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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Hiawatha and the Iroquois Confederation, by
+Horatio Hale
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Hiawatha and the Iroquois Confederation
+       A Study in Anthropology. A Paper Read at the Cincinnati Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in August, 1881, under the Title of "A Lawgiver of the Stone Age."
+
+
+Author: Horatio Hale
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 14, 2007  [eBook #22601]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HIAWATHA AND THE IROQUOIS
+CONFEDERATION***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Al Haines from digital material generously made
+available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/hiawathandiroquo00halerich
+
+
+
+
+
+HIAWATHA AND THE IROQUOIS CONFEDERATION.
+
+A Study in Anthropology
+
+by
+
+HORATIO HALE.
+
+A Paper Read at the Cincinnati Meeting of the American Association for
+the Advancement of Science, in August, 1881, under the Title of "A
+Lawgiver of the Stone Age."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Salem, Mass.:
+Printed at the Salem Press.
+1881.
+
+
+
+
+A LAWGIVER OF THE STONE AGE.  By HORATIO HALE, of Clinton, Ontario,
+Canada.
+
+
+What was the intellectual capacity of man when he made his first
+appearance upon the earth?  Or, to speak with more scientific precision
+(as the question relates to material evidences), what were the mental
+powers of the people who fashioned the earliest stone implements, which
+are admitted to be the oldest remaining traces of our kind?  As these
+people were low in the arts of life, were they also low in natural
+capacity?  This is certainly one of the most important questions which
+the science of anthropology has yet to answer.  Of late years the
+prevalent disposition has apparently been to answer it in the
+affirmative.  Primitive man, we are to believe, had a feeble and narrow
+intellect, which in the progress of civilization has been gradually
+strengthened and enlarged.  This conclusion is supposed to be in
+accordance with the development theory; and the distinguished author of
+that theory has seemed to favor this view.  Yet, in fact, the development
+theory has nothing to do with the question.  If we suppose that the
+existing and--so far as we know--the only species of man appeared upon
+the earth with the physical conformation and mental capacity which he
+retains at this day, we make merely the same supposition with regard to
+him that we make with regard to every other existing species of animal.
+How it was that this species came to exist is another question altogether.
+
+Philologists regard it as an established fact that the first people who
+spoke an Aryan language were a tribe of barbarous nomads, who wandered in
+the highlands of central Asia.  Those who have studied the earliest
+products of Aryan genius in the Vedas, the Zend-Avesta, and the Homeric
+songs, will be willing to admit that these wandering barbarians may have
+had minds capable of the highest efforts to which the human intellect is
+known to have attained.  Yet if an irruption of Semitic or Turanian
+conquerors had swept that infant tribe from the earth, no trace of its
+existence beyond a few flint implements, and perhaps some fragments of
+pottery, would have remained to show that such a people had ever existed.
+Have we any reason to doubt that in the course of all the ages, in
+various parts of our globe, many tribes of men may have arisen and
+perished who were in natural capacity as far superior to the primitive
+Aryans as these were to the races who surrounded them?  Under the law of
+the survival of the fittest, it is not the strongest that survive, but
+the strongest of those that are placed in the most favorable
+circumstances.  On any calculation of probabilities, it will seem likely
+enough that among the numberless small societies of men that have
+appeared and vanished in primeval Asia and Europe, in Africa, Australia,
+America, and Polynesia, there may have been some at least equal, if not
+superior, in mental endowments, to that fortunate tribe of central Asia,
+whose posterity has come to be the dominant race of our time.  Among
+their leaders may have been men qualified to rank with the most renowned
+heroes, exemplars, and teachers of the human race--with Moses and Buddha,
+with Confucius and Solon, with Numa, Charlemagne, and Alfred, or (to come
+down to recent times) with the greatest and wisest among the founders of
+the American Republic.  If the possibility of the existence of such men
+under such conditions cannot be denied, the facts which have lately been
+brought to light in regard to one such personage and the community in
+which he lived may have a peculiar interest and significance in their
+bearing on the general question of the mental capacity of uncivilized
+races.
+
+It is well known that the Iroquois tribes, whom our ancestors termed the
+Five Nations, were, when first visited by Europeans, in the precise
+condition which, according to all the evidence we possess, was held by
+the inhabitants of the Old World during what has been designated the
+Stone Age.  Any one who examines the abandoned site of an ancient
+Iroquois town will find there relics of precisely the same cast as those
+which are disinterred from the burial mounds and caves of prehistoric
+Europe,--implements of flint and bone, ornaments of shells, and fragments
+of rude pottery.  Trusting to these evidences alone, he might suppose
+that the people who wrought them were of the humblest grade of intellect.
+But the testimony of historians, of travellers, of missionaries, and
+perhaps his own personal observation, would make him aware that this
+opinion would be erroneous, and that these Indians were, in their own
+way, acute reasoners, eloquent speakers, and most skilful and far-seeing
+politicians.  He would know that for more than a century, though never
+mustering more than five thousand fighting men, they were able to hold
+the balance of power on this continent between France and England; and
+that in a long series of negotiations they proved themselves qualified to
+cope in council with the best diplomatists whom either of those powers
+could depute to deal with them.  It is only recently that we have
+learned, through the researches of a careful and philosophic
+investigator, the Hon. L. H. Morgan, that their internal polity was
+marked by equal wisdom, and had been developed and consolidated into a
+system of government, embodying many of what are deemed the best
+principles and methods of political science,--representation, federation,
+self-government through local and general legislatures,--all resulting in
+personal liberty, combined with strict subordination to public law.  But
+it has not been distinctly known that for many of these advantages the
+Five Nations were indebted to one individual, who bore to them the same
+relation which the great reformers and lawgivers of antiquity bore to the
+communities whose gratitude has made their names illustrious.
+
+A singular fortune has attended the name and memory of Hiawatha.  Though
+actually an historical personage, and not of very ancient date, of whose
+life and deeds many memorials remain, he has been confused with two
+Indian divinities, the one Iroquois, the other Algonquin, and his history
+has been distorted and obscured almost beyond recognition.  Through the
+cloud of mythology which has enveloped his memory, the genius of
+Longfellow has discerned something of his real character, and has made
+his name, at least, a household word wherever the English language is
+spoken.  It remains to give a correct account of the man himself and of
+the work which he accomplished, as it has been received from the official
+annalists of his people.  The narrative is confirmed by the evidence of
+contemporary wampum records, and by written memorials in the native
+tongue, one of which is at least a hundred years old.
+
+According to the best evidence that can be obtained, the formation of the
+Iroquois confederacy dates from about the middle of the fifteenth
+century.  There is reason to believe that prior to that time the five
+tribes, who are dignified with the title of nations, had held the region
+south of Lake Ontario, extending from the Hudson to the Genesee river,
+for many generations, and probably for many centuries.  Tradition makes
+their earlier seat to have been north of the St. Lawrence river, which is
+probable enough.  It also represents the Mohawks as the original tribe,
+of which the others are offshoots; and this tradition is confirmed by the
+evidence of language.  That the Iroquois tribes were originally one
+people, and that their separation into five communities, speaking
+distinct dialects, dates many centuries back, are both conclusions as
+certain as any facts in physical science.  Three hundred and fifty years
+ago they were isolated tribes, at war occasionally with one another, and
+almost constantly with the fierce Algonquins who surrounded them.  Not
+unfrequently, also, they had to withstand and to avenge the incursions of
+warriors belonging to more distant tribes of various stocks, Hurons,
+Cherokees and Dakotas.  Yet they were not peculiarly a warlike people.
+They were a race of housebuilders, farmers, and fishermen.  They had
+large and strongly palisaded towns, well-cultivated fields, and
+substantial houses, sometimes a hundred feet long, in which many kindred
+families dwelt together.
+
+At this time two great dangers, the one from without, the other from
+within, pressed upon these tribes.  The Mohegans, or Mohicans, a powerful
+Algonquin people, whose settlements stretched along the Hudson river,
+south of the Mohawks, and extended thence eastward into New England,
+waged a desperate war against them.  In this war the most easterly of the
+Iroquois, the Mohawks and Oneidas, bore the brunt and were the greatest
+sufferers.  On the other hand, the two westerly nations, the Senecas and
+Cayugas, had a peril of their own to encounter.  The central nation, the
+Onondagas, were then under the control of a dreaded chief, whose name is
+variously given, Atotarho, Watatotahlo, Tododaho, according to the
+dialect of the speaker and the orthography of the writer.  He was a man
+of great force of character and of formidable qualities,--haughty,
+ambitious, crafty and bold,--a determined and successful warrior, and at
+home, so far as the constitution of an Indian tribe would allow, a stern
+and remorseless tyrant.  He tolerated no equal.  The chiefs who ventured
+to oppose him were taken off one after another by secret means, or were
+compelled to flee for safety to other tribes.  His subtlety and artifices
+had acquired for him the reputation of a wizard.  He knew, they say, what
+was going on at a distance as well as if he were present; and he could
+destroy his enemies by some magical art, while he himself was far away.
+In spite of the fear which he inspired, his domination would probably not
+have been endured by an Indian community, but for his success in war.  He
+had made himself and his people a terror to the Cayugas and the Senecas.
+According to one account, he had subdued both of those tribes; but the
+record-keepers of the present day do not confirm this statement, which
+indeed is not consistent with the subsequent history of the confederation.
+
+The name Atotarho signifies "entangled."  The usual process by which
+mythology, after a few generations, makes fables out of names, has not
+been wanting here.  In the legends which the Indian story-tellers recount
+in winter about their cabin fires, Atotarho figures as a being of
+preterhuman nature, whose head, in lieu of hair, is adorned with living
+snakes.  A rude pictorial representation shows him seated and giving
+audience, in horrible state, with the upper part of his person enveloped
+by these writhing and entangled reptiles.  But the grave Councillors of
+the Canadian Reservation, who recite his history as they have heard it
+from their fathers at every installation of a high chief, do not repeat
+these inventions of marvel-loving gossips, and only smile with
+good-humored derision when they are referred to.
