able and trusty officer hurried to the
+scene of action in an ambulance, studying maps as he went. He saw at a
+glance the strength of Cemetery Ridge and resolved to retreat no
+farther. The remaining corps were ordered up, and by noon of July 2d had
+mostly taken their positions.
+
+The Union army lay along an elevation some three miles in length,
+resembling a fish-hook in shape. At the extreme southern end forming
+the head of the shank rose "Round Top," four hundred feet in height.
+Farther north was "Little Round Top," about three-fourths as high.
+Cemetery Ridge formed the rest of the shank. The hook curved to the
+east, with Culp's Hill for the barb. The Confederate army occupied
+Seminary Ridge a mile to the west, its left wing, however, bending
+around to the east through Gettysburg, the line being nearly parallel
+with Meade's, but much longer. Each army numbered not far from 80,000.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General George G. Meade.
+
+
+The battle of the second day began about three in the afternoon. Meade
+had neglected to occupy Little Round Top, which was the key to the Union
+line. Longstreet's men began climbing its rugged sides. Fortunately the
+movement was seen in time, and Union troops, after a most desperate
+conflict, seized and held the crest of the hill.
+
+Along the Union left centre General Sickles's corps had taken a position
+in advance of the rest of the line, upon a ridge branching off from
+Cemetery Ridge at an acute angle. Here he was fiercely attacked and most
+of his force finally driven back into the line of Cemetery Ridge. The
+Union right had been greatly weakened to strengthen the centre. The
+Confederates charged here also, and carried the outer intrenchments at
+Culp's Hill. The Union losses during the afternoon were
+10,000--three-fifths in Sickles's corps, which lost half its numbers.
+
+The next morning was spent by Lee in preparing for a grand charge upon
+the Union centre, that of yesterday upon the left having failed, and the
+Confederates having this morning been driven from the ground gained the
+night before on the right at Culp's Hill. The storm burst about one
+o'clock. For two hours 120 guns on Seminary Ridge kept up a furious
+cannonade, to which Meade replied with 80. About three the Union cannon
+ceased firing. Lee mistakenly thought them silenced, and gave the word
+to charge.
+
+An attacking column 18,000 strong, made up of fresh troops, the flower
+of Lee's men, and commanded by the impetuous Pickett, the Ney of the
+southern army, emerges from the woods on Seminary Ridge, and, drawn up
+in three lines, one behind the other, with a front of more than a mile,
+moves silently down the slope and across the valley toward the selected
+spot. Suddenly the Union batteries again open along the whole line.
+Great furrows are ploughed in the advancing ranks. They press steadily
+on, and climb the slope toward Meade's lines. Two regiments behind rude
+intrenchments slightly in advance pour in such a murderous fire that the
+column swerves a little toward its left, exposing its flank. General
+Stannard and his lusty Vermonters make an irresistible charge upon this.
+Windrows of Pickett's poor fellows are mowed down by the combined
+artillery and musketry fire. A part of the column breaks and flees. A
+part rushes on with desperate valor and reaches the low stone wall which
+serves for a Union breastwork. A venomous hand-to-hand fight ensues.
+Union re-enforcements swarm to the endangered point. The three
+Confederate brigade commanders are all killed or fatally wounded, whole
+regiments of their followers surrounded and taken prisoners. The rest
+are tumbled back, and the broken remnants of that noble column flee in
+wild confusion across the valley.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Note: From A to K is just one mile.
+R.D. Servos N.Y.
+Diagram of the Attack on Sickles and Sykes.
+
+
+The Confederate loss on this eventful day was 16,000, the Union loss not
+one-fifth as great. General Hancock, whose command bore the brunt of the
+charge, was severely wounded. Meade should have pressed his advantage,
+but did not, and next day Lee retreated under cover of a storm and
+escaped across the Potomac. His losses during the three days had been
+frightful, amounting to 23,000. In one brigade, numbering 2,800 on July
+1st, only 835 answered roll-call three days later. Meade's total losses
+were also 23,000. Meade had had on the field in all 83,000 men and 300
+guns, Lee 69,000 and 250 guns.
+
+Gettysburg marks the turning of the tide. The South's dream of getting a
+foothold in the North was forever past. She was soon to hear a gallant
+Northerner's voice demanding the surrender of Richmond.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+COLLAPSE OF THE CONFEDERACY
+
+[1864]
+
+Gettysburg was the last general engagement in the East during 1863. The
+next spring, as we have noticed, Grant was appointed Lieutenant-General,
+with command of all the northern armies, now numbering over 600,000
+effectives. This vast body of men he proposed to use against the
+fast-weakening Confederacy in concerted movements. Sherman's part in the
+great plan has already been traced. The hardest task, that of facing
+Lee, the hero of Vicksburg and Chattanooga [he] reserved for himself.
+Greek thus met Greek, and the death-grapple began.
+
+May 4th the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan and entered the
+Wilderness, Meade in immediate command, with 120,000 men present for
+duty. Lee, heading an army of 62,000 veterans, engaged his new
+antagonist without delay. For two days the battle raged in the gloomy
+woods. There was no opportunity for brilliant manoeuvres. The men of the
+two armies lay doggedly behind the trees, each blazing away through the
+underbrush at an unseen foe, often but a few yards off, while a stream
+of mangled forms borne on stretchers came steadily pouring to the rear.
+The tide of battle surged this way and that, with no decisive advantage
+for either side.
+
+But Grant, as Lee said of him, "was not a retreating man." If he had not
+beaten, neither had he been beaten. Advance was the word. On the night
+of the 7th he began that series of "movements by the left flank" which
+was to force Lee forever from the Rappahannock front. The army stretched
+nearly north and south, facing west. Warren's corps, at the extreme
+right, quietly withdrew from the enemy's front, and marching south took
+a position beyond Hancock's, hitherto the left. Sedgwick's corps
+followed. By this sidling movement the army worked its way south, all
+the while presenting an unbroken front to the enemy. Yet, on reaching
+Spottsylvania, Grant found Lee's army there before him. Sharp fighting
+began again on the 9th and continued three days, but was indecisive,
+mainly from the wild nature of the country, heavily timbered, with only
+occasional clearings.
+
+
+[Illustration: Officer with arms outstretched, after being shot.]
+Death of General Sedgwick at Spottsylvania. May 9, 1864.
+
+
+An early morning attack on the 12th carried a salient angle in the
+centre of the Confederate line, securing 4,000 prisoners and twenty
+guns. All that day and far into the night Lee desperately strove to
+dislodge the assailants from this "bloody angle." Five furious charges
+were stubbornly repulsed, the belligerents between these grimly facing
+each other from lines of rifle-pits often but a few feet apart. Bullets
+flew thick as hail, a tree eighteen inches through being cut clean off
+by them. Great heaps of dead and wounded lay between the lines, and "at
+times a lifted arm or a quivering limb told of an agony not quenched by
+the Lethe of death around." Lee did not give up this death-grapple till
+three o'clock in the morning, when he fell back to a new position. His
+losses here in killed and wounded were about 5,000; Grant's about 6,000.
+
+Rains now compelled both armies to remain quiet for several days.
+Meantime news reached Grant that Butler, who was to have moved up the
+James with his army of 20,000 and co-operate with the main army against
+Richmond, had suffered himself to be "bottled up" at Bermuda Hundred, a
+narrow spit of land between the James and Appomattox Rivers, the
+Confederates having "driven in the cork." Re-enforcements reached Grant,
+however, which made good all his losses.
+
+On the 19th, after an unsuccessful assault the day before, he resumed
+the flanking movement, and reached and passed the North Anna. But Lee
+pushed in like a wedge between the two parts of the Union army,
+separated by crossing the river at different points, and after some
+fighting, Grant re-crossed and resumed his march to the south. Lee,
+again moving on shorter lines, reached Cold Harbor before Grant.
+
+The outer line of Confederate intrenchments at Cold Harbor was carried
+on June 1st, and at early dawn on the 3d a charge made along the whole
+front. Under cover of a heavy artillery fire the men advanced to the
+enemy's rifle-pits and carried them. They then swept on toward the main
+line. The ground was open, and the advancing columns were exposed to a
+terrible storm of iron and lead. Artillery cross-fire swept through
+their ranks from right to left. The troops pressed close up to the
+works, but could not carry them. They intrenched, however, and held the
+position gained, at some points within thirty yards of the hostile
+ramparts. The Union loss was very heavy, not less than 6,000; the
+Confederates, fighting under shelter, lost comparatively few.
+
+During the next ten days the men lay quietly in their trenches. Both
+forces had now moved so far south that Grant's hope of getting between
+Lee's army and Richmond had to be abandoned. He therefore decided to
+cross the James and take a position south of Richmond, whence he could
+threaten its lines of communication, while that river would furnish him
+a secure base of supplies.
+
+The two hosts now began a race for Petersburg, an important railway
+centre, twenty-two miles south of Richmond. Grant's advance reached the
+town first, but delayed earnest attack, and on the morning of the 15th
+Lee's veterans, after an all-night's march, flung themselves into the
+intrenchments. Grant spent the next four days in vain efforts to
+dislodge them. On the 19th he gave up this method of assault, and began
+a regular siege. His losses in killed and wounded hereabouts had been
+almost 9,000.
+
+Things now remained comparatively quiet till late in July. Both sides
+were busy strengthening their intrenchments. Lee held both Richmond and
+Petersburg in force, besides a continuous line between the two. Attempts
+to break this line and to cut the railroads around Petersburg led to
+several engagements which would have been considered great battles
+earlier in the war.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+General David Hunter.
+
+Grant's total losses from the crossing of the Rapidan to the end of June
+were 61,000, but re-enforcements promptly filled his ranks. The
+Confederate loss cannot be accurately determined, but was probably about
+two-thirds as great.
+
+Through July one of Burnside's regiments, composed of Pennsylvanians
+used to such business, had been working at a mine under one of the main
+redoubts in front of Petersburg. A shaft 500 feet long was dug, with a
+cross gallery 80 feet in length at the end square under the redoubt.
+This chamber was charged with 8,000 pounds of powder, which was fired
+July 30th. The battery and brigade immediately overhead were blown into
+the air, and the Confederate soldiers far to left and right stunned and
+stupefied with terror. For half an hour the way in to Petersburg was
+open. Why did none enter? The answer is sad.
+
+Grant had splendidly fulfilled his part by a feint to Deep Bottom across
+the James, which had drawn thither all but about one division of Lee's
+Petersburg force. But Meade, at a late hour on the 29th, changed the
+entire plan of assault, which Burnside had carefully arranged, and to
+lead which a fresh division had been specially drilled. Then there was
+lamentable inefficiency or cowardice on the part of several subordinate
+officers. The troops charged into the great, cellar-like crater,
+twenty-five feet deep, where, for lack of orders, they remained huddled
+together instead of pushing on. The Confederates rallied, and after
+shelling the crater till more of its occupants were dead than alive,
+charged and either routed the living or took them prisoners.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+The Shenandoah Valley.
+
+
+During the summer and fall of 1864 the scene of active operations was
+shifted to the Shenandoah Valley. The latter part of June Lee sent
+Early, 20,000 strong, to make a demonstration against Washington, hoping
+to scare Grant away from Petersburg. Early moved rapidly down the
+valley, hustling Hunter before him, who escaped only by making a detour
+to the west, thus leaving Washington open. Thither Early pushed with all
+speed.
+
+General Lew Wallace hastily gathered up the few troops at his disposal
+and hurried out from Baltimore to meet him. Wallace was defeated at the
+Monocacy River July 9th, but precious time was gained for the
+strengthening of Washington. When Early arrived before the city on the
+11th, Grant's re-enforcements had not yet come, and the fate of the
+capital trembled in the balance. Early happily delayed his attack till
+the morrow, and that night two of Grant's veteran corps landed in
+Washington, President Lincoln, in his anxiety, being on the wharf to
+meet them. Once more Washington was safe, and Early fell back, pressed
+by the newcomers.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+General Early's Maryland Campaign.
+
+
+The pursuit was feeble, however, and the last of July Early swooped down
+the valley again. A detachment pushed into Pennsylvania and burned
+Chambersburg. All through the war the Confederate operations in the
+Shenandoah Valley had been an annoyance and a menace. Grant now
+determined to put a definite stop to this, and sent the dashing General
+Sheridan for the work with 30,000 troops, including 8,000 cavalry.
+Sheridan pushed Early up the Shenandoah, defeating him at Opequon Creek,
+September 19th, and at Fisher's Hill two days later.
+
+One-half of Early's army had been destroyed or captured, and the rest
+driven southward. Sheridan then, in accordance with Grant's orders, that
+the enemy might no longer make it a base of operations against the
+capital, laid waste the valley so thoroughly that, as the saying went,
+not a crow could fly up or down it without carrying rations. Spite of
+this, Early, having been re-enforced, entered the valley once more. The
+Union army lay at Cedar Creek. Sheridan had gone to Washington on
+business, leaving General Wright in command. On the night of October
+18th, the wily Confederate crept around to the rear of the Union left,
+and attacked at daybreak. Wright was completely surprised, and his left
+wing fled precipitately, losing 1,000 prisoners and 18 guns. He ordered
+a retreat to Winchester. The right fell slowly back in good order,
+interposing a steady front between Early and the demoralized left.
+
+Meanwhile Sheridan, who had reached Winchester on his return, snuffed
+battle, and hurried to the scene. Now came "Sheridan's Ride." Astride
+the coal-black charger immortalized by Buchanan Read's verse, he shot
+ahead and dashed upon the battle-field shortly before noon, his horse
+dripping with foam. His presence restored confidence, and the army
+steadily awaited the expected assault. It came, was repulsed, was
+reciprocated. Early was halted, then pushed, then totally routed, and
+his army nearly destroyed. It was one of the most signal and telling
+victories of the war. In a month's campaign Sheridan had killed and
+wounded 10,000 of the enemy and taken 13,000 prisoners.
+
+[1865]
+
+All this time the siege of Petersburg was sturdily pressed. In August,
+Grant got possession of the Weldon Railroad, an important line running
+south from Petersburg. During the next month fortifications on the
+Richmond side of the James were carried and held. Through the winter
+Grant contented himself with gradually extending his lines around
+Petersburg, trying to cut Lee's communications, and preventing his
+sending troops against Sherman. He had a death-grip upon the
+Confederacy's throat, and waited with confidence for the contortions
+which should announce its death.
+
+The spring of 1865 found the South reduced to the last extremity. The
+blockade had shut out imports, and it is doubtful if ever before so
+large and populous a region was so far from being self-sustaining. Even
+of food-products, save corn and bacon, the dearth became desperate.
+Wheat bread and salt were luxuries almost from the first. Home-made
+shoes, with wooden soles and uppers cut from buggy tops or old
+pocketbooks, became the fashion. Pins were eagerly picked up in the
+streets. Thorns, with wax heads, served as hairpins. Scraps of old metal
+became precious as gold.
+
+The plight of the army was equally distressing. Drastic drafting had
+long since taken into the army all the able-bodied men between the ages
+of eighteen and forty-five. Boys from fourteen to eighteen, and old men
+from forty-five to sixty, were also pressed into service as junior and
+senior reserves, the Confederacy thus, as General Butler wittily said,
+"robbing both the cradle and the grave." Lee's army had been crumbling
+away beneath the terrible blows dealt it by Grant. He received some
+re-enforcements during 1864, but in no wise enough to make good his
+losses. When he took the field in the spring of 1865, his total
+effective force was 57,000. Grant's army, including Butler's and
+Sheridan's troops, numbered 125,000.
+
+ Lee now perceived that his only hope lay in escaping from the clutches
+ of Grant and  making a junction with Johnston's army in North Carolina.
+ Grant was on the watch for precisely this. On March 29th Sheridan
+ worked around into the rear of the Confederate right. Lee descried the
+ movement, and extended his lines that way to obviate it. A force was
+ sent, which drove Sheridan back in some confusion. Re-enforced, he
+ again advanced and beat the forces opposed to him rearward to Five
+ Forks. Here, April 1st, he made a successful charge, before which the
+ foe broke and ran, leaving 4,500 prisoners.
+
+Fearing an attack on Sheridan in force which might let Lee out, Grant
+sent re-enforcements, at the same time keeping up a roaring cannonade
+along the whole line all night. At five on the morning of the 2d, a
+grand assault was made against the Confederate left, which had been
+weakened to extend the right. The outer, intrenchments, with two forts
+farther in, were taken. Lee at once telegraphed to President Davis that
+Petersburg and Richmond must be immediately abandoned.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Grant's Pursuit of Lee; April, 1865.
+
+
+It was Sunday, and the message reached Mr. Davis in church. He hastened
+out with pallid lips and unsteady tread. A panic-stricken throng was
+soon streaming from the doomed city. Vehicles let for one hundred
+dollars an hour in gold. The state-prison guards fled and the criminals
+escaped. A drunken mob surged through the streets, smashing windows and
+plundering shops. General Ewell blew up the iron-clads in the river and
+burned bridges and storehouses. The fire spread till one-third of
+Richmond was in flames. The air was filled with a "hideous mingling of
+the discordant sounds of human voices--the crying of children, the
+lamentations of women, the yells of drunken men--with the roar of the
+tempest of flame, the explosion of magazines, the bursting of shells."
+Early on the morning of the 3d was heard the cry, "The Yankees are
+coming!" Soon a column of blue-coated troops poured into the city,
+headed by a regiment of colored cavalry, and the Stars and Stripes
+presently floated over the Confederate capital.
+
+The Confederacy was tottering to its fall. Lee had begun his retreat on
+the night of the 2d, and was straining every nerve to reach a point on
+the railroad fifty miles to the west, whence he could move south and
+join Johnston. Grant was too quick for him. Sending Sheridan in advance
+to head him off, he himself hurried after with the main army. Gray and
+blue kept up the race for several days, moving on nearly parallel lines.
+Sheridan struck the Confederate column at Sailor's Creek on the 6th, and
+a heavy engagement ensued, in which the southern army lost many wagons
+and several thousand prisoners.
+
+Lee's band was in a pitiable plight. Its supplies had been cut off, and
+many of the soldiers had nothing to eat except the young shoots of
+trees. They fell out of the ranks by hundreds, and deserted to their
+homes near by. With all hope of escape cut off, and his army dropping to
+pieces around him, Lee was at last forced to surrender. To this end he
+met Grant, on April 9th, at a residence near Appomattox Court House.
+
+The personal appearance of the two generals at this interview presented
+a striking, not to say ludicrous, contrast. Lee, who was a tall,
+handsome man, was attired in a new uniform, showing all the insignia of
+his rank, with a splendid dress-sword at his side. Grant, wholly
+unprepared for the interview, wore a private's uniform, covered with mud
+and dust from hard riding that day. His shoulder-straps were the only
+mark of his high rank, and he had no sword. Having served together in
+the Mexican War, they spent some time in a friendly conversation about
+those old scenes. Grant then wrote out the terms of surrender, which Lee
+accepted. The troops were to give their paroles not to take up arms
+again until properly exchanged, and officers might retain their
+side-arms, private horses, and baggage. Anxious to heal the wounds of
+the South, Grant, with rare thoughtfulness, allowed privates also to
+take home their own horses. "They will need them for the spring
+ploughing," he said. The 19,000 prisoners captured during the last ten
+days, together with deserters, left, in Lee's once magnificent army, but
+28,356 soldiers to be paroled. The surrendering general was compelled to
+ask 25,000 rations for these famished troops, a request which was
+cheerfully granted.
+
+
+[Illustration: Grant and eleven other officers watching Lee sign.]
+General Lee Signing the Terms of Surrender at Appomattox Court-House.
+
+
+While all loyal hearts were rejoicing over the news of Lee's surrender,
+recognized as virtually ending the war, a pall suddenly fell upon the
+land. On the evening of April 14th, while President Lincoln was sitting
+in a box at Ford's Theatre in Washington, an actor, John Wilkes Booth,
+crept up behind him, placed a pistol to his head, and fired. Brandishing
+his weapon, and crying, "Sic semper tyrannis," the assassin leaped to
+the stage, sustaining a severe injury. Regaining his feet, he shouted,
+"The South is avenged!" and made his escape.
+
+The bullet had pierced the President's brain and rendered him
+insensible. He was removed to a house near by, where he died next
+morning. His body was taken to Springfield, Ill., for burial, and a
+nation mourned above his grave, as no American since Washington had ever
+been mourned for before. The South repudiated and deplored the foul
+deed. Well it might, for, had Lincoln lived, much of its sorrow during
+the next years would have been avoided.
+
+Booth was only one of a band of conspirators who had intended also to
+take off General Grant and the whole Cabinet. By a strange good fortune
+Secretary Seward, sick in bed, was the only victim besides the
+President. He was stabbed three times with a bowie-knife, but not
+fatally. After a cunning flight and brave defence Booth was captured
+near Port Royal, and killed. Of the other conspirators some were hanged,
+some imprisoned.
+
+The Confederacy collapsed. Johnston's army surrendered to Sherman on
+April 26th. President Davis fled south. On May 10th he was captured in
+Georgia, muffled in a lady's cloak and shawl, and became a prisoner at
+Fortress Monroe. The war had called into military (land) service in the
+two armies together hardly fewer than 4,000,000 men; 2,750,000, in round
+numbers, on the Union side, and 1,250,000 on the other. The largest
+number of northern soldiers in actual service at anyone time was
+1,000,516, on May 1, 1865, 650,000 of them being able for duty. The
+largest number of Confederate land forces in service at any time was
+690,000, on January 1, 1863. The Union armies lost by death
+304,369--44,238 of these being killed in battle, 49,205 dying of wounds.
+Over 26,000 are known to have died in Confederate prisons.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE WAR ON THE SEA
+
+[1861]
+
+Naval operations during the war fall into three great classes: Those
+upon inland waters, the Mississippi especially; those along the coast;
+and those upon the high seas. The first class has already been touched
+upon in connection with the Mississippi campaigns. The naval work along
+the coast and upon the high seas is the subject of the present chapter.
+Only the more important features can be sketched. At the outbreak of the
+Rebellion our navy was totally unprepared for war. Forty-two vessels
+were in commission, but most of them were in distant seas or in southern
+ports. The service was weak with secession sentiment. Between March and
+July, 1861, 259 naval officers resigned or were dismissed.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Gideon Welles.
+
+
+Secretary Welles went energetically to work. Vessels in foreign waters
+were called home, the keels of new craft laid in northern dockyards, and
+stout merchant ships bought and fitted up for the rough usage of war. By
+the end of 1861 the navy numbered 264 vessels. At the close of the war
+it had 671 ships, carrying 4,610 guns and 50,000 sailors.
+
+The first work--a gigantic one--was to blockade the southern ports. This
+involved the constant patrolling of more than 3,000 miles of dangerous
+coast, indented with innumerable inlets, sounds, and bays. But within a
+year a fairly effective blockade was in force from Virginia to Texas,
+drawn tighter and tighter as the navy increased in size. The
+effectiveness of the blockade is sufficiently proved by the dearth at
+the South. The South had cotton enough to sell--$300,000,000 worth in
+gold at the end of the war--and Europe was greedy to buy; but she could
+not get her wares to market. Fifteen hundred prizes, worth $30,000,000,
+were taken during the war.
+
+The details of the blockade must be left to the reader's imagination.
+Important as the work was, it was comparatively monotonous and
+dull--ceaseless watching day and night in all weather, week after week
+and month after month. Now and then the routine would be broken by the
+excitement of a chase. A suspicious-looking sail would be spied in the
+offing and pursued, perhaps, far out to sea. Again, the low hull of a
+blockade-runner would be seen creeping around a point and heading for
+the open sea. Or on a still night the throb of engines and the splash of
+paddle-wheels would give warning that some guilty vessel was trying to
+steal into port under cover of darkness. Then came the flare of rockets
+to notify the rest of the blockading fleet, the hot pursuit with boilers
+crowded to bursting, the boom of the big guns fired at random in the
+dark, and the exultation of a capture or the disappointment of failure.
+
+Blockade-running became a regular business, enormously profitable.
