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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Practical Grammar and Composition + +Author: Thomas Wood + +Release Date: September 11, 2007 [EBook #22577] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + + + + +Produced by Robert J. Hall + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>PRACTICAL GRAMMAR<br />AND COMPOSITION</h1> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em;">BY</p> + +<p class="author"> +THOMAS WOOD, A.M., LL.B.<br /> +<span style="font-size: small;">THE BRADDOCK (PENNSYLVANIA) +HIGH SCHOOL</span> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em;"> +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br /> +NEW YORK CHICAGO +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<h2><a name="page_v"><span class="page">Page v</span></a> +PREFACE</h2> + +<hr> + +<p class="indent"> +This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching +some classes in English in the night preparatory department of +the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those +classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would +enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English. +English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar +of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond +the everyday needs of the practical man. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a +text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed +that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar, +and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words, +and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources +of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and, +finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical +work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The +parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from +that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more +sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition +contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary +composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing, +since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for +actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to +the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment +has at times been intentionally rather formal. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_vi"><span class="page">Page vi</span></a> Abundant +and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent intervals +throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises have +been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical points +have been made very extensive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book +and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of +that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement +of principles and in the working out of details great originality +would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore, +for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores +of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of +the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found +in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from +other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as +may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the +books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the +following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and +Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's +Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition, +McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's +Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business +English. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's +Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing +Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is +indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation +of certain parts of their texts. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends +who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript, +and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons +who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers. +Above all, a great debt of <a name="page_vii"><span class="page">Page +vii</span></a> gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris, Superintendent +of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement and +painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript +and in reading the proof of the book. +</p> + +<p class="right">T.W.</p> + +<p class="smallcaps"> +Braddock, Pennsylvania.</p> + +<h2><a name="page_ix"><span class="page">Page ix</span></a> +CONTENTS</h2> + +<table> + <tr><td style="font-size: smaller;">CHAPTER</td></tr> + <tr><td class="right">I.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_1"> + Sentences—Parts of Speech—Elements of + Sentence—Phrases and Clauses</a></td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">II.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_7">Nouns</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Common and Proper<br /> + Inflection Defined<br /> + Number<br /> + <span class="indent1">The Formation of Plurals</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Compound Nouns</span><br /> + Case<br /> + <span class="indent1">The Formation of the Possessive + Case</span><br /> + Gender + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">III.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_13">Pronouns</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Agreement with Antecedents<br /> + Person<br /> + Gender<br /> + <span class="indent1">Rules Governing Gender</span><br /> + Number<br /> + Compound Antecedents<br /> + Relative<br /> + Interrogative<br /> + Case Forms<br /> +<span class="indent1">Rules Governing Use of Cases</span> + Compound Personal<br /> + Compound Relative<br /> + Adjective<br /> + Miscellaneous Cautions + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">IV.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_32">Adjectives and + Adverbs</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Comparison<br /> + Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs<br /> +<a name="#page_x"><span class="page">Page x</span></a> + Improper Forms of Adjectives<br /> + Errors in Comparison<br /> + Singular and Plural Adjectives<br /> + Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives<br /> + Double Negatives<br /> + The Articles + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">V.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_46">Verbs</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Principal Parts<br /> + <span class="indent1">Name-form</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Past Tense</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Past Participle</span><br /> + Transitive and Intransitive Verbs<br /> + Active and Passive Voice<br /> + Mode<br /> + <span class="indent1">Forms of the Subjunctive</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Use of Indicative and + Subjunctive</span><br /> + Agreement of Verb with its Subject<br /> + <span class="indent1">Rules Governing Agreement of the + Verb</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Miscellaneous Cautions</span><br /> + Use of <i>Shall</i> and <i>Will</i><br /> + Use of <i>Should</i> and <i>Would</i><br /> + Use of <i>May</i> and <i>Might</i>, <i>Can</i> and + <i>Could</i><br /> + Participles and Gerunds<br /> + <span class="indent1">Misuses of Participles and + Gerunds</span><br /> + Infinitives<br /> + <span class="indent1">Sequence of Infinitive + Tenses</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Split Infinitives</span><br /> + Agreement of Verb in Clauses<br /> + Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb<br /> + Model Conjugations<br /> + <span class="indent1"><i>To Be</i></span><br /> + <span class="indent1"><i>To See</i></span> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">VI.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_101">Connectives: Relative + Pronouns, Relative Adverbs, Conjunctions, and + Prepositions</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Independent and Dependent Clauses<br /> +<a name="#page_xi"><span class="page">Page xi</span></a> + Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns<br /> + Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs<br /> + Conjunctions<br /> + Placing of Correlatives<br /> + Prepositions + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" colspan="2"><a href="#page_109"> + Questions for the Review of Grammar</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" colspan="2"><a href="#page_112"> + A General Exercise on Grammar</a></td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">VII.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_117">Sentences</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Loose<br /> + Periodic<br /> + Balanced<br /> + Sentence Length<br /> + The Essential Qualities of a Sentence<br /> + <span class="indent1">Unity</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Coherence</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Emphasis</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Euphony</span> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">VIII.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_136"> + Capitalization and Punctuation</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Rules for Capitalization<br /> + Rules for Punctuation + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">IX.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_148"> + The Paragraph</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Length<br /> + Paragraphing of Speech<br /> + Indentation of the Paragraph<br /> + Essential Qualities of the Paragraph<br /> + <span class="indent1">Unity</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Coherence</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Emphasis</span> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">X.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_155"> + Letter-Writing</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Heading<br /> + Inside Address<br /> + Salutation<br /> + Body of the Letter<br /> +<a name="#page_xii"><span class="page">Page xii</span></a> + Close<br /> + Miscellaneous Directions<br /> + Outside Address<br /> + Correctly Written Letters<br /> + Notes in the Third Person + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">XI.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_174"> + The Whole Composition</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Statement of Subject<br /> + The Outline<br /> + The Beginning<br /> + Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition<br /> + <span class="indent1">Unity</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Coherence</span><br /> + The Ending<br /> + Illustrative Examples<br /> + <span class="indent1">Lincoln's <i>Gettysburgx + Speech</i></span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Selection from + <i>Cranford</i></span><br /> + List of Books for Reading + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">XII.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_185"> + Words—Spelling—Pronunciation</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Words<br /> + <span class="indent1">Good Use</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Offenses Against Good Use</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Solecisms</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Barbarisms</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Improprieties</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Idioms</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Choice of Words</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">How to Improve One's Vocabulary</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Spelling</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Pronunciation</span> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" colspan="2"><a href="#page_221"> + Glossary of Miscellaneous Errors</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="bigtitle"> +<a name="page_1"><span class="page">Page 1</span></a> +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION +</p> + +<hr> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="subtitle"> +SENTENCES.—PARTS OF SPEECH.—ELEMENTS OF THE +SENTENCE.—PHRASES AND CLAUSES +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>1.</b> In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects +together. Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. A <b>Sentence</b> +is a group of words that expresses a single complete thought. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>2. Sentences</b> are of four kinds: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Declarative;</b> a sentence that tells or declares something; +as, <i>That book is mine</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. <b>Imperative;</b> a sentence that expresses a command; as, <i>Bring +me that book</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Interrogative;</b> a sentence that asks a question; as, <i>Is +that book mine?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Exclamatory;</b> a declarative, imperative, or interrogative +sentence that expresses violent emotion, such as terror, surprise, +or anger; as, <i>You shall take that book!</i> or, <i>Can that +book be mine?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>3. Parts of Speech.</b> Words have different uses in sentences. +According to their uses, words are divided into classes called +Parts of Speech. The parts of speech are as follows: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Noun;</b> a word used as the name of something; as, <i>man, +box, Pittsburgh, Harry, silence, justice</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_2"><span class="page">Page 2</span></a> 2. <b>Pronoun;</b> +a word used instead of a noun; as, <i>I, he, it, that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nouns, pronouns, or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns, +are called by the general term, <b>Substantives</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Adjective;</b> a word used to limit or qualify the meaning +of a noun or a pronoun; as, <i>good, five, tall, many</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The words <i>a, an</i>, and <i>the</i> are words used to modify +nouns or pronouns. They are adjectives, but are usually called +<b>Articles</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Verb;</b> a word used to state something about some person +or thing; as, <i>do, see, think, make</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. <b>Adverb;</b> a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an +adjective, or another adverb; as, <i>very, slowly, clearly, often</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. <b>Preposition;</b> a word used to join a substantive, as a +modifier, to some other preceding word, and to show the relation of +the substantive to that word; as, <i>by, in, between, beyond</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <b>Conjunction;</b> a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, +and sentences; as, <i>and, but, if, although, or</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. <b>Interjection;</b> a word used to express surprise or emotion; +as, <i>Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah!</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, but +helps to fill out its form or sound, and serves as a device to alter +its natural order. Such a word is called an <b>Expletive.</b> In the +following sentence <i>there</i> is an expletive: <i><b>There</b> +are no such books in print</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>4.</b> A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. +The essential or <b>Principal Elements</b> are the Subject and the +Predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Subject</b> of a sentence is the part which mentions that +about which something is said. The <b>Predicate</b> is the part +which states that which is said about the subject. <i>Man walks</i>. +In this sentence, <i>man</i> is the subject, and <i>walks</i> is +the predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_3"><span class="page">Page 3</span></a> The subject +may be simple or modified; that is, may consist of the subject +alone, or of the subject with its modifiers. The same is true of +the predicate. Thus, in the sentence, <i>Man walks</i>, there is +a simple subject and a simple predicate. In the sentence, <i>The +good man walks very rapidly</i>, there is a modified subject and +a modified predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There may be, also, more than one subject connected with the same +predicate; as, <i><b>The man and the woman</b> walk</i>. This is +called a <b>Compound Subject</b>. A <b>Compound Predicate</b> consists +of more than one predicate used with the same subject; as, <i>The +man <b>both walks and runs</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>5.</b> Besides the principal elements in a sentence, there are +<b>Subordinate Elements.</b> These are the Attribute Complement, +the Object Complement, the Adjective Modifier, and the Adverbial +Modifier. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some verbs, to complete their sense, need to be followed by some +other word or group of words. These words which "complement," or +complete the meanings of verbs are called <b>Complements</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Attribute Complement</b> completes the meaning of the verb +by stating some class, condition, or attribute of the subject; +as, <i>My friend is a <b>student</b>, I am <b>well</b>, The man +is <b>good</b> Student, well</i>, and <i>good</i> complete the +meanings of their respective verbs, by stating some class, condition, +or attribute of the subjects of the verbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The attribute complement usually follows the verb <i>be</i> or its +forms, <i>is, are, was, will be</i>, etc. The attribute complement +is usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective, although it may be a +phrase or clause fulfilling the function of any of these parts +of speech. It must not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial +modifier. In the sentence, <i>He is <b>there</b>, there</i> is +an adverb, not an attribute complement. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The verb used with an attribute complement, because such verb +<i>joins</i> the subject to its attribute, is called the <b>Copula</b> +("to couple") or <b>Copulative Verb</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_4"><span class="page">Page 4</span></a> Some verbs +require an object to complete their meaning. This object is called the +<b>Object Complement</b>. In the sentence, <i>I carry a <b>book</b></i>, +the object, <i>book</i>, is required to complete the meaning of +the transitive verb <i>carry</i>; so, also in the sentences, <i>I +hold the <b>horse</b></i>, and <i>I touch a <b>desk</b></i>, the +objects <i>horse</i> and <i>desk</i> are necessary to complete +the meanings of their respective verbs. These verbs that require +objects to complete their meaning are called Transitive Verbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Adjective</b> and <b>Adverbial Modifiers</b> may consist simply of +adjectives and adverbs, or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives +or adverbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>6.</b> A <b>Phrase</b> is a group of words that is used as a +single part of speech and that does not contain a subject and a +predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A <b>Prepositional Phrase</b>, always used as either an adjective +or an adverbial modifier, consists of a preposition with its object +and the modifiers of the object; as, <i>He lives <b>in Pittsburg</b>, +Mr. Smith <b>of this place</b> is the manager <b>of the mill</b>, +The letter is <b>in the nearest desk</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There are also Verb-phrases. A <b>Verb-phrase</b> is a phrase that +serves as a verb; as, <i>I <b>am coming</b>, He <b>shall be told</b>, +He <b>ought to have been told</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>7.</b> A <b>Clause</b> is a group of words containing a subject +and a predicate; as, <i>The man <b>that I saw</b> was tall</i>. +The clause, <i>that I saw</i>, contains both a subject, <i>I</i>, +and a predicate, <i>saw</i>. This clause, since it merely states +something of minor importance in the sentence, is called the +<b>Subordinate Clause</b>. The <b>Principal Clause</b>, the one +making the most important assertion, is, <i>The man was tall</i>. +Clauses may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, and as nouns. A +clause used as a noun is called a <b>Substantive Clause</b>. Examine +the following examples: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +Adjective Clause: The book <i>that I want</i> is a history.<br /> +Adverbial Clause: He came <i>when he had finished with the + work</i>.<br /> +Noun Clause as subject: <i>That I am here</i> is true.<br /> +Noun Clause as object: He said <i>that I was mistaken</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_5"><span class="page">Page 5</span></a> <b>8.</b> +Sentences, as to their composition, are classified as follows: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Simple;</b> a sentence consisting of a single statement; as, +<i>The man walks</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Complex;</b> a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one +or more subordinate clauses; as, <i>The man that I saw is tall</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Compound;</b> a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of +equal importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood; +as, <i>The man is tall and walks rapidly</i>, and <i>Watch the +little things; they are important</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 1</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In this and in all following exercises, be able to give the +reason for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. +Only intelligent and reasoning work is worth while.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following list of sentences:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(1) Determine the part of speech of every word.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate; +and the modified subject and the modified predicate.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object +complement.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional +phrase or a verb-phrase. If it is a prepositional phrase, determine +whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If they +are subordinate clauses, determine whether they are used as nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(6) Classify every sentence as simple, complex, or compound.</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Houses are built of wood, brick, stone, and other materials, +and are constructed in various styles.</li> +<li>The path of glory leads but to the grave.</li> +<li>We gladly accepted the offer which he made.</li> +<li>I am nearly ready, and shall soon join you.</li> +<li>There are few men who do not try to be honest.</li> +<li><a name="page_6"><span class="page">Page 6</span></a> +Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever.</li> +<li>He works hard, and rests little.</li> +<li>She is still no better, but we hope that there will be a +change.</li> +<li>Let each speak for himself.</li> +<li>It was I who told him to go.</li> +<li>To live an honest life should be the aim of every one.</li> +<li>Who it really was no one knew, but all believed it to have + been him.</li> +<li>In city and in country people think very differently.</li> +<li>To be or not to be, that is the question.</li> +<li>In truth, I think that I saw a brother of his in that + place.</li> +<li>By a great effort he managed to make headway against the + current.</li> +<li>Beyond this, I have nothing to say.</li> +<li>That we are never too old to learn is a true saying.</li> +<li>Full often wished he that the wind might rage.</li> +<li>Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate.</li> +<li>It is I whom you see.</li> +<li>The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained + memory.</li> +<li>Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they + do here.</li> +<li>Alas! I can travel no more.</li> +<li>A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 2</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(1) <i>Write a list of six examples of every part of speech.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(2) <i>Write eight sentences, each containing an attribute complement. +Use adjectives, nouns, and pronouns.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(3) <i>Write eight sentences, each containing an object complement.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(4) <i>Write five sentences, in each using some form of the verb +<b>to be</b>, followed by an adverbial modifier.</i> +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_7"><span class="page">Page 7</span></a> +CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">NOUNS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>9.</b> A noun has been defined as a word used as the name of +something. It may be the name of a person, a place, a thing, or +of some abstract quality, such as, <i>justice</i> or <i>truth</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>10. Common and Proper Nouns.</b> A <b>Proper Noun</b> is a noun +that names some particular or special place, person, people, or +thing. A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter; +as, <i>English, Rome, Jews, John</i>. A <b>Common Noun</b> is a +general or class name. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>11. Inflection Defined.</b> The variation in the forms of the +different parts of speech to show grammatical relation, is called +<b>Inflection</b>. Though there is some inflection in English, +grammatical relation is usually shown by position rather than by +inflection. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The noun is inflected to show number, case, and gender. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>12. Number</b> is that quality of a word which shows whether it +refers to one or to more than one. <b>Singular Number</b> refers +to one. <b>Plural Number</b> refers to more than one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>13. Plurals of singular nouns are formed according to the following +rules:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Most nouns add <i>s</i> to the singular; as, <i>boy, boys; stove, +stoves</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns ending in <i>s, ch, sh</i>, or <i>x</i>, add <i>es</i> +to the singular; as, <i>fox, foxes; wish, wishes; glass, glasses; +coach, coaches</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Nouns ending in <i>y</i> preceded by a vowel (<i>a, e, i, o, +u</i>) add <i>s</i>; as, <i>valley, valleys</i>, (<i>soliloquy, +soliloquies</i> and <i>colloquy, colloquies</i> are exceptions). +When <i>y</i> is preceded by a consonant (any letter other than +a vowel), <i>y</i> is changed to <i>i</i> and <i>es</i> is added; +as, <i>army, armies; pony, ponies; sty, sties</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Most nouns ending in <i>f</i> or <i>fe</i> add <i>s</i>, as, +<i>scarf, scarfs; safe, safes</i>. <a name="page_8"><span +class="page">Page 8</span></a> A few change <i>f</i> or <i>fe</i> +to <i>v</i> and add <i>es</i>; as, <i>wife, wives; self, selves</i>. +The others are: <i>beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, sheaf, shelf, +staff, thief, wharf, wolf, life</i>. (<i>Wharf</i> has also a plural, +<i>wharfs</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Most nouns ending in <i>o</i> add <i>s</i>; as, <i>cameo, cameos</i>. +A number of nouns ending in <i>o</i> preceded by a consonant add +<i>es</i>; as, <i>volcano, volcanoes</i>. The most important of +the latter class are: <i>buffalo, cargo, calico, echo, embargo, +flamingo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, +torpedo, veto</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. Letters, figures, characters, etc., add the apostrophe and <i>s</i> +(<i>'s</i>); as, <i>6's, c's, t's, that's</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. The following common words always form their plurals in an irregular +way; as, <i>man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, +feet; mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth; louse, lice</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Compound Nouns</b> are those formed by the union of two words, +either two nouns or a noun joined to some descriptive word or phrase. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. The principal noun of a compound noun, whether it precedes or +follows the descriptive part, is in most cases the noun that changes +in forming the plural; as, <i>mothers-in-law, knights-errant, +mouse-traps</i>. In a few compound words, both parts take a plural form; +as, <i>man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +9. Proper names and titles generally form plurals in the same way +as do other nouns; as, <i>Senators Webster and Clay, the three +Henrys</i>. Abbreviations of titles are little used in the plural, +except <i>Messrs.</i> (<i>Mr.</i>), and <i>Drs.</i> (<i>Dr.</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +10. In forming the plurals of proper names where a title is used, +either the title or the name may be put in the plural form. Sometimes +both are made plural; as, <i>Miss Brown, the Misses Brown, the +Miss Browns, the two Mrs. Browns</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +11. Some nouns are the same in both the singular and the plural; +as, <i>deer, series, means, gross</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +12. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. The most +important are the following: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td><b>brother</b></td><td><i>brothers</i> (by blood)</td> + <td><i>brethren</i> (by association)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>cloth</b></td><td><i>cloths</i> (kinds of cloth)</td> + <td><i>clothes</i> (garments)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>die</b></td><td><i>dies</i> (for coinage)</td> + <td><i>dice</i> (for games)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>fish</b></td><td><i>fishes</i> (separately)</td> + <td><i>fish</i> (collectively) + <a name="page_9"><span class="page">Page 9</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td><b>genius</b></td><td><i>geniuses</i> (men of genius)</td> + <td><i>genii</i> (imaginary beings)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>head</b></td><td><i>heads</i> (of the body)</td> + <td><i>head</i> (of cattle)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>index</b></td><td><i>indexes</i> (of books)</td> + <td><i>indices</i> (in algebra)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>pea</b></td><td><i>peas</i> (separately)</td> + <td><i>pease</i> (collectively)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>penny</b></td><td><i>pennies</i> (separately)</td> + <td><i>pence</i> (collectively)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>sail</b></td><td><i>sails</i> (pieces of canvas)</td> + <td><i>sail</i> (number of vessels)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>shot</b></td><td><i> shots</i> (number of discharges)</td> + <td><i>shot</i> (number of balls)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +13. Nouns from foreign languages frequently retain in the plural +the form that they have in the language from which they are taken; +as, <i>focus, foci; terminus, termini; alumnus, alumni; datum, data; +stratum, strata; formula, formulœ; vortex, vortices; appendix, +appendices; crisis, crises; oasis, oases; axis, axes; phenomenon, +phenomena; automaton, automata; analysis, analyses; hypothesis, +hypotheses; medium, media; vertebra, vertebrœ; ellipsis, ellipses; +genus, genera; fungus, fungi; minimum, minima; thesis, theses</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 3</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write the plural, if any, of every singular noun in the following +list; and the singular, if any, of every plural noun. Note those +having no singular and those having no plural</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +News, goods, thanks, scissors, proceeds, puppy, studio, survey, +attorney, arch, belief, chief, charity, half, hero, negro, majority, +Mary, vortex, memento, joy, lily, knight-templar, knight-errant, why, +4, x, son-in-law, Miss Smith, Mr. Anderson, country-man, hanger-on, +major-general, oxen, geese, man-servant, brethren, strata, sheep, +mathematics, pride, money, pea, head, piano, veto, knives, ratios, +alumni, feet, wolves, president, sailor-boy, spoonful, rope-ladder, +grandmother, attorney-general, cupful, go-between. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>When in doubt respecting the form of any of the above, consult +an unabridged dictionary.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>14. Case.</b> There are three cases in English: the Nominative, +the Possessive, and the Objective. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Nominative Case;</b> the form used in address and as the +subject of a verb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Objective Case;</b> the form used as the object of a verb or +a preposition. It is always the same in form as is the nominative. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_10"><span class="page">Page 10</span></a> Since no +error in grammar can arise in the use of the nominative or the +objective cases of nouns, no further discussion of these cases is +here needed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Possessive Case</b>; the form used to show ownership. In +the forming of this case we have inflection. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>15. The following are the rules for the forming of the possessive +case:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Most nouns form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and +<i>s</i> (<i>'s</i>); as, <i>man, man's; men, men's; pupil, pupil's; +John, John's</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Plural nouns ending in <i>s</i> form the possessive by adding +only the apostrophe ('); as, <i>persons, persons'; writers, +writers'</i>. In stating possession in the plural, then one should +say: <i>Carpenters' tools sharpened here, Odd Fellows' wives are +invited</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Some singular nouns ending in an <i>s</i> sound form the possessive +by adding the apostrophe alone; as, <i>for appearance' sake, for +goodness' sake</i>. But usage inclines to the adding of the apostrophe +and <i>s</i> (<i>'s</i>) even if the singular noun does end in +an <i>s</i> sound; as, <i>Charles's book, Frances's dress, the +mistress's dress</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When a compound noun, or a group of words treated as one name, +is used to denote possession, the sign of the possessive is added +to the last word only; as, <i>Charles and John's mother</i> (the +mother of both Charles and John), <i>Brown and Smith's store</i> +(the store of the firm Brown & Smith). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Where the succession of possessives is unpleasant or confusing, +the substitution of a prepositional phrase should be made; as, +<i>the house of the mother of Charles's partner</i>, instead of, +<i>Charles's partner's mother's house</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. The sign of the possessive should be used with the word immediately +preceding the word naming the thing possessed; as, <i>Father and +mother's house, Smith, the lawyer's, office, The Senator from Utah's +seat</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. Generally, nouns representing inanimate objects should not be +used in the possessive case. It is better to say <i>the hands of +the clock</i> than <i>the clock's hands</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—One +should say <i>somebody else's</i>, not <i>somebody's else</i>. The +expression <i>somebody else</i> always occurs in the one form, and +in such cases the sign of the possessive should be added to the last +word. Similarly, say, <i>no one else's, everybody else's</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_11"><span class="page">Page 11</span></a> +Exercise 4</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write the possessives of the following:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Oxen, ox, brother-in-law, Miss Jones, goose, man, men, men-servants, +man-servant, Maine, dogs, attorneys-at-law, Jackson & Jones, +John the student, my friend John, coat, shoe, boy, boys, Mayor +of Cleveland. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 5</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences illustrating the use of the possessives you have +formed for the first ten words under Exercise 4.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 6</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Change the following expressions from the prepositional phrase +form to the possessive:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The ships of Germany and France.</li> +<li>The garden of his mother and sister.</li> +<li>The credit of Jackson & Jones.</li> +<li>The signature of the president of the firm.</li> +<li>The coming of my grandfather.</li> +<li>The lives of our friends.</li> +<li>The dog of both John and William.</li> +<li>The dog of John and the dog of William.</li> +<li>The act of anybody else.</li> +<li>The shortcomings of Alice.</li> +<li>The poems of Robert Burns.</li> +<li>The wives of Henry the Eighth.</li> +<li>The home of Mary and Martha.</li> +<li>The novels of Dickens and the novels of Scott.</li> +<li>The farm of my mother and of my father.</li> +<li>The recommendation of Superintendent Norris.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 7</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following expressions as need correction. +If apostrophes are omitted, insert them in the proper places:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He walked to the precipices edge.</li> +<li>Both John and William's books were lost.</li> +<li><a name="page_12"><span class="page">Page 12</span></a> +They sell boy's hats and mens' coats.</li> +<li>My friends' umbrella was stolen.</li> +<li>I shall buy a hat at Wanamaker's & Brown's.</li> +<li>This student's lessons.</li> +<li>These students books.</li> +<li>My daughters coming.</li> +<li>John's wife's cousin.</li> +<li>My son's wife's aunt.</li> +<li>Five years imprisonment under Texas's law.</li> +<li>John's books and Williams.</li> +<li>The Democrat's and Republican Convention.</li> +<li>France's and England's interests differ widely.</li> +<li>The moons' face was hidden.</li> +<li>Wine is made from the grape's juice.</li> +<li>Morton, the principals, signature.</li> +<li>Jones & Smith, the lawyers, office.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +16. <b>Gender.</b> Gender in grammar is the quality of nouns or +pronouns that denotes the sex of the person or thing represented. +Those nouns or pronouns meaning males are in the <b>Masculine +Gender</b>. Those meaning females are in the <b>Feminine Gender</b>. +Those referring to things without sex are in the <b>Neuter Gender</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In nouns gender is of little consequence. The only regular inflection +is the addition of the syllable-<i>ess</i> to certain masculine +nouns to denote the change to the feminine gender; as, <i>author, +authoress; poet, poetess</i>. -I<i>x</i> is also sometimes added +for the same purpose; as, <i>administrator, administratrix</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The feminine forms were formerly much used, but their use is now +being discontinued, and the noun of masculine gender used to designate +both sexes. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_13"><span class="page">Page 13</span></a> +CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">PRONOUNS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>17. Pronoun and Antecedent.</b> A <b>Pronoun</b> is a word used +instead of a noun. The noun in whose stead it stands is called its +<b>Antecedent</b>. <i><b>John</b> took Mary's <b>book</b> and gave +<b>it</b> to <b>his</b> friend</i>. In this sentence <i>book</i> +is the antecedent of the pronoun <i>it</i>, and <i>John</i> is the +antecedent of <i>his</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>18. Pronouns should agree with their antecedents in person, gender, +and number.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>19. Personal Pronouns</b> are those that by their form indicate +the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken +about. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pronouns of the <b>First Person</b> indicate the speaker; they are: +<i>I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pronouns of the <b>Second Person</b> indicate the person or thing +spoken to; they are: <i>you, your, yours</i>. There are also the +grave or solemn forms in the second person, which are now little +used; these are: <i>thou, thee, thy, thine</i>, and <i>ye</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pronouns of the <b>Third Person</b> indicate the person or thing +spoken of; they are: <i>he, his, him, she, her, hers, they, their, +theirs, them, it, its</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Few errors are made in the use of the proper person of the pronoun. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>20. Gender of Pronouns.</b> The following pronouns indicate +sex or gender; Masculine: <i>he, his, him</i>. Feminine: <i>she, +her, hers</i>. Neuter: <i>it, its</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>In order to secure agreement in gender it is necessary to know +the gender of the noun, expressed or understood, to which the pronoun +refers.</b> Gender of nouns is important only so far as it concerns +the use of pronouns. Study carefully the <a name="page_14"><span +class="page">Page 14</span></a> following rules in regard to gender. +These rules apply to the singular number only, since all plurals +of whatever gender are referred to by <i>they, their, theirs</i>, +etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The following rules govern the gender of pronouns:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Masculine;</b> referred to by <b><i>he, his</i></b>, and +<b><i>him</i></b>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Nouns denoting males are always masculine. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns denoting things remarkable for strength, power, sublimity, +or size, when those things are regarded as if they were persons, +are masculine; <i>as, <b>Winter</b>, with <b>his</b> chilly army, +destroyed them all</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Singular nouns denoting persons of both sexes are masculine; +as, <i><b>Every one</b> brought <b>his</b> umbrella</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Feminine;</b> referred to by <b><i>she, her</i></b>, or +<b><i>hers</i></b>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Nouns denoting females are always feminine. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns denoting objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and +peace, when spoken of as if they were persons, are feminine; as, +<i><b>Sleep</b> healed him with <b>her</b> fostering care</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Neuter;</b> referred to by <b><i>it</i></b> and <b><i>its</i></b>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Nouns denoting objects without sex are neuter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns denoting objects whose sex is disregarded are neuter; +as, <i><b>It</b> is a pretty child, The <b>wolf</b> is the most +savage of <b>its</b> race</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Collective nouns referring to a group of individuals as a unit +are neuter; as, <i>The <b>jury</b> gives its <b>verdict</b>, The +<b>committee</b> makes <b>its</b> report</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An animal named may be regarded as masculine; feminine, or neuter, +according to the characteristics the writer fancies it to possess; +as, <i>The <b>wolf</b> seeks <b>his</b> prey, The <b>mouse</b> +nibbled <b>her</b> way into the box, The <b>bird</b> seeks <b>its</b> +nest.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Certain nouns may be applied to persons of either sex. They are +then said to be of <b>Common Gender</b>. There are no pronouns +of common gender; hence those nouns are referred to as follows: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. By masculine pronouns when known to denote males; as, <i><b>My +class-mate</b></i> (known to be Harry) <i>is taking <b>his</b> +examinations</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. By feminine pronouns when known to denote females; as, <i><b>Each +of the pupils</b> of the Girls High School brought <b>her</b> book.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_15"><span class="page">Page 15</span></a> 3. By masculine +pronouns when there is nothing in the connection of the thought to +show the sex of the object; as, <i>Let every <b>person</b> bring +his book</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>21. Number of Pronouns.</b> A more common source of error than +disagreement in gender is disagreement in number. <i>They, their, +theirs</i>, and <i>them</i> are plural, but are often improperly +used when only singular pronouns should be used. The cause of the +error is failure to realize the true antecedent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>If <b>anybody</b> makes that statement, <b>they</b> are +misinformed</i>. This sentence is wrong. <i>Anybody</i> refers +to only one person; both <i>any</i> and <i>body</i>, the parts +of the word, denote the singular. The sentence should read, <i>If +<b>anybody</b> makes that statement, <b>he</b> is misinformed.</i> +Similarly, <i>Let <b>everybody</b> keep <b>their</b> peace</i>, +should read, <i>Let <b>everybody</b> keep <b>his</b> peace.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>22. Compound Antecedents.</b> Two or more antecedents connected +by <i>or</i> or <i>nor</i> are frequently referred to by the plural +when the singular should be used. <i>Neither John nor James brought +<b>their</b> books</i>, should read, <i>Neither John nor James +brought <b>his</b> books</i>. When a pronoun has two or more singular +antecedents connected by <i>or</i> or <i>nor</i>, the pronoun must +be in the singular number; but if one of the antecedents is plural, +the pronoun must, also, be in the plural; as, <i>Neither the Mormon +nor his wives denied <b>their</b> religion</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by <i>and</i>, +the pronoun must be in the plural number; as, <i>John and James +brought <b>their</b> books</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Further treatment of number will be given under verbs. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 8</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the proper +pronouns. See that there is agreement in person, gender, and number:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Has everybody finished —— work.</li> +<li>If any one wishes a longer time, let —— hold up + —— hand.</li> +<li>The panther sprang from —— lurking place.</li> +<li><a name="page_16"><span class="page">Page 16</span></a> + Many a man has (have) lost —— money in speculation.</li> +<li>The cat came each day for —— bit of meat.</li> +<li>Everyone has to prove —— right to a seat.</li> +<li>Let every boy answer for —— self (selves).</li> +<li>The crowd was so great that we could hardly get through + ——.</li> +<li>Let any boy guess this riddle if —— can.</li> +<li>Company H was greatly reduced in —— numbers.</li> +<li>Every animal has some weapon with which —— can defend + ——self (selves).</li> +<li>Nowhere does each dare do as —— pleases (please).</li> +<li>The elephant placed —— great foot on the man's chest.</li> +<li>The child did not know —— mother.</li> +<li>Death gathers —— unfailing harvest.</li> +<li>Every kind of animal has —— natural enemies.</li> +<li>The committee instructed —— chairman to report the + matter.</li> +<li>Two men were present, but neither would tell what —— + saw.</li> +<li>Truth always triumphs over —— enemies.</li> +<li>Nobody did —— duty more readily than I.</li> +<li>The cat never fails to catch —— prey.</li> +<li>I have used both blue crayon and red crayon, but —— + does (do) not write so clearly as white.</li> +<li>If John and Henry whisper (whispers) —— will be + punished.</li> +<li>If John or Henry whisper (whispers) —— will be + punished.</li> +<li>Both Columbus and Cabot failed to realize the importance + of —— discoveries.</li> +<li>Neither the lawyer nor the sheriff liked —— task.</li> +<li>The canary longed to escape from —— cage.</li> +<li>The rat ran to —— hole.</li> +<li>The dog seemed to know —— master was dead.</li> +<li>Everyone should try to gather a host of friends about + ——.</li> +<li>If any one wishes to see me, send —— to the Pierce + Building.</li> +<li>Probably everybody is discouraged at least once in —— + life.</li> +<li>Nobody should deceive ——selves (self).</li> +<li>Let each take —— own seat.</li> +<li>Let each girl in the class bring —— book.</li> +<li>Let each bring —— book.</li> +<li>Let each bring —— sewing.</li> +<li><a name="page_17"><span class="page">Page 17</span></a> + The fox dropped —— meat in the pool.</li> +<li>The rock lay on —— side.</li> +<li>Let sleep enter with —— healing touch.</li> +<li>Each believed that —— had been elected a delegate to the + Mother's Congress.</li> +<li>Consumption demands each year —— thousands of victims.</li> +<li>Summer arrays ——self (selves) with flowers.</li> +<li>Despair seized him in —— powerful grasp.</li> +<li>If any boy or any girl finds the book, let —— bring + it to me.</li> +<li>Let every man and every woman speak ——mind.</li> +<li>Spring set forth —— beauties.</li> +<li>How does the mouse save —— self (selves) from being + caught?</li> +<li>The hen cackled —— loudest.</li> +<li>Some man or boy lost —— hat.</li> +<li>John or James will favor us with —— company.</li> +<li>Neither the captain nor the soldiers showed ——self + (selves) during the fight.</li> +<li>If the boys or their father come we shall be glad to see + ——.</li> +<li>Every man and every boy received —— dinner.</li> +<li>Every man or boy gave —— offering.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 9</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>By what gender of the pronouns would you refer to the following +nouns?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Snake, death, care, mercy, fox, bear, walrus, child, baby, friend +(uncertain sex), friend (known to be Mary), everybody, someone, +artist, flower, moon, sun, sorrow, fate, student, foreigner, Harvard +University, earth, Germany? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>23. Relative Pronouns.</b> Relative Pronouns are pronouns used +to introduce adjective or noun clauses that are not interrogative. +In the sentence, <i>The man <b>that I mentioned</b> has come</i>, +the relative clause, <i>that I mentioned</i>, is an adjective clause +modifying <i>man</i>. In the sentence, <i><b>Whom she means</b>, +I do not know</i>, the relative clause is, <i>whom she means</i>, +and is a noun clause forming the object of the verb <i>know</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_18"><span class="page">Page 18</span></a> The relative +pronouns are <i>who</i> (<i>whose, whom</i>), <i>which, that</i> +and <i>what</i>. <i>But</i> and <i>as</i> are sometimes relative +pronouns. There are, also, compound relative pronouns, which will +be mentioned later. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>24.</b> <i>Who</i> (with its possessive and objective forms, +<i>whose</i> and <i>whom</i>) should be used when the antecedent +denotes persons. When the antecedent denotes things or animals, +<i>which</i> should be used. <i>That</i> may be used with antecedents +denoting persons, animals or things, and is the proper relative +to use when the antecedent includes both persons and things. +<i>What</i>, when used as a relative, seldom properly refers to +persons. It always introduces a substantive clause, and is equivalent +to <i>that which</i>; as, <i>It is <b>what</b> (that which) he +wants</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>25.</b> <i>That</i> is known as the <b>Restrictive Relative</b>, +because it should be used whenever the relative clause limits the +substantive, unless <i>who</i> or <i>which</i> is of more pleasing +sound in the sentence. In the sentence, <i>He is the man <b>that +did the act</b></i>, the relative clause, <i>that did the act</i>, +defines what is meant by man; without the relative clause the sentence +clearly would be incomplete. Similarly, in the sentence, <i>The book +<b>that I want</b> is that red-backed history</i>, the restrictive +relative clause is, <i>that <b>I</b> want</i>, and limits the +application of <i>book</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>26.</b> <i>Who</i> and <i>which</i> are known as the +<b>Explanatory</b> or <b>Non-Restrictive Relatives</b>, and should +be used ordinarily only to introduce relative clauses which add some +new thought to the author's principal thought. <i>Spanish, <b>which +is the least complex language</b>, is the easiest to learn</i>. In +this sentence the principal thought is, <i>Spanish is the easiest +language to learn</i>. The relative clause, <i>which is the least +complex language</i>, is a thought, which, though not fully so +important as the principal thought, is more nearly coördinate +than subordinate in its value. It adds an additional thought of +the speaker explaining the character of the Spanish language. When +<i>who</i> and <i>which</i> are thus used as explanatory relatives, +we see <a name="page_19"><span class="page">Page 19</span></a> that +the relative clause may be omitted without making the sentence +incomplete. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Compare the following sentences: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Explanatory relative clause: That book, <i>which is about history</i>, +has a red cover. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Restrictive relative clause: The book <i>that is about history</i> +has a red cover. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Explanatory relative clause: Lincoln, <i>who was one of the world's +greatest men</i>, was killed by Booth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Restrictive relative clause: The Lincoln <i>that was killed by Booth</i> +was one of the world's greatest men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—See +§111, for rule as to the punctuation of relative clauses. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>27. Interrogative Pronouns.</b> An Interrogative Pronoun is a +pronoun used to ask a question. The interrogative pronouns are, +<i>who</i> (<i>whose, whom</i>), <i>which</i>, and <i>what</i>. In +respect to antecedents, <i>who</i> should be used only in reference +to persons; <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> may be used with any +antecedent, persons, animals, or things. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 10</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the proper relative or interrogative pronoun to be inserted +in each of the following sentences. Insert commas where they are +needed.</i> (<i>See</i> <b>§111</b>): +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The kindly physician —— was so greatly loved is dead.</li> +<li>This is the man —— all are praising.</li> +<li>John —— is my coachman is sick.</li> +<li>The intelligence —— he displayed was remarkable.</li> +<li>Intelligence —— he had hitherto not manifested now + showed its presence.</li> +<li>He maintains that the book —— you used is now ruined. + (Does <i>which</i> or <i>that</i> have the more pleasing sound + here?)</li> +<li>The pleasure —— education gives the man —— + has it is a sufficient reward for the trouble —— it has + cost.</li> +<li>That man —— wears a cap is a foreigner.</li> +<li>The best hotel is the one —— is nearest the station. + <a name="page_20"><span class="page">Page 20</span></a></li> +<li>Who is it —— is worthy of that honor?</li> +<li>The carriages and the drivers —— you ordered yesterday + have arrived.</li> +<li>—— thing is it —— you want?</li> +<li>He purchased —— he wished.</li> +<li>There is no cloud —— has not its silver lining.</li> +<li>It is the same dog —— I bought.</li> +<li>The man and horse —— you see pass here every + afternoon.</li> +<li>—— did they seek?</li> +<li>They inquired —— he was going to do.</li> +<li>Who was it —— lost the book?</li> +<li>The man —— was a Frenchman was very much excited.</li> +<li>It is neither the party nor its candidate —— gains + support.</li> +<li>That is a characteristic —— makes him seem almost + rude.</li> +<li>It is the same tool —— I used all day.</li> +<li>He is a man —— inspires little confidence.</li> +<li>—— does he expect of us?</li> +<li>It is just such a thing —— I need.</li> +<li>There are few —— will vote for him.</li> +<li>The wagon and children —— you just saw came from our + town.</li> +<li>He —— writes out his lesson does all —— + can be expected.</li> +<li>Was it you or the cat —— made that noise?</li> +<li>It is the same song —— he always sings.</li> +<li>Such —— I have is yours.</li> +<li>All the men and horses —— we had were lost.</li> +<li>That is —— pleased me most and —— + everyone talked about.</li> +<li>The horse was one —— I had never ridden before.</li> +<li>That is —— everyone said.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>28. Case Forms of Pronouns.</b> Some personal, relative, and +interrogative pronouns have distinctive forms for the different +cases, and the failure to use the proper case forms in the sentence +is one of the most frequent sources of error. The case to be used is +to be determined by the use which the pronoun, not its antecedent, +has in the sentence. In the sentence, <i>I name <b>him</b></i>, +note that <i>him</i> is the object of the verb <i>name</i>. In +the sentence, <i><b>Whom</b> do you seek</i>, although coming at +the <a name="page_21"><span class="page">Page 21</span></a> first +of the sentence, <i>whom</i> is grammatically the object of the +verb <i>seek</i>. In the use of pronouns comes the most important +need for a knowledge of when to use the different cases. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Note the following different case forms of pronouns: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nominative: <i>I, we, you, thou, ye, he, she, they, it, who</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Objective: <i>me, us, you, thee, ye, him, her, it, them, whom</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Possessive: <i>my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, +her, hers, its, their, theirs, whose</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It will be noted that, while some forms are the same in both the +nominative and objective cases, <b><i>I, we, he, she, they, thou</i>, +and <i>who</i> are only proper where the nominative case should be +used. <i>Me, us, him, them, thee, whom</i>, and <i>her</i></b>, +except when <i>her</i> is possessive, <b>are only proper when the +objective case is demanded</b>. These forms must be remembered. +It is only with these pronouns that mistakes are made in the use +of the nominative and objective cases. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>29. The following outline explains the use of the different +case forms of the pronouns.</b> The outline should be mastered. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The Nominative Case should be used:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. When the noun or pronoun is the subject of a finite verb; that +is, a verb other than an infinitive. See 3 under Objective Case. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When it is an attribute complement. An attribute complement, as +explained in Chapter I, is a word used in the predicate explaining or +stating something about the subject. Examples: <i>It is <b>I</b>, The +man was <b>he</b>, The people were <b>they</b> of whom we spoke.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When it is used without relation to any other part of speech, +as in direct address or exclamation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The Objective Case should be used:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. When the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb; as, <i>He +named <b>me</b>, She deceived <b>them</b>, They watch <b>us</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When it is the object of a preposition, expressed or understood: +as, <i>He spoke of <b>me</b>, For <b>whom</b> do you take me, He +told (to) <b>me</b> a story.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When it is the subject of an infinitive; as, <i>I told <b>him</b> +to go, I desire <b>her</b> to hope</i>. The infinitives are the +parts of the verb preceded by <i>to</i>; as, <i>to go, to see, to +be, to have been seen</i>, etc. The sign <a name="page_22"><span +class="page">Page 22</span></a> of the infinitive, to, is not always +expressed. The objective case is, nevertheless, used; as, <i>Let +<b>him</b> (to) go, Have <b>her</b> (to be) told about it.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When it is an attribute complement of an expressed subject of the +infinitive <i>to be</i>; as, <i>They believed her to be <b>me</b>, +He denied it to have been him</i>. (See Note 2 below.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The Possessive Case should be used:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When the word is used as a possessive modifier; as, <i>They spoke +of <b>her</b> being present, The book is <b>his</b> (book), It +is <b>their</b> fault.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note 1.</span>—When +a substantive is placed by the side of another substantive and is +used to explain it, it is said to be in <b>Apposition</b> with that +other substantive and takes the case of that word; as, <i>It</i> +was given <i>to John Smith, <b>him</b> whom you see there.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note 2.</span>—The +attribute complement should always have the case of that subject +of the verb which is expressed in the sentence. Thus, in the +sentence, <i>I could not wish John to be <b>him</b>, him</i> is +properly in the objective case, since there is an expressed +subject of the infinitive, <i>John</i>, which is in the objective +case. But in the sentence, <i>I should hate to be <b>he</b>, he</i> +is properly in the nominative case, since the only subject that +is expressed in the sentence is <i>I</i>, in the nominative case. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note 3.</span>—Where +the relative pronoun <i>who (whom)</i> is the subject of a clause +that itself is the object clause of a verb or a preposition, it is +always in the nominative case. Thus the following sentences are +both correct: <i>I delivered it to <b>who</b> owned it, Bring home +<b>whoever</b> will come with you.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 11</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences illustrating the correct use of each of the following +pronouns:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I, whom, who, we, me, us, they, whose, theirs, them, she, him, he, +its, mine, our, thee, thou. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 12</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences choose the proper form from the words +in italics:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>My brother and <i>I me</i> drove to the east end of the town.</li> +<li>Between you and <i>I me</i> things are doubtful. + <a name="page_23"><span class="page">Page 23</span></a></li> +<li>May James and <i>I me</i> go to the circus?</li> +<li>Will you permit James and <i>I me</i> to go to the play?</li> +<li>Who made that noise? Only <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>He introduced us all, <i>I me</i> among the rest.</li> +<li>He promised to bring candy to Helen and <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>Was it <i>I me</i> that you asked for?</li> +<li>Who spoke? <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>I am taken to be <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>No, it could not have been <i>me I</i>.</li> +<li>All have gone but you and <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>You suffer more than <i>me I</i>.</li> +<li>Everyone has failed in the examination except you and + <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>He asked you and <i>I me</i> to come to his office.</li> +<li>See if there is any mail for Mary and <i>me I</i>.</li> +<li>Neither you nor <i>I me</i> can teach the class.</li> +<li>They think it to be <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>This is the student <i>whom who</i> all are praising.</li> +<li>The one that is <i>he him</i> wears a brown hat.</li> +<li>He is a man <i>who whom</i> all admired.</li> +<li>He is one of those men <i>who whom</i> we call snobs.</li> +<li>I did not see that it was <i>her she</i>.</li> +<li>It is in fact <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>He still believes it to be <i>them they</i>.</li> +<li>Between you and <i>I me</i>, it is my opinion that <i>him he</i> + and John will disagree.</li> +<li>We saw John and <i>she her</i>; we know it was <i>them they</i>.</li> +<li>I did not speak of either you or <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>Our cousins and <i>we us</i> are going to the Art Gallery.</li> +<li>Aunt Mary has asked our cousins and <i>us we</i> to take dinner at + her house.</li> +<li>They are more eager than <i>we us</i> since they have not seen her + for a long time.</li> +<li>It could not have been <i>we us who whom</i> you suspected.</li> +<li><i>We us</i> boys are going to the ball game.</li> +<li>They sent letters to all <i>who whom</i> they thought would + contribute.</li> +<li>This money was given by John <i>who whom</i> you know is very + stingy. + <a name="page_24"><span class="page">Page 24</span></a></li> +<li>The superintendent, <i>who whom</i>, I cannot doubt, is + responsible</li> +<li>for this error, must be discharged.</li> +<li>The teacher told you and <i>I me</i> to stay.</li> +<li>The teacher told you and <i>him he</i> to stay.</li> +<li>The teacher told you and <i>she her</i> to stay.</li> +<li>There are many miles between England and <i>we us</i>.</li> +<li>They can't play the game better than <i>we us</i>.</li> +<li>It is unpleasant for such as <i>they them</i> to witness such + things.</li> +<li>Between a teacher and <i>he him who whom</i> he teaches there is + sometimes a strong fellowship.</li> +<li>You are nearly as strong as <i>him he</i>.</li> +<li>All were present but John and <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>Father believed it was <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>Mother knew it to be <i>her she</i>.</li> +<li>It was either <i>he him</i> or <i>she her</i> that called.</li> +<li>Because of <i>his him</i> being young, they tried to shield + him.</li> +<li>It was <i>he him who whom</i> the manager said ought to be + promoted.</li> +<li>The throne was held by a king <i>who whom</i> historians believe + to have been insane.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did he say the man was?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did he say the judge suspected?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you consider to be the brightest man?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you think is the brightest man?</li> +<li>He cannot learn from such as <i>thou thee</i>.</li> +<li>If they only rob such as <i>thou thee</i>, they are honest.</li> +<li>What dost <i>thou thee</i> know?</li> +<li>They do tell <i>thee thou</i> the truth.</li> +<li>She told John and <i>me I</i> to study.</li> +<li>My father allowed my brother and <i>her she</i> to go.</li> +<li>My brother and <i>she her</i> were allowed to go by my father.</li> +<li>Turn not away from <i>him he</i> that is needy.</li> +<li>Neither Frances nor <i>she her</i> was at fault.</li> +<li>The property goes to <i>they them</i>.</li> +<li>He thought it was <i>her she</i>, but it was <i>him he</i> and + William who did it.</li> +<li>It was through <i>she her</i> that word came to <i>me I</i>. + <a name="page_25"><span class="page">Page 25</span></a></li> +<li>I thought it was <i>her she</i>.</li> +<li>I wish you were more like <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>I thought it to be <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>It seems to be <i>he</i>. I should hate to be <i>he</i>. I should + like to be <i>he</i> or <i>she</i>. (All these sentences are in + the correct form.)</li> +<li>He is a man in <i>whom who</i> I have little faith.</li> +<li>You are as skillful as <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>We escorted her mother and <i>her she</i> to the station.</li> +<li><i>She her</i> and <i>I me</i> are going on the boat.</li> +<li>If any are late it will not be <i>us we</i>.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> are you going to collect it from?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do men say that he is?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you think <i>him he</i> to be?</li> +<li><i>They them</i> and their children have gone abroad.</li> +<li>It was not <i>they them</i>.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> am I said to be?