+
+There was at this time among the Onondagas a chief of high rank whose
+name, variously written--Hiawatha, Hayonwatha, Ayongwhata,
+Taoungwatha--is rendered, "he who seeks the wampum belt."  He had made
+himself greatly esteemed by his wisdom and his benevolence.  He was now
+past middle age.  Though many of his friends and relatives had perished
+by the machinations of Atotarho, he himself had been spared.  The
+qualities which gained him general respect had, perhaps, not been without
+influence even on that redoubtable chief.  Hiawatha had long beheld with
+grief the evils which afflicted not only his own nation, but all the
+other tribes about them, through the continual wars in which they were
+engaged, and the misgovernment and miseries at home which these wars
+produced.  With much meditation he had elaborated in his mind the scheme
+of a vast confederation which would ensure universal peace.  In the mere
+plan of a confederation there was nothing new.  There are probably few,
+if any, Indian tribes which have not, at one time or another, been
+members of a league or confederacy.  It may almost be said to be their
+normal condition.  But the plan which Hiawatha had evolved differed from
+all others in two particulars.  The system which he devised was to be not
+a loose and transitory league, but a permanent government.  While each
+nation was to retain its own council and its management of local affairs,
+the general control was to be lodged in a federal senate, composed of
+representatives elected by each nation, holding office during good
+behavior, and acknowledged as ruling chiefs throughout the whole
+confederacy.  Still further, and more remarkably, the confederation was
+not to be a limited one.  It was to be indefinitely expansible.  The
+avowed design of its proposer was to abolish war altogether.  He wished
+the federation to extend until all the tribes of men should be included
+in it, and peace should everywhere reign.  Such is the positive testimony
+of the Iroquois themselves; and their statement, as will be seen, is
+supported by historical evidence.
+
+Hiawatha's first endeavor was to enlist his own nation in the cause.  He
+summoned a meeting of the chiefs and people of the Onondaga towns.  The
+summons, proceeding from a chief of his rank and reputation, attracted a
+large concourse.  "They came together," said the narrator, "along the
+creeks, from all parts, to the general council-fire."  But what effect
+the grand projects of the chief, enforced by the eloquence for which he
+was noted, might have had upon his auditors, could not be known.  For
+there appeared among them a well-known figure, grim, silent and
+forbidding, whose terrible aspect overawed the assemblage.  The unspoken
+displeasure of Atotarho was sufficient to stifle all debate, and the
+meeting dispersed.  This result, which seems a singular conclusion of an
+Indian council--the most independent and free-spoken of all
+gatherings--is sufficiently explained by the fact that Atotarho had
+organized among the more reckless warriors of his tribe a band of
+unscrupulous partisans, who did his bidding without question, and took
+off by secret murder all persons against whom he bore a grudge.  The
+knowledge that his followers were scattered through the assembly,
+prepared to mark for destruction those who should offend him, might make
+the boldest orator chary of speech.  Hiawatha alone was undaunted.  He
+summoned a second meeting, which was attended by a smaller number, and
+broke up as before, in confusion, on Atotarho's appearance.  The
+unwearied reformer sent forth his runners a third time; but the people
+were disheartened.  When the day of the council arrived, no one attended.
+Then, continued the narrator, Hiawatha seated himself on the ground in
+sorrow.  He enveloped his head in his mantle of skins, and remained for a
+long time bowed down in grief and thought.  At length he arose and left
+the town, taking his course toward the southeast.  He had formed a bold
+design.  As the councils of his own nation were closed to him, he would
+have recourse to those of other tribes.  At a short distance from the
+town (so minutely are the circumstances recounted) he passed his great
+antagonist, seated near a well-known spring, stern and silent as usual.
+No word passed between the determined representatives of war and peace;
+but it was doubtless not without a sensation of triumphant pleasure that
+the ferocious war-chief saw his only rival and opponent in council going
+into what seemed to be voluntary exile.  Hiawatha plunged into the
+forest; he climbed mountains; he crossed a lake; he floated down the
+Mohawk river in a canoe.  Many incidents of his journey are told, and in
+this part of the narrative alone some occurrences of a marvellous cast
+are related even by the official historians.  Indeed, the flight of
+Hiawatha from Onondaga to the country of the Mohawks is to the Five
+Nations what the flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina is to the
+votaries of Islam.  It is the turning point of their history.  In
+embellishing the narrative at this point, their imagination has been
+allowed a free course.  Leaving aside these marvels, however, we need
+only refer here to a single incident which may well enough have been of
+actual occurrence.  A lake which Hiawatha crossed had shores abounding in
+small white shells.  These he gathered and strung upon strings, which he
+disposed upon his breast, as a token to all whom he should meet that he
+came as a messenger of peace.  And this, according to one authority, was
+the origin of wampum, of which Hiawatha was the inventor.  That honor,
+however, is one which must be denied to him.  The evidence of sepulchral
+relics shows that wampum was known to the mysterious moundbuilders, as
+well as in all succeeding ages.  Moreover, if the significance of white
+wampum-strings as a token of peace had not been well known in his day,
+Hiawatha would not have relied upon them as a means of proclaiming his
+pacific purpose.
+
+Early one morning he arrived at a Mohawk town, the residence of the noted
+chief Dekanawidah, whose name, in point of celebrity, ranks in Iroquois
+tradition with those of Hiawatha and Atotarho.  It is probable that he
+was known by reputation to Hiawatha, and not unlikely that they were
+related.  According to one account Dekanawidah was an Onondaga, adopted
+among the Mohawks.  Another narrative makes him a Mohawk by birth.  The
+probability seems to be that he was the son of an Onondaga father, who
+had been adopted by the Mohawks, and of a Mohawk mother.  That he was not
+of pure Mohawk blood is shown by the fact, which is remembered, that his
+father had had successively three wives, one belonging to each of the
+three clans, Bear, Wolf, and Turtle, which compose the Mohawk nation.  If
+the father had been a Mohawk, he would have belonged to one of the Mohawk
+clans, and could not then (according to the Indian law) have married into
+it.  He had seven sons, including Dekanawidah, who, with their families,
+dwelt together in one of the "long houses" common in that day among the
+Iroquois.  These ties of kindred, together with this fraternal strength,
+and his reputation as a sagacious councillor, gave Dekanawidah great
+influence among his people.  But, in the Indian sense, he was not the
+leading chief.  This position belonged to Tekarihoken (better known in
+books as Tecarihoga) whose primacy as the first chief of the eldest among
+the Iroquois nations was then, and is still, universally admitted.  Each
+nation has always had a head-chief, to whom belonged the hereditary right
+and duty of lighting the council-fire, and taking the first place in
+public meetings.  But among the Indians, as in other communities,
+hereditary rank and personal influence do not always, or indeed
+ordinarily, go together.  If Hiawatha could gain over Dekanawidah to his
+views, he would have done much toward the accomplishment of his purposes.
+
+In the early dawn he seated himself on a fallen trunk, near the spring
+from which the inhabitants of the long-house drew their water.  Presently
+one of the brothers came out with a vessel of elm-bark, and approached
+the spring.  Hiawatha sat silent and motionless.  Something in his aspect
+awed the warrior, who feared to address him.  He returned to the house,
+and said to Dekanawidah, "a man, or a figure like a man, is seated by the
+spring, having his breast covered with strings of white shells."  "It is
+a guest," replied the chief; "go and bring him in.  We will make him
+welcome."  Thus Hiawatha and Dekanawidah first met.  They found in each
+other kindred spirits.  The sagacity of the Mohawk chief grasped at once
+the advantages of the proposed plan, and the two worked together in
+perfecting it, and in commending it to the people.  After much discussion
+in council, the adhesion of the Mohawk nation was secured.  Dekanawidah
+then despatched two of his brothers as ambassadors to the nearest tribe,
+the Oneidas, to lay the project before them.  The Oneida nation is deemed
+to be a comparatively recent offshoot from the Mohawks.  The difference
+of language is slight, showing that their separation was much later than
+that of the Onondagas.  In the figurative speech of the Iroquois, the
+Oneida is the son, and the Onondaga is the brother, of the Mohawk.
+Dekanawidah had good reason to expect that it would not prove difficult
+to win the consent of the Oneidas to the proposed scheme.  But delay and
+deliberation mark all public acts of the Indians.  The ambassadors found
+the leading chief, Odatshehte, at his town on the Oneida creek.  He
+received their message in a friendly way, but required time for his
+people to consider it in council.  "Come back in another day," he said to
+the messengers.  In the political speech of the Indians, a day is
+understood to mean a year.  The envoys carried back the reply to
+Dekanawidah and Hiawatha, who knew that they could do nothing but wait
+the prescribed time.  After the lapse of a year, they repaired to the
+place of meeting.  The treaty which initiated the great league was then
+and there ratified between the representatives of the Mohawk and Oneida
+nations.  The name of Odatshehte means "the quiver-bearer;" and as
+Atotarho, "the entangled," is fabled to have had his head wreathed with
+snaky locks, and as Hiawatha, "the wampum-seeker," is represented to have
+wrought shells into wampum, so the Oneida chief is reputed to have
+appeared at this treaty bearing at his shoulder a quiver full of arrows.