+Moonless and cloudy nights were of course the most favorable times for
+eluding the blockade; but the swift steamers, sitting low in the water
+and painted a light neutral tint, could not easily be detected by day at
+a little distance, especially as they burned smokeless coal. The bolder
+skippers would take all chances. Under cover of a fog they would steal
+into or out of harbor at risk of going aground, or set sail boldly on a
+bright moonlight night, when the blockaders would naturally relax their
+vigilance a little. Occasionally some dare-devil would crowd on all
+steam and dash openly through the sentinel fleet, trusting to speed to
+escape being hit or captured. When hard pressed, the blockade-runner
+would beach his craft, set it afire, and take to the woods. At the close
+of the war thirty wrecks of blockade-runners were rotting on the sands
+near Charleston Harbor.
+
+In connection with the blockade a number of naval expeditions were sent
+against various points along the coast. In October, 1861, a fleet under
+Flag-Officer Dupont, consisting of a steam frigate, a dozen or more
+gunboats, with numerous transports and coaling-schooners, and carrying
+12,000 troops under General T. W. Sherman, set sail from Hampton Roads
+for Port Royal, S. C. After a stormy passage the fleet anchored off the
+harbor on November 4th. On opposite sides of the entrance, two and a
+half miles apart, stood Forts Walker and Beauregard--strong earthworks,
+mounting one 23 the other 20 guns, and garrisoned by 1,700 men. The 7th
+dawned bright and clear, the sea smooth as glass. About nine o'clock the
+bombardment began. The fleet steamed slowly round and round in an
+ellipse between the forts, each vessel as it came within range pouring
+in its fire, then passing on and waiting its turn to fire again. The
+cannonade was concentrated upon Fort Walker. The moving ships offered a
+poor mark to the fort, while the aim of the fleet was very accurate,
+covering the gunners with sand and dismounting the guns. After four
+hours' action Fort Walker was evacuated, and soon Fort Beauregard also
+in consequence.
+
+
+[Illustration: Map.]
+Map of Hampton Roads.
+
+
+Port Royal was the finest harbor on the coast, and was of great value to
+the navy all through the war as a repair and supply station. Dupont sent
+out expeditions, and by the end of the year had possession of a large
+part of the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. In the following spring
+expeditions from Port Royal regained Fernandina and St. Augustine on the
+Florida coast. In April Fort Pulaski, a strong brick work at the mouth
+of the Savannah River, was reduced by eleven batteries planted on a
+neighboring island, its surrender completing the blockade of Savannah.
+
+[1862]
+
+Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, on the coast of North Carolina, swarmed
+with blockade-runners. Rivers, canals, and railroads formed a network of
+communications with the interior, and vessels were constantly slipping
+to sea with cargoes of cotton, to return with munitions of war. Hatteras
+Inlet, seized in August, 1861, was not a sufficient basis for the
+blockade. In February, 1862, a fleet bearing 11,500 soldiers, under
+General Burnside, arrived at Roanoke Island, which lies between the two
+great sounds. The troops were landed, and on the 8th, charging over
+marshy ground, sometimes waist-deep in water, carried the batteries and
+gained possession of the island. Newbern, one of the most important
+ports of North Carolina, was captured a month later, and Fort Macon,
+commanding the entrance to Beaufort Harbor, surrendered in April.
+
+Meanwhile what had the Confederates been doing in naval matters? When
+the Norfolk navy-yard was abandoned in April, 1861, the fine old frigate
+Merrimac was scuttled. She was raised by the Davis Government and
+converted into an ironclad ram--a novelty in those days. The hull was
+cut down to the water's edge, and a stout roof, 170 feet long, with
+sloping sides and a flat top, built amidships and plated with four
+inches of iron. This roof was pierced for ten guns--four rifles and six
+nine-inch smooth-bores.
+
+On March 8, 1862, the Union fleet, consisting of the Cumberland,
+Congress, Minnesota, and some smaller craft, rode lazily at anchor in
+Hampton Roads. About noon a curious looking structure was seen coming
+down Elizabeth River. It was the Merrimac. She steered straight for the
+Cumberland. The latter poured in a broadside from her heavy ten-inch
+guns, but the balls glanced off the ram's sloping iron sides like peas.
+The Merrimac's iron beak crashed into the Cumberland's side, making a
+great hole. In a few minutes the old warsloop, working her guns to the
+water's edge, went down in fifty-four feet of water, 120 sick and
+wounded sinking with her.
+
+
+[Illustration: Sea battle a close quarters.]
+The Sinking of the Frigate Cumberland by the Merrimac in Hampton Roads,
+March 8, 1862.
+
+
+The Congress had meanwhile been run aground. The Merrimac fired hot
+shot, setting her afire. Nearly half the crew being killed or wounded,
+she surrendered, her magazine exploding and blowing her up at midnight.
+The Minnesota, hastening up with two other vessels from Fortress Monroe
+to aid her sisters, had run aground. Being of heavy draught, the
+Merrimac could not get near enough to do her much damage, and at
+nightfall steamed back to her landing. As the telegraph that night
+flashed over the land the news of the Merrimac's victory, dismay filled
+the North, exultation the South. What was to stay the career of the
+invulnerable monster? Could it not destroy the whole United States navy
+of wooden ships?
+
+Next morning the Merrimac reappeared to complete her work of
+destruction. As she drew near the stranded Minnesota, a strange little
+craft moved out from the side of the big frigate and headed straight for
+the iron-clad. It was Ericsson's Monitor, which had arrived from New
+York at midnight. The Confederate characterization of it as a "cheese-box
+on a raft" is still the best description of its appearance. Its
+lower hull, 122 feet long and 34 wide, was protected by a raft-like
+overhanging upper hull, 172 feet long and 41 wide. Midway upon her low
+deck, which rose only a foot above the water, stood a revolving turret
+21 feet in diameter and nine in height. It was made of iron eight inches
+thick, and bore two eleven-inch guns throwing each a 180-pound ball.
+Near the bow rose the pilot-house, made of iron logs nine inches by
+twelve in thickness. The side armor of the hull was five inches thick,
+and the deck was covered with heavy iron plates.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+John Ericsson.
+
+
+[Illustration: Cross section of monitor.]
+Sectional View of Monitor through Turret and Pilot House.
+
+[1863]
+
+For three hours the iron-clads fought. The Merrimac's shot glanced
+harmlessly off the round turret, while her attempts to run the Monitor
+down failed. Meanwhile the big guns in the Monitor's turret, firing
+every seven minutes, were pounding the ram's sides with terrible blows.
+The Merrimac's armor was at points crushed in several inches, but
+nowhere pierced, About noon the fight stopped, as if by mutual consent.
+It was a drawn battle, but the career of the Merrimac had ended. Upon
+McClellan's advance, in May, she was blown up. The Monitor received no
+serious injury in this action, but the next December she foundered in a
+storm off Cape Hatteras.
+
+The invention of the Monitor revolutionized naval warfare, and set
+European nations to building the ponderous iron-clad navies of the
+present day. The United States Government soon contracted for twenty
+single-turret monitors, and four double-turreted ones with fifteen-inch
+guns.
+
+The Confederates now went to building iron-clads on the model of the
+Merrimac. On the morning of January 31, 1863, the iron-clads Palmetto
+State and Chicora steamed out of Charleston Harbor, in a dense fog, and
+attacked the blockading fleet of wooden vessels. After ramming one ship
+and sending a shot through the boiler of another, they put back to port.
+
+In April, Admiral Dupont tried to seize Charleston Harbor with his fleet
+of seven monitors and two iron-clads. In a two hours' action the
+monitors were seriously injured by the heavy guns of the forts, and the
+fleet withdrew. In August, land batteries reduced Fort Sumter almost to
+ruins, and in the following month Fort Wagner was abandoned. June 17th,
+the iron-clad Atlanta, armed with a torpedo at the end of a spar, ran
+down from Savannah to engage with two monitors guarding the mouth of the
+river. She got aground, rendering the torpedo useless. The fifteen-inch
+guns of the monitors pierced her armor, and in a few minutes she
+surrendered.
+
+[1884]
+
+The Albemarle proved a more dangerous foe. The last of April, 1864, it
+descended Roanoke River, smashed the gunboats at the mouth, and
+compelled the surrender of the forts and the town of Plymouth. A few
+days later it attacked a fleet of gunboats below the mouth of the river.
+After a severe tussle, inflicting and receiving considerable damage, it
+steamed back to Plymouth. Here it lay at the wharf till October, when it
+was sunk by Lieutenant Cushing, already famous for daring exploits under
+the very noses of the enemy. On the night of October 27th, young Cushing
+approached the ironclad in a steam launch with a torpedo at the end of a
+spar projecting from the bow. Jumping his boat over the log boom
+surrounding the ram, in the thick of musketry fire from deck and shore,
+Cushing calmly worked the strings by which the intricate torpedo was
+fired. It exploded under the vessel's overhang, and she soon sunk. At
+the moment of the explosion a cannonball crashed through the launch.
+Cushing plunged into the river and swam to shore through a shower of
+bullets. After crawling through the swamps next day, be found a skiff
+and paddled off to the fleet. Of the launch's crew of fourteen, only one
+other escaped.
+
+
+[Illustration: Outside view.]
+The Original Monitor.
+
+
+The stronghold of the Confederacy on the Gulf was Mobile. Two strong
+forts, mounting twenty-seven and forty-seven guns, guarded the channel
+below the city, which was further defended by spiles and torpedoes. In
+the harbor, August 5, 1864, lay the iron-clad ram, Tennessee, and three
+gunboats, commanded by Admiral Buchanan, formerly captain of the
+Merrimac. Farragut determined to force a passage. Before six o'clock in
+the morning his fleet of four monitors and fourteen wooden ships, the
+latter lashed together two and two, got under way, Farragut taking his
+station in the main rigging of the Hartford. The action opened about
+seven. One of the monitors struck a torpedo and sunk. The Brooklyn,
+which was leading, turned back to go around what seemed to be a nest of
+torpedoes. The whole line was in danger of being huddled together under
+the fire of the forts. Farragut boldly took the lead, and the fleet
+followed. The torpedo cases could be heard rapping against the ships'
+bottoms, but none exploded.
+
+The forts being safely passed, the Confederate gunboats advanced to the
+attack. One of these was captured, the other two escaped. The powerful
+iron-clad Tennessee now moved down upon the Union fleet. It was 209 feet
+long, with armor from five to six inches thick. Farragut ordered his
+wooden vessels to run her down. Three succeeded in ramming her squarely.
+She reeled under the tremendous blows, and her gunners could not keep
+their feet. A monitor sent a fifteen-inch ball through her stern. Her
+smoke-stack and steering-chains were shot away, and several port
+shutters jammed. About ten A.M., after an action of an hour and a
+quarter, the ram hoisted the white flag. The forts surrendered in a few
+days.
+
+January 15, 1865, Fort Fisher, a strong work near Wilmington, N. C,
+mounting seventy-five guns, was captured by a joint land and naval
+expedition under General Terry and Admiral Porter. This was the last
+great engagement along the coast.
+
+The story of the war upon the high seas is quickly told. Swift and
+powerful cruisers were built in English ship-yards, with the connivance
+of the British Government, whence they sailed to prey upon our commerce.
+The Florida, Georgia, Shenandoah, Chameleon, and Tallahassee, were some
+of the most famous in the list of Confederate cruisers. During 1861,
+fifty-eight prizes were taken by them. American merchant vessels were
+driven from the sea. The Shenandoah alone destroyed over $6,000,000
+worth in vessels and cargoes.
+
+[1862]
+
+The two most celebrated of these sea-rovers were the Sumter and the
+Alabama, both commanded by Captain Semmes, formerly of the United States
+Navy. The Sumter was a screw steamer of 600 tons, a good sailer and
+sea-boat. She was bought by the Confederate Government and armed with a
+few heavy guns. On June 30, 1861, she ran the blockade at Charleston,
+and began scouring the seas. All through the fall she prowled about the
+Atlantic, taking seventeen prizes, most of which were burned. Many
+United States cruisers were sent after her, but she eluded or escaped
+them all. Early in 1862 the Sumter entered the port of Gibraltar. Here
+she was blockaded by two Union gunboats, and Semmes finally sold her to
+take command of the Alabama.
+
+The Alabama was built expressly for the Confederacy at Laird's
+ship-yard, Liverpool, and although her character was perfectly well
+known, the British Government permitted her to go to sea. She was taken
+to one of the Azores Islands, where she received her armament and her
+captain. The officers were Confederates, the crew British. She began her
+destructive career in August, 1862. By the last of October she had taken
+twenty-seven prizes. In January she sunk the gunboat Hatteras, one of
+the blockading fleet off Galveston, Tex. After cruising in all seas, the
+Alabama, in 1864, returned to the European coast, having captured
+sixty-five vessels and destroyed property worth between $6,000,000 and
+$7,000,000.
+
+[1864]
+
+On June 11th, Semmes put into the harbor of Cherbourg, on the coast of
+France. Captain Winslow, commanding the United States steamer Kearsarge,
+cruising in the neighborhood, heard of the famous rover's arrival, and
+took his station outside the harbor. About ten o'clock on the morning of
+June 19, 1864, the Alabama was seen coming out of port, attended by a
+French man-of-war and an English steam yacht. Captain Winslow
+immediately cleared the decks for action. It was a clear, bright day,
+with a smooth sea. The fight took place about seven miles from shore.
+The two ships were pretty equally matched, each being of about 1,000
+tons burden. The Kearsarge had the heavier smooth-bore guns, but the
+Alabama carried a 100-pound Blakely rifle. The Kearsarge was protected
+amidships by chain cables.
+
+The Alabama opened the engagement. The Kearsarge replied with a cool and
+accurate fire. The action soon grew spirited. Solid shot ricochetted
+over the smooth water. Shells crashed against the sides or exploded on
+deck. The two ships sailed round and round a common centre, keeping
+about half a mile apart. In less than an hour the Alabama was terribly
+shattered and began to sink. She tried to escape, but water put out her
+engine fires. Semmes hoisted the white flag. In a few minutes the
+Alabama went down, her bow rising high in the air. Boats from the
+Kearsarge rescued some of the crew. The English yacht picked up others,
+Semmes among them, thus running off with Winslow's prisoners. The
+Kearsarge had received little damage.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+The Sinking of the Alabama.
+
+
+The sinking of the Alabama ended the career of the Confederate cruisers.
+American commerce had been nearly driven from the ocean, and, moreover,
+the days of peace on land and sea alike were near at hand.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+FOREIGN RELATIONS--FINANCES--EMANCIPATION
+
+[1861]
+
+A civil war of vast proportions in the world's greatest republic
+naturally aroused deep interest among the monarchies of Europe. Russia
+evinced warm friendliness to the United States. The rest of the world,
+save England and France, showed us no ill-will.
+
+England, with unfriendly haste, admitted the belligerent rights of the
+Confederacy before Mr. Adams, our minister, could reach the British
+court. The North was surprised and shocked that liberty-loving,
+conservative England should so far side with "rebellious slave-holders."
+It would seem that, besides sympathy with the aristocratic structure of
+southern society, national envy helped to put England into this false
+position. Commercial interests had greater weight. Four millions of
+people in England depended upon cotton manufactures for support.
+Three-fourths of the cotton they had used came from our southern ports,
+which the blockade closed. Moreover, the Confederacy declared for free
+trade, while the North adopted a high war tariff which drove many
+English goods out of American markets. The London Times complained that
+nearly $4,000,000 worth of English cutlery alone had been made worthless
+by our tariff.
+
+An incident early in the war heightened the ill-will between the two
+countries. On a dark night in October, 1861, Messrs. Mason and Slidell,
+Confederate commissioners to England and France, ran the blockade at
+Charleston, and soon after took passage at Havana on the English mail
+steamer Trent. November 8th, 250 miles out from Havana, the United
+States sloop of war San Jacinto, Captain Wilkes, compelled the Trent, by
+a shot across her bows, to heave to, and took off the commissioners.
+
+All England was hot with resentment. Troops were shipped to Canada, and
+other war preparations begun. A special messenger was hurried to
+Washington, demanding an apology and the release of the prisoners.
+Wilkes's action, though without authority in international law, was
+warmly approved by the people. The House of Representatives tendered him
+a vote of thanks. But the Government disavowed the seizure and gave up
+the commissioners. Mr. Seward, Secretary of State, in a dignified reply
+to England, insisted that the seizure was fully justified by England's
+own practice of searching neutral vessels on the high seas; but that, as
+the United States had always condemned this practice, the prisoners
+would be released, especially as Captain Wilkes should have brought the
+Trent before a prize court instead of deciding the validity of the prize
+himself. The action of the Government, though unpopular at the time, was
+undoubtedly as prudent as it was just. We could not afford to provoke
+war with England.
+
+
+[Illustration: Rowboats filled with soldier approaching city docks.]
+The Landing of the Allied Troops at Vera Cruz.
+
+
+Our real grievance against Great Britain was that the Queen's
+proclamation of neutrality was not obeyed. Confederate cruisers were
+built in English yards, whence they publicly and boastfully sailed to
+prey upon our then vast merchant marine. Crews as well as ships were
+English. The British ministry were perfectly aware of their destination,
+but used all manner of artifices to avoid interfering.
+
+Our most vicious enemy abroad was Napoleon III., so profuse yet so
+hypocritical in his professions of good-will. He, too, hastened to
+accord belligerent rights to the Confederacy. Had England not been too
+wary to join him, the two nations would certainly have recognized the
+South's independence. Napoleon was on the point of doing this alone.
+Seven war-vessels were, with his sanction, built for the Confederates at
+Bordeaux and Nantes, though he was too wily to allow them to sail when
+he became aware that their destination was fully known to our minister.
+
+Far-reaching political schemes were at the bottom of Napoleon's wish for
+a dismembered Union. He was plotting to restore European influence in
+America by setting up an empire on the ruins of the Mexican republic,
+and he knew that the United States would never allow this while her
+power was unbroken. In the latter part of 1861 a French army invaded
+Mexico. The feeble government was overthrown after a year or two of
+fighting. In 1863 an empire was established, and Napoleon offered the
+throne to the Austrian archduke Maximilian. Meanwhile, the protests of
+the United States were disregarded. But when our hands were freed by the
+collapse of the Confederacy, Napoleon changed his tone. The French
+troops were withdrawn early in 1867, and Maximilian was left to his
+fate. The unhappy prince, betrayed by his own general, fell into the
+hands of the old Mexican Government, now in the ascendant, and was tried
+by court-martial and shot. It should be remembered, however, that
+France's unfriendly attitude all through the Rebellion was maintained by
+her unscrupulous emperor and did not reflect the wish of the French
+people.
+
+The expenses of the war were colossal. From beginning to close they
+averaged $2,000,000 a day, sometimes running up to $3,500,000. The
+expenditure for the fiscal year ending July 1, 1865, was nearly
+$2,000,000,000. Of this the War Department required, in round numbers,
+$1,000, 000,000; the navy department, $123,000,000. These figures reveal
+the vast scale upon which the war was waged by land and sea. The
+national debt rose with frightful rapidity. It was $64,000,000 in 1860,
+$1,100,000,000 in 1863, $2,800,000,000 (the highest point reached) in
+1865. State and local war debts would swell the amount to more than
+$4,000,000,000.
+
+The position of Secretary of the Treasury during the war was anything
+but a bed of roses. The ordinary national income was hardly a drop in
+the bucket compared with the enormous and constantly increasing
+expenses. The total receipts for the year ending July 1, 1860, were only
+$81,000,000. How should the vast sums needed to carryon the war be
+raised? Resort was had to two sources of revenue--taxation and loans.
+
+A considerable revenue was already derived from customs imposed upon
+imported goods. In 1861, and again in 1863, tariffs were raised
+enormously, professedly to increase the revenue. These high rates in a
+measure defeated their own purpose, altogether stopping the importation
+of not a few articles.
+
+The war compelled the Government to resort to internal taxation--always
+unpopular and now unknown in the United States for nearly half a
+century. Taxes were laid upon almost everything--upon trades, incomes,
+legacies, manufactures. The words of Sydney Smith will apply to our
+internal taxes during the war:
+
+"Taxes on the ermine which decorates the judge, and the rope which hangs
+the criminal; on the poor man's salt and the rich man's spice; on the
+brass nails of the coffin and the ribands of the bride." The tax on many
+finished products ranged from eight to fifteen per cent.; on some it
+rose to twenty per cent.
+
+
+[Illustration: Two men looking out a window.]
+Maximilian Watching the Departure of the
+Last French Troops from the City of Mexico.
+
+[1864]
+
+But these taxes, severe as they were, could furnish only a small part of
+the necessary income. The Government must borrow. In the first year of
+the war the banks loaned the United States $150,000,000 at 7.3 per cent.
+interest. Many other loans were secured as the war went on--one for
+$500,000,000, another for $900,000,000. As security the Government
+issued bonds, bearing various rates of interest and payable after a
+certain number of years. Treasury notes were also issued and made legal
+tender for all debts public and private. As the Government paid its own
+debts with them, they were in the nature of a forced loan. Of those
+which bore no interest (commonly known as greenbacks) $433,000,000 were
+issued from first to last. Also, when property was seized for the use of
+the army, the owners were given certificates of indebtedness which
+entitled the holders to payment at the United States Treasury.
+
+The proportion of revenue derived from each of the above sources is
+illustrated by the report of the treasurer of the United States for the
+year ending July 1, 1865. Customs yielded $85,000,000, internal revenue
+$209,000,000, loans $1,470,000,000.
+
+Finance legislation during the war was more patriotic than wise, due
+partly to necessary haste, largely to ignorance. The internal taxes bore
+very unequally upon different classes. The tariff was ill-adjusted to
+the internal taxes, letting in at low rates some classes of goods whose
+home production was heavily taxed, thus discriminating in favor of the
+foreigner. Millions of debt and half the other economic evil of the war
+might have been saved by doing more to keep the paper dollar on a par
+with gold. Thus the banks should not have been compelled to pay in gold
+the loan of 1861. It forced them to suspend specie payment altogether,
+December 31st of that year--those of New York City first, followed by
+others everywhere, and by the United States itself. Gold had been at a
+nominal premium all through 1861, but the first recorded sale at an
+advance was on January 13, 1862. It would have been better, also, to
+resort earlier to heavy loans, even at high rates, instead of flooding
+the country with greenbacks. The national banks, which were created on
+purpose to help the sale of government bonds, should have been forced to
+purchase new bonds instead of supplying themselves with bonds already
+issued, their purchase of which did the Government no good whatever.
+Neglect in these regards caused the paper dollar to fall in value. In
+July, 1864, it was worth only thirty-five cents in gold.
+
+The finances of the Confederacy went steadily from bad to worse. The
+blockade cut off its revenue from import duties. Its poor credit forbade
+large loans. The government had to rely mainly upon paper money. This
+soon became almost worthless. In December, 1861, it took $120 in paper
+money to buy $100 in gold; in 1863 it took $1,900; in 1864, $5,000.
+Nearly $1,000,000,000 in paper money was issued in all. The Confederate
+debt at the close of the war was $2,000,000,000. Under the combined
+influence of depreciated currency and scarcity of goods, prices became
+ludicrously high. As early as 1862 flour was $40 a barrel and salt $1 a
+pound. Before the war was over, a pound of sugar brought $75, a spool of
+thread $20. Toward the end of the war a Confederate soldier, just paid
+off, went into a store to buy a pair of boots. The price was $200. He
+handed the store-keeper a $500 bill. "I can't change this," "Oh, never
+mind," replied the paper millionaire. "I never let a little matter like
+$300 interfere with a trade." Of course when the Confederacy collapsed
+all this paper money became absolutely worthless.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Salmon Portland Chase,
+Secretary of the Treasury during the Civil War.
+
+
+Mr. Lincoln and the Republican Party resorted to arms not intending the
+slightest alteration in the constitutional status of slavery. But the
+presence of Union armies on slave soil led to new and puzzling
+questions. What should be done with slaves escaping to the Union lines?
+Generals Buell and Hooker authorized slave-holders to search their camps
+for runaway slaves. Halleck gave orders to drive them out of his lines.