</li> +<li>I do not know to <i>who whom</i> to direct him.</li> +<li>How can one tell <i>who whom</i> is at home now?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> is that for?</li> +<li>Choose <i>who whom</i> you please.</li> +<li>Do you think <i>I me</i> to be <i>her she who whom</i> you call + Kate?</li> +<li>Some <i>who whom</i> their friends expected were kept away.</li> +<li>Give it to <i>who whom</i> seems to want it most.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you think I saw there?</li> +<li>I hope it was <i>she her who whom</i> we saw.</li> +<li>It could not have been <i>him he</i>.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did you say did it?</li> +<li>Let <i>them they</i> come at once.</li> +<li>The man on <i>who whom</i> I relied was absent.</li> +<li>I know it was <i>they them who whom</i> did it.</li> +<li>Will he let <i>us we</i> go?</li> +<li>It came from <i>they them who whom</i> should not have sent it.</li> +<li>It was not <i>us we</i> from <i>who whom</i> it came.</li> +<li>Can it be <i>she her</i>?</li> +<li><i>Thou thee</i> art mistaken.</li> +<li>Let me tell <i>thee thou, thee thou</i> wilt do wrong.</li> +<li>Send <i>who whom</i> wants the pass to me.</li> +<li>Tell <i>who whom</i> you choose to come. + <a name="page_26"><span class="page">Page 26</span></a></li> +<li>Is he the man for <i>who whom</i> the city is named?</li> +<li>The book is for <i>who whom</i> needs it.</li> +<li>I do not know <i>who whom</i> the book is for.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>30.</b> The <b>Compound Personal Pronouns</b> are formed by +adding <i>self</i> or <i>selves</i> to certain of the objective +and possessive personal pronouns; as, <i>herself, myself, itself, +themselves</i>, etc. They are used to add emphasis to an expression; +as, <i>I, <b>myself</b>, did it, He, <b>himself</b>, said so.</i> +They are also used reflexively after verbs and prepositions; as, +<i>He mentioned <b>himself</b>, He did it for <b>himself</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The compound personal pronouns should generally be confined to +their emphatic and reflexive use. Do not say, <i><b>Myself</b> and +John will come</i>, but, <i>John and <b>I</b> will come</i>. Do +not say, <i>They invited John and <b>myself</b></i>, but, <i>They +invited John and <b>me</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The compound personal pronouns have no possessive forms; but for +the sake of emphasis <i>own</i> with the ordinary possessive form +is used; as, <i>I have my <b>own</b> book, Bring your <b>own</b> +work, He has a home of his <b>own</b>.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>31.</b> There are no such forms as <i>hisself, your'n, his'n, +her'n, theirself, theirselves, their'n</i>. In place of these use +simply <i>his, her, their</i>, or <i>your</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 13</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the following +simple and compound personal pronouns:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Myself, me, I, them, themselves, him, himself, her, herself, itself, +our, ourselves. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 14</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the correct form in the following sentences. Punctuate +properly.</i> (<i>See</i> <b>§108</b>): +</p> + +<ol> +<li><i>Yourself you</i> and John were mentioned</li> +<li>She told Mary and <i>me myself</i> to go with <i>her herself</i>.</li> +<li>The book is for <i>you yourself</i> and <i>I me myself</i>. + <a name="page_27"><span class="page">Page 27</span></a></li> +<li>Henry and <i>I me myself</i> are in the same class.</li> +<li>He thinks <i>you yourself</i> and <i>I me myself</i> should bring + the books.</li> +<li>Our friends and <i>we us ourselves</i> are going out to-night.</li> +<li><i>Herself she</i> and her husband have been sick.</li> +<li><i>They themselves</i> and their children have gone abroad.</li> +<li>You play the violin better than <i>he himself</i>.</li> +<li>The machine failed to work well, because <i>it itself</i> and the + engine were not properly adjusted to each other.</li> +<li>Let them do it <i>theirselves themselves</i>.</li> +<li>He came by <i>hisself himself</i>.</li> +<li>The teacher <i>hisself himself</i> could not have done better.</li> +<li>I'll bring my gun, and you bring <i>your'n yours your</i> own.</li> +<li>That book is <i>his'n his</i>.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 15</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic +or reflexive forms. Punctuate properly.</i> (<i>See</i> +<b>§108</b>): +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He —— said so.</li> +<li>I —— will do it.</li> +<li>We —— will look after her.</li> +<li>That, I tell you, is —— book.</li> +<li>It belongs to me ——.</li> +<li>Those books are my ——.</li> +<li>Let them —— pay for it.</li> +<li>The horse is to be for —— use.</li> +<li>The horse is to be for the use of ——.</li> +<li>He said it to ——.</li> +<li>He deceived ——.</li> +<li>I do not wish —— to be prominent.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>32.</b> The <b>Compound Relative Pronouns</b> are formed by adding +<i>ever, so</i>, or <i>soever</i> to the relative pronouns, <i>who, +which</i>, and <i>what</i>; as, <i>whoever, whatever, whomever, +whosoever, whoso, whosoever</i>, etc. It will be noted that <i>whoever, +whosoever</i>, and <i>whoso</i> have objective forms, <i>whomever, +whomsoever</i>, and <i>whomso</i>; and possessive forms, <i>whosoever, +whosesoever</i>, and <a name="page_28"><span class="page">Page +28</span></a> <i>whoseso</i>. These forms must be used whenever +the objective or possessive case is demanded. Thus, one should +say, <i>I will give it to <b>whomever</b> I find there</i>. (See +<b>§29</b> and Note 3.) +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 16</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound +relatives:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>We will refer the question to —— you may name.</li> +<li>—— it may have been, it was not he.</li> +<li>I shall receive presents from —— I wish.</li> +<li>It was between him and —— was with him.</li> +<li>—— they may choose, I will not vote for him.</li> +<li>Let them name —— they think will win.</li> +<li>Give it to —— you think needs it most.</li> +<li>He may take —— he cares to.</li> +<li>He will take —— property he finds there.</li> +<li>He promised to ask the question of —— he found there.</li> +<li>—— can have done it?</li> +<li>—— else may be said, that is not true.</li> +<li>There are the two chairs; you may take —— you like.</li> +<li>—— you take will suit me.</li> +<li>You may have —— you wish.</li> +<li>—— is nominated, will you vote for him?</li> +<li>—— they nominate, I will vote for him.</li> +<li>—— does that is a partizan.</li> +<li>—— candidate is elected, I will be satisfied.</li> +<li>He may name —— he thinks best.</li> +<li>—— he says is worthy of attention.</li> +<li>—— she takes after, she is honest.</li> +<li>—— follows him will be sorry.</li> +<li>—— he may be, he is no gentleman.</li> +<li>—— they do is praised.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>33.</b> There are certain words, called <b>Adjective Pronouns</b>, +which are regarded as pronouns, because, although they are properly +adjective in their meaning, the nouns which they modify are never +expressed; as, <i>One</i> (there is a possessive form, <a +name="page_29"><span class="page">Page 29</span></a> <i>one's</i>, +and a plural form, <i>ones</i>), <i>none, this, that, these, those, +other, former, some, few, many</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>34. Some miscellaneous cautions in the use of pronouns:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. The pronoun <i>I</i> should always be capitalized, and should, +when used as part of a compound subject, be placed second; as, +<i>James and I were present, not I and James were present</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns in +the same sentence; as, <i><b>Thou</b> wilt do this whether <b>you</b> +wish or not</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary; +as, <i>John, <b>he</b> did it, or Mary, <b>she</b> said</i>. This +is a frequent error in speech. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. Note the +uncertainty in the following sentence; <i>He sent a box of cheese, +and <b>it</b> was made of wood</i>. The antecedent of <i>it</i> is +not clear. Again, <i>A man told his son to take <b>his</b> coat +home</i>. The antecedent of <i>his</i> is very uncertain. Such +errors are frequent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing +the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. +Note the following sentence: <i>A cat was found in the <b>yard +which</b> wore a blue ribbon</i>. The grammatical inference would +be that the yard wore the blue ribbon. The sentence might be changed +to, <i>A <b>cat, which</b> wore a blue ribbon, was found in the +yard</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same +relative pronoun to introduce them; as, <i>The book <b>that</b> +we found and the book <b>that</b> he lost are the same</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. Use <i>but that</i> when <i>but</i> is a conjunction and <i>that</i> +introduces a noun clause; as, <i>There is no doubt <b>but that</b> +he will go</i>. Use <i>but what</i> when <i>but</i> is a preposition +in the sense of <i>except</i>; as, <i>He has no money but (except) +<b>what</b> I gave him</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <i>Them</i> is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. +<i>Those</i> is the adjective which should be used in its place; +as, <i>Those people</i>, not, <i>Them people</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. Avoid using <i>you</i> and <i>they</i> indefinitely; as, +<i><b>You</b> seldom hear of such things, <b>They</b> make chairs +there</i>. Instead, say, <i><b>One</b> seldom hears of such things, +Chairs are made there</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +9. <i>Which</i> should not be used with a clause or phrase as its +antecedent. Both the following sentences are wrong: <i>He sent me +to see <a name="page_30"><span class="page">Page 30</span></a> +John, <b>which</b> I did. Their whispering became very loud, which +annoyed the preacher</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +10. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns, <i>its, +yours, theirs, ours</i> and <i>hers</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 17</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the +cautions above stated</i>: +</p> + +<ol> +<li>How can you say that when thou knowest better?</li> +<li>May I and Mary go to the concert?</li> +<li>He asked me to write to him, which I did.</li> +<li>Grant thou to us your blessing.</li> +<li>The train it was twenty minutes late.</li> +<li>Mother she said I might go.</li> +<li>Mary told her mother she was mistaken.</li> +<li>The man cannot leave his friend, for if he should leave him he + would be angry.</li> +<li>Sarah asked her aunt how old she was.</li> +<li>That is the man whom we named and that did it.</li> +<li>Mr. Jones went to Mr. Smith and told him that his dog was lost.</li> +<li>This is the book that we found and which he lost.</li> +<li>She told her sister that if she could not get to the city, she + thought she had better go home.</li> +<li>Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short.</li> +<li>Then Jack and George, they went home.</li> +<li>Bring them books here.</li> +<li>Them are all wrong.</li> +<li>There are no men in the room but that can be bought.</li> +<li>I have no doubt but what it was done.</li> +<li>Them there should be corrected.</li> +<li>I have faith in everything but that he says.</li> +<li>I have no fears but what it can be done.</li> +<li>Napoleon, he threw his armies across the Rhine.</li> +<li>Thou knowest not what you are doing.</li> +<li>It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon, which was done. + <a name="page_31"><span class="page">Page 31</span></a></li> +<li>A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes.</li> +<li>Keep them people out of here.</li> +<li>The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow.</li> +<li>She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like.</li> +<li>You never can tell about foreigners.</li> +<li>They say that is not true.</li> +<li>The cabin needed to be swept, which we did.</li> +<li>They use those methods in some schools.</li> +<li>It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white.</li> +<li>You can easily learn history if you have a good memory.</li> +<li>How can you tell but what it will rain?</li> +<li>He does everything but what he should do.</li> +<li>He has everything but that he needs.</li> +<li>It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen.</li> +<li>Aunt, she said that she didn't know but what she would go.</li> +<li>Tell I and John about it.</li> +<li>He went to his father and told him he had sinned.</li> +<li>Dost thou know what you doest?</li> +<li>It's appearance was deceitful.</li> +<li>The chair was also their's.</li> +<li>There is a slight difference between mine and your's.</li> +<li>Which of the two is her's?</li> +<li>They are both our's.</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_32"><span class="page">Page 32</span></a> +CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>35.</b> An <b>Adjective</b> is a word used to modify a noun +or a pronoun. An <b>Adverb</b> is a word used to modify a verb, +an adjective, or another adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very +closely related in both their forms and their use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>36. Comparison.</b> The variation of adjectives and adverbs +to indicate the degree of modification they express is called +<b>Comparison</b>. There are three degrees of comparison. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Positive Degree</b> indicates the mere possession of a quality; +as, <i>true, good, sweet, fast, lovely</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Comparative Degree</b> indicates a stronger degree of the +quality than the positive; as, <i>truer, sweeter, better, faster, +lovelier</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Superlative Degree</b> indicates the highest degree of quality; +as, <i>truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are +said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative +is formed by adding <i>er</i>, and the superlative by adding <i>est</i>. +If the word ends in <i>y</i>, the <i>y</i> is changed to <i>i</i> +before adding the ending; as, <i>pretty, prettier, prettiest</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most +of them are compared by the use of the adverbs <i>more</i> and +<i>most</i>, or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use +of <i>less</i> and <i>least</i>; as, <i>beautiful, more beautiful, +most beautiful</i>, and <i>less beautiful, least beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>37.</b> Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing +to entirely different words in the comparative and superlative. +Note the following: +<a name="page_33"><span class="page">Page 33</span></a> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td class="center">POSITIVE</td> + <td class="center">COMPARATIVE</td> + <td class="center">SUPERLATIVE</td></tr> + <tr><td>bad, ill, evil, badly</td> <td>worse</td> + <td>worst</td></tr> + <tr><td>far</td> <td>farther, further</td> + <td>farthest, furthest</td></tr> + <tr><td>forth</td> <td>further</td> <td>furthest</td></tr> + <tr><td>fore</td> <td>former</td> <td>foremost, first</td></tr> + <tr><td>good, well</td> <td>better</td> <td>best</td></tr> + <tr><td>hind</td> <td>hinder</td> <td>hindmost</td></tr> + <tr><td>late</td> <td>later, latter</td> <td>latest, last</td></tr> + <tr><td>little</td> <td>less</td> <td>least</td></tr> + <tr><td>much, many</td> <td>more</td> <td>most</td></tr> + <tr><td>old</td> <td>older, elder</td> <td>oldest, eldest</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—<i>Badly</i> +and <i>forth</i> may be used only as adverbs. <i>Well</i> is usually +an adverb; as, <i>He talks well</i>, but may be used as an adjective; +as, <i>He seems well</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>38. Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs.</b> An adjective is +often used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, +<i>She talks <b>foolish</b></i>, is wrong, because here the word +to be modified is <i>talks</i>, and since <i>talks</i> is a verb, +the adverb <i>foolishly</i> should be used. The sentence, <i>She +looks <b>charmingly</b></i>, means, as it stands, that her manner +of looking at a thing is charming. What is intended to be said is +that she appears as if she was a charming woman. To convey that +meaning, the adjective, <i>charming</i>, should have been used, +and the sentence should read, <i>She looks charming</i>. Wherever +the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, an +adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location +in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should +be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>39.</b> The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in +form. Thus, both the following sentences are correct: <i>He works +<b>hard</b></i> (adverb), and <i>His work is <b>hard</b></i> +(adjective). But, usually, where the adjective and the adverb correspond +at all, the adverb has the additional ending <i>ly</i>; as, <i>The +track is <b>smooth</b></i>, (adjective), and <i>The train runs +<b>smoothly</b></i>, (adverb). +</p> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_34"><span class="page">Page 34</span></a> +Exercise 18</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the +proper word to be used:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The sunset looks <i>beautiful beautifully</i>.</li> +<li>The man acted <i>strange strangely</i>.</li> +<li>Write <i>careful carefully</i> and speak <i>distinct + distinctly</i>.</li> +<li>Speak <i>slow slowly</i>.</li> +<li>He acted <i>bad badly</i>.</li> +<li>He behaved very <i>proper properly</i>.</li> +<li>The boat runs <i>smooth smoothly</i>.</li> +<li>He is a <i>remarkable remarkably</i> poor writer.</li> +<li>I am in <i>extremely extreme</i> good health.</li> +<li>The typewriter works <i>good well</i>.</li> +<li>The bird warbles <i>sweet sweetly</i>.</li> +<li>He was <i>terrible terribly</i> angry.</li> +<li>He was in a <i>terrible terribly</i> dangerous place.</li> +<li>He talks <i>plainer more plainly</i> than he ever did before.</li> +<li>The dead Roman looked <i>fierce fiercely</i>.</li> +<li>The fire burns <i>brilliant brilliantly</i>.</li> +<li>You are <i>exceeding exceedingly</i> generous.</li> +<li>He struggled <i>manful manfully</i> against the opposition.</li> +<li>My health is <i>poor poorly</i>.</li> +<li>He is sure surely a <i>fine fellow</i>.</li> +<li>Have everything <i>suitable suitably</i> decorated.</li> +<li>That can be done <i>easy easily</i>.</li> +<li>I can speak <i>easier more easily</i> than I can write.</li> +<li>The music of the orchestra was <i>decided decidedly</i> poor.</li> +<li>She is a <i>remarkable remarkably</i> beautiful girl.</li> +<li>The wind roared <i>awful awfully</i>.</li> +<li>The roar of the wind was <i>awful awfully</i>.</li> +<li>I have studied grammar <i>previous previously</i> to this year.</li> +<li>I didn't study because I felt too <i>bad badly</i> to read.</li> +<li>The roses smell <i>sweetly sweet</i>.</li> +<li>They felt very <i>bad badly</i> at being beaten.</li> +<li>That violin sounds <i>different differently</i> from this one.</li> +<li>The soldiers fought <i>gallant gallantly</i>. + <a name="page_35"><span class="page">Page 35</span></a></li> +<li>She looks <i>sweet sweetly</i> in that dress.</li> +<li>I can wear this coat <i>easy easily</i>.</li> +<li>Speak <i>gentle gently</i> to him.</li> +<li>He talks <i>warm warmly</i> on that subject.</li> +<li>He works <i>well good</i> and <i>steady steadily</i>.</li> +<li>He stood <i>thoughtful thoughtfully</i> for a moment and then + went <i>quiet quietly</i> to his tent.</li> +<li>He walked down the street <i>slow slowly</i>, but all the time + looked <i>eager eagerly</i> about him.</li> +<li>The music sounds <i>loud loudly</i>.</li> +<li>That coin rings <i>true truly</i>.</li> +<li>He looked <i>angry angrily</i> at his class.</li> +<li>He moved <i>silent silently</i> about in the crowd.</li> +<li>His coat fits <i>nice nicely</i>.</li> +<li>That is <i>easy easily</i> to do.</li> +<li>He went over the work very <i>thorough thoroughly</i>.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 19</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly +used. In every case show what they modify:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The water lay smooth in the lake.</li> +<li>She looked cold.</li> +<li>The train runs smoothly now.</li> +<li>The sun shone bright at the horizon.</li> +<li>The sun shone brightly all day.</li> +<li>She looks coldly about her.</li> +<li>Be careful in your study of these sentences.</li> +<li>Study these sentences carefully.</li> +<li>We found the way easy.</li> +<li>We found the way easily.</li> +<li>He looked good.</li> +<li>He looked well.</li> +<li>We arrived safe.</li> +<li>We arrived safely.</li> +<li>Speak gently.</li> +<li>Let your speech be gentle.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_36"><span class="page">Page 36</span></a> +Exercise 20</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, +cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, +eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>40. Improper Forms of Adjectives.</b> The wrong forms in the +following list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the +right forms: +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="center" style="width: 50%;">RIGHT</td> + <td class="center" style="width: 50%;">WRONG</td></tr> + <tr><td>everywhere</td><td>everywheres</td></tr> + <tr><td>not nearly</td><td>nowhere near</td></tr> + <tr><td>not at all</td><td>not much or not muchly</td></tr> + <tr><td>ill</td><td>illy</td></tr> + <tr><td>first</td><td>firstly</td></tr> + <tr><td>thus</td><td>thusly</td></tr> + <tr><td>much</td><td>muchly</td></tr> + <tr><td>unknown</td><td>unbeknown</td></tr> + <tr><td>complexioned</td><td>complected</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 21</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the errors in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She goes everywheres.</li> +<li>Hers is the most illy behaved child I know.</li> +<li>Not muchly will I go.</li> +<li>Use the lesser quantity first.</li> +<li>He is nowhere near so bright as John.</li> +<li>You do the problem thusly.</li> +<li>The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy.</li> +<li>They came unbeknown to me.</li> +<li>He is a dark complected man.</li> +<li>It all happened unbeknownst to them.</li> +<li>His vote was nowhere near so large as usual.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>41. Errors in comparison</b> are frequently made. Observe carefully +the following rules: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_37"><span class="page">Page 37</span></a> 1. The +superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. One +should say, <i>He is the <b>larger</b> of the two</i>, not <i>He +is the <b>largest</b> of the two</i>. But, <i>He is the largest +of the three</i>, is right. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express +absolute quality—adjectives that cannot be compared; as, +<i>round, perfect, equally, universal</i>. A thing may be <i>round</i> +or <i>perfect</i>, but it cannot be <i>more round</i> or <i>most +round</i>, <i>more perfect</i> or <i>most perfect</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be +included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the +superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to +say, <i>The discovery of America was <b>more important than any</b> +geographical discovery</i>, for that is saying that the discovery of +America was more important than itself—an absurdity. But it +would be right to say, <i>The discovery of America was more important +<b>than any other</b> geographical discovery</i>. One should not +say, <i>He is the most honest <b>of his</b> fellow-workmen</i>, +for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. One should say, <i>He is +more honest <b>than any</b> of his fellow-workmen</i>, or, <i>He +is the most honest <b>of all</b> the workmen</i>. To say, <i>This +machine is <b>better than any</b> machine</i>, is incorrect, but to +say, <i>This machine is better <b>than any other</b> machine</i>, +is correct. To say, <i>This machine is the <b>best of any</b> +machine</i> (or <i>any other machine</i>), is wrong, because all +machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. To say, <i>This +machine is the <b>best of</b> machines</i> (or <i>the best of all +machines</i>), is correct. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Note the following rules in regard to the use of <i>other</i> in +comparisons: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +a. After comparatives followed by <i>than</i> the words <i>any</i> +and <i>all</i> should be followed by <i>other</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +b. After superlatives followed by <i>of, any</i> and <i>other</i> +should not be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Avoid mixed comparisons. <i>John is as good, if not better than +she</i>. If the clause, <i>if not better</i>, were left out, this +<a name="page_38"><span class="page">Page 38</span></a> sentence +would read, <i>John is as good than she</i>. It could be corrected +to read, <i>John is as good <b>as</b>, if not better than she</i>. +Similarly, it is wrong to say, <i>He is one of the greatest, if +not the greatest, man in history</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 22</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the correct word from those italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The <i>older oldest</i> of the three boys was sick.</li> +<li>Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the <i>wealthiest wealthier</i>.</li> +<li>Of two burdens choose the <i>less least</i>.</li> +<li>Which can run the <i>fastest faster</i>, John or Henry?</li> +<li>Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the <i>first former</i> is + the <i>better best</i> known.</li> +<li>Which is the <i>larger largest</i> of the two?</li> +<li>Which is the <i>best better</i> of the six?</li> +<li>Which is the <i>larger largest</i> number, six or seven</li> +<li>Which is the <i>more most</i> desirable, health or wealth?</li> +<li>My mother is the <i>oldest older</i> of four sisters.</li> +<li>The <i>prettier prettiest</i> of the twins is the <i>brighter + brightest</i>.</li> +<li>This is the <i>duller dullest</i> season of the year.</li> +<li>The other is the <i>worse worst</i> behaved of the two.</li> +<li>Which was the <i>hotter hottest</i>, yesterday or to-day?</li> +<li>That is the <i>cleaner cleanest</i> of the three streets.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 23</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give +a valid reason for each correction:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He was the most active of all his friends.</li> +<li>He is the brightest of all his brothers.</li> +<li>Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest.</li> +<li>Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in + Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia.</li> +<li>That theory is more universally adopted.</li> +<li>He was, of all others, the most clever.</li> +<li>This apple is more perfect than that. + <a name="page_39"><span class="page">Page 39</span></a></li> +<li>No fruit is so good as the orange.</li> +<li>The orange is better than any fruit.</li> +<li>Of all other fruits the orange is the best.</li> +<li>The orange is the best of all the fruits.</li> +<li>The orange is better than any other fruit.</li> +<li>That is the most principal thing in the lesson.</li> +<li>Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity?</li> +<li>He was more active than any other of his companions.</li> +<li>This apple is rounder than that.</li> +<li>This apple is more nearly round than that.</li> +<li>Paris is the most famous of any other European city.</li> +<li>Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states.</li> +<li>No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States.</li> +<li>Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states.</li> +<li>New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in + the world.</li> +<li>That book is as good if not better than mine.</li> +<li>John is taller than any other boy in his classes.</li> +<li>John is taller than any boy in his class.</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of all other metals.</li> +<li>Iron is the more useful of the metals.</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of the metals.</li> +<li>Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest.</li> +<li>Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal.</li> +<li>He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in + the Senate.</li> +<li>That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>42. Singular and Plural Adjectives.</b> Some adjectives can +be used only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. +Such adjectives as <i>one, each, every</i>, etc., can be used only +with singular nouns. Such adjectives as <i>several, various, many, +sundry, two</i>, etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many +cases, the noun which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the +adjective thus acquires the force of a pronoun; as, <i><b>Few</b> +are seen, <b>Several</b> have come</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_40"><span class="page">Page 40</span></a> The adjective +pronouns <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> have plural forms, <i>these</i> +and <i>those</i>. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To +say <i>those kind</i> is then incorrect. It should be <i>those +kinds</i>. <i>Those sort of men</i> should be <i>that sort of men</i> +or <i>those sorts of men</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>43. Either and neither</b> are used to designate one of two +objects only. If more than two are referred to, use <i>any, none, +any one, no one</i>. Note the following correct sentences: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i><b>Neither</b> John nor Henry may go.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i><b>Any one</b> of the three boys may go.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>44. Each other</b> should be used when referring to two; <b>one +another</b> when referring to more than two. Note the following +correct sentences: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The two brothers love <b>each other</b>.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The four brothers love <b>one another</b>.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 24</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be +able to give reasons:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He is six foot tall.</li> +<li>I like those kind of fruit.</li> +<li>He lost several pound.</li> +<li>I have not seen him this twenty year.</li> +<li>Have you heard these news?</li> +<li>Are they those kind of people?</li> +<li>He rode ten mile.</li> +<li>There were fifteen car-load of people.</li> +<li>These kind of books are interesting.</li> +<li>Several phenomenon marked his character.</li> +<li>There are a few crisis in every man's career.</li> +<li>Each strata of the rock lies at an angle.</li> +<li>The poem has six verse in it.</li> +<li>Either of the five will do.</li> +<li>Little children should love each other.</li> +<li>Neither of the large cities in the United States is so + large as London.</li> +<li>You will be able to find it in either one of those three books. + <a name="page_41"><span class="page">Page 41</span></a></li> +<li>Those two brothers treat one another very coldly.</li> +<li>Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it.</li> +<li>Either law or medicine is his profession.</li> +<li>Some ten box of shoes were on the train.</li> +<li>Those two statements contradict one another.</li> +<li>The Sahara Desert has several oasis.</li> +<li>How can he associate with those sort of men?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>45. Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives.</b> In the placing of +adjective elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one +should so arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are +intended to modify. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: A man was riding on a <i>horse + wearing gray trousers</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: A <i>man wearing gray trousers</i> + was riding on a horse.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The adverb <i>only</i> requires especial attention. Generally +<i>only</i> should come before the word it is intended to modify. +Compare the following correct sentences, and note the differences +in meaning. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Only</i> he found the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He <i>only</i> found the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He found <i>only</i> the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He found the book <i>only</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The placing of the words, <i>almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely</i>, +and <i>quite</i>, also requires care and thought. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 25</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs +in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I only paid five dollars.</li> +<li>I have only done six problems.</li> +<li>The clothing business is only profitable in large towns.</li> +<li>The school is only open in the evening.</li> +<li>I only need ten minutes in which to do it.</li> +<li>He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke.</li> +<li>I never expect to see the like again.</li> +<li>A black base-ball player's suit was found. + <a name="page_42"><span class="page">Page 42</span></a></li> +<li>Do you ever remember to have seen the man before?</li> +<li>The building was trimmed with granite carved corners.</li> +<li>People ceased to wonder gradually.</li> +<li>The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch.</li> +<li>I never wish to think of it again.</li> +<li>On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia.</li> +<li>Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country.</li> +<li>He only spoke of history, not of art.</li> +<li>I know hardly what to say.</li> +<li>I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature.</li> +<li>The girls were nearly dressed in the same color.</li> +<li>He merely wanted to see you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>46. Double Negatives.</b> <i>I am here</i> is called an affirmative +statement. A denial of that, <i>I am not here</i>, is called a +negative statement. The words, <i>not, neither, never, none, +nothing</i>, etc., are all negative words; that is, they serve to +make denials of statements. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since +the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and an +affirmative is made where a negative is intended. <i>We haven't no +books</i>, means that we have some books. The proper negative form +would be, <i>We have no books</i>, or <i>We haven't any books</i>. +The mistake occurs usually where such forms as <i>isn't, don't, +haven't</i>, etc., are used. Examine the following sentences: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>It isn't no</i> use.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>don't none</i> of them + believe it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We <i>didn't</i> do + <i>nothing</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Hardly, scarcely, only</i>, and <i>but</i> (in the sense of +<i>only</i>) are often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare +the following right and wrong forms: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It was so dark that we <i>couldn't + hardly</i> see.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It was so dark that we <i>could + hardly</i> see.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-top: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>wasn't only</i> one person + present.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>was only</i> one person + present.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_43"><span class="page">Page 43</span></a> +Exercise 26</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Correct the following sentences: +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I can't find it nowhere.</li> +<li>For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was.</li> +<li>They are not allowed to go only on holidays.</li> +<li>There isn't but one person that can make the speech.</li> +<li>They didn't find no treasure.</li> +<li>It won't take but a few minutes to read it all.</li> +<li>I haven't seen but two men there.</li> +<li>There isn't no one here who knows it.</li> +<li>I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire.</li> +<li>I can't hardly prove that statement.</li> +<li>I didn't feel hardly able to go.</li> +<li>She couldn't stay only a week.</li> +<li>I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began.</li> +<li>You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done.</li> +<li>He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife.</li> +<li>There isn't nothing in the story.</li> +<li>He doesn't do nothing.</li> +<li>I can't think of nothing but that.</li> +<li>He can't hardly mean that.</li> +<li>He isn't nowhere near so bright as I.</li> +<li>He can't hardly come to-night.</li> +<li>It is better to not think nothing about it.</li> +<li>She can't only do that.</li> +<li>There isn't no use of his objecting to it.</li> +<li>There shan't none of them go along with us.</li> +<li>Don't never do that again.</li> +<li>We could not find but three specimens of the plant.</li> +<li>He wasn't scarcely able to walk.</li> +<li>He hasn't none of his work prepared.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>47. The Articles</b>. <i>A, an</i>, and <i>the</i>, are called +Articles. <i>A</i> and <i>an</i> are called the <b>Indefinite +Articles</b>, because they are used to limit the noun to any one +thing of a class; as, <i>a book, a chair</i>. But <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> +is not used to denote the whole of that <a name="page_44"><span +class="page">Page 44</span></a> class; as, <i>Silence is golden</i>, +or, <i>He was elected to the office of President</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The</i> is called the <b>Definite Article</b> because it picks +out some one definite individual from a class. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the sentence, <i>On the street are <b>a</b> brick and <b>a</b> +stone house</i>, the article is repeated before each adjective; +the effect of this repetition is to make the sentence mean two +houses. But, in the sentence, <i>On the street is <b>a</b> brick +and stone house</i>, since the article is used only before the +first of the two adjectives, the sentence means that there is only +one house and that it is constructed of brick and stone. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear +only before the first of the two; as, <i>God, the author and creator +of the universe</i>. But where the nouns refer to two different +objects, regarded as distinct from each other, the article should +appear before each; as, <i>He bought a horse and a cow</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>A</i> is used before all words except those beginning with a +vowel sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound <i>an</i> +is used. If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not +be used before all of the words, then the article must be repeated +before each. Thus, one should say, <i><b>An</b> ax, <b>a</b> saw, +and <b>an</b> adze</i> (not <i>An ax, saw and adze</i>), <i>made +up his outfit</i>. Generally it is better to repeat the article +in each case, whether or not it be the same. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not say, <i>kind of <b>a house</b></i>. Since <i>a house</i> +is singular, it can have but one kind. Say instead, a <i>kind of +house, a sort of man</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 27</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following where you think correction is needed:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Where did you get that kind of a notion?</li> +<li>She is an eager and an ambitious girl.</li> +<li>He received the degree of a Master of Arts.</li> +<li>The boy and girl came yesterday.</li> +<li>Neither the man nor woman was here.</li> +<li>He was accompanied by a large and small man. + <a name="page_45"><span class="page">Page 45</span></a></li> +<li>He planted an oak, maple and ash.</li> +<li>The third of the team were hurt.</li> +<li>The noun and verb will be discussed later.</li> +<li>I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper.</li> +<li>Read the third and sixth sentence.</li> +<li>Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical.</li> +<li>He is dying from the typhoid fever.</li> +<li>He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the + association.</li> +<li>What sort of a student are you?</li> +<li>He is a funny kind of a fellow.</li> +<li>Bring me a new and old chair.</li> +<li>That is a sort of a peculiar idea.</li> +<li>He was operated upon for the appendicitis.</li> +<li>Lock the cat and dog up.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>48.</b> No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the +sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when <i>very</i> +or <i>too</i> are used with past participles that are not also +recognized as adjectives; as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Poor: I am <i>very insulted</i>. He was <i>too wrapped</i> in thought +to notice the mistake. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: I am <i>very much insulted</i>. He was <i>too much wrapped</i> +in thought to notice the mistake. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 28</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. +Be sure that they are used correctly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, +charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, +very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, +only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_46"><span class="page">Page 46</span></a> +CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">VERBS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>49.</b> A <b>Verb</b> has already been defined as a word stating +something about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to +indicate the time of the action as past, present, or future; as, +<i>I talk, I talked, I shall talk</i>, etc. Verbs also vary to +indicate completed or incompleted action; as, <i>I have talked, +I shall have talked</i>, etc. To these variations, which indicate +the time of the action, the name <b>Tense</b> is given. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, <i>He +<b>may have gone</b> home</i>. Here the verb is <i>may have gone</i>. +The last word of such a verb phrase is called the <b>Principal +Verb</b>, and the other words the <b>Auxiliaries</b>. In the sentence +above, <i>go (gone)</i> is the principal verb, and <i>may</i> and +<i>have</i> are the auxiliaries. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>50.</b> In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase +there are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. +These are called the <b>Principal Parts</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb +is referred to as a word, may be called the <b>Name-Form</b>. The +following are name-forms: <i>do, see, come, walk, pass</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Second Principal Part is called the <b>Past Tense</b>. It is +formed by adding <i>ed</i> to the name-form; as, <i>walked, pushed, +passed</i>. These verbs that add <i>ed</i> are called Regular Verbs. +The verb form is often entirely changed; as, <i>done (do), saw +(see), came (come)</i>. These verbs are called Irregular Verbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Third Principal Part is called the <b>Past Participle</b>. It +is used mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive +voice. In regular verbs the past participle is the same in <a +name="page_47"><span class="page">Page 47</span></a> form as the +past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both +the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both +of them. Examples: <i>done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, +came), set (set, set)</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>51. The name-form</b>, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is +used with all subjects, except those in the third person singular, +to assert action in the present time or present tense; as, <i>I +go, We come, You see, Horses run</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (<i>may, might, +can, must, will, should, shall</i>, etc.) to assert futurity, +determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: <i>I may +go, We shall come, You can see, Horses should run</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By preceding it with the word <i>to</i>, the name-form is used to +form what is called the <b>Present Infinitive</b>; as, <i>I wish +to go, I hope to see</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +What may be called the <b>s-form</b> of the verb, or the <b>singular</b> +form, is usually constructed by adding <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to the +name-form. The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third +person; as, <i>He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present +tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the +auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to form +some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: <i>He has</i> +(present tense), <i>He has gone</i> (perfect tense), <i>He has +been seen</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some verbs have no s-form; as, <i>will, shall, may</i>. The verb +<i>be</i> has two irregular s-forms: <i>Is</i>, in the present +tense, and <i>was</i> in the past tense. The s-form of <i>have</i> +is <i>has</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>52.</b> The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; +i. e., <b>it should never be used with any auxiliaries</b>. To +use it so, however, is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. +The following are past tense forms: <i>went, saw, wore, tore</i>. +To say, therefore, <i>I have saw, I have went, It was tore, They +were wore</i>, would be grossly incorrect. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>53.</b> The third principal part, the past participle, on the +<a name="page_48"><span class="page">Page 48</span></a> other hand, +<b>can never be used as a predicate verb without an auxiliary</b>. +The following are distinctly past participle forms: <i>done, seen, +sung</i>, etc. One could not then properly say, <i>I seen, I done, +I sung</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of +course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense +and past participle are always the same, and so no error could +result from their confusion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The past participle is used to form the <i>Perfect Infinitives</i>; +as, <i>to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>54.</b> The following is a list of the principal parts of the most +important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. +The student should bear in mind always that, <b>the past tense form +should never be used with an auxiliary</b>, and that <b>the past +participle form should never be used as a predicate verb without +an auxiliary</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which +are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and +irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect +forms are often used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Name-form</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Past Tense</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"> + <i>Past Participle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>awake</td><td>awoke or awaked</td><td>awaked</td></tr> + <tr><td>begin</td><td>began</td><td>begun</td></tr> + <tr><td>beseech</td><td>besought</td><td>besought</td></tr> + <tr><td>bid (to order or to greet)</td><td>bade</td> + <td>bidden or bid</td></tr> + <tr><td>bid (at auction)</td><td>bid</td><td>bidden or bid</td></tr> + <tr><td>blow</td><td>blew</td><td>blown</td></tr> + <tr><td>break</td><td>broke</td><td>broken</td></tr> + <tr><td>burst</td><td>burst</td><td>burst</td></tr> + <tr><td>choose</td><td>chose</td><td>chosen</td></tr> + <tr><td>chide</td><td>chid</td><td>chidden or chid</td></tr> + <tr><td>come</td><td>came</td><td>come</td></tr> + <tr><td>deal</td><td>dealt</td><td>dealt</td></tr> + <tr><td>dive</td><td>dived</td><td>dived</td></tr> + <tr><td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Name-form</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Past Tense</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"> + <i>Past Participle</i> + <a name="page_49"><span class="page">Page 49</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td>do</td><td>did</td><td>done</td></tr> + <tr><td>draw</td><td>drew</td><td>drawn</td></tr> + <tr><td>drink</td><td>drank</td><td>drunk or drank</td></tr> + <tr><td>drive</td><td>drove</td><td>driven</td></tr> + <tr><td>eat</td><td>ate</td><td>eaten</td></tr> + <tr><td>fall</td><td>fell</td><td>fallen</td></tr> + <tr><td>flee</td><td>fled</td><td>fled</td></tr> + <tr><td>fly</td><td>flew</td><td>flown</td></tr> + <tr><td>forsake</td><td>forsook</td><td>forsaken</td></tr> + <tr><td>forget</td><td>forgot</td><td>forgot or forgotten</td></tr> + <tr><td>freeze</td><td>froze</td><td>frozen</td></tr> + <tr><td>get</td><td>got</td><td>got (gotten)</td></tr> + <tr><td>give</td><td>gave</td><td>given</td></tr> + <tr><td>go</td><td>went</td><td>gone</td></tr> + <tr><td>hang (clothes)</td><td>hung</td><td>hung</td></tr> + <tr><td>hang (a man)</td><td>hanged</td><td>hanged</td></tr> + <tr><td>know</td><td>knew</td><td>known</td></tr> + <tr><td>lay</td><td>laid</td><td>laid</td></tr> + <tr><td>lie</td><td>lay</td><td>lain</td></tr> + <tr><td>mean</td><td>meant</td><td>meant</td></tr> + <tr><td>plead</td><td>pleaded</td><td>pleaded</td></tr> + <tr><td>prove</td><td>proved</td><td>proved</td></tr> + <tr><td>ride</td><td>rode</td><td>ridden</td></tr> + <tr><td>raise</td><td>raised</td><td>raised</td></tr> + <tr><td>rise</td><td>rose</td><td>risen</td></tr> + <tr><td>run</td><td>ran</td><td>run</td></tr> + <tr><td>see</td><td>saw</td><td>seen</td></tr> + <tr><td>seek</td><td>sought</td><td>sought</td></tr> + <tr><td>set</td><td>set</td><td>set</td></tr> + <tr><td>shake</td><td>shook</td><td>shaken</td></tr> + <tr><td>shed</td><td>shed</td><td>shed</td></tr> + <tr><td>shoe</td><td>shod</td><td>shod</td></tr> + <tr><td>sing</td><td>sang</td><td>sung</td></tr> + <tr><td>sit</td><td>sat</td><td>sat</td></tr> + <tr><td>slay</td><td>slew</td><td>slain</td></tr> + <tr><td>sink</td><td>sank</td><td>sunk</td></tr> + <tr><td>speak</td><td>spoke</td><td>spoken</td></tr> + <tr><td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Name-form</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Past Tense</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"> + <i>Past Participle</i> + <a name="page_50"><span class="page">Page 50</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td>steal</td><td>stole</td><td>stolen</td></tr> + <tr><td>swim</td><td>swam</td><td>swum</td></tr> + <tr><td>take</td><td>took</td><td>taken</td></tr> + <tr><td>teach</td><td>taught</td><td>taught</td></tr> + <tr><td>tear</td><td>tore</td><td>torn</td></tr> + <tr><td>throw</td><td>threw</td><td>thrown</td></tr> + <tr><td>tread</td><td>trod</td><td>trod or trodden</td></tr> + <tr><td>wake</td><td>woke or waked</td><td>woke or waked</td></tr> + <tr><td>wear</td><td>wore</td><td>worn</td></tr> + <tr><td>weave</td><td>wove</td><td>woven</td></tr> + <tr><td>write</td><td>wrote</td><td>written</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Notes.</span>—<i>Ought</i> +has no past participle. It may then never be used with an auxiliary. +<i>I had ought to go</i> is incorrect. The idea would be amply +expressed by <i>I ought to go</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Model conjugations</b> of the verbs <i>to be</i> and <i>to see</i> +in all forms are given under §77 at the end of this chapter. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 29</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to +use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:</i> +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td>Example:</td> + <td>(Original sentence),</td> + <td><i>The guests begin to go home.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>(Changed to past tense),</td> + <td><i>The guests began to go home.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>(Changed to past participle),</td> + <td><i>The guests have begun to go home.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<ol> +<li>Our books <i>lie</i> on the mantel.</li> +<li>John <i>comes</i> in and <i>lays</i> his books on the desk.</li> +<li>I <i>see</i> the parade.</li> +<li>He <i>runs</i> up the road.</li> +<li>They <i>set</i> their chairs in a row.</li> +<li>The noise <i>wakes</i> me.</li> +<li>Cæsar <i>bids</i> him enter.</li> +<li>If they <i>prove</i> their innocence, they should be discharged.</li> +<li>His friends <i>plead</i> strongly for him.</li> +<li>Do you know what they <i>mean</i> by that?</li> +<li>I <i>awake</i> early every morning.</li> +<li>He <i>begins</i> to think of strange things. + <a name="page_51"><span class="page">Page 51</span></a></li> +<li>The children <i>beseech</i> me to go with them.</li> +<li>My mother <i>bids</i> me to say that she will be here at six.</li> +<li>Smith <i>bids</i> fifty dollars for the chair.</li> +<li>My servants <i>break</i> many dishes.</li> +<li>They <i>choose</i> their associates.</li> +<li>The box <i>bursts</i> open.</li> +<li>His mother <i>chides</i> him for his misbehavior.</li> +<li>He <i>comes</i> here every day.</li> +<li>I <i>deal</i> there this week.</li> +<li>The boys <i>dive</i> beautifully.</li> +<li>You <i>do</i> so much more than is necessary.</li> +<li>They <i>draw</i> lots for the watch.</li> +<li>Jones <i>drinks</i> this wine very seldom.</li> +<li>They <i>drive</i> over to Milton once a week.</li> +<li>They <i>drive</i> a sorrel horse.</li> +<li>The cows <i>eat</i> grass.</li> +<li>The Gauls <i>flee</i> before Cæsar.</li> +<li>The swallows all <i>fly</i> into the chimney at evening.</li> +<li>They <i>forsake</i> the cause without any reason.</li> +<li>Cæsar <i>gives</i> them no answer.</li> +<li>They <i>get</i> no money for their services.</li> +<li>You <i>forget</i> that we have no right to do that.</li> +<li>Water <i>freezes</i> at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.</li> +<li>The ball <i>goes</i> to the opposing team.</li> +<li>You <i>hang</i> the rope on the tree.</li> +<li>The sheriff <i>hangs</i> the murderer at noon.</li> +<li>I <i>know</i> of nothing more worrying.</li> +<li>She <i>lays</i> the knife on the table.</li> +<li>They <i>lie</i> in bed until eleven.</li> +<li>Why they <i>rise</i> so late, I do not know.</li> +<li>They <i>raise</i> no objection.</li> +<li>John <i>runs</i> very rapidly.</li> +<li>You <i>sit</i> very quietly.</li> +<li>Cæsar <i>seeks</i> to learn the intention of the enemy.</li> +<li>The politician vigorously <i>shakes</i> all hands.</li> +<li>The roof <i>sheds</i> water in all storms.</li> +<li>The blacksmith <i>shoes</i> horses.</li> +<li>The choir <i>sings</i> for each service. + <a name="page_52"><span class="page">Page 52</span></a></li> +<li>You <i>speak</i> too rapidly to be easily understood.</li> +<li>Few men <i>steal</i> because they want to.</li> +<li>I <i>swim</i> one hundred yards very readily.</li> +<li>They <i>teach</i> all the elementary branches there.</li> +<li>You <i>take</i> all subscriptions for the concert.</li> +<li>Those clothes <i>tear</i> readily.</li> +<li>They <i>tread</i> the grapes in making wine.</li> +<li>Who <i>throws</i> paper on the floor?</li> +<li>I always <i>wear</i> old clothes in which to work.</li> +<li>She <i>writes</i> to her mother daily.</li> +<li>They <i>weave</i> the best rugs in Philadelphia.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 30</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly +used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, +driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, +knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, +swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 31</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. +The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of +each group:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li><b>Begin.</b> He —— to act at once. The reports + —— to disturb him a little. He has —— to + feel hurt over them.</li> +<li><b>Bid.</b> The proprietor —— us a pleasant good + day. No matter how much he —— the auctioneer will not + hear him. We were —— to enter.</li> +<li><b>Blow.</b> The cornetist —— with all his might. + The ship was —— about all day. The wind does + —— terrifically sometimes. It may —— + to-night. The wind —— all last night.</li> +<li><b>Break.</b> He fell and —— his leg. It is well + that his neck was not ——. + <a name="page_53"><span class="page">Page 53</span></a></li> +<li><b>Burst.</b> During the battle the shells frequently + —— right over us. Oaken casks have often + ——.</li> +<li><b>Chide.</b> He —— us frequently about our actions. + He was never —— himself.</li> +<li><b>Choose.</b> They —— him president. They have + —— wisely.</li> +<li><b>Come.</b> He —— at nine to-day. He has always + —— earlier heretofore. Let him —— when he + wishes.</li> +<li><b>Deal.</b> Before explaining the game, he —— out + the cards.</li> +<li><b>Dive.</b> Twice last summer he —— off the + bridge.</li> +<li><b>Do.</b> Thou canst not say I —— it. He often + —— it.</li> +<li><b>Draw.</b> The picture was —— by a famous artist. + He formerly —— very well, but I think that now he + —— very poorly.</li> +<li><b>Drive.</b> The horse was —— twenty miles. He + almost —— it to death.</li> +<li><b>Eat.</b> He —— everything which the others had + not ——. How can he —— that?</li> +<li><b>Flee.</b> Since the cashier has ——, they think + that a warrant would be useless.</li> +<li><b>Fly.</b> The air-ship —— three hundred miles on + its first trip. That it has —— so far is sufficient proof + of its success.</li> +<li><b>Forsake.</b> He —— his new friends just as he + had —— all the others.</li> +<li><b>Freeze.</b> The man was —— stiff. He evidently + —— to death so easily because he had been so long without + food.</li> +<li><b>Give.</b> She was not —— as much as her sisters. + Her father —— her less because of her extravagance. But, + he now —— her enough to make it up.</li> +<li><b>Go.</b> She —— to school to-day. She —— + yesterday. She has —— every day this month.</li> +<li><b>Know.</b> He —— that he cannot live. As long as + I have —— him, this is the first time I ever —— + he was married.</li> +<li><b>Mean.</b> He —— to do right, and has always + —— to do so.</li> +<li><b>Ride.</b> They —— as if they had —— + a long distance. They say that they —— from Larimer this + morning.</li> +<li><b>Plead.</b> The mother —— an hour for her son's + life.</li> +<li><b>Prove.</b> They —— him a thief in the eyes of + the people, even if he was not —— so to the satisfaction + of the jury. + <a name="page_54"><span class="page">Page 54</span></a></li> +<li><b>Run.</b> John —— the race as though he had + —— races all his life. The race was —— very + rapidly. Soon after that race, he —— in another race.</li> +<li><b>See.</b> Smith, who has just arrived, says he —— + two men skulking along the road. He was not —— by them. + That play is the best I ever ——.</li> +<li><b>Seek.</b> The detectives —— all through the slums + for him. Now they —— him in the better parts of the city. + No criminal was ever more eagerly ——.</li> +<li><b>Shake.</b> During the day his hand was —— five + hundred times. He —— hands with all who came.</li> +<li><b>Shoe.</b> The entire army was —— with Blank's + shoes.</li> +<li><b>Sing.</b> The choir —— the anthem as they had + never —— it before. They always —— it well.</li> +<li><b>Sink.</b> The stone —— as soon as it is in the + water. The ship was —— in forty fathoms of water. They + —— the ship in 1861.</li> +<li><b>Speak.</b> Though they claimed that they always —— + to her, she was really never —— to by any member of the + family.</li> +<li><b>Steal.</b> The money was ——; whether or not he + —— it I do not know. Everyone believes that he has + frequently —— goods from the store.</li> +<li><b>Take.</b> I was —— for him several times that + day. No one ever —— me for him before.</li> +<li><b>Teach.</b> John —— school every day. He has + —— for ten years. He first —— when he was + eighteen years old.</li> +<li><b>Tear.</b> The dog —— at the paper until it was + —— entirely to pieces. He —— up everything + he finds.</li> +<li><b>Throw.</b> He was —— by a horse which never + before —— anyone.</li> +<li><b>Wear.</b> The trousers were —— entirely out in + a month, but I —— the coat and vest for six months.</li> +<li><b>Weave.</b> This carpet was —— at Philadelphia. + The manufacturers say they never —— a better one, and + they —— the best in the country.</li> +<li><b>Write.</b> Although he has —— several times, he + has never —— anything about that. He —— to + me just last week. He —— at least once a month.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_55"><span class="page">Page 55</span></a> +Exercise 32</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following +sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He plead all day to be released.</li> +<li>The horse was rode to death.</li> +<li>The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth.</li> +<li>He was immediately threw out of the room.</li> +<li>She run around all day and then was sick the next day.</li> +<li>I never seen anything like it.</li> +<li>He was very much shook by the news.</li> +<li>The matter was took up by the committee.</li> +<li>The horse has been stole from the owner.</li> +<li>Goliath was slew by David.</li> +<li>The words have been spoke in anger.</li> +<li>I have went to church every day.</li> +<li>Was the river froze enough for skating?</li> +<li>He begun to take notice immediately.</li> +<li>The umbrella was blew to pieces.</li> +<li>I have broke my ruler.</li> +<li>Jones was chose as leader of the class.</li> +<li>He said he come as soon as he could.</li> +<li>I done it.</li> +<li>I have never did anything so foolish.</li> +<li>I have ate all that was in the lunch-box.</li> +<li>The horse was drove ten miles.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 33</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly +used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, +drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, +hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, +threw, wore, wrote. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>55. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.</b> A <b>Transitive Verb</b> +is one in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; <a +name="page_56"><span class="page">Page 56</span></a> as, <i>He +<b>killed</b> the horse, I <b>keep</b> my word</i>. In both these +sentences, the verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to +the object or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, +and all similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which +the action does not go to a receiver, are called <b>Intransitive +Verbs</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>56. Active and Passive Voice.</b> The <b>Active Voice</b> represents +the subject as the doer of the action; as, <i>I tell, I see, He +makes chairs</i>. The <b>Passive Voice</b> represents the subject +as the receiver of the action; as, <i>I am told, I am seen, I have +been seen, Chairs are made by me</i>. Since only transitive verbs +can have a receiver of the action, only transitive verbs can have +both active and passive voice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>57.</b> There are a few special verbs in which the failure to +distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads +to frequent error. The most important of these verbs are the following: +<i>sit, set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell</i>, +and <i>fall</i>. Note again the principal parts of these verbs: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td>wake (to rouse another)</td><td>woke, waked</td> + <td>woke, waked</td></tr> + <tr><td>awake (to cease to sleep)</td><td>awoke, awaked</td> + <td>awaked</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>fell (to strike down)</td><td>felled</td> + <td>felled</td></tr> + <tr><td>fall (to topple over)</td><td>fell</td> + <td>fallen</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>lay (to place)</td><td>laid</td><td>laid</td></tr> + <tr><td>lie (to recline)</td><td>lay</td><td>lain</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>raise (to cause to ascend)</td><td>raised</td> + <td>raised</td></tr> + <tr><td>(a)rise (to ascend)</td><td>(a)rose</td> + <td>(a)risen</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>set (to place)</td><td>set</td><td>set</td></tr> + <tr><td>sit (to rest)</td><td>sat</td><td>sat</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the +second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can +have an object or can be used in the passive voice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_57"><span class="page">Page 57</span></a> NOTES.—The +following exceptions in the use of <i>sit</i> and <i>set</i> are, +by reason of usage, regarded as correct: <i>The sun sets, The moon +sets, They sat themselves down to rest</i>, and <i>He set out for +Chicago</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Lie</i>, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, <i>lie, +lied, lied. Lie</i>, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with +<i>lie</i> meaning to recline. The present participle of <i>lie</i> +is <i>lying</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second +form in each case is the correct form. +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">WRONG</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">RIGHT</td></tr> + <tr><td>Awake me early to-morrow.</td> + <td>Wake me early to-morrow.</td></tr> + <tr><td>He was awoke by the noise.</td> + <td>He was woke (waked) by the noise.</td></tr> + <tr><td>He has fallen a tree.</td> + <td>He has felled a tree.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I have laid down.</td> + <td>I have lain down.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I lay the book down (past tense).</td> + <td>I laid the book down.</td></tr> + <tr><td>The river has raised.</td> + <td>The river has risen.</td></tr> + <tr><td>He raised in bed.</td> + <td>He rose in bed.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I set there.</td> + <td>I sat there.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I sat the chair there.</td> + <td>I set the chair there.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 34</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the +following words:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), +lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to +topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, +felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 35</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Let sleeping dogs lay.</li> +<li>The sun has sat in the golden west.</li> +<li>He has laid in bed all morning.</li> +<li>He will sit out on his journey this morning.</li> +<li>Let him sit there as long as he wishes.</li> +<li>He sat the chair by the table. + <a name="page_58"><span class="page">Page 58</span></a></li> +<li>He awoke everybody at daylight.</li> +<li>He laid down to sleep.</li> +<li>Let him lie there until he wakes.</li> +<li>The shower has lain the dust.</li> +<li>The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders.</li> +<li>The river has risen four feet.</li> +<li>Falling trees is his amusement.</li> +<li>To have been awaked then would have been sad.</li> +<li>To have waked then would have been sad.</li> +<li>Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey.</li> +<li>He has set there all day.</li> +<li>He lay the papers before the judge.</li> +<li>The judge laid the papers aside.</li> +<li>Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 36</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms +of the verbs indicated:</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +SIT AND SET +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— in that seat all the evening.</li> +<li>Please —— here until I return.</li> +<li>He was still ——ting there on my return.</li> +<li>The sun —— in the west.</li> +<li>He —— out for home yesterday.</li> +<li>—— down and rest awhile.</li> +<li>James —— down and talked to me.</li> +<li>He was engaged in ——ting out flowers.</li> +<li>I —— the bucket on the rock above the bridge.</li> +<li>Last evening we —— at the table for more than an + hour.</li> +<li>—— here until I call my mother.</li> +<li>—— the lamp on the table.</li> +<li>He has —— there all day.</li> +<li>The chair was —— by the desk.</li> +<li>I usually —— up until twelve.