+
+The Onondagas lay next to the Oneidas.  To them, or rather to their
+terrible chief, the next application was made.  The first meeting of
+Atotarho and Dekanawidah is a notable event in Iroquois history.  At a
+later day, a native artist sought to represent it in an historical
+picture, which has been already referred to.  Atotarho is seated in
+solitary and surly dignity, smoking a long pipe, his head and body
+encircled with contorted and angry serpents.  Standing before him are two
+figures which cannot be mistaken.  The foremost, a plumed and cinctured
+warrior, depicted as addressing the Onondaga chief, holds in his right
+hand, as a staff, his flint-headed spear,--the ensign which marks him as
+the representative of the Kanienga, or "People of the Flint,"--for so the
+Mohawks style themselves.  Behind him another plumed figure bears in his
+hand a bow with arrows, and at his shoulder a quiver.  Divested of its
+mythological embellishments, the picture rudely represents the interview
+which actually took place.  The immediate result was unpromising.  The
+Onondaga chief coldly refused to entertain the project, which he had
+already rejected when proposed by Hiawatha.  The ambassadors were not
+discouraged.  Beyond the Onondagas were scattered the villages of the
+Cayugas, a people described by the Jesuit missionaries, at a later day,
+as the most mild and tractable of the Iroquois.  They were considered an
+offshoot of the Onondagas, to whom they bore the same filial relation
+which the Oneidas bore to the Mohawks.  The journey of the advocates of
+peace through the forest to the Cayuga capital, and their reception, are
+minutely detailed in the traditionary narrative.  The Cayugas, who had
+suffered from the prowess and cruelty of the Onondaga chief, needed
+little persuasion.  They readily consented to come into the league, and
+their chief, Akahenyonk, "the wary spy," joined the Mohawk and Oneida
+representatives in a new embassy to the Onondagas.  Acting probably upon
+the advice of Hiawatha, who knew better than any other the character of
+the community and the chief with whom they had to deal, they made
+proposals highly flattering to the self-esteem which was the most notable
+trait of both ruler and people.  The Onondagas should be the leading
+nation of the confederacy.  Their chief town should be the federal
+capital, where the great councils of the league should be held, and where
+its records should be preserved.  The nation should be represented in the
+council by fourteen senators, while no other nation should have more than
+ten.  And as the Onondagas should be the leading tribe, so Atotarho
+should be the leading chief.  He alone should have the right of summoning
+the federal council, and no act of the council to which he objected
+should be valid.  In other words, an absolute veto was given to him.  To
+enhance his personal dignity two high chiefs were appointed as his
+special aids and counsellors, his "secretaries of state," so to speak.
+Other insignia of preëminence were to be possessed by him; and, in view
+of all these distinctions, it is not surprising that his successor, who,
+two centuries later, retained the same prerogatives, should have been
+occasionally styled by the English colonists "the emperor of the Five
+Nations."  It might seem, indeed, at first thought, that the founders of
+the confederacy had voluntarily placed themselves and their tribes in a
+position of almost abject subserviency to Atotarho and his followers.
+But they knew too well the qualities of their people to fear for them any
+political subjection.  It was certain that when once the league was
+established, and its representatives had met in council, character and
+intelligence would assume their natural sway, and mere artificial rank
+and dignity would be little regarded.  Atotarho and his people, however,
+yielded either to these specious offers or to the pressure which the
+combined urgency of the three allied nations now brought to bear upon
+them.  They finally accepted the league; and the great chief, who had
+originally opposed it, now naturally became eager to see it as widely
+extended as possible.  He advised its representatives to go on at once to
+the westward, and enlist the populous Seneca towns, pointing out how this
+might best be done.  This advice was followed, and the adhesion of the
+Senecas was secured by giving to their two leading chiefs, Kanyadariyo
+("beautiful lake") and Shadekaronyes ("the equal skies"), the offices of
+military commanders of the confederacy, with the title of door-keepers of
+the "Long-House,"--that being the figure by which the league was known.
+
+The six national leaders who have been mentioned--Dekanawidah for the
+Mohawks, Odatshehte for the Oneidas, Atotarho for the Onondagas,
+Akahenyonk for the Cayugas, Kanyadariyo and Shadekaronyes for the two
+great divisions of the Senecas--met in convention near the Onondaga Lake,
+with Hiawatha for their adviser, and a vast concourse of their followers,
+to settle the terms and rules of their confederacy, and to nominate its
+first council.  Of this council, nine members (or ten, if Dekanawidah be
+included) were assigned to the Mohawks, a like number to the Oneidas,
+fourteen to the lordly Onondagas, ten to the Cayugas, and eight to the
+Senecas.  Except in the way of compliment, the number assigned to each
+nation was really of little consequence, inasmuch as, by the rule of the
+league, unanimity was exacted in all their decisions.  This unanimity,
+however, did not require the suffrage of every member of the council.
+The representatives of each nation first deliberated apart upon the
+question proposed.  In this separate council the majority decided; and
+the leading chief then expressed in the great council the voice of his
+nation.  Thus the veto of Atotarho ceased at once to be peculiar to him,
+and became a right exercised by each of the allied nations.  This
+requirement of unanimity, embarrassing as it might seem, did not prove to
+be so in practice.  Whenever a question arose on which opinions were
+divided, its decision was either postponed, or some compromise was
+reached which left all parties contented.
+
+The first members of the council were appointed by the convention,--under
+what precise rule is unknown; but their successors came in by a method in
+which the hereditary and the elective systems were singularly combined,
+and in which female suffrage had an important place.  When a chief died
+or (as sometimes happened) was deposed for incapacity or misconduct, some
+member of the same family succeeded him.  Rank followed the female line;
+and this successor might be any descendant of the late chief's mother or
+grandmother,--his brother, his cousin or his nephew,--but never his son.
+Among many persons who might thus be eligible, the selection was made in
+the first instance by a family council.  In this council the "chief
+matron" of the family, a noble dame whose position and right were well
+defined, had the deciding voice.  This remarkable fact is affirmed by the
+Jesuit missionary Lafitau, and the usage remains in full vigor among the
+Canadian Iroquois to this day.  If there are two or more members of the
+family who seem to have equal claims, the nominating matron sometimes
+declines to decide between them, and names them both or all, leaving the
+ultimate choice to the nation or the federal council.  The council of the
+nation next considers the nomination, and if dissatisfied, refers it back
+to the family for a new designation.  If content, the national council
+reports the name of the candidate to the federal senate, in which resides
+the power of ratifying or rejecting the choice of the nation; but the
+power of rejection is rarely exercised, though that of expulsion for good
+cause is not unfrequently exerted.  The new chief inherits the name of
+his predecessor.  In this respect, as in some others, the resemblance of
+the Great Council to the English House of Peers is striking.  As Norfolk
+succeeds to Norfolk, so Tekarihoken succeeds Tekarihoken.  The great
+names of Hiawatha and Atotarho are still borne by plain
+farmer-councillors on the Canadian Reservation.
+
+When the League was established, Hiawatha had been adopted by the Mohawk
+nation as one of their chiefs.  The honor in which he was held by them is
+shown by his position on the roll of councillors, as it has been handed
+down from the earliest times.  As the Mohawk nation is the "elder
+brother," the names of its chiefs are first recited.  At the head of the
+list is the leading Mohawk chief, Tekarihoken, who represents the noblest
+lineage of the Iroquois stock.  Next to him, and second on the roll, is
+the name of Hiawatha.  That of his great colleague, Dekanawidah, nowhere
+appears.  He was a member of the first council; but he forbade his people
+to appoint a successor to him.  "Let the others have successors," he said
+proudly, "for others can advise you like them.  But I am the founder of
+your league, and no one else can do what I have done."
+
+The boast was not unwarranted.  Though planned by another, the structure
+had been reared mainly by his labors.  But the Five Nations, while
+yielding abundant honor to the memory of Dekanawidah, have never regarded
+him with the same affectionate reverence which has always clung to the
+name of Hiawatha.  His tender and lofty wisdom, his wide-reaching
+benevolence, and his fervent appeals to their better sentiments, enforced
+by the eloquence of which he was master, touched chords in the popular
+heart which have continued to respond until this day.  Fragments of the
+speeches in which he addressed the council and the people of the league
+are still remembered and repeated.  The fact that the league only carried
+out a part of the grand design which he had in view is constantly
+affirmed.  Yet the failure was not due to lack of effort.  In pursuance
+of his original purpose, when the league was firmly established, envoys
+were sent to other tribes to urge them to join it or at least to become
+allies.  One of these embassies penetrated to the distant Cherokees, the
+hereditary enemies of the Iroquois nations.  For some reason with which
+we are not acquainted--perhaps the natural suspicion or vindictive pride
+of that powerful community--this mission was a failure.  Another,
+despatched to the western Algonquins, had better success.  A strict
+alliance was formed with the far-spread Ojibway tribes, and was
+maintained inviolate for at least two hundred years, until at length the
+influence of the French, with the sympathy of the Ojibways for the
+conquered Hurons, undid to some extent, though not entirely, this portion
+of Hiawatha's work.
+
+His conceptions were beyond his time, and beyond ours; but their effect,
+within a limited sphere, was very great.  For more than three centuries
+the bond which he devised held together the Iroquois nations in perfect
+amity.  It proved, moreover, as he intended, elastic.  The territory of
+the Iroquois, constantly extending as their united strength made itself
+felt, became the "Great Asylum" of the Indian tribes.  Of the conquered
+Eries and Hurons, many hundreds were received and adopted among their
+conquerors.  The Tuscaroras, expelled by the English from North Carolina,
+took refuge with the Iroquois, and became the sixth nation of the League.
+From still further south, the Tuteloes and Saponies, of Dakota stock,
+after many wars with the Iroquois, fled to them from their other enemies,
+and found a cordial welcome.  A chief still sits in the council as a
+representative of the Tuteloes, though the tribe itself has been swept
+away by disease, or absorbed in the larger nations.  Many fragments of
+tribes of Algonquin lineage--Delawares, Nanticokes, Mohicans,
+Mississagas,--sought the same hospitable protection, which never failed
+them.  Their descendants still reside on the Canadian Reservation, which
+may well be styled an aboriginal "refuge of nations,"--affording a
+striking evidence in our own day of the persistent force of a great idea,
+when embodied in practical shape by the energy of a master mind.
