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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/22577-8.txt b/22577-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5a40fd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/22577-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10983 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Practical Grammar and Composition + +Author: Thomas Wood + +Release Date: September 11, 2007 [EBook #22577] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + + + + +Produced by Robert J. Hall + + + + +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION + + +BY + +THOMAS WOOD, A.M., LL.B. + +THE BRADDOCK (PENNSYLVANIA) HIGH SCHOOL + + +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY + +NEW YORK CHICAGO + + + + +PREFACE + +This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching +some classes in English in the night preparatory department of +the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those +classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would +enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English. +English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar +of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond +the everyday needs of the practical man. + +Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a +text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed +that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar, +and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words, +and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources +of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and, +finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical +work. + +It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The +parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from +that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more +sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition +contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary +composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing, +since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for +actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to +the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment +has at times been intentionally rather formal. + +Abundant and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent +intervals throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises +have been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical +points have been made very extensive. + +The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book +and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of +that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement +of principles and in the working out of details great originality +would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore, +for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores +of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of +the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found +in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from +other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as +may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the +books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the +following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and +Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's +Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition, +McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's +Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business +English. + +To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's +Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing +Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is +indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation +of certain parts of their texts. + +Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends +who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript, +and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons +who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers. +Above all, a great debt of gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris, +Superintendent of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement +and painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript +and in reading the proof of the book. + +T.W. + +BRADDOCK, PENNSYLVANIA. + + + + +CONTENTS + +CHAPTER + I.--SENTENCES--PARTS OF SPEECH--ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE--PHRASES AND CLAUSES + + II.--NOUNS + Common and Proper + Inflection Defined + Number + The Formation of Plurals + Compound Nouns + Case + The Formation of the Possessive Case + Gender + + III.--PRONOUNS + Agreement with Antecedents + Person + Gender + Rules Governing Gender + Number + Compound Antecedents + Relative + Interrogative + Case Forms + Rules Governing Use of Cases + Compound Personal + Compound Relative + Adjective + Miscellaneous Cautions + + IV.--ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS + Comparison + Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs + Improper Forms of Adjectives + Errors in Comparison + Singular and Plural Adjectives + Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives + Double Negatives + The Articles + + V.--VERBS + Principal Parts + Name-form + Past Tense + Past Participle + Transitive and Intransitive Verbs + Active and Passive Voice + Mode + Forms of the Subjunctive + Use of Indicative and Subjunctive + Agreement of Verb with its Subject + Rules Governing Agreement of the Verb + Miscellaneous Cautions + Use of _Shall_ and _Will_ + Use of _Should_ and _Would_ + Use of _May_ and _Might_, _Can_ and _Could_ + Participles and Gerunds + Misuses of Participles and Gerunds + Infinitives + Sequence of Infinitive Tenses + Split Infinitives + Agreement of Verb in Clauses + Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb + Model Conjugations + _To Be_ + _To See_ + + VI.--CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, + AND PREPOSITIONS + Independent and Dependent Clauses + Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns + Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs + Conjunctions + Placing of Correlatives + Prepositions + QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR + + VII.--SENTENCES + Loose + Periodic + Balanced + Sentence Length + The Essential Qualities of a Sentence + Unity + Coherence + Emphasis + Euphony + + VIII.--CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION + Rules for Capitalization + Rules for Punctuation + + IX.--THE PARAGRAPH + Length + Paragraphing of Speech + Indentation of the Paragraph + Essential Qualities of the Paragraph + Unity + Coherence + Emphasis + + X.--LETTER-WRITING + Heading + Inside Address + Salutation + Body of the Letter + Close + Miscellaneous Directions + Outside Address + Correctly Written Letters + Notes in the Third Person + + XI.--THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + Statement of Subject + The Outline + The Beginning + Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition + Unity + Coherence + The Ending + Illustrative Examples + Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_ + Selection from _Cranford_ + List of Books for Reading + + XII.--WORDS--SPELLING--PRONUNCIATION + Words + Good Use + Offenses Against Good Use + Solecisms + Barbarisms + Improprieties + Idioms + Choice of Words + How to Improve One's Vocabulary + Spelling + Pronunciation +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS + + + + +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION + + * * * * * + +CHAPTER I + +SENTENCES.--PARTS OF SPEECH.--ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.--PHRASES +AND CLAUSES + +1. In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects together. +Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. A SENTENCE is a group +of words that expresses a single complete thought. + +2. SENTENCES are of four kinds: + +1. DECLARATIVE; a sentence that tells or declares something; as, +_That book is mine_. + +2. IMPERATIVE; a sentence that expresses a command; as, _Bring me +that book_. + +3. INTERROGATIVE; a sentence that asks a question; as, _Is that +book mine?_ + +4. EXCLAMATORY; a declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentence +that expresses violent emotion, such as terror, surprise, or anger; +as, _You shall take that book!_ or, _Can that book be mine?_ + +3. PARTS OF SPEECH. Words have different uses in sentences. According +to their uses, words are divided into classes called Parts of Speech. +The parts of speech are as follows: + +1. NOUN; a word used as the name of something; as, _man, box, +Pittsburgh, Harry, silence, justice_. + +2. PRONOUN; a word used instead of a noun; as, _I, he, it, that._ + +Nouns, pronouns, or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns, +are called by the general term, SUBSTANTIVES. + +3. ADJECTIVE; a word used to limit or qualify the meaning of a noun +or a pronoun; as, _good, five, tall, many_. + +The words _a, an_, and _the_ are words used to modify nouns or +pronouns. They are adjectives, but are usually called ARTICLES. + +4. VERB; a word used to state something about some person or thing; +as, _do, see, think, make_. + +5. ADVERB; a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, +or another adverb; as, _very, slowly, clearly, often_. + +6. PREPOSITION; a word used to join a substantive, as a modifier, +to some other preceding word, and to show the relation of the +substantive to that word; as, _by, in, between, beyond_. + +7. CONJUNCTION; a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, +and sentences; as, _and, but, if, although, or_. + +8. INTERJECTION; a word used to express surprise or emotion; as, +_Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah!_ + +Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, but +helps to fill out its form or sound, and serves as a device to +alter its natural order. Such a word is called an EXPLETIVE. In +the following sentence _there_ is an expletive: _THERE are no such +books in print_. + +4. A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. The essential +or PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are the Subject and the Predicate. + +The SUBJECT of a sentence is the part which mentions that about +which something is said. The PREDICATE is the part which states +that which is said about the subject. _Man walks_. In this sentence, +_man_ is the subject, and _walks_ is the predicate. + +The subject may be simple or modified; that is, may consist of +the subject alone, or of the subject with its modifiers. The same +is true of the predicate. Thus, in the sentence, _Man walks_, there +is a simple subject and a simple predicate. In the sentence, _The +good man walks very rapidly_, there is a modified subject and a +modified predicate. + +There may be, also, more than one subject connected with the same +predicate; as, _THE MAN AND THE WOMAN walk_. This is called a COMPOUND +SUBJECT. A COMPOUND PREDICATE consists of more than one predicate +used with the same subject; as, _The man BOTH WALKS AND RUNS_. + +5. Besides the principal elements in a sentence, there are SUBORDINATE +ELEMENTS. These are the Attribute Complement, the Object Complement, +the Adjective Modifier, and the Adverbial Modifier. + +Some verbs, to complete their sense, need to be followed by some +other word or group of words. These words which "complement," or +complete the meanings of verbs are called COMPLEMENTS. + +The ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT completes the meaning of the verb by stating +some class, condition, or attribute of the subject; as, _My friend +is a STUDENT, I am WELL, The man is GOOD Student, well_, and _good_ +complete the meanings of their respective verbs, by stating some +class, condition, or attribute of the subjects of the verbs. + +The attribute complement usually follows the verb _be_ or its forms, +_is, are, was, will be_, etc. The attribute complement is usually a +noun, pronoun, or adjective, although it may be a phrase or clause +fulfilling the function of any of these parts of speech. It must +not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial modifier. In the +sentence, _He is THERE, there_ is an adverb, not an attribute +complement. + +The verb used with an attribute complement, because such verb _joins_ +the subject to its attribute, is called the COPULA ("to couple") +or COPULATIVE VERB. + +Some verbs require an object to complete their meaning. This object +is called the OBJECT COMPLEMENT. In the sentence, _I carry a BOOK_, +the object, _book_, is required to complete the meaning of the +transitive verb _carry_; so, also in the sentences, _I hold the +HORSE_, and _I touch a DESK_, the objects _horse_ and _desk_ are +necessary to complete the meanings of their respective verbs. These +verbs that require objects to complete their meaning are called +Transitive Verbs. + +ADJECTIVE and ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS may consist simply of adjectives +and adverbs, or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives or adverbs. + +6. A PHRASE is a group of words that is used as a single part of +speech and that does not contain a subject and a predicate. + +A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, always used as either an adjective or an +adverbial modifier, consists of a preposition with its object and +the modifiers of the object; as, _He lives IN PITTSBURG, Mr. Smith +OF THIS PLACE is the manager OF THE MILL, The letter is IN THE +NEAREST DESK_. + +There are also Verb-phrases. A VERB-PHRASE is a phrase that serves +as a verb; as, _I AM COMING, He SHALL BE TOLD, He OUGHT TO HAVE +BEEN TOLD_. + +7. A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate; +as, _The man THAT I SAW was tall_. The clause, _that I saw_, contains +both a subject, _I_, and a predicate, _saw_. This clause, since +it merely states something of minor importance in the sentence, +is called the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. The PRINCIPAL CLAUSE, the one +making the most important assertion, is, _The man was tall_. Clauses +may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, and as nouns. A clause used +as a noun is called a SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. Examine the following +examples: + + Adjective Clause: The book _that I want_ is a history. + Adverbial Clause: He came _when he had finished with the work_. + Noun Clause as subject: _That I am here_ is true. + Noun Clause as object: He said _that I was mistaken_. + +8. Sentences, as to their composition, are classified as follows: + +SIMPLE; a sentence consisting of a single statement; as, _The man +walks_. + +COMPLEX; a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or +more subordinate clauses; as, _The man that I saw is tall_. + +COMPOUND; a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of equal +importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood; as, +_The man is tall and walks rapidly_, and _Watch the little things; +they are important_. + +EXERCISE I + +_In this and in all following exercises, be able to give the reason +for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. Only +intelligent and reasoning work is worth while. + +In the following list of sentences: + +(1) Determine the part of speech of every word. + +(2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate; +and the modified subject and the modified predicate. + +(3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object complement. + +(4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional +phrase or a verb-phrase. If it is a prepositional phrase, determine +whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb. + +(5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If they +are subordinate clauses, determine whether they are used as nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs. + +(6) Classify every sentence as simple, complex, or compound._ + + 1. Houses are built of wood, brick, stone, and other materials, + and are constructed in various styles. + 2. The path of glory leads but to the grave. + 3. We gladly accepted the offer which he made. + 4. I am nearly ready, and shall soon join you. + 5. There are few men who do not try to be honest. + 6. Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever. + 7. He works hard, and rests little. + 8. She is still no better, but we hope that there will be a change. + 9. Let each speak for himself. + 10. It was I who told him to go. + 11. To live an honest life should be the aim of every one. + 12. Who it really was no one knew, but all believed it to have been him. + 13. In city and in country people think very differently. + 14. To be or not to be, that is the question. + 15. In truth, I think that I saw a brother of his in that place. + 16. By a great effort he managed to make headway against the current. + 17. Beyond this, I have nothing to say. + 18. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying. + 19. Full often wished he that the wind might rage. + 20. Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate. + 21. It is I whom you see. + 22. The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained memory. + 23. Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they do here. + 24. Alas! I can travel no more. + 25. A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study. + +EXERCISE 2 + +(1) _Write a list of six examples of every part of speech._ + +(2) _Write eight sentences, each containing an attribute complement. +Use adjectives, nouns, and pronouns._ + +(3) _Write eight sentences, each containing an object complement._ + +(4) _Write five sentences, in each using some form of the verb TO +BE, followed by an adverbial modifier._ + + + + +CHAPTER II + +NOUNS + +9. A noun has been defined as a word used as the name of something. +It may be the name of a person, a place, a thing, or of some abstract +quality, such as, _justice_ or _truth_. + +10. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. A PROPER NOUN is a noun that names +some particular or special place, person, people, or thing. A proper +noun should always begin with a capital letter; as, _English, Rome, +Jews, John_. A COMMON NOUN is a general or class name. + +11. INFLECTION DEFINED. The variation in the forms of the different +parts of speech to show grammatical relation, is called INFLECTION. +Though there is some inflection in English, grammatical relation +is usually shown by position rather than by inflection. + +The noun is inflected to show number, case, and gender. + +12. NUMBER is that quality of a word which shows whether it refers +to one or to more than one. SINGULAR NUMBER refers to one. PLURAL +NUMBER refers to more than one. + +13. PLURALS OF SINGULAR NOUNS ARE FORMED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING +RULES: + +1. Most nouns add _s_ to the singular; as, _boy, boys; stove, stoves_. + +2. Nouns ending in _s, ch, sh_, or _x_, add _es_ to the singular; +as, _fox, foxes; wish, wishes; glass, glasses; coach, coaches_. + +3. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel (_a, e, i, o, u_) add +_s_; as, _valley, valleys_, (_soliloquy, soliloquies_ and _colloquy, +colloquies_ are exceptions). When _y_ is preceded by a consonant +(any letter other than a vowel), _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ +is added; as, _army, armies; pony, ponies; sty, sties_. + +4. Most nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ add _s_, as, _scarf, scarfs; +safe, safes_. A few change _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and add _es_; as, +_wife, wives; self, selves_. The others are: _beef, calf, elf, +half, leaf, loaf, sheaf, shelf, staff, thief, wharf, wolf, life_. +(_Wharf_ has also a plural, _wharfs_.) + +5. Most nouns ending in _o_ add _s_; as, _cameo, cameos_. A number +of nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_; as, _volcano, +volcanoes_. The most important of the latter class are: _buffalo, +cargo, calico, echo, embargo, flamingo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, +potato, tomato, tornado, torpedo, veto_. + +6. Letters, figures, characters, etc., add the apostrophe and _s_ +(_'s_); as, _6's, c's, t's, that's_. + +7. The following common words always form their plurals in an irregular +way; as, _man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, +feet; mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth; louse, lice_. + +COMPOUND NOUNS are those formed by the union of two words, either +two nouns or a noun joined to some descriptive word or phrase. + +8. The principal noun of a compound noun, whether it precedes or +follows the descriptive part, is in most cases the noun that changes +in forming the plural; as, _mothers-in-law, knights-errant, +mouse-traps_. In a few compound words, both parts take a plural form; +as, _man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars_. + +9. Proper names and titles generally form plurals in the same way +as do other nouns; as, _Senators Webster and Clay, the three Henrys_. +Abbreviations of titles are little used in the plural, except _Messrs._ +(_Mr._), and _Drs._ (_Dr._). + +10. In forming the plurals of proper names where a title is used, +either the title or the name may be put in the plural form. Sometimes +both are made plural; as, _Miss Brown, the Misses Brown, the Miss +Browns, the two Mrs. Browns_. + +11. Some nouns are the same in both the singular and the plural; +as, _deer, series, means, gross_, etc. + +12. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. The most +important are the following: + +BROTHER _brothers_ (by blood) _brethren_ (by association) +CLOTH _cloths_ (kinds of cloth) _clothes_ (garments) +DIE _dies_ (for coinage) _dice_ (for games) +FISH _fishes_ (separately) _fish_ (collectively) +GENIUS _geniuses_ (men of genius) _genii_ (imaginary beings) +HEAD _heads_ (of the body) _head_ (of cattle) +INDEX _indexes_ (of books) _indices_ (in algebra) +PEA _peas_ (separately) _pease_ (collectively) +PENNY _pennies_ (separately) _pence_ (collectively) +SAIL _sails_ (pieces of canvas) _sail_ (number of vessels) +SHOT _ shots_ (number of discharges) _shot_ (number of balls) + +13. Nouns from foreign languages frequently retain in the plural +the form that they have in the language from which they are taken; +as, _focus, foci; terminus, termini; alumnus, alumni; datum, data; +stratum, strata; formula, formulœ; vortex, vortices; appendix, +appendices; crisis, crises; oasis, oases; axis, axes; phenomenon, +phenomena; automaton, automata; analysis, analyses; hypothesis, +hypotheses; medium, media; vertebra, vertebrœ; ellipsis, ellipses; +genus, genera; fungus, fungi; minimum, minima; thesis, theses_. + +EXERCISE 3 + +_Write the plural, if any, of every singular noun in the following +list; and the singular, if any, of every plural noun. Note those +having no singular and those having no plural_. + +News, goods, thanks, scissors, proceeds, puppy, studio, survey, +attorney, arch, belief, chief, charity, half, hero, negro, majority, +Mary, vortex, memento, joy, lily, knight-templar, knight-errant, why, +4, x, son-in-law, Miss Smith, Mr. Anderson, country-man, hanger-on, +major-general, oxen, geese, man-servant, brethren, strata, sheep, +mathematics, pride, money, pea, head, piano, veto, knives, ratios, +alumni, feet, wolves, president, sailor-boy, spoonful, rope-ladder, +grandmother, attorney-general, cupful, go-between. + +_When in doubt respecting the form of any of the above, consult +an unabridged dictionary._ + +14. CASE. There are three cases in English: the Nominative, the +Possessive, and the Objective. + +The NOMINATIVE CASE; the form used in address and as the subject +of a verb. + +The OBJECTIVE CASE; the form used as the object of a verb or a +preposition. It is always the same in form as is the nominative. + +Since no error in grammar can arise in the use of the nominative +or the objective cases of nouns, no further discussion of these +cases is here needed. + +The POSSESSIVE CASE; the form used to show ownership. In the forming +of this case we have inflection. + +15. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE RULES FOR THE FORMING OF THE POSSESSIVE +CASE: + +1. Most nouns form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and _s_ +(_'s_); as, _man, man's; men, men's; pupil, pupil's; John, John's_. + +2. Plural nouns ending in _s_ form the possessive by adding only +the apostrophe ('); as, _persons, persons'; writers, writers'_. In +stating possession in the plural, then one should say: _Carpenters' +tools sharpened here, Odd Fellows' wives are invited_, etc. + +3. Some singular nouns ending in an _s_ sound form the possessive +by adding the apostrophe alone; as, _for appearance' sake, for +goodness' sake_. But usage inclines to the adding of the apostrophe +and _s_ (_'s_) even if the singular noun does end in an _s_ sound; +as, _Charles's book, Frances's dress, the mistress's dress_. + +4. When a compound noun, or a group of words treated as one name, +is used to denote possession, the sign of the possessive is added +to the last word only; as, _Charles and John's mother_ (the mother +of both Charles and John), _Brown and Smith's store_ (the store +of the firm Brown & Smith). + +5. Where the succession of possessives is unpleasant or confusing, +the substitution of a prepositional phrase should be made; as, _the +house of the mother of Charles's partner_, instead of, _Charles's +partner's mother's house_. + +6. The sign of the possessive should be used with the word immediately +preceding the word naming the thing possessed; as, _Father and +mother's house, Smith, the lawyer's, office, The Senator from Utah's +seat_. + +7. Generally, nouns representing inanimate objects should not be +used in the possessive case. It is better to say _the hands of +the clock_ than _the clock's hands_. + +NOTE.--One should say _somebody else's_, not _somebody's else_. +The expression _somebody else_ always occurs in the one form, and +in such cases the sign of the possessive should be added to the +last word. Similarly, say, _no one else's, everybody else's_, etc. + +EXERCISE 4 + +_Write the possessives of the following:_ + +Oxen, ox, brother-in-law, Miss Jones, goose, man, men, men-servants, +man-servant, Maine, dogs, attorneys-at-law, Jackson & Jones, John the +student, my friend John, coat, shoe, boy, boys, Mayor of Cleveland. + +EXERCISE 5 + +_Write sentences illustrating the use of the possessives you have +formed for the first ten words under Exercise 4._ + +EXERCISE 6 + +_Change the following expressions from the prepositional phrase +form to the possessive:_ + + 1. The ships of Germany and France. + 2. The garden of his mother and sister. + 3. The credit of Jackson & Jones. + 4. The signature of the president of the firm. + 5. The coming of my grandfather. + 6. The lives of our friends. + 7. The dog of both John and William. + 8. The dog of John and the dog of William. + 9. The act of anybody else. + 10. The shortcomings of Alice. + 11. The poems of Robert Burns. + 12. The wives of Henry the Eighth. + 13. The home of Mary and Martha. + 14. The novels of Dickens and the novels of Scott. + 15. The farm of my mother and of my father. + 16. The recommendation of Superintendent Norris. + +EXERCISE 7 + +_Correct such of the following expressions as need correction. If +apostrophes are omitted, insert them in the proper places:_ + + 1. He walked to the precipices edge. + 2. Both John and William's books were lost. + 3. They sell boy's hats and mens' coats. + 4. My friends' umbrella was stolen. + 5. I shall buy a hat at Wanamaker's & Brown's. + 6. This student's lessons. + 7. These students books. + 8. My daughters coming. + 9. John's wife's cousin. + 10. My son's wife's aunt. + 11. Five years imprisonment under Texas's law. + 12. John's books and Williams. + 13. The Democrat's and Republican Convention. + 14. France's and England's interests differ widely. + 15. The moons' face was hidden. + 16. Wine is made from the grape's juice. + 17. Morton, the principals, signature. + 18. Jones & Smith, the lawyers, office. + +16. GENDER. Gender in grammar is the quality of nouns or pronouns +that denotes the sex of the person or thing represented. Those +nouns or pronouns meaning males are in the MASCULINE GENDER. Those +meaning females are in the FEMININE GENDER. Those referring to +things without sex are in the NEUTER GENDER. + +In nouns gender is of little consequence. The only regular inflection +is the addition of the syllable-_ess_ to certain masculine nouns to +denote the change to the feminine gender; as, _author, authoress; +poet, poetess_. -I_x_ is also sometimes added for the same purpose; +as, _administrator, administratrix_. + +The feminine forms were formerly much used, but their use is now +being discontinued, and the noun of masculine gender used to designate +both sexes. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PRONOUNS + +17. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a +noun. The noun in whose stead it stands is called its ANTECEDENT. +_JOHN took Mary's BOOK and gave IT to HIS friend_. In this sentence +_book_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _it_, and _John_ is the +antecedent of _his_. + +18. PRONOUNS SHOULD AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS IN PERSON, GENDER, +AND NUMBER. + +19. PERSONAL PRONOUNS are those that by their form indicate the +speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. + +Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON indicate the speaker; they are: _I, +me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours_. + +Pronouns of the SECOND PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken +to; they are: _you, your, yours_. There are also the grave or solemn +forms in the second person, which are now little used; these are: +_thou, thee, thy, thine_, and _ye_. + +Pronouns of the THIRD PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken +of; they are: _he, his, him, she, her, hers, they, their, theirs, +them, it, its_. + +Few errors are made in the use of the proper person of the pronoun. + +20. GENDER OF PRONOUNS. The following pronouns indicate sex or +gender; Masculine: _he, his, him_. Feminine: _she, her, hers_. Neuter: +_it, its_. + +IN ORDER TO SECURE AGREEMENT IN GENDER IT IS NECESSARY TO KNOW THE +GENDER OF THE NOUN, EXPRESSED OR UNDERSTOOD, TO WHICH THE PRONOUN +REFERS. Gender of nouns is important only so far as it concerns +the use of pronouns. Study carefully the following rules in regard +to gender. These rules apply to the singular number only, since +all plurals of whatever gender are referred to by _they, their, +theirs_, etc. + +THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE GENDER OF PRONOUNS: + +MASCULINE; referred to by _HE, HIS_, and _HIM_: + +1. Nouns denoting males are always masculine. + +2. Nouns denoting things remarkable for strength, power, sublimity, +or size, when those things are regarded as if they were persons, +are masculine; _as, WINTER, with HIS chilly army, destroyed them +all_. + +3. Singular nouns denoting persons of both sexes are masculine; +as, _EVERY ONE brought HIS umbrella_. + +FEMININE; referred to by _SHE, HER_, or _HERS_: + +1. Nouns denoting females are always feminine. + +2. Nouns denoting objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and +peace, when spoken of as if they were persons, are feminine; as, +_SLEEP healed him with HER fostering care_. + +NEUTER; referred to by _IT_ and _ITS_: + +1. Nouns denoting objects without sex are neuter. + +2. Nouns denoting objects whose sex is disregarded are neuter; as, +_IT is a pretty child, The WOLF is the most savage of ITS race_. + +3. Collective nouns referring to a group of individuals as a unit +are neuter; as, _The JURY gives its VERDICT, The COMMITTEE makes +ITS report_. + +An animal named may be regarded as masculine; feminine, or neuter, +according to the characteristics the writer fancies it to possess; +as, _The WOLF seeks HIS prey, The MOUSE nibbled HER way into the +box, The BIRD seeks ITS nest. + +Certain nouns may be applied to persons of either sex. They are +then said to be of COMMON GENDER. There are no pronouns of common +gender; hence those nouns are referred to as follows: + +1. By masculine pronouns when known to denote males; as, _MY CLASS-MATE_ +(known to be Harry) _is taking HIS examinations_. + +2. By feminine pronouns when known to denote females; as, _EACH +OF THE PUPILS of the Girls High School brought HER book._ + +3. By masculine pronouns when there is nothing in the connection +of the thought to show the sex of the object; as, _Let every PERSON +bring his book_. + +21. NUMBER OF PRONOUNS. A more common source of error than disagreement +in gender is disagreement in number. _They, their, theirs_, and +_them_ are plural, but are often improperly used when only singular +pronouns should be used. The cause of the error is failure to realize +the true antecedent. + +_If ANYBODY makes that statement, THEY are misinformed_. This sentence +is wrong. _Anybody_ refers to only one person; both _any_ and _body_, +the parts of the word, denote the singular. The sentence should read, +_If ANYBODY makes that statement, HE is misinformed. Similarly, +_Let EVERYBODY keep THEIR peace_, should read, _Let EVERYBODY keep +HIS peace. + +22. COMPOUND ANTECEDENTS. Two or more antecedents connected by +_or_ or _nor_ are frequently referred to by the plural when the +singular should be used. _Neither John nor James brought THEIR +books_, should read, _Neither John nor James brought HIS books_. +When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected by +_or_ or _nor_, the pronoun must be in the singular number; but +if one of the antecedents is plural, the pronoun must, also, be +in the plural; as, _Neither the Mormon nor his wives denied THEIR +religion_. + +When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the +pronoun must be in the plural number; as, _John and James brought +THEIR books_. + +Further treatment of number will be given under verbs. + +EXERCISE 8 + +_Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the proper +pronouns. See that there is agreement in person, gender, and number:_ + + 1. Has everybody finished ---- work. + 2. If any one wishes a longer time, let ---- hold up ---- hand. + 3. The panther sprang from ---- lurking place. + 4. Many a man has (have) lost ---- money in speculation. + 5. The cat came each day for ---- bit of meat. + 6. Everyone has to prove ---- right to a seat. + 7. Let every boy answer for ---- self (selves). + 8. The crowd was so great that we could hardly get through ----. + 9. Let any boy guess this riddle if ---- can. + 10. Company H was greatly reduced in ---- numbers. + 11. Every animal has some weapon with which ---- can defend + ----self (selves). + 12. Nowhere does each dare do as ---- pleases (please). + 13. The elephant placed ---- great foot on the man's chest. + 14. The child did not know ---- mother. + 15. Death gathers ---- unfailing harvest. + 16. Every kind of animal has ---- natural enemies. + 17. The committee instructed ---- chairman to report the matter. + 18. Two men were present, but neither would tell what ---- saw. + 19. Truth always triumphs over ---- enemies. + 20. Nobody did ---- duty more readily than I. + 21. The cat never fails to catch ---- prey. + 22. I have used both blue crayon and red crayon, but ---- does + (do) not write so clearly as white. + 23. If John and Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. + 24. If John or Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. + 25. Both Columbus and Cabot failed to realize the importance + of ---- discoveries. + 26. Neither the lawyer nor the sheriff liked ---- task. + 27. The canary longed to escape from ---- cage. + 28. The rat ran to ---- hole. + 29. The dog seemed to know ---- master was dead. + 30. Everyone should try to gather a host of friends about ----. + 31. If any one wishes to see me, send ---- to the Pierce Building. + 32. Probably everybody is discouraged at least once in ---- life. + 33. Nobody should deceive ----selves (self). + 34. Let each take ---- own seat. + 35. Let each girl in the class bring ---- book. + 36. Let each bring ---- book. + 37. Let each bring ---- sewing. + 38. The fox dropped ---- meat in the pool. + 39. The rock lay on ---- side. + 40. Let sleep enter with ---- healing touch. + 41. Each believed that ---- had been elected a delegate to the + Mother's Congress. + 42. Consumption demands each year ---- thousands of victims. + 43. Summer arrays ----self (selves) with flowers. + 44. Despair seized him in ---- powerful grasp. + 45. If any boy or any girl finds the book, let ---- bring it to me. + 46. Let every man and every woman speak ----mind. + 47. Spring set forth ---- beauties. + 48. How does the mouse save ---- self (selves) from being caught? + 49. The hen cackled ---- loudest. + 50. Some man or boy lost ---- hat. + 51. John or James will favor us with ---- company. + 52. Neither the captain nor the soldiers showed ----self (selves) + during the fight. + 53. If the boys or their father come we shall be glad to see ----. + 54. Every man and every boy received ---- dinner. + 55. Every man or boy gave ---- offering. + +EXERCISE 9 + +_By what gender of the pronouns would you refer to the following +nouns?_ + +Snake, death, care, mercy, fox, bear, walrus, child, baby, friend +(uncertain sex), friend (known to be Mary), everybody, someone, +artist, flower, moon, sun, sorrow, fate, student, foreigner, Harvard +University, earth, Germany? + +23. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns are pronouns used to introduce +adjective or noun clauses that are not interrogative. In the sentence, +_The man THAT I MENTIONED has come_, the relative clause, _that I +mentioned_, is an adjective clause modifying _man_. In the sentence, +_WHOM SHE MEANS, I do not know_, the relative clause is, _whom +she means_, and is a noun clause forming the object of the verb +_know_. + +The relative pronouns are _who_ (_whose, whom_), _which, that_ +and _what_. _But_ and _as_ are sometimes relative pronouns. There +are, also, compound relative pronouns, which will be mentioned +later. + +24. _Who_ (with its possessive and objective forms, _whose_ and +_whom_) should be used when the antecedent denotes persons. When +the antecedent denotes things or animals, _which_ should be used. +_That_ may be used with antecedents denoting persons, animals or +things, and is the proper relative to use when the antecedent includes +both persons and things. _What_, when used as a relative, seldom +properly refers to persons. It always introduces a substantive +clause, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, _It is WHAT (that +which) he wants_. + +25. _That_ is known as the RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE, because it should +be used whenever the relative clause limits the substantive, unless +_who_ or _which_ is of more pleasing sound in the sentence. In the +sentence, _He is the man THAT DID THE ACT_, the relative clause, +_that did the act_, defines what is meant by man; without the relative +clause the sentence clearly would be incomplete. Similarly, in +the sentence, _The book THAT I WANT is that red-backed history_, +the restrictive relative clause is, _that I want_, and limits the +application of _book_. + +26. _Who_ and _which_ are known as the EXPLANATORY or NON-RESTRICTIVE +RELATIVES, and should be used ordinarily only to introduce relative +clauses which add some new thought to the author's principal thought. +_Spanish, WHICH IS THE LEAST COMPLEX LANGUAGE, is the easiest to +learn_. In this sentence the principal thought is, _Spanish is +the easiest language to learn_. The relative clause, _which is +the least complex language_, is a thought, which, though not fully +so important as the principal thought, is more nearly coördinate +than subordinate in its value. It adds an additional thought of +the speaker explaining the character of the Spanish language. When +_who_ and _which_ are thus used as explanatory relatives, we see +that the relative clause may be omitted without making the sentence +incomplete. + +Compare the following sentences: + +Explanatory relative clause: That book, _which is about history_, +has a red cover. + +Restrictive relative clause: The book _that is about history_ has +a red cover. + +Explanatory relative clause: Lincoln, _who was one of the world's +greatest men_, was killed by Booth. + +Restrictive relative clause: The Lincoln _that was killed by Booth_ +was one of the world's greatest men. + +NOTE.