</li> +<li>She —— the hen on some eggs and she remained + —— there.</li> +<li>She told me to —— there, and I —— down. + <a name="page_59"><span class="page">Page 59</span></a></li> +<li>By whom has the lamp been —— there?</li> +<li>I —— my chair by the window and —— + there all the afternoon.</li> +<li>How can she —— still for so long?</li> +<li>The moon —— at twelve.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +LAY AND LIE +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— down this afternoon to rest.</li> +<li>I —— in bed until late every morning.</li> +<li>I have frequently —— in bed until eleven.</li> +<li>He always —— his books on the desk.</li> +<li>He just now —— his books on the desk.</li> +<li>He has —— them there every morning.</li> +<li>His books have sometimes —— there all day.</li> +<li>His books have sometimes been ——ing there before I + arrive.</li> +<li>9. After he —— down he remembered that he had left a + letter on his desk.</li> +<li>Will it not be well for you to —— down for a while?</li> +<li>I —— on the grass yesterday for an hour or more.</li> +<li>I have —— down and feel much better.</li> +<li>Now I —— me down to sleep.</li> +<li>The scene of the play is —— in rural Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>The tramps —— behind the barn waiting for dawn.</li> +<li>I had —— down to rest before (set or sit) ting out + on my journey.</li> +<li>The floor was —— by an expert carpenter.</li> +<li>She told me to —— the matter before the teacher.</li> +<li>—— down, Fido.</li> +<li>When we are weary, we —— down.</li> +<li>Who —— that on the table?</li> +<li>He has repeatedly —— about the matter.</li> +<li>He —— without the slightest hesitation.</li> +<li>——ing down is a good way to rest.</li> +<li>——ing is a sin.</li> +<li>He —— to his father, and his father knew it.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +RAISE AND RISE (ARISE) +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I will —— and go unto my father.</li> +<li>He has —— early to-day. + <a name="page_60"><span class="page">Page 60</span></a></li> +<li>I do not know why he —— so early.</li> +<li>—— your hand if you know.</li> +<li>Everyone —— his hand.</li> +<li>They have all —— their hands.</li> +<li>All their hands were —— at once.</li> +<li>The price of meat has ——.</li> +<li>The bread would not ——.</li> +<li>I —— in order that I might see better.</li> +<li>The flag was very carefully ——.</li> +<li>He tried to —— himself from the condition into + which he had fallen.</li> +<li>The curtain is to —— at eight. I myself shall + see to ——ing it then.</li> +<li>The boy —— and answers.</li> +<li>He is —— rapidly to prominence.</li> +<li>Will you please —— the window?</li> +<li>The safe was —— by means of a rope.</li> +<li>It is like trying to —— one's self by one's + boot-straps.</li> +<li>—— and march to the front of the room.</li> +<li>The river —— rapidly.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +FELL AND FALL +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Gladstone, when living, —— a tree each morning for + exercise.</li> +<li>To —— an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of + wonderful strength.</li> +<li>He was —— to the earth by a blow from a club.</li> +<li>To —— often is to be expected in learning to skate.</li> +<li>——ing down is a small matter to the young.</li> +<li>He has often —— from the roof of the porch.</li> +<li>After he —— once, he seemed to try to do so again.</li> +<li>I did not see him——.</li> +<li>Not a shot is fired but a bird ——.</li> +<li>Let the tree be —— across the road.</li> +<li>It is hard to avoid ——ing on the ice.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +AWAKE AND WAKE +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Have them —— me very early.</li> +<li>He went upstairs and —— his brother. + <a name="page_61"><span class="page">Page 61</span></a></li> +<li>His brother did not wish to be —— so early.</li> +<li>This morning I —— at dawn.</li> +<li>It is unpleasant to —— so early.</li> +<li>You say that you have never —— after nine?</li> +<li>Who —— so early, this morning?</li> +<li>He would not say who —— him.</li> +<li>——ing in the dead of night is unpleasant.</li> +<li>——ing everybody up by their noise is an every night + occurrence.</li> +<li>The sun —— me early.</li> +<li>The whole country-side seemed to —— at once.</li> +<li>He had himself —— at six o'clock.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>58. Mode.</b> Mode is that form of the verb which indicates +the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. There +are several modes in English, but only between the indicative and +subjunctive modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, +the <b>Indicative Mode</b> is used when the statement is regarded +as a fact or as truth, and the <b>Subjunctive Mode</b> is used +when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree +of doubt. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>59. Forms of the Subjunctive.</b> The places in which the subjunctive +differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of +the verb <i>be</i>, and in the present tense of active verbs. The +following outline will show the difference between the indicative +and the subjunctive of <i>be</i>: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td colspan="2">INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE</td> + <td>INDICATIVE PAST OF BE</td></tr> + <tr><td>I am</td><td>we are</td> + <td>I was</td><td>we were</td></tr> + <tr><td>thou art</td><td>you are</td> + <td>thou wert or wast</td><td>you were</td></tr> + <tr><td>he (she, it) is</td><td>they are</td> + <td>he (she, it) was</td><td>they were</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="4"> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2">SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE</td> + <td colspan="2">SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE</td></tr> + <tr><td>If I be</td><td>If we be</td> + <td>If I were</td><td>If we were</td></tr> + <tr><td>If thou be</td><td>If you be</td> + <td>If thou were</td><td>If you were</td></tr> + <tr><td>If he (she, it) be</td><td>If they be</td> + <td>If he (she, it) were</td><td>If they were</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_62"><span class="page">Page 62</span></a> <i>If</i> is +used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive +depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb may precede +the subject. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—It +will be noticed that <i>thou art</i> and <i>thou wast</i>, etc., +have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, +these are the proper forms to be used here, even though <i>you +are</i> and <i>you were</i>, etc., are customarily used in +addressing a single person. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the subjunctive of <i>be</i>, it will be noted that the form +<i>be</i> is used throughout the present tense; and the form <i>were</i> +throughout the past tense. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in +the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, +or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, +indicative, <i>he runs, she sees, it seems, he has;</i> subjunctive, +<i>if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—An +examination of the model conjugations under <b>§77</b> will +give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>60. Use of Indicative and Subjunctive.</b> The indicative mode +would be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement +is regarded as true: <i>If that evidence is true, then he is a +criminal</i>. Similarly: <i>If he is rich, he ought to be +charitable</i>. Most directly declarative statements are put in +the indicative mode. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's +mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to +fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences +following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: +<i>If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were +I rich, I might be charitable</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, <i>if, +though, lest, although</i>, or the verb precedes the subject. But +it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the +subjunctive mode. <b>The use of the subjunctive depends on <a +name="page_63"><span class="page">Page 63</span></a> whether the +condition is regarded as a fact or as contrary to fact, certain +or uncertain.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of +use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing +of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since +its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 37</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of <b>be</b> +in the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which +illustrate the correct use of <b>were</b> in the third person +singular.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 38</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be +able to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the +sentences either form may be used correctly:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He acts as if it <i>were was</i> possible always to escape death.</li> +<li>If it <i>was were</i> near enough, I should walk.</li> +<li>If I <i>was were</i> only wealthy!</li> +<li>If I <i>were was</i> in his place, I should study medicine.</li> +<li>If you <i>are be</i> right, then the book is wrong.</li> +<li>If he <i>was were</i> I, he would come.</li> +<li>Though he <i>was were</i> very economical, he remained poor.</li> +<li>Though she <i>was were</i> an angel, I should dislike her.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> there, ask him to pay the bill.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> there, he makes no sign of his presence.</li> +<li>If this <i>be is</i> wrong, then all love of country is wrong.</li> +<li>If it <i>rains rain</i>, I stay at school.</li> +<li>Take care lest you <i>are be</i> deceived by appearances.</li> +<li>Would that I <i>was were</i> a bird.</li> +<li>If it <i>snow snows</i>, I can't come.</li> +<li>If your father <i>comes come</i>, bring him to dinner.</li> +<li>If your father <i>was were</i> here, you would act differently.</li> +<li>Though he <i>were was</i> king over all the earth I should despise + him. <a name="page_64"><span class="page">Page 64</span></a></li> +<li>If he <i>come comes</i>, he will find me at home.</li> +<li><i>Was were</i> it necessary, I should jump.</li> +<li>If to-morrow <i>be is</i> pleasant, we shall go driving.</li> +<li>If my mother <i>was were</i> here, she would say I might go.</li> +<li>If she <i>was were</i> at home, I did not hear of it.</li> +<li>If that <i>is be</i> his motive, he is unworthy.</li> +<li>Though this <i>seem seems</i> improbable, it is true.</li> +<li>If a speech <i>is be</i> praised by none but literary men, it is + bad.</li> +<li>If the father <i>pays pay</i> the debt, he will be released.</li> +<li>Though Mary <i>be is</i> young, she is a writer of note.</li> +<li>Unless he <i>takes take</i> better care of his health, he will + die.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> honest, he has not shown it.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> honest, he will insist on paying me.</li> +<li>If he ever <i>tell tells</i> the truth, he conceals the fact.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>61. Agreement of Verb with its Subject. The verb should agree +with its subject in person and number.</b> The most frequent error +is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. +Singular subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects +with singular verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension +of the true number of the subject. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and +occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; as, +<i>He runs, she goes, it moves</i>. <i>Is, was</i>, and <i>has</i> +are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. <i>Am</i> is used only +with a subject in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. +The other auxiliaries have no singular forms. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, +and so can cause little confusion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A barrel of clothes <b>was</b> shipped (not <i>were shipped</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A man and a woman <b>have</b> been here (not <i>has been here</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Boxes <b>are</b> scarce (not <i>is scarce</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When <b>were</b> the brothers here (not <i>when was</i>)? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_65"><span class="page">Page 65</span></a> <b>62. +Agreement of Subject and Verb in Number.</b> The general rule to +be borne in mind in regard to number, is that <b>it is the meaning +and not the form of the subject that determines whether to use +the singular or the plural form of the verb.</b> This rule also +applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, <i>politics, +measles, news</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; +as, <i>forceps, tongs, trousers</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, +they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, <i>committee, +family, pair, jury, assembly, means</i>. The following sentences are +all correct: <i>The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly +are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The +whole family are sick</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the use of the adjective pronouns, <i>some, each</i>, etc., the +noun is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by +using the wrong number of the verb. <i>Each, either, neither, this, +that</i>, and <i>one</i>, when used alone as subjects, require singular +verbs. <i>All, those, these, few, many</i>, always require plural +verbs. <i>Any, none</i>, and <i>some</i> may take either singular +or plural verbs. In most of these cases, as is true throughout the +subject of agreement in number, reason will determine the form +to be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. +When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. +Examine the following sentences; each is correct: <i>Three drops +of medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by +the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, +Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_66"><span class="page">Page 66</span></a> +Exercise 39</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify +the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the +noun:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The jury have agreed.</li> +<li>The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict.</li> +<li>The committee has presented its report, but they have differed + in regard to one matter.</li> +<li>The whole tribe was destroyed.</li> +<li>The tribe were scattered through the different states.</li> +<li>The regiment were almost all sick.</li> +<li>A variety of persons was there.</li> +<li>The society meets each month.</li> +<li>The society is divided in its opinion.</li> +<li>A number were unable to be present.</li> +<li>A great number was present.</li> +<li>The number present was great.</li> +<li>What means were used to gain his vote?</li> +<li>That means of gaining votes is corrupt.</li> +<li>Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight.</li> +<li>Twenty years of his life was spent in prison.</li> +<li>Two hundred pounds was his weight.</li> +<li>The family are all at home.</li> +<li>The family is large.</li> +<li>A pair of gloves has been lost.</li> +<li>A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway.</li> +<li>The army was defeated.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 40</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is +used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, <b>is, was, +has, have, are, was, have, go, goes, run, runs, come, comes:</b></i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, +latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, +gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, +mumps, <a name="page_67"><span class="page">Page 67</span></a> +flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, herd, +committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, months. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 41</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether <b>it</b> +or <b>they</b> should be used in referring to the subject.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>63. The following rules govern the agreement of the verb with +a compound subject:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to +mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, +<i>French and German literature <b>are</b> studied.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound +subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, <i>John +and Harry <b>are</b> still to come.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, +it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, <i>The +employee, and not the employers, <b>was</b> to blame, The employers, +and not the employee, <b>were</b> to blame, The boy, as well as +his sisters, <b>deserves</b> praise.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in +the singular, the verb should be singular; as, <i>Each book and +each paper <b>was</b> in its place, No help and no hope <b>is</b> +found for him, Either one or the other <b>is</b> he, Neither one +nor the other <b>is</b> he.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of +which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject +nearest to it; as, <i>Neither the boy, nor his sisters <b>deserve</b> +praise, Neither the sisters nor the boy <b>deserves</b> praise.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the +first; as, <i>The leader <b>was</b> slain and all his men, The +men <b>were</b> slain, and also the leader.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 42</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Hard and soft coal <i>is are</i> used.</li> +<li>The boy and the girl <i>have has</i> come.</li> +<li>Neither James nor I <i>are is</i> to go. + <a name="page_68"><span class="page">Page 68</span></a></li> +<li>Neither James nor they <i>are is</i> to go.</li> +<li>Henry, and not his sister, <i>is are</i> sure to be invited.</li> +<li>The children and their father <i>was were</i> on the train.</li> +<li>Each man and each woman <i>was were</i> present.</li> +<li>Either Tennyson or Wordsworth <i>was were</i> the author of + that poem.</li> +<li>Either the man or his children <i>was were</i> lost.</li> +<li>Either the children or their father <i>was were</i> lost.</li> +<li>Bread and milk <i>are is</i> frugal but wholesome fare.</li> +<li>The teacher <i>was were</i> cut off by the fire, and also her + pupils.</li> +<li>The pupils <i>was were</i> cut off by the fire, and also the + teacher.</li> +<li>Dogs and cats <i>is are</i> useless animals.</li> +<li>Neither the daughters nor their mother <i>is are</i> at home.</li> +<li>Either the soldier or his officers <i>is are</i> mistaken.</li> +<li>The cat and all her kittens <i>was were</i> at the door.</li> +<li>Tennyson, not Wordsworth, <i>were was</i> the author.</li> +<li>Each of the trustees <i>has have</i> a vote.</li> +<li>Our success or our failure <i>is are</i> due solely to + ourselves.</li> +<li>Neither sincerity nor cordiality <i>characterize + characterizes</i> him.</li> +<li>Everyone of these chairs <i>is are</i> mine.</li> +<li>Each day and each hour <i>bring brings</i> new questions.</li> +<li>The car and all its passengers <i>was were</i> blown up.</li> +<li>The ambition and activity of the man <i>has have</i> been the + <i>cause causes</i> of his success.</li> +<li>Old and new hay <i>is are</i> equally good for horses.</li> +<li>Matthew or Paul <i>are is</i> responsible for that belief.</li> +<li>A man, a woman, and a child <i>is are</i> comprised in the + group.</li> +<li>The pupils and also the teacher <i>were was</i> embarrassed.</li> +<li>The teacher and also the pupils <i>were was</i> embarrassed.</li> +<li>Neither he nor I <i>are is am</i> going.</li> +<li>Book after book <i>was were</i> taken from the shelves.</li> +<li>Either Aunt Mary or her daughters <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Either the daughters or Aunt Mary <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Both Aunt Mary and her daughter <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Mary, and not her mother, <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>No preacher and no woman <i>is are</i> allowed to enter. + <a name="page_69"><span class="page">Page 69</span></a></li> +<li>Every adult man and woman <i>has have</i> a vote.</li> +<li>Money, if not culture, <i>gains gain</i> a way.</li> +<li>Brain power, as well as money, <i>talk talks</i>.</li> +<li>Each boy and girl <i>bring brings</i> books.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>64. Some miscellaneous cautions in regard to agreement in number:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by +an adjective phrase; as, <i>The thief, with all his booty, was +captured</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after <i>you</i> and +<i>they</i>. Say: <i>You were, they are, they were</i>, etc., not, +<i>you was, they was,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the +sentence, <i>The <b>sale</b> of boxes was increased, sale</i>, not +<i>boxes</i>, is the subject of the verb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person +of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. +Both of the following sentences are correct: <i>He is the only +one of the men <b>that is</b> to be trusted, He is one of those +men <b>that are</b> to be trusted.</i> It is to be remembered that +the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike +in form; <i>that, who</i>, etc., may refer to one or more than +one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with <i>not</i>. +<i>Don't</i> cannot be used with <i>he</i> or <i>she</i> or <i>it</i>, +or with any other singular subject in the third person. One should +say, <i>He doesn't</i>, not <i>he don't; it doesn't</i>, not <i>it +don't; man doesn't</i>, not <i>man don't</i>. The proper form of +the verb that is being contracted in these instances is <i>does</i>, +not <i>do</i>. <i>Ain't</i> and <i>hain't</i> are always wrong; +no such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions +as <i>don't, can't</i>, etc., should not be used at all in formal +composition. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 43</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The ship, with all her crew, were lost.</li> +<li>You was there, John, was you not?</li> +<li>They was never known to do that before.</li> +<li>A barrel of apples were sold + <a name="page_70"><span class="page">Page 70</span></a></li> +<li>How many were there who was there?</li> +<li>This is one of the books that is always read.</li> +<li>He don't know his own relatives.</li> +<li>I ain't coming to-night.</li> +<li>The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed.</li> +<li>John, when was you in the city?</li> +<li>The book, with all its errors, is valuable.</li> +<li>Who they was, I couldn't tell.</li> +<li>This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets."</li> +<li>This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes.</li> +<li>The hands of the clock is wrong.</li> +<li>The gallery of pictures are splendid.</li> +<li>This is one of those four metals that is valuable.</li> +<li>This is the one of those four metals that are valuable.</li> +<li>That answer, as you will see, hain't right.</li> +<li>The whole box of books were shipped.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 44</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>"Cows" are a common noun.</li> +<li>Such crises seldom occurs.</li> +<li>Fifty dollars were given him as a present.</li> +<li>There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank.</li> +<li>At that time the morals of men were very low.</li> +<li>Mathematics are my most interesting study.</li> +<li>There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower.</li> +<li>The jury is delivering its verdict.</li> +<li>The "Virginians" is a famous book.</li> +<li>Ten minutes were given him in which to answer.</li> +<li>Everyone of these farms are mine.</li> +<li>Lee, with his whole army, surrender.</li> +<li>Farm after farm were passed by the train.</li> +<li>He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president.</li> +<li>Three hundred miles of wires were cut down.</li> +<li>Three fourths of his time are wasted. + <a name="page_71"><span class="page">Page 71</span></a></li> +<li>Three quarts of oats is all that is needed.</li> +<li>A variety of sounds charms the ear.</li> +<li>A variety of recitations were given.</li> +<li>The committee have adjourned.</li> +<li>Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived.</li> +<li>Take one of the books that is lying on the table.</li> +<li>The house is one of those that overlooks the bay.</li> +<li>Question after question were propounded to him.</li> +<li>He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the + school.</li> +<li>He is one of those persons who are quick to learn.</li> +<li>A black and white horse were in the ring.</li> +<li>A black and a white horse was in the ring.</li> +<li>The committee disagree on some points.</li> +<li>Mary, where was you yesterday?</li> +<li>The end and aim of his life are to get money.</li> +<li>All the crop were lost.</li> +<li>One of them are gone.</li> +<li>There comes the children.</li> +<li>Were either of these men elected?</li> +<li>The alumni of this school is not very loyal.</li> +<li>There seem to be few here.</li> +<li>There seems to be a few here.</li> +<li>Neither of the letters were received.</li> +<li>In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm.</li> +<li>The Association of Engineers are still flourishing.</li> +<li>Neither John nor Henry have come.</li> +<li>Either this book or that are wrong.</li> +<li>This book and that is wrong.</li> +<li>This book, not that, is wrong.</li> +<li>Either this book or those students is wrong.</li> +<li>Either those students, or this book is wrong.</li> +<li>This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in + tanning.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>65. Use of Shall and Will.</b> The use of the auxiliaries, +<i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, with their past tenses, is a source +of very many <a name="page_72"><span class="page">Page 72</span></a> +errors. The following outline will show the correct use of <i>shall</i> +and <i>will</i>, except in dependent clauses and questions: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To indicate simple futurity or probability: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +Use <i>shall</i> with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>; use <i>will</i> with +all other subjects. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part +of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control; +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +Use <i>will</i> with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>; use <i>shall</i> with +all other subjects. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following examples of the correct use of <i>shall</i> +and <i>will</i>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Statements as to probable future events: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +<i>We shall</i> probably be there.<br /> +I think <i>you will</i> want to be there.<br /> +<i>It will</i> rain before night. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Statements of determination on the part of the speaker: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +<i>I will</i> come in spite of his command.<br /> +<i>You shall</i> go home.<br /> +<i>It shall</i> not happen again, I promise you. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>66. Shall and Will in Questions.</b> In interrogative sentences +<i>shall</i> should always be used with the first person. In the +second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is +logically expected in the answer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the agreement in the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> +in the following questions and answers: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">QUESTIONS.</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">ANSWERS.</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Shall</i> I miss the car?</td> + <td>You <i>will</i> miss it.</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Shall</i> you be there?</td> + <td>I think I <i>shall</i> (probability).</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Will</i> he do it?</td> + <td>I think he <i>will</i> (assertion).</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Shall</i> your son obey the teacher?</td> + <td>He <i>shall</i> (determination).</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Will</i> you promise to come?</td> + <td>We <i>will</i> come (promise).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_73"><span class="page">Page 73</span></a> <b>67. +Shall and Will in Dependent Clauses.</b> In dependent clauses which +are introduced by <i>that</i>, expressed or understood, the auxiliary +should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were +a principal clause. The sentence, <i>They assure us that they +<b>shall</b> come</i>, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, +<i>We <b>will</b> come</i>. The auxiliary, then, in a principal +clause would be <i>will</i>. <i>Will</i> should, therefore, be the +auxiliary in the dependent construction, and the sentence should +read, <i>They assure us that they <b>will</b> come</i>. Further +examples: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +I suppose <i>we shall</i> have to pay.<br /> +He thinks that <i>you will</i> be able to do it.<br /> +He has decided that <i>John shall</i> replace the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use +<i>shall</i> with all subjects. Examples; +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +<i>If he shall</i> go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad.<br /> +<i>If you shall</i> go away, who will run the farm?<br /> +<i>If I shall</i> die, I shall die as an honest man. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 45</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Justify the correct use of <b>shall</b> and <b>will</b> in the +following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I will go if you wish.</li> +<li>I shall probably go if you wish.</li> +<li>I will have it in spite of all you can do.</li> +<li>We shall return by way of Dover.</li> +<li>We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.</li> +<li>I feel that I shall not live long.</li> +<li>We think we shall come to-morrow.</li> +<li>I promise you, the money shall be raised.</li> +<li>You will then go to Philadelphia.</li> +<li>You shall never hear from me again.</li> +<li>He will surely come to-morrow. + <a name="page_74"><span class="page">Page 74</span></a></li> +<li>How shall you answer him?</li> +<li>I think I shall ride.</li> +<li>He is sure they will come.</li> +<li>He is sure that I will come.</li> +<li>Shall you be there?</li> +<li>Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination?</li> +<li>Will you be there?</li> +<li>Will all be there?</li> +<li>He says he shall be there.</li> +<li>He has promised that he will be there.</li> +<li>I fear that he will fail to pass.</li> +<li>We think she will soon be well.</li> +<li>We are determined that they shall pay.</li> +<li>We expect that they will bring their books.</li> +<li>I doubt that he will pay.</li> +<li>We have promised that we will do it.</li> +<li>If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 46</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the blanks in the following sentences with <b>shall</b> +or <b>will</b>:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I think I —— find the work easy.</li> +<li>I —— probably be refused, but I —— go + anyway.</li> +<li>—— you be busy to-night? Yes, I —— be + in class until ten.</li> +<li>I —— probably fail to pass the examination.</li> +<li>If no one assists me, I —— drown.</li> +<li>No. I —— never sell my library.</li> +<li>If I fail I —— be obliged to take an examination.</li> +<li>—— my men begin work to-day?</li> +<li>—— you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I + don't, think I ——.</li> +<li>—— you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? + Yes, I —— sing to-night.</li> +<li>—— I put more wood on the fire?</li> +<li>I —— be lost; no one —— help me.</li> +<li>It —— be there when you need it.</li> +<li>It is demanded that the pupils —— be orderly and + attentive.</li> +<li>I think it —— rain soon. + <a name="page_75"><span class="page">Page 75</span></a></li> +<li>We —— be disappointed.</li> +<li>—— we be permitted to go?</li> +<li>We —— do it for you.</li> +<li>—— I go or remain at home?</li> +<li>I —— be very grateful to you if you —— + do this.</li> +<li>If you —— ask her, she —— go with you.</li> +<li>If you —— stop, I —— go with you.</li> +<li>Where —— we join you?</li> +<li>I think we —— be there in time.</li> +<li>I —— go to the river for a boat ride.</li> +<li>When —— you be twenty years of age?</li> +<li>—— we ever see you again?</li> +<li>Perhaps we —— return next year.</li> +<li>We promise, we —— return.</li> +<li>You —— probably suffer for it.</li> +<li>I —— not impose on you in that way.</li> +<li>—— I ask for your mail?</li> +<li>I hope that we —— be there before the curtain + rises.</li> +<li>—— they probably be there?</li> +<li>—— you please fetch me a paper?</li> +<li>—— we stop for you on our way downtown?</li> +<li>When —— I find you in your office?</li> +<li>They —— never do it if I can help.</li> +<li>You —— do as I say.</li> +<li>I —— never, never, go there again.</li> +<li>We —— decide what to do about that at our next + meeting which —— be in October.</li> +<li>—— it make any difference to you?</li> +<li>—— I go with you?</li> +<li>No, you —— please stay here.</li> +<li>He —— never enter this house again.</li> +<li>It is believed that they —— probably be present.</li> +<li>He fears that he —— die.</li> +<li>He requests that you —— come to-day at seven + o'clock.</li> +<li>She asks that it —— be sent at once.</li> +<li>It is thought that his death —— not seriously + change things.</li> +<li>It is believed that the emperor —— have to + retract.</li> +<li>A story is told that —— gain little credence. + <a name="page_76"><span class="page">Page 76</span></a></li> +<li>I fear that I —— take cold.</li> +<li>She says that I —— take cold.</li> +<li>They say that they —— do it in spite of anything + done to prevent.</li> +<li>He is determined that he —— go away.</li> +<li>She is determined that he —— go to school.</li> +<li>They say they —— probably not go.</li> +<li>John thinks he —— probably live to be past sixty.</li> +<li>He tells me that he thinks that he —— be elected.</li> +<li>They say that they —— meet you.</li> +<li>They assure us that we —— find good stores in + Berlin.</li> +<li>He says he fears he —— miss his train.</li> +<li>Wright says his father —— become famous.</li> +<li>He writes that he —— be here to-day.</li> +<li>Do you say that you —— be present?</li> +<li>The book says that —— be wrong.</li> +<li>Does she say that she —— come?</li> +<li>I told you that I —— not come.</li> +<li>I tell you that she —— not come.</li> +<li>He says that he —— go as a matter of duty.</li> +<li>John says that —— not happen anyway.</li> +<li>Does he say that he —— surely come?</li> +<li>Does John write what he —— promise to do in the + matter?</li> +<li>—— you be sure to be there?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 47</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>shall</b> is used in an independent +clause, and five in which <b>shall</b> is used in a dependent +clause.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>will</b> is used in an independent +clause, and five in which <b>will</b> is used in a dependent clause.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five interrogative sentences in which <b>shall</b> is used +and five in which <b>will</b> is used.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>68. Should and Would.</b> <i>Should</i> and <i>would</i> are the +past tenses of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, and have corresponding +uses. <i>Should</i> <a name="page_77"><span class="page">Page +77</span></a> is used with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>, and <i>would</i> +with other subjects, to express mere futurity or probability. +<i>Would</i> is used with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>, and <i>should</i> +with other subjects, to express conditional promise or determination +on the part of the speaker. Examples: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Futurity: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +I <i>should</i> be sorry to lose this book.<br /> +If we <i>should</i> be afraid of the storm, we <i>should</i> be + foolish.<br /> +It was expected that they <i>would</i> be here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Volition or determination: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +If it <i>should</i> occur, we <i>would</i> not come.<br /> +It was promised that it <i>should</i> not occur again.<br /> +He decided that it <i>should</i> be done. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Should</i> is sometimes used in the sense of <i>ought</i>, to +imply duty; as, <i>He should have gone to her aid</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Would</i> is often used to indicate habitual action; as, <i>This +would often occur when he was preaching</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 48</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Justify the correct use of <b>should</b> and <b>would</b> in +the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I feared that they would not come.</li> +<li>He should know his duty better than that.</li> +<li>I should be displeased if he would act that way.</li> +<li>We should be ruined if we did that.</li> +<li>You should have seen his face.</li> +<li>We would often take that road.</li> +<li>He said that he would come at once.</li> +<li>If that should happen, we should not come.</li> +<li>If you were I, what should you do?</li> +<li>I should see the president of the class.</li> +<li>We should have been at the meeting. + <a name="page_78"><span class="page">Page 78</span></a></li> +<li>He said that we should have been at the meeting.</li> +<li>He promised that he would be at the meeting.</li> +<li>If I should say so, he would dislike me.</li> +<li>Should he come, I would go with him.</li> +<li>They would usually stop at the new hotel.</li> +<li>What would they do in the city?</li> +<li>She asked if she should write the letter.</li> +<li>She said they would write the letter.</li> +<li>She agreed that it would be right.</li> +<li>She assured us that she would attend to it.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 49</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill in the blanks with <b>should</b> or <b>would</b> in the +following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I fear I —— be drowned if I —— go + swimming.</li> +<li>I —— be much pleased to meet him.</li> +<li>It was feared that they —— not accept.</li> +<li>If it —— storm, we —— not start.</li> +<li>She —— often come to class with no books.</li> +<li>I believed that he —— come late.</li> +<li>He —— never have been invited.</li> +<li>If that had become known, we —— surely have been + ruined.</li> +<li>To think that he —— do such a thing!</li> +<li>I —— like to see the game.</li> +<li>You —— not enjoy it.</li> +<li>—— you like to see the game?</li> +<li>—— I bring my opera glasses?</li> +<li>Mary —— never have known it.</li> +<li>He —— have easily deceived her.</li> +<li>They were anxious that we —— not miss the train.</li> +<li>If we —— come late, —— it make any + difference?</li> +<li>If they had proposed it, we —— have voted it down.</li> +<li>On what date —— that come?</li> +<li>I suppose I —— have done it; but, it —— + have inconvenienced me.</li> +<li>Had Lee known that, he —— never have surrendered.</li> +<li>I —— never have believed she —— do such + a thing. + <a name="page_79"><span class="page">Page 79</span></a></li> +<li>We —— never have come.</li> +<li>—— you think him capable of such a trick?</li> +<li>I knew I —— not be here on time.</li> +<li>—— they dare to attempt opposition?</li> +<li>How —— you go about it?</li> +<li>Lincoln, under those circumstances, —— probable not + have been elected.</li> +<li>It —— have changed our whole history.</li> +<li>He said that it —— have changed our whole history.</li> +<li>He said he —— come.</li> +<li>She thinks they —— not do it.</li> +<li>We believe that we —— like to go at once.</li> +<li>They say it —— be done now.</li> +<li>I think I —— like to go.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 50</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>should</b> is used independently, +and five in which <b>should</b> is used dependently.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>would</b> is used independently, +and five in which <b>would</b> is used dependently.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>should</b> is used in questions, +and five in which <b>would</b> is used in questions.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>69. Use of May and Might, Can and Could.</b> <i>May</i>, with +its past tense, <i>might</i>, is properly used to denote permission. +<i>Can</i>, with its past tense, <i>could</i>, refers to the ability +or possibility to do a thing. These two words are often confused. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 51</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the blanks in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>—— I go home?</li> +<li>—— we get tickets at that store?</li> +<li>—— the mountain be climbed?</li> +<li>—— we come into your office? + <a name="page_80"><span class="page">Page 80</span></a></li> +<li>You —— stay as long as you wish.</li> +<li>—— you finish the work in an hour?</li> +<li>How —— you say such a thing?</li> +<li>Several people —— use the same book.</li> +<li>We —— afford to delay a while.</li> +<li>—— John go with me?</li> +<li>You —— often hear the noise.</li> +<li>What —— not be done in a week?</li> +<li>That —— be true, but it —— not be + relied on.</li> +<li>What —— he do to prevent it?</li> +<li>When —— we hand in the work?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>70. Participles and Gerunds.</b> The past participle has already +been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, +the <b>participles</b> are those forms of the verb that <b>are used +adjectively;</b> as, <i>seeing, having seen, being seen, having +been seen, seen, playing, having played</i>, etc. In the following +sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: +<i>He, <b>having been invited to dine</b>, came early, John, <b>being +sick</b>, could not come</i>. The verb form in all these cases is +called a participle, and must be used in connection with either +a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Gerund</b> is the same as the participle in its forms, but +differs in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, +the <b>gerund is always used substantively</b>; as, <i>I told <b>of +his winning</b> the race, <b>After his asserting</b> it, I believe +the statement</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>71. Misuses of Participles and Gerunds.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical +and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the +sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known +as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, <i>The dish was +broken, <b>resulting</b> from its fall</i>, because <i>resulting</i> +does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. +But it would be right to say, <i>The dish was <a name="page_81"><span +class="page">Page 81</span></a> broken as a result of its fall</i>. +Examine, also, the following examples: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, + <i>followed</i> by a week at Atlantic City.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I spent a week in Virginia, + <i>following</i> it by a week at Atlantic City.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I spent a week in Virginia, + <i>and then</i> a week at Atlantic City.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or +principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence +or clause. Compare the following: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to + remain at home.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Having been sick, I decided to + remain at home.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. A participle preceded by <i>thus</i> should not be used unless +it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, + <i>thus causing</i> him a great deal of trouble.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He had to rewrite several pages, + <i>and was thus caused</i> a great deal of trouble.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He had to rewrite several pages, + <i>thus experiencing</i> a great deal of trouble.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and +frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between +the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that +the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a +modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. +A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive +case. Say, <i>I heard <b>of John's coming</b></i>, not, <i>I heard +<b>of John coming</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should +be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it +modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless +it logically belongs to the subject of that <a name="page_82"><span +class="page">Page 82</span></a> sentence. Exception: When the gerund +phrase denotes a general action, it may be used without grammatical +connection to the sentence; as, <i>In traveling, good drinking water +is essential</i>. Compare the following wrong and right forms: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>After seeing his mistake</i>, a + new start was made.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>After seeing his mistake</i>, he + made a new start.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>By writing rapidly, the work</i> + can be finished.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>By writing rapidly, you</i> can + finish the work.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>In copying the exercise</i>, a + mistake was made.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>In copying the exercise, I</i> + made a mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 52</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive +from those italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He spoke of <i>John John's</i> coming down.</li> +<li>The idea of <i>his him</i> singing is absurd.</li> +<li>Do you remember <i>me my</i> speaking about it?</li> +<li>What is the use of <i>you your</i> reading that?</li> +<li><i>He his him</i> being arrested was a sufficient disgrace.</li> +<li><i>He him his</i> being now of age, sold the farm.</li> +<li><i>He him his</i> selling it was very unexpected.</li> +<li>You should have heard <i>him his</i> telling the story.</li> +<li>You should have heard <i>his him</i> telling of the story.</li> +<li>To think of <i>them they their</i> having been seen there!</li> +<li>What is the object of <i>Mary Mary's</i> studying French?</li> +<li><i>It its</i> being John was a great surprise.</li> +<li>What is the use of <i>them they their</i> talking so much?</li> +<li><i>John John's</i> going to school takes all his evenings.</li> +<li>The beauty of <i>James James's</i> writing got him the + position.</li> +<li>He had heard about <i>me my</i> coming to-day.</li> +<li><i>John John's</i> coming was a surprise.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_83"><span class="page">Page 83</span></a> +Exercise 53</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following +sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. +See <b>§107</b> for rule as to punctuation:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible.</li> +<li>He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an + experienced architect.</li> +<li>It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his + health.</li> +<li>On hearing that, a new plan was made.</li> +<li>Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber.</li> +<li>Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in + town.</li> +<li>He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income.</li> +<li>Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after + class.</li> +<li>No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable + anxiety.</li> +<li>Expecting us to come, we disappointed him.</li> +<li>After telling me the story, I left him.</li> +<li>By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much.</li> +<li>He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him + to lose a great deal of valuable time.</li> +<li>After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome.</li> +<li>We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our + interest.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>72. Infinitives.</b> The Infinitives are formed by the word +<i>to</i> and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. +For <i>see</i> and <i>play</i> as model verbs, the infinitives +are as follows: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> +<tr><td>PRESENT ACTIVE</td> + <td>PRESENT PASSIVE</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to see</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to be seen</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to play</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to be played</td></tr> +<tr><td>PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE</td> + <td>PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have seen</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have been seen</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have played</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have been played</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_84"><span class="page">Page 84</span></a> The word +<i>to</i> is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow +the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since +the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>73. Sequence of Infinitive Tenses.</b> The wrong tense of the +infinitive is frequently used. The following rules should be observed: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time +or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the +<b>present infinitive</b> should be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as +completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the <b>perfect +infinitive</b> should be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following examples: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>I should have liked to have + gone.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>I should have liked to go</i> + (same or later time).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>I should like to have gone</i> + (earlier time).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>It was bad to have been + discovered.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>It is bad to have been + discovered</i> (earlier time).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>It was bad to be discovered</i> + (same or later time).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>She did not believe her son to + have committed the crime</i> (earlier time).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>When he died, he believed + himself to have been defeated for the office</i> (earlier + time.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 54</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences choose the proper form from those +italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I was sorry <i>to have heard to hear</i> of John's death.</li> +<li>Should you have been willing <i>to go to have gone</i> with + us?</li> +<li>The game was intended <i>to be played to have been played</i> + yesterday.</li> +<li>I intended <i>to write to have written</i> long ago.</li> +<li>He wished <i>to have met to meet</i> you. + <a name="page_85"><span class="page">Page 85</span></a></li> +<li>I should have liked <i>to meet to have met</i> you.</li> +<li>Mary was eager <i>to have gone to go</i>.</li> +<li>Nero was seen <i>to have fiddled to fiddle</i> while Rome + burned.</li> +<li>Nero is said <i>to have fiddled to fiddle</i> while Rome + burned.</li> +<li>This was <i>to be done to have been done</i> yesterday.</li> +<li>They agreed <i>to finish to have finished</i> it yesterday.</li> +<li>He was willing <i>to sing to have sung</i> alone.</li> +<li>He expected <i>to have spoken to speak</i> here to-morrow.</li> +<li>The Civil War is said <i>to cause to have caused</i> more + loss of life than any other war.</li> +<li>Blackstone is said <i>to have failed to fail</i> at the + practice of law.</li> +<li>It would have been hard <i>to accomplish to have + accomplished</i> that result.</li> +<li>He was foolish enough <i>to have spoiled to spoil</i> six + negatives.</li> +<li>I wanted <i>to have attended to attend</i> the convention.</li> +<li>It would be terrible <i>to be lost to have been lost</i> in + the forest.</li> +<li>We were asked <i>to have waited to wait</i>.</li> +<li>I am eager <i>to have seen to see it</i>.</li> +<li>I am pleased <i>to meet to have met</i> you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>74. Split Infinitives.</b> In the sentence, care should be taken +to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial +modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called +the "split infinitive." Compare the following: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He seemed <i>to easily + learn</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He seemed <i>to learn + easily</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He is said <i>to have rapidly + run</i> along the street.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He is said <i>to have run + rapidly</i> along the street.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 55</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following split infinitives:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She is known to have hurriedly read the note.</li> +<li>Mary tried to quickly call help. + <a name="page_86"><span class="page">Page 86</span></a></li> +<li>He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph.</li> +<li>John attempted to rudely break into the conversation.</li> +<li>The plan was to secretly destroy the documents.</li> +<li>His policy was to never offend.</li> +<li>He wished to in this way gain friends.</li> +<li>He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>75. Agreement of Verb in Clauses.</b> In a compound predicate, +the parts of the predicate should agree in tense; <b>past tense +should follow past tense, and perfect tense follow perfect tense.</b> +Examine the following: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>has tried</i> to do, and really + <i>did</i> everything possible to stop his son.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>has tried</i> to do, and really + <i>has done</i> everything possible to stop his son.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>tried</i> to do, and really + <i>did</i> everything possible to stop his son.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>hoped</i> and <i>have worked</i> + to gain this recognition.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>hoped</i> and <i>worked</i> to + gain this recognition.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>have hoped</i> and <i>have + worked</i> to gain this recognition.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 56</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I went last week and have gone again this week.</li> +<li>I have heard of his being here, but not saw him.</li> +<li>I saw John, but I have not seen Henry.</li> +<li>He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry.</li> +<li>John was sent for, but has not yet arrived.</li> +<li>I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not + succeeded.</li> +<li>I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its + equal.</li> +<li>She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed + in getting his money.</li> +<li>I hoped and have prayed for your coming. + <a name="page_87"><span class="page">Page 87</span></a></li> +<li>I have believed and usually taught that theory.</li> +<li>I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work.</li> +<li>No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the + world as I.</li> +<li>He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy.</li> +<li>We have needed you and did our best to find you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>76. Omission of the Verb or Parts of the Verb.</b> The verb +or some of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes +makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>I like him better than John</i>. This sentence may have the +meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: <i>I +like him better than John <b>does</b></i>, or <i>I like him better +than <b>I like</b> John</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech +should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence +ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>He was told to go where he ought + not</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>He was told to go where he ought + not to go</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>He was told to go where he should + not go</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 57</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I admire Mary more than John.</li> +<li>I think she is older than John.</li> +<li>He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried.</li> +<li>I asked him to do what I should not have.</li> +<li>I did what I ought not.</li> +<li>We wish him better luck than Mary.</li> +<li>We want to see him more than Henry.</li> +<li>I should hate him worse than you.</li> +<li>He wanted me to do what I didn't care to.</li> +<li>You may, as you please, do it or not.</li> +<li>She may go if she wishes or not.</li> +<li>We think of you oftener than mother.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_88"><span class="page">Page 88</span></a> +<b>77. Model Conjugations of the Verbs To Be and To See.</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +CONJUGATION OF <b>TO BE</b> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Principal Parts: <b>AM, WAS, BEEN</b> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +INDICATIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>am</i></td> + <td>We <i>are</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. [*]Thou <i>art</i> (you <i>are</i>)</td> + <td>You <i>are</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is</i></td> + <td>They <i>are</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: The forms, <i>thou art, thou wast, thou hast</i>, +etc., are the proper forms in the second person singular, but +customarily the forms of the second person plural, <i>you are, +you were, you have</i>, etc., are used also in the second person +singular. These distinct second person singular forms will be used +throughout the model conjugations.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was</i></td> + <td>We <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wast</i> or <i>wert</i></td> + <td>You <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was</i></td> + <td>They <i>were</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Have</i> with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>have been</i></td> + <td>We <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>hast been</i></td> + <td>You <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>has been</i></td> + <td>They <i>have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Had</i> with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>had been</i></td> + <td>We <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>hadst been</i></td> + <td>You <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>had been</i></td> + <td>They <i>had been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_89"><span class="page">Page 89</span></a> +Future Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i> with the present infinitive, <i>be</i>.[*]) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>We <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>shalt be</i></td> + <td>You <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>They <i>shall be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: To determine when to use <i>shall</i> and when to +use <i>will</i> in the future and future perfect tenses, see +<b>§§ 65, 66</b>, and <b>67</b>. In these model conjugations +the forms of <i>shall</i> are given with the future and the forms +of <i>will</i> with the future perfect.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i> with the perfect infinitive, <i>have +been</i>.[*]) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>will have been</i></td> + <td>We <i>will have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wilt have been</i></td> + <td>You <i>will have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>will have been</i></td> + <td>They <i>will have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.] +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Generally follows <i>if, though, lest, although</i>, etc. See +<b>§59</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>be</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>be</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>be</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>were</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>were</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>were</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>were</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Have</i>, unchanged, with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>have been</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>have been</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>have been</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_90"><span class="page">Page 90</span></a> +Past Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Had</i>, unchanged, with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. (If) I <i>had been</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>had been</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>had been</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>had been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i>, unchanged, with present infinitive +<i>be</i>.[*]) +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.] +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>shall be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i>, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, +<i>have been</i>.*) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>shall have been</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>shall have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>shall have been</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>shall have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>shall have been</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>shall have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +POTENTIAL MODE[*] +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many +authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as +of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use +it in these model conjugations. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode +see <b>§§ 68</b> and <b>69</b>. The conjugation with +<i>must</i> (or <i>ought to</i>) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE +MODE. The conjugation with <i>should</i> or <i>would</i> is sometimes +called the CONDITIONAL MODE.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>May, can</i>, or <i>must</i>, with the present infinitive, +<i>be</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must + be</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must + be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>mayst, canst</i>, or <i>must be</i></td> + <td>You <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must be</i></td> + <td>They <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_91"><span class="page">Page 91</span></a> +Past Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Might, could, would</i>, or <i>should</i>, with the present +infinitive, <i>be</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>might, could, would</i>, or <i>should be</i></td> + <td>We <i>might, could, would</i>, or <i>should + be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>mightst, couldst,</i> <i>wouldst,</i> or + <i>shouldst be</i></td> + <td>You <i>might, could, would,</i> or <i>should be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>might, could, would,</i> or <i>should be</i></td> + <td>They <i>might, could, would,</i> or <i>should be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>May, can</i>, or <i>must</i>, with the perfect infinitive, +<i>have been</i>. For forms substitute <i>have been</i> for <i>be</i> +in the present potential.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Might, could, would</i>, or <i>should</i>, with the perfect +infinitive <i>have been</i>. For forms substitute <i>have been</i> +for <i>be</i> in the past potential.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +IMPERATIVE MODE[*] +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.] +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Be</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +INFINITIVE MODE +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Present Tense</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Present Perfect Tense</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>To be</i></td> + <td><i>To have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +PARTICIPLES +</p> + + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Present Tense</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Perfect Tense</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Being</i></td> + <td><i>Having been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +GERUNDS +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Same as participles) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +<a name="page_92"><span class="page">Page 92</span></a> +CONJUGATION OF <b>TO SEE</b> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Principal Parts: <b>SEE, SAW, SEEN</b> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +INDICATIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art seeing</i></td> + <td>You <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is seeing</i></td> + <td>They <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>do see</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>dost see</i></td> + <td>You <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>does see</i></td> + <td>They <i>do see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art seeing</i></td> + <td>You <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is seeing</i></td> + <td>They <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>are seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>are seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am being seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art being seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>are being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is being seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>are being seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>saw</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>sawest</i></td> + <td>You <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>saw</i></td> + <td>They <i>saw</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_93"><span class="page">Page 93</span></a> <i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>did see</i></td> + <td>We <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>didst see</i></td> + <td>You <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>did see</i></td> + <td>They <i>did see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wast</i> or <i>wert seeing</i></td> + <td>You <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was seeing</i></td> + <td>They <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wast</i> or <i>wert seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>were seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was being seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>were being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wert</i> or <i>wast being seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>were being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was being seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>were being seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_94"><span class="page">Page 94</span></a> +Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect indicative +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the future indicative of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the future indicative +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the future indicative +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have seen</i> for <i>have been</i> in the future +perfect indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seeing</i> for <i>have been</i> in the +future perfect indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seen</i> for <i>have been</i> in the future +perfect indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. (If) I <i>see</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>see</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>see</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_95"><span class="page">Page 95</span></a> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. (If) I <i>do see</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>do see</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>do see</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>do see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>be seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>be seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>be seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>be seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>be seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>be seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>be seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>be seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>be seen</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>be seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>be seen</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>be seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>saw</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>saw</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>saw</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>saw</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>did see</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>did see</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>did see</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>did see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>were seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>were seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>were seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>were seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>were seen</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>were seen</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>were seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_96"><span class="page">Page 96</span></a> +Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the future subjunctive of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the future subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the future subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_97"><span class="page">Page 97</span></a> +Future Perfect—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the future perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the future perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for the future perfect subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +POTENTIAL MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential of <i>to +be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_98"><span class="page">Page 98</span></a> +Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the present +potential of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +IMPERATIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>see</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>do see</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>be seeing</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>be seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +<a name="page_99"><span class="page">Page 99</span></a> +INFINITIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to see.