+
+The name by which their constitution or organic law is known among them
+is _kayánerenh_, to which the epitaph _kowa_ [Transcriber's note: the "o"
+is the Unicode o-macron], "great," is frequently added.  This word,
+_kayánerenh_, is sometimes rendered "law," or "league," but its proper
+meaning seems to be "peace."  It is used in this sense by the
+missionaries, in their translations of the scriptures and the
+prayer-book.  In such expressions as "the Prince of Peace," "the author
+of peace," "give peace in our time," we find _kayánerenh_ employed with
+this meaning.  Its root is _yaner_, signifying "noble," or "excellent,"
+which yields, among many derivatives, _kayánere_, "goodness," and
+_kayánerenh_, "peace," or "peacefulness."  The national hymn of the
+confederacy, sung whenever their "Condoling Council" meets, commences
+with a verse referring to their league, which is literally rendered, "We
+come to greet and thank the PEACE" (_kayánerenh_).  When the list of
+their ancient chiefs, the fifty original Councillors, is chanted in the
+closing litany of the meeting, there is heard from time to time, as the
+leaders of each clan are named, an outburst of praise, in the words--
+
+  "This was the roll of you--
+  You that were joined in the work,
+  You that confirmed the work,
+    The GREAT PEACE." (_Kayánerenh-kowa._)
+
+[Transcriber's note: the "o" in "kowa" is the Unicode o-macron.]
+
+
+The regard of Englishmen for their Magna Charta and Bill of Rights, and
+that of Americans for their national Constitution, seem weak in
+comparison with the intense gratitude and reverence of the Five Nations
+for the "Great Peace" which Hiawatha and his colleagues established for
+them.
+
+Of the subsequent life of Hiawatha, and of his death, we have no sure
+information.  The records of the Iroquois are historical, and not
+biographical.  As Hiawatha had been made a chief among the Mohawks, he
+doubtless continued to reside with that nation.  A tradition, which is in
+itself highly probable, represents him as devoting himself to the
+congenial work of clearing away the obstructions in the streams which
+intersect the country then inhabited by the confederated nations, and
+which formed the chief means of communication between them.  That he
+thus, in some measure, anticipated the plans of De Witt Clinton and his
+associates, on a smaller scale, but with perhaps a larger statesmanship,
+we may be willing enough to believe.  A wild legend, recorded by some
+writers, but not told of him by the Canadian Iroquois, and apparently
+belonging to their ancient mythology, gives him an apotheosis, and makes
+him ascend to heaven in a white canoe.  It may be proper to dwell for a
+moment on the singular complication of mistakes which has converted this
+Indian reformer and statesman into a mythological personage.
+
+When by the events of the Revolutionary war the original confederacy was
+broken up, the larger portion of the people followed Brant to Canada.
+The refugees comprised nearly the whole of the Mohawks, and the greater
+part of the Onondagas and Cayugas, with many members of the other
+nations.  In Canada their first proceeding was to reëstablish, as far as
+possible, their ancient league, with all its laws and ceremonies.  The
+Onondagas had brought with them most of their wampum records, and the
+Mohawks jealously preserved the memories of the federation, in whose
+formation they had borne a leading part.  The history of the league
+continued to be the topic of their orators whenever a new chief was
+installed into office.  Thus the remembrance of the facts has been
+preserved among them with much clearness and precision, and with very
+little admixture of mythological elements.  With the fragments of the
+tribes which remained on the southern side of the Great Lakes the case
+was very different.  Except among the Senecas, who, of all the Five
+Nations, had had least to do with the formation of the league, the
+ancient families which had furnished the members of their senate, and
+were the conservators of their history, had mostly fled to Canada or the
+West.  The result was that among the interminable stories with which the
+common people beguile their winter nights, the traditions of Atotarho and
+Hiawatha became intermingled with the legends of their mythology.  An
+accidental similarity, in the Onondaga dialect, between the name of
+Hiawatha and that of one of their ancient divinities, led to a confusion
+between the two, which has misled some investigators.  This deity bears,
+in the sonorous Mohawk tongue, the name of Aronhiawagon, meaning "the
+Holder of the Heavens."  The early French missionaries, prefixing a
+particle, made the name in their orthography, Tearonhiaouagon.  He was,
+they tell us, "the great god of the Iroquois."  Among the Onondagas of
+the present day, the name is abridged to Taonhiawagi, or Tahiawagi.  The
+confusion between this name and that of Hiawatha (which, in another form,
+is pronounced Tayonwatha) seems to have begun more than a century ago;
+for Pyrlaeus, the Moravian missionary, heard among the Iroquois
+(according to Heckewelder) that the person who first proposed the league
+was an ancient Mohawk, named Thannawege.  Mr. J. V. H. Clark, in his
+interesting History of Onondaga, makes the name to have been originally
+Ta-oun-ya-wat-ha, and describes the bearer as "the deity who presides
+over fisheries and hunting-grounds."  He came down from heaven in a white
+canoe and after sundry adventures, which remind one of the labors of
+Hercules, assumed the name of Hiawatha (signifying, we are told, "a very
+wise man"), and dwelt for a time as an ordinary mortal among men,
+occupied in works of benevolence.  Finally, after founding the
+confederacy and bestowing many prudent counsels upon the people, he
+returned to the skies by the same conveyance in which he had descended.
+This legend was communicated by Clark to Schoolcraft, when the latter was
+compiling his "Notes on the Iroquois."  Mr. Schoolcraft, pleased with the
+poetical cast of the story and the euphonious name, made confusion worse
+confounded by transferring the hero to a distant region and identifying
+him with Manabozho, a fantastic divinity of the Ojibways.  Schoolcraft's
+volume, absurdly entitled "The Hiawatha Legends," has not in it a single
+fact or fiction relating either to Hiawatha himself or to the Iroquois
+deity Aronhiawagon.  Wild Ojibway stories concerning Manabozho and his
+comrades form the staple of its contents.  But it is to this collection
+that we owe the charming poem of Longfellow; and thus, by an
+extraordinary fortune, a grave Iroquois lawgiver of the fifteenth century
+has become, in modern literature, an Ojibway demigod, son of the West
+Wind, and companion of the tricksy Paupukkeewis, the boastful Iagoo, and
+the strong Kwasind.  If a Chinese traveller, during the middle ages,
+inquiring into the history and religion of the western nations, had
+confounded King Alfred with King Arthur, and both with Odin, he would not
+have made a more preposterous confusion of names and characters than that
+which has hitherto disguised the genuine personality of the great
+Onondaga reformer.
+
+About the main events of his history, and about his character and
+purposes, there can be no reasonable doubt.  We have the wampum belts
+which he handled, and whose simple hieroglyphics preserve the memory of
+the public acts in which he took part.  We have, also, in the Iroquois
+"Book of Rites," a still more clear and convincing testimony to the
+character both of the legislator and of the people for whom his
+institutions were designed.  This book, sometimes called the "Book of the
+Condoling Council," might properly enough be styled an Iroquois Veda.  It
+comprises the speeches, songs and other ceremonies, which, from the
+earliest period of the confederacy, have composed the proceedings of
+their council when a deceased chief is lamented and his successor is
+installed in office.  The fundamental laws of the league, a list of their
+ancient towns, and the names of the chiefs who constituted their first
+council, chanted in a kind of litany, are also comprised in the
+collection.  The contents, after being preserved in memory, like the
+Vedas, for many generations, were written down by desire of the chiefs,
+when their language was first reduced to writing; and the book is
+therefore more than a century old.  Its language, archaic when written,
+is now partly obsolete, and is fully understood by only a few of the
+oldest chiefs.  It is a genuine Indian composition, and must be accepted
+as disclosing the true character of its authors.  The result is
+remarkable enough.  Instead of a race of rude and ferocious warriors, we
+find in this book a kindly and affectionate people, full of sympathy for
+their friends in distress, considerate to their women, tender to their
+children, anxious for peace, and imbued with a profound reverence for
+their constitution and its authors.  We become conscious of the fact that
+the aspect in which these Indians have presented themselves to the
+outside world has been in a large measure deceptive and factitious.  The
+ferocity, craft, and cruelty, which have been deemed their leading
+traits, have been merely the natural accompaniments of wars of
+self-preservation, and no more indicated their genuine character than the
+war-paint, plume, and tomahawk of the warrior displayed the customary
+guise in which he appeared among his own people.  The cruelties of war,
+when war is a struggle for national existence, are common to all races.
+The persistent desire for peace, pursued for centuries in federal unions,
+and in alliances and treaties with other nations, has been manifested by
+few as steadily as by the countrymen of Hiawatha.  The sentiment of
+universal brotherhood, which directed their polity, has never been so
+fully developed in any branch of the Aryan race, unless it may be found
+incorporated in the religious quietism of Buddha and his followers.
+
+To come back to our first proposition,--it is unquestionable that the
+Iroquois, when they framed the political system which exhibited this
+singular force of intellect and elevation of character, were a people of
+the Stone Age; and there is no good reason for supposing that they were
+superior in character and capacity to the people of the most primitive
+times.  What we know of them entitles us to affirm that the makers of the
+earliest flint implements may have been equal, if not superior, in
+natural powers to the members of any existing race.  And as language is
+the outgrowth and image of the mental faculties, it is not impossible, or
+even unlikely, that among the languages spoken by the people of those
+early ages, there may have been some as far superior in construction and
+power of expression to any tongue of modern Europe, as the languages of
+the barbarous Greeks and Germans, a thousand years before the Christian
+era, were superior to the speech of the highly civilized Egyptians.
+
+The conclusions to which these facts and reasonings point are of great
+scientific importance.  As there could be no sound astronomy while the
+notion prevailed that the earth was the centre of the universe, and no
+science of history while each nation looked with contempt upon every
+other people, so we can hope for no complete and satisfying science of
+man and of human speech until our minds are disabused of those other
+delusions of self-esteem which would persuade us that superior culture
+implies superior capacity, and that the particular race and language
+which we happen to claim as our own are the best of all races and
+languages.
+
+
+[Printed at the SALEM PRESS, Nov., 1881.]