+Butler, alleging that since slaves helped "the rebels" by constructing
+fortifications they were contraband of war, refused to return those
+fleeing into his camp. Congress moved up to this position in August,
+1861, declaring that slaves used for hostile purposes should be
+confiscated. But when Fremont and Hunter issued orders freeing slaves in
+their military districts, President Lincoln felt obliged to countermand
+them, fearing the effect upon slave States that were still loyal.
+
+As the war went on the conviction grew that peace would never be safe or
+permanent if slavery remained, and that the suppression of the Rebellion
+was postponed, jeopardized, and made costlier by every hour of slavery's
+life. Slaves raised crops, did camp work, and built fortifications,
+releasing so many more whites for service in hostile ranks, instead of
+doing all this, and fighting, even, for the Union.
+
+It is interesting to trace the growth of emancipation sentiment during
+1862 as it is reflected in congressional legislation.  In March army
+officers were forbidden to return fugitive slaves. In April slavery was
+abolished in the District of Columbia, with compensation to owners. At
+the same time Congress adopted a pet scheme of Mr. Lincoln's, offering
+compensation to any State that would free its slaves. None accepted.
+There were about 3,000 slaves in the District. Upon the day of their
+emancipation they assembled in churches and gave thanks to God. In June
+slavery in the Territories--that bone of contention through so many
+years--was forever prohibited. In July an act was passed freeing rebels'
+slaves coming under the Government's protection, and authorizing the use
+of negro soldiers.
+
+[1863]
+
+Already President Lincoln was meditating universal emancipation.
+September 22d the friends of liberty were made glad by a preliminary
+proclamation, announcing the President's intention to free the slaves on
+January 1, 1863, should rebellion then continue to exist. It is said
+that Mr. Lincoln would have given this notice earlier but for the gloomy
+state of military affairs. The day comes. The proclamation goes forth
+that all persons held as slaves in the rebellious sections "are and
+henceforth shall be free." The blot which had so long stained our
+national banner was wiped away. The Constitution of course does not
+expressly authorize such an act by the President, but Mr. Lincoln
+defended it as a "necessary war measure," "warranted by the Constitution
+upon military necessity."
+
+This bold, epoch-making deed, the death-warrant of slavery here and
+throughout the world, evoked serious hostility even at the North. The
+elections in the fall of 1862 and the spring of 1863 showed serious
+losses for the administration party. Emancipation, too, doubtless added
+rancor and verve for a time to southern belligerency. But the fresh
+union, spirit, and strength it soon brought to the northern cause were
+tenfold compensation. Besides, it vastly exalted our struggle in the
+moral estimate of Christendom, and lessened danger of foreign
+intervention.
+
+The War President trod at no time a path of flowers. Strong and general
+as was Union sentiment at the North, extremely diverse feelings and
+views prevailed touching the methods and spirit which should govern the
+conduct of the war. Certain timid, discouraged, or disappointed
+Republicans, seeing the appalling loss of blood and treasure as the war
+went on, and the Confederacy's unexpected tenacity of life, demanded
+peace on the easiest terms inclusive of intact Union. Secretaries Seward
+and Chase were for a time in this temper. The doctrinaire abolitionists
+bitterly assailed President and Congress for not making, from the
+outset, the extirpation of slavery the main aim of hostilities. Even the
+great emancipation pacified them but little.
+
+The Democrats proper entered a far more sensible, in fact a not wholly
+groundless, complaint exactly the contrary. They charged that the
+Administration, in hopes to exhibit the Democracy as a peace party
+(which from 1862 it more and more became), was making the overthrow of
+slavery its main aim, waging war for the negro instead of for the Union.
+They complained also that not only in anti-slavery measures but in other
+things as well, notably in suspending habeas corpus, the Administration
+was grievously infringing the Constitution.
+
+Yet a fourth class, a democratic rump of southern sympathizers,
+popularly called "copperheads," wishing peace at any price, did their
+best to encourage the Rebellion .. They denounced the war as cruel,
+needless, and a failure. They opposed the draft for troops, and were
+partly responsible for the draft riots in 1863. Many of them were in
+league with southern leaders, and held membership in treasonable
+associations. Some were privy to, if not participants in, devilish plots
+to spread fire and pestilence in northern camps and cities, Partly
+through influence of the more moderate, several efforts to negotiate
+peace were made, fortunately every one in vain.
+
+[1864]
+
+But despite the attacks of enemies and the importunities of weak or
+short-sighted friends, President Lincoln steadily held on his course.
+The masses of the people rallied to his support, and in the presidential
+election of 1864 he was re-elected by an overwhelming majority,
+receiving 212 electoral votes against 21 for General McClellan, the
+democratic candidate.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RECONSTRUCTION
+
+Though arms were grounded, there remained the new task, longer and more
+perplexing, if not more difficult, than the first, of restoring the
+South to its normal position in the Union. It was, from the nature of
+the case, a delicate one. The proud and sensitive South smarted under
+defeat and was not yet cured of the illusions which had led her to
+secede. Salve and not salt needed to be rubbed in to her wounds. The
+North stood ready to forgive the past, but insisted, in the name of its
+desolate homes and slaughtered President, that the South must be
+restored on such conditions that the past could never be repeated. The
+difficulty was heightened by the lack of either constitutional provision
+or historical precedent. Not strange, therefore, that the actors in this
+new drama of reconstruction played their parts awkwardly and with many
+mistakes.
+
+
+[Illustration: Handwriting.]
+Facsimile of a portion of President Lincoln's draft of the
+Preliminary Proclamation of Emancipation, September. 1862
+From the original in the Library of the State of New York, Albany.
+
+[1865]
+
+A most interesting constitutional problem had to be faced at the outset:
+What effect had secession had upon the States guilty of it; was it or
+was it not an act of state suicide? This question was warmly debated in
+Congress and out. Although ridiculed in some quarters as a mere
+metaphysical quibble, it lay at the bottom of men's political thinking
+on reconstruction, and their views of the proper answer to it powerfully
+influenced their action.
+
+All loyal Democrats and most Republicans answered it in the negative.
+Secession, they said, being an invalid act, had no effect whatever; the
+rebellious tracts were still States of the Union in spite of themselves.
+But the two parties reasoned their way to this conclusion by different
+roads. The Democrats deduced the view from the State's intrinsic
+sovereignty, the Republicans from the national Constitution as ordaining
+"an indestructible Union of indestructible States." This class of
+thinkers, in whichever party they were found, naturally preferred the
+term "restoration" to "reconstruction."
+
+The theory of state suicide was held by many, but with a difference.
+Sumner and a few others deemed that secession had destroyed statehood
+alone; that over individuals the Constitution still extended its
+authority and its protection, as in Territories. Thaddeus Stevens and
+his followers viewed secession as having left the State not only defunct
+but a washed slate governmentally, like soil won by conquest. Both these
+parties conceived the work before Congress to be out-and-out
+"reconstruction," involving the right to change old state lines and
+institutions at will. Not even this position was more ultra than the
+course which reconstruction actually took.
+
+Closely related to this main problem were several other questions nearly
+or quite as vexing. Were any conditions to be imposed upon the peoples
+seeking re-admission to the Union as States? If so, what, aside from the
+loyalty of voters and officeholders, were these conditions? Was the
+President to initiate and oversee the process of redintegration,
+prescribing the conditions of re-admission, and determining when they
+were fulfilled, or was all this the business of Congress? And, lastly,
+did the right thus to oversee and impose conditions depend upon a
+certain war power of Congress or of President, or upon the clause of the
+Constitution which guarantees to every State a republican form of
+government? Nearly the same question as this, in another form, would be,
+Was this right explicitly constitutional or only impliedly so?
+
+The answer practically returned to these difficult inquiries was that
+Congress, as a quasi war right, must exact of the States lately in
+secession all the conditions necessary, in its view, to their permanent
+loyalty and the peace of the Union.
+
+The history of reconstruction divides into three periods: Reconstruction
+during the war, President Johnson's work, and Congressional
+reconstruction.
+
+Restoration was the universal thought at first. Congressional
+resolutions in 1861 declared that the war was not waged "for the purpose
+of overthrowing or interfering with the rights or established
+institutions" of the seceding States. Their action was looked upon as an
+insurrection against the state government as well as against the United
+States. Accordingly, when a handful of Virginia loyalists, in the summer
+of 1861, formed a state government and elected national senators and
+representatives, President and Congress recognized them as the true
+State of Virginia.
+
+Following out the same idea, President Lincoln proclaimed in 1863 that
+as soon as one-tenth of the voters of any seceded State would swear to
+abide by the Constitution and the emancipation laws they might form a
+state government. In this way Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee were
+reconstructed during 1863 and 1865.
+
+The hand of the assassin removed Lincoln from the scene of action at a
+time when North and South alike stood most in need of his kind heart,
+tact, and firmness. Andrew Johnson succeeded to a task for which he was
+ill-fitted. Conceited, obstinate, and pugnacious, he began by alarming
+the South with threats of wholesale punishment for the "crime of
+treason," and ended by alienating his own party through his slack
+methods of re-establishing the States. Johnson declared, and no doubt
+honestly, that he was carrying out Lincoln's ideas. In May, 1865, he
+offered amnesty to all but certain excepted classes, mainly civil and
+military leaders, upon condition of an oath to support the Constitution,
+including its Thirteenth Amendment, forbidding slavery. Though the
+proclamation declaring this to be in force did not issue till December
+18, 1865, it had been approved by Congress the preceding February.
+
+President Johnson then proceeded to reorganize the state governments.
+For each seceded State, except the four already reconstructed, he
+appointed a provincial governor. The governor called a State convention.
+Only whites who had taken the amnesty oath could elect delegates, or
+themselves be elected, to this convention. At the instance of the
+President the convention adopted a constitution or legislation which
+forbade slavery, declared the ordinance of secession null and void, and
+repudiated the Confederate debt. The convention then appointed times and
+places for the election of a legislature and a permanent governor. In a
+few months the governmental machinery had been set in motion in all the
+late Confederate States, and in December senators and representatives
+from all except Texas were knocking at the doors of Congress.
+
+Thus far the President had had full sway. But upon the re-assembling of
+Congress in December, it became apparent that he and his party were not
+in harmony. Congress, still overwhelmingly republican, refused to admit
+the southern delegates, and appointed a committee to investigate the
+condition of affairs in the southern States. Its report was anything but
+re-assuring, and Congress, mainly under the lead of Thaddeus Stevens,
+boldly proceeded to rip up the entire presidential work.
+
+Several considerations led Congress to this course. They denied the
+President's right, on his own sole authority, to re-establish permanent
+governments in the States in question. Furthermore, the new state
+governments were declared unlawful because their constitutions had not
+been submitted to the people for ratification. Congress also maintained
+that only the law-making power could of right determine the conditions
+of re-admission to the Union, and judge whether or not those conditions
+had been fulfilled.
+
+But the consideration which outweighed all others in favor of the
+congressional procedure was the alarming temper and acts of the South
+itself. The Carolinas and Georgia had simply repealed the ordinance of
+secession instead of declaring it null and void. The reconstructed
+legislatures pensioned Confederate soldiers and their families.
+"Notorious and unpardoned rebels" were elected as state officers and to
+Congress.
+
+Worse than this, nearly all the southern States passed laws which went
+far toward reducing the blacks again to slavery. In Virginia, if a negro
+broke his labor-contract, the employer could pursue him and compel him
+to work an extra month, with chain and ball if necessary. In Mississippi
+negro children who were orphans, or whose parents did not support them,
+were to be apprenticed till they became of age. Their masters could
+inflict upon them "moderate corporal punishment," and re-capture such as
+ran away. In South Carolina any negro engaging in business had to pay
+one hundred dollars yearly as a license. Mechanics were fined ten
+dollars each a year for prosecuting their trades. No negro could settle
+in the State without giving bonds for his good behavior and support. In
+Louisiana a farm laborer was required to make a year's contract; if he
+failed to work out the time, he could be punished by forced labor upon
+public works. Not all the new southern legislation was of this savage
+character, and this itself must be viewed in the light of the fact that
+the negroes, trained in irresponsibility, were inclined to idleness and
+theft. But it was nevertheless unjust. In some sections only the
+interposition of the military and of the Freedman's Bureau made life
+tolerable to the blacks.
+
+[1866]
+
+As an offset to the above dangerous acts and tendencies, Congress, in
+the spring of 1866, passed the Fourteenth Amendment [footnote: Declared
+in force July 28, 1868, having been ratified by three-fourths of the
+States] and submitted it to the States for ratification. It was meant to
+insure to negroes in every State all the rights of citizens and the
+equal protection of the laws. If and so long as negroes were in any
+State forbidden to vote, it reduced that State's representation in
+Congress proportionally; it excluded from national and state offices
+certain specified Confederate leaders; and it guarded the national debt,
+repudiating all indebtedness on behalf of the Rebellion. Every secession
+State but Tennessee rejected the amendment.
+
+[1868]
+
+Congress replied by the "iron law" of March 2, 1867. "Secessia" was
+divided into five districts and placed under military rule, there to
+remain until certain conditions were fulfilled. These conditions were,
+in brief, the calling of a state convention by the loyal citizens,
+blacks included; the framing by the convention of a constitution
+enfranchising negroes; the ratification of this constitution by the
+people and its approval by Congress; the ratification of the Fourteenth
+Amendment by the new legislature. Having conformed to these
+prescriptions the State might be represented in Congress and consider
+itself fully restored to the Union. A supplementary law of March 19th
+hastened the process by giving the district commanders surveillance of
+registration and the initiative in calling conventions.
+
+By June, 1868, a sufficient number of the southern States had complied
+with the conditions to make the Fourteenth Amendment law. Virginia,
+Mississippi, and Texas held out till 1870, and hence were forced to
+ratify the Fifteenth Amendment also. Not till January 30, 1871, were all
+the States again represented in both Houses of Congress as in 1860.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Edwin M. Stanton.
+
+
+All through the days of congressional reconstruction the antagonism
+between President and Congress steadily increased. Every step in the
+progress encountered the President's uttermost opposition and spite. He
+vetoed all important reconstruction measures, which were promptly
+carried over his veto. There was much violent language and bitter
+feeling on both sides. The irritation finally culminated when the House
+entered articles of impeachment against Johnson--the only case of the
+kind in our history involving a President. The charges were tried before
+the Senate in March, 1868, the Chief Justice presiding, and occupied
+three weeks. William M. Evarts was Johnson's counsel, and a glittering
+array of legal talent appeared on both sides. The main charge was that
+the President had wilfully violated the Tenure of Office Act in removing
+Secretary Stanton from the Cabinet after the Senate had once refused to
+concur in his removal. The House was hasty in bringing the prosecution.
+The President was acquitted by a vote of 19 against and 35 for
+impeachment--one vote less than the two-thirds necessary to impeach. The
+Johnson-Congressional conflict proved one of the most mortifying
+episodes in our country's history.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Ulysses S. Grant.
+
+
+
+PERIOD V.
+
+THE CEMENTED UNION
+
+1868-1888
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE LAST TWO DECADES
+
+[1868]
+
+The presidential election of 1868 was decided at Appomattox. General
+Grant was borne to the White House on a floodtide of popularity,
+carrying twenty-six out of the thirty-four voting States. Schuyler
+Colfax, of Indiana, became Vice-President. The Democrats had nominated
+Horatio Seymour, of New York, and F. P. Blair, of Missouri.
+Reconstruction was the great issue. The democratic platform demanded
+universal amnesty and the immediate restoration of all the commonwealths
+lately in secession, and insisted that the regulation of the franchise
+should be left with States.
+
+[1870]
+
+The management of the South was the most serious problem before the new
+administration. The whites were striving by fair means and foul to get
+political power back into their own hands. The reconstructed state
+governments, dependent upon black majorities, were too weak for
+successful resistance. The Ku-Klux and similar organizations were
+practically a masked army. The President was appealed to for military
+aid, and he responded. Small detachments of United States troops hurried
+hither and thither. Wherever they appeared resistance ceased; but when
+fresh outbreaks elsewhere called the soldiers away, the fight against
+the hated state government was immediately renewed. The negroes soon
+learned to stay at home on election day, and the whites, once in the
+saddle, were too skilful riders to be thrown.
+
+[1872]
+
+Congress, meanwhile, still strongly republican, was taking active
+measures to protect the blacks. In 1870 it passed an act imposing fines
+and damages for a conspiracy to deprive negroes of the suffrage. The
+Force Act of 1871 was a much harsher measure. It empowered the President
+to employ the army, navy, and militia to suppress combinations which
+deprived the negro of the rights guaranteed him by the Fourteenth
+Amendment. For such combinations to appear in arms was made rebellion
+against the United States, and the President might suspend habeas corpus
+in the rebellious district. By President Grant, in the fall of 1871,
+this was actually done in parts of the Carolinas. State registrations
+and elections were to be supervised by United States marshals, who could
+command the help of the United States military or naval forces.
+
+The Force Act outran popular feeling. It came dangerously near the
+practical suspension of state government in the South, and many at the
+North, including some Republicans, thought the latter result a greater
+evil than even the temporary abeyance of negro suffrage. The "Liberal
+Republicans" bolted. In 1872 they nominated Horace Greeley for the
+Presidency, and adopted a platform declaring local self-government a
+better safeguard for the rights of all citizens than centralized power.
+The platform also protested against the supremacy of the military over
+the civil power and the suspension of habeas corpus, and favored
+universal amnesty to men at the South. Charles Sumner, Stanley Matthews,
+Carl Schurz, David A. Wells, and many other prominent Republicans
+engaged in the opposition.
+
+Thinking their opportunity had come, the Democrats indorsed the
+Liberals' platform and nominees. The Republicans re-nominated Grant by
+acclamation, and joined with him on the ticket Henry Wilson, of
+Massachusetts.
+
+As the campaign went on, the Greeley movement developed remarkable
+strength and remarkable weakness. Speaking for years through the New
+York Tribune, Mr. Greeley had won, in a remarkable degree, the respect
+and even the affection of the country. His offer to give bail for
+Jefferson Davis in his imprisonment, and his stanch advocacy of mercy to
+all who had engaged in secession, so soon as they had grounded arms,
+made him hosts of friends even in the South, He took the stump himself,
+making the tour of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, and crowds of
+Republicans came to see and hear their former champion.
+
+But the Democrats could not heartily unite in the support of such a
+lifelong and bitter opponent of their party. Some supported a third
+ticket, while many others did not vote at all. Mr. Greeley, too, an
+ardent protectionist, was not popular with the influential free-trade
+element among the Liberals themselves. The election resulted in a
+sweeping victory for the republican ticket. The Democrats carried but
+six States, and those were all in the South. Within a month after the
+election, Mr. Greeley died, broken down by over-exertion, family
+bereavement, and disappointed ambition.
+
+[1874]
+
+Troubles in the South continued during Grant's second term. The turmoil
+reached its height in Louisiana in 1874. Ever since 1872 the whites in
+that State had been chafing under republican rule. The election of
+Governor Kellogg was disputed, and he was accused of having plunged the
+State into ruinous debt. In August, 1874, a disturbance occurred which
+ended in the deliberate shooting of six republican officials. President
+Grant prepared to send military aid to the Kellogg government. Thereupon
+Penn, the defeated candidate for Lieutenant-governor in 1872, issued an
+address to the people, claiming to be the lawful executive of Louisiana,
+and calling upon the state militia to arm and drive "the usurpers from
+power." Barricades were thrown up in the streets of New Orleans, and on
+September 14th a severe fight took place between the insurgents and the
+state forces, in which a dozen were killed on each side. On the next day
+the state-house was surrendered to the militia, ten thousand of whom
+had responded to Penn's call. Governor Kellogg took refuge in the
+custom-house. Penn was formally inducted into office. United States
+troops were hurried to the scene. Agreeably to their professions of
+loyalty toward the Federal Government, the insurgents surrendered the
+state property to the United States authorities without resistance, but
+under protest. The Kellogg government was re-instated.
+
+[1875]
+
+Troops at the polls secured quiet in the November elections. The
+returning board decided that the Republicans had elected their governor
+and fifty-four members of the legislature. Fifty-two members were
+democratic, while the election of five members remained in doubt, and
+was left to the decision of the legislature. The Democrats vehemently
+protested against the decision of the returning board, claiming an
+all-round victory. Fearing trouble at the assembling of the legislature
+in January, 1875, President Grant placed General Sheridan in command at
+New Orleans. The legislature met on January 4th. Our reports of what
+followed are conflicting. The admitted facts are that the democratic
+members, lawfully or unlawfully, placed a speaker in the chair. Some
+disorder ensuing, United States soldiers were called in and, at the
+request of the democratic speaker, restored quiet. The Republicans
+meanwhile had left the house. The Democrats then elected members to fill
+the five seats left vacant by the returning board. Later in the day,
+United States troops, under orders from Governor Kellogg, to whom the
+republican legislators had appealed, ejected the five new members. The
+Republicans re-entered the house, and the Democrats thereupon withdrew.
+Subsequently a congressional committee made unsuccessful attempts to
+settle the dispute. The democratic members finally returned, and a
+sullen acquiescence in the Kellogg government gradually prevailed.
+
+[1876]
+
+By 1876 every southern State was solidly democratic except Louisiana,
+South Carolina, and Florida, and in these republican governments were
+upheld only by the bayonet.
+
+The presidential election of 1876 was a contest of general tendencies
+rather than of definite principles. The opposing parties were more
+nearly matched than they had been since 1860. The Democrats nominated
+Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana.
+Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York,
+became the republican standard-bearers. The election passed off quietly,
+troops being stationed at the polls in turbulent quarters. Mr. Tilden
+carried New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut. With a solid
+South, he had won the day. But the returning boards of Louisiana,
+Florida, and South Carolina, throwing out the votes of several
+democratic districts on the ground of fraud or intimidation, decided
+that those States had gone republican, giving Hayes a majority of one in
+the electoral college. The Democrats raised the cry of fraud. Suppressed
+excitement pervaded the country. Threats were even muttered that Hayes
+would never be inaugurated. President Grant quietly strengthened the
+military force in and about Washington. The country looked to Congress
+for a peaceful solution of the problem, and not in vain.
+
+The Constitution provides that "the President of the Senate shall, in
+presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the
+[electoral] certificates, and the votes shall then be counted." Certain
+Republicans held that the power to count the votes lay with the
+President of the Senate, the House and Senate being mere spectators. The
+Democrats naturally objected to this construction, since Mr. Ferry, the
+republican president of the Senate, could then count the votes of the
+disputed States for Hayes.
+
+The Democrats insisted that Congress should continue the practice
+followed since 1865, which was that no vote objected to should be
+counted except by the concurrence of both houses. The House was strongly
+democratic; by throwing out the vote of one State it could elect Tilden.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Samuel J. Tilden.
+After a pastel by Sarony in the house at Gramercy Park.
+
+
+[1877]
+
+The deadlock could be broken only by a compromise. A joint committee
+reported the famous Electoral Commission Bill, which passed House and
+Senate by large majorities; 186 Democrats voting for the bill and 18
+against it, while the republican vote stood 52 for and 75 against. The
+bill created a commission of five senators, five representatives, and
+five justices of the United States Supreme Court, the fifth justice
+being chosen by the four appointed in the bill. Previous to this choice
+the commission contained seven Democrats and seven Republicans. It was
+expected that the fifth justice would be Hon. David Davis, of Illinois,
+a neutral with democratic leanings; but his unexpected election as
+democratic senator from his State caused Justice Bradley to be selected
+to the post of decisive umpire. The votes of all disputed States were to
+be submitted to the commission for decision.
+
+It was drawing perilously near to inauguration day. The commission met
+on the last day of January. The cases of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon, and
+South Carolina were in succession submitted to it by Congress. Eminent
+counsel appeared for each side. There were double sets of returns from
+everyone of the States named. In the three southern States the governor
+recognized by the United States had signed the republican certificates.
+The democratic certificates from Florida were signed by the state
+attorney-general and the new democratic governor; those from Louisiana
+by the democratic gubernatorial candidate, who claimed to be the lawful
+governor; those from South Carolina by no state official, the Tilden
+electors simply claiming to have been chosen by the popular vote and
+rejected by the returning board. In Oregon the democratic governor
+declared one of the Hayes electors ineligible because an office-holder,
+and gave a certificate to Cronin, the highest Tilden elector, instead.