--See §111, for rule as to the punctuation of relative clauses. + +27. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun +used to ask a question. The interrogative pronouns are, _who_ (_whose, +whom_), _which_, and _what_. In respect to antecedents, _who_ should +be used only in reference to persons; _which_ and _what_ may be +used with any antecedent, persons, animals, or things. + +EXERCISE 10 + +_Choose the proper relative or interrogative pronoun to be inserted +in each of the following sentences. Insert commas where they are +needed._ (_See_ §111): + + 1. The kindly physician ---- was so greatly loved is dead. + 2. This is the man ---- all are praising. + 3. John ---- is my coachman is sick. + 4. The intelligence ---- he displayed was remarkable. + 5. Intelligence ---- he had hitherto not manifested now showed its + presence. + 6. He maintains that the book ---- you used is now ruined. + (Does _which_ or _that_ have the more pleasing sound here?) + 7. The pleasure ---- education gives the man ---- has it is a + sufficient reward for the trouble ---- it has cost. + 8. That man ---- wears a cap is a foreigner. + 9. The best hotel is the one ---- is nearest the station. + 10. Who is it ---- is worthy of that honor? + 11. The carriages and the drivers ---- you ordered yesterday have arrived. + 12. ---- thing is it ---- you want? + 13. He purchased ---- he wished. + 14. There is no cloud ---- has not its silver lining. + 15. It is the same dog ---- I bought. + 16. The man and horse ---- you see pass here every afternoon. + 17. ---- did they seek? + 18. They inquired ---- he was going to do. + 19. Who was it ---- lost the book? + 20. The man ---- was a Frenchman was very much excited. + 21. It is neither the party nor its candidate ---- gains support. + 22. That is a characteristic ---- makes him seem almost rude. + 23. It is the same tool ---- I used all day. + 24. He is a man ---- inspires little confidence. + 25. ---- does he expect of us? + 26. It is just such a thing ---- I need. + 27. There are few ---- will vote for him. + 28. The wagon and children ---- you just saw came from our town. + 29. He ---- writes out his lesson does all ---- can be expected. + 30. Was it you or the cat ---- made that noise? + 31. It is the same song ---- he always sings. + 32. Such ---- I have is yours. + 33. All the men and horses ---- we had were lost. + 34. That is ---- pleased me most and ---- everyone talked about. + 35. The horse was one ---- I had never ridden before. + 36. That is ---- everyone said. + +28. CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. Some personal, relative, and interrogative +pronouns have distinctive forms for the different cases, and the +failure to use the proper case forms in the sentence is one of +the most frequent sources of error. The case to be used is to be +determined by the use which the pronoun, not its antecedent, has +in the sentence. In the sentence, _I name HIM_, note that _him_ +is the object of the verb _name_. In the sentence, _WHOM do you +seek_, although coming at the first of the sentence, _whom_ is +grammatically the object of the verb _seek_. In the use of pronouns +comes the most important need for a knowledge of when to use the +different cases. + +Note the following different case forms of pronouns: + +Nominative: _I, we, you, thou, ye, he, she, they, it, who_. + +Objective: _me, us, you, thee, ye, him, her, it, them, whom_. + +Possessive: _my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, +her, hers, its, their, theirs, whose_. + +It will be noted that, while some forms are the same in both the +nominative and objective cases, _I, WE, HE, SHE, THEY, THOU_, AND +_WHO_ ARE ONLY PROPER WHERE THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED. +_ME, US, HIM, THEM, THEE, WHOM_, AND _HER_, except when _her_ is +possessive, ARE ONLY PROPER WHEN THE OBJECTIVE CASE IS DEMANDED. +These forms must be remembered. It is only with these pronouns +that mistakes are made in the use of the nominative and objective +cases. + +29. THE FOLLOWING OUTLINE EXPLAINS THE USE OF THE DIFFERENT CASE +FORMS OF THE PRONOUNS. The outline should be mastered. + +THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +1. When the noun or pronoun is the subject of a finite verb; that +is, a verb other than an infinitive. See 3 under Objective Case. + +2. When it is an attribute complement. An attribute complement, as +explained in Chapter I, is a word used in the predicate explaining +or stating something about the subject. Examples: _It is I, The +man was HE, The people were THEY of whom we spoke._ + +3. When it is used without relation to any other part of speech, +as in direct address or exclamation. + +THE OBJECTIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +1. When the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb; as, _He named +ME, She deceived THEM, They watch US_. + +2. When it is the object of a preposition, expressed or understood: +as, _He spoke of ME, For WHOM do you take me, He told (to) ME a +story._ + +3. When it is the subject of an infinitive; as, _I told HIM to +go, I desire HER to hope_. The infinitives are the parts of the +verb preceded by _to_; as, _to go, to see, to be, to have been +seen_, etc. The sign of the infinitive, to, is not always expressed. +The objective case is, nevertheless, used; as, _Let HIM (to) go, +Have HER (to be) told about it._ + +4. When it is an attribute complement of an expressed subject of +the infinitive _to be_; as, _They believed her to be ME, He denied +it to have been him_. (See Note 2 below.) + +THE POSSESSIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +When the word is used as a possessive modifier; as, _They spoke +of HER being present, The book is HIS (book), It is THEIR fault._ + +NOTE I.--When a substantive is placed by the side of another substantive +and is used to explain it, it is said to be in APPOSITION with that +other substantive and takes the case of that word; as, _It_ was +given _to John Smith, HIM whom you see there._ + +NOTE 2.--The attribute complement should always have the case of +that subject of the verb which is expressed in the sentence. Thus, +in the sentence, _I could not wish John to be HIM, him_ is properly +in the objective case, since there is an expressed subject of the +infinitive, _John_, which is in the objective case. But in the +sentence, _I should hate to be HE, he_ is properly in the nominative +case, since the only subject that is expressed in the sentence is +_I_, in the nominative case. + +NOTE 3.--Where the relative pronoun _who (whom)_ is the subject of +a clause that itself is the object clause of a verb or a preposition, +it is always in the nominative case. Thus the following sentences are +both correct: _I delivered it to WHO owned it, Bring home WHOEVER +will come with you._ + +EXERCISE 11 + +_Write sentences illustrating the correct use of each of the following +pronouns:_ + +I, whom, who, we, me, us, they, whose, theirs, them, she, him, he, +its, mine, our, thee, thou. + +EXERCISE 12 + +_In the following sentences choose the proper form from the words +in italics:_ + + 1. My brother and _I me_ drove to the east end of the town. + 2. Between you and _I me_ things are doubtful. + 3. May James and _I me_ go to the circus? + 4. Will you permit James and _I me_ to go to the play? + 5. Who made that noise? Only _I me_. + 6. He introduced us all, _I me_ among the rest. + 7. He promised to bring candy to Helen and _I me_. + 8. Was it _I me_ that you asked for? + 9. Who spoke? _I me_. + 10. I am taken to be _he him_. + 11. No, it could not have been _me I_. + 12. All have gone but you and _I me_. + 13. You suffer more than _me I_. + 14. Everyone has failed in the examination except you and _I me_. + 15. He asked you and _I me_ to come to his office. + 16. See if there is any mail for Mary and _me I_. + 17. Neither you nor _I me_ can teach the class. + 18. They think it to be _I me_. + 19. This is the student _whom who_ all are praising. + 20. The one that is _he him_ wears a brown hat. + 21. He is a man _who whom_ all admired. + 22. He is one of those men _who whom_ we call snobs. + 23. I did not see that it was _her she_. + 24. It is in fact _he him_. + 25. He still believes it to be _them they_. + 26. Between you and _I me_, it is my opinion that _him he_ and John + will disagree. + 27. We saw John and _she her_; we know it was _them they_. + 28. I did not speak of either you or _she her_. + 29. Our cousins and _we us_ are going to the Art Gallery. + 30. Aunt Mary has asked our cousins and _us we_ to take dinner at her house. + 31. They are more eager than _we us_ since they have not seen her for + a long time. + 32. It could not have been _we us who whom_ you suspected. + 33. _We us_ boys are going to the ball game. + 34. They sent letters to all _who whom_ they thought would contribute. + 35. This money was given by John _who whom_ you know is very stingy. + 36. The superintendent, _who whom_, I cannot doubt, is responsible + for this error, must be discharged. + 37. The teacher told you and _I me_ to stay. + 38. The teacher told you and _him he_ to stay. + 39. The teacher told you and _she her_ to stay. + 40. There are many miles between England and _we us_. + 41. They can't play the game better than _we us_. + 42. It is unpleasant for such as _they them_ to witness such things. + 43. Between a teacher and _he him who whom_ he teaches there is + sometimes a strong fellowship. + 44. You are nearly as strong as _him he_. + 45. All were present but John and _he him_. + 46. Father believed it was _she her_. + 47. Mother knew it to be _her she_. + 48. It was either _he him_ or _she her_ that called. + 49. Because of _his him_ being young, they tried to shield him. + 50. It was _he him who whom_ the manager said ought to be promoted. + 51. The throne was held by a king _who whom_ historians believe + to have been insane. + 52. _Who whom_ did he say the man was? + 53. _Who whom_ did he say the judge suspected? + 54. _Who whom_ do you consider to be the brightest man? + 55. _Who whom_ do you think is the brightest man? + 56. He cannot learn from such as _thou thee_. + 57. If they only rob such as _thou thee_, they are honest. + 58. What dost _thou thee_ know? + 59. They do tell _thee thou_ the truth. + 60. She told John and _me I_ to study. + 61. My father allowed my brother and _her she_ to go. + 62. My brother and _she her_ were allowed to go by my father. + 63. Turn not away from _him he_ that is needy. + 64. Neither Frances nor _she her_ was at fault. + 65. The property goes to _they them_. + 66. He thought it was _her she_, but it was _him he_ and William +who did it. + 67. It was through _she her_ that word came to _me I_. + 68. I thought it was _her she_. + 69. I wish you were more like _he him_. + 70. I thought it to be _she her_. + 71. It seems to be _he_. I should hate to be _he_. I should like to be + _he_ or _she_. (All these sentences are in the correct form.) + 72. He is a man in _whom who_ I have little faith. + 73. You are as skillful as _she her_. + 74. We escorted her mother and _her she_ to the station. + 75. _She her_ and _I me_ are going on the boat. + 76. If any are late it will not be _us we_. + 77. _Who whom_ are you going to collect it from? + 78. _Who whom_ do men say that he is? + 79. _Who whom_ do you think _him he_ to be? + 80. _They them_ and their children have gone abroad. + 81. It was not _they them_. + 82. _Who whom_ am I said to be? + 83. I do not know to _who whom_ to direct him. + 84. How can one tell _who whom_ is at home now? + 85. _Who whom_ is that for? + 86. Choose _who whom_ you please. + 87. Do you think _I me_ to be _her she who whom_ you call Kate? + 88. Some _who whom_ their friends expected were kept away. + 89. Give it to _who whom_ seems to want it most. + 90. _Who whom_ do you think I saw there? + 91. I hope it was _she her who whom_ we saw. + 92. It could not have been _him he_. + 93. _Who whom_ did you say did it? + 94. Let _them they_ come at once. + 95. The man on _who whom_ I relied was absent. + 96. I know it was _they them who whom_ did it. + 97. Will he let _us we_ go? + 98. It came from _they them who whom_ should not have sent it. + 99. It was not _us we_ from _who whom_ it came. +100. Can it be _she her_? +101. _Thou thee_ art mistaken. +102. Let me tell _thee thou, thee thou_ wilt do wrong. +103. Send _who whom_ wants the pass to me. +104. Tell _who whom_ you choose to come. +105. Is he the man for _who whom_ the city is named? +106. The book is for _who whom_ needs it. +107. I do not know _who whom_ the book is for. + +30. The COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS are formed by adding _self_ +or _selves_ to certain of the objective and possessive personal +pronouns; as, _herself, myself, itself, themselves_, etc. They +are used to add emphasis to an expression; as, _I, MYSELF, did +it, He, HIMSELF, said so._ They are also used reflexively after +verbs and prepositions; as, _He mentioned HIMSELF, He did it for +HIMSELF_. + +The compound personal pronouns should generally be confined to +their emphatic and reflexive use. Do not say, _MYSELF and John +will come_, but, _John and I will come_. Do not say, _They invited +John and MYSELF_, but, _They invited John and ME_. + +The compound personal pronouns have no possessive forms; but for +the sake of emphasis _own_ with the ordinary possessive form is +used; as, _I have my OWN book, Bring your OWN work, He has a home +of his OWN._ + +31. There are no such forms as _hisself, your'n, his'n, her'n, +theirself, theirselves, their'n_. In place of these use simply _his, +her, their_, or _your_. + +EXERCISE 13 + +_Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the following simple +and compound personal pronouns:_ + +Myself, me, I, them, themselves, him, himself, her, herself, itself, +our, ourselves. + +EXERCISE 14 + +_Choose the correct form in the following sentences. Punctuate +properly._ (_See_ §108): + + 1. _Yourself you_ and John were mentioned + 2. She told Mary and _me myself_ to go with _her herself_. + 3. The book is for _you yourself_ and _I me myself_. + 4. Henry and _I me myself_ are in the same class. + 5. He thinks _you yourself_ and _I me myself_ should bring the books. + 6. Our friends and _we us ourselves_ are going out to-night. + 7. _Herself she_ and her husband have been sick. + 8. _They themselves_ and their children have gone abroad. + 9. You play the violin better than _he himself_. + 10. The machine failed to work well, because _it itself_ and the + engine were not properly adjusted to each other. + 11. Let them do it _theirselves themselves_. + 12. He came by _hisself himself_. + 13. The teacher _hisself himself_ could not have done better. + 14. I'll bring my gun, and you bring _your'n yours your_ own. + 15. That book is _his'n his_. + +EXERCISE 15 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic +or reflexive forms. Punctuate properly._ (_See_ §108): + + 1. He ---- said so. + 2. I ---- will do it. + 3. We ---- will look after her. + 4. That, I tell you, is ---- book. + 5. It belongs to me ----. + 6. Those books are my ----. + 7. Let them ---- pay for it. + 8. The horse is to be for ---- use. + 9. The horse is to be for the use of ----. + 10. He said it to ----. + 11. He deceived ----. + 12. I do not wish ---- to be prominent. + +32. The COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS are formed by adding _ever, so_, +or _soever_ to the relative pronouns, _who, which_, and _what_; +as, _whoever, whatever, whomever, whosoever, whoso, whosoever_, +etc. It will be noted that _whoever, whosoever_, and _whoso_ have +objective forms, _whomever, whomsoever_, and _whomso_; and possessive +forms, _whosoever, whosesoever_, and _whoseso_. These forms must +be used whenever the objective or possessive case is demanded. +Thus, one should say, _I will give it to WHOMEVER I find there_. +(See §29 and Note 3.) + +EXERCISE 16 + +_Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound +relatives:_ + + 1. We will refer the question to ---- you may name. + 2. ---- it may have been, it was not he. + 3. I shall receive presents from ---- I wish. + 4. It was between him and ---- was with him. + 5. ---- they may choose, I will not vote for him. + 6. Let them name ---- they think will win. + 7. Give it to ---- you think needs it most. + 8. He may take ---- he cares to. + 9. He will take ---- property he finds there. + 10. He promised to ask the question of ---- he found there. + 11. ---- can have done it? + 12. ---- else may be said, that is not true. + 13. There are the two chairs; you may take ---- you like. + 14. ---- you take will suit me. + 15. You may have ---- you wish. + 16. ---- is nominated, will you vote for him? + 17. ---- they nominate, I will vote for him. + 18. ---- does that is a partizan. + 19. ---- candidate is elected, I will be satisfied. + 20. He may name ---- he thinks best. + 21. ---- he says is worthy of attention. + 22. ---- she takes after, she is honest. + 23. ---- follows him will be sorry. + 24. ---- he may be, he is no gentleman. + 25. ---- they do is praised. + +33. There are certain words, called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, which are +regarded as pronouns, because, although they are properly adjective +in their meaning, the nouns which they modify are never expressed; +as, _One_ (there is a possessive form, _one's_, and a plural form, +_ones_), _none, this, that, these, those, other, former, some, +few, many_, etc. + +34. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS: + +1. The pronoun _I_ should always be capitalized, and should, when +used as part of a compound subject, be placed second; as, _James +and I were present, not I and James were present_. + +2. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns +in the same sentence; as, _THOU wilt do this whether YOU wish or +not_. + +3. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary; +as, _John, HE did it, or Mary, SHE said_. This is a frequent error +in speech. + +4. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. Note the +uncertainty in the following sentence; _He sent a box of cheese, +and IT was made of wood_. The antecedent of _it_ is not clear. +Again, _A man told his son to take HIS coat home_. The antecedent +of _his_ is very uncertain. Such errors are frequent. + +In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing +the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. +Note the following sentence: _A cat was found in the YARD WHICH +wore a blue ribbon_. The grammatical inference would be that the +yard wore the blue ribbon. The sentence might be changed to, _A +CAT, WHICH wore a blue ribbon, was found in the yard_. + +5. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same +relative pronoun to introduce them; as, _The book THAT we found +and the book THAT he lost are the same_. + +6. Use _but that_ when _BUT_ is a conjunction and _that_ introduces +a noun clause; as, _There is no doubt BUT THAT he will go_. Use +_but what_ when _but_ is a preposition in the sense of _except_; +as, _He has no money but (except) WHAT I gave him_. + +7. _Them_ is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. +_Those_ is the adjective which should be used in its place; as, +_Those people_, not, _Them people_. + +8. Avoid using _you_ and _they_ indefinitely; as, _YOU seldom hear +of such things, THEY make chairs there_. Instead, say, _ONE seldom +hears of such things, Chairs are made there_. + +9. _Which_ should not be used with a clause or phrase as its antecedent. +Both the following sentences are wrong: _He sent me to see John, +WHICH I did. Their whispering became very loud, which annoyed the +preacher_. + +10. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns, _its, +yours, theirs, ours_ and _hers_. + +EXERCISE 17 + +_Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the +cautions above stated_: + + 1. How can you say that when thou knowest better? + 2. May I and Mary go to the concert? + 3. He asked me to write to him, which I did. + 4. Grant thou to us your blessing. + 5. The train it was twenty minutes late. + 6. Mother she said I might go. + 7. Mary told her mother she was mistaken. + 8. The man cannot leave his friend, for if he should leave him he + would be angry. + 9. Sarah asked her aunt how old she was. + 10. That is the man whom we named and that did it. + 11. Mr. Jones went to Mr. Smith and told him that his dog was lost. + 12. This is the book that we found and which he lost. + 13. She told her sister that if she could not get to the city, she + thought she had better go home. + 14. Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short. + 15. Then Jack and George, they went home. + 16. Bring them books here. + 17. Them are all wrong. + 18. There are no men in the room but that can be bought. + 19. I have no doubt but what it was done. + 20. Them there should be corrected. + 21. I have faith in everything but that he says. + 22. I have no fears but what it can be done. + 23. Napoleon, he threw his armies across the Rhine. + 24. Thou knowest not what you are doing. + 25. It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon, which was done. + 26. A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes. + 27. Keep them people out of here. + 28. The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow. + 29. She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like. + 30. You never can tell about foreigners. + 31. They say that is not true. + 32. The cabin needed to be swept, which we did. + 33. They use those methods in some schools. + 34. It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white. + 35. You can easily learn history if you have a good memory. + 36. How can you tell but what it will rain? + 37. He does everything but what he should do. + 38. He has everything but that he needs. + 39. It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen. + 40. Aunt, she said that she didn't know but what she would go. + 41. Tell I and John about it. + 42. He went to his father and told him he had sinned. + 43. Dost thou know what you doest? + 44. It's appearance was deceitful. + 45. The chair was also their's. + 46. There is a slight difference between mine and your's. + 47. Which of the two is her's? + 48. They are both our's. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS + +35. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. An +ADVERB is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another +adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very closely related in both +their forms and their use. + +36. COMPARISON. The variation of adjectives and adverbs to indicate +the degree of modification they express is called COMPARISON. There +are three degrees of comparison. + +The POSITIVE DEGREE indicates the mere possession of a quality; +as, _true, good, sweet, fast, lovely_. + +The COMPARATIVE DEGREE indicates a stronger degree of the quality +than the positive; as, _truer, sweeter, better, faster, lovelier_. + +The SUPERLATIVE DEGREE indicates the highest degree of quality; +as, _truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest_. + +Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are +said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative +is formed by adding _er_, and the superlative by adding _est_. If +the word ends in _y_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ before adding the +ending; as, _pretty, prettier, prettiest_. + +Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most +of them are compared by the use of the adverbs _more_ and _most_, +or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use of _less_ +and _least_; as, _beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful_, and +_less beautiful, least beautiful_. + +37. Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing to entirely +different words in the comparative and superlative. Note the following: + +POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE +bad, ill, evil, badly worse worst +far farther, further farthest, furthest +forth further furthest +fore former foremost, first +good, well better best +hind hinder hindmost +late later, latter latest, last +little less least +much, many more most +old older, elder oldest, eldest + +NOTE.--_Badly_ and _forth_ may be used only as adverbs. _Well_ +is usually an adverb; as, _He talks well_, but may be used as an +adjective; as, _He seems well_. + +38. CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. An adjective is often +used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, +_She talks FOOLISH_, is wrong, because here the word to be modified +is _talks_, and since _talks_ is a verb, the adverb _foolishly_ +should be used. The sentence, _She looks CHARMINGLY_, means, as +it stands, that her manner of looking at a thing is charming. What +is intended to be said is that she appears as if she was a charming +woman. To convey that meaning, the adjective, _charming_, should +have been used, and the sentence should read, _She looks charming_. +Wherever the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, +an adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location +in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should +be used. + +39. The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in form. Thus, +both the following sentences are correct: _He works HARD_ (adverb), +and _His work is HARD_ (adjective). But, usually, where the adjective +and the adverb correspond at all, the adverb has the additional +ending _ly_; as, _The track is SMOOTH_, (adjective), and _The train +runs SMOOTHLY_, (adverb). + +EXERCISE 18 + +_In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the +proper word to be used:_ + + 1. The sunset looks _beautiful beautifully_. + 2. The man acted _strange strangely_. + 3. Write _careful carefully_ and speak _distinct distinctly_. + 4. Speak _slow slowly_. + 5. He acted _bad badly_. + 6. He behaved very _proper properly_. + 7. The boat runs _smooth smoothly_. + 8. He is a _remarkable remarkably_ poor writer. + 9. I am in _extremely extreme_ good health. + 10. The typewriter works _good well_. + 11. The bird warbles _sweet sweetly_. + 12. He was _terrible terribly_ angry. + 13. He was in a _terrible terribly_ dangerous place. + 14. He talks _plainer more plainly_ than he ever did before. + 15. The dead Roman looked _fierce fiercely_. + 16. The fire burns _brilliant brilliantly_. + 17. You are _exceeding exceedingly_ generous. + 18. He struggled _manful manfully_ against the opposition. + 19. My health is _poor poorly_. + 20. He is sure surely a _fine fellow_. + 21. Have everything _suitable suitably_ decorated. + 22. That can be done _easy easily_. + 23. I can speak _easier more easily_ than I can write. + 24. The music of the orchestra was _decided decidedly_ poor. + 25. She is a _remarkable remarkably_ beautiful girl. + 26. The wind roared _awful awfully_. + 27. The roar of the wind was _awful awfully_. + 28. I have studied grammar _previous previously_ to this year. + 29. I didn't study because I felt too _bad badly_ to read. + 30. The roses smell _sweetly sweet_. + 31. They felt very _bad badly_ at being beaten. + 32. That violin sounds _different differently_ from this one. + 33. The soldiers fought _gallant gallantly_. + 34. She looks _sweet sweetly_ in that dress. + 35. I can wear this coat _easy easily_. + 36. Speak _gentle gently_ to him. + 37. He talks _warm warmly_ on that subject. + 38. He works _well good_ and _steady steadily_. + 39. He stood _thoughtful thoughtfully_ for a moment and then went + _quiet quietly_ to his tent. + 40. He walked down the street _slow slowly_, but all the time looked + _eager eagerly_ about him. + 41. The music sounds _loud loudly_. + 42. That coin rings _true truly_. + 43. He looked _angry angrily_ at his class. + 44. He moved _silent silently_ about in the crowd. + 45. His coat fits _nice nicely_. + 46. That is _easy easily_ to do. + 47. He went over the work very _thorough thoroughly_. + +EXERCISE 19 + +_The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly +used. In every case show what they modify:_ + + 1. The water lay smooth in the lake. + 2. She looked cold. + 3. The train runs smoothly now. + 4. The sun shone bright at the horizon. + 5. The sun shone brightly all day. + 6. She looks coldly about her. + 7. Be careful in your study of these sentences. + 8. Study these sentences carefully. + 9. We found the way easy. + 10. We found the way easily. + 11. He looked good. + 12. He looked well. + 13. We arrived safe. + 14. We arrived safely. + 15. Speak gently. + 16. Let your speech be gentle. + +EXERCISE 20 + +_Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:_ + +Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, +cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, +eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously. + +40. IMPROPER FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. The wrong forms in the following +list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the right forms: + + RIGHT WRONG +everywhere everywheres +not nearly nowhere near +not at all not much or not muchly +ill illy +first firstly +thus thusly +much muchly +unknown unbeknown +complexioned complected + +EXERCISE 21 + +_Correct the errors in the following sentences:_ + + 1. She goes everywheres. + 2. Hers is the most illy behaved child I know. + 3. Not muchly will I go. + 4. Use the lesser quantity first. + 5. He is nowhere near so bright as John. + 6. You do the problem thusly. + 7. The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy. + 8. They came unbeknown to me. + 9. He is a dark complected man. + 10. It all happened unbeknownst to them. + 11. His vote was nowhere near so large as usual. + +41. ERRORS IN COMPARISON are frequently made. Observe carefully +the following rules: + +1. The superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. +One should say, _He is the LARGER of the two_, not _He is the LARGEST +of the two_. But, _He is the largest of the three_, is right. + +2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express +absolute quality--adjectives that cannot be compared; as, _round, +perfect, equally, universal_. A thing may be _round_ or _perfect_, +but it cannot be _more round_ or _most round_, _more perfect_ or +_most perfect_. + +3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be +included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the +superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to say, +_The discovery of America was MORE IMPORTANT THAN ANY geographical +discovery_, for that is saying that the discovery of America was +more important than itself--an absurdity. But it would be right to +say, _The discovery of America was more important THAN ANY OTHER +geographical discovery_. One should not say, _He is the most honest +OF HIS fellow-workmen_, for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. +One should say, _He is more honest THAN ANY of his fellow-workmen_, +or, _He is the most honest OF ALL the workmen_. To say, _This machine +is BETTER THAN ANY machine_, is incorrect, but to say, _This machine +is better THAN ANY OTHER machine_, is correct. To say, _This machine +is the BEST OF ANY machine_ (or _any other machine_), is wrong, +because all machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. +To say, _This machine is the BEST OF machines_ (or _the best of +all machines_), is correct. + +Note the following rules in regard to the use of _other_ in comparisons: + +a. After comparatives followed by _than_ the words _any_ and _all_ +should be followed by _other_. + +b. After superlatives followed by _of, any_ and _other_ should not +be used. + +4. Avoid mixed comparisons. _John is as good, if not better than +she_. If the clause, _if not better_, were left out, this sentence +would read, _John is as good than she_. It could be corrected to +read, _John is as good AS, if not better than she_. Similarly, it +is wrong to say, _He is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, +man in history_. + +EXERCISE 22 + +_Choose the correct word from those italicized:_ + + 1. The _older oldest_ of the three boys was sick. + 2. Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the _wealthiest wealthier_. + 3. Of two burdens choose the _less least_. + 4. Which can run the _fastest faster_, John or Henry? + 5. Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the _first former_ is the + _better best_ known. + 6. Which is the _larger largest_ of the two? + 7. Which is the _best better_ of the six? + 8. Which is the _larger largest_ number, six or seven + 9. Which is the _more most_ desirable, health or wealth? + 10. My mother is the _oldest older_ of four sisters. + 11. The _prettier prettiest_ of the twins is the _brighter brightest_. + 12. This is the _duller dullest_ season of the year. + 13. The other is the _worse worst_ behaved of the two. + 14. Which was the _hotter hottest_, yesterday or to-day? + 15. That is the _cleaner cleanest_ of the three streets. + +EXERCISE 23 + +_Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give +a valid reason for each correction:_ + + 1. He was the most active of all his friends. + 2. He is the brightest of all his brothers. + 3. Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest. + 4. Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania. + 5. Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in Pennsylvania. + 6. No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia. + 7. That theory is more universally adopted. + 8. He was, of all others, the most clever. + 9. This apple is more perfect than that. + 10. No fruit is so good as the orange. + 11. The orange is better than any fruit. + 12. Of all other fruits the orange is the best. + 13. The orange is the best of all the fruits. + 14. The orange is better than any other fruit. + 15. That is the most principal thing in the lesson. + 16. Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity? + 17. He was more active than any other of his companions. + 18. This apple is rounder than that. + 19. This apple is more nearly round than that. + 20. Paris is the most famous of any other European city. + 21. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states. + 22. No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania. + 23. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States. + 24. Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states. + 25. New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in the + world. + 26. That book is as good if not better than mine. + 27. John is taller than any other boy in his classes. + 28. John is taller than any boy in his class. + 29. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. + 30. Iron is the more useful of the metals. + 31. Iron is the most useful of the metals. + 32. Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest. + 33. Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal. + 34. He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in the Senate. + 35. That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures. + +42. SINGULAR AND PLURAL ADJECTIVES. Some adjectives can be used +only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. Such +adjectives as _one, each, every_, etc., can be used only with singular +nouns. Such adjectives as _several, various, many, sundry, two_, +etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many cases, the noun +which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the adjective thus +acquires the force of a pronoun; as, _FEW are seen, SEVERAL have +come_. + +The adjective pronouns _this_ and _that_ have plural forms, _these_ +and _those_. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To say +_those kind_ is then incorrect. It should be _those kinds_. _Those +sort of men_ should be _that sort of men_ or _those sorts of men_. + +43. EITHER AND NEITHER are used to designate one of two objects +only. If more than two are referred to, use _any, none, any one, +no one_. Note the following correct sentences: + +_NEITHER John nor Henry may go._ + +_ANY ONE of the three boys may go._ + +44. EACH OTHER should be used when referring to two; ONE ANOTHER +when referring to more than two. Note the following correct sentences: + +_The two brothers love EACH OTHER._ + +_The four brothers love ONE ANOTHER._ + +EXERCISE 24 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be able +to give reasons:_ + + 1. He is six foot tall. + 2. I like those kind of fruit. + 3. He lost several pound. + 4. I have not seen him this twenty year. + 5. Have you heard these news? + 6. Are they those kind of people? + 7. He rode ten mile. + 8. There were fifteen car-load of people. + 9. These kind of books are interesting. + 10. Several phenomenon marked his character. + 11. There are a few crisis in every man's career. + 12. Each strata of the rock lies at an angle. + 13. The poem has six verse in it. + 14. Either of the five will do. + 15. Little children should love each other. + 16. Neither of the large cities in the United States is so large as + London. + 17. You will be able to find it in either one of those three books. + 18. Those two brothers treat one another very coldly. + 19. Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it. + 20. Either law or medicine is his profession. + 21. Some ten box of shoes were on the train. + 22. Those two statements contradict one another. + 23. The Sahara Desert has several oasis. + 24. How can he associate with those sort of men? + +45. PLACING OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. In the placing of adjective +elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one should so +arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are intended to +modify. + +Wrong: A man was riding on a _horse wearing gray trousers_. + +Right: A _man wearing gray trousers_ was riding on a horse. + +The adverb _only_ requires especial attention. Generally _only_ +should come before the word it is intended to modify. Compare the +following correct sentences, and note the differences in meaning. + +_Only_ he found the book. + +He _only_ found the book. + +He found _only_ the book. + +He found the book _only_. + +The placing of the words, _almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely_, +and _quite_, also requires care and thought. + +EXERCISE 25 + +_Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs in +the following sentences:_ + + 1. I only paid five dollars. + 2. I have only done six problems. + 3. The clothing business is only profitable in large towns. + 4. The school is only open in the evening. + 5. I only need ten minutes in which to do it. + 6. He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke. + 7. I never expect to see the like again. + 8. A black base-ball player's suit was found. + 9. Do you ever remember to have seen the man before? + 10. The building was trimmed with granite carved corners. + 11. People ceased to wonder gradually. + 12. The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch. + 13. I never wish to think of it again. + 14. On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia. + 15. Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country. + 16. He only spoke of history, not of art. + 17. I know hardly what to say. + 18. I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature. + 19. The girls were nearly dressed in the same color. + 20. He merely wanted to see you. + +46. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. _I am here_ is called an affirmative statement. +A denial of that, _I am not here_, is called a negative statement. +The words, _not, neither, never, none, nothing_, etc., are all +negative words; that is, they serve to make denials of statements. + +Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since +the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and +an affirmative is made where a negative is intended. _We haven't +no books_, means that we have some books. The proper negative form +would be, _We have no books_, or _We haven't any books_. The mistake +occurs usually where such forms as _isn't, don't, haven't_, etc., +are used. Examine the following sentences: + +Wrong: _It isn't no_ use. + +Wrong: There _don't none_ of them believe it. + +Wrong: We _didn't_ do _nothing_. + +_Hardly, scarcely, only_, and _but_ (in the sense of _only_) are +often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare the following right +and wrong forms: + +Wrong: It was so dark that we _couldn't hardly_ see. + +Right: It was so dark that we _could hardly_ see. + +Wrong: There _wasn't only_ one person present. + +Right: There _was only_ one person present. + +EXERCISE 26 + +Correct the following sentences: + + 1. I can't find it nowhere. + 2. For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was. + 3. They are not allowed to go only on holidays. + 4. There isn't but one person that can make the speech. + 5. They didn't find no treasure. + 6. It won't take but a few minutes to read it all. + 7. I haven't seen but two men there. + 8. There isn't no one here who knows it. + 9. I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire. + 10. I can't hardly prove that statement. + 11. I didn't feel hardly able to go. + 12. She couldn't stay only a week. + 13. I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began. + 14. You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done. + 15. He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife. + 16. There isn't nothing in the story. + 17. He doesn't do nothing. + 18. I can't think of nothing but that. + 19. He can't hardly mean that. + 20. He isn't nowhere near so bright as I. + 21. He can't hardly come to-night. + 22. It is better to not think nothing about it. + 23. She can't only do that. + 24. There isn't no use of his objecting to it. + 25. There shan't none of them go along with us. + 26. Don't never do that again. + 27. We could not find but three specimens of the plant. + 28. He wasn't scarcely able to walk. + 29. He hasn't none of his work prepared. + +47. THE ARTICLES. _A, an_, and _the_, are called Articles. _A_ and +_an_ are called the INDEFINITE ARTICLES, because they are used to +limit the noun to any one thing of a class; as, _a book, a chair_. +But _a_ or _an_ is not used to denote the whole of that class; +as, _Silence is golden_, or, _He was elected to the office of +President_. + +_The_ is called the DEFINITE ARTICLE because it picks out some one +definite individual from a class. + +In the sentence, _On the street are A brick and A stone house_, +the article is repeated before each adjective; the effect of this +repetition is to make the sentence mean two houses. But, in the +sentence, _On the street is A brick and stone house_, since the +article is used only before the first of the two adjectives, the +sentence means that there is only one house and that it is constructed +of brick and stone. + +Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear +only before the first of the two; as, _God, the author and creator +of the universe_. But where the nouns refer to two different objects, +regarded as distinct from each other, the article should appear +before each; as, _He bought a horse and a cow_. + +_A_ is used before all words except those beginning with a vowel +sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound _an_ is used. +If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not be used +before all of the words, then the article must be repeated before +each. Thus, one should say, _AN ax, A saw, and AN adze_ (not _An +ax, saw and adze_), _made up his outfit_. Generally it is better +to repeat the article in each case, whether or not it be the same. + +Do not say, _kind of A HOUSE_. Since _a house_ is singular, it +can have but one kind. Say instead, a _kind of house, a sort of +man_, etc. + +EXERCISE 27 + +_Correct the following where you think correction is needed:_ + + 1. Where did you get that kind of a notion? + 2. She is an eager and an ambitious girl. + 3. He received the degree of a Master of Arts. + 4. The boy and girl came yesterday. + 5. Neither the man nor woman was here. + 6. He was accompanied by a large and small man. + 7. He planted an oak, maple and ash. + 8. The third of the team were hurt. + 9. The noun and verb will be discussed later. + 10. I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper. + 11. Read the third and sixth sentence. + 12. Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical. + 13. He is dying from the typhoid fever. + 14. He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the + association. + 15. What sort of a student are you? + 16. He is a funny kind of a fellow. + 17. Bring me a new and old chair. + 18. That is a sort of a peculiar idea. + 19. He was operated upon for the appendicitis. + 20. Lock the cat and dog up. + +48. No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the +sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when _very_ or +_too_ are used with past participles that are not also recognized +as adjectives; as, + +Poor: I am _very insulted_. He was _too wrapped_ in thought to notice +the mistake. + +Right: I am _very much insulted_. He was _too much wrapped_ in thought +to notice the mistake. + +EXERCISE 28 + +_Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. +Be sure that they are used correctly._ + +Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, +charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, +very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, +only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +VERBS + +49. A VERB has already been defined as a word stating something +about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the +time of the action as past, present, or future; as, _I talk, I +talked, I shall talk_, etc. Verbs also vary to indicate completed +or incompleted action; as, _I have talked, I shall have talked_, +etc. To these variations, which indicate the time of the action, +the name TENSE is given. + +The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, _He +MAY HAVE GONE home_. Here the verb is _may have gone_. The last +word of such a verb phrase is called the PRINCIPAL VERB, and the +other words the AUXILIARIES. In the sentence above, _go (gone)_ +is the principal verb, and _may_ and _have_ are the auxiliaries. + +50. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there +are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. These +are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS. + +The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb is +referred to as a word, may be called the NAME-FORM. The following +are name-forms: _do, see, come, walk, pass_. + +The Second Principal Part is called the PAST TENSE. It is formed +by adding _ed_ to the name-form; as, _walked, pushed, passed_. +These verbs that add _ed_ are called Regular Verbs. The verb form +is often entirely changed; as, _done (do), saw (see), came (come)_. +These verbs are called Irregular Verbs. + +The Third Principal Part is called the PAST PARTICIPLE. It is used +mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. +In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the +past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both +the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both +of them. Examples: _done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, +came), set (set, set)_. + +51. THE NAME-FORM, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is used with +all subjects, except those in the third person singular, to assert +action in the present time or present tense; as, _I go, We come, +You see, Horses run_. + +The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (_may, might, +can, must, will, should, shall_, etc.) to assert futurity, +determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: _I may go, +We shall come, You can see, Horses should run_. + +By preceding it with the word _to_, the name-form is used to form +what is called the PRESENT INFINITIVE; as, _I wish to go, I hope +to see_. + +What may be called the S-FORM of the verb, or the SINGULAR form, +is usually constructed by adding _s_ or _es_ to the name-form. +The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person; as, +_He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots_. + +The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present +tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the +auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to +form some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: _He has_ +(present tense), _He has gone_ (perfect tense), _He has been seen_. + +Some verbs have no s-form; as, _will, shall, may_. The verb _be_ +has two irregular s-forms: _Is_, in the present tense, and _was_ +in the past tense. The s-form of _have_ is _has_. + +52. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; i. e., IT +SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH ANY AUXILIARIES. To use it so, however, +is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. The following are +past tense forms: _went, saw, wore, tore_. To say, therefore, _I +have saw, I have went, It was tore, They were wore_, would be grossly +incorrect. + +53. The third principal part, the past participle, on the other +hand, CAN NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. +The following are distinctly past participle forms: _done, seen, +sung_, etc. One could not then properly say, _I seen, I done, I +sung_, etc. + +The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of +course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense +and past participle are always the same, and so no error could +result from their confusion. + +The past participle is used to form the _Perfect Infinitives_; as, +_to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen_. + +54. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most +important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. +The student should bear in mind always that, THE PAST TENSE FORM +SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH AN AUXILIARY, and that THE PAST PARTICIPLE +FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. + +In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which +are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and +irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect +forms are often used. + +PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +awake awoke or awaked awaked +begin began begun +beseech besought besought +bid (to order or to greet) bade bidden or bid +bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid +blow blew blown +break broke broken +burst burst burst +choose chose chosen +chide chid chidden or chid +come came come +deal dealt dealt +dive dived dived + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +do did done +draw drew drawn +drink drank drunk or drank +drive drove driven +eat ate eaten +fall fell fallen +flee fled fled +fly flew flown +forsake forsook forsaken +forget forgot forgot or forgotten +freeze froze frozen +get got got (gotten) +give gave given +go went gone +hang (clothes) hung hung +hang (a man) hanged hanged +know knew known +lay laid laid +lie lay lain +mean meant meant +plead pleaded pleaded +prove proved proved +ride rode ridden +raise raised raised +rise rose risen +run ran run +see saw seen +seek sought sought +set set set +shake shook shaken +shed shed shed +shoe shod shod +sing sang sung +sit sat sat +slay slew slain +sink sank sunk +speak spoke spoken + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +steal stole stolen +swim swam swum +take took taken +teach taught taught +tear tore torn +throw threw thrown +tread trod trod or trodden +wake woke or waked woke or waked +wear wore worn +weave wove woven +write wrote written + +NOTES.--_Ought_ has no past participle. It may then never be used +with an auxiliary. _I had ought to go_ is incorrect. The idea would +be amply expressed by _I ought to go_. + +MODEL CONJUGATIONS of the verbs _to be_ and _to see_ in all forms +are given under §77 at the end of this chapter. + +EXERCISE 29 + +_In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to +use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:_ + +Example: (Original sentence), _The guests begin to go home._ + (Changed to past tense), _The guests began to go home._ + (Changed to past participle), _The guests have begun to go home._ + + 1. Our books _lie_ on the mantel. + 2. John _comes_ in and _lays_ his books on the desk. + 3. I _see_ the parade. + 4. He _runs_ up the road. + 5. They _set_ their chairs in a row. + 6. The noise _wakes_ me. + 7. Cæsar _bids_ him enter. + 8. If they _prove_ their innocence, they should be discharged. + 9. His friends _plead_ strongly for him. + 10. Do you know what they _mean_ by that? + 11. I _awake_ early every morning. + 12. He _begins_ to think of strange things. + 13. The children _beseech_ me to go with them. + 14. My mother _bids_ me to say that she will be here at six. + 15. Smith _bids_ fifty dollars for the chair. + 16. My servants _break_ many dishes. + 17. They _choose_ their associates. + 18. The box _bursts_ open. + 19. His mother _chides_ him for his misbehavior. + 20. He _comes_ here every day. + 21. I _deal_ there this week. + 22. The boys _dive_ beautifully. + 23. You _do_ so much more than is necessary. + 24. They _draw_ lots for the watch. + 25. Jones _drinks_ this wine very seldom. + 26. They _drive_ over to Milton once a week. + 27. They _drive_ a sorrel horse. + 28. The cows _eat_ grass. + 29. The Gauls _flee_ before Cæsar. + 30. The swallows all _fly_ into the chimney at evening. + 31. They _forsake_ the cause without any reason. + 32. Cæsar _gives_ them no answer. + 33. They _get_ no money for their services. + 34. You _forget_ that we have no right to do that. + 35. Water _freezes_ at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. + 36. The ball _goes_ to the opposing team. + 37. You _hang_ the rope on the tree. + 38. The sheriff _hangs_ the murderer at noon. + 39. I _know_ of nothing more worrying. + 40. She _lays_ the knife on the table. + 41. They _lie_ in bed until eleven. + 42. Why they _rise_ so late, I do not know. + 43. They _raise_ no objection. + 44. John _runs_ very rapidly. + 45. You _sit_ very quietly. + 46. Cæsar _seeks_ to learn the intention of the enemy. + 47. The politician vigorously _shakes_ all hands. + 48. The roof _sheds_ water in all storms. + 49. The blacksmith _shoes_ horses. + 50. The choir _sings_ for each service. + 51. You _speak_ too rapidly to be easily understood. + 52. Few men _steal_ because they want to. + 53. I _swim_ one hundred yards very readily. + 54. They _teach_ all the elementary branches there. + 55. You _take_ all subscriptions for the concert. + 56. Those clothes _tear_ readily. + 57. They _tread_ the grapes in making wine. + 58. Who _throws_ paper on the floor? + 59. I always _wear_ old clothes in which to work. + 60. She _writes_ to her mother daily. + 61. They _weave_ the best rugs in Philadelphia. + +EXERCISE 30 + +_Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly +used:_ + +Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, +driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, +knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, +swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written. + +EXERCISE 31 + +_Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. +The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of +each group:_ + + 1. BEGIN. He ---- to act at once. The reports ---- to disturb + him a little. He has ---- to feel hurt over them. + 2. BID. The proprietor ---- us a pleasant good day. No matter + how much he ---- the auctioneer will not hear him. We were + ---- to enter. + 3. BLOW. The cornetist ---- with all his might. The ship was + ---- about all day. The wind does ---- terrifically sometimes. + It may ---- to-night. The wind ---- all last night. + 4. BREAK. He fell and ---- his leg. It is well that his neck + was not ----. + 5. BURST. During the battle the shells frequently ---- right + over us. Oaken casks have often ----. + 6. CHIDE. He ---- us frequently about our actions. He was + never ---- himself. + 7. CHOOSE. They ---- him president. They have ---- wisely. + 8. COME. He ---- at nine to-day. He has always ---- earlier + heretofore. Let him ---- when he wishes. + 9. DEAL. Before explaining the game, he ---- out the cards. + 10. DIVE. Twice last summer he ---- off the bridge. + 11. DO. Thou canst not say I ---- it. He often ---- it. + 12. DRAW. The picture was ---- by a famous artist. He formerly + ---- very well, but I think that now he ---- very poorly. + 13. DRIVE. The horse was ---- twenty miles. He almost ---- + it to death. + 14. EAT. He ---- everything which the others had not ----. + How can he ---- that? + 15. FLEE. Since the cashier has ----, they think that a warrant + would be useless. + 16. FLY. The air-ship ---- three hundred miles on its first trip. + That it has ---- so far is sufficient proof of its success. + 17. FORSAKE. He ---- his new friends just as he had ---- all the + others. + 18. FREEZE. The man was ---- stiff. He evidently ---- to death + so easily because he had been so long without food. + 19. GIVE. She was not ---- as much as her sisters. Her father + ---- her less because of her extravagance. But, he now ---- + her enough to make it up. + 20. GO. She ---- to school to-day. She ---- yesterday. She has + ---- every day this month. + 21. KNOW. He ---- that he cannot live. As long as I have + ---- him, this is the first time I ever ---- he was married. + 22. MEAN. He ---- to do right, and has always ---- to do so. + 23. RIDE. They ---- as if they had ---- a long distance. They + say that they ---- from Larimer this morning. + 24. PLEAD. The mother ---- an hour for her son's life. + 25. PROVE. They ---- him a thief in the eyes of the people, even + if he was not ---- so to the satisfaction of the jury. + 26. RUN. John ---- the race as though he had ---- races all + his life. The race was ---- very rapidly. Soon after that race, + he ---- in another race. + 27. SEE. Smith, who has just arrived, says he ---- two men + skulking along the road. He was not ---- by them. That play + is the best I ever ----. + 28. SEEK. The detectives ---- all through the slums for him. + Now they ---- him in the better parts of the city. No criminal + was ever more eagerly ----. + 29. SHAKE. During the day his hand was ---- five hundred times. He + ---- hands with all who came. + 30. SHOE. The entire army was ---- with Blank's shoes. + 31. SING. The choir ---- the anthem as they had never ---- it before. + They always ---- it well. + 32. SINK. The stone ---- as soon as it is in the water. The + ship was ---- in forty fathoms of water. They ---- the ship in + 1861. + 33. SPEAK. Though they claimed that they always ---- to her, she was + really never ---- to by any member of the family. + 34. STEAL. The money was ----; whether or not he ---- it I + do not know. Everyone believes that he has frequently ---- goods + from the store. + 35. TAKE. I was ---- for him several times that day. No one ever + ---- me for him before. + 36. TEACH. John ---- school every day. He has ---- for ten years. + He first ---- when he was eighteen years old. + 37. TEAR. The dog ---- at the paper until it was ---- entirely + to pieces. He ---- up everything he finds. + 38. THROW. He was ---- by a horse which never before ---- anyone. + 39. WEAR. The trousers were ---- entirely out in a month, but I ---- + the coat and vest for six months. + 40. WEAVE. This carpet was ---- at Philadelphia. The manufacturers + say they never ---- a better one, and they ---- the best in the + country. + 41. WRITE. Although he has ---- several times, he has never ---- + anything about that. He ---- to me just last week. He ---- at + least once a month. + +EXERCISE 32 + +_Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences:_ + + 1. He plead all day to be released. + 2. The horse was rode to death. + 3. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth. + 4. He was immediately threw out of the room. + 5. She run around all day and then was sick the next day. + 6. I never seen anything like it. + 7. He was very much shook by the news. + 8. The matter was took up by the committee. + 9. The horse has been stole from the owner. + 10. Goliath was slew by David. + 11. The words have been spoke in anger. + 12. I have went to church every day. + 13. Was the river froze enough for skating? + 14. He begun to take notice immediately. + 15. The umbrella was blew to pieces. + 16. I have broke my ruler. + 17. Jones was chose as leader of the class. + 18. He said he come as soon as he could. + 19. I done it. + 20. I have never did anything so foolish. + 21. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box. + 22. The horse was drove ten miles. + +EXERCISE 33 + +_Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly +used:_ + +begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, +drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, +hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, +threw, wore, wrote. + +55. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. A TRANSITIVE VERB is one +in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; as, _He +KILLED the horse, I KEEP my word_. In both these sentences, the +verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object +or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, and all +similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which the action +does not go to a receiver, are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +56. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject +as the doer of the action; as, _I tell, I see, He makes chairs_. +The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as the receiver of the +action; as, _I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are +made by me_. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of +the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive +voice. + +57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish +between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent +error. The most important of these verbs are the following: _sit, +set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell_, and _fall_. +Note again the principal parts of these verbs: + +wake (to rouse another) woke, waked woke, waked +awake (to cease to sleep) awoke, awaked awaked + +fell (to strike down) felled felled +fall (to topple over) fell fallen + +lay (to place) laid laid +lie (to recline) lay lain + +raise (to cause to ascend) raised raised +(a)rise (to ascend) (a)rose (a)risen + +set (to place) set set +sit (to rest) sat sat + +The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the +second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can +have an object or can be used in the passive voice. + +NOTES.--The following exceptions in the use of _sit_ and _set_ +are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: _The sun sets, The +moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest_, and _He set out for +Chicago_. + +_Lie_, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, _lie, lied, +lied. Lie_, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with _lie_ +meaning to recline. The present participle of _lie_ is _lying_. + +Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second +form in each case is the correct form. + +WRONG RIGHT +Awake me early to-morrow. Wake me early to-morrow. +He was awoke by the noise. He was woke (waked) by the noise. +He has fallen a tree. He has felled a tree. +I have laid down. I have lain down. +I lay the book down (past tense). I laid the book down. +The river has raised. The river has risen. +He raised in bed. He rose in bed. +I set there. I sat there. +I sat the chair there. I set the chair there. + +EXERCISE 34 + +_Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the +following words:_ + +Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), +lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to +topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, +felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied. + +EXERCISE 35 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ + + 1. Let sleeping dogs lay. + 2. The sun has sat in the golden west. + 3. He has laid in bed all morning. + 4. He will sit out on his journey this morning. + 5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes. + 6. He sat the chair by the table. + 7. He awoke everybody at daylight. + 8. He laid down to sleep. + 9. Let him lie there until he wakes. + 10. The shower has lain the dust. + 11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders. + 12. The river has risen four feet. + 13. Falling trees is his amusement. + 14. To have been awaked then would have been sad. + 15. To have waked then would have been sad. + 16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey. + 17. He has set there all day. + 18. He lay the papers before the judge. + 19. The judge laid the papers aside. + 20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation. + +EXERCISE 36 + +_In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms +of the verbs indicated:_ + +SIT AND SET + + 1. I ---- in that seat all the evening. + 2. Please ---- here until I return. + 3. He was still ----ting there on my return. + 4. The sun ---- in the west. + 5. He ---- out for home yesterday. + 6. ---- down and rest awhile. + 7. James ---- down and talked to me. + 8. He was engaged in ----ting out flowers. + 9. I ---- the bucket on the rock above the bridge. + 10. Last evening we ---- at the table for more than an hour. + 11. ---- here until I call my mother. + 12. ---- the lamp on the table. + 13. He has ---- there all day. + 14. The chair was ---- by the desk. + 15. I usually ---- up until twelve. + 16. She ---- the hen on some eggs and she remained ---- there. + 17. She told me to ---- there, and I ---- down. + 18. By whom has the lamp been ---- there? + 19. I ---- my chair by the window and ---- there all the afternoon. + 20. How can she ---- still for so long? + 21. The moon ---- at twelve. + +LAY AND LIE + + 1. I ---- down this afternoon to rest. + 2. I ---- in bed until late every morning. + 3. I have frequently ---- in bed until eleven. + 4. He always ---- his books on the desk. + 5. He just now ---- his books on the desk. + 6. He has ---- them there every morning. + 7. His books have sometimes ---- there all day. + 8. His books have sometimes been ----ing there before I arrive. + 9. After he ---- down he remembered that he had left a letter + on his desk. + 10. Will it not be well for you to ---- down for a while? + 11. I ---- on the grass yesterday for an hour or more. + 12. I have ---- down and feel much better. + 13. Now I ---- me down to sleep. + 14. The scene of the play is ---- in rural Pennsylvania. + 15. The tramps ---- behind the barn waiting for dawn. + 16. I had ---- down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my + journey. + 17. The floor was ---- by an expert carpenter. + 18. She told me to ---- the matter before the teacher. + 19. ---- down, Fido. + 20. When we are weary, we ---- down. + 21. Who ---- that on the table? + 22. He has repeatedly ---- about the matter. + 23. He ---- without the slightest hesitation. + 24. ----ing down is a good way to rest. + 25. ----ing is a sin. + 26. He ---- to his father, and his father knew it. + +RAISE AND RISE (ARISE) + + 1. I will ---- and go unto my father. + 2. He has ---- early to-day. + 3. I do not know why he ---- so early. + 4. ---- your hand if you know. + 5. Everyone ---- his hand. + 6. They have all ---- their hands. + 7. All their hands were ---- at once. + 8. The price of meat has ----. + 9. The bread would not ----. + 10. I ---- in order that I might see better. + 11. The flag was very carefully ----. + 12. He tried to ---- himself from the condition into which he had + fallen. + 13. The curtain is to ---- at eight. I myself shall see to ----ing + it then. + 14. The boy ---- and answers. + 15. He is ---- rapidly to prominence. + 16. Will you please ---- the window? + 17. The safe was ---- by means of a rope. + 18. It is like trying to ---- one's self by one's boot-straps. + 19. ---- and march to the front of the room. + 20. The river ---- rapidly. + +FELL AND FALL + + 1. Gladstone, when living, ---- a tree each morning for exercise. + 2. To ---- an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful + strength. + 3. He was ---- to the earth by a blow from a club. + 4. To ---- often is to be expected in learning to skate. + 5. ----ing down is a small matter to the young. + 6. He has often ---- from the roof of the porch. + 7. After he ---- once, he seemed to try to do so again. + 8. I did not see him----. + 9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ----. + 10. Let the tree be ---- across the road. + 11. It is hard to avoid ----ing on the ice. + +AWAKE AND WAKE + + 1. Have them ---- me very early. + 2. He went upstairs and ---- his brother. + 3. His brother did not wish to be ---- so early. + 4. This morning I ---- at dawn. + 5. It is unpleasant to ---- so early. + 6. You say that you have never ---- after nine? + 7. Who ---- so early, this morning? + 8. He would not say who ---- him. + 9. ----ing in the dead of night is unpleasant. + 10. ----ing everybody up by their noise is an every night + occurrence. + 11. The sun ---- me early. + 12. The whole country-side seemed to ---- at once. + 13. He had himself ---- at six o'clock. + +58. MODE. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner +in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several +modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive +modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the INDICATIVE +MODE is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, +and the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE is used when the statement expresses +uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt. + +59. FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The places in which the subjunctive +differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses +of the verb _be_, and in the present tense of active verbs. The +following outline will show the difference between the indicative +and the subjunctive of _be_: + +INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE INDICATIVE PAST OF BE +I am we are I was we were +thou art you are thou wert or wast you were +he (she, it) is they are he (she, it) was they were + +SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE +If I be If we be If I were If we were +If thou be If you be If thou were If you were +If he (she, it) be If they be If he (she, it) were If they were + +_If_ is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the +subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb +may precede the subject. + +NOTE.--It will be noticed that _thou art_ and _thou wast_, etc., +have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, +these are the proper forms to be used here, even though _you are_ +and _you were_, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single +person. + +In the subjunctive of _be_, it will be noted that the form _be_ is +used throughout the present tense; and the form _were_ throughout +the past tense. + +In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in +the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, +or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, +indicative, _he runs, she sees, it seems, he has;_ subjunctive, +_if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have_. + +NOTE.--An examination of the model conjugations under §77 will give +a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive. + +60. USE OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. The indicative mode would +be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is +regarded as true: _If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal_. +Similarly: _If he is rich, he ought to be charitable_. Most directly +declarative statements are put in the indicative mode. + +But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's +mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to +fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences +following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: +_If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were +I rich, I might be charitable_. + +The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, _if, though, +lest, although_, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be +borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive +mode. THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDS ON WHETHER THE CONDITION +IS REGARDED AS A FACT OR AS CONTRARY TO FACT, CERTAIN OR UNCERTAIN. + +It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of +use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing +of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since +its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning. + +EXERCISE 37 + +_Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of BE in +the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which +illustrate the correct use of WERE in the third person singular._ + +EXERCISE 38 + +_Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able +to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences +either form may be used correctly:_ + + 1. He acts as if it _were was_ possible always to escape death. + 2. If it _was were_ near enough, I should walk. + 3. If I _was were_ only wealthy! + 4. If I _were was_ in his place, I should study medicine. + 5. If you _are be_ right, then the book is wrong. + 6. If he _was were_ I, he would come. + 7. Though he _was were_ very economical, he remained poor. + 8. Though she _was were_ an angel, I should dislike her. + 9. If he _be is_ there, ask him to pay the bill. + 10. If he _be is_ there, he makes no sign of his presence. + 11. If this _be is_ wrong, then all love of country is wrong. + 12. If it _rains rain_, I stay at school. + 13. Take care lest you _are be_ deceived by appearances. + 14. Would that I _was were_ a bird. + 15. If it _snow snows_, I can't come. + 16. If your father _comes come_, bring him to dinner. + 17. If your father _was were_ here, you would act differently. + 18. Though he _were was_ king over all the earth I should despise + him. + 19. If he _come comes_, he will find me at home. + 20. _Was were_ it necessary, I should jump. + 21. If to-morrow _be is_ pleasant, we shall go driving. + 22. If my mother _was were_ here, she would say I might go. + 23. If she _was were_ at home, I did not hear of it. + 24. If that _is be_ his motive, he is unworthy. + 25. Though this _seem seems_ improbable, it is true. + 26. If a speech _is be_ praised by none but literary men, it is bad. + 27. If the father _pays pay_ the debt, he will be released. + 28. Though Mary _be is_ young, she is a writer of note. + 29. Unless he _takes take_ better care of his health, he will die. + 30. If he _be is_ honest, he has not shown it. + 31. If he _be is_ honest, he will insist on paying me. + 32. If he ever _tell tells_ the truth, he conceals the fact. + +61. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. THE VERB SHOULD AGREE WITH +ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND NUMBER. The most frequent error is the +failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular +subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular +verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the +true number of the subject. + +The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and +occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; +as, _He runs, she goes, it moves_. _Is, was_, and _has_ are the +singular forms of the auxiliaries. _Am_ is used only with a subject +in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other +auxiliaries have no singular forms. + +Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, +and so can cause little confusion. + +Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject: + +A barrel of clothes WAS shipped (not _were shipped_). + +A man and a woman HAVE been here (not _has been here_). + +Boxes ARE scarce (not _is scarce_). + +When WERE the brothers here (not _when was_)? + +62. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB IN NUMBER. The general rule to +be borne in mind in regard to number, is that IT IS THE MEANING +AND NOT THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT THAT DETERMINES WHETHER TO USE THE +SINGULAR OR THE PLURAL FORM OF THE VERB. This rule also applies +to the use of singular or plural pronouns. + +Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, _politics, +measles, news_, etc. + +Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; +as, _forceps, tongs, trousers_. + +Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, +they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, _committee, +family, pair, jury, assembly, means_. The following sentences are +all correct: _The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly +are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The +whole family are sick_. + +In the use of the adjective pronouns, _some, each_, etc., the noun +is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using +the wrong number of the verb. _Each, either, neither, this, that_, +and _one_, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. +_All, those, these, few, many_, always require plural verbs. _Any, +none_, and _some_ may take either singular or plural verbs. In most +of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in +number, reason will determine the form to be used. + +Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. +When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. +Examine the following sentences; each is correct: _Three drops of +medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by +the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, +Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection_. + +EXERCISE 39 + +_In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify +the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the +noun:_ + + 1. The jury have agreed. + 2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict. + 3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed + in regard to one matter. + 4. The whole tribe was destroyed. + 5. The tribe were scattered through the different states. + 6. The regiment were almost all sick. + 7. A variety of persons was there. + 8. The society meets each month. + 9. The society is divided in its opinion. + 10. A number were unable to be present. + 11. A great number was present. + 12. The number present was great. + 13. What means were used to gain his vote? + 14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt. + 15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight. + 16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison. + 17. Two hundred pounds was his weight. + 18. The family are all at home. + 19. The family is large. + 20. A pair of gloves has been lost. + 21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway. + 22. The army was defeated. + +EXERCISE 40 + +_Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is +used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, IS, WAS, +HAS, HAVE, ARE, WAS, HAVE, GO, GOES, RUN, RUNS, COME, COMES:_ + +One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, +latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, +gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, +mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, +herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, +months. + +EXERCISE 41 + +_Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether IT or +THEY should be used in referring to the subject._ + +63. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH A +COMPOUND SUBJECT: + +1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to +mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, +_French and German literature ARE studied._ + +2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound +subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, _John +and Harry ARE still to come._ + +3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, +it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, _The +employee, and not the employers, WAS to blame, The employers, and +not the employee, WERE to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, +DESERVES praise._ + +4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in +the singular, the verb should be singular; as, _Each book and each +paper WAS in its place, No help and no hope IS found for him, Either +one or the other IS he, Neither one nor the other IS he._ + +5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of +which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject +nearest to it; as, _Neither the boy, nor his sisters DESERVE praise, +Neither the sisters nor the boy DESERVES praise._ + +6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the +first; as, _The leader WAS slain and all his men, The men WERE +slain, and also the leader._ + +EXERCISE 42 + +_Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:_ + + 1. Hard and soft coal _is are_ used. + 2. The boy and the girl _have has_ come. + 3. Neither James nor I _are is_ to go. + 4. Neither James nor they _are is_ to go. + 5. Henry, and not his sister, _is are_ sure to be invited. + 6. The children and their father _was were_ on the train. + 7. Each man and each woman _was were_ present. + 8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth _was were_ the author of that poem. + 9. Either the man or his children _was were_ lost. + 10. Either the children or their father _was were_ lost. + 11. Bread and milk _are is_ frugal but wholesome fare. + 12. The teacher _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also her pupils. + 13. The pupils _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also the teacher. + 14. Dogs and cats _is are_ useless animals. + 15. Neither the daughters nor their mother _is are_ at home. + 16. Either the soldier or his officers _is are_ mistaken. + 17. The cat and all her kittens _was were_ at the door. + 18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, _were was_ the author. + 19. Each of the trustees _has have_ a vote. + 20. Our success or our failure _is are_ due solely to ourselves. + 21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality _characterize characterizes_ him. + 22. Everyone of these chairs _is are_ mine. + 23. Each day and each hour _bring brings_ new questions. + 24. The car and all its passengers _was were_ blown up. + 25. The ambition and activity of the man _has have_ been the + _cause causes_ of his success. + 26. Old and new hay _is are_ equally good for horses. + 27. Matthew or Paul _are is_ responsible for that belief. + 28. A man, a woman, and a child _is are_ comprised in the group. + 29. The pupils and also the teacher _were was_ embarrassed. + 30. The teacher and also the pupils _were was_ embarrassed. + 31. Neither he nor I _are is am_ going. + 32. Book after book _was were_ taken from the shelves. + 33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters _is are_ coming. + 34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary _is are_ coming. + 35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, _is are_ coming. + 36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, _is are_ coming. + 37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter _is are_ coming. + 38. Mary, and not her mother, _is are_ coming. + 39. No preacher and no woman _is are_ allowed to enter. + 40. Every adult man and woman _has have_ a vote. + 41. Money, if not culture, _gains gain_ a way. + 42. Brain power, as well as money, _talk talks_. + 43. Each boy and girl _bring brings_ books. + +64. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN REGARD TO AGREEMENT IN NUMBER: + +1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an +adjective phrase; as, _The thief, with all his booty, was captured_. + +2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after _you_ and _they_. +Say: _You were, they are, they were_, etc., not, _you was, they +was,_ etc. + +3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the +sentence, _The SALE of boxes was increased, sale_, not _boxes_, +is the subject of the verb. + +4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person +of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. +Both of the following sentences are correct: _He is the only one +of the men THAT IS to be trusted, He is one of those men THAT ARE +to be trusted._ It is to be remembered that the singulars and the +plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; _that, who_, +etc., may refer to one or more than one. + +5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with _not_. _Don't_ +cannot be used with _he_ or _she_ or _it_, or with any other singular +subject in the third person. One should say, _He doesn't_, not _he +don't; it doesn't_, not _it don't; man doesn't_, not _man don't_. The +proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances +is _does_, not _do_. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are always wrong; no +such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions +as _don't, can't_, etc., should not be used at all in formal +composition. + +EXERCISE 43 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ + + 1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost. + 2. You was there, John, was you not? + 3. They was never known to do that before. + 4. A barrel of apples were sold. + 5. How many were there who was there? + 6. This is one of the books that is always read. + 7. He don't know his own relatives. + 8. I ain't coming to-night. + 9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed. + 10. John, when was you in the city? + 11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable. + 12. Who they was, I couldn't tell. + 13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets." + 14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes. + 15. The hands of the clock is wrong. + 16. The gallery of pictures are splendid. + 17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable. + 18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable. + 19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right. + 20. The whole box of books were shipped. + +EXERCISE 44 + +_In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:_ + + 1. "Cows" are a common noun. + 2. Such crises seldom occurs. + 3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present. + 4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank. + 5. At that time the morals of men were very low. + 6. Mathematics are my most interesting study. + 7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower. + 8. The jury is delivering its verdict. + 9. The "Virginians" is a famous book. + 10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer. + 11. Everyone of these farms are mine. + 12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender. + 13. Farm after farm were passed by the train. + 14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president. + 15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down. + 16. Three fourths of his time are wasted. + 17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed. + 18. A variety of sounds charms the ear. + 19. A variety of recitations were given. + 20. The committee have adjourned. + 21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived. + 22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table. + 23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay. + 24. Question after question were propounded to him. + 25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the + school. + 26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn. + 27. A black and white horse were in the ring. + 28. A black and a white horse was in the ring. + 29. The committee disagree on some points. + 30. Mary, where was you yesterday? + 31. The end and aim of his life are to get money. + 32. All the crop were lost. + 33. One of them are gone. + 34. There comes the children. + 35. Were either of these men elected? + 36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal. + 37. There seem to be few here. + 38. There seems to be a few here. + 39. Neither of the letters were received. + 40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm. + 41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing. + 42. Neither John nor Henry have come. + 43. Either this book or that are wrong. + 44. This book and that is wrong. + 45. This book, not that, is wrong. + 46. Either this book or those students is wrong. + 47. Either those students, or this book is wrong. + 48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning. + +65. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. The use of the auxiliaries, _shall_ and +_will_, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. +The following outline will show the correct use of _shall_ and +_will_, except in dependent clauses and questions: + +To indicate simple futurity or probability: + + Use _shall_ with _I_ and _we_; use _will_ with + all other subjects. + +To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part +of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control; + + Use _will_ with _I_ and _we_; use _shall_ with + all other subjects. + +Examine the following examples of the correct use of _shall_ and +_will_: + +Statements as to probable future events: + + _We shall_ probably be there. + I think _you will_ want to be there. + _It will_ rain before night. + +Statements of determination on the part of the speaker: + + _I will_ come in spite of his command. + _You shall_ go home. + _It shall_ not happen again, I promise you. + +66. SHALL AND WILL IN QUESTIONS. In interrogative sentences _shall_ +should always be used with the first person. In the second and third +persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected +in the answer. + +Examine the agreement in the use of _shall_ and _will_ in the following +questions and answers: + + QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. +_Shall_ I miss the car? You _will_ miss it. +_Shall_ you be there? I think I _shall_ (probability). +_Will_ he do it? I think he _will_ (assertion). +_Shall_ your son obey the teacher? He _shall_ (determination). +_Will_ you promise to come? We _will_ come (promise). + +67. SHALL AND WILL IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. In dependent clauses which +are introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, the auxiliary +should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were +a principal clause. The sentence, _They assure us that they SHALL +come_, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, _We WILL come_. +The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be _will_. _Will_ +should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, +and the sentence should read, _They assure us that they WILL come_. +Further examples: + + I suppose _we shall_ have to pay. + He thinks that _you will_ be able to do it. + He has decided that _John shall_ replace the book. + +In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use +_shall_ with all subjects. Examples; + + _If he shall_ go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad. + _If you shall_ go away, who will run the farm? + _If I shall_ die, I shall die as an honest man. + +EXERCISE 45 + +_Justify the correct use of SHALL and WILL in the following sentences:_ + + 1. I will go if you wish. + 2. I shall probably go if you wish. + 3. I will have it in spite of all you can do. + 4. We shall return by way of Dover. + 5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. + 6. I feel that I shall not live long. + 7. We think we shall come to-morrow. + 8. I promise you, the money shall be raised. + 9. You will then go to Philadelphia. + 10. You shall never hear from me again. + 11. He will surely come to-morrow. + 12. How shall you answer him? + 13. I think I shall ride. + 14. He is sure they will come. + 15. He is sure that I will come. + 16. Shall you be there? + 17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination? + 18. Will you be there? + 19. Will all be there? + 20. He says he shall be there. + 21. He has promised that he will be there. + 22. I fear that he will fail to pass. + 23. We think she will soon be well. + 24. We are determined that they shall pay. + 25. We expect that they will bring their books. + 26. I doubt that he will pay. + 27. We have promised that we will do it. + 28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you? + +EXERCISE 46 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences with SHALL or WILL:_ + + 1. I think I ---- find the work easy. + 2. I ---- probably be refused, but I ---- go anyway. + 3. ---- you be busy to-night? Yes, I ---- be in class until ten. + 4. I ---- probably fail to pass the examination. + 5. If no one assists me, I ---- drown. + 6. No. I ---- never sell my library. + 7. If I fail I ---- be obliged to take an examination. + 8. ---- my men begin work to-day? + 9. ---- you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think + I ----. + 10. ---- you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I + ---- sing to-night. + 11. ---- I put more wood on the fire? + 12. I ---- be lost; no one ---- help me. + 13. It ---- be there when you need it. + 14. It is demanded that the pupils ---- be orderly and attentive. + 15. I think it ---- rain soon. + 16. We ---- be disappointed. + 17. ---- we be permitted to go? + 18. We ---- do it for you. + 19. ---- I go or remain at home? + 20. I ---- be very grateful to you if you ---- do this. + 21. If you ---- ask her, she ---- go with you. + 22. If you ---- stop, I ---- go with you. + 23. Where ---- we join you? + 24. I think we ---- be there in time. + 25. I ---- go to the river for a boat ride. + 26. When ---- you be twenty years of age? + 27. ---- we ever see you again? + 28. Perhaps we ---- return next year. + 29. We promise, we ---- return. + 30. You ---- probably suffer for it. + 31. I ---- not impose on you in that way. + 32. ---- I ask for your mail? + 33. I hope that we ---- be there before the curtain rises. + 34. ---- they probably be there? + 35. ---- you please fetch me a paper? + 36. ---- we stop for you on our way downtown? + 37. When ---- I find you in your office? + 38. They ---- never do it if I can help. + 39. You ---- do as I say. + 40. I ---- never, never, go there again. + 41. We ---- decide what to do about that at our next meeting which + ---- be in October. + 42. ---- it make any difference to you? + 43. ---- I go with you? + 44. No, you ---- please stay here. + 45. He ---- never enter this house again. + 46. It is believed that they ---- probably be present. + 47. He fears that he ---- die. + 48. He requests that you ---- come to-day at seven o'clock. + 49. She asks that it ---- be sent at once. + 50. It is thought that his death ---- not seriously change things. + 51. It is believed that the emperor ---- have to retract. + 52. A story is told that ---- gain little credence. + 53. I fear that I ---- take cold. + 54. She says that I ---- take cold. + 55. They say that they ---- do it in spite of anything done to prevent. + 56. He is determined that he ---- go away. + 57. She is determined that he ---- go to school. + 58. They say they ---- probably not go. + 59. John thinks he ---- probably live to be past sixty. + 60. He tells me that he thinks that he ---- be elected. + 61. They say that they ---- meet you. + 62. They assure us that we ---- find good stores in Berlin. + 63. He says he fears he ---- miss his train. + 64. Wright says his father ---- become famous. + 65. He writes that he ---- be here to-day. + 66. Do you say that you ---- be present? + 67. The book says that ---- be wrong. + 68. Does she say that she ---- come? + 69. I told you that I ---- not come. + 70. I tell you that she ---- not come. + 71. He says that he ---- go as a matter of duty. + 72. John says that ---- not happen anyway. + 73. Does he say that he ---- surely come? + 74. Does John write what he ---- promise to do in the matter? + 75. ---- you be sure to be there? + +EXERCISE 47 + +_Write five sentences in which SHALL is used in an independent +clause, and five in which SHALL is used in a dependent clause._ + +_Write five sentences in which WILL is used in an independent clause, +and five in which WILL is used in a dependent clause._ + +_Write five interrogative sentences in which SHALL is used and five +in which WILL is used._ + +68. SHOULD AND WOULD. _Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses +of _shall_ and _will_, and have corresponding uses. _Should_ is +used with _I_ and _we_, and _would_ with other subjects, to express +mere futurity or probability. _Would_ is used with _I_ and _we_, +and _should_ with other subjects, to express conditional promise +or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples: + +Futurity: + + I _should_ be sorry to lose this book. + If we _should_ be afraid of the storm, we _should_ be foolish. + It was expected that they _would_ be here. + +Volition or determination: + + If it _should_ occur, we _would_ not come. + It was promised that it _should_ not occur again. + He decided that it _should_ be done. + +_Should_ is sometimes used in the sense of _ought_, to imply duty; +as, _He should have gone to her aid_. + +_Would_ is often used to indicate habitual action; as, _This would +often occur when he was preaching_. + +EXERCISE 48 + +_Justify the correct use of SHOULD and WOULD in the following +sentences:_ + + 1. I feared that they would not come. + 2. He should know his duty better than that. + 3. I should be displeased if he would act that way. + 4. We should be ruined if we did that. + 5. You should have seen his face. + 6. We would often take that road. + 7. He said that he would come at once. + 8. If that should happen, we should not come. + 9. If you were I, what should you do? + 10. I should see the president of the class. + 11. We should have been at the meeting. + 12. He said that we should have been at the meeting. + 13. He promised that he would be at the meeting. + 14. If I should say so, he would dislike me. + 15. Should he come, I would go with him. + 16. They would usually stop at the new hotel. + 17. What would they do in the city? + 18. She asked if she should write the letter. + 19. She said they would write the letter. + 20. She agreed that it would be right. + 21. She assured us that she would attend to it. + +EXERCISE 49 + +_Fill in the blanks with SHOULD or WOULD in the following sentences:_ + + 1. I fear I ---- be drowned if I ---- go swimming. + 2. I ---- be much pleased to meet him. + 3. It was feared that they ---- not accept. + 4. If it ---- storm, we ---- not start. + 5. She ---- often come to class with no books. + 6. I believed that he ---- come late. + 7. He ---- never have been invited. + 8. If that had become known, we ---- surely have been ruined. + 9. To think that he ---- do such a thing! + 10. I ---- like to see the game. + 11. You ---- not enjoy it. + 12. ---- you like to see the game? + 13. ---- I bring my opera glasses? + 14. Mary ---- never have known it. + 15. He ---- have easily deceived her. + 16. They were anxious that we ---- not miss the train. + 17. If we ---- come late, ---- it make any difference? + 18. If they had proposed it, we ---- have voted it down. + 19. On what date ---- that come? + 20. I suppose I ---- have done it; but, it ---- have inconvenienced me. + 21. Had Lee known that, he ---- never have surrendered. + 22. I ---- never have believed she ---- do such a thing. + 23. We ---- never have come. + 24. ---- you think him capable of such a trick? + 25. I knew I ---- not be here on time. + 26. ---- they dare to attempt opposition? + 27. How ---- you go about it? + 28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, ---- probable not have been + elected. + 29. It ---- have changed our whole history. + 30. He said that it ---- have changed our whole history. + 31. He said he ---- come. + 32. She thinks they ---- not do it. + 33. We believe that we ---- like to go at once. + 34. They say it ---- be done now. + 35. I think I ---- like to go. + +EXERCISE 50 + +_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used independently, and +five in which SHOULD is used dependently._ + +_Write five sentences in which WOULD is used independently, and +five in which WOULD is used dependently._ + +_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used in questions, and +five in which WOULD is used in questions._ + +69. USE OF MAY AND MIGHT, CAN AND COULD. _May_, with its past tense, +_might_, is properly used to denote permission. _Can_, with its +past tense, _could_, refers to the ability or possibility to do +a thing. These two words are often confused. + +EXERCISE 51 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences:_ + + 1. ---- I go home? + 2. ---- we get tickets at that store? + 3. ---- the mountain be climbed? + 4. ---- we come into your office? + 5. You ---- stay as long as you wish. + 6. ---- you finish the work in an hour? + 7. How ---- you say such a thing? + 8. Several people ---- use the same book. + 9. We ---- afford to delay a while. + 10. ---- John go with me? + 11. You ---- often hear the noise. + 12. What ---- not be done in a week? + 13. That ---- be true, but it ---- not be relied on. + 14. What ---- he do to prevent it? + 15. When ---- we hand in the work? + +70. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. The past participle has already been +mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the +PARTICIPLES are those forms of the verb that ARE USED ADJECTIVELY; +as, _seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, +having played_, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb +form in each case modifies a substantive: _He, HAVING BEEN INVITED +TO DINE, came early, John, BEING SICK, could not come_. The verb +form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used +in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun +or pronoun. + +The GERUND is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs +in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the GERUND +IS ALWAYS USED SUBSTANTIVELY; as, _I told OF HIS WINNING the race, +AFTER HIS ASSERTING it, I believe the statement_. + +71. MISUSES OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. + +1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical +and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the +sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known +as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, _The dish was +broken, RESULTING from its fall_, because _resulting_ does not +stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But +it would be right to say, _The dish was broken as a result of its +fall_. Examine, also, the following examples: + +Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, _followed_ by a week at Atlantic +City. + +Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _following_ it by a week at Atlantic +City. + +Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _and then_ a week at Atlantic +City. + +2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or +principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence +or clause. Compare the following: + +Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to remain at home. + +Right: Having been sick, I decided to remain at home. + +3. A participle preceded by _thus_ should not be used unless it +modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following: + +Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus causing_ him a great +deal of trouble. + +Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _and was thus caused_ a +great deal of trouble. + +Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus experiencing_ a great +deal of trouble. + +4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and +frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between +the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that +the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a +modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. +A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive +case. Say, _I heard OF JOHN'S COMING_, not, _I heard OF JOHN COMING_. + +5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should +be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it +modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless +it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: +When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used +without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, _In traveling, +good drinking water is essential_. Compare the following wrong +and right forms: + +Wrong: _After seeing his mistake_, a new start was made. + +Right: _After seeing his mistake_, he made a new start. + +Wrong: _By writing rapidly, the work_ can be finished. + +Right: _By writing rapidly, you_ can finish the work. + +Wrong: _In copying the exercise_, a mistake was made. + +Right: _In copying the exercise, I_ made a mistake. + +EXERCISE 52 + +_In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive +from those italicized:_ + + 1. He spoke of _John John's_ coming down. + 2. The idea of _his him_ singing is absurd. + 3. Do you remember _me my_ speaking about it? + 4. What is the use of _you your_ reading that? + 5. _He his him_ being arrested was a sufficient disgrace. + 6. _He him his_ being now of age, sold the farm. + 7. _He him his_ selling it was very unexpected. + 8. You should have heard _him his_ telling the story. + 9. You should have heard _his him_ telling of the story. + 10. To think of _them they their_ having been seen there! + 11. What is the object of _Mary Mary's_ studying French? + 12. _It its_ being John was a great surprise. + 13. What is the use of _them they their_ talking so much? + 14. _John John's_ going to school takes all his evenings. + 15. The beauty of _James James's_ writing got him the position. + 16. He had heard about _me my_ coming to-day. + 17. _John John's_ coming was a surprise. + +EXERCISE 53 + +_Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following +sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. +See §107 for rule as to punctuation:_ + + 1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible. + 2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced + architect. + 3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health. + 4. On hearing that, a new plan was made. + 5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber. + 6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in + town. + 7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income. + 8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class. + 9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable + anxiety. + 10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him. + 11. After telling me the story, I left him. + 12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much. + 13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to + lose a great deal of valuable time. + 14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome. + 15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest. + +72. INFINITIVES. The Infinitives are formed by the word _to_ and +some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For _see_ and +_play_ as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows: + +PRESENT ACTIVE PRESENT PASSIVE + to see to be seen + to play to be played + +PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE + to have seen to have been seen + to have played to have been played + +The word _to_ is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow +the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above. + +It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since +the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors. + +73. SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVE TENSES. The wrong tense of the infinitive +is frequently used. The following rules should be observed: + +1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time +or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the +PRESENT INFINITIVE should be used. + +2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as +completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the PERFECT +INFINITIVE should be used. + +Examine the following examples: + +Wrong: _I should have liked to have gone._ + +Right: _I should have liked to go_ (same or later time). + +Right: _I should like to have gone_ (earlier time). + +Wrong: _It was bad to have been discovered._ + +Right: _It is bad to have been discovered_ (earlier time). + +Right: _It was bad to be discovered_ (same or later time). + +Right: _She did not believe her son to have committed the crime_ +(earlier time). + +Right: _When he died, he believed himself to have been defeated +for the office_ (earlier time.) + +EXERCISE 54 + +_In the following sentences choose the proper form from those +italicized:_ + + 1. I was sorry _to have heard to hear_ of John's death. + 2. Should you have been willing _to go to have gone_ with us? + 3. The game was intended _to be played to have been played_ + yesterday. + 4. I intended _to write to have written_ long ago. + 5. He wished _to have met to meet_ you. + 6. I should have liked _to meet to have met_ you. + 7. Mary was eager _to have gone to go_. + 8. Nero was seen _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. + 9. Nero is said _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. + 10. This was _to be done to have been done_ yesterday. + 11. They agreed _to finish to have finished_ it yesterday. + 12. He was willing _to sing to have sung_ alone. + 13. He expected _to have spoken to speak_ here to-morrow. + 14. The Civil War is said _to cause to have caused_ more loss of life + than any other war. + 15. Blackstone is said _to have failed to fail_ at the practice of law. + 16. It would have been hard _to accomplish to have accomplished_ + that result. + 17. He was foolish enough _to have spoiled to spoil_ six negatives. + 18. I wanted _to have attended to attend_ the convention. + 19. It would be terrible _to be lost to have been lost_ in the forest. + 20. We were asked _to have waited to wait_. + 21. I am eager _to have seen to see it_. + 22. I am pleased _to meet to have met_ you. + +74. SPLIT INFINITIVES. In the sentence, care should be taken to +avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial +modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called +the "split infinitive." Compare the following: + +Bad: He seemed _to easily learn_. +Good: He seemed _to learn easily_. + +Bad: He is said _to have rapidly run_ along the street. +Good: He is said _to have run rapidly_ along the street. + +EXERCISE 55 + +_Correct the following split infinitives:_ + + 1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note. + 2. Mary tried to quickly call help. + 3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph. + 4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation. + 5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents. + 6. His policy was to never offend. + 7. He wished to in this way gain friends. + 8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance. + +75. AGREEMENT OF VERB IN CLAUSES. In a compound predicate, the +parts of the predicate should agree in tense; PAST TENSE SHOULD +FOLLOW PAST TENSE, AND PERFECT TENSE FOLLOW PERFECT TENSE. Examine +the following: + +Wrong: He _has tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible +to stop his son. + +Right: He _has tried_ to do, and really _has done_ everything possible +to stop his son. + +Right: He _tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible to +stop his son. + +Wrong: I _hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. + +Right: I _hoped_ and _worked_ to gain this recognition. + +Right: I _have hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. + +EXERCISE 56 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. I went last week and have gone again this week. + 2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him. + 3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry. + 4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry. + 5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived. + 6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded. + 7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal. + 8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed + in getting his money. + 9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming. + 10. I have believed and usually taught that theory. + 11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. + 12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world + as I. + 13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy. + 14. We have needed you and did our best to find you. + +76. OMISSION OF THE VERB OR PARTS OF THE VERB. The verb or some +of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the +sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning. + +_I like him better than John_. This sentence may have the meaning +shown in either of its following corrected forms: _I like him better +than John DOES_, or _I like him better than I LIKE John_. + +As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech +should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence +ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound. + +Bad: _He was told to go where he ought not_. +Good: _He was told to go where he ought not to go_. +Good: _He was told to go where he should not go_. + +EXERCISE 57 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. I admire Mary more than John. + 2. I think she is older than John. + 3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried. + 4. I asked him to do what I should not have. + 5. I did what I ought not. + 6. We wish him better luck than Mary. + 7. We want to see him more than Henry. + 8. I should hate him worse than you. + 9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to. + 10. You may, as you please, do it or not. + 11. She may go if she wishes or not. + 12. We think of you oftener than mother. + +77. MODEL CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS TO BE AND TO SEE. + +CONJUGATION OF TO BE + +PRINCIPAL PARTS: AM, WAS, BEEN + +INDICATIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _am_ We _are_ +2. [*]Thou _art_ (you _are_) You _are_ +3. He _is_ They _are_ + +[Footnote *: The forms, _thou art, thou wast, thou hast_, etc., +are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily +the forms of the second person plural, _you are, you were, you +have_, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These +distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the +model conjugations.] + +PAST TENSE + +1. I _was_ We _were_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert_ You _were_ +3. He _was_ They _were_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_Have_ with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. I _have been_ We _have been_ +2. Thou _hast been_ You _have been_ +3. He _has been_ They _have been_ + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Had_ with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. I _had been_ We _had been_ +2. Thou _hadst been_ You _had been_ +3. He _had been_ They _had been_ + +FUTURE TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_ with the present infinitive, _be_.[*]) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _shall be_ We _shall be_ +2. Thou _shalt be_ You _shall be_ +3. He _shall be_ They _shall be_ + +[Footnote *: To determine when to use _shall_ and when to use _will_ +in the future and future perfect tenses, see §§ 65, 66, and 67. +In these model conjugations the forms of _shall_ are given with +the future and the forms of _will_ with the future perfect.] + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_ with the perfect infinitive, _have been_.[*]) + +1. I _will have been_ We _will have been_ +2. Thou _wilt have been_ You _will have been_ +3. He _will have been_ They _will have been_ + +[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.] + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + +(Generally follows _if, though, lest, although_, etc. See §59.) + +PRESENT TENSE + +1. (If) I _be_ (If) we _be_ +2. (If) thou _be_ (If) you _be_ +3. (If) he _be_ (If) they _be_ + +PAST TENSE + +1. (If) I _were_ (If) we _were_ +2. (If) thou _were_ (If) you _were_ +3. (If) he _were_ (If) they _were_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_Have_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. (If) I _have been_ (If) we _have been_ +2. (If) thou _have been_ (If) you _have been_ +3. (If) he _have been_ (If) they _have been_ + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Had_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _had been_ (If) we _had been_ +2. (If) thou _had been_ (If) you _had been_ +3. (If) he _had been_ (If) they _had been_ + +FUTURE TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with present infinitive _be_.[*]) + +[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.] + +1. (If) I _shall be_ (If) we _shall be_ +2. (If) thou _shall be_ (If) you _shall be_ +3. (If) he _shall be_ (If) they _shall be_ + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, _have +been_.