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Hiawatha and the Iroquois Confederation, by
+Horatio Hale
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Hiawatha and the Iroquois Confederation
+       A Study in Anthropology. A Paper Read at the Cincinnati Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in August, 1881, under the Title of "A Lawgiver of the Stone Age."
+
+
+Author: Horatio Hale
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 14, 2007  [eBook #22601]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HIAWATHA AND THE IROQUOIS
+CONFEDERATION***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Al Haines from digital material generously made
+available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/hiawathandiroquo00halerich
+
+
+
+
+
+HIAWATHA AND THE IROQUOIS CONFEDERATION.
+
+A Study in Anthropology
+
+by
+
+HORATIO HALE.
+
+A Paper Read at the Cincinnati Meeting of the American Association for
+the Advancement of Science, in August, 1881, under the Title of "A
+Lawgiver of the Stone Age."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Salem, Mass.:
+Printed at the Salem Press.
+1881.
+
+
+
+
+A LAWGIVER OF THE STONE AGE.  By HORATIO HALE, of Clinton, Ontario,
+Canada.
+
+
+What was the intellectual capacity of man when he made his first
+appearance upon the earth?  Or, to speak with more scientific precision
+(as the question relates to material evidences), what were the mental
+powers of the people who fashioned the earliest stone implements, which
+are admitted to be the oldest remaining traces of our kind?  As these
+people were low in the arts of life, were they also low in natural
+capacity?  This is certainly one of the most important questions which
+the science of anthropology has yet to answer.  Of late years the
+prevalent disposition has apparently been to answer it in the
+affirmative.  Primitive man, we are to believe, had a feeble and narrow
+intellect, which in the progress of civilization has been gradually
+strengthened and enlarged.  This conclusion is supposed to be in
+accordance with the development theory; and the distinguished author of
+that theory has seemed to favor this view.  Yet, in fact, the development
+theory has nothing to do with the question.  If we suppose that the
+existing and--so far as we know--the only species of man appeared upon
+the earth with the physical conformation and mental capacity which he
+retains at this day, we make merely the same supposition with regard to
+him that we make with regard to every other existing species of animal.
+How it was that this species came to exist is another question altogether.
+
+Philologists regard it as an established fact that the first people who
+spoke an Aryan language were a tribe of barbarous nomads, who wandered in
+the highlands of central Asia.  Those who have studied the earliest
+products of Aryan genius in the Vedas, the Zend-Avesta, and the Homeric
+songs, will be willing to admit that these wandering barbarians may have
+had minds capable of the highest efforts to which the human intellect is
+known to have attained.  Yet if an irruption of Semitic or Turanian
+conquerors had swept that infant tribe from the earth, no trace of its
+existence beyond a few flint implements, and perhaps some fragments of
+pottery, would have remained to show that such a people had ever existed.
+Have we any reason to doubt that in the course of all the ages, in
+various parts of our globe, many tribes of men may have arisen and
+perished who were in natural capacity as far superior to the primitive
+Aryans as these were to the races who surrounded them?  Under the law of
+the survival of the fittest, it is not the strongest that survive, but
+the strongest of those that are placed in the most favorable
+circumstances.  On any calculation of probabilities, it will seem likely
+enough that among the numberless small societies of men that have
+appeared and vanished in primeval Asia and Europe, in Africa, Australia,
+America, and Polynesia, there may have been some at least equal, if not
+superior, in mental endowments, to that fortunate tribe of central Asia,
+whose posterity has come to be the dominant race of our time.  Among
+their leaders may have been men qualified to rank with the most renowned
+heroes, exemplars, and teachers of the human race--with Moses and Buddha,
+with Confucius and Solon, with Numa, Charlemagne, and Alfred, or (to come
+down to recent times) with the greatest and wisest among the founders of
+the American Republic.  If the possibility of the existence of such men
+under such conditions cannot be denied, the facts which have lately been
+brought to light in regard to one such personage and the community in
+which he lived may have a peculiar interest and significance in their
+bearing on the general question of the mental capacity of uncivilized
+races.
+
+It is well known that the Iroquois tribes, whom our ancestors termed the
+Five Nations, were, when first visited by Europeans, in the precise
+condition which, according to all the evidence we possess, was held by
+the inhabitants of the Old World during what has been designated the
+Stone Age.  Any one who examines the abandoned site of an ancient
+Iroquois town will find there relics of precisely the same cast as those
+which are disinterred from the burial mounds and caves of prehistoric
+Europe,--implements of flint and bone, ornaments of shells, and fragments
+of rude pottery.  Trusting to these evidences alone, he might suppose
+that the people who wrought them were of the humblest grade of intellect.
+But the testimony of historians, of travellers, of missionaries, and
+perhaps his own personal observation, would make him aware that this
+opinion would be erroneous, and that these Indians were, in their own
+way, acute reasoners, eloquent speakers, and most skilful and far-seeing
+politicians.  He would know that for more than a century, though never
+mustering more than five thousand fighting men, they were able to hold
+the balance of power on this continent between France and England; and
+that in a long series of negotiations they proved themselves qualified to
+cope in council with the best diplomatists whom either of those powers
+could depute to deal with them.  It is only recently that we have
+learned, through the researches of a careful and philosophic
+investigator, the Hon. L. H. Morgan, that their internal polity was
+marked by equal wisdom, and had been developed and consolidated into a
+system of government, embodying many of what are deemed the best
+principles and methods of political science,--representation, federation,
+self-government through local and general legislatures,--all resulting in
+personal liberty, combined with strict subordination to public law.  But
+it has not been distinctly known that for many of these advantages the
+Five Nations were indebted to one individual, who bore to them the same
+relation which the great reformers and lawgivers of antiquity bore to the
+communities whose gratitude has made their names illustrious.
+
+A singular fortune has attended the name and memory of Hiawatha.  Though
+actually an historical personage, and not of very ancient date, of whose
+life and deeds many memorials remain, he has been confused with two
+Indian divinities, the one Iroquois, the other Algonquin, and his history
+has been distorted and obscured almost beyond recognition.  Through the
+cloud of mythology which has enveloped his memory, the genius of
+Longfellow has discerned something of his real character, and has made
+his name, at least, a household word wherever the English language is
+spoken.  It remains to give a correct account of the man himself and of
+the work which he accomplished, as it has been received from the official
+annalists of his people.  The narrative is confirmed by the evidence of
+contemporary wampum records, and by written memorials in the native
+tongue, one of which is at least a hundred years old.
+
+According to the best evidence that can be obtained, the formation of the
+Iroquois confederacy dates from about the middle of the fifteenth
+century.  There is reason to believe that prior to that time the five
+tribes, who are dignified with the title of nations, had held the region
+south of Lake Ontario, extending from the Hudson to the Genesee river,
+for many generations, and probably for many centuries.  Tradition makes
+their earlier seat to have been north of the St. Lawrence river, which is
+probable enough.  It also represents the Mohawks as the original tribe,
+of which the others are offshoots; and this tradition is confirmed by the
+evidence of language.  That the Iroquois tribes were originally one
+people, and that their separation into five communities, speaking
+distinct dialects, dates many centuries back, are both conclusions as
+certain as any facts in physical science.  Three hundred and fifty years
+ago they were isolated tribes, at war occasionally with one another, and
+almost constantly with the fierce Algonquins who surrounded them.  Not
+unfrequently, also, they had to withstand and to avenge the incursions of
+warriors belonging to more distant tribes of various stocks, Hurons,
+Cherokees and Dakotas.  Yet they were not peculiarly a warlike people.
+They were a race of housebuilders, farmers, and fishermen.  They had
+large and strongly palisaded towns, well-cultivated fields, and
+substantial houses, sometimes a hundred feet long, in which many kindred
+families dwelt together.
+
+At this time two great dangers, the one from without, the other from
+within, pressed upon these tribes.  The Mohegans, or Mohicans, a powerful
+Algonquin people, whose settlements stretched along the Hudson river,
+south of the Mohawks, and extended thence eastward into New England,
+waged a desperate war against them.  In this war the most easterly of the
+Iroquois, the Mohawks and Oneidas, bore the brunt and were the greatest
+sufferers.  On the other hand, the two westerly nations, the Senecas and
+Cayugas, had a peril of their own to encounter.  The central nation, the
+Onondagas, were then under the control of a dreaded chief, whose name is
+variously given, Atotarho, Watatotahlo, Tododaho, according to the
+dialect of the speaker and the orthography of the writer.  He was a man
+of great force of character and of formidable qualities,--haughty,
+ambitious, crafty and bold,--a determined and successful warrior, and at
+home, so far as the constitution of an Indian tribe would allow, a stern
+and remorseless tyrant.  He tolerated no equal.  The chiefs who ventured
+to oppose him were taken off one after another by secret means, or were
+compelled to flee for safety to other tribes.  His subtlety and artifices
+had acquired for him the reputation of a wizard.  He knew, they say, what
+was going on at a distance as well as if he were present; and he could
+destroy his enemies by some magical art, while he himself was far away.
+In spite of the fear which he inspired, his domination would probably not
+have been endured by an Indian community, but for his success in war.  He
+had made himself and his people a terror to the Cayugas and the Senecas.
+According to one account, he had subdued both of those tribes; but the
+record-keepers of the present day do not confirm this statement, which
+indeed is not consistent with the subsequent history of the confederation.
+
+The name Atotarho signifies "entangled."  The usual process by which
+mythology, after a few generations, makes fables out of names, has not
+been wanting here.  In the legends which the Indian story-tellers recount
+in winter about their cabin fires, Atotarho figures as a being of
+preterhuman nature, whose head, in lieu of hair, is adorned with living
+snakes.  A rude pictorial representation shows him seated and giving
+audience, in horrible state, with the upper part of his person enveloped
+by these writhing and entangled reptiles.  But the grave Councillors of
+the Canadian Reservation, who recite his history as they have heard it
+from their fathers at every installation of a high chief, do not repeat
+these inventions of marvel-loving gossips, and only smile with
+good-humored derision when they are referred to.