+The other two Hayes electors refused to recognize Cronin, and,
+associating with them the rejected republican elector, presented a
+certificate signed by the secretary of state. Cronin, appointing two new
+electors to act with him, cast his vote for Tilden, his associates
+voting for Hayes. This certificate was signed by the governor and
+attested by the secretary of state.
+
+After deciding not to go behind any returns which were prima facie
+lawful, the commission, by a strict party vote of eight to seven, gave a
+decision for the Hayes electors in every case. March 2d it adjourned,
+and three days later Hayes was inaugurated without disturbance.
+
+The whole country heaved a sigh of relief. All agreed that provision
+must be made against such peril in the future; but it was not till late
+in 1886 that Congress could agree upon the necessary measure. The
+Electoral Count Bill was then passed, and signed by the President on
+February 3, 1887. It aims to throw upon each State, so far as possible,
+the responsibility of determining how its own presidential vote has been
+cast. It provides that the President of the Senate shall open the
+electoral certificates in the presence of both houses, and hand them to
+the tellers, two from each house, who are to read them aloud and record
+the votes.
+
+If there has been no dispute as to the list of electors from a State,
+such list, where certified in due form, is to be accepted as a matter of
+course. In case of dispute, the procedure is as follows: If but one set
+of returns appears and this is authenticated by a state electoral
+tribunal constituted to settle the dispute, such returns shall be
+conclusive. If there are two or more sets of returns, the set approved
+by the state tribunal shall be accepted. If there are two rival
+tribunals, the vote of the State shall be thrown out, unless both
+houses, acting separately, agree upon the lawfulness of one tribunal or
+the other. If there has been no decision by a tribunal, those votes
+shall be counted which both houses, acting separately, decide to be
+lawful. If the houses disagree, the votes certified to by the governor
+shall be accepted.
+
+[1880]
+
+President Hayes's first important action was the withdrawal of troops
+from South Carolina and Louisiana, where the rival governments existed
+side by side. The republican governments at once fell to the ground. As
+the Democrats had already got control in Florida, the "solid South" was
+now an accomplished fact. Financial questions were those which chiefly
+occupied the public mind during Hayes's administration. They are
+referred to in Chapter VII., below.
+
+Returning from a remarkable tour around the world, General Grant became
+in 1880 a candidate for a third-term nomination. The deadlock in the
+republican convention between him and Mr. Blaine was broken by the
+nomination of James A. Garfield, of Ohio. Chester A. Arthur, of New
+York, was the vice-presidential candidate. The Democrats nominated the
+hero of Gettysburg, the brave and renowned General W. S. Hancock, of
+Pennsylvania, and William H. English, of Indiana. Garfield was elected,
+receiving 214 electoral votes against 155 for Hancock. Hancock carried
+every southern State; Garfield every northern State except New Jersey,
+Nevada, and California.
+
+[1881]
+
+President Garfield had hardly entered upon his high duties when he was
+cut down by the hand of an assassin. On the morning of July 2, 1881, the
+President entered the railway station at Washington, intending to take
+an eastern trip. Charles J. Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker, crept
+up behind him and fired two bullets at him, one of which lodged in his
+back. The President died on September 19th, after weeks of suffering.
+Vice-President Arthur succeeded to the presidency, and had an uneventful
+but respectable administration.
+
+[1882]
+
+Guiteau's trial began in November and lasted more than two months. The
+defence was insanity. The assassin maintained that he was inspired to
+commit the deed, and that it was a political necessity. The "stalwart"
+Republicans, headed by Senator Conkling, had quarrelled with the
+President over certain appointments unacceptable to the New York
+senator; Guiteau pretended to think the removal of Mr. Garfield
+necessary to the unity of the party and the salvation of the country.
+The prosecution showed that Guiteau had long been an unprincipled
+adventurer, greedy for notoriety; that he first conceived of killing the
+President after his hopes of office were finally destroyed; and that he
+had planned the murder several weeks in advance. Guiteau was found
+guilty, and executed at Washington on June 30, 1882. The autopsy showed
+no disease of the brain.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+James A. Garfield.
+From a photograph by C. M. Bell, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+[1881]
+
+Although it had no logical connection with the "spoils" system, the
+assassination of President Garfield called the attention of the whole
+country to the crying need of reform in the civil service. Ever since
+the days of President Jackson, in 1829, appointments to the minor
+federal offices had been used for the payment of party debts and to keep
+up partisan interest. This practice incurred the deep condemnation of
+Webster, Clay, Calhoun, and others, but no practical steps toward reform
+were taken till 1871. The abuses of the spoils system had then become so
+flagrant that Congress created a civil service commission, which
+instituted competitive examinations to test the merits of candidates for
+office in the departments at Washington. President Grant reported that
+the new methods "had given persons of superior capacity to the service'"
+But Congress, always niggardly in its appropriations for the work of the
+commission, after 1875 cut them off altogether, and the rules were
+suspended.
+
+Under President Hayes civil service reform made considerable progress in
+an  irregular way. Secretary Schurz enforced competitive examinations in
+the Interior department. They were also applied by Mr. James to the New
+York Post-office, and, as the result, one-third more work was done with
+less cost. Similar good results followed the enforcement of the "merit
+system" in the New York custom-house after 1879. President Hayes also
+strongly condemned political assessments upon office-holders, but with
+small practical effect.
+
+[1874]
+
+The alarming increase of corruption in political circles generally,
+after the war, helped to create popular sentiment for reform. Corrupt
+"rings" sprang up in every city. The "whiskey ring," composed of
+distillers and government employees, assumed national proportions in
+1874, cheating the Government out of a large part of its revenue from
+spirits. Liberal appropriations for building a navy were squandered.
+
+During the campaign of 1872, the Democrats charged several prominent
+Congressmen with having taken bribes, in 1867-68, to vote for
+legislation desired by the Union Pacific Railroad. At the request of the
+accused, an examination was had by a House committee. The committee's
+report in 1873 recommended the expulsion of Representatives Oakes Ames
+and James Brooks. Mr. Ames was accused of selling to Congressmen at
+reduced rates, with intent to influence their votes, shares of stock in
+the "Credit Mobilier," a corporation for the construction of the Union
+Pacific Railroad. Mr. Brooks, who was a government director in the
+railroad, was charged with receiving such shares. The House did not
+expel the two members, but severely condemned them. Shadows of varying
+density fell upon many prominent politicians and darkened their
+subsequent careers.
+
+[1883]
+
+The tragic fate of President Garfield, following these and other
+revelations of political corruption, brought public sentiment on civil
+service reform to a head. A bill prepared by the Civil Service Reform
+League, and introduced by Senator Pendleton, of Ohio, passed Congress in
+January, 1883, and on the 16th received the signature of the President.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+James G. Blaine.
+
+
+It authorized the President, with the consent of the Senate, to appoint
+three civil service commissioners, who were to institute competitive
+examinations open to all persons desiring to enter the government
+employ.  It provided that the clerks in the departments at Washington,
+and in every customs district or post-office where fifty or more were
+employed, should be arranged in classes, and that in the future only
+persons who had passed the examinations should be appointed to service
+in these offices or promoted from a lower class to a higher, preference
+being given according to rank in the examinations. Candidates were to
+serve six months' probation at practical work before receiving a final
+appointment. The bill struck a heavy blow at political assessments, by
+declaring that no official should be removed for refusing to contribute
+to political funds. Congressmen or government officials convicted of
+soliciting or receiving political assessments from government employees
+became liable to a five thousand dollar fine, or three years'
+imprisonment, or both. Persons in the government service were forbidden
+to use their official authority or influence to coerce the political
+action of anyone, or to interfere with elections.
+
+[1873-1884]
+
+Dorman B. Eaton, Leroy B. Thoman, and John M. Gregory were appointed
+commissioners by President Arthur. By the end of the year the new system
+was fairly in operation. Besides the departments at Washington, it
+applied to eleven customs districts and twenty-three post-offices where
+fifty or more officials were employed. The law could be thoroughly
+tested only when a new party came into power; that time was near at
+hand.
+
+The deepest and most significant political movement of the last twenty
+years has been the gradual recovery of power by the Democracy. For some
+years after the Rebellion, this party's war record was a millstone
+around its neck. The financial distress in 1873 and the corruption
+prevalent in political circles weakened the party in power, while the
+Democracy, putting slavery and reconstruction behind its back, turned to
+new issues, and raised the cry of "economy" and "reform."
+
+The state elections of 1874 witnessed a "tidal wave" of democratic
+victories. Out of 292 members of the House in 1875, 198 were democratic.
+Two-thirds of the Senators were still republican. Even by republican
+reckoning, the democratic presidential ticket in 1876 received a popular
+majority of 157,000 and lacked but one electoral vote. In 1879 both
+houses of Congress were democratic, by small majorities, for the first
+time since 1856. The tide ebbed in 1880, the Democrats losing control of
+the House, and suffering a decisive defeat in the presidential election;
+but with 1884 the fortune of the Democracy reached high-water mark.
+
+In this year James G. Blaine, of Maine, and John A. Logan, of Illinois,
+received the republican nomination for President and Vice-President. A
+number of Independent Republicans, including the most earnest advocates
+of civil service reform, were strongly opposed to Mr. Blaine, alleging
+him to be personally corrupt and the representative of corrupt political
+methods. They met in conference, denounced the nominations, and later
+indorsed the democratic nominees--Grover Cleveland, governor of New
+York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. George W. Curtis, Carl
+Schurz, and other prominent Republicans took part in the movement.
+Several influential Independent Republican papers, including the New
+York Times, Boston Herald, and Springfield Republican, joined the bolt.
+
+The campaign was bitterly personal, attacks upon the characters of the
+candidates taking the place of a discussion of principles. Mr. Cleveland
+was elected, receiving 219 electoral votes against 182 for Mr. Blaine.
+He carried every southern State, besides New York, Connecticut, Indiana,
+Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey. The total popular vote was over
+10,000,000--the largest ever cast. Cleveland had 4,911,000, a plurality
+of 62,000 over Blaine. The Democrats regained control of the House in
+1883, and held it by a considerable majority to the end of Mr.
+Cleveland's first term. In the Senate, until the election of 1892, the
+Republicans continued to have a small majority.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Grover Cleveland.
+From a photograph copyrighted by C. M. Bell, Washington, D. C.
+
+
+Upon the accession of the new administration to power, the country
+waited with deep interest to see its effect upon the civil service. Mr.
+Cleveland had pledged himself to a rigid enforcement of the new law, and
+encouraged all to believe that with him impartial civil service would
+not be confined to the few offices thus protected. After the first few
+months of Cleveland's administration, one fact was apparent: for the
+first time since the days of Jackson a change of the party in power had
+not been followed by a clean sweep among the holders of offices. But, as
+the subsequent record painfully shows, office-holders' pressure proved
+too strong for Mr. Cleveland's resolution.
+
+There were then about 120,000 government employees. Of these, not far
+from 14,000 were covered by the Pendleton law. All the other minor
+places were held at the pleasure of superior officers. These latter
+officers numbered about 58,000. In August, 1887, from 45,000 to 48,000
+of them had been changed, implying change in the offices dependent upon
+them.  There were some 55,000 postmasters, 2,400 of whom were appointed
+by the President for a term of four years, the rest by the
+postmaster-general at pleasure. At the date named, from 37,000 to 47,000
+changes had been made in this department. These changes, of course, were
+not all removals, as many vacancies occur by expiration of terms, death
+of incumbents, and other causes.
+
+[1886]
+
+An important statute regarding the presidential succession, introduced
+by Senator Hoar, passed Congress in January, 1886. By previous statutes,
+in case of the removal, death, resignation, or disability of the
+President and Vice-President, the presidency passed in order to the
+temporary President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House. The
+latter two might be of the opposite party from the President's, so that
+by the succession of either the will of the people as expressed in the
+presidential election would manifestly be defeated. Moreover, in case of
+a President's death and the accession of the Vice-President, the latter,
+too, might die, and thus both the presidency and the vice-presidency
+become vacant in the interim between two Congresses, when there is
+neither President of the Senate nor Speaker of the House. Thus President
+Garfield died September 19, 1881, and the XLVlllth Congress did not
+convene to choose a Speaker until the next December. The Senate had
+adjourned without electing a presiding officer. Had President Arthur
+died at any moment during the intervening period--and it is said that he
+was for a time in imminent danger of death--the distracting contingency
+just spoken of would have been upon the country.
+
+According to the new law, in case of a vacancy in both presidency and
+vice-presidency, the presidency devolves upon the members of the
+cabinet in the historical order of the establishment of their
+departments, beginning with the Secretary of State. Should he die, be
+impeached, or disabled, the Secretary of the Treasury would become
+President, to be followed in like crisis by the Secretary of War, he by
+the Attorney-General, he by the Postmaster-General, he by the Secretary
+of the Navy, he by the Secretary of the Interior, and he by the
+Secretary of Agriculture.
+
+We have still no legal or official criterion of a President's
+disability. We do not know whether, during Garfield's illness, for
+instance--apparently a clear case of disability--it was proper for his
+cabinet to perform his presidential duties, or whether Arthur should not
+have assumed these. Barring this chance for conflict, it is not easy to
+think of an emergency in which the chief magistracy can now fall vacant,
+or the appropriate incumbent thereof be in doubt.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE TREATY OF WASHINGTON
+
+[1871]
+
+The year 1871 was marked by the conclusion of an important treaty
+between England and the United States. Besides settling certain
+questions which threatened the friendly relations of the two countries,
+the treaty enunciated important principles of international law, and
+afforded the world a shining instance of peaceful arbitration as a
+substitute for the horrors of war.
+
+Ever since 1863 the United States had been seeking satisfaction from
+Great Britain for the depredations committed by the Alabama and other
+Confederate cruisers sailing from English ports. Negotiations were
+broken off in 1865 and again in 1868. The next year Reverdy Johnson,
+American Minister to England, negotiated a treaty, but it was rejected
+by the Senate.  In January, 1871, the British Government proposed a
+joint commission for the settlement of questions connected with the
+Canadian fisheries. Mr. Fish, our Secretary of State, replied that the
+settlement of the "Alabama Claims" would be "essential to the
+restoration of cordial and amicable relations between the two
+governments." England consented to submit this question also to the
+commission, and on February 27th five high commissioners from each
+country met at Washington. The British delegation included cabinet
+officers, the minister to the United States, and an Oxford professor of
+international law. The American commissioners were of equally high
+station, the Secretary of State, an associate justice of the Supreme
+Court, and our minister to England being of their number.
+
+On May 8th the commission completed a treaty which was speedily ratified
+by both governments. It provided for arbitration upon the "Alabama
+Claims," upon other claims by citizens of either country for damages
+during the Rebellion, upon the fisheries, and upon the northwest
+boundary of the United States. Provisions were also made by it for the
+common use of the lakes, rivers, and canals along the Canadian border,
+and for the transit of merchandise free of duty, under certain
+conditions, across either country to and from certain ports.
+
+The fisheries part of the treaty is discussed in the next chapter. The
+question of the northwest boundary was referred to the decision of the
+German emperor, William I. The treaty of 1846 had left it doubtful
+whether the boundary line through the channel between Vancouver Island
+and the main-land should be so run as to include the island of San Juan,
+with its group, in the United States or in Canada. The emperor's
+decision, given in 1872, was in favor of the United States.
+
+Three commissioners--one appointed by each government and a third
+appointed jointly--met in Washington, September 26, 1871, to pass
+judgment upon the war claims other than the "Alabama Claims." The
+American claims of this class, amounting to less than $1,000,000, were
+all rejected on the ground that the British Government was not proved
+responsible for the damages incurred. British subjects put in claims for
+$96,000,000. The commission allowed less than $2,000,000, which the
+United States Government promptly paid into the British treasury.
+
+But far the most important and interesting part of the treaty was the
+provision for the settlement of the "Alabama Claims." England's
+unfriendly attitude during the war and her subsequent refusal to submit
+the "claims" to arbitration, had stirred up much hard feeling throughout
+the United States. The graceful expression, in the preamble to the
+treaty, of England's regret for the ravages of the cruisers was
+therefore very gratifying. More material satisfaction was to follow. The
+treaty provided that the claims should be submitted to a tribunal of
+five persons--one appointed by each government and one each by the
+Emperor of Brazil, the President of Switzerland, and the King of Italy.
+
+The tribunal met at Geneva, Switzerland, December 15, 1871. Charles
+Francis Adams, our minister to England during the war, was the United
+States member, and Lord Chief Justice Cockburn the English. Baron
+Itajuba, the Brazilian minister plenipotentiary to France, Count
+Sclopis, an Italian minister of State, and M. Jaques Staempfli, of
+Switzerland, comprised the rest of the tribunal. Each side was
+represented by counsel, Caleb Cushing, William M. Evarts, and Morrison
+R. Waite appearing for the United States. An agent presented the printed
+case of each government.
+
+[1872]
+
+The American claims included direct and indirect losses--direct, by the
+destruction of vessels with their cargoes and by national expenditure in
+chasing the Confederate cruisers; indirect, by the loss of a large part
+of the United States ocean carrying trade, by increased marine insurance
+rates, and by the prolongation of the war with proportionally increased
+expense. Great Britain vehemently objected to the indirect claims coming
+before the tribunal, and at one time seemed about to withdraw. Upon
+reassembling in June, 1872, the tribunal decided that the indirect
+claims were not admissible, and the case went forward. Counsel having
+presented their respective arguments, the tribunal took up the case of
+each cruiser separately. During the consideration of damages it sat with
+closed doors, only the arbitrators being present. On September 14th,
+after thirty-two conferences, the tribunal gave its decision.
+
+The Geneva case is of two-fold interest, first, for its decision of the
+facts involved, and the consequent award; second, for its enunciation of
+important principles of international law.
+
+The Treaty of Washington laid down three rules for the guidance of the
+tribunal. They are such important contributions to international law
+that they must be quoted in full.
+
+"A neutral government is bound,
+
+"First: To use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming or
+equipping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has
+reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry on war
+against a power with which it is at peace, and also to use like
+diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel
+intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been
+specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to
+warlike use.
+
+"Secondly: Not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of its
+ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other, or
+for the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of military supplies or
+arms, or the recruitment of men.
+
+"Thirdly: To exercise due diligence in its own ports and waters, and as
+to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the
+foregoing obligations and duties."
+
+Great Britain denied, in the text of the treaty, that these rules were a
+true statement of the principles of international law in force during
+the Rebellion, but consented that the "Alabama Claims" should be decided
+in accordance with them. Both countries also agreed to abide by them in
+future and to invite other maritime powers to do the same.
+
+Questions being raised by the counsel as to the interpretation of
+certain terms and the scope of certain provisions in the three rules,
+the tribunal found it necessary to make the following preliminary
+decisions:
+
+1. The meaning of "due diligence." The tribunal took the ground that
+what constitutes "due diligence" varies with the circumstances of the
+case. The greater the probable damage to either belligerent, the greater
+must be the care taken by the neutral government to prevent the escape
+of cruisers from its ports.
+
+2. Should a neutral detain an escaped cruiser when it re-enters the
+neutral's jurisdiction, the cruiser having in the meantime been
+regularly commissioned by its government? The arbitrators decided that
+the neutral had a right to detain such a cruiser, in spite of its
+commission, but was under no positive obligation to do so.
+
+3. Does a neutral's responsibility end with the enforcement of its local
+laws to prevent the escape of cruisers, even if those laws are
+inadequate? Decision was given that the case must be determined by
+international law and not by national legislation. If a country's
+regulations for carrying out its acknowledged international duties are
+ineffective, they ought to be changed.
+
+These decisions in international law, coming from so exalted a source,
+were of world-wide significance. The verdict on the facts in the case
+had, however, more immediate interest for the two contestants.
+
+The American case claimed damages for losses inflicted by fourteen
+cruisers and four tenders. The award allowed for only the Alabama with
+her tender, the Florida with her three tenders, and the Shenandoah
+during a part of her career. With regard to the Alabama the culpability
+of the British Government was so clearly shown that even the English
+arbitrator voted in favor of the American claim. The Florida was
+permitted to escape from Liverpool although Mr. Adams, the United States
+minister, repeatedly called the attention of the authorities to her
+notorious warlike character. The vessel was, furthermore, libelled at
+Nassau, a British colonial port, but the British officials allowed her
+to take in supplies and put to sea. The Shenandoah set sail from
+Liverpool with the connivance of the Government, received her armament
+at the Madeira Islands, and after a destructive career was welcomed at
+the British port of Melbourne, repaired in a government slip, and
+furnished with supplies and recruits. The award held Great Britain
+responsible only for her career after leaving Melbourne.
+
+The American case further claimed damages for national expense in
+chasing the cruisers, and for the prospective earnings of the lost
+merchantmen, but these claims, along with those explicitly denounced as
+indirect, were rejected.
+
+The tribunal awarded $15,500,000 damages in gold for the vessels and
+cargoes destroyed by the three cruisers and their tenders. Of this sum,
+about $2,000,000 was interest at six per cent. The only dissenting voice
+was that of the British member, who submitted a long and able, but
+somewhat spiteful, minority report.
+
+The award naturally gave great satisfaction in the United States. The
+money compensation was in itself a source of considerable gratulation;
+but the fact that stiff-backed England had by a clearly impartial
+tribunal of the highest character been declared in the wrong was not the
+least pleasurable side of the result. American citizens should never
+forget the services, in this delicate and difficult matter, of Mr.
+Adams. By his great knowledge of law, his careful gathering of evidence,
+and his brave, sturdy and incessant, though apparently useless,
+remonstrances with the British authorities while the cruisers were
+building and their depredations going on, he established a case which
+could not be gainsaid. Hardly had he opened his portfolio at Geneva when
+the learned arbitrators saw that his suit must be allowed.
+
+England promptly handed over to the United States the price of her
+sympathy with rebellion and slavery. The course of Congress in dealing
+with the award was not very creditable. For four years the money lay in
+the treasury vaults, piling up interest at five per cent. until it
+amounted to $20,000,000. A Court of Alabama Claims was then convened,
+where private claimants might press their suits. Insurance companies
+which could show that their losses on vessels destroyed by the cruisers
+exceeded the premiums received, were entitled to be paid the difference,
+with interest at four per cent.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE FISHERIES DISPUTE
+
+[1783 ]
+
+Our glance at the Treaty of Washington introduces us to an international
+complication which has been transmitted from the very birthday of the
+nation, and is, alas, still unsettled, spite of the earnest efforts to
+this end made since 1885. Article 3 of the treaty of 1783 was as
+follows: "It is agreed that the people of the United States shall
+continue to enjoy unmolested the right to take fish of every kind on the
+Grand Bank and on all the other banks of Newfoundland; also in the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence and at all other places in the sea where the inhabitants
+of both countries used at any time heretofore to fish; and also that the
+inhabitants of the United States shall have liberty to take fish of
+every kind on such part of the coast of Newfoundland as British
+fishermen shall use [but not to dry or cure the same on that island];
+and also on the coasts, bays, and creeks of all other of his Britannic
+Majesty's dominions in America, and that the American fishermen shall
+have liberty to dry and cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbors,
+and creeks of Nova Scotia, Magdalen Islands, and Labrador, so long as
+the same shall remain unsettled; but so soon as the same, or either of
+them, shall be settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to
+dry or cure fish at such settlement without a previous agreement for
+that purpose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the
+ground."
+
+This provision conveyed to fishermen from the United States two valuable
+privileges--that of fishing in British waters, namely, within three
+miles of the British coast, and that of drying and curing fish, wherever
+caught, upon certain convenient parts of the British coast. They had,
+of course, like the men of all nations, apart from any treaty
+stipulation, the right to fish outside the three mile limit, but this
+would avail them nothing, under the then mode of conducting the
+industry, unless they could freely make harbor in case of storm, and
+also land to cure their catch before lading it for the homeward cruise.
+What worth these rights had will be clear if we remember that fishing
+had always been one of New England's foremost trades, and that the
+waters off Newfoundland and Nova Scotia had from, and probably before,
+Columbus's time been known as the richest fishing grounds of the globe.