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to be seeing.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to be seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to have seen.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to have been seeing.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to have been seen.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +PARTICIPLES +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>seeing</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>being seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice[*] +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_100"><span class="page">Page 100</span></a> +Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having been seeing</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having been seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +GERUNDS +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>seeing</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>being seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having been seen</i> +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_101"><span class="page">Page 101</span></a> +CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, +CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>78. Independent and Dependent Clauses.</b> A sentence may consist +of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal +clause and one or more dependent clauses. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Independent clauses</b> are joined by conjunctions; such as, +<i>hence, but, and, although</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Dependent clauses</b> are joined to the sentence by relative +adverbs; such as, <i>where, when</i>, etc., or by relative pronouns; +as, <i>who, what</i>, etc. These dependent clauses may have the +same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or +adverbs. (See <b>§7</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>79. Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns.</b> +Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns +has already been touched upon (see <b>§29</b>), but a further +mention of this fault may well be made here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that +of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve +as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, <i>I wonder +<b>whom</b> will be chosen</i>, is wrong, because the relative +here is the subject of <i>will be chosen</i>, not the object of +<i>wonder</i>, and should have the nominative form <i>who</i>. +Corrected, it reads, <i>I wonder <b>who</b> will be chosen</i>. +Examine the following sentences: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We know <i>who</i> we mean.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: We know <i>whom</i> we mean.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: You may give it to <i>whoever</i> + you wish. + <a name="page_102"><span class="page">Page 102</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: You may give it to <i>whomever</i> + you wish.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Do you know <i>whom</i> it is?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Do you know <i>who</i> it is? + (Attribute complement.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Everybody <i>who were</i> there were + disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Everybody <i>who was</i> there was + disappointed.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it +introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, +the sentence, <i>He gave it to <b>who</b> had the clearest right</i>, +is correct, because <i>who</i> is the subject of the verb <i>had</i>, +and therefore in the nominative case. <i>Give it to <b>whomever</b> +they name</i>, is right, because <i>whomever</i> is the object of +<i>they name</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same +way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has +other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as +the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, +to use the proper case. Say, <i>Whom are you looking for?</i> not, +<i>Who are you looking for?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span> Some +writers justify the use of <i>who</i> in sentences like +the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this +book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to +adhere to the strictly grammatical form. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 58</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those +italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you wish to see?</li> +<li>You will please write out the name of <i>whoever whomever</i> + you want.</li> +<li>I saw <i>who whom</i> was there.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> was it you saw?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did you see? + <a name="page_103"><span class="page">Page 103</span></a></li> +<li>John did not know <i>whom who</i> to ask.</li> +<li>Why did he not ask <i>whomever whoever</i> was there?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> can tell the difference?</li> +<li>Give it to <i>whoever whomever</i> you please.</li> +<li>None of those who <i>were was</i> wanted <i>was were</i> + there.</li> +<li>The one of those who <i>were was</i> wanted was not there.</li> +<li>He is one of those fellows who <i>are is</i> always joking.</li> +<li><i>Whom who</i> was called "The Rail Splitter?"</li> +<li>Do you not know <i>whom who</i> it was?</li> +<li>That is one of the birds that <i>is are</i> very rare.</li> +<li>One of the books which <i>was were</i> brought was one hundred + years old.</li> +<li>I am not among those <i>who whom were was</i> there.</li> +<li>Only one of the men who <i>were was</i> on board survived.</li> +<li>Everyone else who <i>was were</i> there <i>was were</i> lost.</li> +<li>I am the one of the three men who <i>is am are</i> guilty.</li> +<li>He was chosen one of the four speakers who <i>was were</i> to + speak on Commencement Day.</li> +<li>It was one of the books which <i>were was</i> being sought by + the librarian.</li> +<li>Give it to one of the men <i>who whom</i> is found there.</li> +<li>To <i>who whom</i> did you give it?</li> +<li>It was for <i>whomever whoever</i> was present.</li> +<li>Ask <i>whomever whoever</i> is nearest the door.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>80. Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs.</b> It is better to use +a <b><i>when</i> clause</b> only in the subordinate part of the +sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He was turning the corner, when + suddenly he saw a car approaching.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: When he was turning the corner, + he suddenly saw a car approaching.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: When the news of the fire came, + it was still in the early morning.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The news of the fire came when + it was still in the early morning.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_104"><span class="page">Page 104</span></a> <b>81.</b> +Do not use a <i><b>when</b></i> or a <b><i>where</i> clause</b> +in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Commencement is when one formally + completes his school course.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Commencement is the formal + completion of one's school course.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Astronomy is where one studies + about the stars.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Astronomy is the study of the + stars.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>82.</b> <i>So, then</i>, and <i>also</i>, the conjunctive adverbs, +should not be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence +unless <i>and</i> or <i>but</i> be used in addition to the adverb. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The boys' grades are low, <i>so</i> + they indicate lack of application.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The boys' grades are low, <i>and + so</i> indicate lack of application.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He read for a while, <i>then</i> fell + asleep.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He read for a while, <i>and then</i> + fell asleep.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: I'll be down next week; <i>also</i> I + shall bring Jack along.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: I'll be down next week; <i>and + also</i> I shall bring Jack along.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 59</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Anarchism is when one believes in no government.</li> +<li>I am studying German, also French.</li> +<li>The clock had just struck five when the cab came.</li> +<li>I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire.</li> +<li>I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office.</li> +<li>I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones.</li> +<li>Death is when one ceases to live.</li> +<li>Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work.</li> +<li>He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped.</li> +<li>He loves good music, also good pictures.</li> +<li>A restaurant is where meals are served.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_105"><span class="page">Page 105</span></a> +<b>83. Conjunctions.</b> There are certain conjunctions, and also +certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>And</b> or <b>but</b> should not be used to join a dependent +clause to an independent clause; as, <i>It was a new valise <b>and</b> +differing much from his old one</i>. Say instead, <i>It was a new +valise, differing much from his old one</i>, or <i>It was a new +valise, and differed very much from his old one</i>. Similarly, <i>It +was a new book <b>which</b></i> (not <i>and which</i>) <i>interested +him very much</i>. This "and which" construction is a frequent +error; <i>and which</i> should never be used unless there is more +than one relative clause, and then never with the first one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>But</b> or <b>for</b> should not be used to introduce both of +two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad +by reason of this error: <i>He likes geometry, <b>but</b> fails in +algebra, <b>but</b> studies it hard, He read all night, <b>for</b> +the book interested him, <b>for</b> it was along the line of his +ambition</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Than</b> and <b>as</b> should not be followed by objective pronouns +in sentences like this: <i>I am as large <b>as him</b></i>. The +verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error +will be apparent. The sentence would then read, <i>I am as large +as <b>him</b> (is large)</i>. The correct form is, <i><b>I</b> am +as large as he (is large)</i>. Similarly, <i>He is taller than +<b>I</b> (am tall), She is brighter than <b>he</b> (is bright)</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>As</b> may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. <i>He +is <b>as</b> tall <b>as I</b></i>. The first <i>as</i> is an adverb, +the second <i>as</i> is a conjunction. <i>As</i> is properly used +as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality +is denied, <i>so</i> should be used in its place. <i>He is <b>as</b> +old <b>as I</b></i>, is correct, but the denial should be, <i>He is +<b>not so</b> old <b>as I</b></i>. After <i>not</i> do not use <i>as</i> +when <i>as</i> is an adverb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Neither</b>, when used as a conjunction, should be followed +by <b>nor</b>; as, <i>Neither he <b>nor</b> (not or) I can come. +Neither</i> should never be followed by <i>or</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Either</b>, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by +<b>or</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>84. Placing of Correlatives</b>. The correlatives, such as +<i>neither—nor, either—or, not only—but also</i>, +should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or +similar parts <a name="page_106"><span class="page">Page 106</span></a> +of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the +other toward some other part of speech. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He <i>not only</i> brought a book, + <i>but also</i> a pencil.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He brought <i>not only</i> a book + <i>but also</i> a pencil.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He would offer <i>neither</i> + reparation <i>nor</i> would he apologize.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>Neither</i> would he offer + reparation <i>nor</i> would he apologize.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He would offer <i>neither</i> + reparation <i>nor</i> apology.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>85.</b> The prepositions <i>without, except, like</i>, and the +adverb <i>directly</i> should not be used as conjunctions. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Without</i> (<i>unless</i>) you + attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: This she would not do <i>except</i> + (<i>unless</i>) we promised to pay at once.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I acted just <i>like</i> (<i>as</i>) + all the others (did).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Directly</i> (<i>as soon as</i>) + he came, we harnessed the horses.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 60</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Mary is as old as her.</li> +<li>I read as much as him.</li> +<li>He either wore his coat or a sort of vest.</li> +<li>He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed + all night.</li> +<li>We are better players than them.</li> +<li>He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist + and doing many absurd things.</li> +<li>There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very + entertaining.</li> +<li>They work harder than us.</li> +<li>John is not as tall as you.</li> +<li>Neither John or James is as tall as you.</li> +<li>I admire Mary more than she.</li> +<li>That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. + <a name="page_107"><span class="page">Page 107</span></a></li> +<li>He dresses just like I do.</li> +<li>Directly he came we launched the canoes.</li> +<li>This cannot be done except you are a senior.</li> +<li>Neither she nor I was present.</li> +<li>He not only had a trained pig but also a goose.</li> +<li>Mary is not as pretty as Helen.</li> +<li>The men neither interested him nor the places.</li> +<li>He has traveled more than me.</li> +<li>We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has + traveled so much.</li> +<li>It is a good book and which has much valuable information.</li> +<li>It was a rough town and harboring many criminals.</li> +<li>He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for + athletics.</li> +<li>He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 61</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly +used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When, where, than, as—as, so—as, neither—nor, +not only—but also, either—or, except, like, without, +directly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>86. Prepositions.</b> Some mistakes are made in the use of +prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the +appropriate prepositions to be used with each: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +agree <i>with</i> a person differ <i>from</i> (person or thing) +agree <i>to</i> a proposition differ <i>from</i> or <i>with</i> an opinion +bestow <i>upon</i> different <i>from</i> +compare <i>with</i> (to determine value) glad <i>of</i> +compare <i>to</i> (because of similarity) need <i>of</i> +comply <i>with</i> part <i>from</i> (a person) +confide <i>in</i> (to trust in) part <i>with</i> (a thing) +confide <i>to</i> (to intrust to) profit <i>by</i> +confer <i>on</i> (to give) prohibit <i>from</i> +confer <i>with</i> (to talk with) reconcile <i>to</i> (a person) +convenient <i>to</i> (a place) reconcile <i>with</i> (a statement) +convenient <i>for</i> (a purpose) scared <i>by</i> +dependent <i>on</i> think <i>of</i> or <i>about</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_108"><span class="page">Page 108</span></a> Do not +use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following +improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td>continue <i>on</i></td><td><i>down</i> until</td></tr> + <tr><td>covered <i>over</i></td><td>inside <i>of</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>off <i>of</i></td><td>outside <i>of</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>started <i>out</i></td><td>where <i>to</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td>wish <i>for</i> to come</td><td>remember <i>of</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>more than you think <i>for</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness +of the sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He is a dealer and shipper <i>of</i> + coal.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He is a dealer <i>in</i> and shipper + <i>of</i> coal.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 62</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions +listed under the first paragraph of</i> <b>§86</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of +each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph +of</i> <b>§86</b>. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_109"><span class="page">Page 109</span></a> +QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR</h2> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sentences, Parts of Speech, and Sentence Elements.</b> What +are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of +speech? Define each. What is the difference between a clause and +a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and +a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. +An adjective clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective +phrase. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an +object complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference +between simple, complex, and compound sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Nouns.</b> What is the difference between singular and plural +number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending +in <i>s, ch, sh, x</i>, or <i>z</i>? In <i>y</i>? In <i>f</i> or +<i>fe</i>? In <i>o</i>? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound +nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of +most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in <i>s</i> or in an <i>s</i> +sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? What is gender? +How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the +difference between common and proper nouns? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Pronouns.</b> What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a +pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by +"person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the +pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What +pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons +of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? +To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are +they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after +<i>everybody</i>? After <i>some one</i>? After <i>some people</i>? +After two nouns connected by <i>or</i>? By <i>nor</i>? By <i>and</i>? +What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of antecedents +may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory +relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. What is an <a +name="page_110"><span class="page">Page 110</span></a> interrogative +pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? +In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? +The objective? The possessive? May <i>thou</i> and <i>you</i> be +used in the same sentence? When should <i>but that</i> be used, +and when <i>but what</i>? May <i>them</i> be used adjectively? +May <i>which</i> be used with a clause as an antecedent? May +<i>which</i> and <i>that</i>, or <i>who</i> and <i>that</i> be used +in the same sentence with the same antecedent? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Adjectives and Adverbs.</b> Distinguish between adjectives and +adverbs. Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, +the comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, +<i>He is the largest of the two?</i> Reason? <i>He is the larger +of the three?</i> Reason? <i>He is the largest of all?</i> Reason? +Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. May one say, <i>Paris +is larger than any city?</i> Reason? <i>Paris is larger than all +cities?</i> Reason? <i>Paris is the largest of any other city?</i> +Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by <i>every</i>? +By <i>two</i>? By <i>various</i>? By <i>each</i>? With how many +objects may <i>either</i> be used? <i>Neither</i>? Where should +the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant +by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the +definite article? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Verbs.</b> What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? +Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. +With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary +be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the +verbs, <i>go, see, begin, come, drink, write</i>. What is a transitive +verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the +difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or +does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive +voice. Distinguish between the use of <i>sit</i> and <i>set</i>. +Of <i>lay</i> and <i>lie</i>. Of <i>rise</i> and <i>raise</i>. +What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In +what way and where does the subjunctive of <i>be</i> differ from +the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form +of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its +subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? +What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or +plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with <i>don't, +can't</i>, etc.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural +verb after <i>who</i>, <a name="page_111"><span class="page">Page +111</span></a> <i>which</i>, and <i>that</i>? What form of the verb +is used after <i>you</i>? After <i>they</i>? When are <i>shall</i> +and <i>should</i> used with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>? When with other +subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is +used in dependent clauses introduced by <i>that</i>, expressed or +understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of <i>may</i> +and <i>might</i> from <i>can</i> and <i>could</i>. What is a "dangling +participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without +any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the +object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is +used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive +substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb, in +what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect +infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound +predicate agree in tense? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Connectives.</b> By what are independent clauses connected? +Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a <i>when</i> +clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the +sentence? May <i>so, then</i>, or <i>also</i> be used alone as +conjunctive adverbs? May <i>and</i> or <i>but</i> be used to join +a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow +<i>than</i> or <i>as</i>? Should <i>neither</i> be followed by +<i>nor</i> or <i>or</i>? +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_112"><span class="page">Page 112</span></a> +A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR</h2> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 63</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each +sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph +in which is discussed the question involved:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.)</li> +<li>It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.)</li> +<li>He said he should come if he could. (68.)</li> +<li>Can I use your pencil? (69.)</li> +<li>If you were I, what would you do? (68.)</li> +<li>We would like to go. (68.)</li> +<li>Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. + (63-5.)</li> +<li>He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.)</li> +<li>Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.)</li> +<li>This is John's book. (13.)</li> +<li>I feared that they should not come. (68.)</li> +<li>Mother's and father's death. (15-4.)</li> +<li>Mary was eager to have gone. (73.)</li> +<li>The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.)</li> +<li>The members of Congress watch each other. (44.)</li> +<li>I fear that I will take cold. (67.)</li> +<li>Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.)</li> +<li>Neither of the three is well. (43.)</li> +<li>Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.)</li> +<li>He is determined that he shall go away. (67.)</li> +<li>Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.)</li> +<li>Whom did the man say he was? (29.)</li> +<li>His clothes look prettily. (38.) + <a name="page_113"><span class="page">Page 113</span></a></li> +<li>The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.)</li> +<li>Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.)</li> +<li>This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.)</li> +<li>Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.)</li> +<li>I am believed to be him. (29.)</li> +<li>He sings very illy. (40.)</li> +<li>When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep + for them to work. (54.)</li> +<li>She is very discontented. (48.)</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.)</li> +<li>The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.)</li> +<li>Shall my work soon begin? (66.)</li> +<li>He is six foot tall. (42.)</li> +<li>Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.)</li> +<li>Will the dog bite? (66.)</li> +<li>I am believed to be he. (29.)</li> +<li>I am eager to have seen it. (73.)</li> +<li>I think it shall rain soon. (67.)</li> +<li>She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.)</li> +<li>Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.)</li> +<li>Who did the man say he was? (29.)</li> +<li>He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has + been through Oxford University. (83.)</li> +<li>Choose who you please. (29.)</li> +<li>It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.)</li> +<li>The pump was froze fast. (54.)</li> +<li>A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.)</li> +<li>Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.)</li> +<li>It is him. (29.)</li> +<li>He did it hisself. (31.)</li> +<li>He eat all there was on the table. (54.)</li> +<li>He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.)</li> +<li>The murderer was hung at noon. (54.)</li> +<li>It is a queer kind of a book. (47.)</li> +<li>You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.)</li> +<li>Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.)</li> +<li>I think I will find the work easy. (67.)</li> +<li>He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) + <a name="page_114"><span class="page">Page 114</span></a></li> +<li>Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.)</li> +<li>Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.)</li> +<li>Goliath was slew by David. (54.)</li> +<li>Myself and mother are sick. (30.)</li> +<li>John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.)</li> +<li>If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them out. + (21.)</li> +<li>The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.)</li> +<li>John's and William's dog. (15-4.)</li> +<li>Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.)</li> +<li>Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.)</li> +<li>He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper. + (34-6.)</li> +<li>Awake me early in the morning. (57.)</li> +<li>If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.)</li> +<li>Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.)</li> +<li>Washington, the general and the president, was born on February + 22d. (47.)</li> +<li>Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.)</li> +<li>A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.)</li> +<li>I sat my chair by the window. (57.)</li> +<li>I sat myself down to rest. (57.)</li> +<li>I can't hardly see to write. (46.)</li> +<li>John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.)</li> +<li>He laid on the couch all day. (57.)</li> +<li>Death is when one ceases to live. (81.)</li> +<li>I was told to set here. (57.)</li> +<li>Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.)</li> +<li>I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.)</li> +<li>McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.)</li> +<li>It weighs several ton. (42.)</li> +<li>John is not as bright as Henry. (83.)</li> +<li>Germany and France's ships. (15-4.)</li> +<li>John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.)</li> +<li>You had ought to go home. (54.)</li> +<li>This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.)</li> +<li>Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.)</li> +<li>An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) + <a name="page_115"><span class="page">Page 115</span></a></li> +<li>It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.)</li> +<li>The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last + week are the same. (26, 34-5.)</li> +<li>I don't like those kind of people. (42.)</li> +<li>I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.)</li> +<li>Let him lay there. (57.)</li> +<li>My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.)</li> +<li>American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.)</li> +<li>William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.)</li> +<li>The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.)</li> +<li>The price of meat has raised. (57.)</li> +<li>This train runs slow. (38.)</li> +<li>Which is the best of the two? (41-1.)</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.)</li> +<li>Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be + discharged. (85.)</li> +<li>The family is all at home. (62.)</li> +<li>The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.)</li> +<li>This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.)</li> +<li>The knife has laid there all day. (57.)</li> +<li>The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. + (34-9.)</li> +<li>The jury has agreed. (62.)</li> +<li>Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.)</li> +<li>Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.)</li> +<li>The army were defeated. (62.)</li> +<li>If I was you, I should go at once. (60.)</li> +<li>She may go if she wishes or not. (76.)</li> +<li>Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.)</li> +<li>I like her better than you. (76.)</li> +<li>Who do you want? (79.)</li> +<li>Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.)</li> +<li>By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.)</li> +<li>The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.)</li> +<li>When was you there? (64-2.)</li> +<li>He is as tall as me. (83.)</li> +<li>Neither John nor her will come. (29.)</li> +<li>You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) + <a name="page_116"><span class="page">Page 116</span></a></li> +<li>You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.)</li> +<li>I wish you were more like she. (29.)</li> +<li>Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.)</li> +<li>Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.)</li> +<li>He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.)</li> +<li>Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.)</li> +<li>The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.)</li> +<li>The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.)</li> +<li>He has fell from his chair. (57.)</li> +<li>I will raise and go to my father. (57.)</li> +<li>The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.)</li> +<li>They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.)</li> +<li>Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.)</li> +<li>I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.)</li> +<li>He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.)</li> +<li>Neither German or French is taught there. (83.)</li> +<li>We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.)</li> +<li>He awoke at nine. (57.)</li> +<li>I wish I was a bird. (60.)</li> +<li>If it rains, I stay at school. (60.)</li> +<li>Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.)</li> +<li>The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.)</li> +<li>We started out for the city at noon. (86.)</li> +<li>The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.)</li> +<li>Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.)</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_117"><span class="page">Page 117</span></a> +CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">SENTENCES</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>87.</b> Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences +are considered as loose, periodic, and balanced. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Loose Sentence</b> is so constructed that it may be closed +at two or more places and yet make complete sense; as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Napoleon felt his <i>weakness</i>, and tried to win back popular +<i>favor</i> by concession after <i>concession</i>, until, at his +fall, he had nearly restored parliamentary <i>government</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. <i>weakness, +favor</i>, and <i>concession</i>, as well as after <i>government</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>88.</b> The <b>Periodic Sentence</b> holds the complete thought +in suspense until the close of the sentence. Compare the following +periodic sentence with the loose sentence under <b>§87:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor +by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored +parliamentary government. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since +periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the +untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>89.</b> The <b>Balanced Sentence</b> is made up of parts similar +in form, but often contrasted in meaning; as, <i>He is a man; Jones +is a gentleman.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>90. Sentence Length.</b> As to the length of the sentence there is +no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in their +thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if there is +a succession of short sentences, choppiness <a name="page_118"><span +class="page">Page 118</span></a> and roughness are the result. +One should carefully examine sentences which contain more than +thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear in their +meaning and accurate in their construction. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 64</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, +five periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 65</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is +loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the +periodic form:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower +class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because +they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government.</li> + +<li>The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held +office only at his pleasure.</li> + +<li>A society and institutions that had been growing up for years +was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution.</li> + +<li>Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly +to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun.</li> + +<li>He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably.</li> + +<li>Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear.</li> + +<li>He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting +and continuing the ascent on foot.</li> + +<li>They visited the town where their father had lived, and while +there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born.</li> + +<li>His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in +the family.</li> + +<li>There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries +of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy.</li> + +<li><a name="page_119"><span class="page">Page 119</span></a> +Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown merely +as an example.</li> + +<li>Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers +find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder +one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states.</li> + +<li>Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and +woes, after all, worth living?</li> + +<li>He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the +facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment +in his mind.</li> + +<li>His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started +on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would +take longer this time.</li> + +<li>It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon +first became very prominent by defending the convention against +a mob.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 66</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well +constructed long sentence:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford +space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford +it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities +the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate +business.</li> + +<li>History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops +the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. +It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other +study can give it.</li> + +<li>He never desired a higher education. This was possible because +of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no +need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because +of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind.</li> + +<li>New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its +great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw +the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party +New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result.</li> + +<li><a name="page_120"><span class="page">Page 120</span></a> +Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many ways. +However, they permitted many liberties in the application of sermons +to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays be strongly +disapproved or resented.</li> + +<li>Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving +point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from +the future.</li> + +<li>The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. +They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. +They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or +clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and +to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty.</li> + +<li>The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest +of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes +one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers.</li> + +<li>They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This +was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle +was now being transformed into a national museum.</li> + +<li>He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped +slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about +shaking hands right and left.</li> + +<li>They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached +the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang +onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself +by touching the brackets which held the lamps.</li> + +<li>The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the +wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. +At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still +rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere.</li> + +<li>The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. +There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already +scorched by the fire.</li> + +<li>Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get +to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. +The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain +death.</li> + +<li>The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a +long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses +earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than <a +name="page_121"><span class="page">Page 121</span></a> once toward +a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only its +top half shows. The hill is on the east.</li> + +<li>The most important political question has been the tariff question. +This has been most important for ten years. It is important because +it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts.</li> + +<li>The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild +weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem +to flood one's soul with peace and contentment.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>91.</b> The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, +aside from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, +and Euphony. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Unity.</b> Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one +general thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent +and connected manner that the thought is clearly and effectively +presented. Unity demands, also, that closely related thoughts should +not be improperly scattered among several sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should +not be embodied in one sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The house sat well back from the road, + <i>and its owner</i> was a married man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The house sat well back from the road. + <i>Its owner</i> was a married man.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide +into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected +by a conjunction. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Jones lives in the country, <i>he</i> + has a fine library.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Jones lives in the country. <i>He</i> + has a fine library.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Jones lives in the country <i>and + has</i> a fine library.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve +hundred people) that has no school-house. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_122"><span class="page">Page 122</span></a> +2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: That is not an easy problem, <i>I + think</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: That, <i>I think</i>, is not an + easy problem.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>I do not think</i> that is an + easy problem.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He could not be elected mayor again + under any circumstances, <i>at least so I am told</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He could not, <i>I am told</i>, be + elected mayor again under any circumstances.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>I am told</i> that he could not + under any circumstances be elected mayor again.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +b. Avoid long straggling sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the +team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost +all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and +this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the +students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their +interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the +institution. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are +closely and logically connected with one another. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: That it is a good school is not + without proof. Its diploma admits to all colleges.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: That it is a good school is not + without proof, for its diploma admits to all colleges.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: That its diploma admits to all + colleges is proof that it is a good school.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: This fact was true of all of us. + With the exception of John.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: This fact was true of all of us, + with the exception of John.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Edward came. But John never + appeared.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Edward came, but John never + appeared.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The town has two railroads running + through it. Also, three trolley lines. + <a name="page_123"><span class="page">Page 123</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The town has two railroads running + through it, and also three trolley lines.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The town has two railroads and three + trolley lines running through it.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Do not change the point of view. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>We</i> completed our themes, and + <i>they</i> were handed in to the teacher. (In the first part + of the sentence, the subject is <i>we</i>; in the second it is + <i>themes</i>.)</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We completed our themes and handed + them in to the teacher.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Our themes were completed and handed + in to the teacher.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The <i>stage</i> took us to the foot + of the hill, and <i>we</i> walked from there to the top, where + <i>our friends</i> met us.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>We</i> were taken to the foot of + the hill by the stage, and <i>we</i> walked from there to the + top, where <i>we</i> were met by our friends.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 67</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles +of unity:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride + made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards.</li> +<li>Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. + While Smith is thoroughly dishonest.</li> +<li>John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand + why he didn't succeed.</li> +<li>I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school + and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer.</li> +<li>In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they + are radical and progressive.</li> +<li>The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, + and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and + so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a + trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two + months we had ever <a name="page_124"><span class="page">Page + 124</span></a> spent, and gave us an experience that was very valuable + in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall.</li> +<li>The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number + of steel mills.</li> +<li>One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail.</li> +<li>Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade + the customs laws.</li> +<li>My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says.</li> +<li>He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I + am not sure) and then taught for three years.</li> +<li>This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good.</li> +<li>He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all + possible.</li> +<li>Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton + guided its financial policy.</li> +<li>Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps + to write the letters.</li> +<li>The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although + no small amount of trade came from the town.</li> +<li>The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, + would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call + him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing + so, but the dog never lost patience.</li> +<li>He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully + many) who never do what they promise.</li> +<li>He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, + to sleep, and his books were found there the next day.</li> +<li>He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended + for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies + in English.</li> +<li>I can't go, I don't think.</li> +<li>He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made + a great football player.</li> +<li>He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear.</li> +<li>The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not + care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of + the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place.</li> +<li><a name="page_125"><span class="page">Page 125</span></a> +He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, hence + he is an agreeable companion.</li> +<li>He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old.</li> +<li>There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years + of age.</li> +<li>He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters + are concerned.</li> +<li>I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I + was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most + of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a + great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone + over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed + to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry.</li> +<li>He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little + without making him angry.</li> +<li>There are a great number of stations along this short line of + railroad, these, however, do little business.</li> +<li>They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was + discovered that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton + lay south of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north.</li> +<li>He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be.</li> +<li>That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to + spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over + the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so + many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions + to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed.</li> +<li>He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all.</li> +<li>Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam + in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give + us a room and board.</li> +<li>He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think + it over.</li> +<li>He is the most peculiar person I ever met—in the last + few years at least.</li> +<li>I am reading a book, it is very interesting.</li> +<li>They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which + he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps.</li> +<li><a name="page_126"><span class="page">Page 126</span></a> +He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to get a + vast amount of information out of it.</li> +<li>It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When + he was in school.</li> +<li>The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his + performances.</li> +<li>Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and + his father was dead.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>92. Coherence.</b> Coherence in the sentence demands that the +arrangement and the construction of the sentence be clear and free +from ambiguity. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly + troubled with the mange.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly + troubled <i>because they had</i> the mange.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was greatly troubled because + several of <i>his dogs had</i> the mange.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front + <i>foot which</i> has since died.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The <i>dog, which</i> has since + died, was bitten on the front foot.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The dog was bitten on the front + foot and has since died.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word +which it modifies. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading + a <i>book made</i> in the mission style.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was sitting in a <i>chair + made</i> in the mission style and was reading a + book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was sitting reading a book in + a chair made in the mission style.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his + <i>father, containing</i> over fifteen hundred pieces. + <a name="page_127"><span class="page">Page 127</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The <i>table, containing</i> over + fifteen hundred pieces, had been inlaid by his + father.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The table contained over fifteen + hundred pieces and had been inlaid by his father.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the +placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it +refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It would be hard to explain, <i>if + you were to ask me</i>, what the trouble was.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: If you were to ask me what the + trouble was, it would be hard to explain.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their +office. <i>Neither—nor, both—and</i>, etc., are frequently +not placed next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See +<b>§84</b>. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>neither</i> brought a trunk + <i>nor</i> a suit-case.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He brought <i>neither</i> a trunk + <i>nor</i> a suit-case.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>not only</i> received money + from his father, <i>but also</i> his mother.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He received money <i>not only</i> + from his father, <i>but also</i> from his mother.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>not only</i> received money + from his father, <i>but also</i> received it from his + mother.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The man <i>never has</i>, and + <i>never will</i> be successful.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The man <i>never has been</i>, + and <i>never will be</i> successful.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It <i>is no</i> concern to + him.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It <i>is of no</i> concern to + him.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_128"><span class="page">Page 128</span></a> +6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a long +complex sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and +Populists—<i>all</i> were there. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, +in a similar manner. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: I decided <i>on doing</i> the work + that night, and <i>to write</i> it out on the typewriter.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: I decided <i>to do</i> the work + that night and <i>to write</i> it out on the typewriter.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>Textbooks are going</i> out of + use in the modern law schools, but some schools still use + them.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>Textbooks are going</i> out of + use in the modern law schools, but in some <i>they</i> are + still used.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Though <i>textbooks are going</i> + out of use in modern law schools, <i>they are still used</i> + in some of them.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>One</i> should never try to avoid + work in school, for <i>you</i> always increase your trouble by + doing so.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>One</i> should never try to avoid + work in school, for <i>one</i> always increases his trouble by + doing so.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>One</i> usually only increases + <i>his</i> troubles by trying to avoid work in school.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 68</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the +following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state.</li> +<li>The statute requires that one study three years, and that you + pass an examination.</li> +<li>He is home.</li> +<li>Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, + were in the assemblage.</li> +<li>He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in + salary.</li> +<li><a name="page_129"><span class="page">Page 129</span></a> +Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call.</li> +<li>When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside +my paper.</li> +<li>I only knew John.</li> +<li>The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load.</li> +<li>John told his father that his coat was too tight for him.</li> +<li>I not only knew the president but also the whole board of + directors.</li> +<li>The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire.</li> +<li>Mrs. Smith wants washing.</li> +<li>A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away + from home as a result of a druggist's mistake.</li> +<li>He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman.</li> +<li>A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear.</li> +<li>In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making + the result unreliable.</li> +<li>It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature.</li> +<li>The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was + that he used the wrong book.</li> +<li>John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was + not entirely to blame for it.</li> +<li>They said they saw them coming before they saw them.</li> +<li>The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up.</li> +<li>You made the same mistake that you now make last week.</li> +<li>Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the + professor.</li> +<li>It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected.</li> +<li>They are required to report both on their way to work and coming + home.</li> +<li>Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of + composition was taken up.</li> +<li>Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night.</li> +<li>We tried to study, but didn't do any.</li> +<li>I do not care either to see you or Henry.</li> +<li>He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the + farm.</li> +<li>Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly.</li> +<li><a name="page_130"><span class="page">Page 130</span></a> + One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, in this + way limiting what can be done.</li> +<li>The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did.</li> +<li>Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses + are forbidden to trot over them.</li> +<li>John told Henry that he thought he needed help.</li> +<li>He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead.</li> +<li>Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there + than here.</li> +<li>Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages.</li> +<li>After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it + back to the printer.</li> +<li>The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them.</li> +<li>They knew all that was to be learned, including John.</li> +<li>We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara + Falls and Canada.</li> +<li>Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet.</li> +<li>Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started + to school.</li> +<li>He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed.</li> +<li>He built a house for his wife with seven windows.</li> +<li>He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his + business card.</li> +<li>I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front + door step.</li> +<li>Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful + manner.</li> +<li>Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty.</li> +<li>He neither told John nor his father.</li> +<li>Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called.</li> +<li>He bought a horse when ten years old.</li> +<li>The child the parent often rebuked.</li> +<li>Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched.</li> +<li>Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us.</li> +<li>Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually.</li> +<li>I knew him as a physician when a boy.</li> +<li><a name="page_131"><span class="page">Page 131</span></a> +He came leading his dog on a bicycle.</li> +<li>When wanted he sent me a letter.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>93. Emphasis.</b> Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged +that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the +minor details subordinated. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He was a student who did nothing right + <i>as a rule</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He was a student, who, <i>as a + rule</i>, did nothing right.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in +emphasis. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick + tree not far back of our camp.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Changed: From a thick tree not far back of + our camp a lonely owl shrieked.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce +a climax; i. e., have the most important come last. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Human beings, dogs, cats, horses, all + living things were destroyed.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Cats, dogs, horses, human beings, all + living things were destroyed.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He is universally praised by all + people.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He is universally praised.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The darkness was absolutely + impenetrable, and not a thing could be seen.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The darkness was absolutely + impenetrable.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets + that a slight indisposition in health precludes his granting + himself the pleasure of accepting your invitation to come to + your house to dine.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets + that sickness prevents his accepting your invitation to + dine.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_132"><span class="page">Page 132</span></a> +Exercise 69</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the +principles of emphasis:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Children, women, and men were slain without pity.</li> +<li>I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can.</li> +<li>Most of the students have done good work, although some have + not.</li> +<li>Will you please start up the machine.</li> +<li>Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it + would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom.</li> +<li>A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, + was killed by being run over.</li> +<li>As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since.</li> +<li>All his friends were collected together.</li> +<li>The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except + occasionally.</li> +<li>Few were superior to him as a sculptor.</li> +<li>Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even + hack lines were affected by the change.</li> +<li>Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always.</li> +<li>That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls + upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is known + by the appellation of Maxon Mountain.</li> +<li>The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, + without stopping at all.</li> +<li>He tried to do right so far as we know.</li> +<li>That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>94. Euphony.</b> Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing +sound. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: He <i>commanded</i> his son to obey his <i>commands</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_133"><span class="page">Page 133</span></a> +2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: They went for a <i>walk</i> in order to <i>talk</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 70</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In the problems, he solved one once.</li> +<li>Most of the time he does the most he can.</li> +<li>She worries about what to wear wherever she goes.</li> +<li>It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can + be capable of such work.</li> +<li>Those are our books.</li> +<li>Every time there was a chance for error, error was made.</li> +<li>It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger + than fiction."</li> +<li>The well must have been well made, else it would not have served + so well.</li> +<li>Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium.</li> +<li>He acted very sillily.</li> +<li>He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise.</li> +<li>In his letters there is something fine in every line.</li> +<li>They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 71. A General Exercise on Sentences</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence +is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set +forth:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.)</li> +<li>In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen + in the evenings. (93-1.) + <a name="page_134"><span class="page">Page 134</span></a></li> +<li>There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and it + tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.)</li> +<li>The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.)</li> +<li>Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. + (92-6.)</li> +<li>I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.)</li> +<li>He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.)</li> +<li>He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.)</li> +<li>Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried + to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.)</li> +<li>One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you + fail to exercise. (93-1.)</li> +<li>The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.)</li> +<li>She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing + that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.)</li> +<li>The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. + (92-7.)</li> +<li>People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the + rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.)</li> +<li>There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. + (91-3-a.)</li> +<li>She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. + (92-2.)</li> +<li>By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started + on a career of crime again. (93-1.)</li> +<li>Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.)</li> +<li>No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.)</li> +<li>If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you + will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.)</li> +<li>He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.)</li> +<li>The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not + elevating. (92-3-b.)</li> +<li>John the lion killed. (92-3-b.)</li> +<li>He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.)</li> +<li>Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties + for more than five years. (91-1-a.) + <a name="page_135"><span class="page">Page 135</span></a></li> +<li>Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. + (92-3-a.)</li> +<li>We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not + get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.)</li> +<li>He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. + (92-2).</li> +<li>I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, + we had supper. (91-4.)</li> +<li>Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped + without a scratch. (91-3.)</li> +<li>Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one + his faults. (92-2.)</li> +<li>Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. +(93-1.)</li> +<li>May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. +(92-4.)</li> +<li>Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. +(91-1.)</li> +<li>He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.)</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_136"><span class="page">Page 136</span></a> +CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Rules for Capitalization +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>95.</b> Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from +proper nouns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>96.</b> Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. +Capitalize, also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank +even when used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when +used separately. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, +Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley +Cross Roads. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>97.</b> Capitalize the important words in titles of books. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery +of America. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>98.</b> Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every +line of poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He said, "Is it I whom you seek?" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>99.</b> Capitalize the words, <i>mother, father</i>, etc., when +used with proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive +pronoun to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common +nouns in phrases used as proper nouns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle +writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_137"><span class="page">Page 137</span></a> <b>100.</b> +Capitalize the names, <i>North, South, East</i>, and <i>West</i>, +when referring to parts of the country; words used to name the +Deity; the words, <i>Bible</i> and <i>Scriptures</i>; and the words +<i>I</i> and <i>O</i>, but not <i>oh</i> unless it is at the beginning +of a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 72</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the +last.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Rules for Punctuation +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>101.</b> Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but +simply to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation +is needed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Period</i> (<b>.</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>102.</b> Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that +is not interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; +and (3) after <i>Yes</i> and <i>No</i> when used alone. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Interrogation Point</i> (<b>?</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>103.</b> Use the interrogation point after every direct question. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Exclamation Point</i> (<b>!</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>104.</b> Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence +or expression. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Alas! It is too late. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Fire if you dare! +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Comma</i> (<b>,</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>105.</b> Use the comma after each word of a series of words +that all have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the <a +name="page_138"><span class="page">Page 138</span></a> sentence, +unless conjunctions are used between all of those words. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Ours is a red, white, and blue flag. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He talked, smoked, and read. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He talked and smoked and read. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not, however, precede the series by a comma. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>106.</b> Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying +the same noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective +and the noun. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An honest, upright man. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An old colored man. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A soiled red dress. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>107.</b> Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words +or phrases, and participial phrases. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +John, come here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By the way, did you see Mary? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After having done this, Cæsar crossed the Rubicon. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>108.</b> Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see +<b>§29</b>, Note 1), or a geographical name that limits a +preceding name. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>109.</b> Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is +placed out of its natural order. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If it is possible, he will do it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To most people, this will seem absurd. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_139"><span class="page">Page 139</span></a> <b>110.</b> +Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that are +thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use the +dash or parenthesis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without +permission from the police. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He, himself, said it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>111.</b> Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive +clauses, but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See <b>§§ +25</b> and <b>26</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>112.</b> Use the comma to separate coördinate clauses that +are united by a simple conjunction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>113.</b> Use the comma to separate the members of a compound +sentence when those members are short and closely connected in +their thought. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>114.</b> Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional +clauses introduced by such words as <i>if, when, though,</i> unless +the connection be close. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He did not stop, though I called repeatedly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake +in the work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But: You are wrong when you say that. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>115.</b> Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, +unless such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the +sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_140"><span class="page">Page 140</span></a> <b>116.</b> +Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such as, +<i>however, then, also, for example, so to speak,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Such a man, however, can seldom be found. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>117.</b> Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any +distinct pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by +punctuation, or whenever something clearly is omitted. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We want students, not boys who simply come to school. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ... +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Semicolon</i> (<b>;</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>118.</b> Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound +sentence that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably +return to college. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>119.</b> Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound +sentence that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable +to indicate a very definite pause. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the +reason for it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>120.</b> Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound +or a complex sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated +by commas. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we +cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, +and for his family he has not a cent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; +and for his family he has not a cent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_141"><span class="page">Page 141</span></a> <b>121.</b> +Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, when +they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; +such as, <i>accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +John is sick; however, I think he will be here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>122.</b> Use the semicolon before the expressions, <i>namely, as, +that is</i>, etc., or before their abbreviations, <i>viz., i.e.,</i> +etc., when they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, +simple in form, which are in apposition with a general term. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the +Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Colon</i> (<b>:</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>123.</b> Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal +quotation, before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence +that constitutes an introduction to something that follows. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised +to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing +it to you to-day." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, +consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>124.</b> Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. +(See <b>§161</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Dash</i> (<b>—</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>125.</b> Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought +or construction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am pleased to meet you, Captain—what did you say your name +is? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The man I met—I refer to Captain Jones—was in the naval +service. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_142"><span class="page">Page 142</span></a> <b>126.</b> +Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely +some part of a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I was always lacking what I needed most—money. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>127.</b> Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which +sums up the preceding part of a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and +Populists,—<i>all</i> were there. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>128.</b> Do not use dashes where not required or in place of +some other mark of punctuation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Parenthesis Marks</i> <b>( )</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>129.</b> Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement +that is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent +of it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>130.</b> Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the +parenthesis marks unless it would be required even if there were +no parenthesis. When other punctuation is used it should follow +the parenthesis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been +very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Bracket</i> <b>[ ]</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>131.</b> Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of +the writer that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation +or otherwise. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] +to deliver the address..." +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_143"><span class="page">Page 143</span></a> +<i>The Quotation Marks</i> <b>(" ")</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>132.</b> Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact +language of another. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>133.</b> Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation +within a quotation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words +than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to +do his duty.'" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>134.</b> If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation +marks should precede each paragraph and follow the last. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>135.</b> Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate +sentence of a single continuous quotation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>136.</b> Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, +titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary +invention. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>137.</b> Examine the location of quotation marks and other +punctuation in the following sentences: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: "You may do as you wish, he said, + if you only wish to do right."</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: "You may do as you wish," he said, + "if you only wish to do right."</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: "Can you come," she asked?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: "Can you come?" she asked.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Apostrophe</i> (<b>'</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>138.</b> Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. +See <b>§§ 13</b> and <b>15</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter? +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_144"><span class="page">Page 144</span></a> +<i>The Hyphen</i> (<b>-</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>139.</b> Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end +of a line. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, <i>though, +through, also, besides, over</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always +put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning +of the second. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong division: <i>int-end, prop-ose, + superint-endent, expre-ssion</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Proper division: <i>in-tend, pro-pose, + superin-tendent, expres-sion</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like <i>expression</i> +by placing <i>ex</i> on one line and the rest of the word on the +next line. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>140.</b> Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No +rule can be given by which to determine when compounded words demand +the hyphen. Only custom determines. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Always use a hyphen with <i>to-day, to-morrow</i>, and <i>to-night</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 73</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions +as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see</i> +<b>§§ 143</b> <i>and</i> <b>144:</b> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>however father had told us not to expect good accommodations + because it is a very small town</li> +<li>tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh</li> +<li>will that be satisfactory was his question</li> +<li>it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not</li> +<li>whats the matter with you john + <a name="page_145"><span class="page">Page 145</span></a></li> +<li>john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the + knell of parting day</li> +<li>and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to + new york city</li> +<li>he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian + church</li> +<li>the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general + of great military training</li> +<li>buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion + was represented</li> +<li>his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so</li> +<li>you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven + and nine</li> +<li>four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore + and taft</li> +<li>the verse to which you refer is as follows +<p class="bquote;"> +the boast of heraldry the pomp of power<br /> +all that beauty all that wealth eer gave<br /> +await alike the inevitable hour<br /> +the paths of glory lead but to the grave +<li>a noun is the name of something as william france book cat +<li>the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at + seven at latest</li> +<li>the different points discussed are these first the history + of the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and + third the result of the theory</li> +<li>in the first problem divide in the second multiply</li> +<li>if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible + use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period</li> +<li>william if you gear me answer</li> +<li>he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she + understood</li> +<li>as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat + failure</li> +<li>that may be true but i still doubt it</li> +<li>separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close</li> +<li>even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved + <a name="page_146"><span class="page">Page 146</span></a></li> +<li>mary said yes but helen said no</li> +<li>he is called the peerless leader</li> +<li>such a man for example was lincoln</li> +<li>if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it</li> +<li>that too is a mistake</li> +<li>that is wool not cotton as you seem to think</li> +<li>the english are stolid the french lively</li> +<li>in that case let us have war</li> +<li>such an opinion i may say is absurd</li> +<li>alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late</li> +<li>the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large + lot</li> +<li>he means the house that has green shutters</li> +<li>those are all good books but none of them will do</li> +<li>dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray + henry esmond</li> +<li>he is a good student and also a great athlete</li> +<li>he gave me a red silk handkerchief</li> +<li>having assigned the lesson he left the room</li> +<li>royers address is danville illinois</li> +<li>you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three</li> +<li>i had classes under the president dr harris</li> +<li>moreover naxon the cashier has fled</li> +<li>oh that is what you mean is it</li> +<li>for this you will need a piece of clean white paper</li> +<li>the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god</li> +<li>the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river</li> +<li>theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history</li> +<li>the north quickly recovered from the civil war</li> +<li>he told mother to write to my uncle about it</li> +<li>he said then why are you here</li> +<li>in that army old young and middle aged men served for their + country could no longer raise a picked army</li> +<li>he was told to ask the principal professor morton</li> +<li>in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man</li> +<li>a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story +needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to +his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable +that day <a name="page_147"><span class="page">Page 147</span></a> +i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis request +but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning to +the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the very +best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word demanded +mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out but at +this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is the donkey +braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you would +rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends no longer +and under no circumstances can i lend you anything.</li> +<li>a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of +an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality +who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you +live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another +shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak +german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father +and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well +said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and +can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span> Further +exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without the marks +of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards inserting +the proper marks. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_148"><span class="page">Page 148</span></a> +CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE PARAGRAPH</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>141.</b> The <b>Paragraph</b> is a connected series of sentences +all dealing with the development of a single topic. Where the general +subject under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute +the whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of +subtopics, each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. +For each one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be +made. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend +the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way +the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye +of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change +of topic at each new paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>142. Paragraph Length.</b> There is no fixed rule governing the +proper length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need +be more than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition +is not more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will +not often need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, +paragraphing should be more frequent than in other compositions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too +frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, +it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>143.</b> Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be +set off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. +This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose—to +aid in gaining clearness. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_149"><span class="page">Page 149</span></a> <b>144. +Paragraphing of Speech.</b> In a narrative, each direct quotation, +together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should +constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed +in writing a conversation. Examine the following: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which +Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house +of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. +During the meal the hostess asked: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?" +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs." +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Then have some more," said the woman. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the +remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence +after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the +example just given. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>145. Indentation of the Paragraph.</b> The first sentence of each +new paragraph should be indented. See example under <b>§144</b>. +No other sentence should be so indented. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>146.</b> The essential qualities which each paragraph should +have are: Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Unity.</b> Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with +only one subject, and should include nothing which does not have a +direct bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, +the italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, +very obviously it belongs to some other paragraph: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm +than the Irish. <i>St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to +have banished the snakes from the island</i>. So enthusiastic were +the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, +the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, +and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and +monasteries.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_150"><span class="page">Page 150</span></a> Separate +paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs together. If +the ideas can all be fairly included under one general topic, unity +demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, in describing the +route followed in a certain journey, one should not use a separate +paragraph for each step in the journey. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Wrong: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running +from Cleveland to Detroit. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train +the next morning. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought +out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must +be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point +of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and +manner of expression. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>147. How to Gain Unity.</b> Careful thought before beginning +the paragraph is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of +the paragraph should be determined, and should be clearly indicated +by a topic sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed +near the beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the +clearest and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a +formal statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any +sentence that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. +It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific +instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by +illustration; or by showing cause or effect. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>148.</b> Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the +quality of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<a name="page_151"><span class="page">Page 151</span></a> <i>To rule +was not enough for Bonaparte.</i> He wanted to amaze, to dazzle, +to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, and +unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not have +satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted to +reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his +name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and +make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; +but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should +strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an +earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should +awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency +inspires. +</p> + +<p style="font-size: smaller; text-align: right;"> +From <i>The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte</i>, by Channing. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>There is something in the very season of the year that gives a +charm to the festivity of Christmas.</i> At other times we derive +a great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. +Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny +landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, +the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the +soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with +its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious +blue and its cloudy magnificence—all fill us with mute but +exquisite delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. +But in the depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every +charm, and wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our +gratifications to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of +the landscape, the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they +circumscribe our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling +abroad, and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the +social circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly +sympathies more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each +other's society, and are brought more closely together by dependence +on each other for enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw +our pleasures from the deep wells of living kindness which lie in +the quiet recesses of our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, +furnish forth the pure element of domestic felicity. +</p> + +<p style="font-size: smaller; text-align: right;"> +From <i>Christmas</i>, by Washington Irving. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>149. Coherence.</b> Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be +perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be <a name="page_152"><span +class="page">Page 152</span></a> so constructed that it may be +readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence to sentence, +of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The whole fabric of +the paragraph must be woven together—it must not consist +of disconnected pieces. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>150. How to Gain Coherence.</b> Where vividness or some other +quality does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually +gained by the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to +keep in mind the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show +the bearing of the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may +be of various sorts; as, <i>it, this view, however, in this way</i>, +etc. Sometimes the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the +paragraph, or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the +end of the paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized +words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow +of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind +the paragraph topic. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the <i>two books</i> +you have named. The <i>first</i> is interesting and easy to read. +<i>It</i> is, <i>also</i>, by no means lacking in the value of +the information it presents. <i>But the second</i>, while it is +no less interesting and equally valuable in its contents, seems +to me far more logical and scholarly in its construction. <i>In +addition to this</i> I think you will find it cheaper in price, by +reason of its not being so profusely illustrated. <i>Therefore</i>, +I should advise you to procure the <i>second</i> for your study. +<i>Either, indeed</i>, will do, but since you have a choice, take +the better one. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in +vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily +prevail by an example. <i>So</i> he called his sons and bade them +lay a bundle of sticks before him. <i>Then having tied them</i> +up into a fagot, he told <i>the lads</i>, one after another, to +take it up and break it. <i>They all tried</i>, but tried in vain. +<i>Then</i>, untying <i>the fagot</i>, he gave <i>them</i> the +sticks to break one by one. <i>This</i> they did with the greatest +ease. <i>Then</i> said the father: "<i>Thus</i>, my sons, as long +as you remain united, <a name="page_153"><span class="page">Page +153</span></a> you are a match for all your enemies; but differ +and separate, and you are undone." <i>Æsop's Fables</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine also the selections under <b>§§ 205</b> and +<b>206</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>151. Emphasis.</b> The third quality which a paragraph should +possess is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as +to bring into prominence the topic or the point it is intended +to present. The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the +beginning and at the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs +sufficient emphasis is generally gained by having a topic sentence +at the beginning. In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate +again the topic at the end by way of summary in order to impress +thoroughly on the reader the effect of the paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 74</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction +are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises will +readily suggest themselves to teacher or student.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>These topics are intended to apply only to isolated +paragraphs—"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more +latitude in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief +that more than one paragraph is unnecessary.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Write paragraphs: +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, + and giving your reasons for the refusal.</li> +<li>Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general + appearance and then the details.</li> +<li>Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie.</li> +<li>Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play.</li> +<li>Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance.</li> +<li>To prove that the world is round.</li> +<li>To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.)</li> +<li>Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city life + than in country life. + <a name="page_153"><span class="page">Page 153</span></a></li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +Write paragraphs on the following subjects:</p> + +<ol style="counter-reset: item 9;"> +<li>My Earliest Recollection.</li> +<li>The Sort of Books I Like Best.</li> +<li>Why I Like to Study X Branch.</li> +<li>My Opinion of My Relatives.</li> +<li>The Man I Room With.</li> +<li>Why I Was Late to Class.</li> +<li>What I Do on Sundays.</li> +<li>How to Prevent Taking Cold.</li> +<li>How to Cure a Cold.</li> +<li>My Best Teacher.</li> +<li>My Favorite Town.</li> +<li>Why I Go Fishing.</li> +<li>My Favorite Month.</li> +<li>What Becomes of My Matches.</li> +<li>Baseball is a Better Game than Football.</li> +<li>The View from X Building.</li> +<li>Why I Go to School.</li> +<li>My Opinion of Rainy Days.</li> +<li>My Most Useful Friend.</li> +<li>Why I Dislike Surprise Parties.</li> +<li>Why I Like to Visit at X's.</li> +<li>The Police Service of X Town.</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_155"><span class="page">Page 155</span></a> +CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">LETTER-WRITING</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note to +Teacher.</span>—For the purpose of training in composition, +in the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the +most feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand +any gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much +latitude for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, +letter-writing is the field in which almost all written composition +will be done after leaving school; and so all training in school +will be thoroughly useful. For this reason, it is suggested that +letter-writing be made one of the chief fields for composition +work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. +Others will readily occur to the teacher. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Heading +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>152. Position of Heading.</b> In all business letters the writer's +address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be +placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an +inch from the top. This address and date is called the <b>heading</b>. +In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed +at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below +the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at +the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never +write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end of +the letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>153. Order of Heading.</b> The parts of the heading should be +sufficient to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should +be in the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or +the city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on +one line, two or even three lines should be <a name="page_156"><span +class="page">Page 156</span></a> used; but, in no case, should the +above order be varied. Examples: +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910.</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 8em;">March 31, 1910.</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>210 Semple Street,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Red Oaks, Iowa,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">March 31, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first +line and the date on the second. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 8em;">The Hotel Lafayette.</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 8em;">January 19, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>154. Punctuation of Heading.</b> Place a period after each +abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place commas after +the street address, after the town address, after the state address, +and after the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the +number of the year. Examine the correct address under <b>§153</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>155. Faults to be Avoided in Headings.</b> Avoid the use of +abbreviations in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent +use in the business letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: <i>St.</i> for <i>Street; +Ave.</i> for <i>Avenue; Apart.</i> for <i>Apartments; Chi.</i> for +<i>Chicago; Phila.</i> for <i>Philadelphia</i>. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong: Hardie Apart., Pbg., + Pa.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right: Hardie Apartments, + Pittsburg, Pa.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use the sign # before the street number. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_157"><span class="page">Page 157</span></a> Do not +omit the word <i>Street</i>. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong: 229 Market.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right: 229 Market Street.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not write the date thus: <i>9/10/10</i>. Represent the numbers +by figures, not words. See <b>§§ 75</b> and <b>76</b>. +Do not use <i>st., rd.,</i> etc., after the number of the day. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>9/8/09.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>September 8, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>September the Ninth, Nineteen Hundred and Nine.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>September 9, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>March 10th, 1910.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>March 10, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Inside Address +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>156. Position of Inside Address.</b> In strictly commercial +letters the name and the address of the person to whom the letter +is being sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should +begin flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a +little below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside +address should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters +under <b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, +the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the +letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters +the inside address may be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>157. Punctuation of Inside Address.</b> In punctuating the inside +address, place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In +addition to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, +a comma after the street address, if one be given, and after the +name of the town or city. Place a period after the name of the +state or country. Examine the correct inside address under +<b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_158"><span class="page">Page 158</span></a> <b>158. +Faults to be Avoided in the Inside Address.</b> Do not omit the +town, city, or state address from the inside address. +</p> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Mr. E. P. Griffith,</td></tr> +<tr><td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. E. P. Griffith.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muskogee, Oklahoma.</td></tr> +<tr><td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="4" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. E. P. Griffith.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">221 Fiji Avenue,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Muskogee, Oklahoma.</td></tr> +<tr><td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not omit proper titles. +</p> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>R. R. Stolz,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muncy, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. R. R. Stolz,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muncy, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title <i>Mr.</i>, +before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute +a partnership or trading name. +</p> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Jones & Smith, (<i>firm name</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">New York City.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (<i>not a firm name</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">New York City.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except <i>Mr., +Mrs., Messrs.</i>, and <i>Dr.</i> Abbreviations of titles placed +after the name, such as, <i>Esq., D.D., A.M.</i>, etc., are proper. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use <i>Mr.</i> and <i>Esq.</i> with the same name. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_159"><span class="page">Page 159</span></a> Avoid +all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a very long +name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but it is better +form to write the name in full. <i>United States of America</i> +may be abbreviated to <i>U. S. A.</i> +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Merch. Mfg. Co.,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">N. Y. C.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>The Merchants' Manufacturing Company.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">New York City.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Mr. William Shipp,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Bangor, Me.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. William Shipp,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Bangor, Maine.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not place a period after the title <i>Miss. Miss</i> is not an +abbreviation. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Salutation +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>159. Position of Salutation.</b> The salutation should begin +flush with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. +See correctly written letters under <b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>160. Form of Salutation.</b> The salutation varies with the form +of the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of the +letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business acquaintances +the most common salutations for individuals are, <i>Dear Sir, Dear +Madam</i>, or <i>My dear Sir, My dear Madam</i>. For a group of +persons, or for a company or a partnership, <i>Gentlemen, Dear +Sirs, Dear Madams</i> or <i>Mesdames</i> are used. In less formal +business letters such salutations as, <i>My dear Mr. Smith</i>, or +<i>Dear Miss Jaekel</i> may be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_160"><span class="page">Page 160</span></a> In the +case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and formal +letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of taste. +The following are illustrations of proper salutations for friendly +letters: <i>My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, Dear +Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, Dear +Friend,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is considered more formal to prefix <i>My</i> to the salutation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is over formal to use simply <i>Sir</i> or <i>Madam</i> in any +letter, or to use <i>Dear Sir</i> or <i>Dear Madam</i> when writing +to a familiar friend. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as <i>Dear Brown, +Dear John,</i> etc., it is better to put the inside address at the +close of the letter, or to omit it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>161. Punctuation of Salutation.</b> Punctuate the salutation +with a colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>162. Faults to be Avoided in the Salutation.</b> Use no abbreviations +except <i>Dr., Mr., Mrs.</i> Do not use the abbreviation <i>Dr.</i>, +when that title is used as a final word in a salutation. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My dear Maj. Wren:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My dear Major Wren:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My dear Dr.:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My dear Doctor:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use a name alone as a salutation. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Mr. W. W. Braker:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Will you please inform ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td rowspan="4" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. W. W. Braker,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muncy, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Will you please inform ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_161"><span class="page">Page 161</span></a> In the +salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first word +of the salutation. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My Dear Sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My very Dear Friend:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My very dear Friend:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Dear sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Body of the Letter +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>163. The Subject Matter of the Letter.</b> In friendly letters +much latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business +letters should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should +be lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>164. Form of Body.</b> The body of the letter usually begins +on the line below the salutation and is indented the same distance +from the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model +letters under <b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently +than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the +subject of a separate paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>165. Faults in Body of the Letter.</b> In letters that are intended +to be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, +and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically +incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should +the "telegraph style" be adopted. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no + chance to look up man. Will do so soon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: I have received your letter of the + tenth. I have had no chance as yet to look up the man, but I will + do so soon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. + Tele.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Address in care of John Smith, + Manager of the Pennsylvania Telegraph.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: In reply will say ... + <a name="page_162"><span class="page">Page 162</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: In reply I wish to say ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Your letter of the 10th is at + hand.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Your favor received ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We have received your letter ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Enclose P. O. money order for + $2.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We enclose post office money order + for two dollars, ($2).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: We have read your plan. Same is + satisfactory.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We have read your plan, and it is + satisfactory.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun <i>I</i> +in the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution +to extremes. <i>I</i>, however, should not be omitted when necessary +to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use +by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different +form of sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is no objection to beginning a letter with <i>I</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection +to the use of colloquial expressions such as <i>can't, don't,</i> +etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use +of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out +and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones +are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate +and unnecessary. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Your esteemed favor is at hand.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">In reply permit me to say ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We beg leave to advise ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We beg to suggest ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Thanking you for the favor, we are ... + <a name="page_163"><span class="page">Page 163</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Please find enclosed ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">In answer to your favor of the tenth + ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We take pleasure in informing you + ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">In reply would say ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We beg to acknowledge receipt of your + favor ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Awaiting your further orders, we are + ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Close +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>166. Final Words.</b> Business letters frequently close with +some final words, such as, <i>Thanking you again for your kind +assistance, I am ..., A waiting your further orders, we are</i> +..., etc. These expressions are not wrong, but are often used when +not at all necessary. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>167. The Complimentary Close.</b> The complimentary close should +be written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and +should begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only +guide to the choice of a complimentary close. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">Yours respectfully,</td> + <td>Yours very truly,</td></tr> + <tr><td>Yours truly,</td><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">Yours sincerely,</td> + <td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td>Yours very truly,</td><td>Your loving son,</td></tr> + <tr><td>Yours cordially,</td><td>Affectionately yours,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>168. Faults in the Close.</b> Do not use abbreviations, such +as, <i>Yrs. respy., yrs. try.,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>169. The Signature of the Writer.</b> The letter should be so +signed as to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a +reply. The signature should show whether the <a name="page_164"><span +class="page">Page 164</span></a> writer is a man or a woman; and, +if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed as +<i>Miss</i> or <i>Mrs.</i> In formal letters it is customary for +a woman to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name +in the following manner: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Sincerely yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 5em;">Caroline Jones.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">(Mrs. William Jones).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Very truly yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 5em;">(Miss) Matilda Stephens.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and +after it the name of the writer. Example: +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">D. Appleton & Company,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 5em;">per J. W. Miller.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Miscellaneous Directions +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>170.</b> In beginning the letter, place the address and date +an inch and a half or two inches below the top of the page. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of +the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch +or more beyond the margin. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, +2, 3, 4. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the correctly written forms of letters under <b>§174</b> +observe the indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside +address should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set +in. The salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body +of the letter should begin on the line below the salutation, and +some distance in from the margin. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Outside Address +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>171. Position of Outside Address.</b> Place the address on the +envelope so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the +top, too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed +envelope under <b>§173</b>. Place the <a name="page_165"><span +class="page">Page 165</span></a> stamp squarely in the upper right-hand +corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>172. Punctuation of Outside Address.</b> Punctuation may be +omitted at the end of the lines of the address. If it is used, +place a period at the end of the last line, and a comma after each +preceding line. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If an abbreviation ends the line, always place a period after it, +whether the other lines are punctuated or not. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>173. Faults in the Outside Address.</b> Avoid the use of +abbreviations except those that would be proper in the inside address +or in the heading. See <b>§§ 155</b> and <b>158</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. No +letters or sign at all should be used there. See <b>§155</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Compare the following forms of addresses: +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td rowspan="3">Bad:</td> + <td>Col. Wm. Point,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">#200 John St.,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Trenton, N. J.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="4">Good:</td> + <td>Colonel William Point,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">200 John Street,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Trenton,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 6em;">New Jersey.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="3">Good:</td> + <td>Colonel William Point</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">200 John Street</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Trenton, New Jersey</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="3">Bad:</td> + <td>Chas. Jones,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">c/o Edward Furrey,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Wilkinsburg, Pa.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="4">Good:</td> + <td>Mr. Charles Jones</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">In care of Mr. Edward + Furrey</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Wilkinsburg</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 6em;">Pennsylvania</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Bad:</td> + <td>Rev. Walter Bertin + <a name="page_166"><span class="page">Page 166</span></a> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Good:</td> + <td>The Reverend Walter Bertin</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Bad:</td> + <td>Pres. of Bucknell Univ.</td></tr> + + <tr><td>Good:</td> + <td>For the President of Bucknell University.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Bad:</td> + <td>Pres. of Bucknell Univ.</td></tr> + + <tr><td>Good:</td> + <td>For the President of Bucknell University.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +A properly arranged address: +</p> + +<div style="width: 516px;"> + <img src="images/address.jpg" width="516" height="291" alt="Address"> +</div> + +<p class="smallcaps"> +<b>174.</b> Correctly Written Letters +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>200 Mead Avenue,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">January 12, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td>Mr. A. M. Weaver,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Cambridge, Massachusetts.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Sir: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law +books. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention +of selling them. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +You may, however, be able to secure what you want from H. B. Wassel, +Esquire, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. He has +advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Charles M. Howell.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>Muncy, New York, January 12, 1909. + <a name="page_167"><span class="page">Page 167</span></a> + </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Professor Morton: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system +of keeping students' records. I have been told that you have worked +out a card method that operates successfully. If you can give me +any information in regard to your method, I shall consider it a +very great favor. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very sincerely yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Harris A. Plotts.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>Professor E. A. Morton,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Braddock, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Braddock, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Mrs. Hagon: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard +to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence +enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very sincerely,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Sylvester D. Dunlop.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>173 State Street, Detroit, Michigan,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">January 23, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +To whom it may concern: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character, ability +and attainments of Mr. E. J. Heidenreich. He has been a trusted +personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. He may be +counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to +undertake. +</p> + +<p class="right"> +Harry B. Hutchins. +</p> + +<p> +My dear Walter: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. +Before I go, I should like to have you come out and take dinner with +me some evening. How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? +If you can come at that time, will you please write or telephone +to me sometime before Tuesday? +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very cordially yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Paul B. Vandine.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>6556 Broad Street,<br /> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">March 30, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td> + <a name="page_168"><span class="page">Page 168</span></a> + The Lafayette, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">March 31, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Paul: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with +you before you take final leave of the city. The time you mention, +next Wednesday evening, is entirely satisfactory to me. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I was more than pleased to receive your invitation, for the prospect +of talking over old times with you is delightful. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 60%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Sincerely yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Walter Powell.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Napoleon, Ohio, February 28, 1908.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>The American Stove Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Alverton, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Gentlemen: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars, for which please +send me one of your small cook stoves, of the sort listed in your +catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this +stove as much as possible, since it is urgently needed in a summer +cottage that I have for rent. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Ernest Burrows.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>223 Siegel Street, New York City,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">June 5, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>The Acme Tapestry Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Syracuse, New York.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Dear Sirs: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of +your tapestries and carpets? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets +that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association +Building, on Arlington Avenue, this city. I understand that institutions +of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. Will you +please tell me if this is true? +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Anna R. Fleegor.</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">(Mrs. C. C. Fleegor.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="right"> +Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, May 10, 1910. +<a name="page_169"><span class="page">Page 169</span></a> +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td>The Merchant's Electric Wiring Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Philadelphia, + Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Gentlemen: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work +for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. I am at present taking +a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University, and +am in my sophomore year., It is my plan to gain some practical +experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations +occurring in my course. This summer I want to secure practical +experience in electric wiring. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If you wish references as to my character and ability, I would +refer you to Mr. William R. Stevenson, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and +to Mr. Harry E. McCormick, Superintendent of the Street Railways +Company, Danville, Illinois. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Salary is a very slight object to me in this work, and I shall be +willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer +me. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>Respectfully yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Harvey H. Wilkins.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="right"> +Drawsburg, Ohio, May 21, 1910. +</p> + +<p> +My dear Norman: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you +of my sincere pleasure in the news. May you find happiness and +prosperity in your new location. But do not forget that your old +friends are still living and will always be interested in your +welfare. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Your affectionate cousin,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 6em;">Mary E. Johnston.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>223 Holbrook Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Indiana.</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">November 10, 1908.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>The Jefferson Life Insurance Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Norfolk, Virginia.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Gentlemen: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. In that +Policy, which was taken out about ten years ago, my occupation +is stated to be carpenter. Lately I have changed occupations, and +am <a name="page_170"><span class="page">Page 170</span></a> now +engaged in conducting a store. If, in order to maintain the validity +of my policy, the change of occupation should be recorded on your +books, will you please have the proper entry made. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash +surrender value, and if so, what that value is. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Arthur J. Pearse.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Bunnell Building, Scranton, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">April 20, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>Mr. James R. Elliot,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Germantown, Colorado.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Elliot: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Will you please send me, as soon as you conveniently can, the addresses +of George English, Ira S. Shepherd, and G. N. Wilkinson. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding +invitations are to be looked for. Your conclusion, I am happy to +say, is a correct one; I expect to be married sometime in June. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Cordially your friend,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Charles R. Harris.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%;"> + <tr><td>The Anglo-American Hotel, Vienna, Austria,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">March 19, 1907.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Dear Aunt Emily: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this +letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. We had really intended, +as I wrote to you, to spend the entire months of March and April +in Berlin, but a sudden whim sent us on to this city. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city, +and thought it a place of little interest. I was surprised to find +it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. +Still more was I surprised to find what a festive, stylish place +it is. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity, +but Vienna lacks only the reputation; it certainly does not lack +the fashionable and frivolous air. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The other day in one of the shops here, I discovered, as I thought, +<a name="page_171"><span class="page">Page 171</span></a> a very +fine miniature. I purchased it to present to you, and have already +sent it by post. It ought to reach you as soon as this letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We have not received the usual letter from you this week, but suppose +it is because we so suddenly changed our address. The necessity +of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Father and Mother join in sending their love to you. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%;"> + <tr><td>Your affectionate niece,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">Mary.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Notes in the Third Person +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>175.</b> It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds +of notes in the third person. Such a note contains nothing but +the body of the note, followed at the left side of the paper, by +the time and the place of writing. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Use no pronoun but that of the third person. Never use any heading, +salutation, or signature. Use no abbreviations except <i>Mr., Mrs.</i>, +or <i>Dr.</i> Spell out all dates. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>176. Correctly Written Notes in the Third Person.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Mrs. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. Leighou's company +at dinner on Sunday, June the first, at two o'clock. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">1020 Highland Street,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">Washington, + Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">May the twenty-fifth.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of +Professor and Mrs. Morton's company on Tuesday evening, June the +tenth, at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. Stuart. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Bucknell University,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">June the fifth.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Mr. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance +of Mrs. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday, June the first. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">110 Braddock Avenue,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">May the twenty-seventh.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_172"><span class="page">Page 172</span></a> +Exercise 75</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. Have +every letter complete in all its formal parts. Fill in details +according to your own fancy:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>A letter to the X Express Company of your town, complaining of + their delay in delivering a package to you.</li> +<li>A letter to a friend, thanking him for the entertainment afforded + you on a recent visit to his house.</li> +<li>A letter to the X Book Company, inquiring what dictionary they + publish, the prices, etc.</li> +<li>A letter to Mr. X, asking him for a position in his office, and + stating your qualifications.</li> +<li>A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has + befallen him.</li> +<li>A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture + that you are thinking of entering upon. Explain the venture.</li> +<li>A letter to your home, describing to your parents your school.</li> +<li>A letter to a friend, telling him of the chance meeting with + some friend.</li> +<li>A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering + a canoe that you are building. Explain your needs.</li> +<li>A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation.</li> +<li>A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place, time, + etc.</li> +<li>A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway + station. Leave no doubt.</li> +<li>A letter describing some new acquaintance.</li> +<li>A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently + heard.</li> +<li>A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in + your town.</li> +<li>A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year.</li> +<li>A letter describing some play which you have recently attended. + <a name="page_173"><span class="page">Page 173</span></a></li> +<li>A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in an + examination.</li> +<li>A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time.</li> +<li>A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend.</li> +<li>A letter stating your opinions on some public question; as, + prohibition, woman suffrage, etc.</li> +<li>A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school.</li> +<li>A letter to the X school, inquiring about courses of study given, + prices, etc.</li> +<li>A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some + organization to which you belong.</li> +<li>A formal third person acceptance of such invitation.</li> +<li>A travel letter describing your visit to various places of + interest.</li> +<li>A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable + to go with you.</li> +<li>A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it.</li> +<li>A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which + happened at school during his absence.</li> +<li>A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit + he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip.</li> +<li>A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics + of a dog which you have lately bought.</li> +<li>A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place, + your recent visit to the theater, your meeting an old friend, your + work, your new acquaintances. Arrange the topics and make the transition + as smooth as possible.</li> +<li>A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school + of some national holiday.</li> +<li>A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe + the place, occasion, lecturer, address, etc.</li> +<li>A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of + your school.</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_174"><span class="page">Page 174</span></a> +CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE WHOLE COMPOSITION</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>177.</b> By the term <b>Whole Composition</b> or <b>Theme</b> +is meant a composition consisting of a number of related paragraphs +all dealing with one general subject, whether the composition be +a narration, a description, or an exposition. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following general principles applying to the construction of the +whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced +writer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>178. Statement of Subject.</b> Care should be used in the statement +of the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive +than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is +discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some +limited phase of that subject: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Too broad: <i>College, Photography, Picnics</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Properly limited: <i>A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, +Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How +Picnics Help the Doctor.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>179. The Outline.</b> Just as in the building of a house or of +a machine, if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully +made plan is necessary before entering on the construction; so +in the writing of an essay or theme, there should be made some +plan or outline, which will determine what different things are +to be discussed, and what is to be the method of developing the +discussion. By the inexperienced writer, at least, a composition +should never be begun until an outline has been formed for its +development. As soon as the material for the composition is in +hand, the outline should <a name="page_175"><span class="page">Page +175</span></a> be made. It should be an aid in the construction of +the composition, not a thing to be derived after the composition is +completed. Only by the previous making of an outline can a logical +arrangement be gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable +proportion secured in their discussion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different +subtopics, were discussed: +</p> + +<table border="0" style="width: 100%;"> +<tr><td style="width: 50%;">Definition of Paragraph.</td> + <td>How to Secure Unity.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Length of Paragraph.</td> + <td>How to Secure Coherence.</td></tr> +<tr><td>The Topic Sentence.</td> + <td>Too Frequent Paragraphing.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Unity in the Paragraph.</td> + <td>Paragraphing of Speech.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coherence in the Paragraph.</td> + <td>Paragraphing for Emphasis.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Examples of Unity.</td> + <td rowspan="2">Examples showing how Unity is + Destroyed.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Purpose of the Paragraph.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Emphasis in the Paragraph.</td> + <td>The Paragraph Theme.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a +sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of +topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical +outline. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE PARAGRAPH +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Its definition and purpose.</li> +<li>Its length.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Paragraphing of speech.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Paragraphing for emphasis.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Too frequent paragraphing.</td></tr> + </table></li> +<li>Its essential qualities.<br /> + A. Unity.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Definition.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Examples showing how unity is destroyed.</td></tr> + <tr><td>How to secure unity.</td></tr> + <tr><td>The topic sentence.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Development of topic sentence.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Examples showing unity. +<a name="page_176"><span class="page">Page 176</span></a> + </td></tr> + </table> + B. Coherence.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Definition.</td></tr> + <tr><td>How to secure coherence.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Examples showing coherence.</td></tr> + </table> + C. Emphasis.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Places of emphasis in the paragraph.</td></tr> + </table> +<li>Practical construction of the paragraph.</li> +<li>The paragraph theme.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>180. Use and Qualities of the Outline.</b> The use of the outline +is not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also +necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, +the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in +which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently +be followed with very good reason. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general +description is given, and then followed by a statement of various +details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe +in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and +the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular +description might be made of its details of arrangement and +peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement +and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline +should present a few main topics to which all others either lead +up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all +bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation +may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by +details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long +as it is a logical and natural one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be +sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, +and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. <a name="page_177"><span +class="page">Page 177</span></a> A too detailed outline tends to +make the composition stiff and formal. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the +subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be +given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main +topics. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>181. The Beginning of the Composition.</b> To choose a method +of beginning a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, +direct beginning is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph +is necessary in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to +indicate to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. +Examine the following methods of beginning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which +the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all +other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about +it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in +all the literature of American self-praise. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, +than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go +to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that +dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every +clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE USES OF IRON +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as +iron. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand +alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference +to the title. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_178"><span class="page">Page 178</span></a> Bad: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +There is a rapidly growing belief <i>that this study</i> has too +large a place in our high-school courses of study. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Good: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +There is a rapidly growing belief <i>that Latin</i> has too large +a place in our high school courses of study. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>182. Unity in the Composition.</b> Unity is an essential element +of the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands +here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the +composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. +In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed +which properly belongs to some other division of the topic. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted +and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation +of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's +relation to the subject. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. +If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care +must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at +which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual +changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also +be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>183. Coherence in the Composition.</b> A composition must also +be coherent. Its different parts must be closely knit together and +the whole closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, +words of reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, +words, or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order +to bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_179"><span class="page">Page 179</span></a> For this +purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite change +of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. +There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the +change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same +time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition +sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the +beginning of a following one, or at both of these places. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or +phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Last sentence of first paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Second paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>The mischief, however,</i> recoiled on the unhappy people of +this country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked +purposes of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its +best blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense +of the war was enormous—much beyond any former experience. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Third paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>And yet, what has the British nation received in return</i> for +this expense.... +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +... I was now enabled to see the <i>extent and aspect of my prison. +In its size</i> I had been greatly mistaken.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>The second of the essentials of the paragraph</i>, coherence, +demands that.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is +devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe +the following: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Paragraph 7) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly +of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile <a +name="page_180"><span class="page">Page 180</span></a> taxes to +be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the +enumeration of what has already been done toward building good roads. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of +this important result, which are now being seriously discussed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Paragraph 9) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>The first of these plans is</i> ... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to +indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: +<i>So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, +An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of +this, By way of exception.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the selection under <b>§187</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>184. The Ending of the Composition.</b> In a longer composition, +the ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, +should it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to +the length of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a +story, it should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary +or inference. In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or +not. The kind of ending depends entirely upon the nature and the +scheme of development of the story. Examine the following endings: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Ending of a theme on <i>The Uses of Iron</i>: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, +have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which +it is constantly put—uses which no other metal could fill. +Gold may once have been called the king of metals, but it has long +since lost its claim to that title. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Ending of a story: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Good-bye," he said. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +And then he was gone, forever. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_181"><span class="page">Page 181</span></a> Suggested +subjects for the making of outlines and compositions. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>How I Spent my Vacation.</li> +<li>Shall Final Examinations be Abolished?</li> +<li>The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools.</li> +<li>My Qualifications for a Position.</li> +<li>The Uses of Iron.</li> +<li>Paul Revere's Ride.</li> +<li>The City Park.</li> +<li>My Town as a Place of Residence.</li> +<li>The Value of Railroads.</li> +<li>Why I Believe in Local Option.</li> +<li>A Winter's Sleigh Ride.</li> +<li>Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted?</li> +<li>My Youthful Business Ventures.</li> +<li>Why I Belong to the X Political Party.</li> +<li>Various Methods of Heating a House.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>185.</b> Below is given in full Lincoln's <i>Gettysburg Speech</i>. +It is perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with +especial reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some +of the words of coherence have been italicized. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this +continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to +the proposition that all men are created equal. <i>Now</i> we are +engaged in a great civil war, testing whether <i>that nation</i>, +or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +We are met on a great battle-field of <i>that war</i>. We have +come to dedicate a portion of <i>that field</i> as the final +resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation +might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do +<i>this. But</i> in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot +consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living +and dead, who <i>struggled here</i> have consecrated it far above +our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long +remember, what we say here; but it can never forget what <i>they +did here</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +It is for us, the living, <i>rather</i>, to be dedicated here to the +unfinished <a name="page_182"><span class="page">Page 182</span></a> +work which <i>they who fought here</i> have thus far so nobly advanced. +<i>It is rather for us</i> to be here dedicated to the great task +remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased +devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure +of devotion; that we here highly resolve that <i>these dead</i> +shall not have died in vain; that <i>this nation</i>, under God, +shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, +by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>186.</b> <i>Small Economies</i>, from Mrs. Gaskell's <i>Cranford</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small +economies—careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in +some one peculiar direction—any disturbance of which annoys +him more than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of +the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was +invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a +long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) +out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the +corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this +little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed +him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his +soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he +could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article +was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, +and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I +see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send +a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines +of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String +is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up +and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously +annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and +faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves +to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, +as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber +band is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new—one +<a name="page_183"><span class="page">Page 183</span></a> that I +picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried +to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the +extravagance. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation +because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people +have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not +seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on +the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out +of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing +it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose +plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which +he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that +this is not waste. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices +to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit +knitting for two or three hours—she could do this in the +dark, or by firelight—and when I asked if I might not ring +for candles to finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep +blind man's holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but +we only burnt one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation +for a friend who might come in any evening (but who never did), +it required some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same +length, ready to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. +The candles took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or +doing, Miss Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, +ready to jump up and extinguish it and to light the other before +they had become too uneven in length to be restored to equality +in the course of the evening. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. +I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday," +especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to +stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could +not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight, +according to my usual custom.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>187. A List of Books for Reading.</b> These books are of a varied +character and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in +their English. Most of them are books that, as a matter of general +education, should be read by everyone. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="page_184"><span class="page">Page 184</span></a><br /> +Fiction:<br /> +</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"> +Treasure Island—Stevenson.<br /> +Kidnapped—Stevenson.<br /> +Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde—Stevenson.<br /> +The Scarlet Letter—Hawthorne.<br /> +Twice Told Tales—Hawthorne.<br /> +The Luck of Roaring Camp—Bret Harte.<br /> +Tales of Mystery and Imagination—Poe.<br /> +Silas Marner—Eliot.<br /> +Robinson Crusoe—Defoe.<br /> +Ivanhoe—Scott.<br /> +Henry Esmond—Thackeray.<br /> +Pilgrim's Progress—Bunyan.<br /> +The Spy—Cooper.<br /> +The Man without a Country—Hale.<br /> +Tales of a Traveller—Irving.<br /> +The Legend of Sleepy Hollow—Irving.<br /> +Rip Van Winkle—Irving.<br /> +Lorna Doone—Blackmore.<br /> +Uncle William—Lee.<br /> +The Blue Flower—Van Dyke. +</div> + +<p> +Non-fiction:<br /> +</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"> +Sesame and Lilies—Ruskin.<br /> +Stones of Venice—Ruskin.<br /> +The American Commonwealth—Bryce.<br /> +A History of the English People—Green.<br /> +Views Afoot—Taylor.<br /> +The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table—Holmes.<br /> +Conspiracy of Pontiac—Parkman.<br /> +Autobiography—Franklin.<br /> +Lincoln—Douglas Debates.<br /> +Critical Periods of American History—Fiske.<br /> +Certain Delightful English Towns—Howells.<br /> +The Declaration of Independence.<br /> +Bunker Hill Oration—Webster.<br /> +On Conciliation with America—Burke.<br /> +The Sketch Book—Irving. +</div> + +<h2><a name="page_185"><span class="page">Page 185</span></a> +CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">WORDS.—SPELLING.—PRONUNCIATION</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>188.</b> To write and to speak good English, one must have a +good working vocabulary. He must know words and be able to use +them correctly; he must employ only words that are in good use; he +must be able to choose words and phrases that accurately express +his meaning; and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly +the words that he uses. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Words +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>189. Good Use.</b> The first essential that a word should have, +is that it be in good use. A word is in good use when it is used +grammatically and in its true sense, and is also: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(1) <i>Reputable</i>; in use by good authors and writers in general. +The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient to +make a word reputable; the use must be general. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(2) <i>National</i>; not foreign or local in its use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(3) <i>Present</i>; used by the writers of one's own time. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>190. Offenses against Good Use.</b> The offenses against good +use are usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms, Barbarisms, +and Improprieties. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>191. Solecisms</b> are the violations of the principles of grammar. +Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>192. Barbarisms.</b> The second offense against good use, a +barbarism, is a word not in reputable, present or national use. +The following rules may be given on this subject: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Avoid obsolete words.</b> Obsolete words are words that, +once in good use, have since passed out of general use. <a +name="page_186"><span class="page">Page 186</span></a> This rule +might also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are +at present time passing out of use. Examples of obsolete words: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">methinks</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">yesterwhiles</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">twixt</td></tr> + <tr><td>yclept</td><td>afeard</td><td>shoon</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. <b>Avoid newly coined expressions or new uses of old expressions.</b> +There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other +hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at +the present time, though many of these words may in time come into +use. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. +Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">an invite</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">an exposé</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">a try</td></tr> + <tr><td>enthuse</td><td>a combine</td><td>fake</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from +a noun, or a noun from a verb. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">locomote</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">suicided</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">derailment</td></tr> + <tr><td>pluralized</td><td>burglarized</td><td>refereed</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Avoid foreign words.</b> A foreign word should not be used +until it has become naturalized by being in general, reputable use. +Since there are almost always English words just as expressive as +the foreign words, the use of the foreign words usually indicates +affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">billet-doux (love letter)</td> + <td>conversazione (conversation)</td></tr> + <tr><td>ad nauseam (to disgust)</td> + <td>distingué (distinguished)</td></tr> + <tr><td>ad infinitum (infinitely)</td> + <td>entre nous (between us)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Avoid provincialisms.</b> Provincialisms are expressions +current and well understood in one locality, but not current or +differently understood in another locality. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">guess (think)</td> + <td>reckon (suppose)</td></tr> + <tr><td>near (stingy)</td><td>smart (clever)</td></tr> + <tr><td>tuckered (tired out)</td><td>lift (elevator)</td></tr> + <tr><td>tote (carry)</td><td>ruination (ruin)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_187"><span class="page">Page 187</span></a> +5. <b>Avoid vulgarisms.</b> Vulgarisms are words whose use shows +vulgarity or ignorance. Such words as the following are always in +bad taste: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">chaw</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">nigger</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">your'n</td></tr> + <tr><td>gal</td><td>flustrated</td><td>hadn't oughter</td></tr> + <tr><td>haint</td><td>dern</td><td>his'n</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +6. <b>Avoid slang.</b> Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very +prevalent in its use even by educated people. Slang words, it is +true, sometimes come into good repute and usage, but the process +is slow. The safest rule is to avoid slang expressions because +of their general bad taste and because of their weakening effect +on one's vocabulary of good words. Examples of slang: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">grind</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">swipe</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">booze</td></tr> + <tr><td>long green</td><td>on a toot</td><td>dough</td></tr> + <tr><td>pinch</td><td>peach</td><td>dukes</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <b>Avoid clipped or abbreviated words.</b> The use of such words +is another form of vulgarism. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">pard (partner)</td> + <td style="width: 50%;">rep (reputation)</td></tr> + <tr><td>doc (doctor)</td><td>cal'late (calculate)</td></tr> + <tr><td>musee (museum)</td><td>a comp (complimentary ticket)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +8. <b>Avoid technical or professional words.</b> Such words are +usually clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. +Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">valence</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">hagiology</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">allonge</td></tr> + <tr><td>kilowatt</td><td>sclerosis</td><td>estoppel</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>193. When Barbarisms May be Used.</b> In the foregoing rules +barbarisms have been treated as at all times to be avoided. This +is true of their use in general composition, and in a measure true +of their use in composition of a special nature. But barbarisms may +sometimes be used properly. Obsolete words would be permissible in +poetry or in historical <a name="page_188"><span class="page">Page +188</span></a> novels, technical words permissible in technical +writing, and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in +dialect stories. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 76</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Substitute for each of the barbarisms in the following list +an expression that is in good use. When in doubt consult a good +dictionary:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Chaw, quoth, fake, reckon, dern, forsooth, his'n, an invite, entre +nous, tote, hadn't oughter, yclept, a combine, ain't, dole, a try, +nouveau riche, puny, grub, twain, a boom, alter ego, a poke, cuss, +eld, enthused, mesalliance, tollable, disremember, locomote, a right +smart ways, chink, afeard, orate, nary a one, yore, pluralized, +distingué, ruination, complected, mayhap, burglarized, mal +de mer, tuckered, grind, near, suicided, callate, cracker-jack, +erst, railroaded, chic, down town, deceased (verb), a rig, swipe, +spake, on a toot, knocker, peradventure, guess, prof, classy, booze, +per se, cute, biz, bug-house, swell, opry, rep, photo, cinch, corker, +in cahoot, pants, fess up, exam, bike, incog, zoo, secondhanded, +getable, outclassed, gents, mucker, galoot, dub, up against it, +on tick, to rattle, in hock, busted on the bum, to watch out, get +left. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 77</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Make a list of such barbarisms as you yourself use, and devise +for them as many good substitute expressions as you can. Practice +using the good expressions that you have made.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 78</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the italicized barbarisms in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>They can go <i>everywheres</i>.</li> +<li>He spends all his time <i>grinding</i>.</li> +<li>There <i>ain't</i> a <i>sightlier</i> town in the state.</li> +<li>He ate the whole <i>hunk</i> of cake + <a name="page_189"><span class="page">Page 189</span></a></li +<li>He was treated very <i>illy</i>.</li> +<li>Smith's new house is very <i>showy</i>.</li> +<li>Not <i>muchly</i> will I go.</li> +<li>All were ready for breakfast before <i>sun-up</i>.</li> +<li>Do you like <i>light-complected</i> people?</li> +<li>I had never <i>orated</i> before.</li> +<li>Their clothes are always <i>tasty</i> in appearance.</li> +<li>He has money, but he is very <i>near</i>.</li> +<li>He left the room <i>unbeknown</i> to his mother.</li> +<li>If manners are any indication, she belongs to the <i>nouvea + riche</i>.</li> +<li>I feel pretty <i>tollable</i> today.</li> +<li>I <i>reckon</i> all will be able to get seats.</li> +<li>Do you <i>callate</i> to get there before noon?</li> +<li>If I had as much <i>long green</i> as he has, I wouldn't be such + <i>tight-wad</i>.</li> +<li>He was the <i>beau ideal</i> of soldier.</li> +<li>John is a <i>crazy cuss</i>.</li> +<li>Let me say <i>en passant</i> we did not ask for the tickets.</li> +<li>Even at that time John had a bad <i>rep</i>.</li> +<li>That woman is the Countess of Verdun, <i>née</i> Smith.</li> +<li><i>Methinks</i> you are wrong.</li> +<li>The teacher <i>spake</i> sharply to her.</li> +<li>I <i>didn't go for to do</i> it.</li> +<li>It will be published <i>inside of</i> two months.</li> +<li>The duke and his wife were travelling <i>incog</i>.</li> +<li>I hadn't <i>thought on</i> that.</li> +<li>There is little difference <i>twixt</i> the two.</li> +<li>Come now, <i>fess up</i>.</li> +<li>It's a <i>right smart ways</i> to Williamsport.</li> +<li>You <i>wot</i> not what you say.</li> +<li>He bought a <i>poke</i> of apples for his lunch.</li> +<li>Brown runs a pretty <i>classy</i> store.</li> +<li>I finally <i>got shut</i> of him.</li> +<li>I <i>could of</i> jumped across.</li> +<li>That can't be done <i>nohow</i>.</li> +<li>You make such <i>dumb</i> mistakes.</li> +<li>I never saw such a <i>bum</i> show.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_190"><span class="page">Page 190</span></a> <b>194. +Improprieties.</b> The third offense against good use, an impropriety, +is the use of a proper word in an improper sense. In many cases an +offense against good use may be called a barbarism, an impropriety, +or a solecism, since the fields covered by the three terms somewhat +overlap one another. Many improprieties have their origin in the +similarities in sound, spelling or meaning of words. The following +exercises deal with a number of common improprieties resulting +from the confusion of two similar words. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 79</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Study the proper use of the words given under each of the following +divisions. In each group of sentences fill the blanks with the +proper words:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Accept, except.</b> See Glossary at end of book, under <i>except</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I cannot —— your gift.</li> +<li>Have you no books —— these?</li> +<li>Cicero was not —— from the list of those condemned.</li> +<li>He —— the invitation.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Affect, effect.</b> See Glossary under <i>effect</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Will your plan —— a reform from the present + condition?</li> +<li>The sad news will seriously —— his mother.</li> +<li>How was the bank —— by the indictment of its + president?</li> +<li>The change of schedule was —— without a hitch.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Aggravate, irritate.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Her manner —— me.</li> +<li>The crime was —— by being committed in cold blood.</li> +<li>The children do everything they can to —— her.</li> +<li>His illness was —— by lack of proper food.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_191"><span class="page">Page 191</span></a> +<b>Allude, mention.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He —— (to) certain events which he dared not name + directly.</li> +<li>The attorney —— (to) no names.</li> +<li>That passage in his book delicately —— (to) his + mother.</li> +<li>In his speech the labor leader boldly —— (to) his + recent arrest.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Argue, augur.</b> <i>To argue</i> is to state reasons for one's +belief. <i>To augur</i> means <i>to foretell, to presage</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The reported quarrel —— ill for the army.</li> +<li>He will —— at length on any subject.</li> +<li>Her darkening looks —— a quarrel.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Avocation, vocation.</b> A <i>vocation</i> is one's principal +work or calling. <i>An avocation</i> is something aside from or +subordinate to that principal calling. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The young physician enthusiastically pursues his ——.</li> +<li>Law is his ——, but politics is his ——.</li> +<li>The ministry should be one's ——, never his + ——.</li> +<li>While preparing for his life work, school teaching was for a time + his ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Besides, beside.</b> <i>Besides</i> means <i>in addition to. +Beside</i> refers to place; as, <i>He sits beside you</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>—— you, who else was there?</li> +<li>Is there nothing —— this to do?</li> +<li>John walked —— me.</li> +<li>—— me was a tree.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Calculate, intend.</b> <i>To calculate</i> means <i>to compute, +to adjust</i> or <i>to adapt. Intend</i> means <i>to have formed +the plan to do something</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He —— to sell books this summer.</li> +<li>He —— that the work will take ten years.</li> +<li>He —— to finish it as soon as he can.</li> +<li>The oil is —— to flow at the rate of a gallon a + minute.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_192"><span class="page">Page 192</span></a> +<b>Character, reputation.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In this community his —— is excellent.</li> +<li>One's friends may endow him with a good ——, but + not with a good ——.</li> +<li>Slander may ruin one's ——, but it will not destroy + his ——.</li> +<li>See that your —— is right, and your —— + will establish itself.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Claim, assert.</b> <i>To claim</i> means to make a demand for +what is one's own. It should not be confused with <i>assert</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— that I am innocent.</li> +<li>John —— the property as his.</li> +<li>They —— their right to the land.</li> +<li>The cashier —— the money in payment of a note.</li> +<li>Do you still —— that you were born in America?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Council, counsel, consul.</b> A <i>council</i> is a group of +persons called in to hold consultation. <i>Counsel</i> means <i>an +adviser</i>, as a lawyer; or <i>advice</i> that is given. <i>Consul</i> +is an officer of the government. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In the colonies each governor had his ——.</li> +<li>The advisers gave him —— when he desired it.</li> +<li>The United States has a —— in every important + foreign port.</li> +<li>In criminal cases the accused must be provided with + ——.</li> +<li>The president's cabinet constitutes for him a sort of + ——.</li> +<li>In Rome two —— were elected to manage the affairs + of the state.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Emigration, immigration.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Foreign —— into the United States is greatly + restricted.</li> +<li>The —— of the citizens of the United States to Canada is + becoming a matter of concern.</li> +<li>Our —— Bureau enforces the Chinese Exclusion Act.</li> +<li>The treatment of the royalists caused a great —— from + France.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_193"><span class="page">Page 193</span></a> +<b>Good, well.</b> <i>Good</i> is an adjective. <i>Well</i> is usually an +adverb, though sometimes an adjective; as, <i>Are you well to-day?</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She talks very ——.</li> +<li>She prepares a —— paper, even if she does not write + ——.</li> +<li>Do —— what you are doing.</li> +<li>Did you have a —— time?</li> +<li>Recite it as —— as you can.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>House, home.</b> <i>House</i> means only <i>a building. Home</i> +means a place that is one's habitual place of residence. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He thought often of the flowers about the door of his old + ——.</li> +<li>They have recently bought a —— which they intend to + make their ——.</li> +<li>Mr. Heim lives here now, but his —— is in Lewisburg.</li> +<li>He has several miserable —— that he rents.</li> +<li>Such a place is not fit to be called a ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Most, almost.</b> <i>Almost</i> is an adverb meaning <i>nearly. +Most</i> never has this meaning. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I was —— injured when the machine broke.</li> +<li>It is —— time for him to come.</li> +<li>The —— discouraging thing was his indifference.</li> +<li>I —— missed the car.</li> +<li>—— of the books are torn.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Let, leave.</b> See Glossary, under <i>leave</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Will his employer —— him go so early.</li> +<li>I shall —— at noon.</li> +<li>—— me help you with your coat.</li> +<li>—— me here for a while.</li> +<li>This book I —— with you.</li> +<li>Do not —— that danger disturb you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_194"><span class="page">Page 194</span></a> +<b>Like, as.</b> <i>Like</i> should not be used as a conjunction in +the sense of <i>as</i>. As a preposition it is correct. It is wrong +to say, <i>Do like I do</i>; but right to say, <i>Do as I do</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He looks —— James.</li> +<li>Read —— James does.</li> +<li>Does she look —— me?</li> +<li>She thinks of it —— I thought.</li> +<li>Lincoln could do a thing —— that.</li> +<li>Other men could not do —— Lincoln did.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Likely, liable, probably.</b> It is better to avoid using +<i>likely</i> as an adverb; but it may be used as an adjective; +as, <i>He is likely to come. Probably</i> refers to any sort of +possibility. <i>Liable</i> refers to an unpleasant or unfavorable +possibility; it should not be used as equivalent to <i>likely</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He is —— to arrest for doing that.</li> +<li>The president's car will —— arrive at noon.</li> +<li>It is —— to rain to-day.</li> +<li>Is he —— to write to us?</li> +<li>Continued exposure makes one more —— to serious + illness.</li> +<li>What will —— come of it?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Loan, lend.</b> <i>Loan</i> should be used only as a noun, and +<i>lend</i> only as a verb. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I wish to obtain a —— of fifty dollars.</li> +<li>Will you —— me your knife?</li> +<li>A —— of money loses both itself and friend.</li> +<li>A —— is something that one —— to another.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Mad, angry.</b> Mad means <i>insane, uncontrollably excited +through fear</i>, etc. It should not be used for <i>angry</i> or +<i>vexed</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>His manner of speaking makes me ——.</li> +<li>It makes one —— to see such behavior.</li> +<li>The noise almost drove me ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_195"><span class="page">Page 195</span></a> +<b>Much, many.</b> <i>Much</i> refers to quantity; <i>many</i> to +number. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Sometimes they have as —— as fifty in a class.</li> +<li>—— of the trouble comes from his weak eyes.</li> +<li>Do you use —— horses on the farm?</li> +<li>How —— marbles did the boy have?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Near, nearly.</b> <i>Near</i> is an adjective; <i>nearly</i> +an adverb. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Is the work —— finished?</li> +<li>The man was —— the end of the porch.</li> +<li>It was —— noon when Blucher came.</li> +<li>They are —— insane with worry.</li> +<li>Mary is not —— so old as John.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Observation, observance.</b> <i>Observation</i> means to <i>watch, +to look at. Observance</i> means <i>to celebrate, to keep</i>. +<i>Observation</i> applies to a fact or an object; <i>observance</i> +to a festival, a holiday, or a rule. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The —— of the astronomer proved the theory.</li> +<li>Sunday —— is of value to one's bodily as well as to + one's spiritual health.</li> +<li>The —— of the sanitary regulations was insiste + d upon.</li> +<li>The scientist needs highly developed powers of ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Respectively, respectfully</b>. <i>Respectively</i> means +<i>particularly, relating to each. Respectfully</i> means +<i>characterized by high regard.</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>These three kinds of architecture were characterized —— + as "severe," "graceful," and "ornate."</li> +<li>Sign your letter "Yours ——," not "yours + ——."</li> +<li>Their shares were —— two hundred dollars and five + hundred dollars,</li> +<li>The class —— informed the faculty of their desire.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_196"><span class="page">Page 196</span></a> +<b>Suspect, expect.</b> <i>Suspect</i> means <i>to mistrust. Expect</i> +means <i>to look forward to</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— that he will come.</li> +<li>He —— his brother of hiding his coat.</li> +<li>When do you —— to finish the work?</li> +<li>The man was never before —— of having done wrong.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Teach, learn.</b> See Glossary under <i>learn</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>You must —— him to be careful.</li> +<li>He must —— to be careful.</li> +<li>To —— a class to study is a difficult task.</li> +<li>Who —— your class to-day.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Transpire, happen.</b> <i>Transpire</i> does not mean <i>to +happen</i>. It means <i>to become gradually known, to leak out</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She knows everything that —— in the village.</li> +<li>It —— that he had secretly sold the farm.</li> +<li>No more important event than this has —— in the last + ten years.</li> +<li>It has now —— that some money was stolen.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Quite, very.</b> <i>Quite</i> is not in good use in the sense +of <i>very</i> or <i>to a great degree</i>. It properly means +<i>entirely</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The book is —— easy to study.</li> +<li>Have you —— finished your work.</li> +<li>The train ran —— slowly for most of the distance.</li> +<li>That is —— easy to do.</li> +<li>We were —— unable to reach the city any sooner.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 80</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The following list includes some groups of words that are often +confused. Far the proper meaning of the words refer to a good +dictionary. Write sentences using the words in their proper senses:</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">practical, skilled</td> + <td>sensible, sensitive</td></tr> + <tr><td>couple, two</td> + <td>access, accession</td></tr> + <tr><td>future, subsequent</td> + <td>allusion, illusion, delusion + <a name="page_197"><span class="page">Page 197</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>folk, family</td> + <td>conscience, consciousness</td></tr> + <tr><td>evidence, testimony</td> + <td>identity, identification</td></tr> + <tr><td>party, person, firm</td> + <td>limit, limitation</td></tr> + <tr><td>plenty, many, enough of</td> + <td>majority, plurality</td></tr> + <tr><td>portion, part</td> + <td>materialize, appear</td></tr> + <tr><td>solicitation, solicitude</td> + <td>invent, discover</td></tr> + <tr><td>human, humane</td> + <td>prescribe, proscribe</td></tr> + <tr><td>bound, determined</td> + <td>some, somewhat, something</td></tr> + <tr><td>fix, mend</td> + <td>mutual, common</td></tr> + <tr><td>foot, pay</td> + <td>noted, notorious</td></tr> + <tr><td>creditable, credible</td> + <td>wait for, wait on</td></tr> + <tr><td>exceptionable, exceptional</td> + <td>in, into</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 81</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Show how the use of each of the two italicized words in the +following sentences would affect the meaning of the sentence:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>We experienced a <i>succession series</i> of hindrances.</li> +<li>That <i>statement assertion</i> was made by an eye witness.</li> +<li>The student has remarkable <i>ability capacity</i>.</li> +<li>In my <i>estimate estimation</i> the cost will be higher than + fifty dollars.</li> +<li>The <i>import importance</i> of his words is not fully + understood.</li> +<li>The <i>union unity</i> of the clubs is remarkable.</li> +<li>The <i>acts actions</i> of the president were closely watched.</li> +<li>The man needed a new <i>stimulus stimulant</i>.</li> +<li>He was <i>captivated captured</i> by her unusual charms.</li> +<li>We are quick to <i>impute impugn</i> motives that we think to + exist.</li> +<li>He was <i>convinced convicted</i> by John's argument.</li> +<li>The dog's suffering was <i>alleviated relieved</i> by the + medicine.</li> +<li>He <i>persuaded advised</i> me to consult a lawyer.</li> +<li>His behavior was <i>funny odd</i>.</li> +<li>The plan seems <i>practical practicable</i>.</li> +<li>That is the <i>latest last</i> letter.</li> +<li>That certainly was not a <i>human humane</i> action.</li> +<li>He <i>waited on waited for</i> his mother.</li> +<li>The <i>completeness completion</i> of the work brought many + congratulations.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_198"><span class="page">Page 198</span></a> +Exercise 82</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Supply a word which will remedy the italicized impropriety in each +of the following sentences. When in doubt consult a dictionary:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The <i>majority</i> of the illustrations are good.</li> +<li>No one can accurately <i>predicate</i> what the weather will be.</li> +<li>Shall you <i>except</i> the invitation?</li> +<li>They <i>claim</i> that the assertion cannot be proved.</li> +<li>They finally <i>located</i> the criminal in Dravosburg.</li> +<li>I shall <i>leave</i> you go at noon.</li> +<li>The <i>balance</i> of the essay was uninteresting.</li> +<li>By questions they tried to <i>eliminate</i> the true story.</li> +<li>They <i>impugn</i> false motives to me.</li> +<li>He was greatly <i>effected</i> by the news.</li> +<li>Sabbath <i>observation</i> was then very strict.</li> +<li>They <i>expect</i> that she wrote the letter.</li> +<li>The <i>invention</i> of electricity has revolutionized all + manufactures.</li> +<li>Who <i>learned</i> her to sing?</li> +<li>Edison <i>discovered</i> the phonograph.</li> +<li>One cannot comprehend the <i>enormity</i> of a billion + of dollars.</li> +<li>Many <i>complements</i> were paid to her beauty.</li> +<li>His <i>consciousness</i> pricked him.</li> +<li>How could any one be guilty of such a cruel <i>action</i>.</li> +<li>The <i>advancement</i> of the army was very slow.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>195. Idioms.</b> There are in English, as in other languages, +a number of expressions that cannot be justified by the rules of +grammar or rhetoric; and yet these expressions are among the most +forcible ones in the language, and are continually used by the best +writers. These expressions that lie outside all rules we call idioms. +Compare the following idiomatic expressions with the unidiomatic +expressions that succeed them. The second expression in each group +is in accord with the strict rules of composition; but the first, +the idiomatic, is far more forceful. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: The book which I read about. + <a name="page_199"><span class="page">Page 199</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: The book about which I + read.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: More than one life was + lost.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: More lives than one life + were lost.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: Speak loud. Speak + louder.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: Speak loudly. Speak more + loudly.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: A ten-foot pole.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: A ten-feet pole.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: He strove with might and + main.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: He strove with might. (Might + and main are two words of the same meaning.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: He lectured on every other + day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: He lectured on one day out + of every two.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Idioms are not to be avoided. On the contrary, because they contribute +great ease and force to composition, their use is to be encouraged. +But the distinction between idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions +is a fine one, and rests solely on usage. Care must be taken not +to go beyond the idiomatic. There is probably little danger that +the ordinary writer or speaker will not use idioms enough. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following expressions are examples of commonly used idioms: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">He was standing at the door <i>in his + shirt sleeves</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I <i>don't think</i> it will rain (I + think it will not rain).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">She walked out of the room <i>on her + father's arm</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">John was a poor <i>shot</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Do you feel <i>like a little + candy</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">See what my foolishness has brought me + <i>to</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">What part of the city will they settle + <i>in</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">What was the house built + <i>for</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">John needs a match to light his pipe + <i>with</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">That is all I ask <i>for</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">What are you driving <i>at</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Hard put to it.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>By all odds.</i> + <a name="page_200"><span class="page">Page 200</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Must needs.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I must <i>get up</i> by noon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Get rid of.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Get used to.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Never so good.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Whether or no.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I can't go <i>either</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>You forget yourself</i> when you speak + so harshly.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I can come only <i>every other</i> + day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">If the bell rings <i>answer the + door</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>I take it</i> that you will be there + too.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Come and see</i> me.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Try and</i> do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The thief <i>took to his + heels</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>196. Choice of Words.</b> The words in which a thought is expressed +may not offend against good use, and yet still be objectionable because +they do not accurately and appropriately express the thought. One +should choose not merely a word that will approximately express +the thought, but the one word that best expresses it. The following +suggestions are given to aid in the choice of words: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Choose simple English words</b> and avoid what is called +"fine writing." Young writers and newspaper writers are greatly +given to this offense of fine or bombastic writing. Examples: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%; padding-left: 2em;">FINE WRITING</td> + <td style="width: 50%; padding-left: 2em;">SIMPLE STYLE</td></tr> + <tr><td>Was launched into eternity</td><td>Was hanged</td></tr> + <tr><td>Disastrous conflagration</td><td>Great fire</td></tr> + <tr><td>Called into requisition the services of the family + physician</td><td>Sent for the doctor</td></tr> + <tr><td>Was accorded an ovation</td><td>Was applauded</td></tr> + <tr><td>Palatial mansion</td><td>Comfortable house</td></tr> + <tr><td>Acute auricular perceptions</td><td>Sharp ears</td></tr> + <tr><td>A disciple of Izaak Walton</td><td>A fisherman</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_201"><span class="page">Page 201</span></a> +2. <b>Distinguish between general and specific terms.</b> In some cases +general words may be used to advantage, but more often specific +words should be used, since they call to the mind a definite image. +Compare these sentences: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">The <i>high color</i> of his face showed his + embarrassment.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">His <i>crimson</i> face showed his + embarrassment.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a <i>large</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a <i>fat</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a man of <i>large + frame</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a <i>tall, heavily + proportioned</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a man <i>six feet four inches + tall</i> and <i>heavy</i> in proportion.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">It was an <i>impressive</i> + building.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">It was a building of <i>impressive + size</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">It was a building of <i>impressive + beauty</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">His <i>fault</i> was robbery.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">His <i>crime</i> was robbery.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Avoid over-statement of facts.</b> The use of words that +are too strong is a fault especially characteristic of Americans. +Examples: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Poor: The concert was <i>simply + exquisite</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Better: The concert was <i>very + good</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Poor: She was <i>wild</i> over the + mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Better: She was <i>much annoyed</i> + by the mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Avoid hackneyed phrases;</b> expressions that have been worked +to death. Examples: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">His paternal acres.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The infuriated beast.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The gentle zephyrs of springtime.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Was gathered to his fathers.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The blushing bride was led to the hymeneal + altar.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Applauded to the echo.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_202"><span class="page">Page 202</span></a> +Exercise 83</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>For each of the following expressions devise the best simple +English expression that you can:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Individual was precipitated.</li> +<li>Tendered him a banquet.</li> +<li>At the witching hour of midnight.</li> +<li>The devouring element was checked.</li> +<li>Piscatorial sport.</li> +<li>Pedal extremities.</li> +<li>Fraught with tremendous possibilities.</li> +<li>Amid the plaudits of the multitude.</li> +<li>Caudal extremity.</li> +<li>Passed to his long home.</li> +<li>Dissected the Thanksgiving bird.</li> +<li>Presided at the organ.</li> +<li>Finger of scorn pointed at him.</li> +<li>Wended his way.</li> +<li>The green eyed monster.</li> +<li>The whole aggregation of knowledge chasers.</li> +<li>Maternal ancestor.</li> +<li>Shuffled off this mortal coil.</li> +<li>Failed to materialize at the banquet.</li> +<li>Tonsorial artist.</li> +<li>Twirler of the sphere.</li> +<li>Pugilistic encounters.</li> +<li>Performed his matutinal ablutions.</li> +<li>Partook of a magnificent collation.</li> +<li>Solemnized the rites of matrimony.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 84</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the third paragraph of the selection from Cranford (see +<b>§186</b>) observe the use of the following words: <b>human, +weakness, hanks, twisted, annoyed,</b> and <b>undoing.</b> Study +the specific nature of these words by grouping about each of them +other <a name="page_203"><span class="page">Page 203</span></a> +words of somewhat similar meaning, and then comparing the force +of the various words in each group.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>This sort of exercise may be continued by choosing passages from +any careful writer and studying the words that he has used.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 85</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Substitute for each of the following expressions some expression +that will be less general or less exaggerated:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She is <i>nice</i> looking.</li> +<li>We had a <i>perfectly gorgeous</i> time.</li> +<li>John is a <i>professional</i> man.</li> +<li>The play was <i>simply exquisite</i>.</li> +<li>To hear his voice makes me feel <i>funny</i>.</li> +<li>The opposing team was <i>completely annihilated</i>.</li> +<li>A <i>noise</i> caught our attention.</li> +<li>His manners are <i>horrid</i>.</li> +<li>We had a <i>great</i> time.</li> +<li>Such arrogance is <i>unendurable</i>.</li> +<li>That is a <i>good</i> book.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>197. How to Improve One's Vocabulary.</b> The few following +suggestions may be found helpful in the acquiring of a good vocabulary: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Cultivate the dictionary habit.</b> Learn the meaning, +pronunciation, and spelling of each new word that you meet. Only +when these three things are grasped about each word, does one really +know the word. Some persons have found it an invaluable aid to +carry with them a small note book or card on which they note down +to be looked up at a convenient time words concerning which they +are in doubt. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. <b>In your writing and speaking use as much as possible the new +words that you acquire.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Construct good English expressions</b> for all the slang, +fine writing, and hackneyed phrases that you meet, and then use +the good expressions instead of the bad ones. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_204"><span class="page">Page 204</span></a> 4. <b>Study +synonyms</b>; words of similar form and meaning. Only by a knowledge +of synonyms can you express fine shades of meaning. <i>Crabbe's</i> +English Synonyms and <i>Fernald's</i> Synonyms and Antonyms are good +books of reference for this purpose. In addition to these books, +lists of synonyms will be found in many books that are designed +for general reference. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. <b>Try to get the one word</b> that will best express the idea. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. <b>Read good books</b> and good magazines, and read them carefully. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <b>Cultivate the society</b> of those who use good language. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 86</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Look up the meaning of each of the words in the following groups +of synonyms. Construct sentences in which each word is used +correctly:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Love, like.</li> +<li>Wit, humor.</li> +<li>Discover, invent.</li> +<li>Observe, watch.</li> +<li>Pride, vanity, conceit.</li> +<li>Proof, evidence, testimony.</li> +<li>Balance, rest, remainder.</li> +<li>Word, term, expression.</li> +<li>Bring, fetch, carry.</li> +<li>Abandon, desert, forsake.</li> +<li>Propose, purpose, intend.</li> +<li>Healthful, healthy, wholesome.</li> +<li>Student, pupil, scholar.</li> +<li>Capacity, power, ability.</li> +<li>Blame, censure, criticism.</li> +<li>Accede, agree, yield, acquiesce.</li> +<li>Trickery, cunning, chicane, fraud.</li> +<li>Instruction, education, training, tuition.</li> +<li>Hardship, obstacle, hindrance, difficulty. + <a name="page_205"><span class="page">Page 205</span></a></li> +<li>Maxim, precept, rule, law</li> +<li>Multitude, crowd, throng, swarm.</li> +<li>Delight, happiness, pleasure, joy.</li> +<li>Work, labor, toil, drudgery, task.</li> +<li>Silent, mute, dumb, speechless.</li> +<li>Kill, murder, assassinate, slay.</li> +<li>Hatred, enmity, dislike, ill-will.</li> +<li>Example, pattern, sample, model.</li> +<li>Obvious, plain, clear, apparent.</li> +<li>Noted, eminent, famous, prominent, notorious.</li> +<li>Old, aged, antique, ancient, antiquated, obsolete.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Spelling +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>198.</b> The following is a list of words that are frequently +misspelled or confused. Where possible, an effort has been made +to arrange them in groups in order that they may be more easily +remembered. The word with an added ending has been used in most +cases in place of the bare word itself as, <i>occasional</i> instead +of <i>occasion</i>. A few rules have been included. +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td>accede</td><td>descend</td><td>pressure</td></tr> + <tr><td>accident</td><td>fascinate</td><td>misspelled</td></tr> + <tr><td>accommodate</td><td>mischievous</td><td>possession</td></tr> + <tr><td>accordance</td><td>miscellaneous<td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>accuracy</td><td>muscle</td><td>recollection</td></tr> + <tr><td>succeed</td><td>susceptible</td><td>dispelled</td></tr> + <tr><td>occasional</td><td> </td><td>miscellaneous</td></tr> + <tr><td>occur</td><td>existence</td><td>monosyllable</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>experience</td><td>intellectual</td></tr> + <tr><td>across</td><td>sentence</td><td>parallel</td></tr> + <tr><td>amount</td><td> </td><td>embellishment</td></tr> + <tr><td>apart</td><td>foregoing</td><td>wholly</td></tr> + <tr><td>arouse</td><td>forehead</td><td>woolly</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>village</td></tr> + <tr><td>already</td><td>forty</td><td>villain</td></tr> + <tr><td>all right</td><td>foreign</td><td>till</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>forfeit</td><td> + <a name="page_206"><span class="page">Page 206</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>amateur</td><td>formally</td><td>perpetual</td></tr> + <tr><td>grandeur</td><td>formerly</td><td>persuade</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>perspiration</td></tr> + <tr><td>appal</td><td>fulfill</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>apparatus</td><td>willful</td><td>police</td></tr> + <tr><td>appetite</td><td> </td><td>policies</td></tr> + <tr><td>approximate</td><td>guardian</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>opportunity</td><td>guessing</td><td>presence</td></tr> + <tr><td>opposite</td><td> </td><td>precede</td></tr> + <tr><td>disappoint</td><td>imminent</td><td>preceptor</td></tr> + <tr><td>disappearance</td><td>immediately</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>accommodation</td><td>fiend</td></tr> + <tr><td>choose</td><td>commission</td><td>siege</td></tr> + <tr><td>chosen</td><td>grammar</td><td>friend</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>inflammation</td><td>yielding</td></tr> + <tr><td>boundary</td><td>recommend</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>elementary</td><td>summary</td><td>seize</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>symmetrical</td><td>receive</td></tr> + <tr><td>final</td><td>committee</td><td>receipt</td></tr> + <tr><td>finally</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>usual</td><td>ledger</td><td>succeed</td></tr> + <tr><td>usually</td><td>legible</td><td>proceed</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>ascend</td><td>assassin</td><td>recede</td></tr> + <tr><td>ascent</td><td>dissimilar</td><td>secede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discerning</td><td>essential</td><td>accede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discipline</td><td>messenger</td><td>intercede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discontent</td><td> </td><td>concede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discreet</td><td>necessary</td><td>supersede</td></tr> + <tr><td>descent</td><td>necessity</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>passport</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>199.</b> Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single +vowel, if monosyllables, or if the last syllable is accented, double +the final consonant before the ending <i>-ed</i> and <i>-ing</i>, +but not before <i>-ence</i>; as, +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">rob, rob<i>bed</i>, rob<i>bing</i>, + rob<i>bers</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">confer, confer<i>red</i>, + confer<i>ring</i>, confer<i>ence</i>. + <a name="page_207"><span class="page">Page 207</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">transmit, transmit<i>ted</i>, + transmit<i>ting</i>, transmi<i>ssion</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">impel, impel<i>led</i>, impel<i>ling</i>, + imp<i>ulsion</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar to the above are. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +defer, infer, prefer, refer, transfer, occur (occurrence), abhor +(abhorrence), omit, remit, permit, commit, beset, impel, compel, +repel, excel (excellence), mob, sob, rub, skid. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If these words are not accented on the last syllable, the consonant +is not doubled; as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +benefit, benefit<i>ed</i>, benefit<i>ing</i>, benefi<i>cial</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +differ, summon, model. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>200.</b> Words ending in silent <i>e</i> drop the <i>e</i> before +a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">arrive, arriv<i>ing</i>, arriv<i>ed</i>, + arriv<i>al</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">precede, preced<i>ed</i>, preced<i>ing</i>, + preced<i>ence</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">receive, receiv<i>ed</i>, + receiv<i>ing</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +move, write, blame, tame, come, receive, believe, relieve, grieve, +deceive, conceive, perceive, seize, precede, concede, supersede, +recede, argue, rue, construe, woe, pursue. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>201.</b> Words ending in <i>-ge, -ce</i>, or <i>-se</i>, retain +the <i>e</i> before endings: as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +arrange, arrangement; arrange, arranging. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +gauge, manage, balance, finance, peace, service, amuse, use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>202.</b> Words in <i>-dge</i> do not retain the <i>e</i> before +endings; as, acknowledge, acknowledg<i>ment</i>, acknowledg<i>ed</i>, +acknowledg<i>ing</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +nudge, judge. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_208"><span class="page">Page 208</span></a> <b>203.</b> +Most words ending in <i>y</i> preceded by a consonant change <i>y</i> +to <i>i</i> before all endings except-<i>ing</i>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +busy, bus<i>iness</i>, bus<i>ied</i>, busy<i>ing</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +duty, mercy, penny, pity, vary, weary, study. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>204. Words of similar sound:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> +<tr><td>canvas (cloth)</td> + <td>principle (rule)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">canvass (all meanings except + <i>cloth</i>)</td> + <td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">principal (chief)</td></tr> +<tr><td>capitol (a building)</td> + <td>stationary (immovable)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">capital (all meanings except + <i>building</i>)</td> + <td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">stationery (articles)</td></tr> +<tr><td>counsel (advice or an adviser)</td> + <td>miner (a workman)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">council (a body of persons)</td> + <td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">minor (under age)</td></tr> +<tr><td>complement (a completing element)</td> + <td>angel (a spiritual being)</td></tr> +<tr><td>compliment (praise)</td> + <td>angle (geometrical)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>205. Miscellaneous words:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td>annual</td><td>laundry</td><td>schedule</td></tr> + <tr><td>awkward</td><td>leisure</td><td>separate</td></tr> + <tr><td>beneficial</td><td>lenient</td><td>Spaniard</td></tr> + <tr><td>decimal</td><td>license</td><td>speak</td></tr> + <tr><td>exhilarate</td><td>mechanical</td><td>specimen</td></tr> + <tr><td>familiarize</td><td>mediæval</td><td>speech</td></tr> + <tr><td>fiber</td><td>medicine</td><td>spherical</td></tr> + <tr><td>fibrous</td><td>militia</td><td>subtle</td></tr> + <tr><td>genuine</td><td>motor</td><td>surely</td></tr> + <tr><td>gluey</td><td>negotiate</td><td>technical</td></tr> + <tr><td>height</td><td>origin</td><td>tenement</td></tr> + <tr><td>hideous</td><td>pacified</td><td>their</td></tr> + <tr><td>hundredths</td><td>phalanx</td><td>therefore</td></tr> + <tr><td>hysterical</td><td>physique</td><td>thinnest</td></tr> + <tr><td>icicle</td><td>privilege</td><td>until</td></tr> + <tr><td>irremediable</td><td>prodigies</td><td>vengeance</td></tr> + <tr><td>laboratory</td><td>rarefy</td><td>visible</td></tr> + <tr><td>laid</td><td>rinse</td><td>wherein</td></tr> + <tr><td>larynx</td><td>saucer</td><td>yielding</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_209"><span class="page">Page 209</span></a> +Pronunciation +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>206.</b> The following list is made up of words that are frequently +mispronounced. An effort has been made to arrange them in groups +according to the most frequent source of error in their pronunciation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The only marks regularly used are the signs for the long and short +sounds of the vowel. +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> +<tr><td>ā as in <i>hate</i></td> + <td>ī as in <i>high</i></td> + <td>ū as in <i>use</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>ă as in <i>hat</i></td> + <td>ĭ as in <i>hit</i></td> + <td>ŭ as in <i>run</i></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td>ē as in <i>me</i></td> + <td>ō as in <i>old</i></td> + <td>ōō as in <i>boot</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>ĕ as in <i>met</i></td> + <td>ŏ as in <i>hop</i></td> + <td>ŏŏ as in <i>foot</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +When sounds are not otherwise indicated take the sound that comes +most naturally to the tongue. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>207. ā as in <i>hate</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;">Word</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Correct Pronunciation</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>alma mater</td><td><i>alma māter</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>apparatus</td><td><i>apparātus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>apricot</td><td><i>āpricot</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>attaché</td><td><i>ăttashā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>audacious</td><td><i>audāshus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ballet</td><td><i>băl'lā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>blasé</td><td><i>blazā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>blatant</td><td><i>blātant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chasten</td><td><i>chāsen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Cleopatra</td><td><i>Cleopātra</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>compatriot</td><td><i>compātriot</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gratis</td><td><i>grātis</i> or <i>grahtis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>harem</td><td><i>hārem</i> or <i>hahrem</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>heinous</td><td><i>hānous</i> +<a name="page_210"><span class="page">Page 210</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td>hiatus</td><td><i>hīātus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>implacable</td><td><i>implākable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nape</td><td><i>nāp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>née</td><td><i>nā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>négligé</td> + <td><i>nāglēzhā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>patron</td><td><i>pātron</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>protégé</td> + <td><i>prōtāzhā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>résumé</td><td><i>rāzumā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tenacious</td><td><i>tenāshus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tomato</td><td><i>tomāto</i> or <i>tomahto</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>valet</td> + <td><i>vă'lā</i> or <i>văl'et</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vase</td><td><i>vās, vahz</i>, or <i>vāz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>veracious</td><td><i>verāshus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vivacious</td><td><i>vivāshus</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>208. ă as in <i>hat</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">alternative</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>ălternative</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Arab</td><td><i>Ăr'ab</i>, not <i>ārab</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>arid</td><td><i>ăr'id</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>asphalt</td><td><i>asfălt</i>, not <i>fawlt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bade</td><td><i>băd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>catch</td><td>not <i>ketch</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>defalcate</td> + <td><i>defăl'kāte</i>, not <i>fawl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dilletante</td><td><i>dilletăn'te</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>forbade</td><td><i>forbăd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>granary</td><td><i>grănary</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>program</td> + <td><i>pro'grăm</i>, not <i>grum</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>rapine</td><td><i>răp'ĭn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>rational</td><td><i>rătional</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sacrament</td><td><i>săcrament</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>209. ä as in <i>arm</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">aunt</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>änt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>behalf</td><td><i>behäf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>calf</td><td><i>käf</i> + <a name="page_211"><span class="page">Page 211</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>calm</td><td><i>käm</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>half</td><td><i>häf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>laugh</td><td><i>läf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>psalm</td><td><i>säm</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>210. ē as in <i>me</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">amenable</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>amēnable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>clique</td><td><i>klēk</i>, not <i>klick</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>creek</td><td><i>krēk</i>, not <i>krick</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>either</td><td><i>ēēther</i> (preferable)</td></tr> + <tr><td>mediocre</td><td><i>mēdiocre</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>naïve</td> + <td><i>na'ēve</i> (<i>a</i> as in <i>arm</i>)</td></tr> + <tr><td>neither</td><td><i>nēēther</i> (preferable)</td></tr> + <tr><td>precedence</td><td><i>precē'dence</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>precedent</td> + <td><i>prēcē'dent</i> (when an adjective)</td></tr> + <tr><td>predecessor</td><td><i>prēdecessor</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>predilection</td><td><i>prēdilection</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>premature</td><td><i>prēmature</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>quay</td><td><i>kē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>resplendent</td><td><i>rēsplen'dent</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sacrilegious</td> + <td><i>sacrilēgious</i>, not -<i>religious</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>series</td><td><i>sērēz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sleek</td><td><i>slēk</i>, not <i>slick</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>suite</td><td><i>swēt</i>, not like <i>boot</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>211. ĕ as in <i>met</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">again</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>agĕn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>against</td><td><i>agĕnst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>crematory</td> + <td><i>krĕm'atōrў</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>deaf</td><td><i>dĕf</i>, not <i>dēf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>heroine</td> + <td><i>hĕroĭn</i>, not like <i>hero</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>measure</td> + <td><i>mĕzhure</i>, not <i>mā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>metric</td><td><i>mĕtrik</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>precedent</td><td><i>prĕc'edent</i> (noun) + <a name="page_212"><span class="page">Page 212</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>prelate</td><td><i>prĕl'āt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>presentation</td><td><i>prĕzentation</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sesame</td><td><i>sĕs'amē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>steady</td> + <td><i>stĕdy</i>, not <i>stĭddy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tenet</td><td><i>tĕn'ĕt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>weapon</td> + <td><i>wĕpon</i>, not <i>wēpon</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>212. ī as in <i>high</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">appendicitis</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>appendicītis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>biennial</td><td><i>bīennial</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>biography</td><td><i>bīography</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bronchitis</td><td><i>bronkītis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>carbine</td><td><i>carbīne</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>decisive</td><td><i>decīsive</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>demise</td><td><i>demīse</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dynasty</td><td><i>dī'năstў</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>finis</td><td><i>fīnis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>grimy</td><td><i>grīmy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hiatus</td><td><i>hīā'tus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inquiry</td><td><i>inquī'ry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>long-lived</td><td><i>long-līvd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>peritonitis</td><td><i>peritonītis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>privacy</td><td><i>prīvacy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>short-lived</td><td><i>short-līvd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>simultaneous</td><td><i>sīmultaneous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tiny</td><td><i>tīny</i>, not <i>tēny</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>213. ĭ as in <i>hit</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">bicycle</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>bī'sĭcle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>breeches</td><td><i>brĭches</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>breeching</td><td><i>brĭching</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>feminine</td><td><i>femĭnĭn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>genuine</td><td><i>genuĭn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hypocrisy</td><td><i>hĭpŏk'rĭsў</i> + <a name="page_213"><span class="page">Page 213</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>italic</td><td><i>ĭtăl'ĭk</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Italian</td><td><i>ĭtalyan</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>maritime</td><td><i>marĭtĭm</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pretty</td><td><i>prĭtty</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>puerile</td><td><i>pū'erĭl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>respite</td><td><i>rĕs'pĭt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tribune</td><td><i>trĭb'ŭn</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>214. ō as in <i>old</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">Adonis</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Adōnis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>apropos</td><td><i>aprōpō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bowsprit</td><td><i>bōwsprit</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>brooch</td> + <td><i>brōch</i> not <i>brōōsh</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>compromise</td><td><i>comprōmize</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>jowl</td><td><i>jōl</i>, not like <i>owl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>molecular</td><td><i>mōlecular</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ogle</td><td><i>ōgle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>trow</td><td><i>trō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vocable</td><td><i>vōcable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>zoology</td> + <td><i>zōology</i>, not <i>zōō</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>215. ŏ as in <i>hop</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">choler</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>kŏler</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dolorous</td><td><i>dŏlorous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>florid</td><td><i>flŏrid</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>molecule</td><td><i>mŏlecule</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>obelisk</td><td><i>ŏbelisk</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>probity</td><td><i>prŏbity</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>solecism</td><td><i>sŏlesism</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>solstice</td><td><i>sŏlstice</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>stolid</td><td><i>stŏlid</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>216. ōō as in <i>boot</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">bouquet</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>bōōkā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>canteloupe</td><td><i>can'talōōp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>coup d'état</td><td><i>kōō data'</i> + <a name="page_214"><span class="page">Page 214</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>coupon</td><td><i>kōō'pŏn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ghoul</td><td><i>gōōl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hoof</td><td><i>hōōf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>roof</td><td><i>rōōf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>root</td><td><i>rōōt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>route</td><td><i>rōōt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>routine</td><td><i>rōōtine</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>wound</td><td><i>wōōnd</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>217. ū as in <i>use</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">accurate</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>ăk'kūrāt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>culinary</td><td><i>kūlinary</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gubernatorial</td><td><i>gūbernatorial</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>jugular</td><td><i>jūgular</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>218. ŭ as in <i>us</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">constable</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>kŭnstable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>courtesan</td><td><i>kŭr'tezăn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hover</td><td><i>hŭver</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>iron</td><td><i>iŭrn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>monetary</td><td><i>mŭnetary</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nothing</td><td><i>nŭthing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>wont</td> + <td><i>wŭnt</i> (different from <i>won't</i>)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>219. Miscellaneous words.</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">adobe</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>adō'bā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>algebra</td><td>not <i>brā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>alien</td><td><i>ālyen</i>, not <i>alien</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ameliorate</td><td><i>amēlyorate</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>antarctic</td><td><i>antarktik</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>anti</td><td>not <i>antī</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>archangel</td><td><i>arkangel</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>archbishop</td><td><i>arch</i>, not <i>ark</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>arch fiend</td><td><i>arch</i>, not <i>ark</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>architect</td><td><i>arkitect</i> + <a name="page_215"><span class="page">Page 215</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>awkward</td><td><i>awkward</i>, not <i>ard</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Beethoven</td><td><i>bātōven</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Bingen</td><td><i>Bĭng'en</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>blackguard</td><td><i>blag'gard</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Bowdoin</td><td><i>bōdn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>brougham</td><td><i>brōōm</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>business</td><td><i>bizness</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>caldron</td><td><i>kawldron</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>calk</td><td><i>kawk</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Cayenne</td><td><i>kīen'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>courtier</td><td><i>kortyer</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>cuckoo</td><td><i>kŏŏkōō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dilemma</td><td><i>dīlĕm'ma</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>directly</td><td>not <i>dīrectly</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dishevelled</td><td><i>dishev'ld</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Don Juan</td> + <td><i>Don Jūan</i> or <i>hōōan</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>drought</td><td><i>drowt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>drouth</td><td><i>drowth</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>extempore</td> + <td><i>extĕmpore</i> (four syllables)</td></tr> + <tr><td>familiarity</td><td><i>familyarity</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gaol</td><td><i>jāl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>genealogy</td> + <td><i>-alogy</i>, not <i>-ology</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gemus</td><td><i>genyus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Gloucester</td><td><i>gloster</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gooseberry</td> + <td><i>gōōz</i>, not <i>gōōs</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Hawaiian</td> + <td><i>Hawī'yan</i> (<i>a</i> as in <i>arm</i>)</td></tr> + <tr><td>Helena</td> + <td><i>hĕl'ena</i> (except <i>St. + Helē'na</i>)</td></tr> + <tr><td>inconvenience</td><td><i>inconvenyence</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Israel</td> + <td><i>izrael</i>, not <i>issrael</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>jeans</td><td><i>jānes</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>joust</td><td><i>jŭst</i> or + <i>jōōst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>larynx</td> + <td><i>lăr'inx'</i> or <i>lā'rinx</i>, not + <i>larnix</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>literature</td> + <td><i>literatūre</i>, or <i>chōōr</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Messrs.</td> + <td><i>mĕshyerz</i> or <i>mĕsyerz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Mineralogy</td> + <td><i>-alogy</i>, not <i>-ology</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nature</td><td><i>natūre</i>, or <i>chōōr</i> + <a name="page_216"><span class="page">Page 216</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>oleomargarine</td> + <td><i>g</i> is hard, as in <i>get</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>orchid</td><td><i>orkid</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>oust</td><td><i>owst</i>, not + <i>ōōst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>peculiar</td><td><i>pecūlyar</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pecuniary</td> + <td><i>pēkūn'yārĭ</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>perspiration</td><td>not <i>prespiratian</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>prestige</td> + <td><i>prĕs'tĭj</i> or + <i>prĕstēzh'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pronunciation</td> + <td><i>pronunzēāshun</i> or + <i>pronunshēāshun</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>saucy</td><td>not <i>săssy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>schedule</td><td><i>skedyŭl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>semi</td><td>not <i>semī</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>theater</td> + <td><i>thē'āter</i> not + <i>thēā'ter</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>turgid</td><td><i>turjid</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>usage</td><td><i>uzage</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>usurp</td><td><i>uzurp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vermilion</td><td><i>vermilyun</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>wife's</td><td>not <i>wives</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Xerxes</td><td><i>zerxes</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>220. Words with a silent letter:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">almond</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>ahmŭnd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chasten</td><td><i>chāsen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chestnut</td><td><i>chesnut</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>glisten</td><td><i>glissen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>kiln</td><td><i>kill</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>often</td><td><i>ofen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ostler</td><td><i>ŏsler</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>poignant</td><td><i>poin'ant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>psalter</td><td><i>sawlter</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>salmon</td><td><i>samun</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>schism</td><td><i>sism</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>soften</td><td><i>sofen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>subtle</td><td><i>sutle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sword</td><td><i>sord</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>thyme</td><td><i>time</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>toward</td><td><i>tord</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_217"><span class="page">Page 217</span></a> +<b>221. Works chiefly of foreign pronunciation:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;">Word</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Correct Pronunciation</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>bivouac</td><td><i>biv'wak</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chargé d'affaires</td> + <td><i>shar zhā'daffār'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>connoisseur</td><td><i>connissur</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dishabille</td><td><i>dis'abil</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ennui</td> + <td><i>onwē</i>, not <i>ongwē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>finale</td><td><i>finah'le</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>foyer</td><td><i>fwayā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>massage</td><td><i>masahzh</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>naïve</td><td><i>nah'ēv</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>papier maché</td> + <td><i>papyā mahshā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>piquant</td><td><i>pē'kant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>prima facie</td> + <td><i>prīma fā'shiē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pro tempore</td> + <td><i>prō tĕm'porē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>régime</td><td><i>rāzhēm'</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>222. Words often pronounced with a wrong number of syllables:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">aerial</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>āēreal</i>, not + <i>ārēal</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>athlete</td> + <td>two sylables, not <i>ath e lete</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>attacked</td><td><i>attakt</i>, two syllables</td></tr> + <tr><td>casualty</td> + <td><i>kazh'ualte</i>, not <i>ality</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>conduit</td><td><i>cŏndit</i> or <i>kŏndit</i>, + not <i>dōōit</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>different</td> + <td>three syllables, not <i>diffrunt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>elm</td><td>not <i>ellum</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>helm</td><td>not <i>hel um</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>history</td> + <td>three syllables, not <i>histry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>honorable</td><td>not <i>honrable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hygienic</td> + <td><i>hy gi en' ic</i>, four syllables</td></tr> + <tr><td>interest</td><td>not <i>intrust</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>interesting</td><td>not <i>intrusting</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ivory</td><td>not <i>ivry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>omelet</td><td>not <i>omlet</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>realm</td><td>not <i>rellum</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>separable</td><td>not <i>seprable</i> + <a name="page_218"><span class="page">Page 218</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>ticklish</td> + <td>two syllables, not <i>tickelish</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>valuable</td> + <td><i>valuable</i>, not <i>valuble</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vaudeville</td> + <td><i>vŏdvĭl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Zeus</td> + <td><i>zūs</i>, not <i>zēus</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>223. Words accented on the first syllable:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">admirable</td> + <td style="width: 50%;">ad'mirable</td></tr> + <tr><td>alias</td><td><i>ā'lias</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>applicable</td><td><i>ap'plicable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bicycle</td><td><i>bī'sĭkle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chastisement</td><td><i>chas'tisement</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>construe</td><td><i>con'strue</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>despicable</td><td><i>des'picable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>desultory</td><td><i>des'ultory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>disputant</td><td><i>dis'putant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>exigency</td><td><i>ex'ijency</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>explicable</td><td><i>ex'plicable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>exquisite</td><td><i>ex'quisite</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>extant</td><td><i>ex'tant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>formidable</td><td><i>for'midable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Genoa</td><td><i>jen'ōa</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gondola</td><td><i>gon'dōla</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>harass</td><td><i>har'ass</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hospitable</td><td><i>hos'pitable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>impious</td><td><i>im'pious</i>, not <i>impīous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>industry</td><td><i>in'dustry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inventory</td><td><i>in'ventory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>lamentable</td><td><i>lam'entable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>mischievous</td><td><i>mis'chievous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>obligatory</td><td><i>ob'ligatory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pariah</td><td><i>pa'riah</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>peremptory</td><td><i>per'emptory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>preferable</td><td><i>pref'erable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Romola</td><td><i>Rōm'ola</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vehemence</td><td><i>vē'hemence</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_219"><span class="page">Page 219</span></a> <b>224. +Words accented on the second syllable:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;">Word</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Correct Pronunciation</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>abdomen</td><td><i>abdō'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>acclimate</td><td><i>acclī'mate</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>acumen</td><td><i>acū'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>albumen</td><td><i>albū'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>artificer</td><td><i>artif'iser</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bitumen</td><td><i>bitū'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chicanery</td><td><i>shikā'nery</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>illustrate</td><td><i>illus'trate</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>incognito</td> + <td><i>ĭnkŏg'nĭtō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>incomparable</td><td><i>incom'parable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>indisputable</td><td><i>indis'putable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inexorable</td><td><i>inex'orable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inexplicable</td><td><i>inex'plicable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inhospitable</td><td><i>inhos'pitable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inquiry</td><td><i>inquī'ry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>irrevocable</td><td><i>irrev'ocable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>misconstrue</td><td><i>miscon'strue</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nitrogenous</td><td><i>nītroj'enous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>opponent</td><td><i>oppo'nent</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pianist</td><td><i>pian'ist</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>refutable</td><td><i>refut'able</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>syllabic</td><td><i>syllab'ic</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>telegraphy</td><td><i>teleg'raphy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vagary</td><td><i>vagā'ry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Yosemite</td> + <td><i>yō sĕm' ĭ te</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>225. Words accented on the last syllable:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">address</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>address'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>adept</td><td><i>adept'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>adult</td><td><i>adult'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ally</td><td><i>ally'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>commandant</td> + <td><i>commandänt' (ä as in arm)</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>contour</td><td><i>contour'</i> + <a name="page_220"><span class="page">Page 220</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>dessert</td><td><i>dessert'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dilate</td><td><i>dilate'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>excise</td><td><i>ĕksīz'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>finance</td><td><i>finance'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>grimace</td><td><i>grimāce'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>importune</td><td><i>importūne'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>occult</td><td><i>occult'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pretence</td><td><i>prētence'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>research</td><td><i>rēsearch'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>robust</td><td><i>rōbust'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>romance</td><td><i>rōmance'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tirade</td><td><i>tīrade'</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>226. Words whose pronunciation depends on meaning:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">accent</td> + <td><i>Accent'</i> the first syllable.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Place the <i>ac'cent</i> upon the first + syllable.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">aged</td> + <td>An <i>a'ged</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Properly <i>aged</i> wine (one + syllable).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">blessed</td> + <td>The <i>bless'ed</i> saints.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Let them be <i>blessed</i> (one + syllable).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">contrast</td> + <td>The strange <i>con'trast</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td><i>Contrast'</i> the two.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">converse</td> + <td>Did you <i>converse'</i> with him?</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Is the <i>con'verse</i> true?</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">desert</td> + <td>The sandy <i>des'ert</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>They <i>desert'</i> their friends.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">learned</td> + <td>He <i>learned</i> (one syllable) to sing.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>A <i>learn ed</i> man.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">precedent</td> + <td>A <i>prēcē'dent</i> place.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>It establishes a + <i>prĕc'edent</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">project</td> + <td>A new <i>proj'ect</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>To <i>project'</i> from.</td></tr> +</table> + +<h2> +<a name="page_221"><span class="page">Page 221</span></a> +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS +</h2> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Admire.</b> Do not use <i>admire</i> in the sense of <i>like</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I should <i>admire</i> to be able + to do that.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I should <i>like</i> to be able to + do that.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Aggravate.</b> Do not use <i>aggravate</i> in the sense of +<i>irritate</i> or <i>disturb</i>. <i>Aggravate</i> means <i>to +make worse</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: His impudence <i>aggravates</i> + me.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: His impudence <i>irritates</i> + me.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Ain't.</b> <i>Ain't</i> and <i>hain't</i> are never proper as +contractions of <i>am not, is not</i>, or <i>are not</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Allow.</b> Do not use <i>allow</i> in the sense of <i>assert, +say</i>, or <i>intend</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>allowed</i> that he had + better start. I <i>allow</i> to be back before noon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>said</i> that he had better + start. I <i>intend</i> to be back before noon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Allude.</b> Do not use <i>allude</i> in the sense of <i>refer</i>. +To <i>allude</i> to a thing means to refer to it in an indirect +way. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>alluded</i> by name to John + Milton.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>alluded</i> to Milton by the + term "Blind Poet."</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Any.</b> Do not use <i>any</i> in the sense of <i>at all</i> +or <i>to any degree</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: Because of the injury he can not see <i>any</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>As.</b> Do not use <i>as</i> for the relative pronouns <i>who</i> +and <i>that</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I am the man <i>as</i> digs your + garden. Not <i>as</i> I remember.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I am the man <i>who</i> digs your + garden. Not <i>that</i> I remember.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_222"><span class="page">Page 222</span></a> <b>As.</b> +Do not use <i>as</i> in the sense of <i>since</i> or <i>because</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I cannot come <i>as</i> I am + sick now.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I cannot come; I am sick + now.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I cannot come <i>because</i> + I am sick now.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>At.</b> Do not use <i>at</i> for <i>in</i> with the names of +large cities +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He lives <i>at</i> + Philadelphia.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He lives <i>in</i> + Philadelphia.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Attackted.</b> Do not use this form for <i>attacked</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Awful, awfully.</b> These are two very much overworked words. +Substitute other and more accurate expressions. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We have had an <i>awfully</i> + good time. That is an <i>awfully</i> pretty dress.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: We have had an <i>exceedingly</i> + nice time. That is a <i>very</i> pretty dress.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Badly.</b> Do not use <i>badly</i> in the sense of <i>very much</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: She wanted <i>badly</i> to + come.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: She wanted <i>very much</i> to + come.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Beside, besides.</b> <i>Beside</i> means <i>next to. Besides</i> +means <i>in addition to</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: John lives <i>beside</i> his + mother.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Besides</i> the daughters, there + are three sons.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Between.</b> Do not use <i>between</i> when referring to more +than two objects. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There is bad feeling <i>between</i> + the members of the class.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There is bad feeling <i>among</i> + the members of the class.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Blowed.</b> Do not use <i>blowed</i> for <i>blew</i> or <i>blown</i>. +There is no such word. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_223"><span class="page">Page 223</span></a> <b>Best.</b> +Do not use <i>best</i> when only two objects are referred to. Use +<i>better</i>. <i>Best</i> should be used only when more than two +are referred to. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He is the <i>best</i> of the two + brothers.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is the <i>better</i> of the two + brothers.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is the <i>best</i> of the three + brothers.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Bound.</b> Do not use <i>bound</i> for <i>determined</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He was <i>bound</i> to go + skating.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was <i>determined</i> to go + skating.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>bound</i> himself to pay + three hundred dollars.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>But.</b> Do not use <i>but</i> after a negative in the sense +of <i>only</i>. See <b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>isn't but</i> one + apple left.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>is but</i> one apple + left.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Calculate.</b> Do not use <i>calculate</i> in the sense of <i>think, +expect</i>, or <i>intend</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Can.</b> Do not use <i>can</i> to denote permission. It denotes +ability or possibility. <i>May</i> denotes permission. See +<b>§69</b> +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Can</i> I speak to you for a + minute?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>May</i> I speak to you for a + moment?</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Character, reputation.</b> Do not confuse these two words. +<i>Character</i> means one's moral condition. <i>Reputation</i> +means the morality that others believe one to possess. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Clum.</b> There is no such form of the verb <i>climb</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Complected.</b> Do not use <i>complected</i> for <i>complexioned</i>. +See <b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Conclude.</b> Do not use conclude in the sense of <i>forming +an intention.</i> +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Finally, I <i>decided</i> to go + home.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I was forced to <i>conclude</i> that + I had made an error.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_224"><span class="page">Page 224</span></a> +<b>Considerable.</b> Do not use <i>considerable</i> in the sense +of <i>very much</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: This lesson is <i>considerable</i> better than yesterday's. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Cute.</b> A much overworked word. Use some expression that is +more accurate; as, <i>pretty, amusing</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Decease, disease.</b> Do not confuse <i>decease</i> and +<i>disease</i>. The first means <i>death</i>, the second +<i>sickness</i>. <i>The deceased</i> means a person who is dead. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The <i>diseased</i> will be buried + at four o'clock.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The property of the <i>diseased</i> + will be sold at auction.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Decease.</b> Do not use <i>decease</i> as a verb in the sense +of <i>die</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: His father <i>deceased</i> last year. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Demand.</b> <i>Demand</i> should not have a person as its object. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>demanded</i> John to + pay.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>demanded</i> payment from John. + He <i>demanded</i> that John pay.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Different.</b> Use the preposition <i>from</i> after +<i>different</i>, not <i>than</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Don't.</b> Do not use <i>don't</i> with a subject in the third +person singular. See <b>§64</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Down.</b> Do not use <i>down</i> as a verb in the sense of +<i>defeat</i> or <i>overthrow</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Our football team <i>has downed</i> + every other team in the state.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Our football team <i>has defeated</i> + every other team in the state.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Drownded.</b> <i>Drownded</i> is not a proper form of the verb +<i>drown</i>. Say <i>drowned</i>. (Pronounced <i>drownd.</i>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Each other.</b> Do not use <i>each other</i> to refer to more +than two objects. See <b>§44</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The members of the regiment helped + <i>each other</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The members of the regiment helped + <i>one another</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_225"><span class="page">Page 225</span></a> <b>Effect, +affect.</b> Do not confuse <i>effect</i> and <i>affect. Effect</i> +means <i>a result</i>, or <i>to cause a thing to be done. Affect</i> +means <i>to disturb</i> or <i>have an influence on</i>. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The news <i>effected</i> him + seriously.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The news <i>affected</i> him + seriously.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The <i>affect</i> of this news + was to cause war.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The <i>effect</i> of this news + was to cause war.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Either.</b> Do not use <i>either</i> with reference to more than +two objects, nor follow it by a plural verb. See <b>§43</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Either</i> of the three will + do. <i>Either</i> you or John <i>have</i> done it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Any one</i> of the three will + do. <i>Either</i> you or John <i>has</i> done it.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Emigrate, immigrate.</b> Do not confuse <i>emigrate</i> and +<i>immigrate</i>. <i>To emigrate</i> means <i>to go out of a place</i>, +to <i>immigrate</i> means <i>to come into a place</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The Italians <i>emigrate</i> from + their country.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Of those who <i>immigrate</i> to + America, a large number are Italians.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Enough.</b> Do not follow <i>enough</i> by a clause beginning +with <i>that</i> or <i>so that</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I studied <i>enough</i> that I could + recite the lesson.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I studied <i>enough to</i> recite + the lesson.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Enthuse.</b> Do not use <i>enthuse</i> in the sense of to create +enthusiasm. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He tried to <i>enthuse</i> his + audience.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He tried to <i>arouse</i> enthusiasm + in his audience.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Etc.</b> <i>Etc.</i> stands for <i>et cetera</i>, and means +<i>and so forth</i>. Do not spell it <i>ect</i>. Do not use it in +composition that is intended to be elegant. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Everybody.</b> <i>Everybody</i> should not be followed by a plural +verb or a plural pronoun. See <b>§21</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_226"><span class="page">Page 226</span></a> <b>Except, +accept.</b> Do not confuse these two words. <i>Accept</i> means +<i>to acknowledge</i>. <i>Except</i> means <i>to exclude</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I cannot <i>accept</i> such slovenly + work.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>except</i> your apology.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Except.</b> Do not use <i>except</i> for <i>unless</i>. See +<b>§85</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I can not sleep <i>except</i> it is quiet. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Expect.</b> Do not use <i>expect</i> in the sense of <i>suppose</i> +or <i>think</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>expect</i> you have read + that book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>suppose</i> you have read + that book.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Fine.</b> Do not use <i>fine</i> in place of some more definite +word. <i>Fine</i> is a much over-worked word. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The book is <i>fine</i> for + class-room work.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The book is <i>well adapted</i> + for class-room work.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Firstly.</b> <i>Firstly</i> should never be used. Say <i>first</i>. +See <b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>First-rate.</b> Do not use <i>first-rate</i> as an adverb in +the sense of <i>very well</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: That does + <i>first-rate</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: That does <i>very + well</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is a <i>first-rate + fellow</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Former.</b> Do not use <i>former</i> when more than two are referred +to. Say <i>first</i>. See <b>§41</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>From.</b> Do not use <i>from</i> with <i>whence, hence</i> and +<i>thence</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>From whence</i> have you + come?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Whence</i> have you come? + <i>From where</i> have you come?</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Funny.</b> Do not use <i>funny</i> for <i>singular</i> or +<i>strange</i>. <i>Funny</i> is an overworked word. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It is <i>funny</i> that he + died.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It is <i>singular</i> that he + died.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Gent.</b> Do not use the word at all. Say <i>gentleman</i> or +<i>man</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_227"><span class="page">Page 227</span></a> +<b>Gentleman.</b> Do not use <i>gentleman</i> to denote sex only. +Say <i>man</i>. <i>Gentleman</i> is properly used, however, to +denote a person of refinement. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Only <i>gentlemen</i> are allowed + to vote in Pennsylvania.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Mr. Lincoln was a <i>gentleman</i> + in the true sense of the word.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Got.</b> Do not use got with <i>have</i> or <i>had</i> to indicate +merely <i>possession</i> or <i>obligation. Got</i> means acquired +through effort. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>have got</i> the measles. You + <i>have got</i> to do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>have</i> the measles. You + <i>must</i> do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: After much study I <i>have got</i> + my lesson.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Grand.</b> Do not use <i>grand</i> in place of some more definite +and accurate expression. It is another over-worked word. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We have had a <i>grand time</i> this + afternoon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: We have had a <i>very pleasant</i> + time this afternoon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Guess.</b> Do not use <i>guess</i> in the sense of <i>think</i> +or <i>suppose</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>guess</i> the trains are late + to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>suppose</i> the trains are + late to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Can you <i>guess</i> the + riddle?</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Had ought.</b> Do not use <i>had</i> with <i>ought</i>. See +<b>§54</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Hardly.</b> Do not use <i>hardly</i> after a negative. See +<b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>can not hardly</i> believe + that.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>can hardly</i> believe + that.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Have.</b> Do not use <i>have</i> after <i>had</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: If I <i>had have been</i> able + to go.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: If I <i>had been</i> able to + go.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Heighth.</b> Do not use <i>heighth</i> for <i>height</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_228"><span class="page">Page 228</span></a> +<b>Hung.</b> Do not confuse <i>hung</i> and <i>hanged</i>. +<i>Hanged</i> is the proper word to use in reference to executions. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He was condemned <i>to be + hung</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was condemned <i>to be + hanged</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The picture was <i>hung</i> + in the parlor.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Humbug.</b> Do not use <i>humbug</i> as a verb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He has <i>humbugged</i> the people for years. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Illy.</b> Do not use <i>illy</i> for the adverb <i>ill</i>. See +<b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>In, into.</b> Do not confuse <i>in</i> and <i>into</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He went <i>in</i> the + house.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He went <i>into</i> the + house.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He exercised <i>in</i> a + gymnasium.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Kind.</b> Do not precede kind by <i>those</i> or <i>these</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I do not like <i>those kind</i> + of plays.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I do not like <i>that kind</i> + of play.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Kind of a.</b> Do not use <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> after <i>kind +of</i>. See <b>§47</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It is <i>one kind of</i> a + mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It is <i>one kind of</i> + mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lady.</b> Do not use <i>lady</i> to designate sex only. It is +properly used to indicate persons of refinement. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored + <i>lady</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored + <i>woman</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Mrs. Johnson is a colored + <i>woman</i>, and <i>a lady</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Latter.</b> Do not use <i>latter</i> to refer to more than two +objects. Use <i>last</i>. See <b>§41</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lay.</b> Do not confuse <i>lay</i> and <i>lie</i>. See +<b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Learn.</b> Do not confuse <i>learn</i> and <i>teach</i>. <i>Learn</i> +means <i>to acquire knowledge. Teach</i> means <i>to impart +knowledge</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He can <i>learn</i> you as much as + any one can.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He can <i>teach</i> you as much as + any one can.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_229"><span class="page">Page 229</span></a> <b>Leave.</b> +Do not confuse <i>leave</i> and <i>let</i>. Leave means <i>to let +remain</i>. Let means <i>to give permission</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Will your mother <i>leave</i> + you go?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Will your mother <i>let</i> you + go?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I shall <i>leave</i> my trunk in + my room.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Liable.</b> Do not use <i>liable</i> for <i>likely</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It is <i>liable</i> to rain + to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It is <i>likely</i> to rain + to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is <i>liable</i> for all + that he has agreed to pay.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lightning.</b> Do not use <i>lightning</i> as a verb in place +of <i>lightens</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: During the storm, it + <i>lightnings</i> frequently.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: During the storm, it + <i>lightens</i> frequently.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Like.</b> Do not use <i>like</i> for <i>as</i>. <i>Like</i> is +a preposition. <i>As</i> is a conjunction. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He doesn't talk <i>like</i> he did + yesterday.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He doesn't talk <i>as</i> he did + yesterday.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It looks <i>like</i> a mahogany + chair.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lit on.</b> Do not use <i>lit on</i> in the sense of <i>met with</i> +or <i>discovered</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I at last <i>lit on</i> this plan. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lot.</b> Do not use <i>lot</i> in the sense of <i>a great number</i> +or <i>a great deal</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: A <i>lot</i> of people were there, She talks <i>a lot</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Most.</b> Do not use <i>most</i> for <i>almost</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I have <i>most</i> completed + the book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I have <i>almost</i> completed + the book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He has done <i>the most</i> of + the work.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Mrs.</b> Do not use <i>Mrs.</i> before titles; as, <i>Mrs. President, +Mrs. Professor, Mrs. Doctor</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_230"><span class="page">Page 230</span></a> <b>Much.</b> +Do not use <i>much</i> for <i>many</i>. <i>Much</i> refers to quantity. +<i>Many</i> refers to number. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: As <i>much as</i> five hundred + people were present.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: As <i>many as</i> five hundred + people were present.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Mutual.</b> Do not confuse <i>mutual</i> and <i>common</i>. +<i>Mutual</i> means <i>interchanged</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: John and William had a + <i>mutual</i> liking for Mary.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: John and William had a + <i>common</i> liking for Mary.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: John and William had a + <i>mutual</i> liking for each other. +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Near.