+
+There was at this time among the Onondagas a chief of high rank whose
+name, variously written--Hiawatha, Hayonwatha, Ayongwhata,
+Taoungwatha--is rendered, "he who seeks the wampum belt."  He had made
+himself greatly esteemed by his wisdom and his benevolence.  He was now
+past middle age.  Though many of his friends and relatives had perished
+by the machinations of Atotarho, he himself had been spared.  The
+qualities which gained him general respect had, perhaps, not been without
+influence even on that redoubtable chief.  Hiawatha had long beheld with
+grief the evils which afflicted not only his own nation, but all the
+other tribes about them, through the continual wars in which they were
+engaged, and the misgovernment and miseries at home which these wars
+produced.  With much meditation he had elaborated in his mind the scheme
+of a vast confederation which would ensure universal peace.  In the mere
+plan of a confederation there was nothing new.  There are probably few,
+if any, Indian tribes which have not, at one time or another, been
+members of a league or confederacy.  It may almost be said to be their
+normal condition.  But the plan which Hiawatha had evolved differed from
+all others in two particulars.  The system which he devised was to be not
+a loose and transitory league, but a permanent government.  While each
+nation was to retain its own council and its management of local affairs,
+the general control was to be lodged in a federal senate, composed of
+representatives elected by each nation, holding office during good
+behavior, and acknowledged as ruling chiefs throughout the whole
+confederacy.  Still further, and more remarkably, the confederation was
+not to be a limited one.  It was to be indefinitely expansible.  The
+avowed design of its proposer was to abolish war altogether.  He wished
+the federation to extend until all the tribes of men should be included
+in it, and peace should everywhere reign.  Such is the positive testimony
+of the Iroquois themselves; and their statement, as will be seen, is
+supported by historical evidence.
+
+Hiawatha's first endeavor was to enlist his own nation in the cause.  He
+summoned a meeting of the chiefs and people of the Onondaga towns.  The
+summons, proceeding from a chief of his rank and reputation, attracted a
+large concourse.  "They came together," said the narrator, "along the
+creeks, from all parts, to the general council-fire."  But what effect
+the grand projects of the chief, enforced by the eloquence for which he
+was noted, might have had upon his auditors, could not be known.  For
+there appeared among them a well-known figure, grim, silent and
+forbidding, whose terrible aspect overawed the assemblage.  The unspoken
+displeasure of Atotarho was sufficient to stifle all debate, and the
+meeting dispersed.  This result, which seems a singular conclusion of an
+Indian council--the most independent and free-spoken of all
+gatherings--is sufficiently explained by the fact that Atotarho had
+organized among the more reckless warriors of his tribe a band of
+unscrupulous partisans, who did his bidding without question, and took
+off by secret murder all persons against whom he bore a grudge.  The
+knowledge that his followers were scattered through the assembly,
+prepared to mark for destruction those who should offend him, might make
+the boldest orator chary of speech.  Hiawatha alone was undaunted.  He
+summoned a second meeting, which was attended by a smaller number, and
+broke up as before, in confusion, on Atotarho's appearance.  The
+unwearied reformer sent forth his runners a third time; but the people
+were disheartened.  When the day of the council arrived, no one attended.
+Then, continued the narrator, Hiawatha seated himself on the ground in
+sorrow.  He enveloped his head in his mantle of skins, and remained for a
+long time bowed down in grief and thought.  At length he arose and left
+the town, taking his course toward the southeast.  He had formed a bold
+design.  As the councils of his own nation were closed to him, he would
+have recourse to those of other tribes.  At a short distance from the
+town (so minutely are the circumstances recounted) he passed his great
+antagonist, seated near a well-known spring, stern and silent as usual.
+No word passed between the determined representatives of war and peace;
+but it was doubtless not without a sensation of triumphant pleasure that
+the ferocious war-chief saw his only rival and opponent in council going
+into what seemed to be voluntary exile.  Hiawatha plunged into the
+forest; he climbed mountains; he crossed a lake; he floated down the
+Mohawk river in a canoe.  Many incidents of his journey are told, and in
+this part of the narrative alone some occurrences of a marvellous cast
+are related even by the official historians.  Indeed, the flight of
+Hiawatha from Onondaga to the country of the Mohawks is to the Five
+Nations what the flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina is to the
+votaries of Islam.  It is the turning point of their history.  In
+embellishing the narrative at this point, their imagination has been
+allowed a free course.  Leaving aside these marvels, however, we need
+only refer here to a single incident which may well enough have been of
+actual occurrence.  A lake which Hiawatha crossed had shores abounding in
+small white shells.  These he gathered and strung upon strings, which he
+disposed upon his breast, as a token to all whom he should meet that he
+came as a messenger of peace.  And this, according to one authority, was
+the origin of wampum, of which Hiawatha was the inventor.  That honor,
+however, is one which must be denied to him.  The evidence of sepulchral
+relics shows that wampum was known to the mysterious moundbuilders, as
+well as in all succeeding ages.  Moreover, if the significance of white
+wampum-strings as a token of peace had not been well known in his day,
+Hiawatha would not have relied upon them as a means of proclaiming his
+pacific purpose.
+
+Early one morning he arrived at a Mohawk town, the residence of the noted
+chief Dekanawidah, whose name, in point of celebrity, ranks in Iroquois
+tradition with those of Hiawatha and Atotarho.  It is probable that he
+was known by reputation to Hiawatha, and not unlikely that they were
+related.  According to one account Dekanawidah was an Onondaga, adopted
+among the Mohawks.  Another narrative makes him a Mohawk by birth.  The
+probability seems to be that he was the son of an Onondaga father, who
+had been adopted by the Mohawks, and of a Mohawk mother.  That he was not
+of pure Mohawk blood is shown by the fact, which is remembered, that his
+father had had successively three wives, one belonging to each of the
+three clans, Bear, Wolf, and Turtle, which compose the Mohawk nation.  If
+the father had been a Mohawk, he would have belonged to one of the Mohawk
+clans, and could not then (according to the Indian law) have married into
+it.  He had seven sons, including Dekanawidah, who, with their families,
+dwelt together in one of the "long houses" common in that day among the
+Iroquois.  These ties of kindred, together with this fraternal strength,
+and his reputation as a sagacious councillor, gave Dekanawidah great
+influence among his people.  But, in the Indian sense, he was not the
+leading chief.  This position belonged to Tekarihoken (better known in
+books as Tecarihoga) whose primacy as the first chief of the eldest among
+the Iroquois nations was then, and is still, universally admitted.  Each
+nation has always had a head-chief, to whom belonged the hereditary right
+and duty of lighting the council-fire, and taking the first place in
+public meetings.  But among the Indians, as in other communities,
+hereditary rank and personal influence do not always, or indeed
+ordinarily, go together.  If Hiawatha could gain over Dekanawidah to his
+views, he would have done much toward the accomplishment of his purposes.
+
+In the early dawn he seated himself on a fallen trunk, near the spring
+from which the inhabitants of the long-house drew their water.  Presently
+one of the brothers came out with a vessel of elm-bark, and approached
+the spring.  Hiawatha sat silent and motionless.  Something in his aspect
+awed the warrior, who feared to address him.  He returned to the house,
+and said to Dekanawidah, "a man, or a figure like a man, is seated by the
+spring, having his breast covered with strings of white shells."  "It is
+a guest," replied the chief; "go and bring him in.  We will make him
+welcome."  Thus Hiawatha and Dekanawidah first met.  They found in each
+other kindred spirits.  The sagacity of the Mohawk chief grasped at once
+the advantages of the proposed plan, and the two worked together in
+perfecting it, and in commending it to the people.  After much discussion
+in council, the adhesion of the Mohawk nation was secured.  Dekanawidah
+then despatched two of his brothers as ambassadors to the nearest tribe,
+the Oneidas, to lay the project before them.  The Oneida nation is deemed
+to be a comparatively recent offshoot from the Mohawks.  The difference
+of language is slight, showing that their separation was much later than
+that of the Onondagas.  In the figurative speech of the Iroquois, the
+Oneida is the son, and the Onondaga is the brother, of the Mohawk.
+Dekanawidah had good reason to expect that it would not prove difficult
+to win the consent of the Oneidas to the proposed scheme.  But delay and
+deliberation mark all public acts of the Indians.  The ambassadors found
+the leading chief, Odatshehte, at his town on the Oneida creek.  He
+received their message in a friendly way, but required time for his
+people to consider it in council.  "Come back in another day," he said to
+the messengers.  In the political speech of the Indians, a day is
+understood to mean a year.  The envoys carried back the reply to
+Dekanawidah and Hiawatha, who knew that they could do nothing but wait
+the prescribed time.  After the lapse of a year, they repaired to the
+place of meeting.  The treaty which initiated the great league was then
+and there ratified between the representatives of the Mohawk and Oneida
+nations.  The name of Odatshehte means "the quiver-bearer;" and as
+Atotarho, "the entangled," is fabled to have had his head wreathed with
+snaky locks, and as Hiawatha, "the wampum-seeker," is represented to have
+wrought shells into wampum, so the Oneida chief is reputed to have
+appeared at this treaty bearing at his shoulder a quiver full of arrows.