+
+[1812]
+
+The commissioners at Ghent, who drew up the treaty ending the War of
+1812, wrangled long over the question whether or not the war had
+nullified the just cited Article 3 of 1783. Unable to agree, they signed
+their treaty without deciding the question, leaving this for the future
+to settle as it might. Great Britain held that our former rights had
+lapsed by the war, and excluded our fishing vessels from the bays,
+harbors, and creeks named above. Several of our vessels were arrested on
+charge of trespass. The utmost tension still existed, in spite of the
+peace, especially as in the United States the view prevailed that our
+rights by the old treaty had outlived the war, notwithstanding the
+silence of the Ghent document.
+
+[1818 ]
+
+At length, in 1818, a new treaty was entered into upon the question,
+signed October 20th, ratified by England November 2d, and by the United
+States January 28, 1819. This instrument ignored our contention that
+Article 3 of the treaty of 1783 was of perpetual obligation, and
+restricted our right to fish in shore to the southern shores of the
+Magdalen Islands, the west and southwest coasts of Newfoundland from the
+Rameau Islands round to Quirpon Island, and the Labrador coast from
+Mount Joly northward. Only here could our fishermen fish within the
+three mile limit, and they could dry and cure only on the named parts of
+Labrador and Newfoundland, Magdalen Islands being now excluded from this
+use. Even on Labrador and Newfoundland the privilege of drying and
+curing was to be cut off by settlement, except as agreement should be
+made beforehand with the inhabitants.
+
+But the fateful clause of this treaty was the following: "And the United
+States hereby renounce forever any liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed
+by the inhabitants thereof, to take, dry, or cure fish on or within
+three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, or harbors of his
+Britannic Majesty's dominions in America not included within the
+above-mentioned limits: Provided, however, that the American fishermen
+shall be admitted to enter such bays or harbors for the purpose of
+shelter and of repairing damages therein, of purchasing wood, and of
+obtaining water, and for no other purposes whatever. But they shall be
+under such restrictions as may be necessary to prevent their taking,
+drying, or curing fish therein, or in any other manner whatever abusing
+the privileges hereby reserved to them."
+
+[1854-1870]
+
+Troubles were soon as abundant as ever. The Canadians applied the word
+"bay" to all indentations of their coast, affecting entirely to exclude
+our fishermen from great bodies of water like Fundy, Chaleurs, and
+Miramichi, however far parts of these might be from shore. This was the
+famous "headland theory" for defining national waters. They also denied
+our right to navigate the Gut of Canso, which separates Cape Breton
+Island from Nova Scotia, thus forcing far out of their nearest course
+our ships bound for the permitted inshore fisheries. United States
+fishermen on their part persisted in exploiting the great bays, landed
+upon the Magdalen Islands, pushed through the Gut, and were none too
+careful at any point to find or heed the three mile line.
+
+June 5, 1854, was signed a treaty of reciprocity between the United
+States and the British provinces, under which all the coasts of British
+North America were opened to our fishing vessels, in return for similar
+liberty to those of the provinces in all United States waters north of
+Cape May, latitude 36 degrees, the salmon and shad fisheries of each
+country being, however, reserved to itself. This arrangement was to
+continue ten years at least, and then to be terminable on a year's
+notice by either of the high contracting parties. Such notice having
+been given by the United States one year before, reciprocity in fishing
+privilege came to an end March 7, 1865. This, of course, renewed the wry
+and perplexing rules of the 1818 convention, with all the naturally
+consequent strife. The worst evils were, indeed, put off for a time, by
+a continuance to our vessels of the right to fish in provincial water on
+the payment of a small license fee. This favor was taken away in 1870,
+for the alleged reason that American captains failed to procure
+licenses, and in the course of this year many of our ships were seized
+and confiscated. New sternness had been imparted to the provincial
+policy by the Canadian Act of Confederation, valid from July I, 1867,
+which joined Ontario and Quebec with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, thus
+inspiring our neighbors to the north with a new sense of their strength
+and importance.
+
+[1871-1886]
+
+Now came the Treaty of Washington, 1871. Its Article 18 revived Article
+1 of the 1854 Reciprocity Treaty, except that Canadians could now go so
+far south as the 39th parallel, and that two years' notice must precede
+abrogation. Article 21 ordained between the two countries free trade in
+fish-oil and in all salt-water fish. Both sides assumed that mere
+reciprocity would advantage the United States the more, so that by
+Article 22 a commission was provided for to award Canada a proper
+balance in money. By bungling diplomacy on our part the real power in
+this commission was swayed by M. Maurice Delfosse, Belgian minister at
+Washington, a gentleman certain to favor Great Britain at our expense.
+As a consequence, we were forced to pay for reciprocity to the round
+note of $5,500,000. The money was a trifle; but its exorbitant amount
+had the unhappy effect of prejudicing our people against the new
+arrangement. The result was that at the earliest possible moment, viz.,
+July 1, 1883, our Government gave the notice necessary for its
+abrogation. This followed on July 1, 1885, in the very midst of the
+fishing season. A temporary diplomatic arrangement was effected, which
+continued to our fishermen for the remainder of 1885 the advantages of
+the recent treaty; but with the dawn of the new year, 1886, the old
+convention of 1818 came once more into operation.
+
+So soon as the fishing season was opened the plan of the British
+Government was evident. It was to deny the fishing vessels all
+facilities not guaranteed by the treaty of 1818--that is, fishing
+vessels of the United States would be permitted to enter Canadian ports
+for shelter, repairs, wood, and water, and "for no other purposes
+whatever;" also to compel all such vessels strictly to conform to both
+customs and port laws. Circular letters of instruction, enjoining
+vigilance, were sent to all customs officers, and swift cruisers fitted
+out to look sharply after all fishing vessels from the States.  On the
+other hand our fishermen were not, as a whole, disposed to conform to
+the existing regulations. The Treaty of Washington had been abrogated at
+their request, and now many, probably most, of them were inclined to
+exercise all the liberty possible in the Canadian waters. Least of all
+were they willing to submit to the British interpretation of the treaty
+of 1818.
+
+Complaints early reached Washington that the headland theory was being
+applied by the provincial customs officials to exclude our vessels from
+legitimate fishing places; but the Canadian Government denied that any
+such thing had been done by its authority, and evidently did not incline
+to push its old contention on this point. While the fishing schooner
+Marion Grimes, of Gloucester, Mass., was under detention at Shelburne,
+Nova Scotia, for an infraction of the customs rules, her captain having
+hoisted the United States flag, this was pulled down by order of the
+Canadian officer in temporary charge of her. The flag was again hoisted
+and again forcibly lowered. This act awakened great resentment in the
+United States, until it, too, was disavowed by the Governor-General in
+Council. The Sarah H. Prior lost at sea a valuable net, which a Canadian
+schooner picked up and wished to return. This was forbidden, and being
+permitted to purchase no other seine, the ship came home with a broken
+voyage and in debt. Captain Tupper, of the Jeannie Seaverns, having
+entered the harbor of Liverpool, Nova Scotia, for shelter, was denied
+permission to go and see his relatives near by or to receive them aboard
+his vessel. The water-tank of the schooner Mollie Adams having burst,
+her captain sought to buy two or three barrels to hold water for his
+crew on their homeward voyage of five hundred miles. His request was
+refused.
+
+The same Mollie Adams found a Nova Scotia vessel in distress and rescued
+her crew. Captain Jacobs, of the Mollie, cared for the men several days,
+and finally, as no assistance of any sort was proffered by the
+Canadians, sent them home at his own expense. His aid to them delayed
+his homeward journey, and he was also caught in a harbor from which his
+vessel could pass only during very high water, which caused further
+delay. Owing to these incidents his supply of provisions ran low, yet he
+was denied permission to purchase anything, and as a result his homeward
+tour was made on half rations or less. Many other aggravating
+circumstances were connected with this case.
+
+In quite a number of instances American masters were refused water, the
+only excuse being that they had not conformed to all the port or customs
+regulations. There can be no doubt that many fishing captains were quite
+too lax in this, presuming on the power of their nation and remembering
+the liberties enjoyed under reciprocity, while too forgetful of the
+stern letter of the treaty which the Canadians were executing against
+them. It was plain on the other hand that however wrongly Canadian
+subalterns may at times have acted, both the Canadian and the British
+Government intended to keep within the letter of the law, while forcing
+us to fish off their coasts at as great a disadvantage as possible.
+
+The real source of the difficulty was well characterized by Mr. Phelps,
+our Minister to England. "It is to be found in the irritation that has
+taken place among a portion of the Canadian people on account of the
+termination by the United States Government of the treaty of Washington
+on the 1st of July, 1885, whereby fish imported from Canada into the
+United States, which so long as that treaty remained in force was
+admitted free, is now liable to the import duty provided by the general
+revenue laws; and the opinion appears to have gained ground in Canada
+that the United States may be driven, by harassing and annoying their
+fishermen, into the adoption of a new treaty, by which Canadian fish
+shall be admitted free."
+
+In their efforts to carry out such a policy the treaty gave the
+Canadians a very great advantage. As Mr. Secretary Bayard insisted, it
+certainly trangressed usual international comity when our ships were
+refused needed pilots, or our hungry crews were forbidden to purchase
+food in Canadian ports; but our President and Senate had, in 1818,
+agreed that such cruelty should be legal. To ask for comity in the
+matter was to ask for the voidance of the treaty.
+
+As little could we, agreeably to the treaty, presume, by use of home
+permits to "touch and trade," to turn a fishing vessel at will into a
+merchant vessel, as was often tried in order to evade the offensive
+restrictions, or demand the liberty of freighting fish home overland in
+bond. It would equally have amounted to a quashing of the treaty, had
+the British and Canadians interpreted it by the easy canon of Mr.
+Phelps: "The question is not what is the technical effect of the words,
+but what is the construction most consonant to the dignity, the just
+interests, and the friendly relations of the sovereign powers."
+
+Interesting but also untenable was our Government's plea for freedom to
+purchase bait for deep-sea fishing. Of old, mackerel had been caught
+almost solely with hooks, by the "chumming" process. In 1850 the purse
+seine was introduced. Soon after 1870 its use became general, and
+entirely revolutionized the business of taking mackerel. Huge quantities
+of the fish could now be captured far out in the open sea, making
+fishing much more profitable near home, and greatly lessening the value
+to us of Canada's fishing-grounds. From these premises Mr. Bayard
+argued that the true intent of the 1818 agreement, which was to protect
+inshore fishing territory, would not be violated should we be allowed to
+buy bait in Canada. It was replied that the old treaty was meant to
+prevent our fishermen from making Canadian harbors in any way a base of
+operations.
+
+"It was framed with the object of affording a complete and exclusive
+definition of the rights and liberties which the fishermen of the United
+States were thenceforward to enjoy in following their vocation, so far
+as those rights could be affected by facilities for access to the shores
+or waters of the British Provinces, or for intercourse with their
+people. It is therefore no undue expansion of the scope of that
+convention to interpret strictly those of its provisions by which such
+access is denied, except to vessels requiring it for the purposes
+specifically described. Such an undue expansion would, upon the other
+hand, certainly take place if, under cover of its provisions, or of any
+agreements relating to general commercial intercourse which may have
+since been made, permission were accorded to United States fishermen to
+resort habitually to the harbors of the Dominion, not for the sake of
+seeking safety for their vessels or of avoiding risk to human life, but
+in order to use those harbors as a general base of operations from which
+to prosecute and organize with greater advantage to themselves the
+industry in which they are engaged.
+
+"Mr. Bayard suggests that the possession by a fishing vessel of a permit
+to 'touch and trade,' should give her a right to enter Canadian ports
+for other than the purposes named in the treaty, or, in other words,
+should give her perfect immunity from its provisions. This would amount
+to a practical repeal of the treaty, because it would enable a United
+States collector of customs, by issuing a license, originally only
+intended for purposes of domestic customs regulation, to give exemption
+from the treaty to every United States fishing vessel. The observation
+that similar vessels under the British flag have the right to enter the
+ports of the United States for the purchase of supplies loses its force
+when it is remembered that the convention of 1818 contained no
+restriction on British vessels, and no renunciation of any privileges in
+regard to them."
+
+[1887]
+
+For some weeks in the spring and summer of 1886, the fishery dispute
+greatly excited our country. Even threats of war with Canada were
+uttered in case its government should not recede from its aggravating
+position, and careful estimates made of the force we could throw across
+our northern border in three days. In May, 1886, Congress placed in the
+President's hands power to suspend commercial intercourse between the
+two countries. Later in the year a bill was introduced in the House
+cutting off all commercial relations with Canada by land or water. The
+Senate advanced a more moderate proposition, to limit the proposed
+arrest of traffic to water commerce and to Canadian vessels, also to
+leave its enforcement optional with the President. This became law on
+March 3, 1887. Under this legislation the President, on being assured
+that fishing masters or crews were treated in Canadian ports any less
+favorably than masters or crews of trading vessels from the most favored
+nations, could, "in his discretion, by proclamation to that effect, deny
+vessels, their masters and crews, of the British dominions of North
+America, any entrance into the waters, ports, or places of or within the
+United States."
+
+[1888]
+
+The President, however, did not think best at once to use this fearful
+power, likely enough to lead to war. He preferred to make another
+attempt at a peaceful settlement, through a new treaty. This had
+constantly been the wish of the British Government. Accordingly, later
+in the year 1887, a joint commission, consisting of Secretary Bayard,
+President Angell, of Michigan University, Hon. William L. Putnam, of
+Maine, on the part of the United States, and of Rt. Hon. Joseph
+Chamberlain, Sir Charles Tupper, of Canada, and Sir Lionel West, the
+British minister, on the part of Great Britain, met at Washington. The
+commission toiled nearly all winter, and passed to the President the
+result of its deliberations on February 16, 1888.
+
+The treaty which it drafted was necessarily a compromise. Canada thought
+the British commissioners had yielded too much; many in the United
+States believed our commissioners to have done the same. The document,
+approved by the President, went to the Senate, where, after long debate,
+it was refused ratification, August 21st.
+
+The commission had agreed upon a modus vivendi, to hold good, unless
+revoked by the Governor-General and Council of Canada, till February,
+1890, under which our fishermen might obtain in Canadian ports, on
+payment of a license, the privileges of merchantmen. Many such licenses
+were taken out during the season of 1888, showing the advantages which
+they conveyed. Most of the fishing-masters, however, did not seek
+licenses and were averse to the new treaty, preferring the terms of 1818
+to granting their rivals any further rights in our markets. Fresh fish,
+including frozen and slack-salted, was already free in our ports,
+competing sharply with our own catch. No one longer cared to fish
+inside, or, except in emergencies, to provision at Canadian towns.
+Convenient as would be the power to obtain bait near the fishing-grounds
+and to trans-ship fish home in bond, neither was indispensable. Cod are
+still caught with trawls and baited hooks. The best bait is squid, whose
+abundance upon the Banks is what causes the cod so to frequent them. The
+squid can be had freshest as well as cheapest from the peasantry of the
+Newfoundland and Nova Scotia coasts; but clams carried from home were
+found to do nearly as well. They would remain fresh better than squid,
+but got off the hooks more easily. Accordingly, few collisions occurred
+in 1888, and as the season of that year closed there was prospect that,
+even without a new convention, no necessity for American retaliation
+would arise.
+
+[1892]
+
+This chapter shall close with a word touching the Alaska fisheries
+question, which, fortunately, had advanced a good step. In 1870 the
+United States leased the Pribylov, or Seal Islands off Alaska, to the
+Alaska Commercial Co. Pressed by this company, which naturally wished
+the completest possible monopoly of seal-fishing, our Government
+foolishly affected to treat the entire Behring Sea as a mare clausum,
+belonging to the United States. Several British craft engaged in taking
+seals were seized by United States vessels considerably more than three
+miles from land. Great Britain of course protesting, a treaty, ratified
+in March, 1892, submitted to arbitration the question between the two
+governments. Seven arbitrators sat, two from the United States, Justice
+Harlan and Senator Morgan, and one each from Canada, Great Britain,
+Sweden, France, and Italy. This Board decided against the American
+contention, denying the right of the United States to assume the
+protection of seals or any property in them outside the ordinary
+three-mile limit. Happy provisions were, however, made for a joint
+police of Behring Sea by the two nations, for an open and a closed
+fishing season, and for the careful licensing of sealing vessels.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE SOUTH
+
+[1886-1870]
+
+It cannot be denied that the radical method of reconstruction resorted
+to by Congress occasioned dreadful evils. Among other things it ignored
+the natural prejudices of the whites, many of whom were as loyal as any
+citizens in the land. The South, subjected to a second conquest after
+having laid down its arms, felt outraged and grew sullen. To most people
+in that section, as well as to very many at the North, this dictation by
+Congress to acknowledged States in time of peace seemed high-handed and
+guilty usurpation. Northern Congressmen incessantly called slavery
+barbarism, and yet combined to transmute to-day into electors and
+law-makers those who but yesterday had been slaves. Black legislatures
+inevitably abused their power, becoming the instruments of base
+carpetbag leaders and rings in robbing white property-holders.
+
+
+[Illustration: Political cartoon. Two men labeled "Ohio" hanging from
+a tree.]
+A Facsimile put in Evidence before the Congressional Committee.
+"[From the Independent Monitor, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, September 1, 1868.]"
+"A PROSPECTIVE SCENE IN THE CITY OF OAKS, 4TH OF MARCH, 1869."
+"Hang, curs, hang!  * * * * * Their complexion is perfect gallows,
+Stand fast, good fate, to their hanging! * * * * *
+If they be not born to be hanged, our case is miserable."
+"The above cut represents the fate in store for those great pests of
+Southern society--the carpet-bagger and scalawag--if found in Dixie's
+land after the break of day on the 4th of March next."
+
+
+Nor could any except doctrinaires or the stupid have expected that the
+whites would long submit to such a regime. If the South was to become
+again genuine part and parcel of this Union, it could not, nor would the
+North consent that it should, be permanently under bayonet rule; and so
+soon as bayonets were gone, fair means or foul would speedily remove the
+sceptre from colored hands. Precisely this happened. In State after
+State, the whites, without the slightest formal change of constitution
+or law, recovered their ancient ascendency. Where their aims could not
+be realized by persuasion or other mild means, resort was had to
+merciless intimidation and violence.
+
+The Ku-Klux Klan, a great secret society, was organized for this rough
+business, numbering at first, among either its members or its abettors,
+citizens of the highest respectability. Its local lodges were called
+"dens," its members "ghouls," " Giants," "goblins," "titans," "furies,"
+"dragons," and "hydras," were names of different classes among its
+officers. Usually the very existence of a "den" in the vicinity was
+sufficient to render every negro docile. If more was required, a
+half-dozen ghouls, making their nocturnal rounds in their hideous masks
+and uniforms, frightened all but the most hardy. Any who showed fight
+were whipped, maimed, or killed, treatment which extended on occasion to
+their "carpet-bag" and "scalawag" friends--these titles denoting
+respectively northern and southern men bold enough to take the negroes'
+side. The very violence of the order, which it at last turned against
+the old Southrons themselves, brought it into disrepute with its
+original instigators, who were not sorry when federal marshals, put up
+to it by President Grant, hunted den after den of the law-breakers to
+the death.
+
+Yet, after all, one cannot see how the giant problem of resuscitating
+the South could, under the circumstances, have been solved more
+successfully. The plan proposed by President Johnson had sufficient
+trial to show that it must have led to ills worse than those actually
+experienced. A qualified colored suffrage would, as things then were,
+have been abused. It must be remembered that the war left in the South
+much less of white loyalty than it found, and Congress was certainly
+justified in insisting that the revived States should be placed on the
+most loyal basis possible.
+
+Withal, considering the stupendous upheaval in southern society marked
+by the erection of bondmen into full citizens, dark days were few.
+Schools arose, partly from the application of a large fund left by Mr.
+George Peabody for that purpose, partly from the beneficence of the
+various religious denominations interested in the elevation of the
+blacks, and partly from provision by the southern States themselves. The
+ballot itself proved an educator, rough but thorough. The negro vote,
+now that it had become a fixed fact, was little by little courted by the
+jarring factions of whites, and hence protected. Political parties,
+particularly in state elections, more and more divided on other lines
+than that of color. The administration of President Cleveland taught the
+negro that even in National affairs he had nothing to fear from
+democratic dominance. And it was plainly to the freedman's infinite
+advantage, meanwhile, that he was fighting not to acquire status and
+rights, but for acquired status and rights guaranteed in the organic law
+of his State and the Nation.
+
+[1875]
+
+Among the white people loyalty to the old flag increased with the days.
+Of course none of them would ever confess regret at having drawn the
+sword, or cease to think of the lost cause with a sigh. At the same time
+a rational conviction settled down upon all its most thoughtful minds
+that in secession the South had been misguided. Universal was the
+admission that at least for the dominant race the death of slavery was a
+blessing. Northern people and intelligent immigrants from Europe
+thronged in. Coolly received at first, and in some cases maltreated if
+freely expressing opinions which traversed those prevalent in the
+section, in the end they were tolerated and even welcomed.
+
+The multiplication of railways facilitated the acquaintance of southern
+with northern people far beyond what had been possible before the war.
+Travelling salesmen from the North penetrated the remotest hamlets at
+the South, inclined from every consideration to produce the most
+favorable impression possible. The selection of southerners for
+important national offices by Presidents Grant, Hayes, Arthur, and
+Cleveland, the election of the last-named, a Democrat, as President in
+1884 and 1892, and the existence of a democratic majority in the House
+of Representatives almost constantly from 1874, all felicitously
+combined to beget in the people of the South a conviction that they were
+really and truly citizens of the Union again. The rise in several
+southern States of a strong republican organization among the whites
+wrought in the same direction. Nor must we overlook as another cementing
+influence the fraternizing of northern and southern soldiers in great
+reunions such as occurred at Gettysburg, Richmond, and Chickamauga.
+
+[1890]
+
+The South's material prosperity kept pace with her political advance. It
+had always been said that cotton was to be produced only by slave labor.
+Nothing could have been more false. The largest cotton crop under
+slavery, that of 1860, reached 4,669,770 bales. In 1871, 1876, and 1877
+each, notwithstanding the economic chaos and the infinite destruction of
+capital occasioned by the war, those figures were almost equalled; in
+1878 they were surpassed; in 1879 and 1880 each, over 5,000,000 bales
+were raised; in 1881, 1883, and 1886 each, over 6,000,000, the exact
+figure for the year last named being 6,550,215. In 1890, 7,472,511 bales
+were produced.
+
+This cotton exhibit was sufficiently gratifying, yet the post-bellum
+crops might have been far larger had not much energy at the South been
+happily diverted into manufacturing channels. This was one of the most
+hopeful features of the New South. Nearly every department of industry
+in this kind was now pushed there at many points. Nashville became a
+great manufacturing and commercial city. It boasted one of the largest
+foundries in the country, and several flourishing cotton factories.
+Chattanooga, Birmingham, and Anniston were all thrifty with iron and
+steel industries, which rivalled the most prosperous ones at the North;
+nor were there wanting those who predicted that the region of those
+cities, viz., Southern Tennessee with Northern Georgia and Alabama, was
+speedily to become the centre of iron and steel production for the
+world.
+
+The lumber trade of Chattanooga, particularly in the white woods, was
+said to be second only to Chicago's. The city also had a tannery
+believed to be the largest in the world, and more than one fully
+appointed Bessemer steel manufactory. These steel works and the tannery
+employed colored operatives almost alone, many of these exceedingly
+skilful. Birmingham was entirely a creation of the days since the war,
+yet it had in 1890 more than 26,000 inhabitants against 3,000 in 1880,
+and enjoyed marvellous prosperity, hindered only by speculation in land.
+Much of the marble in the mountains of Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia
+was finer than any elsewhere to be found in this country. The block of
+it which was forwarded from Alabama for the Washington monument, experts
+condemned for the purpose as certainly Italian, nor was it permitted a
+place in that structure till the Governor of the State and the Members
+of Congress therefrom had certified upon honor, and the quarry-masters
+made affidavit, that it came out of the Alabama hills. Atlanta had risen
+from the ashes in which the war left it, to be a city of over 65,000
+people, with every manifestation of great industrial life and progress.