</b> Do not use <i>near</i> for <i>nearly</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He ran <i>near</i> all the way + to the station. I came <i>nearly</i> making the same + mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He ran <i>nearly</i> all the way + to the station. I came <i>near</i> making the same + mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Nerve.</b> Do not use <i>nerve</i> in the sense of <i>impudence</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Newsy.</b> Do not use <i>newsy</i> in the sense of <i>full of +news</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Neither.</b> Do not use <i>neither</i> with reference to more +than two objects, nor follow it by a plural verb. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Neither</i> of the three could + come. <i>Neither</i> of the two <i>are</i> here.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>No one</i> of the three could + come. <i>Neither</i> of the two <i>is</i> here.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>No good.</b> Do not use <i>no good</i> in the sense of +<i>worthless</i> or <i>not good</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: The book is <i>no good</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>No place.</b> Do not use <i>no place</i> after a negative. See +<b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I am not going <i>no + place</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I am not going <i>anywhere</i>. + I <i>am going nowhere</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Notorious.</b> Do not use <i>notorious</i> in the sense of +<i>famous</i> or <i>noted. Notorious</i> means of <i>evil +reputation</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Gladstone was a <i>notorious</i> + statesman of England.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Several <i>notorious thieves</i> + were arrested.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_231"><span class="page">Page 231</span></a> <b>Nowhere +near.</b> Do not use <i>nowhere near</i> for <i>not nearly</i>. +See <b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Nowhere near</i> so many people + came as were expected.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Not nearly</i> so many people + came as were expected.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: James was <i>nowhere near</i> the + scene of the fire.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Of.</b> Do not use <i>of</i> for <i>have</i> in such expressions +as <i>could, have, might have, should have</i>, etc. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: If I <i>could of</i> been + there.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: If I <i>could have</i> been + there.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Only.</b> Guard against the improper use of <i>only</i> after +a negative. See <b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>are not only</i> four + books on that subject.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>are only</i> four books + on that subject.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Outside of.</b> Do not use <i>outside of</i> for <i>aside from</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Outside of</i> James, all had + a good time.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Aside from</i> James, all had + a good time.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Over with.</b> Do not use <i>over with</i> for <i>over</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I must write the letter and have it <i>over with</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Pants.</b> Do not use the word <i>pants</i> for <i>trousers</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Photo.</b> Do not use <i>photo</i> for <i>photograph</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Piece.</b> Do not use <i>piece</i> in the sense of <i>way</i> +or <i>distance</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I shall walk a <i>little piece</i> + with you.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I shall walk a <i>little way</i> + with you.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Place.</b> Do not use <i>place</i> after <i>any, every, no</i>, +etc., in the sense of <i>anywhere, everywhere, nowhere</i>, etc. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I can not find it <i>any + place</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I can not find it + <i>anywhere</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Plenty.</b> Do not use <i>plenty</i> as an adjective or an adverb. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Money is <i>plenty</i>. He is + <i>plenty able</i> to do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Money is <i>plentiful</i>. He is + <i>quite able</i> to do it.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_232"><span class="page">Page 232</span></a> +<b>Poorly.</b> Do not use <i>poorly</i> for <i>ill</i> or <i>bad</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He feels very <i>poorly</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Principle, principal.</b> Do not confuse <i>principle</i> and +<i>principal</i>. <i>Principle</i> means a <i>rule</i> or <i>truth</i>. +<i>Principal</i> means <i>leader, chief, the most important</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Propose.</b> Do not use <i>propose</i> in the sense of <i>intend</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>propose</i> to tell all I + know.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>intend</i> to tell all I + know.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Providing.</b> Do not use <i>providing</i> for <i>if</i> or <i>on +the condition</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I will go <i>providing</i> you can get tickets for three. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: I will go <i>on the condition that</i> you get the tickets. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Raise, rise.</b> Do not confuse <i>raise</i> with <i>rise</i>. +See <b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Recommend, recommendation.</b> Do not use <i>recommend</i> as +a noun. <i>Recommendation</i> is the noun. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Her employer gave her a good + <i>recommend</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Her employer gave her a good + <i>recommendation</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Right away, right off.</b> Do not use <i>right away</i> or <i>right +off</i> in the sense of <i>immediately</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: After the play we will come + <i>right off</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: After the play we will come + <i>at once</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Same.</b> Do not use <i>same</i> as a pronoun. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I will write the letter and mail + <i>same</i> at once.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I will write the letter and mail + <i>it</i> at once.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Say.</b> Do not use <i>say</i> in the sense of <i>order</i> or +<i>command</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Your mother <i>said for</i> you to + come home at once.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Your mother <i>said that</i> you + should come home at once.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Scarcely.</b> Do not use <i>scarcely</i> after a negative. See +<b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>was not scarcely</i> a + pound of meat for us all.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>was scarcely</i> a pound + of meat for us all.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_233"><span class="page">Page 233</span></a> <b>Seldom +ever.</b> Do not use <i>seldom</i> with <i>ever</i>. Say instead +<i>seldom</i> or <i>seldom, if ever</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Fires <i>seldom ever</i> + occur.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Fires <i>seldom</i> occur. Fires + <i>seldom, if ever</i> occur.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Shut of.</b> Do not use <i>shut of</i> in the sense of <i>rid +of</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: We are <i>shut of</i> him at last. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sight.</b> Do not use <i>sight</i> in the sense of <i>many</i> +or <i>much</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: A great <i>sight of people</i> + flocked to hear him.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: A great <i>many people</i> + flocked to hear him.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sit, set.</b> Do not confuse these two words. See <b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>So.</b> Do not use <i>so</i> alone as a conjunction. Say <i>so +that</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He spoke in the open air, <i>so</i> + more could see and hear him.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He spoke in the open air, <i>so + that</i> more could see and hear him.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Some.</b> Do not use <i>some</i> as an adverb in the sense of +<i>somewhat</i> or a <i>little</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He plays the violin + <i>some</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He plays the violin <i>a + little</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sort of a.</b> Do not use <i>a</i> after <i>sort of</i>. See +<i>Kind of a</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sort.</b> Do not precede <i>sort</i> by <i>these</i> or <i>those</i>. +See <i>Kind</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Such.</b> Do not follow <i>such</i> by <i>who, which</i>, or +<i>that</i> as relatives. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: All <i>such persons who</i> think + so will soon see their mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: All <i>such persons as</i> think + so will soon see their mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He spoke with <i>such</i> force + <i>that</i> we were compelled to listen. (<i>That</i> is + not a relative here.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Tasty.</b> Do not use <i>tasty</i> in the sense of <i>tasteful</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>That.</b> Do not use <i>that</i> as an adverb. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I did not think the book was + <i>that</i> small.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I did not think that the book + was <i>so</i> small.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_234"><span class="page">Page 234</span></a> <b>That +there, this here, these here, those there.</b> <i>There</i> and +<i>here</i>, in all these expressions are worse than unnecessary. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Them there.</b> Do not use <i>them there</i> for <i>those</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Bring me <i>them there</i> + books.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Bring me <i>those</i> + books.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Three first, two first, etc.</b> Do not say <i>three first</i>, +but <i>first three</i>. There can be only one <i>first</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Too.</b> Do not use <i>too</i> alone before a verb or a participle. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He is <i>too excited</i> to listen + to you.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is <i>too much excited</i> to + listen to you.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Very.</b> Do not use <i>very</i> alone before a verb or a participle. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: You are <i>very</i> + mistaken.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: You are <i>very much</i> + mistaken.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Wait on, wait for.</b> Do not confuse these two expressions. +<i>Wait on</i> means <i>to serve</i>. <i>Wait for</i> means <i>to +await</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Do not <i>wait on</i> me if I do + not come at noon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Do not <i>wait for</i> me if I do + not come at noon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Wake, awake.</b> Do not confuse <i>wake</i> and <i>awake</i>. +See <b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<h2> +<a name="page_235"><span class="page">Page 235</span></a> +INDEX</h2> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +References are to pages. Sections or subdivisions on the pages are +sometimes indicated in parenthesis after the page numbers. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Since the <i>EXERCISES</i> follow throughout the subjects treated, +exercises on any subject may be found by looking up that subject in +this text index. +</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>A</i>, use of article, +<a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Abbreviated words, rule against, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Abbreviations, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§102); use of, in letters, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, +<a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Accept</i>, for <i>except</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Active voice and passive voice, explained, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; forms of, <a href="#page_92">92-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Adjectives, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>; capitalization of proper, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (95); confused with adverbs, +<a href="#page_32">32-33</a>; distinguished from adverbs, +<a href="#page_32">32-33</a>; errors in comparison of, +<a href="#page_36">36-37</a>; improper forms of, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>; list of irregular, <a href="#page_33">33</a>; +placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; adjective pronouns, +<a href="#page_28">28</a>; punctuation of two or more adjectives +modifying same noun, <a href="#page_138">138</a> (§106); singular +and plural, <a href="#page_39">39-40</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Admire</i>, for <i>like</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Adverbs, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>; comparison of, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; +conjunctive, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>; confusion with adjectives, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>; distinguished from adjectives, +<a href="#page_32">32-33</a>; double negative, +<a href="#page_42">42</a>; errors in comparison, +<a href="#page_36">36-37</a>; list of irregularly compared, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>; omission of, <a href="#page_45">45</a>; +punctuation of, <a href="#page_140">140</a> (§116), +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§121).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Æsop's Fables</i>, quotation from, +<a href="#page_152">152-153</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Affect</i>, for <i>effect</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Aggravate</i>, for <i>irritate</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Agreement, of adjective and noun, +<a href="#page_39">39-40</a>; of pronoun and antecedent, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>, <a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; of +verb and subject, <a href="#page_64">64-65</a>, +<a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; of verb in +clauses, <a href="#page_86">86</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Ain't, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5), Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Allow</i>, for <i>assert</i> or <i>intend</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Allude</i>, for <i>refer</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Also</i>, without <i>and</i>, +<a href="#page_104">104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Among</i>, for <i>between</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>An</i>, use of article, +<a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>And</i>, use of, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Antecedents, of pronouns, defined, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>; agreement of pronouns and, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>; clearness of, <a href="#page_126">126</a> +(2); compound, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; indefinite, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (4); of relative pronouns, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (4).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Any</i>, for <i>at all</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Apostrophe, general use of, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>; with plural nouns, <a href="#page_8">8</a> +(6); with <a name="page_236"><span class="page">Page 236</span></a> +possessive nouns, <a href="#page_10">10</a>; with possessive pronouns, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (10).</p> + +<p class="index">Apposition, explained, <a href="#page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Appositives, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§108).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Argue</i>, for <i>augur</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Arise</i>, <a href="#page_56">56</a></p> + +<p class="index">Articles, explained, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_43">43</a>; use of, <a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>As</i>, as conjunction or adverb, +<a href="#page_105">105</a>; as a relative pronoun, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>, Glossary; for <i>like</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>; for <i>since</i>, Glossary; punctuation +of, <a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>At</i>, for <i>in</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Attackted</i>, mispronunciation of <i>attacked</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Attribute complement, explained, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>; case of, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, +<a href="#page_22">22</a> (4) (note <a href="#page_2">2</a>).</p> + +<p class="index">Auxiliary verbs, explained, <a href="#page_46">46</a>; +<i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#page_71">71-73</a>; +<i>should</i> and <i>would</i>, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>; <i>may, +can, might</i>, and <i>could</i>, <a href="#page_79">79</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Avocation</i>, for <i>vocation</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Awake</i>, for <i>wake</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Awful</i>, for <i>awfully</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Bad</i>, for <i>badly</i>, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Balanced sentence, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Barbarisms, defined, <a href="#page_185">185</a>; +rules for avoidance of, <a href="#page_185">185-188</a>; when proper, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>. Beginning of the composition, +<a href="#page_177">177</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Beside</i>, for <i>besides</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Best</i>, for <i>better</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Between</i>, for <i>among</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Bible</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Blowed</i>, for <i>blew</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Body, of the letter, +<a href="#page_161">161-162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Books for reading, list of, +<a href="#page_183">183-184</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Bound</i>, for <i>determined</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Brackets, use of, <a href="#page_142">142</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>But</i>, as a relative pronoun, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>; +with a dependent clause, <a href="#page_105">105</a>; to introduce +two succeeding statements, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>But that</i>, for <i>but what</i>, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (6).</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Calculate</i>, for <i>intend</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Can</i>, use of, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; +model conjugation of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Cant expressions," in letters, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Capitalization, rules for, +<a href="#page_136">136-137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Cases, classified and defined, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; +case forms of pronouns, <a href="#page_20">20</a>; case of word +in apposition, <a href="#page_22">22</a>; case forms of relative +pronouns, <a href="#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; +outline for use of case forms, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>; rules +for forming possessive, <a href="#page_10">10</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Character</i>, for <i>reputation</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Character of Napoleon Bonaparte</i>, by Channing, +quotation from, <a href="#page_150">150-151</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Choice of words, rules to aid in, +<a href="#page_200">200-201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Christmas</i>, by Washington Irving, quotation +from, <a href="#page_151">151</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Claim</i>, for <i>assert</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Clauses, defined, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; adjective, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>; adverbial, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; agreement, +of verb in, <a href="#page_87">87</a>; principal or independent, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>; subordinate +or dependent, <a href="#page_4">4</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>; +substantive, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; <i>when</i> and <i>where</i> +clauses, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Climax in sentences, <a href="#page_131">131</a> +(3).</p> + +<p class="index">Clipped words, rule against, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Close of letter, <a href="#page_163">163-164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Clum</i>, for <i>climbed</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">"<i>In care of</i>," misuse of <i>c|o</i> for, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Coherence, of paragraph, +<a href="#page_151">151-153</a>; how to gain in paragraph, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>; illustrations of in paragraph, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>; of sentence, +<a href="#page_126">126-128</a>; of <a name="page_237"><span +class="page">Page 237</span></a> whole composition, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>; words of <a href="#page_152">152</a>, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Colon, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Comma blunder," <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Comma, <a href="#page_137">137-140</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Common gender, defined, <a href="#page_14">14</a>, +of nouns and pronouns, <a href="#page_13">13-14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Comparative degree, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; misuse +of, in reference to more than two things, <a href="#page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Comparison, degrees of, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; +irregular forms in, <a href="#page_33">33</a>; errors in, +<a href="#page_36">36-37</a>; manner of comparing, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Complected</i>, for <i>complexioned</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Complex sentence, <a href="#page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Complimentary close, in letters, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound nouns, explained, <a href="#page_8">8</a>; +rules for forming plurals of, <a href="#page_8">8</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound pronouns, personal, <a href="#page_26">26</a>; +relative, <a href="#page_27">27-28</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound sentence, <a href="#page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound subject, <a href="#page_5">5</a>; agreement +of verb with, <a href="#page_67">67</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound words, use of hyphen with, +<a href="#page_144">144</a> (§140).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Concluded</i>, for <i>to form an opinion</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Conditional clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§114).</p> + +<p class="index">Confusion of adjectives and adverbs, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Conjunctions, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>; +misuses of, <a href="#page_105">105-106</a>; correlatives, +<a href="#page_105">105-106</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a> (4).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Considerable</i>, for <i>considerably</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Consul</i>, for <i>council</i>, or <i>counsel</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Contractions of <i>not</i>, use of, in formal +composition, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5).</p> + +<p class="index">Co-ordinate clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§§112, 113), +<a href="#page_140">140</a> (§§118, 119, 120).</p> + +<p class="index">Copulative verb, <a href="#page_3">3</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Correctly written letters, +<a href="#page_166">166-171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Correlatives, placing of, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a> (4).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Could</i>, use of, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; +model conjugations of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Council, counsel</i> and <i>consul</i> confused, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Cranford</i>, by Mrs. Gaskell, selection from, +<a href="#page_182">182-183</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Cute</i>, for <i>pretty, clever</i>, etc., +Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Dash, use of, <a href="#page_141">141-142</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Decease</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Definition, by a <i>when</i> or <i>where</i> clause, +<a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Degrees in comparison, classified, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Demand</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Dependent and conditional clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§114), <a href="#page_140">140</a> +(§§119, 120).</p> + +<p class="index">Dictionary, value of its use, +<a href="#page_203">203</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Different</i>, with <i>than</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Directly</i>, misused as a conjunction, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Disease</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Division of words at ends of lines, +<a href="#page_144">144</a> (§139).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Don't</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5), +<a href="#page_162">162</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Double negatives, <a href="#page_42">42</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Down</i>, misuse as a verb, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Drownded</i>, mispronunciation of <i>drowned</i>, +Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>East</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Each other</i>, misuse with more than two objects, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Effect</i>, for <i>affect</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> <p +class="index"><a name="page_238"><span class="page">Page +238</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Either</i>, misuse with more than two objects, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Either-or</i>, <a href="#page_105">105-106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Elements of the sentence, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>: Principal elements, subject, +<a href="#page_2">2</a>; predicate, <a href="#page_2">2</a>. Subordinate +elements: attribute complement, <a href="#page_3">3</a>; adjective +modifier, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; adverbial modifier, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>; object complement, <a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Emigration</i>, for <i>immigration</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Emphasis, in paragraphs, <a href="#page_153">153</a>; +in sentence, <a href="#page_131">131</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Ending of whole composition, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Enough</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Euthuse</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Enumerations, punctuation before, +<a href="#page_141">141</a>, (§§122, 123).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Esq.</i>, misuse after Mr., +<a href="#page_158">158</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Etc.</i>, misspelling of, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Euphony, in sentences, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, +<a href="#page_133">133</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Everybody</i>, followed by a plural form, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Everywheres</i>, for <i>everywhere</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Examples, of beginning of whole composition, +<a href="#page_177">177</a>; of correctly written letters, +<a href="#page_166">166-171</a>; of ending of whole composition, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>; of outline of whole composition, +<a href="#page_175">175</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Exclamation point, use of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Except</i>, for <i>accept</i>, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§111).</p> + +<p class="index">Expletives, <a href="#page_2">2</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Expect</i>, for <i>suppose</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Fall</i>, for <i>fell</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Father</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§99).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Fell</i>, for <i>fall</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Feminine gender, defined, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +of nouns and pronouns, <a href="#page_14">14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Final words, in letters, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Fine-writing," <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Fine</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Firstly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>First-rate</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>For</i>, used to introduce two succeeding clauses, +<a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Foreign words, <a href="#page_186">186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Former</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Form of letters, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_166">166-171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">From, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Funny</i>, for <i>singular</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Gender, defined and classified, +<a href="#page_12">12</a>, <a href="#page_14">14</a>; formation +of feminine from masculine, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; gender of +pronouns, <a href="#page_13">13-14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">General terms, use of, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Gent</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Gentleman</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Geographical names, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§108).</p> + +<p class="index">Gerunds, explanation of, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; +confusion with participle, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; with noun +or pronoun modifier, <a href="#page_81">81</a>; placing of gerund +phrase, <a href="#page_81">81-82</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Gettysburg speech, by Lincoln, +<a href="#page_181">181-182</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Good</i>, for <i>well</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Good use of words, <a href="#page_185">185</a>; +offenses against, <a href="#page_185">185-190</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Got</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Grand</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Grave forms of personal pronouns, use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Guess</i>, for <i>think</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Hackneyed expressions, general rule against, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>; in letters, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Had, ought</i>, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, +Glossary. <a name="page_239"><span class="page">Page 239</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hain't</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5), +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hanged</i>, confused with <i>hung</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hardly</i>, placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; +with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Have</i>, misuse after <i>had</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Heading, of letters, +<a href="#page_155">155-157</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Heighth</i>, for <i>height</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Here</i>, misuse with demonstratives, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Her'n</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Him</i>, misuse with gerund, +<a href="#page_81">81</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hisself</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>His'n</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Home</i>, confused with <i>house</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>; for <i>at home</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Humbug</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hung</i>, confused with <i>hanged</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Hyphen, use of, <a href="#page_144">144</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>I</i>, capitalization of, <a href="#page_29">29</a> +(1), <a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100). Order of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (1).</p> + +<p class="index">In the letter, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Idioms, <a href="#page_198">198-199</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>i. e.</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Illy</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Immigration</i>, confused with <i>emigration</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Imperative mode, <a href="#page_91">91</a>, +<a href="#page_98">98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Improving one's vocabulary, rules for, +<a href="#page_203">203-204</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Improprieties, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Indentation, of paragraph, <a href="#page_149">149</a>; +of paragraph, in letters, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Infinitives, explanation of, +<a href="#page_83">83-84</a>; forms of <a href="#page_83">83</a>, +<a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_99">99</a>; cases used +with, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>; rules for sequence of infinitive +tenses, <a href="#page_84">84</a>; split, <a href="#page_85">85</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Inflection, defined, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>In</i>, confused with <i>into</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Inside address of letters, +<a href="#page_157">157-159</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Interjection, <a href="#page_2">2</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Interrogation point, use of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Interrogative pronouns, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Intransitive verbs, see <i>Transitive</i>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Introductory words or phrases, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§107).</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Kind</i>, with plural modifiers, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Kind of a</i>, <a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Lady</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Latter</i>, confused with <i>last</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lay</i>, confused with lie, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Learn</i>, for <i>teach</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Leave</i>, for <i>let</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lend</i>, confused with <i>loan</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Length, of paragraphs, <a href="#page_148">148</a>; of +sentences, <a href="#page_117">117-118</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a> +(2-b).</p> + +<p class="index">Letter writing, <a href="#page_155">155-171</a>; +body of letter, <a href="#page_161">161-163</a>; close, +<a href="#page_163">163-164</a>; heading, +<a href="#page_155">155-157</a>; illustrations of correctly written +letters, <a href="#page_166">166-171</a>; inside address, +<a href="#page_157">157-159</a>; miscellaneous directions, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>; notes in third person, +<a href="#page_171">171</a>; outside address, +<a href="#page_164">164-166</a>; salutation, +<a href="#page_159">159-161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Liable</i>, for <i>likely</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lie</i>, confused with <i>lay</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lightning</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Like</i>, misuse as a conjunction, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lit on</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Loan</i>, confused with <i>lend</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Loose sentences, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Lot</i> for <i>a great deal</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Mad</i>, for <i>angry</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Masculine gender, defined, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +of pronouns, <a href="#page_14">14</a>. <a name="page_240"><span +class="page">Page 240</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>May</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; model +conjugation of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Messrs.</i>, use of, +<a href="#page_158">158</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Might</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; model +conjugations of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Mode, definition of, <a href="#page_61">61</a>; +indicative <a href="#page_62">62-63</a>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; +infinitive, <a href="#page_80">80</a>, <a href="#page_83">83</a>, +<a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_99">99</a>; imperative, +<a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>; obligative, +<a href="#page_90">90</a>, footnote; participal, +<a href="#page_80">80-82</a>, <a href="#page_91">91</a>, +<a href="#page_99">99-100</a>; potential, of, +<a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, <a href="#page_97">97-98</a>; subjunctive, +<a href="#page_61">61-62</a>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Modifiers, placing of, <a href="#page_126">126</a> +(3-a).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Most</i> for <i>almost</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Mother</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§99).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Mrs.</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Much</i>, for <i>many</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Muchly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Mutual</i>, confused with <i>common</i>, +Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Name, form of verb, <a href="#page_46">46-47</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Namely</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Near</i>, confused with <i>nearly</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Neither</i>, misuse with more than two objects, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Neither-nor</i>, +<a href="#page_105">105-106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Nerve</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Neuter gender, defined, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +of nouns and pronouns, <a href="#page_14">14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Newly coined expressions, rule against, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Newsy</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Nominative case, defined <a href="#page_9">9</a>; +when used, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, note <a href="#page_3">3</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>No place</i>, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>No</i>, punctuation of, <a href="#page_137">137</a> +(§102).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>No good</i>, for <i>worthless</i>, +<a href="#page_230">230</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>North</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Not muchly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Notes in the third person, +<a href="#page_171">171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Not only—but also</i>, +<a href="#page_105">105-106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Notorious</i>, confused with <i>noted</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Nouns, common, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, +<a href="#page_7">7</a>; proper, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; case +of, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; gender of, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +number of, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Nowhere near</i>, for <i>not nearly</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Number, defined, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; agreement +of verb and subject in number, <a href="#page_64">64-69</a>; singular, +<a href="#page_7">7</a>; plural, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; of relative +pronouns, <a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>; +of pronouns, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; of pronouns with compounded +antecedent, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; rules for forming plurals +of nouns, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Number</i>, sign #, used for, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>O</i> and <i>oh</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index">Object complement, explained, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Objective case, defined, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; +when used, <a href="#page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Obligative mode, <a href="#page_90">90</a> +(footnote).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Observance</i>, confused with <i>observation</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Obsolete words, <a href="#page_185">185-186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Of</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Omission, of adverb <i>much</i>, +<a href="#page_45">45</a>; of important words, +<a href="#page_127">127</a> (5); of prepositions, +<a href="#page_108">108</a>; punctuation in case of +<a href="#page_140">140</a> (§117); <a href="#page_143">143</a> +(§138); of verbs, <a href="#page_87">87</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>One another</i>, use of, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Only</i>, placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; +with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Order of heading in letters, +<a href="#page_155">155-156</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Other</i>, use of in comparison, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Ought</i>, <a href="#page_50">50</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Outline, for composition, +<a href="#page_174">174-177</a>; illustration of, +<a href="#page_175">175</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Outside address, of letters, +<a href="#page_164">164-166</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Outside of</i>, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, +Glossary.</p> <p class="index"><a name="page_241"><span +class="page">Page 241</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Over-statement of facts, rule against, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Over with</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Pants</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Paragraphing of letters, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Paragraphs, <a href="#page_148">148-153</a>; coherence +in, <a href="#page_151">151-153</a>; emphasis in, +<a href="#page_153">153</a>; indentation of, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>; in letters, <a href="#page_161">161</a>; +length of, <a href="#page_148">148</a>; unity in, +<a href="#page_149">149-151</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Parenthesis marks, use of, <a href="#page_142">142</a>; +too frequent use of, <a href="#page_121">121</a> (1-b).</p> + +<p class="index">Parts of speech, classified, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Passive voice and active voice explained, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; forms of, <a href="#page_92">92-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Past participle, explanation and use of, +<a href="#page_46">46-48</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Past tense, explanation and use of, +<a href="#page_46">46-48</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Participles, explanation of, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; +confusion with gerunds, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; dangling, +<a href="#page_80">80-81</a>; at beginning of sentence, +<a href="#page_81">81</a>; preceded by <i>thus</i>, +<a href="#page_81">81</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Period, use of, <a href="#page_137">137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Periodic sentence, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Personal pronouns, defined, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; +classified, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; compound personal pronouns, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>; use of common and of grave forms of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (2); unnecessary use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (3).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Piece</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Photo</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Phrases, defined, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; +prepositional, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; verb, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; +punctuation of adverbial phrases, <a href="#page_140">140</a> +(§116), <a href="#page_141">141</a> (§121).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Place</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Placing of adjectives and adverbs, +<a href="#page_41">41</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Plenty</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Plural number, explained, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; +rules for forming plurals of nouns, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Point of view, in paragraph, +<a href="#page_150">150</a>; in sentence, <a href="#page_123">123</a>; +in whole composition, <a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Poorly</i>, for <i>ill</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Positive degree, <a href="#page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Position, in letters, of complimentary close, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>; of heading, <a href="#page_155">155</a>; +of inside address, <a href="#page_157">157</a>; of salutation, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>; of outside address, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Possessive case, defined, <a href="#page_10">10</a>; +rules for forming possessives of nouns; when used, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Potential mode, explanation and forms of, +<a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, <a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Predicate of the sentence; defined, +<a href="#page_2">2</a>; compound, predicate, explained, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Prepositional phrase, <a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Prepositions, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>; +omission of, <a href="#page_108">108</a>; proper use of, +<a href="#page_107">107</a>; unnecessary use of, +<a href="#page_108">108</a>; used as conjunctions, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Principal</i>, confused with <i>principle</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Principal parts of verbs, explained, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>; classified, <a href="#page_46">46-48</a>; +list of, <a href="#page_48">48-50</a>; rules for use of, +<a href="#page_48">48</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Principal verbs, explained, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Professional words, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Pronouns, defined <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>; adjective, <a href="#page_28">28</a>; +antecedent of, defined, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; agreement with +antecedent, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; case forms of, +<a href="#page_20">20-21</a>; compound personal, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>; compound relative, <a href="#page_27">27</a>; +gender of, <a href="#page_13">13-14</a>; interrogative, +<a href="#page_17">17</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>; number +of, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; outline of, use of case forms of, +<a href="#page_21">21</a>; relative, <a href="#page_17">17</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101</a>; rules determining gender of, +<a href="#page_14">14</a>; with compound antecedents, +<a href="#page_15">15</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Pronunciation, lists of frequently mispronounced +words, <a href="#page_209">209-220</a>; <a name="page_242"><span +class="page">Page 242</span></a> words given wrong sounds, +<a href="#page_209">209-217</a>; words given wrong accent, +<a href="#page_217">217-220</a>; words of foreign pronunciation, +<a href="#page_217">217</a>; words of similar spelling, +<a href="#page_220">220</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Proper adjectives, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§95).</p> + +<p class="index">Proper nouns, defined, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; +capitalization of, <a href="#page_136">136</a> (§95).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Propose</i>, for <i>intend</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Providing</i>, for <i>if</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Provincialisms, definition and rule against use +of, <a href="#page_186">186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Punctuation, rules for, +<a href="#page_137">137-144</a>; in letters, body, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>; heading, <a href="#page_156">156</a>; +inside address, <a href="#page_157">157</a>; outside address, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>; salutation, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index">Qualities, essential: Of sentences, unity, +<a href="#page_126">126-128</a>; emphasis, <a href="#page_131">131</a>; +euphony, <a href="#page_132">132-133</a>. Of paragraphs, unity, +<a href="#page_149">149-151</a>; coherence, +<a href="#page_151">151-153</a>; emphasis, <a href="#page_153">153</a>. +Of whole composition, unity, <a href="#page_178">178</a>; coherence, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Quite</i>, for <i>very</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Quotation marks, use of, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Quotations, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§115), +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§123), +<a href="#page_142">142</a> (§131), <a href="#page_143">143</a> +(§§132-137).</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Raise</i>, confused with <i>rise</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Recommend</i>, confused with <i>recommendation</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Relative causes, cases in, +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; explanatory or non-restrictive, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; introduction of successive, +<a href="#page_103">103-104</a>; punctuation of, +<a href="#page_135">135</a> (§111); use of <i>when</i> or +<i>where</i> clause, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Relative pronouns, defined and explained, +<a href="#page_17">17-18</a>; agreement of verb with, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (4); case and number of, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (4), <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; compound, <a href="#page_27">27-28</a>; +explanatory or non-restrictive, <a href="#page_18">18</a>; restrictive, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; use of, with different antecedents, +<a href="#page_17">17-18</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Repetition of similar words or syllables, +<a href="#page_132">132</a> (1), <a href="#page_133">133</a> (3).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Reputation</i>, confused with <i>character</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Respectfully</i>, confused with <i>respectively</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Rev.</i>, <a href="#page_166">166</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Right away</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Right off</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Rise</i>, confused with <i>raise</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Salutation, in letters, +<a href="#page_159">159-161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Some</i>, misuse as a pronoun, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Say</i>, for <i>order</i> or <i>command</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Scarcely</i>, placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; +with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Scriptures, capitalization, of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Seldom ever</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Semi-colon, use of, +<a href="#page_140">140-141</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Sentence elements out of natural order, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§109).</p> + +<p class="index">Sentences: defined, <a href="#page_1">1</a>; +declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>; essential qualities of, +<a href="#page_121">121-136</a>; loose, periodic, balanced, +<a href="#page_117">117</a>; simple, complex, compound, +<a href="#page_5">5</a>; length of, <a href="#page_117">117</a>; +slipshod construction of, <a href="#page_122">122</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index">Sequence of tenses, infinitive, +<a href="#page_84">84</a>; in clauses, <a href="#page_86">86</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Series of words, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (105). <a name="page_243"><span +class="page">Page 243</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Set</i>, confused with <i>sit</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">S-form of verb, <a href="#page_47">47</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Shut of</i>, for <i>rid of</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sight</i>, for <i>many</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Signature of writer, in letters, +<a href="#page_163">163-164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Simple sentence, defined, <a href="#page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Simple words, use of, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Similar expressions of similar thoughts, +<a href="#page_128">128</a> (7).</p> + +<p class="index">Singular form of verb, explanation and use of, +<a href="#page_47">47</a>, after you and they, <a href="#page_69">69</a> +(2).</p> + +<p class="index">Singular number, explained, +<a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sit</i>, confused with <i>set</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i>, use of, in dependent +clauses, <a href="#page_73">73</a>; in principal clauses, +<a href="#page_71">71-72</a>; in questions, <a href="#page_72">72</a>; +model conjugations of, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; past tenses +of, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Should</i> and <i>would</i>, model conjugations of, +<a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; use of, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Slang, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>So</i>, use of, <a href="#page_104">104-105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Solecisms, <a href="#page_185">185</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Some</i>, misuse as an adverb, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Somebody else's</i>, <a href="#page_10">10</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sort</i>, with plurals, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sort of a</i>, <a href="#page_44">44</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>South</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index">Speech, paragraphing of, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Specific terms, use of, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Spelling, lists of words frequently misspelled, +<a href="#page_205">205-208</a>; rules for, +<a href="#page_206">206-208</a>; of words of similar sound, +<a href="#page_208">208</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Squinting construction," <a href="#page_127">127</a> +(3-b)</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Street</i>, omission of in letters, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Subject of sentence or clause, defined +<a href="#page_2">2</a>; agreement of verb and subject, +<a href="#page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>; compound, <a href="#page_3">3</a>; relative +pronoun as, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (4), +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>, of whole composition, +<a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>; statement +of, in composition, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Subject matter of letters, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Subjunctive mode, <a href="#page_61">61</a>, +<a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Such</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Summarizing word, use of, <a href="#page_128">128</a> +(6); punctuation of, <a href="#page_142">142</a> (§127).</p> + +<p class="index">Superlative degree, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; +misuse in comparing only two things, <a href="#page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Suspect</i>, for <i>expect</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Syllables, division of words into, +<a href="#page_144">144</a>, (§139).</p> + +<p class="index_br">Synonyoms, value of, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Tasty</i>, for <i>tasteful</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Technical words, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Telegraph style," in letters, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Tense, explained, <a href="#page_46">46</a>; sequence +of, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_86">86</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Than</i>, use of, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>That</i>, with what antecedents used, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; as a restrictive relative, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; misuse of, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>That is</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>The</i>, use of article, +<a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Their'n, theirself, theirselves</i>, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Them</i>, for <i>those</i>, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (7).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Then</i>, use of, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>There</i>, improper use of after demonstratives, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>They</i>, indefinite use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (8); with singular verb, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index">Third person, notes in the, +<a href="#page_171">171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Those kind</i>, and <i>these sort</i>, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Three first</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Thusly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Title of whole composition, +<a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Titles, abbreviations of, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>; capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§§ 96, 97). +<a name="page_244"><span class="page">Page 244</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>To-day, to-morrow, to-night</i>, hyphens with, +<a href="#page_144">144</a> (§140).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Too</i>, misuse of, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Transition, in whole composition, +<a href="#page_178">178-180</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Transitive and intransitive verbs, confusion of, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; explanation of, <a href="#page_4">4</a>, +<a href="#page_55">55-56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Transpire</i>, for <i>happen</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Try and</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Two first</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Unbeknown</i>, for <i>unknown</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Unity: Of paragraph, <a href="#page_149">149-151</a>; +how to gain, <a href="#page_150">150</a>; illustrations of, +<a href="#page_151">151</a>. Of sentence, +<a href="#page_121">121-123</a>. Of whole composition, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Unnecessary words, use of, +<a href="#page_108">108-131</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index">Verb phrase, explained, <a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Verbs, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>; agreement of verb and subject, +<a href="#page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; agreement +of verb in clauses, <a href="#page_86">86</a>; auxiliary, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>; gerunds, <a href="#page_80">80-82</a>; +infinitives, <a href="#page_83">83-84</a>; mode, +<a href="#page_61">61-63</a>; model conjugations of <i>to-be</i> +and <i>to see</i>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; omission of verbs +or parts of, <a href="#page_87">87</a>; participles, +<a href="#page_80">80-82</a>; principal, <a href="#page_46">46</a>; +principal parts, <a href="#page_46">46-47</a>; principal parts, +list of, <a href="#page_48">48-50</a>; transitive and intransitive, +<a href="#page_55">55-56</a>; use of auxiliaries, +<a href="#page_71">71-73</a>, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>, +<a href="#page_79">79</a>; voice, <a href="#page_56">56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Very</i>, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>viz.</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index">Vocabulary, rules for improvement of, +<a href="#page_203">203-204</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Vocation</i>, confused with <i>avocation</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Vulgarisms, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Wake</i>, confused with <i>awake</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Wait on</i>, confused with <i>wait for</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Ways</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Weak beginnings and endings of sentences, +<a href="#page_131">131</a> (1).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Well</i>, confused with <i>good</i>, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>West</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>What</i>, with what antecedents, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>When</i>, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Where</i>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Which</i>, with clause or phrase as antecedent, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (9); with what antecedents used, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Who</i>, with what antecedents used, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>. Whole composition, +<a href="#page_174">174-180</a>; beginning of, +<a href="#page_177">177</a>, ending of, <a href="#page_180">180</a>; +paragraph composition or paragraph theme, +<a href="#page_148">148</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Will</i>, use of, see <i>shall</i>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Without</i>, misuse as a conjunction, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>. Words, choice of, +<a href="#page_200">200-201</a>; clipped or abbreviated, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>; division of at ends of lines, +<a href="#page_144">144</a>, (§139); foreign, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>; good +use of, <a href="#page_185">185-190</a>; how to improve vocabulary +of, <a href="#page_203">203-204</a>, idioms, +<a href="#page_198">198-199</a>; in place of figures in letters, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>; newly-coined, <a href="#page_186">186</a>; +of coherence, <a href="#page_152">152-180</a>; professional, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>; pronunciation of, +<a href="#page_208">208-220</a>, provincialisms, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>; simple English, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>; slang, <a href="#page_187">187</a>; +spelling of, <a href="#page_205">205-208</a>; technical words, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>; vulgarisms, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Would</i>, see <i>should</i>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Yes</i>, punctuation of, <a href="#page_137">137</a> +(102).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>You</i>, indefinite use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (8); with singular verb, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Yours truly</i> and <i>yours respectfully</i>, +wrong abbreviation of, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Your'n</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + +***** This file should be named 22577-h.htm or 22577-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/5/7/22577/ + +Produced by Robert J. 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