+
+The Onondagas lay next to the Oneidas.  To them, or rather to their
+terrible chief, the next application was made.  The first meeting of
+Atotarho and Dekanawidah is a notable event in Iroquois history.  At a
+later day, a native artist sought to represent it in an historical
+picture, which has been already referred to.  Atotarho is seated in
+solitary and surly dignity, smoking a long pipe, his head and body
+encircled with contorted and angry serpents.  Standing before him are two
+figures which cannot be mistaken.  The foremost, a plumed and cinctured
+warrior, depicted as addressing the Onondaga chief, holds in his right
+hand, as a staff, his flint-headed spear,--the ensign which marks him as
+the representative of the Kanienga, or "People of the Flint,"--for so the
+Mohawks style themselves.  Behind him another plumed figure bears in his
+hand a bow with arrows, and at his shoulder a quiver.  Divested of its
+mythological embellishments, the picture rudely represents the interview
+which actually took place.  The immediate result was unpromising.  The
+Onondaga chief coldly refused to entertain the project, which he had
+already rejected when proposed by Hiawatha.  The ambassadors were not
+discouraged.  Beyond the Onondagas were scattered the villages of the
+Cayugas, a people described by the Jesuit missionaries, at a later day,
+as the most mild and tractable of the Iroquois.  They were considered an
+offshoot of the Onondagas, to whom they bore the same filial relation
+which the Oneidas bore to the Mohawks.  The journey of the advocates of
+peace through the forest to the Cayuga capital, and their reception, are
+minutely detailed in the traditionary narrative.  The Cayugas, who had
+suffered from the prowess and cruelty of the Onondaga chief, needed
+little persuasion.  They readily consented to come into the league, and
+their chief, Akahenyonk, "the wary spy," joined the Mohawk and Oneida
+representatives in a new embassy to the Onondagas.  Acting probably upon
+the advice of Hiawatha, who knew better than any other the character of
+the community and the chief with whom they had to deal, they made
+proposals highly flattering to the self-esteem which was the most notable
+trait of both ruler and people.  The Onondagas should be the leading
+nation of the confederacy.  Their chief town should be the federal
+capital, where the great councils of the league should be held, and where
+its records should be preserved.  The nation should be represented in the
+council by fourteen senators, while no other nation should have more than
+ten.  And as the Onondagas should be the leading tribe, so Atotarho
+should be the leading chief.  He alone should have the right of summoning
+the federal council, and no act of the council to which he objected
+should be valid.  In other words, an absolute veto was given to him.  To
+enhance his personal dignity two high chiefs were appointed as his
+special aids and counsellors, his "secretaries of state," so to speak.
+Other insignia of preeminence were to be possessed by him; and, in view
+of all these distinctions, it is not surprising that his successor, who,
+two centuries later, retained the same prerogatives, should have been
+occasionally styled by the English colonists "the emperor of the Five
+Nations."  It might seem, indeed, at first thought, that the founders of
+the confederacy had voluntarily placed themselves and their tribes in a
+position of almost abject subserviency to Atotarho and his followers.
+But they knew too well the qualities of their people to fear for them any
+political subjection.  It was certain that when once the league was
+established, and its representatives had met in council, character and
+intelligence would assume their natural sway, and mere artificial rank
+and dignity would be little regarded.  Atotarho and his people, however,
+yielded either to these specious offers or to the pressure which the
+combined urgency of the three allied nations now brought to bear upon
+them.  They finally accepted the league; and the great chief, who had
+originally opposed it, now naturally became eager to see it as widely
+extended as possible.  He advised its representatives to go on at once to
+the westward, and enlist the populous Seneca towns, pointing out how this
+might best be done.  This advice was followed, and the adhesion of the
+Senecas was secured by giving to their two leading chiefs, Kanyadariyo
+("beautiful lake") and Shadekaronyes ("the equal skies"), the offices of
+military commanders of the confederacy, with the title of door-keepers of
+the "Long-House,"--that being the figure by which the league was known.
+
+The six national leaders who have been mentioned--Dekanawidah for the
+Mohawks, Odatshehte for the Oneidas, Atotarho for the Onondagas,
+Akahenyonk for the Cayugas, Kanyadariyo and Shadekaronyes for the two
+great divisions of the Senecas--met in convention near the Onondaga Lake,
+with Hiawatha for their adviser, and a vast concourse of their followers,
+to settle the terms and rules of their confederacy, and to nominate its
+first council.  Of this council, nine members (or ten, if Dekanawidah be
+included) were assigned to the Mohawks, a like number to the Oneidas,
+fourteen to the lordly Onondagas, ten to the Cayugas, and eight to the
+Senecas.  Except in the way of compliment, the number assigned to each
+nation was really of little consequence, inasmuch as, by the rule of the
+league, unanimity was exacted in all their decisions.  This unanimity,
+however, did not require the suffrage of every member of the council.
+The representatives of each nation first deliberated apart upon the
+question proposed.  In this separate council the majority decided; and
+the leading chief then expressed in the great council the voice of his
+nation.  Thus the veto of Atotarho ceased at once to be peculiar to him,
+and became a right exercised by each of the allied nations.  This
+requirement of unanimity, embarrassing as it might seem, did not prove to
+be so in practice.  Whenever a question arose on which opinions were
+divided, its decision was either postponed, or some compromise was
+reached which left all parties contented.
+
+The first members of the council were appointed by the convention,--under
+what precise rule is unknown; but their successors came in by a method in
+which the hereditary and the elective systems were singularly combined,
+and in which female suffrage had an important place.  When a chief died
+or (as sometimes happened) was deposed for incapacity or misconduct, some
+member of the same family succeeded him.  Rank followed the female line;
+and this successor might be any descendant of the late chief's mother or
+grandmother,--his brother, his cousin or his nephew,--but never his son.
+Among many persons who might thus be eligible, the selection was made in
+the first instance by a family council.  In this council the "chief
+matron" of the family, a noble dame whose position and right were well
+defined, had the deciding voice.  This remarkable fact is affirmed by the
+Jesuit missionary Lafitau, and the usage remains in full vigor among the
+Canadian Iroquois to this day.  If there are two or more members of the
+family who seem to have equal claims, the nominating matron sometimes
+declines to decide between them, and names them both or all, leaving the
+ultimate choice to the nation or the federal council.  The council of the
+nation next considers the nomination, and if dissatisfied, refers it back
+to the family for a new designation.  If content, the national council
+reports the name of the candidate to the federal senate, in which resides
+the power of ratifying or rejecting the choice of the nation; but the
+power of rejection is rarely exercised, though that of expulsion for good
+cause is not unfrequently exerted.  The new chief inherits the name of
+his predecessor.  In this respect, as in some others, the resemblance of
+the Great Council to the English House of Peers is striking.  As Norfolk
+succeeds to Norfolk, so Tekarihoken succeeds Tekarihoken.  The great
+names of Hiawatha and Atotarho are still borne by plain
+farmer-councillors on the Canadian Reservation.
+
+When the League was established, Hiawatha had been adopted by the Mohawk
+nation as one of their chiefs.  The honor in which he was held by them is
+shown by his position on the roll of councillors, as it has been handed
+down from the earliest times.  As the Mohawk nation is the "elder
+brother," the names of its chiefs are first recited.  At the head of the
+list is the leading Mohawk chief, Tekarihoken, who represents the noblest
+lineage of the Iroquois stock.  Next to him, and second on the roll, is
+the name of Hiawatha.  That of his great colleague, Dekanawidah, nowhere
+appears.  He was a member of the first council; but he forbade his people
+to appoint a successor to him.  "Let the others have successors," he said
+proudly, "for others can advise you like them.  But I am the founder of
+your league, and no one else can do what I have done."
+
+The boast was not unwarranted.  Though planned by another, the structure
+had been reared mainly by his labors.  But the Five Nations, while
+yielding abundant honor to the memory of Dekanawidah, have never regarded
+him with the same affectionate reverence which has always clung to the
+name of Hiawatha.  His tender and lofty wisdom, his wide-reaching
+benevolence, and his fervent appeals to their better sentiments, enforced
+by the eloquence of which he was master, touched chords in the popular
+heart which have continued to respond until this day.  Fragments of the
+speeches in which he addressed the council and the people of the league
+are still remembered and repeated.  The fact that the league only carried
+out a part of the grand design which he had in view is constantly
+affirmed.  Yet the failure was not due to lack of effort.  In pursuance
+of his original purpose, when the league was firmly established, envoys
+were sent to other tribes to urge them to join it or at least to become
+allies.  One of these embassies penetrated to the distant Cherokees, the
+hereditary enemies of the Iroquois nations.  For some reason with which
+we are not acquainted--perhaps the natural suspicion or vindictive pride
+of that powerful community--this mission was a failure.  Another,
+despatched to the western Algonquins, had better success.  A strict
+alliance was formed with the far-spread Ojibway tribes, and was
+maintained inviolate for at least two hundred years, until at length the
+influence of the French, with the sympathy of the Ojibways for the
+conquered Hurons, undid to some extent, though not entirely, this portion
+of Hiawatha's work.
+
+His conceptions were beyond his time, and beyond ours; but their effect,
+within a limited sphere, was very great.  For more than three centuries
+the bond which he devised held together the Iroquois nations in perfect
+amity.  It proved, moreover, as he intended, elastic.  The territory of
+the Iroquois, constantly extending as their united strength made itself
+felt, became the "Great Asylum" of the Indian tribes.  Of the conquered
+Eries and Hurons, many hundreds were received and adopted among their
+conquerors.  The Tuscaroras, expelled by the English from North Carolina,
+took refuge with the Iroquois, and became the sixth nation of the League.
+From still further south, the Tuteloes and Saponies, of Dakota stock,
+after many wars with the Iroquois, fled to them from their other enemies,
+and found a cordial welcome.  A chief still sits in the council as a
+representative of the Tuteloes, though the tribe itself has been swept
+away by disease, or absorbed in the larger nations.  Many fragments of
+tribes of Algonquin lineage--Delawares, Nanticokes, Mohicans,
+Mississagas,--sought the same hospitable protection, which never failed
+them.  Their descendants still reside on the Canadian Reservation, which
+may well be styled an aboriginal "refuge of nations,"--affording a
+striking evidence in our own day of the persistent force of a great idea,
+when embodied in practical shape by the energy of a master mind.