+
+Between 1870 and 1880, although the population of Mobile decreased, that
+of Charleston rose about 1-1/5 per cent., that of Savannah about 5-1/4
+per cent., that of New Orleans about thirteen per cent., that of
+Richmond about twenty-six per cent. Between 1880 and 1890 Mobile
+advanced about 6-1/2 per cent., Charleston almost 10 per cent., Savannah
+over 40 per cent., New Orleans over 12 per cent., and Richmond exactly
+28 per cent.
+
+It would be misleading to suppose the progress in welfare indicated by
+these and the foregoing statements to be true of every district at the
+South. The merely agricultural regions were still far behind. Methods of
+tilling the soil were the same as prevailed forty years earlier, and it
+was not unlikely that the colored people, who for the most part had the
+immediate charge of this work, prosecuted it, as yet, with less skill
+than did overseers and planters before slavery was done away. Yet in
+1890 the farm valuation of the South was found to exceed its highest
+ante-bellum figure and almost to equal one-fifth of the entire farm
+valuation of the country.
+
+To the general backwardness of southern agriculture there was one quite
+striking exception. The State of Florida underwent after the war a most
+astounding transition for the better. Her total railway mileage of 416
+miles when the war ended had grown to 2,470 miles by 1890. The farm
+valuation was, in 1880, $20,500,000. The population in 1890 exceeded
+that of 1880 by almost 50 per cent. Steamboats were upon every coast and
+river. This was due not alone to the State's popularity as a winter
+sanitarium for northern people. Florida was also the early market-garden
+for the North. Its oranges largely supplied the trade, and were much
+sought for their excellent quality. The State was excessively rich in
+the finest ornamental woods, which were rapidly finding their way into
+the market. Nearly all the crops of the temperate zone and the fruits of
+the torrid flourished here with the utmost luxuriance, many of them
+being natives, others taking to the soil with a greater friendliness
+than they displayed for that whence they were transplanted. The State
+bade fair to rival Louisiana in the production of sugar, and South
+Carolina in that of rice, as well as one day to supply the entire
+American demand for cocoanuts. The mulberry was indigenous to every part
+of this new Eden, which promised to become at no late date an immense
+producer of raw silk. Cattle fed and fattened everywhere without
+shelter, in winter as in summer.
+
+
+[Illustration: Small river reaching the ocean; palm trees in background.]
+The Mouth of the Miami River, Florida
+
+
+The future of the colored race no one could predict with certainty.
+After the census of 1870, which reduced the percentage of our African
+population from 14.13, the figure in 1860, to 12.7, many rushed to the
+conclusion that these people might, in no long time, vanish from our
+land. The census of 1880 dispelled this fancy, raising the percentage to
+13.12. That of 1890 lowered it again to 11.93. Previously to 1870 the
+race had been constantly decreasing in fecundity, but it was possible
+that the better conditions afforded by freedom had changed this. Even
+should the decrease go on, the colored people bade fair to be at least
+eight or ten per cent. of our total population in 1900. As a matter of
+fact the proportion was in 1900 11.6 per cent. These decreasing
+proportions did not, of course, necessarily imply any positive decadence
+in the black race, as they might be accounted for by greater prolificacy
+or vitality on the part of the whites, or in part by immigration. The
+subject will be resumed in Chapter IX. of Period VI.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE WEST
+
+[1890]
+
+Aside from West Virginia, made during the war from the loyal part of
+Virginia, the new States created between 1860 and 1900 were Kansas,
+1861; Nevada, 1864; Nebraska, 1867; Colorado, 1876; North Dakota, 1889;
+South Dakota, 1889; Montana, 1889; Washington, 1889; Idaho, 1890;
+Wyoming, 1890; and Utah, 1896. The whole number of States had thus
+become forty-five. We had also, in the year 1896, three organized
+territories, Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, the last carved out of
+Indian Territory in the year 1890. Alaska was as yet a partially
+organized territory, having no territorial legislature, and being under
+the laws of the United States and of the State of Oregon. It was
+purchased by the United States from Russia in 1867, for the sum of
+$7,200,000. It remained without any organization until the act of May
+17, 1884, which gave it a governor, a district court, an attorney, a
+marshal, and commissioners.
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Swampy area on shore of Lake Michigan.]
+The Site of Chicago.
+
+The value to our Union of this new acquisition, with its 531,409 square
+miles and a coast-line longer than that upon our Atlantic and Gulf
+coasts together, was at first doubtful, and continued so till gold was
+found on the Yukon and at Cape Nome. Clearly, however, the money had not
+been thrown away.  Governor Swineford, appointed over the Territory in
+1885, declared that throughout Southern Alaska and the Aleutian Islands
+the climate was moderate, even in winter; and he gave records of
+thermometrical observations which seemed to prove this. He further
+maintained that, in the parts named, all our hardier plants and crops
+grew to maturity in summer, and attained extraordinary luxuriance. In
+1890, 4,298 white people had homes in Alaska, besides 1,823 mixed,
+23,531 Indians, and 2,288 Mongolians, a total population of 32,052.
+
+The Alaska Commercial Company paid the United States $55,000 yearly for
+its monopoly of the Alaska seal-fur trade. The product of this business
+was about $2,500,000 each year. An official report made to our
+Government stated that in the year 1880, $2,181,832 worth of Alaska furs
+found sale in London alone. Coal had been discovered in various places.
+So had beautiful white marble. Gold-bearing ledges were numerous, and
+the only one of these yet broached, that on Douglas Island, had
+certainly yielded well. The mill connected with it, working only the
+equivalent of two-thirds time, turned out during its first twelve months
+a little over $750,000 worth of gold bullion. For the year 1889,
+according to imperfect returns, the product from this remote patch of
+our national domain was as follows: Seal fisheries, $314,925, a falling
+off of over 80 per cent. in nine years; other fisheries, $1,059,365, an
+increase of about 100 per cent. for the same period; 43,762 troy ounces
+of gold and 9,219 troy ounces of silver. In 1890 there were ten
+manufacturing establishments, whose product amounted to $58,440.
+
+After 1860 there was a steady filling up of the Pacific coast, and an
+equally continual extension of population to the west on the east side
+of the Rockies. All Iowa was in cultivation, and all Minnesota but the
+extreme northwest corner. In fifteen years the rate of interest went
+down in Iowa from ten to seven or eight per cent., in Michigan from ten
+to six or seven per cent. Chicago, from being only a borrower of money,
+grew to be an immense lender for enterprises in the West. Settlement in
+Kansas, Nebraska, and Texas rolled westward with strength and rapidity.
+Some of the finest new towns in these States were well toward their far
+western border.
+
+
+[Illustration: Four men navigating a boat with oars. It is about 10 feet
+wide and 30 feet long, covered with barrels and other freight.]
+An Ohio River Flat-Boat.
+
+
+The construction of the five great Pacific railway lines, the Northern,
+the Union, the Santa Fe, the Southern, and the Great Northern, with
+their various branches, brought into valuable employ infinite reaches of
+fertile land previously as good as desert. Texas made most remarkable
+advance both in square miles occupied and in density of population,
+brought about by great extension of railway mileage, and of cattle,
+sheep, and wheat culture. Large patches of the Dakotas, Montana, and
+Idaho filled with settlers. Colorado became a giant in production, the
+rush of population thither in consequence of very extensive and rich
+mineral discoveries having been a stampede almost like that of 1849-50
+to California. Every hill was black with miners. The growth of New
+Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada, considering their natural wealth, was slow,
+owing in part to Indian hostilities. New Mexico fell from rank 37 in
+1870 to rank 43 in 1890. Tucson, Ariz., according to the best figures,
+fell between 1880 and 1887, from 10,000 to 7,500 inhabitants. In
+material things Utah prospered greatly under the thrift, economy, and
+hard work of the Mormons. Here mining and speculation were less rigidly
+pressed, and more energy devoted to agricultural pursuits.
+
+
+[Illustration: Orange tree and small water channels.]
+An Irrigated Orange Grove at Riverside, California.
+
+
+In California, a smaller proportion than formerly of all industry was
+now applied to mining, a larger to agriculture and cattle-raising.
+Southern California became the competitor of Florida as a winter
+residence. Oregon and Washington vied with Minnesota for the world-medal
+in wheat culture. Over the infinite pasture lands at both feet of the
+Rocky Mountains roamed herds of bullocks destined to feed distant cities
+in America and in Europe. It was foreseen that many of these lands would
+in the course of time be ploughed, and by the aid of irrigation turned
+into corn-fields, wheat-fields, and market-gardens, a process which in
+New Mexico had already gone far. Even the tract inclosed by the
+parallels 31 and 45 degrees and the meridians 100 and 120 degrees, which
+long seemed destined for perpetual sterility, spite of the many
+enterprises conceived, and the others, like the scheme of the Colorado
+River Irrigation Company, initiated for redeeming it, grew valuable when
+it was believed that the National Government would undertake to irrigate
+there. Crops in that region grew bountifully under irrigation, and
+permanent water-supplies could easily be created. Natural woodland
+existed there only near the few streams, and of the scanty trees which
+grew scarcely a single variety of hard wood was found; but the state and
+national afforestation of vast tracts bade fair to change this. The
+region comprised in the States and Territories named was not only the
+richest precious-metal field in America, but one of the very richest on
+the globe.
+
+The picture we have presented is too glowing for the year 1893-94,
+during which great depression afflicted the whole West; but this was
+only temporary. Recovery was indicated by the success of the
+Trans-Mississippi Exposition at Omaha, in 1898. There were 2,600,000
+admissions. The total cash receipts were $1,761,364, and the
+stockholders in the enterprise were paid dollar for dollar.
+
+The city of San Francisco had 500 inhabitants in 1840, 34,776 in 1850,
+56,802 in 1860, 149,473 in 1870, 233,959 in 1880, 298,997 in 1890. This
+progress may be taken as in some sense an index to that of the West as a
+whole, far more so than the apparently spasmodic increase in some of
+California's smaller centres. Los Angeles mounted from a population of
+5,728 in 1870, and of 11,183 in 1880, to one of 50,395 in 1890. Oakland
+had but 10,500 in 1870. Ten years later the figure was 34,555; and in
+1890 it was 48,682. Stockton leaped from 10,287 in 1880 to 14,424 in
+1890. In 1858 Denver was uninhabited. In 1870 it numbered 4,759 souls;
+in 1880, 35,629; in 1890, 106,713. Portland, Oregon, had in 1890, 46,000
+inhabitants; in 1900, 90,000. In the decade 1880-90 Wyoming grew from
+20,789 to 60,705.
+
+The growth and prosperity of this great western section of our country
+become apparent from an inspection of the following table, compiled from
+authentic sources:
+
+                    Population.        Property valuation. $
+STATES.         1870.       1890.        1880.             1890.
+California      560,247    1,208,130   1,343,000,000   2,533,733,627
+Colorado         39,864      412,198     240,000,000   1,145,712,267
+Dakota, Total    14 181                  118,000 000
+  Dakota, North              182,719                     337,006,506
+  Dakota, South              328,808                     425,141,299
+Idaho            14,999       84,335      29,000,000     207,896,591
+Kansas          364,399    1,427,096     760,000,000   1,799,343,501
+Minnesota       439,706    1,301,826     792,000,000   1,691,851,927
+Montana          20,595      132,159      40,000,000     453,135,209
+Nebraska        122,993    1,058,910     385,000,000   1,275,685,514
+Nevada           42,491       45,761     156,000,000     l80,323,668
+New Mexico       91,874      153,593      49,000,000     231,459,897
+Oregon           90,923      313,767     154,000,000     590,396,194
+Texas           818,579    2,235,523     825,000,000   2,105,576,766
+Utah             86,786      207,905     114,000,000     349,411,234
+Washington       23,955      349,390      62,000,000     760,698,726
+Wyoming           9,118       60,705      54,000,000     169,773,710
+TERRITORIES
+Alaska                        32,052
+Arizona           9,658       59,620      41,000,000     188,800,976
+
+
+                   Value of Farms. $
+STATES.            1880.         1890.
+California      262,051,262   697,116,630
+Colorado         25,109,223    85,035,180
+Dakota, Total    22 401 084
+  Dakota, North                75,310,805
+  Dakota, South               107,466,335
+Idaho             2,832,890    17,431,560
+Kansas           235,178,936   559,726,046
+Minnesota       193,724,260   340,059,470
+Montana           3,284,504    25,512,340
+Nebraska        105,932,541   402,353,913
+Nevada            5,408,325    12,339,410
+New Mexico        5,514,399     8,140,800
+Oregon           56,906,575   115,819,200
+Texas           170,468,886   399,971,289
+Utah             14,015,178    28,402,780
+Washington       13,844,224    88,461,660
+Wyoming             835,895    14,460,880
+TERRITORIES
+Alaska
+Arizona           1,127,946     7,222,230
+
+
+            Rail Mileage  Periodicals    Gold Troy Oz.    Silver Troy Oz.
+            1885.   1890. 1880 1893   1880     1889      1880       1889.
+California  3,044  4,356  364   639  829,677  608,382    890,158   1,062,578
+Colorado    2,884  4,176   90   298  130,608  187,881 12,800,120  18,375,551
+Dakotas,     2877          66        159,920   54,770
+North Dakota       2,003        139
+South Dakota       2,470        269           149,538                104,672
+Idaho                944    8    58   71,578   95,983    359,309   3,137,508
+Kansas      4,441  8,306  349   759
+Minnesota   4,331  5,379  224   558
+Montana     1,047  2,181   18    90   87,354  151,861  2,246,938  13,511,455
+Nebraska    2,988  5,300  189   645
+Nevada        945    924   37    26  236,469  169,617   9,614,561  4,696,605
+New Mexico  1,195  1,324   18    59    2,387   39,457     303,455  1,251,124
+Oregon      1,181  1,433   74   194   53,101   46,648      21,496     17,851
+Texas       6,687  8,630  279   678      330  323,438     829,438
+Utah        1,085  1,085   24    71   14,105   23,591   3,668,566  7,005,193
+Washington    736  1,774   29   253    6,569    9,005         789     23,464
+Wyoming       617    941   10    43      838      711
+TERRITORIES
+Alaska                            4      238   43,762          39      9,219
+Arizona       906  1,096   17    35   10,254   44,029   1,738,921  1,812,961
+
+
+[Illustration: Small lake.]
+The Irrigating Reservoir at Walnut Grove, Arizona,
+showing the Artificial Lake partly filled.
+
+
+We shall be pardoned for recurring again to Minnesota. So recently as
+1838, where St. Paul and Minneapolis now stand, the former with a
+population in 1890 of  133,156, the latter with one of 164,738, not a
+white man's abode had risen. There were then but three cabins between
+St. Paul and Prairie du Chien, a distance of 300 miles down the
+Mississippi. Summit Avenue, St. Paul, was, in 1890, the finest street
+in America, if not on the globe. West St. Paul, in 1880 a hamlet of a
+few huts, had by 1890 20,000 to 30,000 people, with street-cars, large
+business blocks, fine houses and stores. The pioneer railway in
+Minnesota was laid in 1862, from St. Paul to St. Anthony, the first
+shovelful of earth being lifted by a citizen of St. Paul, who probably
+lived to see his State gridironed with 5,379 miles of track; his own
+firm constructing over 1,100 miles in the single year 1887. Minneapolis
+in 1887 turned out 5,000,000 barrels of flour, an average of 100,000
+barrels a week.
+
+Duluth had in 1880 but 3,740 people. In 1890, 33,115. The cause of
+Duluth's advantage is obvious upon a glance at the map. It is by water
+no farther from Lake Erie than Chicago is, while it is some hundreds of
+miles nearer the great wheat-field. It is itself the very gate of
+this--the gate of Minnesota--which in 1869 brought forth 18,000,000
+bushels; in 1886, 50,000,000 bushels. To this enormous yield, that of
+the Dakotas, about the same, had now to be added, the one as the other
+finding its way out to the hungry world largely through Duluth.
+
+The caravans of people necessary to populate these immense western
+ranges were to a very great extent immigrants from Europe. The census of
+1880 gave us 6,679,043 inhabitants of foreign nativity. We have no
+figures for the exact proportion of the total immigration into the
+country which found its home in the West, yet a glimpse at the total
+from year to year is interesting at this point. The falling off in and
+after 1893 is particularly noticeable. Immigrants arrived as follows:
+
+In
+1868  282,189
+1869  352,768
+1870  387,203
+1871  321,350
+1872  404,806
+1873  459,803
+1874  313,339
+1875  227,498
+1876  169,986
+1877  141,857
+1878  138,469
+1879  177,826
+1880  457,257
+1881  669,431
+1882  788,992
+1883  603,322
+1884  518,592
+1885  395,346
+1886  334,203
+1890  455,302
+1891  560,319
+1892  579,663
+1893  439,730
+1894  285,631.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE EXPOSITION OF 1876
+
+[1876]
+
+It was fitting that the one hundredth anniversary of a great industrial
+nation should be celebrated by a World's Fair. Such a plan was first
+publicly proposed for the United States in 1870, by an association of
+Philadelphia citizens. It was adopted by Congress in the following year,
+when an act was passed creating a Centennial Commission, to consist of a
+delegate and an alternate from each State and Territory. The commission
+organized for the great and difficult work before them by choosing
+General J. R. Hawley, of Connecticut, president, and by appointing an
+executive committee, a board of directors, and heads of various
+administrative bureaus.
+
+The Government declined to assume the financial responsibility of the
+enterprise, but in 1872 Congress appointed a Centennial Board of Finance
+with power to raise a capital stock of $10,000,000. Shares to the amount
+of $2,400,000 were soon sold to private citizens. Philadelphia
+appropriated $1,500,000, and Pennsylvania $1,000,000. In 1876 Congress
+made a loan to the Board of $1,500,000. Thus the great problem of a
+financial basis for the enterprise was solved.
+
+
+[Illustration: Pedestrians walking among large buildings.]
+At the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876.
+
+
+The first thought had been to make the exposition exclusively national,
+but subsequent deliberation made it seem best to widen the plan so that
+the arts and industries of the entire world should be represented.
+President Grant formally proclaimed the Exhibition in 1873, and in the
+following year foreign governments were invited to participate.
+Thirty-three cordially responded.
+
+Meanwhile, the commission was pushing preparations. Philadelphia, the
+birth-place of the nation, was rightly chosen as the place for this
+unique memorial of that event. In the beautiful and spacious Fairmount
+Park, on the high bank of the Schuylkill River, an area of 285 acres was
+inclosed, and here five main buildings were soon rising rapidly as by
+magic. Besides these, there were at the time of opening, smaller
+structures to the number of 175, filling every available space.
+
+On May 10th the Exposition was opened with appropriate exercises, in the
+presence of 100,000 people. Wagner had composed a Centennial March for
+the occasion. Whittier's Centennial Hymn was sung by a chorus of 1,000
+voices. The restored South chanted the praises of the Union in the words
+of Sidney Lanier, the Georgia poet. President Grant, in a short speech,
+then declared the International Exhibition open. A procession of
+dignitaries moved to Machinery Hall, where the President of the United
+States and Dom Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, set in motion the great
+Corliss engine, and with the whirr of spindle and clatter of machinery
+the world's seventh great fair began.
+
+Weeks and months of inspection were necessary to grasp the Exhibition as
+a whole and in detail, but an imaginary stroll through the grounds will
+give the reader some general idea of it.
+
+Entering through one of the 106 gates, the sight-seer naturally turned
+his eye first toward the colossal Main Building. A parallelogram in
+form, 1,880 feet long by 460 wide, and 70 high, it covered twenty acres.
+At the centre and ends were projecting wings, large buildings in
+themselves. In the middle and at the four corners rose towers. In spite
+of its size the building seemed light and almost graceful. Its brick
+sub-structure, seven feet high, stood upon massive masonry foundations.
+The rest of the building was mainly glass and iron. The iron trusses of
+the roof rested upon 672 slender iron pillars. This hall had been
+erected in a year, at a cost of $1,700,000.
+
+In the Main Building manufactures were exhibited, also products of the
+mine, along with various other evidences of the condition of science and
+education. The broad aisles ran the whole length of the interior,
+flanked on either side by exhibits. More than one-third of the space
+was reserved for the United States, the rest being divided in varying
+proportions among foreign countries. The products of all climates,
+tribes, and times were here crowded together under one roof. The mighty
+states of Great Britain, France, and Germany exhibited the work of their
+myriad roaring looms side by side with the wares of the Hawaiian Islands
+and the little Orange Free State. Here were the furs of Russia with
+other articles from the frozen North; there the flashing diamonds of
+Brazil and the rich shawls and waving plumes of India. At a step one
+passed from old Egypt to the latest-born South American republic.
+Chinese conservatism and Yankee enterprise confronted each other across
+the aisle. All civilized nations but Greece were represented--more than
+ever before took part in an international fair.
+
+From the novelty of the foreign display the American visitor returned
+proudly to the display made by his own land. Textiles, metal work, arms
+and tools, musical instruments, watches, carriages, cutlery, books, and
+furniture--a bewildering array of all things useful and ornamental--made
+Americans realize as never before the wealth, intelligence, and
+enterprise of their native country and the proud station she had taken
+among the nations of earth.
+
+Machinery Hall came next to the Main Building in size. Of plain
+architecture, built of wood, with iron ties, 1,402 feet by 360, it
+covered, with an annex, about thirteen acres. Here, with infinite
+clatter and roar, thousands of iron slaves worked their master's will.
+Three-fourths of the space was taken up with American machines. Visitors
+from the foremost foreign nations marvelled at the ingenuity of the
+Yankee mind here displayed. Great Britain led the foreign nations in the
+size and number of articles exhibited. Canada, France, Russia, Sweden,
+Brazil, and other countries sent ingenious or powerful machines.
+
+But as a Titan, towering above all these and all others, stood the great
+Corliss engine, built by George H. Corliss, of Providence, R. I., one of
+the most remarkable mechanicians and inventors of the century. A modern
+Samson, dumb as well as blind, its massive limbs of shining steel moved
+with voiceless grace and utmost apparent ease, driving the miles of
+shafting and the thousands of connected machines. The cylinders were
+forty inches in diameter; the piston stroke, ten feet. The great
+walking-beams, nine feet wide in the centre, weighed eleven tons each.
+The massive fly-wheel, thirty feet in diameter, and weighing fifty-six
+tons, made thirty-six revolutions a minute. The whole engine, with the
+strength of 1,400 horses, weighed 700 tons.
+
+Agricultural Hall, built of wood and glass in the form of a nave with
+three transepts, covered ten acres. The display it contained of
+agricultural products and implements was the largest ever made. Here the
+United States stood forth far in advance of all sister nations.
+Specimens of the rich and deep prairie soil excited the wonder and envy
+of tillers of impoverished European lands. The great West, with its
+monster steam-ploughs and threshing machines, placed before the eye the
+farming methods of a race of giants. The choice and delicate fruits of
+sunny lands mingled with the hardy cereals of Canada and Russia.
+
+Memorial Hall, a beautiful permanent building of granite, erected by
+Pennsylvania and Philadelphia at a cost of $1,500,000, was given up to
+art. This was on the whole the poorest feature of the Exposition.
+America had few works of the first order to show. Foreign nations, with
+the exception of England, feared to send their choicest art products
+across the ocean. France, Germany, Spain, Belgium, and the Netherlands,
+with some other countries, were all represented. Italy, besides
+paintings, sent many pieces of sculpture. England contributed a noble
+lot of paintings, including works by Gainsborough and Reynolds. In spite
+of all, the collection was the largest and most notable ever seen in
+this country, and throngs crowded the galleries.
+
+Horticultural Hall, built of iron and glass in the Moorish style of the
+twelfth century, also a permanent structure, was erected by
+Philadelphia. Here, one walked amid the glories of tropical vegetation.
+Palm, orange, lemon, camphor, and india-rubber trees rose on every hand.
+The cactus of the desert, rare English flowering plants, strange growths
+from islands of the sea, here flourished each in its peculiar soil and
+climate. Outside the building were beds of hardy flowering plants
+covering twenty-five acres. Besides these five main structures, the
+United States Building, where the working of the various administrative
+departments of the Government was shown, attracted thousands of visitors
+daily. A Woman's Pavilion contained products of female industry and
+skill. A narrow-gauge railway ran in great loops from building to
+building.
+
+Twenty-six States erected buildings of their own. These served mainly as
+headquarters, but two or three contained large exhibits of state
+products. Thirty or more buildings were put up by private enterprise to
+illustrate various manufacturing and industrial processes. Before the
+close of the Exposition more than two hundred buildings stood within the
+enclosure. Several foreign Governments erected small structures of
+various sorts.
+
+Through the summer months, in spite of the unusual heat that season,
+thousands of pilgrims from all parts of the country found their way to
+this shrine of the world's progress. The quiet old Quaker city was moved
+with unwonted life. Amidst the crowds of new-comers its citizens became
+strangers in their own streets.
+
+On July 4th, simple but impressive ceremonies were held in the public
+square at the rear of Independence Hall. On temporary platforms sat
+5,000 distinguished guests, and a chorus of 1,200 singers. The square
+and the neighboring streets were filled with a dense throng. Richard
+Henry Lee, grandson of the mover of the Declaration of Independence,
+came to the front with the original document in his hands. At sight of
+that yellow and wrinkled paper, the vast audience burst forth into
+prolonged cheering. Mr. Lee then read the Declaration. The recitation of
+an ode by Bayard Taylor and the delivery of an oration by Hon. William
+M. Evarts were the other main features of the exercises.
+
+Through the early fall the interest in the Exposition spread farther and
+farther over the land, and the attendance steadily increased. On
+September 28th, Pennsylvania day, 275,000 persons passed through the
+gates. During October, the visitors numbered over 2,500,000. From May
+10th to November 10th, the total admissions were 9,900,000; 8,000,000
+admission fees were collected, amounting to $3,800,000. The fair was
+brought to an end on November 10th. After brief closing exercises,
+President Grant gave the signal to stop the Corliss engine. The giant
+slowly came to a standstill, the hum of the machinery died away, and the
+International Exhibition of 1876 was closed.
+
+The Centennial Exposition was not a complete financial success. After
+returning the United States loan of $1,500,000, the stockholders could
+not be paid in full. The attendance was, however, larger in the
+aggregate than at any previous international exhibition, except that of
+Paris in 1867. The admissions there reached 10,200,000, but the gates
+were open fifty-one days longer than at Philadelphia. At Vienna, in
+1873, there were but 7,255,000 admissions in 186 days against 159 days
+at Philadelphia.
+
+The larger and more important results of this exposition cannot be
+measured with precision. A thousand silent influences were set at work
+upon our social, intellectual, and political life, which operated in
+secret for years afterward. The most obvious, and perhaps the most
+important, effect was the broadening of sympathies and mental outlook.
+Visitors to Philadelphia got something of the benefit of foreign travel.
+Local prejudices were broken down. New ideas of life and civilization
+were planted in hitherto sterile minds. The plodding Eastern farmer
+caught something of the Westerner's dash and swing. North and South,
+East and West, drew nearer together. A narrow patriotism caught glimpses
+of a great and noble world without.
+
+These influences touched the most careless observer. Special classes
+derived each a peculiar benefit. Mechanical invention was stimulated.
+Art received an impetus which can never cease to be felt. To our
+household art, especially, came much quickening from the sight of
+England's beautiful display of home decorations.
+
+The Exposition exalted the United States in the eyes of her foreign
+guests. Many were amazed at such proofs of the wealth, intelligence, and
+progressive spirit of the great republic. A correspondent of the London
+Times wrote, in 1876: "The American invents as the Greek sculptured and
+the Italian painted; it is genius." We may hope that the exhibits were
+educators to Europe as well as to America.
+
+Lastly, the American returned from the great fair with an opinion of his
+own country which, if more sober and just than he had previously
+entertained, was not less proud but far prouder. The Nation laid aside
+its holiday attire, and, despite manifest defects and dangers in our
+national life, settled down to another century of work with increased
+pride in its past and stronger confidence for its future.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ECONOMIC POLITICS
+
+[1887]
+
+The enormous strides with which we paid off our war debt amazed the
+world. The debt had reached its highest point in August, 1865. At that
+date the figure was $2,844,649,626, or, for the interest-bearing part
+alone, $2,381,530,294, The total interest-bearing debt on April 30,
+1888, was only $1,038,199,762. At the end of that fiscal year, June 30,
+1888, the debt, less cash in the treasury, amounted to $1,165,584,656.
+Its items at this time were $222,207,050 in bonds at 4-1/2 per cent.,
+payable in 1891; $714,315,450 in four per cent. bonds, payable in 1907;
+four per cent. refunding certificates amounting to $141,300; the three
+per cent. navy pension fund of $14,000,000, and the Pacific Railway six
+per cent. bonds, $64,623,512. Thus on June 30,1888, more than half of
+the largest total had been paid off, and the net debt, aside from the
+Pacific Railway bonds, which that corporation was to pay, having fallen
+to below a billion. The reduction proceeded for the entire twenty-three
+years between the first and last dates named, at an average rate of
+$62,906,975 yearly, or $5,225,581 each month, $174,186 each day, $7,258
+each hour, and $120.47 each minute.
+
+The interest-bearing legal tender notes were first paid off. Greenbacks,
+or non interest-bearing legal tenders were still, October 1, 1894,
+outstanding to the amount of $346,681,000; yet this division of the
+debt, too, had been vastly reduced, having stood at $433,160,569 on
+August 31, 1865.
+
+To the bonded obligations of the country the policy of refunding was
+early applied, bonds of high rates being called in so soon as callable,
+and replaced by others bearing lower rates. The income of the Government
+was so immense that it proved unfortunate to have set so late a date as
+1891 for the time at which the 4-1/2's could be paid off. To fix the
+date of maturity for the 4's in 1907 was, of course, worse still. The
+three per cents. of 1882, which supplanted earlier issues, were
+fortunately made payable at the Government's option, and on May 20,
+1887, the Secretary of the Treasury issued a call for the last of them,
+amounting to $19,717,500, interest to cease with the first of the next
+July.
+
+From this time there were no bonds subject to par payment at the
+discretion of the Government, and as revenues were vast the surplus
+began to pile up in the treasury. December 1, 1887, after every possible
+obligation of the Government had been provided for, $55,258,701
+remained, a sum increased by the end of that fiscal year, namely, June
+30, 1888, spite of considerable amounts in long bonds purchased at high
+rates, to $103,220,464, There was no method at once legal and economical
+for paying this out. The Secretary could of course buy 4's and 4-1/2's
+in the open market, and during 1888 this was to some extent done.
+Obviously, if entered upon in a large way, it must have greatly carried
+up the price of those bonds. The question how to limit the surplus, how
+to keep the money of the country from becoming locked up in the treasury
+and sub-treasuries of the United States, was thus a grave one, and
+entered hotly into the political campaign of the last-named year.
+
+[1890]
+
+On June 30, 1890, $109,015,750 in the 4-1/2 per cent. bonds, redeemable
+September 1, 1891, were still outstanding. By April 1, 1891, they had,
+by redemption or purchase, been reduced to $53,854,250, of which
+one-half in value was held by national banks, to sustain their
+circulation. To avoid contracting this circulation the Secretary of the
+Treasury permitted holders of these bonds to retain them and receive
+interest at two per cent. About $25,364,500 was so continued. Interest
+on the remainder ceased at their maturity, and nearly all were soon paid
+off. The bonds continued at two per cent. were all along quoted at par,
+though payable at the will of the Government, revealing a national
+credit never excelled in history. The national debt, less cash in the
+treasury, stood on July 1, 1894, after an increase during the previous
+fiscal year of $60,000,000, at $899,313,381.
+
+The old tariff issue had emerged again soon after the end of the war.
+The Morrill tariff of 1861 about restored the rates of 1846, and even
+those rates had, on many things, been very decidedly increased during
+the war. Still further protective duties had been laid in the course of
+the war, called compensating duties, to offset the internal revenues
+which burdened manufacturers in various ways. After the war the internal
+taxes were nearly all swept away at the earliest possible moment, until,
+after July 1, 1883, only spirits, fermented liquors, tobacco, banks and
+bankers yielded internal revenue. Customs duties were also removed from
+nearly all so-called revenue articles, as spices, tea, and coffee, not
+produced in this country--the tax, therefore, not being of a protective
+nature. Slight reductions were, indeed, made in protective duties, first
+in 1872--replaced, however, almost entirely in 1875--and again in 1883.
+The act of 1883 lowered protection less than appeared, and its rates on
+woollens, high grade cottons, iron ore, steel, and a few other articles,
+were now made even higher than the same had previously borne. It will be
+seen that our policy during the years under survey was to limit national
+income sufficiently without lowering or removing any protective duties.
+
+In the republican platform of 1888 this policy was explicitly avowed. At
+that time, as next to nothing could at present be done to pay off the
+national indebtedness, both parties had to admit that some measure was
+needed to lessen the revenue. The republican plan was to effect the
+reduction mainly by lowering or removing the remaining internal taxes,
+the democratic to secure the same result by changes in customs duties,
+cutting down rates and enlarging the free list. President Cleveland's
+message to Congress in December 1887, stated the issue with great
+clearness, and this issue was the main one which divided the two parties
+in the presidential election of the ensuing year.
+
+Anticipating a little we may remark in this place that the Republicans,
+having acquired control of all three legislative branches of the
+Government, passed, in 1890, the McKinley Tariff Act, considerably
+raising rates, though somewhat enlarging the free list. It removed the
+duty from raw sugar, affixing a bounty to the production of sugar in the
+United States. But in 1892 the Democrats again acquired power, electing
+Mr. Cleveland and controlling the Senate. In 1894 they passed the
+Wilson-Senate Tariff Act, greatly reducing rates in general, and
+free-listing the important commodities of wool, salt, and lumber. Raw
+sugar was now taxed again, and the bounty upon its production abolished.
+
+[1873]
+
+The revenue question in this campaign was not a little complicated by
+the existence of numerous and powerful Trusts, which anti-protectionists
+believed to be fostered by our high tariff. The Trust System arose about
+1876, and in the course of a few years almost every great enterprise in
+the land was carried on under the form of a trust. The principal
+corporations or men engaged in an industry would enter into combination,
+more or less informal, for the regulation of production and prices.
+Usually the result was an elevation of prices, and where the trust
+constituted a necessary monopoly this rise might be indefinitely
+perpetuated. High tariff as well as low tariff newspapers made great
+outcry against these monopolies. The latter urged that a reduced tariff,
+forcing these businesses more into competition with corresponding
+producers abroad, was the only thing needful to break their solidarity
+and consequent power. Advocates of high tariff denied this.
+
+[1878]
+
+The old silver dollar, "the Dollar of the Fathers," had, until 1873,
+never ceased to be full legal tender, although it had since 1853 been
+too valuable as compared with the gold dollar to circulate much. In 1873
+a law was passed demonetizing it, and making gold the exclusive form of
+United States hard money. The new German Empire did the same this very
+year. There at once began a great apparent depreciation of silver in
+comparison with gold at the historic ratio. For a long time this change
+involved no decrease in the value or purchasing power of silver even in
+the form of bullion, but consisted rather in a rise of the value of
+gold.
+
+In view of this, as all the Government bonds outstanding in 1873 had
+been made payable in coin, it was as good as universally believed in
+most sections of the Union that the demonetizing of silver, if persisted
+in, would work hardship to taxpayers in liquidating the national debt. A
+bill was therefore brought forward, and in 1878 passed, restoring to the
+silver dollar its full legal tender character. In this legislation,
+however, so great was the then disparity in value between gold and
+silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, Congress did not venture to give back to
+the white metal the right of free coinage, but instead required the
+Secretary of the Treasury to purchase monthly not less than $2,000,000
+worth of silver and coin it into dollars.
+
+The act was disapproved by President Hayes, but immediately passed over
+his veto, February 28, 1878. The advocates of gold monometallism
+believed that the issue of these dollars would speedily drive gold from
+the country. Owing to the limitation of the new coinage no such effect
+was experienced, and the silver dollars, or the certificates
+representing them, floated at par with gold, which, indeed, far from
+leaving the country, was imported in vast amounts nearly every year.
+After 1880 the money in circulation in the United States was gold coin,
+silver coin gold certificates, greenbacks or United States notes, and
+the notes of the national banks. The so-called Sherman Law, of 1890,
+added a new category, the treasury notes issued in payment for silver
+bullion. It stopped the compulsory coinage of full-tender silver, though
+continuing and much increasing the purchase of silver bullion by the
+Government. The repeal of the purchase clause of this law, in 1893, put
+an end to the acquisition of silver by the United States.
+
+[1879]
+
+January 1, 1879, the next year after the silver bill was passed, the
+United States, under the Resumption Act of January 14, 1875, began again
+the payment, which had been suspended ever since 1862, of specie in
+liquidation of greenbacks. The possibility of this had been under
+discussion for some years, and was disbelieved in by many thoughtful
+financiers and public men. The credit of the momentous step was mostly
+due to John Sherman, Secretary of the Treasury in the cabinet of
+President Hayes. He believed resumption to be as possible as it was
+important. By the sale of 4-1/2 per cent. bonds redeemable in 1891, he
+had accumulated before the appointed day $ 138,000,000 of coin, nearly
+all in gold, amounting to about forty per cent. of the greenbacks then
+outstanding.
+
+Resumption proved easier than even he anticipated. The greenbacks had
+risen to par--the first time in seventeen years--December 18th,
+thirteen days before the date fixed for beginning gold payments, and
+when the day arrived only straggling applications for coin were made,
+less in amount than was asked for in greenbacks as interest by
+bondholders, who could have demanded coin. During the entire year only
+$11,456,536 in greenbacks were offered for redemption, while over
+$250,000,000 in them were paid out in coin obligations. It was found
+that people preferred paper to metal money, and had no wish for gold
+instead of notes when assured that the exchange could be made at their
+option. Notwithstanding our acceptance of greenbacks for
+customs--$109,467,456 during 1879--the treasury at the end of that year
+experienced a dearth of these and a plethora of coin, having actually to
+force debtors to receive hard money.
+
+[1876-1877]
+
+Such popularity of the greenbacks stimulated to fresh life the "fiat
+greenback" theory, long in vogue and very influential in many parts of
+the country. Its pith lay in the proposition that money requires in its
+material no intrinsic value, its worth and purchasing power coming
+entirely from the "fiat" of the government issuing it, so that paper
+money put forth by authority of a solvent and powerful government will
+be the peer of gold. This idea was the rallying point of the National
+Labor Greenback Party, organized at its Indianapolis convention, May 17,
+1876, when Peter Cooper was put in nomination for President. At the
+subsequent presidential election in November, he received 82,640 votes.
+The next year his party polled 187,095 votes; in 1878, 1,000,365.
+
+From the moment of its issue, there had been in the country many who
+went to the opposite extreme with reference to the greenback. They
+believed it unconstitutional and pernicious, a menace to the nation's
+credit and financial weal. The question came to the Supreme Court during
+the war, and this form of contracting debt on the part of the Government
+was then justified as a war measure. When the war was over the question
+whether the greenback's legal tender quality could still be maintained,
+also had to be passed upon by the court. The first decision was in the
+negative, but it was subsequently reversed. Still a third question was
+whether a man could be forced to take greenbacks in liquidation of debt
+after the resumption of specie payments. This was tried out in the
+famous case of Juilliard vs. Greenman, and the decision was, as on the
+other two occasions, in favor of the greenback. In spite of all this,
+however, the zeal for the fiat or non-promissory theory and practice of
+paper money almost totally died away after about 1880.
+
+The most desperate and extensive strike that had yet occurred in this
+country was that of 1877, by the employees of the principal railway
+trunk lines, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the New
+York Central, and their western prolongations. At a preconcerted time
+junctions and other main points were seized. Freight traffic on the
+roads named was entirely suspended, and the passenger and mail service
+greatly impeded. When new employees sought to work, militia and United
+States troops had to be called out to preserve order. Baltimore and
+Pittsburgh were each the scene of a bloody riot. At the latter place,
+where the mob was immense and most furious, the militia were overcome
+and besieged in a roundhouse, which it was then attempted to burn by
+lighting oil cars and pushing them against it. Fortunately the soldiers
+escaped across the river. The torch was applied freely and with dreadful
+effect. Machine-shops, warehouses, and 2,000 freight-cars were pillaged
+or burnt. The loss of property was estimated at $10,000,000. In
+disturbances at Chicago nineteen were killed, at Baltimore nine, at
+Reading thirteen, and thrice as many wounded. One hundred thousand
+laborers were believed to have taken part in the movement, and at one
+time or another 6,000 or 7,000 miles of road were in their power. The
+agitation began on July 14th and was serious till the 27th, but had
+mostly died away by the end of the month, the laborers nearly all
+returning to their work.
+
+Hosts of Pennsylvania miners went out along with the railroad men. The
+railway strike itself was largely sympathetic, the ten per cent.
+reduction in wages assigned as its cause applying to comparatively few.
+The next decade witnessed continual troubles of this sort, though rarely
+if in any case so serious, between wage-workers and their employers in
+nearly all industries. The worst ones befell the manufacturing portions
+of the country. Strikes and lock-outs were part of the news almost every
+day. The causes were various. One lay in the vast numbers of immigrants
+hither and the low, ignorant character of many of them--clay for the
+hand of the first unscrupulous demagogue.
+
+Another cause was the wide and sedulous inculcation in this country of
+the communist and anarchist doctrines long prevalent in Europe.
+Influences concurrent with both these were the actual injustice and the
+proud, overbearing manner of many employers. Capital had been mismanaged
+and wasted. The war had brought unearned fortunes to many, sudden wealth
+to a much larger number, while the unexampled prosperity of the country
+raised up in a perfectly normal manner a wealthy class, the like of
+which, in number and power, our country had never known before. As
+therefore immigration along with much else multiplied the poor, the
+eternal, angry strife of wealth with poverty, of high with low, of
+classes with masses, crossed over from Europe and began on our shores.
+
+The rise of trusts and gigantic corporations was connected with this
+struggle. Corporations worth nigh half a billion dollars apiece were
+able to buy or defy legislatures and make or break laws as they pleased;
+and as such corporations, instead of individuals, more and more became
+the employers of labor, not only did the old-time kindliness between
+help and hirers die out, but men the most cool and intelligent feared
+the new power as a menace to democracy. Strikes therefore commanded
+large public sympathy. Stock-watering and other vicious practices,
+involving the ruin of corporations themselves by the few holders of a
+majority of the shares, in order to re-purchase the property for next to
+nothing, contributed to this hostility; as did the presence in many
+great corporations of foreign capital and capitalists, and also the
+mutual favoritism of corporations, showing itself, for instance, in
+special freight rates to privileged concerns. Minor interests and
+individual employees, powerless against these Titan agencies by any of
+the old legal processes, resorted to counter organization.
+
+The Patrons of Husbandry grew up in the West, with influence longer than
+the Order's nominal life, of which the often unwise "Granger" railroad
+legislation was one sign. In the East trades-unions secured rank
+development, and the Knights of Labor, intended as a sort of Union of
+them all, attained in 1887 a membership of a million. The manufacturers'
+"black list," to prevent any "agitator" laborer from securing work, was
+answered by the "boycott," to keep the products of obnoxious
+establishments from finding sale. Labor organizations, so strong, often
+tyrannized over their own members, and boycotting became a nuisance that
+had to be abated by law.
+
+[1880]
+
+Labor agitation had of late years become greatly easier owing to the
+extraordinarily increased percentage of our urban population. In 1790
+only 3.3 per cent. of the people in the country lived in places of 8,000
+inhabitants and upward, and so late as 1840 only 8.5 per cent. In 1850
+the percentage was 12.5; in 1860, 16.1; in 1870, 20.9; in 1880, 22.5;
+and in 1890, 29.2. The year 1880 saw within our borders twenty cities
+each with a population of over 100,000; 286 each with over 8,000. In
+1890 there were twenty-eight cities each having 100,000 inhabitants or
+more, and 448 having 8,000 or more. It was mostly manufacturing and
+mechanical industry which thus brought these hordes of human beings
+together.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE MARCH OF INDUSTRY
+
+[1869]
+
+We can give but little idea of the advance in industrial artifice and
+appliances of all kinds made in the United States in the two decades
+after the Civil War. Take it first in textile manufacturing. A century
+earlier one person in every family had to work incessantly at spinning
+and weaving to keep the whole of them in clothing. Now one day's work a
+year per person sufficed for this. The speed of spindles had risen since
+1860 from 5,000 to 7,500 revolutions a minute. Looms had gone from 120
+picks to 160, and one hand tended from 25 to 50 per cent. more work. The
+"slasher" dresser accomplished ten times more than the old machine,
+supplying 400 looms in place of forty, and requiring to manage it only
+one man and a boy instead of two men and ten girls. A generation earlier
+one operative made three yards an hour, now he made ten. In the twenty
+years under survey the annual production of cotton mills rose from two
+and one-half to three and one-half tons per hand. One man formerly
+tended forty spindles, now he tended sixty. In 1890 a single operative
+in America could make cotton cloth enough to supply 1,500 persons.
+
+
+[Illustration: Large ship.]
+The American Line Steamship St. Louis, launched from the Cramps Docks,
+November 12. 1894.  (554 feet long 11,000 tons, and 20,000 horse-power.)
+
+
+The improvements in woollen, iron, and miscellaneous manufacturing had
+perhaps not been quite as great, but were remarkable notwithstanding.
+Power and automatic machinery were the order of the day. The Corliss
+engine got 23 per cent. more heat and energy from a given amount of coal
+than had ever been obtained before it was invented. Instead of the
+twenty-five days which the first transatlantic steamer required for the
+passage from America to England, many vessels now went from New York to
+Liverpool in considerably less than six days, or at an average rate of
+more than twenty miles an hour. The speed of passenger trains on the
+main railways had doubled. So had the weight of the freight-car load and
+the amount of freight which an engine could pull. The newest locomotives
+weighed nearly or quite one hundred tons each.
+
+In 1869 a submarine cable was laid which joined the United States to the
+continent of Europe. It extended about 3,050 miles, from Duxbury, Mass.,
+to Brest, France, via the Island of St. Pierre, south of Newfoundland.
+The company owning the cable was chartered by the waning empire of Louis
+Napoleon. In 1875 a new cable was stretched between the United States
+and Great Britain. It was called the United States Direct Cable, and at
+first operated in opposition to the original one. The rates for cable
+messages were greatly reduced in consequence. The price, once ten
+dollars a word, fell in anticipation of the competition to fifty cents,
+and to twenty-five after the competition actually began. The two
+Anglo-American lines were subsequently united.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Cornelius Vanderbilt.
+
+
+[1863-1869]
+
+The year 1869 witnessed the junction of the Union Pacific with the
+Central Pacific Railway, forming a continuous railway line between the
+Atlantic and Pacific shores. The last rail was put down on May 12th, and
+on the 15th trains began to run. This work had been in process of
+construction ever since 1863. It traversed the Rocky Mountain range at
+an elevation of 8,243 feet above sea-level. The Northern Pacific Railway
+Company was chartered by Congress in 1864. The road was not completed
+till August, 1883, nor opened to traffic before September. Its length
+from Duluth to its then terminus on the Columbia River, Washington, was
+1,674 miles. The Southern Pacific and the Atlantic and Pacific, both
+traversing the Rockies, soon followed. Still another line, the Great
+Northern, connecting St. Paul with the extreme Northwest, was opened in
+1893. The country's total railway mileage in 1885 was 128,967 miles; in
+1893 it was 170,607 miles.
+
+In the same years with the opening of these continental lines began the
+consolidation of the older ones into great systems. The New York Central
+had already been formed out of sixteen different fragments, but the
+process of consolidation in a large way may be said to have been
+instituted by Cornelius Vanderbilt in 1869, when he joined the Lake
+Shore and Michigan Southern with the New York Central, thus placing
+under a single administration the entire route from New York to Chicago.
+The first train pierced the Hoosac Tunnel, in Western Massachusetts,
+February 9, 1875, completing another artery between East and West. The
+tunnel passed through the Hoosac Mountain, a distance of four miles and
+three-quarters, and had been in process of boring, though not
+continuously, about fifteen years.