+
+The name by which their constitution or organic law is known among them
+is _kayanerenh_, to which the epitaph _kowa_ [Transcriber's note: the "o"
+is the Unicode o-macron], "great," is frequently added.  This word,
+_kayanerenh_, is sometimes rendered "law," or "league," but its proper
+meaning seems to be "peace."  It is used in this sense by the
+missionaries, in their translations of the scriptures and the
+prayer-book.  In such expressions as "the Prince of Peace," "the author
+of peace," "give peace in our time," we find _kayanerenh_ employed with
+this meaning.  Its root is _yaner_, signifying "noble," or "excellent,"
+which yields, among many derivatives, _kayanere_, "goodness," and
+_kayanerenh_, "peace," or "peacefulness."  The national hymn of the
+confederacy, sung whenever their "Condoling Council" meets, commences
+with a verse referring to their league, which is literally rendered, "We
+come to greet and thank the PEACE" (_kayanerenh_).  When the list of
+their ancient chiefs, the fifty original Councillors, is chanted in the
+closing litany of the meeting, there is heard from time to time, as the
+leaders of each clan are named, an outburst of praise, in the words--
+
+  "This was the roll of you--
+  You that were joined in the work,
+  You that confirmed the work,
+    The GREAT PEACE." (_Kayanerenh-kowa._)
+
+[Transcriber's note: the "o" in "kowa" is the Unicode o-macron.]
+
+
+The regard of Englishmen for their Magna Charta and Bill of Rights, and
+that of Americans for their national Constitution, seem weak in
+comparison with the intense gratitude and reverence of the Five Nations
+for the "Great Peace" which Hiawatha and his colleagues established for
+them.
+
+Of the subsequent life of Hiawatha, and of his death, we have no sure
+information.  The records of the Iroquois are historical, and not
+biographical.  As Hiawatha had been made a chief among the Mohawks, he
+doubtless continued to reside with that nation.  A tradition, which is in
+itself highly probable, represents him as devoting himself to the
+congenial work of clearing away the obstructions in the streams which
+intersect the country then inhabited by the confederated nations, and
+which formed the chief means of communication between them.  That he
+thus, in some measure, anticipated the plans of De Witt Clinton and his
+associates, on a smaller scale, but with perhaps a larger statesmanship,
+we may be willing enough to believe.  A wild legend, recorded by some
+writers, but not told of him by the Canadian Iroquois, and apparently
+belonging to their ancient mythology, gives him an apotheosis, and makes
+him ascend to heaven in a white canoe.  It may be proper to dwell for a
+moment on the singular complication of mistakes which has converted this
+Indian reformer and statesman into a mythological personage.
+
+When by the events of the Revolutionary war the original confederacy was
+broken up, the larger portion of the people followed Brant to Canada.
+The refugees comprised nearly the whole of the Mohawks, and the greater
+part of the Onondagas and Cayugas, with many members of the other
+nations.  In Canada their first proceeding was to reestablish, as far as
+possible, their ancient league, with all its laws and ceremonies.  The
+Onondagas had brought with them most of their wampum records, and the
+Mohawks jealously preserved the memories of the federation, in whose
+formation they had borne a leading part.  The history of the league
+continued to be the topic of their orators whenever a new chief was
+installed into office.  Thus the remembrance of the facts has been
+preserved among them with much clearness and precision, and with very
+little admixture of mythological elements.  With the fragments of the
+tribes which remained on the southern side of the Great Lakes the case
+was very different.  Except among the Senecas, who, of all the Five
+Nations, had had least to do with the formation of the league, the
+ancient families which had furnished the members of their senate, and
+were the conservators of their history, had mostly fled to Canada or the
+West.  The result was that among the interminable stories with which the
+common people beguile their winter nights, the traditions of Atotarho and
+Hiawatha became intermingled with the legends of their mythology.  An
+accidental similarity, in the Onondaga dialect, between the name of
+Hiawatha and that of one of their ancient divinities, led to a confusion
+between the two, which has misled some investigators.  This deity bears,
+in the sonorous Mohawk tongue, the name of Aronhiawagon, meaning "the
+Holder of the Heavens."  The early French missionaries, prefixing a
+particle, made the name in their orthography, Tearonhiaouagon.  He was,
+they tell us, "the great god of the Iroquois."  Among the Onondagas of
+the present day, the name is abridged to Taonhiawagi, or Tahiawagi.  The
+confusion between this name and that of Hiawatha (which, in another form,
+is pronounced Tayonwatha) seems to have begun more than a century ago;
+for Pyrlaeus, the Moravian missionary, heard among the Iroquois
+(according to Heckewelder) that the person who first proposed the league
+was an ancient Mohawk, named Thannawege.  Mr. J. V. H. Clark, in his
+interesting History of Onondaga, makes the name to have been originally
+Ta-oun-ya-wat-ha, and describes the bearer as "the deity who presides
+over fisheries and hunting-grounds."  He came down from heaven in a white
+canoe and after sundry adventures, which remind one of the labors of
+Hercules, assumed the name of Hiawatha (signifying, we are told, "a very
+wise man"), and dwelt for a time as an ordinary mortal among men,
+occupied in works of benevolence.  Finally, after founding the
+confederacy and bestowing many prudent counsels upon the people, he
+returned to the skies by the same conveyance in which he had descended.
+This legend was communicated by Clark to Schoolcraft, when the latter was
+compiling his "Notes on the Iroquois."  Mr. Schoolcraft, pleased with the
+poetical cast of the story and the euphonious name, made confusion worse
+confounded by transferring the hero to a distant region and identifying
+him with Manabozho, a fantastic divinity of the Ojibways.  Schoolcraft's
+volume, absurdly entitled "The Hiawatha Legends," has not in it a single
+fact or fiction relating either to Hiawatha himself or to the Iroquois
+deity Aronhiawagon.  Wild Ojibway stories concerning Manabozho and his
+comrades form the staple of its contents.  But it is to this collection
+that we owe the charming poem of Longfellow; and thus, by an
+extraordinary fortune, a grave Iroquois lawgiver of the fifteenth century
+has become, in modern literature, an Ojibway demigod, son of the West
+Wind, and companion of the tricksy Paupukkeewis, the boastful Iagoo, and
+the strong Kwasind.  If a Chinese traveller, during the middle ages,
+inquiring into the history and religion of the western nations, had
+confounded King Alfred with King Arthur, and both with Odin, he would not
+have made a more preposterous confusion of names and characters than that
+which has hitherto disguised the genuine personality of the great
+Onondaga reformer.
+
+About the main events of his history, and about his character and
+purposes, there can be no reasonable doubt.  We have the wampum belts
+which he handled, and whose simple hieroglyphics preserve the memory of
+the public acts in which he took part.  We have, also, in the Iroquois
+"Book of Rites," a still more clear and convincing testimony to the
+character both of the legislator and of the people for whom his
+institutions were designed.  This book, sometimes called the "Book of the
+Condoling Council," might properly enough be styled an Iroquois Veda.  It
+comprises the speeches, songs and other ceremonies, which, from the
+earliest period of the confederacy, have composed the proceedings of
+their council when a deceased chief is lamented and his successor is
+installed in office.  The fundamental laws of the league, a list of their
+ancient towns, and the names of the chiefs who constituted their first
+council, chanted in a kind of litany, are also comprised in the
+collection.  The contents, after being preserved in memory, like the
+Vedas, for many generations, were written down by desire of the chiefs,
+when their language was first reduced to writing; and the book is
+therefore more than a century old.  Its language, archaic when written,
+is now partly obsolete, and is fully understood by only a few of the
+oldest chiefs.  It is a genuine Indian composition, and must be accepted
+as disclosing the true character of its authors.  The result is
+remarkable enough.  Instead of a race of rude and ferocious warriors, we
+find in this book a kindly and affectionate people, full of sympathy for
+their friends in distress, considerate to their women, tender to their
+children, anxious for peace, and imbued with a profound reverence for
+their constitution and its authors.  We become conscious of the fact that
+the aspect in which these Indians have presented themselves to the
+outside world has been in a large measure deceptive and factitious.  The
+ferocity, craft, and cruelty, which have been deemed their leading
+traits, have been merely the natural accompaniments of wars of
+self-preservation, and no more indicated their genuine character than the
+war-paint, plume, and tomahawk of the warrior displayed the customary
+guise in which he appeared among his own people.  The cruelties of war,
+when war is a struggle for national existence, are common to all races.
+The persistent desire for peace, pursued for centuries in federal unions,
+and in alliances and treaties with other nations, has been manifested by
+few as steadily as by the countrymen of Hiawatha.  The sentiment of
+universal brotherhood, which directed their polity, has never been so
+fully developed in any branch of the Aryan race, unless it may be found
+incorporated in the religious quietism of Buddha and his followers.
+
+To come back to our first proposition,--it is unquestionable that the
+Iroquois, when they framed the political system which exhibited this
+singular force of intellect and elevation of character, were a people of
+the Stone Age; and there is no good reason for supposing that they were
+superior in character and capacity to the people of the most primitive
+times.  What we know of them entitles us to affirm that the makers of the
+earliest flint implements may have been equal, if not superior, in
+natural powers to the members of any existing race.  And as language is
+the outgrowth and image of the mental faculties, it is not impossible, or
+even unlikely, that among the languages spoken by the people of those
+early ages, there may have been some as far superior in construction and
+power of expression to any tongue of modern Europe, as the languages of
+the barbarous Greeks and Germans, a thousand years before the Christian
+era, were superior to the speech of the highly civilized Egyptians.
+
+The conclusions to which these facts and reasonings point are of great
+scientific importance.  As there could be no sound astronomy while the
+notion prevailed that the earth was the centre of the universe, and no
+science of history while each nation looked with contempt upon every
+other people, so we can hope for no complete and satisfying science of
+man and of human speech until our minds are disabused of those other
+delusions of self-esteem which would persuade us that superior culture
+implies superior capacity, and that the particular race and language
+which we happen to claim as our own are the best of all races and
+languages.
+
+
+[Printed at the SALEM PRESS, Nov., 1881.]
+
+
+
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