+
+
+[Illustration: Rail line looping through a steep, narrow valley.]
+The Big Loop on the Georgetown Branch of the Union Pacific, Colorado.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Charles F. Brush.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Moses G. Farmer.
+
+
+[1875-1878]
+
+The lighting of large spaces by electricity in a profitable manner may
+be dated from 1875. The possibility of producing a brilliant light with
+this fluid had been well known to physicists ever since Sir Humphry
+Davy's experiments in 1813, but no method of generating the electricity
+cheaply had hitherto been invented. Utilizing among others the
+inventions of Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. Charles G. Brush, of Cleveland, 0.,
+gave to the world in 1875 his remarkably efficient dynamo or generator,
+and from that time the illumination of streets and squares by
+electricity began to be somewhat common. There was, to be sure another
+difficulty to be overcome, even for lighting on a grand scale, that of
+maintaining a steady and continuous light. In this the Jablochkoff
+candle, used in the Paris streets by 1878, was measurably successful. It
+was a voltaic arc arrangement, in which, by making each of the two
+carbon pencils alternately positive and negative, their ends were
+consumed with equal rapidity and so kept perpetually the same distance
+apart.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+Thomas A. Edison.
+
+
+[Illustration: Three men watching a train passing through a long tunnel.]
+The Hoosac Tunnel Lit by Glow Lamps, after the Plan of the Marr
+Construction Company.
+
+
+But the voltaic light was too brilliant for a small area. How to divide
+and subdue it so as to render it suitable for house lighting, was still
+a difficult problem. Farmer, Sawyer, Mann, and Edison, all attacked it
+at nearly the same time, going back with singular accord from the
+voltaic arc principle to that of incandescence in a vacuum. Edison, the
+prodigy of the century in inventive genius, was the most successful.
+Besides improving the dynamo, he perfected with little difficulty a
+cheap vacuum-globe.  After long experimenting he succeeded in the more
+arduous task of securing an automatic checking of the current before it
+became hot enough to consume the incandescent carbon. He also found that
+a large current could be divided into smaller ones by splitting up the
+conductor into minor filaments. Triumph in household illumination was
+thus achieved, and when, in October, 1878, the results of Edison's
+experimenting were announced to the world, gas fell from twelve to
+twenty per cent. The alarm was premature, however, since the new
+illumination did not, after all, prove so satisfactory as to displace
+the old. It largely did so for streets, factories, and halls, but to no
+very great extent for residences.
+
+
+[Illustration: Drawing of lamp.]
+Edison's Platinum Lamp on Carbon Support, 1879.
+
+
+[Illustration: Drawing of lamp.]
+Edison's Paper Carbon Lamp.
+
+
+[Illustration: Drawing of lamp.]
+Edison's First Incandescent Platinum Lamp.
+
+
+[1883-1884]
+
+The most stupendous engineering work yet accomplished by man, the great
+bridge spanning East River between Brooklyn and New York, was completed
+in May, 1883, excavations for its foundations having begun so early as
+1870. This wonder of the world was designed by John A. Roebling, and
+after his death in 1869 finished by his son, W. A. Roebling.  It cost
+about $16,000,000, two-thirds coming from the city of Brooklyn,
+one-third from New York. A gigantic stone tower, 277 feet high, was
+built on each side of the river. Through arched apertures in these
+toward the top ran the roadway, its ends being 119 feet above the water.
+The centre of the bridge was supported by four steel wire cables, 16
+inches in diameter, which passed from solid masonry structures nearly
+1,000 feet away from the water's edge on either shore, up over the two
+towers, dipping, at the centre of the river, to nearly the level of the
+roadway. On account of their great weight they had to be braided, strand
+by strand, in their permanent position. Suspenders from these cables
+grappled the body of the bridge at frequent intervals. The main span was
+I,595-1/2 feet long, the entire work about 6,000 feet. There were five
+passageways--two on the outside for carriages, the next two for cable
+cars, the middle one for foot passengers. The bridge curved upward from
+each tower, being at the middle 135 feet above the water in summer, and
+three feet higher in winter, owing to contraction by the cold. All but
+the very largest ships sailed under without shortening their masts.
+
+In connection with the great bridge, as likewise in a way possessing an
+importance for the whole nation, we may mention the ingenious deepening
+of Hell-gate Channel, East River, by tunnelling beneath the water and
+using dynamite; and also the introduction of elevated railways in New
+York City and Brooklyn. This project had been mooted by 1868. Exactly
+ten years later two sections of railway were open for travel in New
+York. The first elevated road in Brooklyn began operation in 1885. These
+new avenues of travel at once became immensely popular. In 1884, no
+fewer than 250 engines and 800 cars were in use by the New York lines,
+carrying over 300,000 passengers daily, or about 103,000,000 for the
+year. Nearly at the same time with the introduction of these roads in
+New York, new methods of traction for surface street railways, by
+electricity and by cable, were introduced in various cities of the
+country, bidding fair soon to do away with horses for this service.
+
+
+[Illustration: Bridge and surrounding city.]
+The Brooklyn Bridge, looking up the East River.
+
+
+[Illustration: Tracks elevated about 30 feet on iron beams.]
+The Manhattan Elevated Railway, New York.
+
+
+[1877-1887]
+
+One of the most interesting and valuable inventions of this or any
+century was that of the telephone, devised by Alexander Graham Bell, and
+first put to business use in 1877. For ten years Mr. Bell had been
+experimenting upon the possibility of conveying sound by means of the
+electric wire. In 1876 he had so far succeeded as to exhibit a pair of
+his instruments in successful operation at the Philadelphia Centennial
+Exhibition. In April of the next year the Cambridge Water Board, the
+Pennsylvania Railroad, and many other corporations ordered the
+instrument for practical service. From this time the business grew with
+incredible rapidity. The American Bell Telephone Company was
+incorporated, and in January, 1886, had in use 330,000 telephones. There
+were this year in various cities of the United States 752 telephone
+exchanges. The total length of telephone wires operated by this company
+was 114,371 miles. In addition to the system which centred in the Bell
+Company there were several competing telephone establishments in
+continual litigation with the Bell. The total mileage of telephone wires
+in the United States in 1887 was estimated at 130,000 miles. There were
+the same year 170,000 miles of telegraph wire, besides private lines. In
+1893, the aggregate length of telegraph lines in the United States open
+to the public exceeded 210,000 miles. There were, besides, government
+and private lines to a length vast but not ascertainable. In addition to
+all this, the Bell Telephone Company, which conducted the main telephone
+business of the country, owned, the same year, 307,748 miles of wire,
+which the lines of other companies increased to 440,750 miles.
+
+[Illustration: Mass of wiring about 10 by 20 feet.]
+Under Side of a Modern Switchboard, showing 2,000 Telegraph Wires.
+
+
+[1862-1877]
+
+From this account of our country's material advance after the war we
+purposely omit mention of the great economic progress at the South, as
+that has been already reviewed in Chapter IV. We must, instead, notice
+several events which decidedly checked the prosperity of these years.
+
+So soon as gold had ceased to circulate in 1862, speculation in it
+began, which was one of the most pernicious results of the depreciation
+of paper. The ups and downs in the gold price of the greenback from week
+to week and from day to day during the war were largely due to this
+cause. In 1869 a clique of speculators in New York thought to realize an
+immense fortune by cornering gold, a large proportion of the stock east
+of the Rocky Mountains being known to be in New York City.
+
+By Wednesday, September 22d, they had pushed up the price of gold in
+greenbacks from 131 to 141, causing a disastrous tumble in stocks and
+almost a panic. The money market grew tight, and interest enormous.
+Loans were to be had only on the very best securities. On Thursday gold
+still advanced, showing that the corner remained solid. At the last call
+it stood at 144; at the first on Friday, September 24th, 105 was the
+figure. The ring was believed at this time to hold in gold and in
+contracts to deliver the same, over $100,000,000, while all the gold in
+New York outside the United States Sub-Treasury was hardly over
+$10,000,000. Only the Government could break the corner. At eleven
+o'clock gold was at 155, whence in half an hour it rose to 160, then to
+162, then to 164. In the midst of an excitement never paralleled in the
+Gold Room before or since, it was announced on authority that the
+Government would sell. The price at once went down to 135, and the power
+of the clique was instantly broken. This day passed into history under
+the name of "Black Friday."
+
+[Illustration: Several men watching Bell using a phone.]
+Professor Bell Sending the First Message by Long-distance Telephone,
+from New York to Chicago.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hysterical traders shouting and waving their arms. The
+room has a 30 foot ceiling and a balcony. ]
+The New York Gold Room on "Black Friday," September 24, 1869.
+
+
+The Chicago fire of October, 1871, was the most disastrous yet in the
+chronicles of our country. It began in the evening of October 8th and
+raged for over twenty-four hours. According to the best estimates 250
+lives were lost, 98,500 persons made homeless, 17,500 buildings
+consumed, and $192,000,000 worth of property destroyed. The main
+business portion of the city was included in the tract burned. Thirteen
+months later the most destructive conflagration that had ever visited
+Boston swept the district below Washington Street from Summer nearly to
+State, and eastward to the water's edge, being the most solid business
+portion of the city. The loss was placed at $75,000,000.
+
+
+[Illustration: People running away from smoke and fire.]
+A Scene during the Chicago Fire.
+
+
+The shocking destruction of wealth by these fires was part cause of the
+hard times which began in 1873. But others concurred. During 1872 the
+balance of trade was  strongly against the United States. The
+circulation of depreciated paper money had brought to many an apparent
+prosperity which was not real, leading to the free contraction of debts
+by individuals, corporations, towns, cities, and States. An
+unprecedented mileage of railways had just been constructed. During the
+half decade ending with 1873, $1,700,000,000 had thus been spent in the
+country. The supposed wealth of many consisted in the bonds of these
+roads and of other newly created concerns, as mining and manufacturing
+corporations. Thus the entire business of the country was on a basis of
+inflation, and when contraction came by the resumption of specie
+payments and the demonetization of silver, disaster was inevitable.
+
+In the course of the summer solid values began to be hoarded and
+interest rates consequently to rise. In September panic came. Credit in
+business was refused, debtors were pressed for payment, securities were
+rushed into the market and fell greatly in price, railway stocks from
+ten to forty per cent., even United States bonds from five to ten. There
+was a run upon savings banks, many of which succumbed. For ten days,
+beginning September 20th, the New York Stock Exchange had to suspend, so
+dubious was the value of most stock contracts. Manufactured products
+were little salable, and the prices of agricultural painfully sank.
+Factories began to run on short time, many closed entirely, many
+corporations failed. The peculiarity of this crisis was the slowness
+with which it abated. No date indeed can be set as its term, its evil
+effects dragging on through years, so that the ill times of 1893-94 may
+be regarded as the same fever, intermittent in the meantime.
+
+[1880]
+
+Notwithstanding all these drawbacks, the material progress of the United
+States for the two decades which we are studying was something enormous.
+We have no room for details. Our total population by 1880 had swollen to
+50,155,783, by 1890 to 62,622,250. The census valuation of our national
+wealth, which had been for 1860, $16,159,616,068. was, for 1870,
+$30,068,518,507; for 1880, $43,642,000,000; and for 1890,
+$65,037,091,197. The per capita wealth was, according to the census of
+1860, $514, by that of 1870, $780, by that of 1880, $870, by that of
+1890, $1,036. In 1870 the United States was in wealth the third nation
+on the globe; in 1880 it had distanced France and stood second. "The
+country whose population has been developed within two hundred and
+eighty years, does already one-third of the world's mining, one-fourth
+of its manufacturing, and one-fifth of its agriculture; and at least
+one-sixth of the world's wealth is already concentrated in the strip of
+territory in Central North America which is the home of the United
+States." These words were written after the census of 1880. Still
+stronger ones would have been true in 1895.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+END OF THE PERIOD
+
+[1890]
+
+It is a long way that we have taken the reader, from the days of
+Columbus to where we can espy the dawn of the twentieth century. Yet, in
+comparison with the times which our narrative has here reached, those of
+three decades earlier would seem almost as remote as Columbus's own, so
+swiftly did the wheels of progress turn. Everything declared that a new
+age had opened. In addition to the signs of this which have been set
+down in the preceding chapters, we have only space for the bare mention
+of a few others.
+
+In 1888 the United States mails flew from point to point across the
+continent with a rapidity which would have astounded people so few years
+back as the close of the war. Their distribution effected through the
+post-office cars that ran on all the main lines and by immediate
+delivery in cities and large towns, was quite as great an improvement as
+the speed. The postal-car system had origin in Chicago in 1864,
+spreading thence East and West. Speedy delivery was introduced in 1886.
+Postal rates were lower than ever before, and destined soon to be lower
+still. Much business formerly left to the express companies was now done
+by mail, and much carried on in this way which formerly was not done at
+all.
+
+Our country had developed an attention to art in all its forms far
+beyond anything of the kind to be observed at the end of the war. In all
+the principal cities concerts of the highest order were provided and
+numerously attended. Our art galleries already vied with many of those
+in the Old World. Students of art were found in abundance in our own
+multiplying schools for them, while many from this country sought art
+instruction in Europe. Not a few Americans attained eminence in this
+department year by year. In one artistic line we already excelled every
+other people, viz., the application of the principles of taste in
+beautifying homes, churches, structures intended for business, such as
+exchanges, railway stations, and bridges, cars, and all kinds of
+machinery. We led the world, too, in propriety and neatness of apparel,
+at least, for men.
+
+After the war the right to vote was extended in nearly all the States,
+until by 1890 manhood suffrage was legally the rule from North to South
+and from East to West. In this, indeed, we were only keeping pace with
+Great Britain, France, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. The agitation
+for woman's suffrage had, however, progressed further here than in any
+other land. There was a large party, quasi-political, intent upon
+bringing it about. A national convention was held in that interest each
+year. In Wyoming and Utah the suffrage had already been enjoyed by women
+since 1869. In Kansas, by a law going into effect February 16, 1887,
+they voted on all municipal affairs. In many other localities they had
+the privilege of voting on certain questions, as the election of school
+committees, and were eligible to membership in these committees.
+Occupations of honor and profit were, more and more as the years passed,
+open to the female sex. Women preached, practised law and medicine, and
+furnished many of the best bookkeepers, sales-people, and principals of
+schools. Vassar College, the first institution in the world for the full
+collegiate education of women, was opened in 1861. Smith and Wellesley
+Colleges, for the same, were opened in 1875, Bryn Mawr following in
+1885. Cornell, Michigan, and all the State Universities in the West,
+like a number of the best universities in the East, educated young women
+on the same terms as young men. Harvard opened its Radcliffe College for
+female pupils. At its commencement in 1886, Columbia College, of which
+the Barnard College for women became virtually a part, conferred the
+degree of Doctor in Philosophy upon a woman. Yale University and the
+University of Pennsylvania opened their graduate departments to women on
+the same terms as to men. Brown University did the same, besides
+providing for the undergraduate instruction of women.
+
+
+[Illustration: Man holding his hat, leaning from a moving train.]
+Catching the Mail Pouch from the Crane.
+
+
+Another sign of the times, still more striking, was our advance toward
+socialism and state socialism. This occurred for the most part in ways
+so recondite as to escape observation, yet in many respects the course
+of things in this direction was perfectly obvious. The powerful movement
+for the legal prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxicants was
+one instance. The extension and perfection of our public school system,
+all at the expense of the taxpayers, was another, it being possible by
+1890 in nearly every State for a young person of either sex to secure,
+without paying a cent of tuition money, a better education than the
+finest universities in the land could give a hundred years previous. The
+extent of governmental surveillance over great industries was another
+illustration. The Trusts spoken of in a preceding chapter were
+unhesitatingly assumed to be subject to legislative investigation and
+command. Great corporations and combinations, it was now well
+understood, could not pursue their ends merely for profit, irrespective
+of public interest. The Inter-State Railway Law of February 4, 1887,
+instituting a National Commission, to which all railways crossing state
+lines were responsible for obedience to certain rules which the same law
+enjoined, was the boldest assertion of state supervision yet made; but
+there was a great and growing number of thinkers who believed that mere
+state oversight would not suffice, and that at least gigantic businesses
+like telegraph, railway, and mining, must sooner or later be bought and
+operated out and out by public authority. Nothing had done so much to
+promote this conviction as the rise, procedure, and wealth of these
+Trusts, for from the oppressive greed of many of them no legislative
+regulation seemed sufficient to protect the people.
+
+This tendency to over-exalt the State's industrial function was not the
+only danger which confronted us. Another was that from immigration. So
+enormous was the influx of foreigners that we were threatened with a
+fatal emasculation of our national character. The manner in which we
+incorporated alien elements theretofore was among the wonders of
+history, but it was at least a question whether we could continue to do
+this always. It seemed in part therefore a healthy sentiment which by
+the law of 1882 excluded Chinese labor-immigrants. New-comers from other
+lands were also refused domicile here if imported under contract,
+[Footnote: Law of February 26, 1885] or unable to support themselves.
+The stronger law against the Chinese at first sight seemed invidious,
+but there was some justification for it in the fact that those people
+almost never settled down permanently as citizens of the United States,
+but returned to their native land so soon as they earned a competence.
+Italians of the lowest class did this to some extent, but the great bulk
+of our foreign-born population came here with the purpose of becoming
+American.
+
+Our Irish-American fellow-citizens gave concern to many. One complaint
+was that they brought hither their anti-English prejudices, by the loud
+and continual assertion of which they tended ever to embroil us with
+England. There proved to be slight danger from this source, particularly
+after the rise of a powerful pro-Irish sentiment and party among the
+English themselves. Others had great fear of the Irish as Catholics,
+they being the chief representatives of that faith in the United States.
+The growth of the Roman Catholic Church in our borders was certainly
+very rapid. An American clergyman, McCloskey, was made Cardinal in 1875.
+A University, subject to the Catholic Church was erected in Washington.
+Catholicism in America was no longer a mission church as it had been
+until quite recently, but had a full national organization as in the
+other great nations of the earth.
+
+A strong movement was developed among the Catholic clergy against our
+common schools as usually administered. Parochial schools were erected
+in most Eastern cities and large towns, and efforts made to fill them
+with children who, but for their existence, would be in the public
+schools. Public schools were denounced as godless because they did not,
+as of course they could not, give positive religious instruction. This
+opposition was doubtless a menace to our time-honored and on the whole
+very efficient school system, so that what the future of this was to be
+no one could confidently predict. It was to be remarked, however, that
+some of the warmest defenders of the public schools appeared in the
+Catholic ranks; nor was there any evidence that, as a class, American
+citizens of Irish birth and descent prized the free institutions of this
+nation a whit less than the rest of the people.
+
+A greater peril beset the nation in the decay which slowly crept over
+our family life. The family has in every civilized age been justly
+regarded as the pillar of the state, but the integrity which it
+possessed among our fathers, their children invaded in many ways.
+Mormonism, decadent if not dead, about which so much had been said, was
+but one of these, and perhaps not the worst. If crimes of a violent
+nature were becoming less frequent, crimes against chastity were on the
+increase. Easy divorce was considerably responsible for this. The
+diversity of marriage and divorce laws in the various States was a great
+abomination. How to remedy it did not appear. Many called for a
+constitutional amendment, lodging solely in Congress the power of making
+laws upon this vital subject.
+
+We proved very fortunate as a people in that our material prosperity
+itself did not prove a greater curse. More than every other disaster was
+to be feared the growth of a temper for mere material thinking and
+enjoyment, the love of lucre and of those merely material comforts and
+delights which lucre can buy. There was among us quite too little care
+for the ideal side of life.  Too many who purchased books loved them
+only for the money they cost. Rich engravings and bindings were often
+sought rather than edifying matter. Costly daubs were purchased at
+enormous prices for lack of true artistic taste or relish. In sadly
+frequent cases the great captain of industry was nothing but a plodder.
+There was too great rush for wealth. We became nervous. Nervous diseases
+increased alarmingly. We read, but only market reports. Think, we did
+not; we only reckoned.
+
+The outlook, notwithstanding, embraced much that was hopeful. Very
+worthful as well as very beautiful was the new sense of nationality that
+had been developed in this country in consequence of the war. While men
+still differed as to the original nature of our Union, while the State
+remained as yet a vital though a decreasingly important organ of the
+political frame, its real status offering to reward study as never
+before because no longer a sectional issue, yet the war, as unmistakably
+pronouncing the national will, laid the question of Nation's supremacy
+over State forever at rest, having hereupon virtually the effect of a
+constitutional amendment. Close construction of the Constitution could
+never again throttle this Union. Whether such quasi-amendment altered
+the Constitution, Stephens's view, or served but to bring out more
+clearly its old meaning, our view, practically the war had entailed
+enormous new exaltation and centralization of the Union, with answering
+subordination of the State.
+
+
+[Illustration: Several people standing outside small domes of snow blocks.]
+Igloos, or Esquimau Huts.
+
+
+[Illustration: Portrait.]
+A. W. Greely.
+
+
+A quickened sense of our duty as a nation might likewise be observed at
+work in various directions. Our treatment of the Indians had been, since
+the administration of President Grant, more humane than ever before.
+Earnest and successful efforts were made, very largely at the national
+expense, to educate them and prepare them for citizenship. They were
+better protected from the rapacity of heartless agents and frontiersmen,
+while the land in severalty legislation of 1887 opened the red man's way
+to the actual attainment of civil rights and to all the advance in
+civilization of which he was capable.
+
+The part which our Government had begun to take in the advancement of
+science was greatly to its credit. We have space to instance only the
+expedition of 1881-1884, headed by Lieutenant Greely, to the northern
+polar regions for scientific observation, reaching a point nearer to the
+pole than had ever before been attained. The whole world admired the
+daring and sympathized with the sufferings of these gallant explorers,
+several of whom perished of cold and hunger before relief reached them,
+the others rescued barely in season to save them from like fate.
+
+The revision of King James's version of our English Bible, New Testament
+finished in 1881, Old Testament in 1885, was an eminent historical event
+falling in this period. American divines took prominent part in it,
+though of course not under any commission from our Government.
+
+Being the most trying crisis ever successfully met by a self-governed
+people, the war lent powerful stimulus and tonic to the cause of free
+institutions everywhere, proving republican loyalty to be as firm and
+trustworthy as monarchical, and government by and for the governed to be
+not necessarily either inefficient or ephemeral. It demonstrated that a
+republic, without lessening its freedom, may become a great military
+power, generals of highest genius passively obeying a popularly elected
+Congress and Executive, these in turn maintaining full mastery, yet not
+hampering military movements.
+
+The achievement of this firmer national unity, with the success and the
+martial and financial prodigies attending the struggle therefor, gave us
+new and far higher place in the esteem of nations, with correspondingly
+enlarged influence in mankind's greater affairs.
+
+By 1890 one might observe a more or less conscious disposition on the
+part of thoughtful Americans to insist that this influence be exerted,
+to have the nation break over the policy wisely laid down by Washington,
+for earlier times, and assert itself more in the Parliament of Man. It
+was felt that our place and power among the nations of the earth had not
+been given us for naught, and that, as the weal of mankind is to a
+considerable degree determined by international politics, we had no
+right longer to hold ourselves aloof from this field. The feeling was
+emphasized by the annihilation of space between us and other nations,
+brought about through steam navigation and ocean telegraphy.
+
+Not only Great Britain and France, but Germany, Russia, and China were
+now at our very doors. They would influence our weal whether or not we
+reacted upon them. Why should we not, without being meddlesome, strive
+to disseminate our ideas, extend our civilization, and make our national
+personality felt? It was to President Arthur's praise that he caused the
+United States to be represented at Berlin in the Congo Conference of
+1884-85. Next, men said, our delegates would be present with voice and
+vote in all regular Congresses of the Great Powers. Americans did not
+prophesy, as more than one voice out of Europe itself had of late done,
+that the United States would some day cross the Atlantic as a conqueror.
+This, indeed, was a somewhat natural thought. The Old World reeled under
+its crushing burden of national debts and military taxes, and in
+material resources could not long compete with us, free from such
+burdens. But the American thought was that we should express our
+superiority in the form of ideas, not of arms, and use it in elevating
+mankind to richer culture and a nobler life.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Volume 4, by 
+E. Benjamin Andrews
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