*) + +1. (If) I _shall have been_ (If) we _shall have been_ +2. (If) thou _shall have been_ (If) you _shall have been_ +3. (If) he _shall have been_ (If) they _shall have been_ + +POTENTIAL MODE[*] + +[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many +authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as +of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use +it in these model conjugations. + +As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode +see §§ 68 and 69. The conjugation with _must_ (or _ought to_) is +sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with _should_ +or _would_ is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.] + +PRESENT TENSE + +(_May, can_, or _must_, with the present infinitive, _be_.) + +1. I _may, can_, or _must be_ We _may, can_, or _must be_ +2. Thou _mayst, canst_, or _must be_ You _may, can_, or _must be_ +3. He _may, can_, or _must be_ They _may, can_, or _must be_ + +PAST TENSE + +(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the present infinitive, +_be_.) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _might, could, would_, or We _might, could, would_, or + _should be_ _should be_ +2. Thou _mightst, couldst,_ You _might, could, would,_ or + _wouldst,_ or _shouldst be_ _should be_ +3. He _might, could, would,_ They _might, could, would,_ or + or _should be_ _should be_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_May, can_, or _must_, with the perfect infinitive, _have been_. +For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the present potential.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the perfect infinitive +_have been_. For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the past +potential.) + +IMPERATIVE MODE[*] + +[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.] + +_Be_ + +INFINITIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE +_To be To have been_ + +PARTICIPLES + +PRESENT TENSE PERFECT TENSE +_Being Having been_ + +GERUNDS + +(Same as participles) + +CONJUGATION OF TO SEE + +PRINCIPAL PARTS: SEE, SAW, SEEN + +INDICATIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _see_ We _see_ +2. Thou _seest_ You _see_ +3. He _sees_ They _see_ + +_Emphatic_ + +1. I _do see_ We _do see_ +2. Thou _dost see_ You _do see_ +3. He _does see_ They _do see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _am seeing_ We _are seeing_ +2. Thou _art seeing_ You _are seeing_ +3. He _is seeing_ They _are seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _am seen_ We _are seen_ +2. Thou _art seen_ You _are seen_ +3. He _is seen_ They _are seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _am being seen_ We _are being seen_ +2. Thou _art being seen_ You _are being seen_ +3. He _is being seen_ They _are being seen_ + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _saw_ We _saw_ +2. Thou _sawest_ You _saw_ +3. He _saw_ They _saw_ + +_Emphatic_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _did see_ We _did see_ +2. Thou _didst see_ You _did see_ +3. He _did see_ They _did see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _was seeing_ We _were seeing_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seeing_ You _were seeing_ +3. He _was seeing_ They _were seeing_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _was seen_ We _were seen_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seen_ You _were seen_ +3. He _was seen_ They _were seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _was being seen_ We _were being seen_ +2. Thou _wert_ or _wast being seen_ You _were being seen_ +3. He _was being seen_ They _were being seen_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of +_to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _have been_ in the future perfect +indicative of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect +indicative of _to be_.) + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _see_ (If) we _see_ +2. (If) thou _see_ (If) you _see_ +3. (If) he _see_ (If) they _see_ + +_Emphatic_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _do see_ (If) we _do see_ +2. (If) thou _do see_ (If) you _do see_ +3. (If) he _do see_ (If) they _do see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. (If) I _be seeing_ (If) we _be seeing_ +2. (If) thou _be seeing_ (If) you _be seeing_ +3. (If) he _be seeing_ (If) they _be seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +1. (If) I _be seen_ (If) we _be seen_ +2. (If) thou _be seen_ (If) you _be seen_ +3. (If) he _be seen_ (If) they _be seen_ + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. (If) I _saw_ (If) we _saw_ +2. (If) thou _saw_ (If) you _saw_ +3. (If) he _saw_ (If) they _saw_ + +_Emphatic_ + +1. (If) I _did see_ (If) we _did see_ +2. (If) thou _did see_ (If) you _did see_ +3. (If) he _did see_ (If) they _did see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. (If) I _were seeing_ (If) we _were seeing_ +2. (If) thou _were seeing_ (If) you _were seeing_ +3. (If) he _were seeing_ (If) they _were seeing_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +1. (If) I _were seen_ (If) we _were seen_ +2. (If) thou _were seen_ (If) you _were seen_ +3. (If) he _were seen_ (If) they _were seen_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of +_to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for the future perfect subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +POTENTIAL MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to +be_.) + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to +be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of +_to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of +_to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to +be_.) + +IMPERATIVE MODE + +ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_see_. + +_Emphatic_ + +_do see_. + +_Progressive_ + +_be seeing_. + +PASSIVE VOICE + +_be seen_ + +INFINITIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to see._ + +_Progressive_ + +_to be seeing._ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to be seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to have seen._ + +_Progressive_ + +_to have been seeing._ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to have been seen._ + +PARTICIPLES + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_being seen_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE[*] + +_seen_ + +[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.] + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_having seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +_having been seeing_ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_having been seen_ + +GERUNDS + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_being seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_having seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_having been seen_ + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, +AND PREPOSITIONS + +78. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. A sentence may consist of +two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal +clause and one or more dependent clauses. + +INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions; such as, _hence, +but, and, although_, etc. + +DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; +such as, _where, when_, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, _who, +what_, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in +the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.) + +79. CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Failure +to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has +already been touched upon (see §29), but a further mention of this +fault may well be made here. + +The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that +of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve +as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, _I wonder +WHOM will be chosen_, is wrong, because the relative here is the +subject of _will be chosen_, not the object of _wonder_, and should +have the nominative form _who_. Corrected, it reads, _I wonder +WHO will be chosen_. Examine the following sentences: + +Wrong: We know _who_ we mean. + +Right: We know _whom_ we mean. + +Wrong: You may give it to _whoever_ you wish. + +Right: You may give it to _whomever_ you wish. + +Wrong: Do you know _whom_ it is? + +Right: Do you know _who_ it is? (Attribute complement.) + +Wrong: Everybody _who were_ there were disappointed. (Disagreement +in number.) + +Right: Everybody _who was_ there was disappointed. + +The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it +introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, +the sentence, _He gave it to WHO had the clearest right_, is correct, +because _who_ is the subject of the verb _had_, and therefore in +the nominative case. _Give it to WHOMEVER they name_, is right, +because _whomever_ is the object of _they name_. + +Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same +way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has +other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as +the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, +to use the proper case. Say, _Whom are you looking for?_ not, _Who +are you looking for?_ + +NOTE. Some writers justify the use of _who_ in sentences like the +last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, +the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere +to the strictly grammatical form. + +EXERCISE 58 + +_In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those +italicized:_ + + 1. _Who whom_ do you wish to see? + 2. You will please write out the name of _whoever whomever_ you want. + 3. I saw _who whom_ was there. + 4. _Who whom_ was it you saw? + 5. _Who whom_ did you see? + 6. John did not know _whom who_ to ask. + 7. Why did he not ask _whomever whoever_ was there? + 8. _Who whom_ can tell the difference? + 9. Give it to _whoever whomever_ you please. + 10. None of those who _were was_ wanted _was were_ there. + 11. The one of those who _were was_ wanted was not there. + 12. He is one of those fellows who _are is_ always joking. + 13. _Whom who_ was called "The Rail Splitter?" + 14. Do you not know _whom who_ it was? + 15. That is one of the birds that _is are_ very rare. + 16. One of the books which _was were_ brought was one hundred years old. + 17. I am not among those _who whom were was_ there. + 18. Only one of the men who _were was_ on board survived. + 19. Everyone else who _was were_ there _was were_ lost. + 20. I am the one of the three men who _is am are_ guilty. + 21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who _was were_ to speak + on Commencement Day. + 22. It was one of the books which _were was_ being sought by the + librarian. + 23. Give it to one of the men _who whom_ is found there. + 24. To _who whom_ did you give it? + 25. It was for _whomever whoever_ was present. + 26. Ask _whomever whoever_ is nearest the door. + +80. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. It is better to use a _WHEN_ +CLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the +time of an event. Compare the following: + +Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching. +Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching. + +Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning. +Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning. + +81. Do not use a _WHEN_ or a _WHERE_ CLAUSE in defining a subject +or in place of a predicate noun. + +Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. +Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course. + +Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. +Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars. + +82. _So, then_, and _also_, the conjunctive adverbs, should not +be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence unless _and_ or +_but_ be used in addition to the adverb. + +Bad: The boys' grades are low, _so_ they indicate lack of application. +Good: The boys' grades are low, _and so_ indicate lack of application. + +Bad: He read for a while, _then_ fell asleep. +Good: He read for a while, _and then_ fell asleep. + +Bad: I'll be down next week; _also_ I shall bring Jack along. +Good: I'll be down next week; _and also_ I shall bring Jack along. + +EXERCISE 59 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. + 2. I am studying German, also French. + 3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. + 4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire. + 5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office. + 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. + 7. Death is when one ceases to live. + 8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work. + 9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped. + 10. He loves good music, also good pictures. + 11. A restaurant is where meals are served. + +83. CONJUNCTIONS. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain +pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble. + +AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an +independent clause; as, _It was a new valise AND differing much +from his old one_. Say instead, _It was a new valise, differing +much from his old one_, or _It was a new valise, and differed very +much from his old one_. Similarly, _It was a new book WHICH_ (not +_and which_) _interested him very much_. This "and which" construction +is a frequent error; _and which_ should never be used unless there +is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first +one. + +BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding +statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of +this error: _He likes geometry, BUT fails in algebra, BUT studies +it hard, He read all night, FOR the book interested him, FOR it +was along the line of his ambition_. + +THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences +like this: _I am as large AS HIM_. The verb in these sentences +is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The +sentence would then read, _I am as large as HIM (is large)_. The +correct form is, _I am as large as he (is large)_. Similarly, _He +is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than HE (is bright)_. + +AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. _He is AS +tall AS I_. The first _as_ is an adverb, the second _as_ is a +conjunction. _As_ is properly used as an adverb when the equality +is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, _so_ should be used +in its place. _He is AS old AS I_, is correct, but the denial should +be, _He is NOT SO old AS I_. After _not_ do not use _as_ when _as_ +is an adverb. + +NEITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by NOR; +as, _Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. Neither_ should never +be followed by _or_. + +EITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by OR. + +84. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. The correlatives, such as _neither--nor, +either--or, not only--but also_, should be placed in clear relation +to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One +should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some +other part of speech. + +Bad: He _not only_ brought a book, _but also_ a pencil. +Good: He brought _not only_ a book _but also_ a pencil. + +Bad: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ would he apologize. +Good: _Neither_ would he offer reparation _nor_ would he apologize. +Good: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ apology. + +85. The prepositions _without, except, like_, and the adverb _directly_ +should not be used as conjunctions. + +Wrong: _Without_ (_unless_) you attend to class-room work, you cannot +pass. + +Wrong: This she would not do _except_ (_unless_) we promised to +pay at once. + +Wrong: I acted just _like_ (_as_) all the others (did). + +Wrong: _Directly_ (_as soon as_) he came, we harnessed the horses. + +EXERCISE 60 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. Mary is as old as her. + 2. I read as much as him. + 3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. + 4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed + all night. + 5. We are better players than them. + 6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and + doing many absurd things. + 7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very + entertaining. + 8. They work harder than us. + 9. John is not as tall as you. + 10. Neither John or James is as tall as you. + 11. I admire Mary more than she. + 12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. + 13. He dresses just like I do. + 14. Directly he came we launched the canoes. + 15. This cannot be done except you are a senior. + 16. Neither she nor I was present. + 17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. + 18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. + 19. The men neither interested him nor the places. + 20. He has traveled more than me. + 21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has + traveled so much. + 22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. + 23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. + 24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for + athletics. + 25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics. + +EXERCISE 61 + +_Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly +used:_ + +When, where, than, as--as, so--as, neither--nor, not only--but also, +either--or, except, like, without, directly. + +86. PREPOSITIONS. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. +Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions +to be used with each: + +agree _with_ a person differ _from_ (person or thing) +agree _to_ a proposition differ _from_ or _with_ an opinion +bestow _upon_ different _from_ +compare _with_ (to determine value) glad _of_ +compare _to_ (because of similarity) need _of_ +comply _with_ part _from_ (a person) +confide _in_ (to trust in) part _with_ (a thing) +confide _to_ (to intrust to) profit _by_ +confer _on_ (to give) prohibit _from_ +confer _with_ (to talk with) reconcile _to_ (a person) +convenient _to_ (a place) reconcile _with_ (a statement) +convenient _for_ (a purpose) scared _by_ +dependent _on_ think _of_ or _about_ + +Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following +improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted: + +continue _on_ _down_ until +covered _over_ inside _of_ +off _of_ outside _of_ +started _out_ where _to_? +wish _for_ to come remember _of_ +more than you think _for_ + +Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness +of the sentence. + +Bad: He is a dealer and shipper _of_ coal. + +Good: He is a dealer _in_ and shipper _of_ coal. + +EXERCISE 62 + +_Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions +listed under the first paragraph of_ §86. + +_Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of +each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph +of_ §86. + + + + +QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + +SENTENCES, PARTS OF SPEECH, AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. What are the +four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? +Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? +What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate +clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective +clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is +an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? +Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, +complex, and compound sentences. + +NOUNS. What is the difference between singular and plural number? +How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in _s, +ch, sh, x_, or _z_? In _y_? In _f_ or _fe_? In _o_? Of letters, +figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How +is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in +_s_ or in an _s_ sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? +What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? +What is the difference between common and proper nouns? + +PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? +What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" +in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns +that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may +be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either +sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? +What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred +to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after _everybody_? +After _some one_? After _some people_? After two nouns connected by +_or_? By _nor_? By _and_? What are relative pronouns? Name them. +With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference +between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? +Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may +be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When +should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? +May _thou_ and _you_ be used in the same sentence? When should _but +that_ be used, and when _but what_? May _them_ be used adjectively? +May _which_ be used with a clause as an antecedent? May _which_ and +_that_, or _who_ and _that_ be used in the same sentence with the +same antecedent? + +ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. +Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the +comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, _He is +the largest of the two?_ Reason? _He is the larger of the three?_ +Reason? _He is the largest of all?_ Reason? Name three adjectives +which cannot be compared. May one say, _Paris is larger than any +city?_ Reason? _Paris is larger than all cities?_ Reason? _Paris +is the largest of any other city?_ Reason? Is a singular or plural +noun demanded by _every_? By _two_? By _various_? By _each_? With +how many objects may _either_ be used? _Neither_? Where should +the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant +by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the +definite article? + +VERBS. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? +Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. +With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary +be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the +verbs, _go, see, begin, come, drink, write_. What is a transitive +verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the +difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or +does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive +voice. Distinguish between the use of _sit_ and _set_. Of _lay_ and +_lie_. Of _rise_ and _raise_. What is the general rule for the use +of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive +of _be_ differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs +differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a +verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always +determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether +to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be +used with _don't, can't_, etc.? What determines whether to use +a singular or a plural verb after _who_, _which_, and _that_? What +form of the verb is used after _you_? After _they_? When are _shall_ +and _should_ used with _I_ and _we_? When with other subjects? +What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in +dependent clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood? In +contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of _may_ and _might_ from +_can_ and _could_. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? +May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection +to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a +participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may +be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? +When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present +infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split +infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense? + +CONNECTIVES. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent +clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a _when_ clause be +used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? +May _so, then_, or _also_ be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May +_and_ or _but_ be used to join a dependent clause to a principal +clause? What case should follow _than_ or _as_? Should _neither_ +be followed by _nor_ or _or_? + + + + +A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR + +EXERCISE 63 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each +sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph +in which is discussed the question involved:_ + + 1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.) + 2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.) + 3. He said he should come if he could. (68.) + 4. Can I use your pencil? (69.) + 5. If you were I, what would you do? (68.) + 6. We would like to go. (68.) + 7. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is + present. (63-5.) + 8. He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.) + 9. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.) + 10. This is John's book. (13.) + 11. I feared that they should not come. (68.) + 12. Mother's and father's death. (15-4.) + 13. Mary was eager to have gone. (73.) + 14. The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.) + 15. The members of Congress watch each other. (44.) + 16. I fear that I will take cold. (67.) + 17. Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.) + 18. Neither of the three is well. (43.) + 19. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? + (29) (41.) + 20. He is determined that he shall go away. (67.) + 21. Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.) + 22. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) + 23. His clothes look prettily. (38.) + 24. The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.) + 25. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.) + 26. This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.) + 27. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) + 28. I am believed to be him. (29.) + 29. He sings very illy. (40.) + 30. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep + for them to work. (54.) + 31. She is very discontented. (48.) + 32. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) + 33. The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.) + 34. Shall my work soon begin? (66.) + 35. He is six foot tall. (42.) + 36. Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.) + 37. Will the dog bite? (66.) + 38. I am believed to be he. (29.) + 39. I am eager to have seen it. (73.) + 40. I think it shall rain soon. (67.) + 41. She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.) + 42. Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.) + 43. Who did the man say he was? (29.) + 44. He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has + been through Oxford University. (83.) + 45. Choose who you please. (29.) + 46. It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.) + 47. The pump was froze fast. (54.) + 48. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.) + 49. Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.) + 50. It is him. (29.) + 51. He did it hisself. (31.) + 52. He eat all there was on the table. (54.) + 53. He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.) + 54. The murderer was hung at noon. (54.) + 55. It is a queer kind of a book. (47.) + 56. You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.) + 57. Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.) + 58. I think I will find the work easy. (67.) + 59. He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) + 60. Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.) + 61. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.) + 62. Goliath was slew by David. (54.) + 63. Myself and mother are sick. (30.) + 64. John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.) + 65. If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them + out. (21.) + 66. The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.) + 67. John's and William's dog. (15-4.) + 68. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.) + 69. Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.) + 70. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the + paper. (34-6.) + 71. Awake me early in the morning. (57.) + 72. If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.) + 73. Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.) + 74. Washington, the general and the president, was born on + February 22d. (47.) + 75. Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.) + 76. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.) + 77. I sat my chair by the window. (57.) + 78. I sat myself down to rest. (57.) + 79. I can't hardly see to write. (46.) + 80. John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.) + 81. He laid on the couch all day. (57.) + 82. Death is when one ceases to live. (81.) + 83. I was told to set here. (57.) + 84. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.) + 85. I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.) + 86. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.) + 87. It weighs several ton. (42.) + 88. John is not as bright as Henry. (83.) + 89. Germany and France's ships. (15-4.) + 90. John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.) + 91. You had ought to go home. (54.) + 92. This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.) + 93. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.) + 94. An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) + 95. It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.) + 96. The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last + week are the same. (26, 34-5.) + 97. I don't like those kind of people. (42.) + 98. I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.) + 99. Let him lay there. (57.) + 100. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.) + 101. American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.) + 102. William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.) + 103. The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.) + 104. The price of meat has raised. (57.) + 105. This train runs slow. (38.) + 106. Which is the best of the two? (41-1.) + 107. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) + 108. Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be + discharged. (85.) + 109. The family is all at home. (62.) + 110. The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.) + 111. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.) + 112. The knife has laid there all day. (57.) + 113. The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.) + 114. The jury has agreed. (62.) + 115. Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.) + 116. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.) + 117. The army were defeated. (62.) + 118. If I was you, I should go at once. (60.) + 119. She may go if she wishes or not. (76.) + 120. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.) + 121. I like her better than you. (76.) + 122. Who do you want? (79.) + 123. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.) + 124. By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.) + 125. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.) + 126. When was you there? (64-2.) + 127. He is as tall as me. (83.) + 128. Neither John nor her will come. (29.) + 129. You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) + 130. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.) + 131. I wish you were more like she. (29.) + 132. Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.) + 133. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.) + 134. He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.) + 135. Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.) + 136. The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.) + 137. The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.) + 138. He has fell from his chair. (57.) + 139. I will raise and go to my father. (57.) + 140. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.) + 141. They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.) + 142. Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.) + 143. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.) + 144. He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.) + 145. Neither German or French is taught there. (83.) + 146. We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.) + 147. He awoke at nine. (57.) + 148. I wish I was a bird. (60.) + 149. If it rains, I stay at school. (60.) + 150. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.) + 151. The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.) + 152. We started out for the city at noon. (86.) + 153. The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.) + 154. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.) + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +SENTENCES + +87. Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences are +considered as loose, periodic, and balanced. + +The LOOSE SENTENCE is so constructed that it may be closed at two +or more places and yet make complete sense; as, + +Napoleon felt his _weakness_, and tried to win back popular _favor_ +by concession after _concession_, until, at his fall, he had nearly +restored parliamentary _government_. + +Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. _weakness, +favor_, and _concession_, as well as after _government_. + +88. The PERIODIC SENTENCE holds the complete thought in suspense +until the close of the sentence. Compare the following periodic +sentence with the loose sentence under §87: + +Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor +by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored +parliamentary government. + +Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since +periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the +untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible. + +89. The BALANCED SENTENCE is made up of parts similar in form, +but often contrasted in meaning; as, _He is a man; Jones is a +gentleman._ + +90. SENTENCE LENGTH. As to the length of the sentence there is +no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in +their thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if +there is a succession of short sentences, choppiness and roughness +are the result. One should carefully examine sentences which contain +more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear +in their meaning and accurate in their construction. + +EXERCISE 64 + +_Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, five +periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences._ + +EXERCISE 65 + +_In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is +loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the +periodic form:_ + +1. At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower +class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because +they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government. + +2. The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held +office only at his pleasure. + +3. A society and institutions that had been growing up for years +was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution. + +4. Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly +to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun. + +5. He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably. + +6. Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear. + +7. He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting +and continuing the ascent on foot. + +8. They visited the town where their father had lived, and while +there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born. + +9. His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in +the family. + +10. There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries +of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy. + +11. Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown +merely as an example. + +12. Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers +find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder +one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states. + +13. Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and +woes, after all, worth living? + +14. He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the +facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment +in his mind. + +15. His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started +on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would +take longer this time. + +16. It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon +first became very prominent by defending the convention against +a mob. + +EXERCISE 66 + +_Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well +constructed long sentence:_ + +1. In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford +space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford +it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities +the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate +business. + +2. History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops +the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. +It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other +study can give it. + +3. He never desired a higher education. This was possible because +of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no +need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because +of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind. + +4. New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its +great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw +the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party +New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result. + +5. Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many +ways. However, they permitted many liberties in the application +of sermons to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays +be strongly disapproved or resented. + +6. Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving +point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from +the future. + +7. The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. +They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. +They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or +clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and +to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty. + +8. The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest +of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes +one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers. + +9. They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This +was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle +was now being transformed into a national museum. + +10. He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped +slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about +shaking hands right and left. + +11. They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached +the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang +onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself +by touching the brackets which held the lamps. + +12. The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the +wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. +At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still +rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere. + +13. The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. +There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already +scorched by the fire. + +14. Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get +to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. +The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain +death. + +15. The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a +long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses +earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than once +toward a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only +its top half shows. The hill is on the east. + +16. The most important political question has been the tariff question. +This has been most important for ten years. It is important because +it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts. + +17. The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild +weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem +to flood one's soul with peace and contentment. + +91. The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, aside +from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, and +Euphony. + +UNITY. Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one general +thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent and connected +manner that the thought is clearly and effectively presented. Unity +demands, also, that closely related thoughts should not be improperly +scattered among several sentences. + +1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should +not be embodied in one sentence. + +Bad: The house sat well back from the road, _and its owner_ was +a married man. +Good: The house sat well back from the road. _Its owner_ was a +married man. + +a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide +into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected +by a conjunction. + +Bad: Jones lives in the country, _he_ has a fine library. +Good: Jones lives in the country. _He_ has a fine library. +Good: Jones lives in the country _and has_ a fine library. + +b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence. + +Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve +hundred people) that has no school-house. + +2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences. + +a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought. + +Bad: That is not an easy problem, _I think_. +Good: That, _I think_, is not an easy problem. +Good: _I do not think_ that is an easy problem. + +Bad: He could not be elected mayor again under any circumstances, +_at least so I am told_. +Good: He could not, _I am told_, be elected mayor again under any +circumstances. +Good: _I am told_ that he could not under any circumstances be elected +mayor again. + +b. Avoid long straggling sentences. + +Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the +team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost +all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and +this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the +students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their +interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the +institution. + +3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are +closely and logically connected with one another. + +Bad: That it is a good school is not without proof. Its diploma +admits to all colleges. +Good: That it is a good school is not without proof, for its diploma +admits to all colleges. +Good: That its diploma admits to all colleges is proof that it is +a good school. + +Bad: This fact was true of all of us. With the exception of John. +Good: This fact was true of all of us, with the exception of John. + +Bad: Edward came. But John never appeared. +Good: Edward came, but John never appeared. + +Bad: The town has two railroads running through it. Also, three +trolley lines. +Good: The town has two railroads running through it, and also three +trolley lines. +Good: The town has two railroads and three trolley lines running +through it. + +4. Do not change the point of view. + +Bad: _We_ completed our themes, and _they_ were handed in to the +teacher. (In the first part of the sentence, the subject is _we_; +in the second it is _themes_.) +Good: We completed our themes and handed them in to the teacher. +Good: Our themes were completed and handed in to the teacher. + +Bad: The _stage_ took us to the foot of the hill, and _we_ walked +from there to the top, where _our friends_ met us. +Good: _We_ were taken to the foot of the hill by the stage, and _we_ +walked from there to the top, where _we_ were met by our friends. + +EXERCISE 67 + +_Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles +of unity:_ + +1. I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride +made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards. + +2. Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. While +Smith is thoroughly dishonest. + +3. John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand +why he didn't succeed. + +4. I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school +and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer. + +5. In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they +are radical and progressive. + +6. The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, +and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and +so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a +trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two +months we had ever spent, and gave us an experience that was very +valuable in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall. + +7. The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number +of steel mills. + +8. One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail. + +9. Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade +the customs laws. + +10. My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says. + +11. He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I +am not sure) and then taught for three years. + +12. This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good. + +13. He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all possible. + +14. Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton +guided its financial policy. + +15. Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps +to write the letters. + +16. The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although +no small amount of trade came from the town. + +17. The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, +would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call +him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing +so, but the dog never lost patience. + +18. He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully +many) who never do what they promise. + +19. He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, +to sleep, and his books were found there the next day. + +20. He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended +for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies +in English. + +21. I can't go, I don't think. + +22. He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made +a great football player. + +23. He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear. + +24. The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not +care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of +the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place. + +25. He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, +hence he is an agreeable companion. + +26. He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old. + +27. There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years +of age. + +28. He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters +are concerned. + +29. I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I +was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most +of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a +great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone +over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed +to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry. + +30. He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little +without making him angry. + +31. There are a great number of stations along this short line of +railroad, these, however, do little business. + +32. They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was discovered +that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton lay south +of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north. + +33. He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be. + +34. That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to +spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over +the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so +many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions +to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed. + +35. He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all. + +36. Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam +in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give +us a room and board. + +37. He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think +it over. + +38. He is the most peculiar person I ever met--in the last few years +at least. + +39. I am reading a book, it is very interesting. + +40. They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which +he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps. + +41. He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to +get a vast amount of information out of it. + +42. It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When +he was in school. + +43. The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his +performances. + +44. Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and +his father was dead. + +92. COHERENCE. Coherence in the sentence demands that the arrangement +and the construction of the sentence be clear and free from ambiguity. + +1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning. + +Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled with the mange. + +Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled _because they +had_ the mange. + +Right: He was greatly troubled because several of _his dogs had_ +the mange. + +2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit. + +Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front _foot which_ has since died. + +Right: The _dog, which_ has since died, was bitten on the front foot. + +Right: The dog was bitten on the front foot and has since died. + +3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable. + +a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word +which it modifies. + +Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading a _book made_ in the mission +style. + +Right: He was sitting in a _chair made_ in the mission style and +was reading a book. + +Right: He was sitting reading a book in a chair made in the mission +style. + +Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his _father, containing_ over +fifteen hundred pieces. + +Right: The _table, containing_ over fifteen hundred pieces, had +been inlaid by his father. + +Right: The table contained over fifteen hundred pieces and had been +inlaid by his father. + +b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the +placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it +refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence. + +Wrong: It would be hard to explain, _if you were to ask me_, what +the trouble was. + +Right: If you were to ask me what the trouble was, it would be hard +to explain. + +4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their +office. _Neither--nor, both--and_, etc., are frequently not placed +next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See §84. + +Wrong: He _neither_ brought a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. + +Right: He brought _neither_ a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. + +Wrong: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ +his mother. + +Right: He received money _not only_ from his father, _but also_ +from his mother. + +Right: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ +received it from his mother. + +5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence. + +Wrong: The man _never has_, and _never will_ be successful. + +Right: The man _never has been_, and _never will be_ successful. + +Wrong: It _is no_ concern to him. + +Right: It _is of no_ concern to him. + +6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a +long complex sentence. + +Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and +Populists--_all_ were there. + +7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, +in a similar manner. + +Bad: I decided _on doing_ the work that night, and _to write_ it +out on the typewriter. +Good: I decided _to do_ the work that night and _to write_ it out +on the typewriter. + +Bad: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, +but some schools still use them. +Good: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, +but in some _they_ are still used. +Good: Though _textbooks are going_ out of use in modern law schools, +_they are still used_ in some of them. + +Bad: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _you_ always +increase your trouble by doing so. +Good: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _one_ +always increases his trouble by doing so. +Good: _One_ usually only increases _his_ troubles by trying to avoid +work in school. + +EXERCISE 68 + +_Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the +following sentences:_ + + 1. Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state. + + 2. The statute requires that one study three years, and that you + pass an examination. + + 3. He is home. + + 4. Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, + were in the assemblage. + + 5. He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in salary. + + 6. Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call. + + 7. When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside + my paper. + + 8. I only knew John. + + 9. The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load. + +10. John told his father that his coat was too tight for him. + +11. I not only knew the president but also the whole board of directors. + +12. The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire. + +13. Mrs. Smith wants washing. + +14. A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away + from home as a result of a druggist's mistake. + +15. He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman. + +16. A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear. + +17. In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making + the result unreliable. + +18. It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature. + +19. The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was + that he used the wrong book. + +20. John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was + not entirely to blame for it. + +21. They said they saw them coming before they saw them. + +22. The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up. + +23. You made the same mistake that you now make last week. + +24. Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the + professor. + +25. It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected. + +26. They are required to report both on their way to work and coming + home. + +27. Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of + composition was taken up. + +28. Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night. + +29. We tried to study, but didn't do any. + +30. I do not care either to see you or Henry. + +31. He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the + farm. + +32. Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly. + +33. One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, + in this way limiting what can be done. + +34. The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did. + +35. Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses + are forbidden to trot over them. + +36. John told Henry that he thought he needed help. + +37. He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead. + +38. Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there + than here. + +39. Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages. + +40. After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it + back to the printer. + +41. The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them. + +42. They knew all that was to be learned, including John. + +43. We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara + Falls and Canada. + +44. Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet. + +45. Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started + to school. + +46. He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed. + +47. He built a house for his wife with seven windows. + +48. He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his + business card. + +49. I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front + door step. + +50. Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful + manner. + +51. Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty. + +52. He neither told John nor his father. + +53. Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called. + +54. He bought a horse when ten years old. + +55. The child the parent often rebuked. + +56. Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched. + +57. Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us. + +58. Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually. + +59. I knew him as a physician when a boy. + +60. He came leading his dog on a bicycle. + +61. When wanted he sent me a letter. + +93. EMPHASIS. Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged +that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the +minor details subordinated. + +1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence. + +Bad: He was a student who did nothing right _as a rule_. +Good: He was a student, who, _as a rule_, did nothing right. + +2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in +emphasis. + +Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick tree not far back of +our camp. + +Changed: From a thick tree not far back of our camp a lonely owl +shrieked. + +3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce +a climax; i. e., have the most important come last. + +Bad: Human beings, dogs, cats, horses, all living things were destroyed. +Good: Cats, dogs, horses, human beings, all living things were +destroyed. + +4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought. + +Bad: He is universally praised by all people. +Good: He is universally praised. + +Bad: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable, and not a thing could +be seen. +Good: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable. + +Bad: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that a slight indisposition +in health precludes his granting himself the pleasure of accepting +your invitation to come to your house to dine. +Good: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that sickness prevents +his accepting your invitation to dine. + +EXERCISE 69 + +_Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the principles +of emphasis:_ + + 1. Children, women, and men were slain without pity. + + 2. I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can. + + 3. Most of the students have done good work, although some have not. + + 4. Will you please start up the machine. + + 5. Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it + would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom. + + 6. A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, + was killed by being run over. + + 7. As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since. + + 8. All his friends were collected together. + + 9. The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except + occasionally. + +10. Few were superior to him as a sculptor. + +11. Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even + hack lines were affected by the change. + +12. Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always. + +13. That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls + upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is + known by the appellation of Maxon Mountain. + +14. The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, + without stopping at all. + +15. He tried to do right so far as we know. + +16. That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else. + +94. EUPHONY. Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing sound. + +1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence. + +Bad: He _commanded_ his son to obey his _commands_. + +2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce. + +Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick. + +3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable. + +Bad: They went for a _walk_ in order to _talk_. + +EXERCISE 70 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:_ + + 1. In the problems, he solved one once. + + 2. Most of the time he does the most he can. + + 3. She worries about what to wear wherever she goes. + + 4. It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can + be capable of such work. + + 5. Those are our books. + + 6. Every time there was a chance for error, error was made. + + 7. It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger + than fiction." + + 8. The well must have been well made, else it would not have served + so well. + + 9. Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium. + +10. He acted very sillily. + +11. He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise. + +12. In his letters there is something fine in every line. + +13. They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues. + +EXERCISE 71. A GENERAL EXERCISE ON SENTENCES + +_Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence +is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set +forth:_ + + 1. Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.) + + 2. In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen + in the evenings. (93-1.) + + 3. There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and + it tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.) + + 4. The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.) + + 5. Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. + (92-6.) + + 6. I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.) + + 7. He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.) + + 8. He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.) + + 9. Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried + to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.) + +10. One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you + fail to exercise. (93-1.) + +11. The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.) + +12. She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing + that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.) + +13. The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. + (92-7.) + +14. People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the + rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.) + +15. There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. + (91-3-a.) + +16. She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. (92-2.) + +17. By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started + on a career of crime again. (93-1.) + +18. Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.) + +19. No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.) + +20. If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you + will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.) + +21. He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.) + +22. The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not + elevating. (92-3-b.) + +23. John the lion killed. (92-3-b.) + +24. He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.) + +25. Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties + for more than five years. (91-1-a.) + +26. Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. + (92-3-a.) + +27. We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not + get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.) + +28. He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. + (92-2). + +29. I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, + we had supper. (91-4.) + +30. Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped + without a scratch. (91-3.) + +31. Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one + his faults. (92-2.) + +32. Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. + (93-1.) + +33. May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. + (92-4.) + +34. Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. + (91-1.) + +35. He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.) + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION + +RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION + +95. Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper +nouns. + +France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc. + +96. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. Capitalize, +also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank even when +used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when used separately. + +Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, +Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley +Cross Roads. + +97. Capitalize the important words in titles of books. + +The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery +of America. + +98. Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every line of +poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted. + +He said, "Is it I whom you seek?" + +He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned." + +99. Capitalize the words, _mother, father_, etc., when used with +proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive pronoun +to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common nouns +in phrases used as proper nouns. + +Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle +writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square. + +100. Capitalize the names, _North, South, East_, and _West_, when +referring to parts of the country; words used to name the Deity; +the words, _Bible_ and _Scriptures_; and the words _I_ and _O_, +but not _oh_ unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. + +EXERCISE 72 + +_Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the +last._ + +RULES FOR PUNCTUATION + +101. Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but simply +to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation +is needed. + +The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted: + +_The Period_ (.) + +102. Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that is not +interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; and +(3) after _Yes_ and _No_ when used alone. + +_The Interrogation Point_ (?) + +103. Use the interrogation point after every direct question. + +_The Exclamation Point_ (!) + +104. Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence +or expression. + +Alas! It is too late. + +Fire if you dare! + +_The Comma_ (,) + +105. Use the comma after each word of a series of words that all +have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence, +unless conjunctions are used between all of those words. + +Ours is a red, white, and blue flag. + +He talked, smoked, and read. + +He talked and smoked and read. + +Do not, however, precede the series by a comma. + +Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. + +Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. + +106. Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying the same +noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective and the +noun. + +An honest, upright man. + +An old colored man. + +A soiled red dress. + +107. Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words or +phrases, and participial phrases. + +John, come here. + +By the way, did you see Mary? + +After having done this, Cæsar crossed the Rubicon. + +Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step. + +108. Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see §29, Note +1), or a geographical name that limits a preceding name. + +He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school. + +Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana. + +109. Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is placed +out of its natural order. + +If it is possible, he will do it. + +To most people, this will seem absurd. + +110. Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that +are thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use +the dash or parenthesis. + +That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without +permission from the police. + +Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured. + +He, himself, said it. + +111. Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive clauses, +but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See §§ 25 and 26.) + +Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church. + +But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother. + +112. Use the comma to separate coördinate clauses that are united +by a simple conjunction. + +He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public. + +He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him. + +113. Use the comma to separate the members of a compound sentence +when those members are short and closely connected in their thought. + +John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella. + +114. Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional clauses +introduced by such words as _if, when, though,_ unless the connection +be close. + +He did not stop, though I called repeatedly. + +Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake +in the work. + +But: You are wrong when you say that. + +115. Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, unless +such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the sentence. + +William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting. + +But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend." + +116. Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such +as, _however, then, also, for example, so to speak,_ etc. + +Such a man, however, can seldom be found. + +This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order. + +117. Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any distinct +pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by punctuation, +or whenever something clearly is omitted. + +We want students, not boys who simply come to school. + +Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ... + +_The Semicolon_ (;) + +118. Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence +that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions. + +He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably +return to college. + +119. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence +that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable to +indicate a very definite pause. + +I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the +reason for it. + +120. Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound or a complex +sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated by commas. + +As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we +cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty. + +Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, +and for his family he has not a cent. + +Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; +and for his family he has not a cent. + +121. Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, +when they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; +such as, _accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore_, etc. + +I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold. + +John is sick; however, I think he will be here. + +122. Use the semicolon before the expressions, _namely, as, that +is_, etc., or before their abbreviations, _viz., i.e.,_ etc., when +they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, simple +in form, which are in apposition with a general term. + +At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the +Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist. + +_The Colon_ (:) + +123. Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal quotation, +before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence that +constitutes an introduction to something that follows. + +Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised +to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing +it to you to-day." + +There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, +consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter. + +124. Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. (See +§161.) + +_The Dash_ (--) + +125. Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought or +construction. + +I am pleased to meet you, Captain--what did you say your name is? + +The man I met--I refer to Captain Jones--was in the naval service. + +126. Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely +some part of a sentence. + +I was always lacking what I needed most--money. + +127. Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which sums up +the preceding part of a sentence. + +Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and +Populists,--_all_ were there. + +128. Do not use dashes where not required or in place of some other +mark of punctuation. + +_The Parenthesis Marks_ ( ) + +129. Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement that +is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent of +it. + +He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town. + +130. Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the parenthesis +marks unless it would be required even if there were no parenthesis. +When other punctuation is used it should follow the parenthesis. + +They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case. + +We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been +very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else. + +Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses. + +_The Bracket_ [ ] + +131. Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of the writer +that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation or otherwise. + +His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] +to deliver the address..." + +_The Quotation Marks_ (" ") + +132. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact language +of another. + +The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long." + +133. Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation within +a quotation. + +The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words +than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to +do his duty.'" + +134. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks +should precede each paragraph and follow the last. + +135. Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate sentence +of a single continuous quotation. + +136. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, +titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary +invention. + +137. Examine the location of quotation marks and other punctuation +in the following sentences: + +Wrong: "You may do as you wish, he said, if you only wish to do +right." + +Right: "You may do as you wish," he said, "if you only wish to do +right." + +Wrong: "Can you come," she asked? + +Right: "Can you come?" she asked. + +_The Apostrophe_ (') + +138. Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. +See §§ 13 and 15. + +Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters. + +Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter? + +_The Hyphen_ (-) + +139. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a +line. + +Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, _though, +through, also, besides, over_, etc. + +Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always +put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning +of the second. + +Wrong division: _int-end, prop-ose, superint-endent, expre-ssion_. + +Proper division: _in-tend, pro-pose, superin-tendent, expres-sion_. + +In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like _expression_ +by placing _ex_ on one line and the rest of the word on the next +line. + +140. Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No rule can +be given by which to determine when compounded words demand the +hyphen. Only custom determines. + +Always use a hyphen with _to-day, to-morrow_, and _to-night_. + +EXERCISE 73 + +_Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions +as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see_ §§ +143 _and_ 144: + + 1. however father had told us not to expect good accommodations + because it is a very small town + + 2. tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh + + 3. will that be satisfactory was his question + + 4. it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not + + 5. whats the matter with you john + + 6. john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the + knell of parting day + + 7. and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to + new york city + + 8. he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian church + + 9. the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general + of great military training + +10. buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion + was represented + +11. his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so + +12. you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven + and nine + +13. four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore + and taft + +14. the verse to which you refer is as follows + the boast of heraldry the pomp of power + all that beauty all that wealth eer gave + await alike the inevitable hour + the paths of glory lead but to the grave + +15. a noun is the name of something as william france book cat + +16. the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at + seven at latest + +17. the different points discussed are these first the history of + the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and + third the result of the theory + +18. in the first problem divide in the second multiply + +19. if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible + use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period + +20. william if you gear me answer + +21. he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she + understood + +22. as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat failure + +23. that may be true but i still doubt it + +24. separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close + +25. even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved + +26. mary said yes but helen said no + +27. he is called the peerless leader + +28. such a man for example was lincoln + +29. if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it + +30. that too is a mistake + +31. that is wool not cotton as you seem to think + +32. the english are stolid the french lively + +33. in that case let us have war + +34. such an opinion i may say is absurd + +35. alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late + +36. the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large lot + +37. he means the house that has green shutters + +38. those are all good books but none of them will do + +39. dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray + henry esmond + +40. he is a good student and also a great athlete + +41. he gave me a red silk handkerchief + +42. having assigned the lesson he left the room + +43. royers address is danville illinois + +44. you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three + +45. i had classes under the president dr harris + +46. moreover naxon the cashier has fled + +47. oh that is what you mean is it + +48. for this you will need a piece of clean white paper + +49. the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god + +50. the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river + +51. theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history + +52. the north quickly recovered from the civil war + +53. he told mother to write to my uncle about it + +54. he said then why are you here + +55. in that army old young and middle aged men served for their + country could no longer raise a picked army +56. he was told to ask the principal professor morton + +57. in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man + +58. a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story + needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to + his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable + that day i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis + request but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning + to the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the + very best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word + demanded mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out + but at this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is + the donkey braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you + would rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends + no longer and under no circumstances can i lend you anything. + +59. a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of + an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality + who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you + live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another + shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak + german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father + and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well + said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and + can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned. + +NOTE. Further exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without +the marks of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards +inserting the proper marks. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE PARAGRAPH + +141. The PARAGRAPH is a connected series of sentences all dealing +with the development of a single topic. Where the general subject +under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute the +whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of subtopics, +each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. For each +one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made. + +The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend +the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way +the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye +of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change +of topic at each new paragraph. + +142. PARAGRAPH LENGTH. There is no fixed rule governing the proper +length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need be more +than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition is not +more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will not often +need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, paragraphing +should be more frequent than in other compositions. + +Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too +frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, +it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic. + +143. Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set +off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. +This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose--to +aid in gaining clearness. + +144. PARAGRAPHING OF SPEECH. In a narrative, each direct quotation, +together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should +constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed +in writing a conversation. Examine the following: + +A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which +Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house +of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. +During the meal the hostess asked: + +"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?" + +"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs." + +"Then have some more," said the woman. + +The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the +remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence +after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the +example just given. + +145. INDENTATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. The first sentence of each new +paragraph should be indented. See example under §144. No other +sentence should be so indented. + +146. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: +Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. + +UNITY. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one +subject, and should include nothing which does not have a direct +bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, the +italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, very +obviously it belongs to some other paragraph: + +Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm +than the Irish. _St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to +have banished the snakes from the island_. So enthusiastic were +the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, +the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, +and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and +monasteries.... + +Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs +together. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general +topic, unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, +in describing the route followed in a certain journey, one should +not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey. + +Wrong: + +In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland. + +Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running +from Cleveland to Detroit. + +From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train +the next morning. + +If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought +out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must +be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point +of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and +manner of expression. + +147. HOW TO GAIN UNITY. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph +is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of the paragraph +should be determined, and should be clearly indicated by a topic +sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the +beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the clearest +and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a formal +statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any sentence +that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph. + +With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. +It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific +instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by +illustration; or by showing cause or effect. + +148. Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the quality +of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized. + +_To rule was not enough for Bonaparte._ He wanted to amaze, to +dazzle, to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, +and unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not +have satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted +to reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his +name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and +make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; +but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should +strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an +earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should +awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency +inspires. + +From _The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing. + +_There is something in the very season of the year that gives a +charm to the festivity of Christmas._ At other times we derive a +great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. +Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny +landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, +the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the +soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with +its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious +blue and its cloudy magnificence--all fill us with mute but exquisite +delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. But in the +depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every charm, and +wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our gratifications +to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape, +the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they circumscribe +our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling abroad, +and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the social +circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly sympathies +more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each other's society, +and are brought more closely together by dependence on each other for +enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw our pleasures from +the deep wells of living kindness which lie in the quiet recesses of +our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, furnish forth the pure +element of domestic felicity. + +From _Christmas_, by Washington Irving. + +149. COHERENCE. Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be +perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be so constructed that +it may be readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence +to sentence, of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The +whole fabric of the paragraph must be woven together--it must not +consist of disconnected pieces. + +150. HOW TO GAIN COHERENCE. Where vividness or some other quality +does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually gained by +the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to keep in mind +the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show the bearing of +the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may be of various +sorts; as, _it, this view, however, in this way_, etc. Sometimes +the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the paragraph, +or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the end of the +paragraph. + +Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized +words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow +of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind +the paragraph topic. + +I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the _two books_ +you have named. The _first_ is interesting and easy to read. _It_ +is, _also_, by no means lacking in the value of the information +it presents. _But the second_, while it is no less interesting +and equally valuable in its contents, seems to me far more logical +and scholarly in its construction. _In addition to this_ I think +you will find it cheaper in price, by reason of its not being so +profusely illustrated. _Therefore_, I should advise you to procure +the _second_ for your study. _Either, indeed_, will do, but since +you have a choice, take the better one. + +A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in +vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily +prevail by an example. _So_ he called his sons and bade them lay +a bundle of sticks before him. _Then having tied them_ up into a +fagot, he told _the lads_, one after another, to take it up and +break it. _They all tried_, but tried in vain. _Then_, untying +_the fagot_, he gave _them_ the sticks to break one by one. _This_ +they did with the greatest ease. _Then_ said the father: "_Thus_, +my sons, as long as you remain united, you are a match for all your +enemies; but differ and separate, and you are undone." _Æsop's +Fables_. + +Examine also the selections under §§ 205 and 206. + +151. EMPHASIS. The third quality which a paragraph should possess +is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as to bring +into prominence the topic or the point it is intended to present. +The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the beginning and at +the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs sufficient emphasis +is generally gained by having a topic sentence at the beginning. +In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate again the topic +at the end by way of summary in order to impress thoroughly on +the reader the effect of the paragraph. + +EXERCISE 74 + +_The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction +are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises +will readily suggest themselves to teacher or student._ + +_These topics are intended to apply only to isolated +paragraphs--"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more latitude +in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief that +more than one paragraph is unnecessary._ + +Write paragraphs: + + 1. Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, + and giving your reasons for the refusal. + + 2. Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general + appearance and then the details. + + 3. Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie. + + 4. Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play. + + 5. Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance. + + 6. To prove that the world is round. + + 7. To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.) + + 8. Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city + life than in country life. + +Write paragraphs on the following subjects: + + 9. My Earliest Recollection. + +10. The Sort of Books I Like Best. + +11. Why I Like to Study X Branch. + +12. My Opinion of My Relatives. + +13. The Man I Room With. + +14. Why I Was Late to Class. + +15. What I Do on Sundays. + +16. How to Prevent Taking Cold. + +17. How to Cure a Cold. + +18. My Best Teacher. + +19. My Favorite Town. + +20. Why I Go Fishing. + +21. My Favorite Month. + +22. What Becomes of My Matches. + +23. Baseball is a Better Game than Football. + +24. The View from X Building. + +25. Why I Go to School. + +26. My Opinion of Rainy Days. + +27. My Most Useful Friend. + +28. Why I Dislike Surprise Parties. + +29. Why I Like to Visit at X's. + +30. The Police Service of X Town. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +LETTER-WRITING + +NOTE TO TEACHER.--For the purpose of training in composition, in +the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the most +feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand any +gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much latitude +for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, letter-writing +is the field in which almost all written composition will be done +after leaving school; and so all training in school will be thoroughly +useful. For this reason, it is suggested that letter-writing be +made one of the chief fields for composition work. + +In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. +Others will readily occur to the teacher. + +THE HEADING + +152. POSITION OF HEADING. In all business letters the writer's +address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be +placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an +inch from the top. This address and date is called the HEADING. +In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed +at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below +the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at +the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never +write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end +of the letter. + +153. ORDER OF HEADING. The parts of the heading should be sufficient +to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should be in +the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or the +city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on one +line, two or even three lines should be used; but, in no case, +should the above order be varied. Examples: + +Wrong: March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, + March 31, 1910. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, + Red Oaks, Iowa, + March 31, 1910. + +If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first +line and the date on the second. + +Wrong: January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania, + The Hotel Lafayette. + +Right: The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania, + January 19, 1910. + +154. PUNCTUATION OF HEADING. Place a period after each abbreviation +that is used. In addition to this, place commas after the street +address, after the town address, after the state address, and after +the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the number +of the year. Examine the correct address under §153. + +155. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN HEADINGS. Avoid the use of abbreviations +in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent use in the +business letter. + +It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states. + +Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: _St._ for _Street; +Ave._ for _Avenue; Apart._ for _Apartments; Chi._ for _Chicago; +Phila._ for _Philadelphia_. + +Wrong: Hardie Apart., Pbg., Pa. + +Right: Hardie Apartments, Pittsburg, Pa. + +Do not use the sign # before the street number. + +Do not omit the word _Street_. + +Wrong: 229 Market. + +Right: 229 Market Street. + +Do not write the date thus: _9/10/10_. Represent the numbers by +figures, not words. See §§ 75 and 76. Do not use _st., rd.,_ etc., +after the number of the day. + +Wrong: 9/8/09. + +Right: September 8, 1909. + +Wrong: September the Ninth, Nineteen Hundred and Nine. + +Right: September 9, 1909. + +Wrong: March 10th, 1910. + +Right: March 10, 1910. + +THE INSIDE ADDRESS + +156. POSITION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In strictly commercial letters +the name and the address of the person to whom the letter is being +sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should begin +flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a little +below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside address +should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters under +§174. + +In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, +the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the +letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters +the inside address may be omitted. + +157. PUNCTUATION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In punctuating the inside address, +place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition +to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, a comma +after the street address, if one be given, and after the name of +the town or city. Place a period after the name of the state or +country. Examine the correct inside address under §174. + +158. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE INSIDE ADDRESS. Do not omit the +town, city, or state address from the inside address. + +Wrong: Mr. E. P. Griffith, + My dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith. + Muskogee, Oklahoma. + My dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith, + 221 Fiji Avenue, + Muskogee, Oklahoma. + My dear Sir: + +Do not omit proper titles. + +Wrong: R. R. Stolz, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + +Right: Mr. R. R. Stolz, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + +When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title _Mr._, +before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute +a partnership or trading name. + +Right: Jones & Smith, (_firm name_) + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Right: Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (_not a firm name_) + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except _Mr., +Mrs., Messrs._, and _Dr._ Abbreviations of titles placed after +the name, such as, _Esq., D.D., A.M._, etc., are proper. + +Do not use _Mr._ and _Esq._ with the same name. + +Avoid all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a +very long name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but +it is better form to write the name in full. _United States of +America_ may be abbreviated to _U. S. A._ + +Wrong: Merch. Mfg. Co., + N. Y. C. + Gentlemen: + +Right: The Merchants' Manufacturing Company. + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Wrong: Mr. William Shipp, + Bangor, Me. + Dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. William Shipp, + Bangor, Maine. + Dear Sir: + +Do not place a period after the title _Miss. Miss_ is not an +abbreviation. + +THE SALUTATION + +159. POSITION OF SALUTATION. The salutation should begin flush +with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. See +correctly written letters under §174. + +160. FORM OF SALUTATION. The salutation varies with the form of +the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of +the letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business +acquaintances the most common salutations for individuals are, +_Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, or _My dear Sir, My dear Madam_. For a +group of persons, or for a company or a partnership, _Gentlemen, +Dear Sirs, Dear Madams_ or _Mesdames_ are used. In less formal +business letters such salutations as, _My dear Mr. Smith_, or _Dear +Miss Jaekel_ may be used. + +In the case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and +formal letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of +taste. The following are illustrations of proper salutations for +friendly letters: _My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, +Dear Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, +Dear Friend,_ etc. + +It is considered more formal to prefix _My_ to the salutation. + +It is over formal to use simply _Sir_ or _Madam_ in any letter, +or to use _Dear Sir_ or _Dear Madam_ when writing to a familiar +friend. + +If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as _Dear Brown, Dear +John,_ etc., it is better to put the inside address at the close +of the letter, or to omit it. + +161. PUNCTUATION OF SALUTATION. Punctuate the salutation with a +colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used. + +162. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE SALUTATION. Use no abbreviations +except _Dr., Mr., Mrs._ Do not use the abbreviation _Dr._, when +that title is used as a final word in a salutation. + +Wrong: My dear Maj. Wren: + +Right: My dear Major Wren: + +Wrong: My dear Dr.: + +Right: My dear Doctor: + +Do not use a name alone as a salutation. + +Wrong: Mr. W. W. Braker: + Will you please inform ... + +Right: Mr. W. W. Braker, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + Dear Sir: + Will you please inform ... + +In the salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first +word of the salutation. + +Wrong: My Dear Sir: + +Right: My dear Sir: + +Wrong: My very Dear Friend: + +Right: My very dear Friend: + +Wrong: Dear sir: + +Right: Dear Sir: + +THE BODY OF THE LETTER + +163. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THE LETTER. In friendly letters much +latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business letters +should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should be +lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness. + +164. FORM OF BODY. The body of the letter usually begins on the +line below the salutation and is indented the same distance from +the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model +letters under §174. + +In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently +than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the +subject of a separate paragraph. + +165. FAULTS IN BODY OF THE LETTER. In letters that are intended to +be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, +and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically +incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should +the "telegraph style" be adopted. + +Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no chance to look up man. +Will do so soon. + +Good: I have received your letter of the tenth. I have had no chance +as yet to look up the man, but I will do so soon. + +Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. Tele. + +Good: Address in care of John Smith, Manager of the Pennsylvania +Telegraph. + +Bad: In reply will say ... + +Good: In reply I wish to say ... + +Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand. + +Good: Your letter of the 10th is at hand. + +Bad: Your favor received ... + +Good: We have received your letter ... + +Bad: Enclose P. O. money order for $2. + +Good: We enclose post office money order for two dollars, ($2). + +Bad: We have read your plan. Same is satisfactory. + +Good: We have read your plan, and it is satisfactory. + +Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter. + +It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun _I_ in +the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution +to extremes. _I_, however, should not be omitted when necessary +to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use +by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different +form of sentence. + +There is no objection to beginning a letter with _I_. + +Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition. + +Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection +to the use of colloquial expressions such as _can't, don't,_ etc. + +Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use +of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out +and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones +are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate +and unnecessary. + +Your esteemed favor is at hand. + +In reply permit me to say ... + +We beg leave to advise ... + +We beg to suggest ... + +Thanking you for the favor, we are ... + +Please find enclosed ... + +In answer to your favor of the tenth ... + +We take pleasure in informing you ... + +In reply would say ... + +We beg to acknowledge receipt of your favor ... + +Awaiting your further orders, we are ... + +THE CLOSE + +166. FINAL WORDS. Business letters frequently close with some final +words, such as, _Thanking you again for your kind assistance, I am +..., A waiting your further orders, we are_ ..., etc. These expressions +are not wrong, but are often used when not at all necessary. + +167. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE. The complimentary close should be +written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and should +begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only guide +to the choice of a complimentary close. + +The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters: + + Yours respectfully, Yours very truly, + Yours truly, Very truly yours, + +The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters: + + Yours sincerely, Very truly yours, + Yours very truly, Your loving son, + Yours cordially, Affectionately yours, + +168. FAULTS IN THE CLOSE. Do not use abbreviations, such as, _Yrs. +respy., yrs. try.,_ etc. + +169. THE SIGNATURE OF THE WRITER. The letter should be so signed as +to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a reply. +The signature should show whether the writer is a man or a woman; +and, if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed +as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In formal letters it is customary for a woman +to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name in the +following manner: + + Sincerely yours, + Caroline Jones. + (Mrs. William Jones). + + Very truly yours, + (Miss) Matilda Stephens. + +In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and +after it the name of the writer. Example: + +D. Appleton & Company, + per J. W. Miller. + +MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS + +170. In beginning the letter, place the address and date an inch +and a half or two inches below the top of the page. + +Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of +the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch +or more beyond the margin. + +In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, +2, 3, 4. + +In the correctly written forms of letters under §174 observe the +indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside address +should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set in. The +salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body of the letter +should begin on the line below the salutation, and some distance +in from the margin. + +THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS + +171. POSITION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Place the address on the envelope +so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the top, +too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed +envelope under §173. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand +corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope. + +172. PUNCTUATION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Punctuation may be omitted +at the end of the lines of the address. If it is used, place a +period at the end of the last line, and a comma after each preceding +line. + +Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address. + +If an abbreviation ends the line, always place a period after it, +whether the other lines are punctuated or not. + +173. FAULTS IN THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Avoid the use of abbreviations +except those that would be proper in the inside address or in the +heading. See §§ 155 and 158. + +Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. No +letters or sign at all should be used there. See §155. + +Compare the following forms of addresses: + +Bad: Col. Wm. Point, + #200 John St., + Trenton, N. J. + +Good: Colonel William Point, + 200 John Street, + Trenton, + New Jersey. + +Good: Colonel William Point + 200 John Street + Trenton, New Jersey + +Bad: Chas. Jones, + c/o Edward Furrey, + Wilkinsburg, Pa. + +Good: Mr. Charles Jones + In care of Mr. Edward Furrey + Wilkinsburg + Pennsylvania + +Bad: Rev. Walter Bertin + +Good: The Reverend Walter Bertin + +Bad: Pres. of Bucknell Univ. + +Good: For the President of Bucknell University. + +A properly arranged address: + +[Illustration: Mr. Robert D. Royer, + 201 Tenth Street, + Danville, + Illinois.] + +174. CORRECTLY WRITTEN LETTERS + + 200 Mead Avenue, + Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, + January 12, 1909. +Mr. A. M. Weaver, + Cambridge, Massachusetts. + +My dear Sir: + +I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law +books. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention +of selling them. + +You may, however, be able to secure what you want from H. B. Wassel, +Esquire, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. He has +advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books. + + Very truly yours, + Charles M. Howell. + + Muncy, New York, January 12, 1909. +My dear Professor Morton: + +We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system +of keeping students' records. I have been told that you have worked +out a card method that operates successfully. If you can give me +any information in regard to your method, I shall consider it a +very great favor. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply. + + Very sincerely yours, + Harris A. Plotts. + +Professor E. A. Morton, + Braddock, Pennsylvania. + + Braddock, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909. +My dear Mrs. Hagon: + +I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard +to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence +enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price. + + Very sincerely, + Sylvester D. Dunlop. + + 173 State Street, Detroit, Michigan, + January 23, 1910. +To whom it may concern: + +It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character, ability +and attainments of Mr. E. J. Heidenreich. He has been a trusted +personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. He may be +counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to +undertake. + + Harry B. Hutchins. + +My dear Walter: + +I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. +Before I go, I should like to have you come out and take dinner with +me some evening. How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? +If you can come at that time, will you please write or telephone +to me sometime before Tuesday? + + Very cordially yours, + Paul B. Vandine. + +6556 Broad Street, + Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, + March 30, 1909. + + The Lafayette, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, + March 31, 1909. +My dear Paul: + +I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with +you before you take final leave of the city. The time you mention, +next Wednesday evening, is entirely satisfactory to me. + +I was more than pleased to receive your invitation, for the prospect +of talking over old times with you is delightful. + + Sincerely yours, + Walter Powell. + + Napoleon, Ohio, February 28, 1908. +The American Stove Company, + Alverton, Pennsylvania. + +Gentlemen: + +With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars, for which please +send me one of your small cook stoves, of the sort listed in your +catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight. + +It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this +stove as much as possible, since it is urgently needed in a summer +cottage that I have for rent. + + Very truly yours, + Ernest Burrows. + + 223 Siegel Street, New York City, + June 5, 1910. +The Acme Tapestry Company, + Syracuse, New York. + +Dear Sirs: + +Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of +your tapestries and carpets? + +I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets +that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association +Building, on Arlington Avenue, this city. I understand that institutions +of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. Will you +please tell me if this is true? + + Very truly yours, + Anna R. Fleegor. + (Mrs. C. C. Fleegor.) + + Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, May 10, 1910. +The Merchant's Electric Wiring Company, + Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. + +Gentlemen: + +I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work +for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. I am at present taking +a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University, and +am in my sophomore year., It is my plan to gain some practical +experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations +occurring in my course. This summer I want to secure practical +experience in electric wiring. + +If you wish references as to my character and ability, I would +refer you to Mr. William R. Stevenson, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and +to Mr. Harry E. McCormick, Superintendent of the Street Railways +Company, Danville, Illinois. + +Salary is a very slight object to me in this work, and I shall be +willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer +me. + + Respectfully yours, + Harvey H. Wilkins. + + Drawsburg, Ohio, May 21, 1910. +My dear Norman: + +I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you +of my sincere pleasure in the news. May you find happiness and +prosperity in your new location. But do not forget that your old +friends are still living and will always be interested in your +welfare. + + Your affectionate cousin, + Mary E. Johnston. + + 223 Holbrook Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Indiana. + November 10, 1908. +The Jefferson Life Insurance Company, + Norfolk, Virginia. + +Gentlemen: + +I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. In that +Policy, which was taken out about ten years ago, my occupation +is stated to be carpenter. Lately I have changed occupations, and +am now engaged in conducting a store. If, in order to maintain the +validity of my policy, the change of occupation should be recorded +on your books, will you please have the proper entry made. + +I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash +surrender value, and if so, what that value is. + + Very truly yours, + Arthur J. Pearse. + + Bunnell Building, Scranton, Pennsylvania, + April 20, 1909. +Mr. James R. Elliot, + Germantown, Colorado. + +My dear Elliot: + +Will you please send me, as soon as you conveniently can, the addresses +of George English, Ira S. Shepherd, and G. N. Wilkinson. + +This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding +invitations are to be looked for. Your conclusion, I am happy to +say, is a correct one; I expect to be married sometime in June. + + Cordially your friend, + Charles R. Harris. + + The Anglo-American Hotel, Vienna, Austria, + March 19, 1907. +Dear Aunt Emily: + +You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this +letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. We had really intended, +as I wrote to you, to spend the entire months of March and April +in Berlin, but a sudden whim sent us on to this city. + +Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city, +and thought it a place of little interest. I was surprised to find +it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. +Still more was I surprised to find what a festive, stylish place +it is. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity, +but Vienna lacks only the reputation; it certainly does not lack +the fashionable and frivolous air. + +The other day in one of the shops here, I discovered, as I thought, +a very fine miniature. I purchased it to present to you, and have +already sent it by post. It ought to reach you as soon as this +letter. + +We have not received the usual letter from you this week, but suppose +it is because we so suddenly changed our address. The necessity +of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay. + +Father and Mother join in sending their love to you. + + Your affectionate niece, + Mary. + +NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON + +175. It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds of notes +in the third person. Such a note contains nothing but the body +of the note, followed at the left side of the paper, by the time +and the place of writing. + +Use no pronoun but that of the third person. Never use any heading, +salutation, or signature. Use no abbreviations except _Mr., Mrs._, +or _Dr._ Spell out all dates. + +176. CORRECTLY WRITTEN NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON. + +Mrs. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. Leighou's company +at dinner on Sunday, June the first, at two o'clock. + +1020 Highland Street, + Washington, Pennsylvania, +May the twenty-fifth. + +The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of +Professor and Mrs. Morton's company on Tuesday evening, June the +tenth, at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. Stuart. + + Bucknell University, + June the fifth. + +Mr. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance +of Mrs. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday, June the first. + + 110 Braddock Avenue, + May the twenty-seventh. + +EXERCISE 75 + +_Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. Have +every letter complete in all its formal parts. Fill in details +according to your own fancy:_ + + 1. A letter to the X Express Company of your town, complaining of + their delay in delivering a package to you. + + 2. A letter to a friend, thanking him for the entertainment afforded + you on a recent visit to his house. + + 3. A letter to the X Book Company, inquiring what dictionary they + publish, the prices, etc. + + 4. A letter to Mr. X, asking him for a position in his office, and + stating your qualifications. + + 5. A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has + befallen him. + + 6. A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture + that you are thinking of entering upon. Explain the venture. + + 7. A letter to your home, describing to your parents your school. + + 8. A letter to a friend, telling him of the chance meeting with + some friend. + + 9. A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering + a canoe that you are building. Explain your needs. + +10. A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation. + +11. A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place, time, etc. + +12. A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway + station. Leave no doubt. + +13. A letter describing some new acquaintance. + +14. A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently heard. + +15. A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in + your town. + +16. A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year. + +17. A letter describing some play which you have recently attended. + +18. A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in + an examination. + +19. A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time. + +20. A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend. + +21. A letter stating your opinions on some public question; as, + prohibition, woman suffrage, etc. + +22. A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school. + +23. A letter to the X school, inquiring about courses of study given, + prices, etc. + +24. A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some + organization to which you belong. + +25. A formal third person acceptance of such invitation. + +26. A travel letter describing your visit to various places of interest. + +27. A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable + to go with you. + +28. A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it. + +29. A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which + happened at school during his absence. + +30. A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit + he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip. + +31. A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics + of a dog which you have lately bought. + +32. A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place, + your recent visit to the theater, your meeting an old friend, your + work, your new acquaintances. Arrange the topics and make the + transition as smooth as possible. + +33. A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school + of some national holiday. + +34. A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe + the place, occasion, lecturer, address, etc. + +35. A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of + your school. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + +177. By the term WHOLE COMPOSITION or THEME is meant a composition +consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one +general subject, whether the composition be a narration, a description, +or an exposition. + +The following general principles applying to the construction of the +whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced +writer. + +178. STATEMENT OF SUBJECT. Care should be used in the statement of +the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive +than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is +discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some +limited phase of that subject: + +Too broad: _College, Photography, Picnics_. + +Properly limited: _A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, +Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How +Picnics Help the Doctor._ + +179. THE OUTLINE. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine, +if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully made plan is +necessary before entering on the construction; so in the writing +of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline, +which will determine what different things are to be discussed, +and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. By the +inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never be begun +until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as +the material for the composition is in hand, the outline should be +made. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition, +not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only +by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be +gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable proportion +secured in their discussion. + +In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different +subtopics, were discussed: + +Definition of Paragraph. How to Secure Unity. +Length of Paragraph. How to Secure Coherence. +The Topic Sentence. Too Frequent Paragraphing. +Unity in the Paragraph. Paragraphing of Speech. +Coherence in the Paragraph. Paragraphing for Emphasis. +Examples of Unity. Examples showing how Unity is +Purpose of the Paragraph. Destroyed. +Emphasis in the Paragraph. The Paragraph Theme. + +If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a +sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of +topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical +outline. + +THE PARAGRAPH + +1. Its definition and purpose. +2. Its length. + Paragraphing of speech. + Paragraphing for emphasis. + Too frequent paragraphing. +3. Its essential qualities. + A. Unity. + Definition. + Examples showing how unity is destroyed. + How to secure unity. + The topic sentence. + Development of topic sentence. + Examples showing unity. + B. Coherence. + Definition. + How to secure coherence. + Examples showing coherence. + C. Emphasis. + Places of emphasis in the paragraph. +4. Practical construction of the paragraph. +5. The paragraph theme. + +180. USE AND QUALITIES OF THE OUTLINE. The use of the outline is +not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also +necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, +the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in +which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently +be followed with very good reason. + +In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general +description is given, and then followed by a statement of various +details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe +in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and +the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular +description might be made of its details of arrangement and +peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation. + +The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement +and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline +should present a few main topics to which all others either lead +up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all +bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation +may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by +details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long +as it is a logical and natural one. + +The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be +sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, +and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. A too detailed outline +tends to make the composition stiff and formal. + +The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the +subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be +given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main +topics. + +181. THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPOSITION. To choose a method of beginning +a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning +is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary +in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate +to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine +the following methods of beginning. + +THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER + +Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which +the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all +other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about +it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in +all the literature of American self-praise. + +MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS + +Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, +than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go +to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that +dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every +clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed. + +THE USES OF IRON + +No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as +iron. + +The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand +alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference +to the title. + +Bad: + +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL + +There is a rapidly growing belief _that this study_ has too large +a place in our high-school courses of study. + +Good: + +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL + +There is a rapidly growing belief _that Latin_ has too large a place +in our high school courses of study. + +182. UNITY IN THE COMPOSITION. Unity is an essential element of +the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands +here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the +composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. +In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed +which properly belongs to some other division of the topic. + +As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted +and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation +of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's +relation to the subject. + +A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. +If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care +must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at +which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual +changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also +be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently. + +183. COHERENCE IN THE COMPOSITION. A composition must also be coherent. +Its different parts must be closely knit together and the whole +closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, words of +reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words, +or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to +bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts. + +For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite +change of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. +There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the +change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same +time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition +sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the +beginning of a following one, or at both of these places. + +Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or +phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized: + +(Last sentence of first paragraph) + +... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind. + +(Second paragraph) + +_The mischief, however,_ recoiled on the unhappy people of this +country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked purposes +of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its best +blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense +of the war was enormous--much beyond any former experience. + +(Third paragraph) + +_And yet, what has the British nation received in return_ for this +expense.... + +... I was now enabled to see the _extent and aspect of my prison. +In its size_ I had been greatly mistaken.... + +(Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph) + +_The second of the essentials of the paragraph_, coherence, demands +that.... + +Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is +devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe +the following: + +(Paragraph 7) + +... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly +of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile taxes +to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the +enumeration of what has already been done toward building good +roads. + +(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph) + +_There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of +this important result, which are now being seriously discussed._ + +(Paragraph 9) + +_The first of these plans is_ ... + +The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to +indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: +_So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, +An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of +this, By way of exception._ + +Examine the selection under §187. + +184. THE ENDING OF THE COMPOSITION. In a longer composition, the +ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should +it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to the length +of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a story, it +should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference. +In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of +ending depends entirely upon the nature and the scheme of development +of the story. Examine the following endings: + +Ending of a theme on _The Uses of Iron_: + +Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, +have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which it +is constantly put--uses which no other metal could fill. Gold may +once have been called the king of metals, but it has long since +lost its claim to that title. + +Ending of a story: + +John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate. + +"Good-bye," he said. + +And then he was gone, forever. + +Suggested subjects for the making of outlines and compositions. + + 1. How I Spent my Vacation. + 2. Shall Final Examinations be Abolished? + 3. The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools. + 4. My Qualifications for a Position. + 5. The Uses of Iron. + 6. Paul Revere's Ride. + 7. The City Park. + 8. My Town as a Place of Residence. + 9. The Value of Railroads. + 10. Why I Believe in Local Option. + 11. A Winter's Sleigh Ride. + 12. Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted? + 13. My Youthful Business Ventures. + 14. Why I Belong to the X Political Party. + 15. Various Methods of Heating a House. + +185. Below is given in full Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_. It is +perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with especial +reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some of the words +of coherence have been italicized. + +Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this +continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the +proposition that all men are created equal. _Now_ we are engaged +in a great civil war, testing whether _that nation_, or any nation +so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. + +We are met on a great battle-field of _that war_. We have come +to dedicate a portion of _that field_ as the final resting-place +for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. +It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do _this. But_ +in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we +cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who +_struggled here_ have consecrated it far above our power to add +or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what +we say here; but it can never forget what _they did here_. + +It is for us, the living, _rather_, to be dedicated here to the +unfinished work which _they who fought here_ have thus far so nobly +advanced. _It is rather for us_ to be here dedicated to the great +task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take +increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last +full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that _these +dead_ shall not have died in vain; that _this nation_, under God, +shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, +by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. + +186. _Small Economies_, from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_. + +I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small +economies--careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in some +one peculiar direction--any disturbance of which annoys him more +than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. + +An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of +the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was +invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a +long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) +out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the +corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this +little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed +him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his +soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he +could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article +was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, +and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I +see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send +a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines +of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides. + +I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String +is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up +and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously +annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and +faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves +to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, +as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber band +is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new--one that I +picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried +to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the +extravagance. + +Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation +because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people +have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not +seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on +the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out +of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing +it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose +plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which +he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that +this is not waste. + +Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices +to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit +knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in the dark, or +by firelight--and when I asked if I might not ring for candles to +finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's +holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but we only burnt +one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation for a friend +who might come in any evening (but who never did), it required +some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same length, ready +to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The candles +took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or doing, Miss +Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump +up and extinguish it and to light the other before they had become +too uneven in length to be restored to equality in the course of +the evening. + +One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. +I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday," +especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to +stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could +not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight, +according to my usual custom.... + +187. A LIST OF BOOKS FOR READING. These books are of a varied character +and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in their English. +Most of them are books that, as a matter of general education, +should be read by everyone. + +Fiction: + Treasure Island--Stevenson. + Kidnapped--Stevenson. + Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde--Stevenson. + The Scarlet Letter--Hawthorne. + Twice Told Tales--Hawthorne. + The Luck of Roaring Camp--Bret Harte. + Tales of Mystery and Imagination--Poe. + Silas Marner--Eliot. + Robinson Crusoe--Defoe. + Ivanhoe--Scott. + Henry Esmond--Thackeray. + Pilgrim's Progress--Bunyan. + The Spy--Cooper. + The Man without a Country--Hale. + Tales of a Traveller--Irving. + The Legend of Sleepy Hollow--Irving. + Rip Van Winkle--Irving. + Lorna Doone--Blackmore. + Uncle William--Lee. + The Blue Flower--Van Dyke. + +Non-fiction: + Sesame and Lilies--Ruskin. + Stones of Venice--Ruskin. + The American Commonwealth--Bryce. + A History of the English People--Green. + Views Afoot--Taylor. + The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table--Holmes. + Conspiracy of Pontiac--Parkman. + Autobiography--Franklin. + Lincoln--Douglas Debates. + Critical Periods of American History--Fiske. + Certain Delightful English Towns--Howells. + The Declaration of Independence. + Bunker Hill Oration--Webster. + On Conciliation with America--Burke. + The Sketch Book--Irving. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +WORDS.--SPELLING.--PRONUNCIATION + +188. To write and to speak good English, one must have a good working +vocabulary. He must know words and be able to use them correctly; +he must employ only words that are in good use; he must be able +to choose words and phrases that accurately express his meaning; +and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly the words +that he uses. + +WORDS + +189. GOOD USE. The first essential that a word should have, is +that it be in good use. A word is in good use when it is used +grammatically and in its true sense, and is also: + +(1) _Reputable_; in use by good authors and writers in general. +The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient +to make a word reputable; the use must be general. + +(2) _National_; not foreign or local in its use. + +(3) _Present_; used by the writers of one's own time. + +190. OFFENSES AGAINST GOOD USE. The offenses against good use are +usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms, Barbarisms, and +Improprieties. + +191. SOLECISMS are the violations of the principles of grammar. +Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar. + +192. BARBARISMS. The second offense against good use, a barbarism, +is a word not in reputable, present or national use. The following +rules may be given on this subject: + +1. AVOID OBSOLETE WORDS. Obsolete words are words that, once in +good use, have since passed out of general use. This rule might +also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are at present +time passing out of use. Examples of obsolete words: + + methinks yesterwhiles twixt + yclept afeard shoon + +2. AVOID NEWLY COINED EXPRESSIONS OR NEW USES OF OLD EXPRESSIONS. +There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other +hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at +the present time, though many of these words may in time come into +use. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. +Examples: + + an invite an exposé a try + enthuse a combine fake + +A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from +a noun, or a noun from a verb. Examples: + + locomote suicided derailment + pluralized burglarized refereed + +3. AVOID FOREIGN WORDS. A foreign word should not be used until it +has become naturalized by being in general, reputable use. Since +there are almost always English words just as expressive as the +foreign words, the use of the foreign words usually indicates +affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples: + + billet-doux (love letter) conversazione (conversation) + ad nauseam (to disgust) distingué (distinguished) + ad infinitum (infinitely) entre nous (between us) + +4. AVOID PROVINCIALISMS. Provincialisms are expressions current +and well understood in one locality, but not current or differently +understood in another locality. Examples: + + guess (think) reckon (suppose) + near (stingy) smart (clever) + tuckered (tired out) lift (elevator) + tote (carry) ruination (ruin) + +5. AVOID VULGARISMS. Vulgarisms are words whose use shows vulgarity +or ignorance. Such words as the following are always in bad taste: + + chaw nigger your'n + gal flustrated hadn't oughter + haint dern his'n + +6. AVOID SLANG. Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very prevalent +in its use even by educated people. Slang words, it is true, sometimes +come into good repute and usage, but the process is slow. The safest +rule is to avoid slang expressions because of their general bad +taste and because of their weakening effect on one's vocabulary +of good words. Examples of slang: + + grind swipe booze + long green on a toot dough + pinch peach dukes + +7. AVOID CLIPPED OR ABBREVIATED WORDS. The use of such words is +another form of vulgarism. Examples: + + pard (partner) rep (reputation) + doc (doctor) cal'late (calculate) + musee (museum) a comp (complimentary ticket) + +8. AVOID TECHNICAL OR PROFESSIONAL WORDS. Such words are usually +clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. +Examples: + + valence hagiology allonge + kilowatt sclerosis estoppel + +193. WHEN BARBARISMS MAY BE USED. In the foregoing rules barbarisms +have been treated as at all times to be avoided. This is true of +their use in general composition, and in a measure true of their +use in composition of a special nature. But barbarisms may sometimes +be used properly. Obsolete words would be permissible in poetry +or in historical novels, technical words permissible in technical +writing, and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in +dialect stories. + +EXERCISE 76 + +_Substitute for each of the barbarisms in the following list an +expression that is in good use. When in doubt consult a good +dictionary:_ + +Chaw, quoth, fake, reckon, dern, forsooth, his'n, an invite, entre +nous, tote, hadn't oughter, yclept, a combine, ain't, dole, a try, +nouveau riche, puny, grub, twain, a boom, alter ego, a poke, cuss, +eld, enthused, mesalliance, tollable, disremember, locomote, a right +smart ways, chink, afeard, orate, nary a one, yore, pluralized, +distingué, ruination, complected, mayhap, burglarized, mal de mer, +tuckered, grind, near, suicided, callate, cracker-jack, erst, +railroaded, chic, down town, deceased (verb), a rig, swipe, spake, +on a toot, knocker, peradventure, guess, prof, classy, booze, per +se, cute, biz, bug-house, swell, opry, rep, photo, cinch, corker, +in cahoot, pants, fess up, exam, bike, incog, zoo, secondhanded, +getable, outclassed, gents, mucker, galoot, dub, up against it, +on tick, to rattle, in hock, busted on the bum, to watch out, get +left. + +EXERCISE 77 + +_Make a list of such barbarisms as you yourself use, and devise +for them as many good substitute expressions as you can. Practice +using the good expressions that you have made._ + +EXERCISE 78 + +_Correct the italicized barbarisms in the following sentences:_ + + 1. They can go _everywheres_. + 2. He spends all his time _grinding_. + 3. There _ain't_ a _sightlier_ town in the state. + 4. He ate the whole _hunk_ of cake. + 5. He was treated very _illy_. + 6. Smith's new house is very _showy_. + 7. Not _muchly_ will I go. + 8. All were ready for breakfast before _sun-up_. + 9. Do you like _light-complected_ people? + 10. I had never _orated_ before. + 11. Their clothes are always _tasty_ in appearance. + 12. He has money, but he is very _near_. + 13. He left the room _unbeknown_ to his mother. + 14. If manners are any indication, she belongs to the _nouveau riche_. + 15. I feel pretty _tollable_ today. + 16. I _reckon_ all will be able to get seats. + 17. Do you _callate_ to get there before noon? + 18. If I had as much _long green_ as he has, I wouldn't be such a +_tight-wad_. + 19. He was the _beau ideal_ of soldier. + 20. John is a _crazy cuss_. + 21. Let me say _en passant_ we did not ask for the tickets. + 22. Even at that time John had a bad _rep_. + 23. That woman is the Countess of Verdun, _née_ Smith. + 24. _Methinks_ you are wrong. + 25. The teacher _spake_ sharply to her. + 26. I _didn't go for to do_ it. + 27. It will be published _inside of_ two months. + 28. The duke and his wife were travelling _incog_. + 29. I hadn't _thought on_ that. + 30. There is little difference _twixt_ the two. + 31. Come now, _fess up_. + 32. It's a _right smart ways_ to Williamsport. + 33. You _wot_ not what you say. + 34. He bought a _poke_ of apples for his lunch. + 35. Brown runs a pretty _classy_ store. + 36. I finally _got shut_ of him. + 37. I _could of_ jumped across. + 38. That can't be done _nohow_. + 39. You make such _dumb_ mistakes. + 40. I never saw such a _bum_ show. + +194. IMPROPRIETIES. The third offense against good use, an impropriety, +is the use of a proper word in an improper sense. In many cases an +offense against good use may be called a barbarism, an impropriety, +or a solecism, since the fields covered by the three terms somewhat +overlap one another. Many improprieties have their origin in the +similarities in sound, spelling or meaning of words. The following +exercises deal with a number of common improprieties resulting +from the confusion of two similar words. + +EXERCISE 79 + +_Study the proper use of the words given under each of the following +divisions. In each group of sentences fill the blanks with the +proper words:_ + +ACCEPT, EXCEPT. See Glossary at end of book, under _except_. + + 1. I cannot ---- your gift. + 2. Have you no books ---- these? + 3. Cicero was not ---- from the list of those condemned. + 4. He ---- the invitation. + +AFFECT, EFFECT. See Glossary under _effect_. + + 1. Will your plan ---- a reform from the present condition? + 2. The sad news will seriously ---- his mother. + 3. How was the bank ---- by the indictment of its president? + 4. The change of schedule was ---- without a hitch. + +AGGRAVATE, IRRITATE. See Glossary. + + 1. Her manner ---- me. + 2. The crime was ---- by being committed in cold blood. + 3. The children do everything they can to ---- her. + 4. His illness was ---- by lack of proper food. + +ALLUDE, MENTION. See Glossary. + + 1. He ---- (to) certain events which he dared not name directly. + 2. The attorney ---- (to) no names. + 3. That passage in his book delicately ---- (to) his mother. + 4. In his speech the labor leader boldly ---- (to) his recent arrest. + +ARGUE, AUGUR. _To argue_ is to state reasons for one's belief. _To +augur_ means _to foretell, to presage_. + + 1. The reported quarrel ---- ill for the army. + 2. He will ---- at length on any subject. + 3. Her darkening looks ---- a quarrel. + +AVOCATION, VOCATION. A _vocation_ is one's principal work or calling. +_An avocation_ is something aside from or subordinate to that principal +calling. + + 1. The young physician enthusiastically pursues his ----. + 2. Law is his ----, but politics is his ----. + 3. The ministry should be one's ----, never his ----. + 4. While preparing for his life work, school teaching was for a +time his ----. + +BESIDES, BESIDE. _Besides_ means _in addition to. Beside_ refers +to place; as, _He sits beside you_. + + 1. ---- you, who else was there? + 2. Is there nothing ---- this to do? + 3. John walked ---- me. + 4. ---- me was a tree. + +CALCULATE, INTEND. _To calculate_ means _to compute, to adjust_ or +_to adapt. Intend_ means _to have formed the plan to do something_. + + 1. He ---- to sell books this summer. + 2. He ---- that the work will take ten years. + 3. He ---- to finish it as soon as he can. + 4. The oil is ---- to flow at the rate of a gallon a minute. + +CHARACTER, REPUTATION. See Glossary. + + 1. In this community his ---- is excellent. + 2. One's friends may endow him with a good ----, but not with a good ----. + 3. Slander may ruin one's ----, but it will not destroy his ----. + 4. See that your ---- is right, and your ---- will establish itself. + +CLAIM, ASSERT. _To claim_ means to make a demand for what is one's +own. It should not be confused with _assert_. + + 1. I ---- that I am innocent. + 2. John ---- the property as his. + 3. They ---- their right to the land. + 4. The cashier ---- the money in payment of a note. + 5. Do you still ---- that you were born in America? + +COUNCIL, COUNSEL, CONSUL. A _council_ is a group of persons called +in to hold consultation. _Counsel_ means _an adviser_, as a lawyer; +or _advice_ that is given. _Consul_ is an officer of the government. + + 1. In the colonies each governor had his ----. + 2. The advisers gave him ---- when he desired it. + 3. The United States has a ---- in every important foreign port. + 4. In criminal cases the accused must be provided with ----. + 5. The president's cabinet constitutes for him a sort of ----. + 6. In Rome two ---- were elected to manage the affairs of the state. + +EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION. See Glossary. + + 1. Foreign ---- into the United States is greatly restricted. + 2. The ---- of the citizens of the United States to Canada is +becoming a matter of concern. + 3. Our ---- Bureau enforces the Chinese Exclusion Act. + 4. The treatment of the royalists caused a great ---- from France. + +GOOD, WELL. _Good_ is an adjective. _Well_ is usually an adverb, +though sometimes an adjective; as, _Are you well to-day?_ + + 1. She talks very ----. + 2. She prepares a ---- paper, even if she does not write ----. + 3. Do ---- what you are doing. + 4. Did you have a ---- time? + 5. Recite it as ---- as you can. + +HOUSE, HOME. _House_ means only _a building. Home_ means a place +that is one's habitual place of residence. + + 1. He thought often of the flowers about the door of his old ----. + 2. They have recently bought a ---- which they intend to make their ----. + 3. Mr. Heim lives here now, but his ---- is in Lewisburg. + 4. He has several miserable ---- that he rents. + 5. Such a place is not fit to be called a ----. + +MOST, ALMOST. _Almost_ is an adverb meaning _nearly. Most_ never +has this meaning. + + 1. I was ---- injured when the machine broke. + 2. It is ---- time for him to come. + 3. The ---- discouraging thing was his indifference. + 4. I ---- missed the car. + 5. ---- of the books are torn. + +LET, LEAVE. See Glossary, under _leave_. + + 1. Will his employer ---- him go so early. + 2. I shall ---- at noon. + 3. ---- me help you with your coat. + 4. ---- me here for a while. + 5. This book I ---- with you. + 6. Do not ---- that danger disturb you. + +LIKE, AS. _Like_ should not be used as a conjunction in the sense +of _as_. As a preposition it is correct. It is wrong to say, _Do +like I do_; but right to say, _Do as I do_. + + 1. He looks ---- James. + 2. Read ---- James does. + 3. Does she look ---- me? + 4. She thinks of it ---- I thought. + 5. Lincoln could do a thing ---- that. + 6. Other men could not do ---- Lincoln did. + +LIKELY, LIABLE, PROBABLY. It is better to avoid using _likely_ as +an adverb; but it may be used as an adjective; as, _He is likely +to come. Probably_ refers to any sort of possibility. _Liable_ +refers to an unpleasant or unfavorable possibility; it should not +be used as equivalent to _likely_. + + 1. He is ---- to arrest for doing that. + 2. The president's car will ---- arrive at noon. + 3. It is ---- to rain to-day. + 4. Is he ---- to write to us? + 5. Continued exposure makes one more ---- to serious illness. + 6. What will ---- come of it? + +LOAN, LEND. _Loan_ should be used only as a noun, and _lend_ only +as a verb. + + 1. I wish to obtain a ---- of fifty dollars. + 2. Will you ---- me your knife? + 3. A ---- of money loses both itself and friend. + 4. A ---- is something that one ---- to another. + +MAD, ANGRY. Mad means _insane, uncontrollably excited through fear_, +etc. It should not be used for _angry_ or _vexed_. + + 1. His manner of speaking makes me ----. + 2. It makes one ---- to see such behavior. + 3. The noise almost drove me ----. + +MUCH, MANY. _Much_ refers to quantity; _many_ to number. + + 1. Sometimes they have as ---- as fifty in a class. + 2. ---- of the trouble comes from his weak eyes. + 3. Do you use ---- horses on the farm? + 4. How ---- marbles did the boy have? + +NEAR, NEARLY. _Near_ is an adjective; _nearly_ an adverb. + + 1. Is the work ---- finished? + 2. The man was ---- the end of the porch. + 3. It was ---- noon when Blucher came. + 4. They are ---- insane with worry. + 5. Mary is not ---- so old as John. + +OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE. _Observation_ means to _watch, to look at. +Observance_ means _to celebrate, to keep_. _Observation_ applies +to a fact or an object; _observance_ to a festival, a holiday, or +a rule. + + 1. The ---- of the astronomer proved the theory. + 2. Sunday ---- is of value to one's bodily as well as to one's spiritual health. + 3. The ---- of the sanitary regulations was insisted upon. + 4. The scientist needs highly developed powers of ----. + +RESPECTIVELY, RESPECTFULLY. _Respectively_ means _particularly, +relating to each. Respectfully_ means _characterized by high regard._ + + 1. These three kinds of architecture were characterized ---- as +"severe," "graceful," and "ornate." + 2. Sign your letter "Yours ----," not "yours ----." + 3. Their shares were ---- two hundred dollars and five hundred dollars, + 4. The class ---- informed the faculty of their desire. + +SUSPECT, EXPECT. _Suspect_ means _to mistrust. Expect_ means _to +look forward to_. + + 1. I ---- that he will come. + 2. He ---- his brother of hiding his coat. + 3. When do you ---- to finish the work? + 4. The man was never before ---- of having done wrong. + +TEACH, LEARN. See Glossary under _learn_. + + 1. You must ---- him to be careful. + 2. He must ---- to be careful. + 3. To ---- a class to study is a difficult task. + 4. Who ---- your class to-day. + +TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN. _Transpire_ does not mean _to happen_. It means +_to become gradually known, to leak out_. + + 1. She knows everything that ---- in the village. + 2. It ---- that he had secretly sold the farm. + 3. No more important event than this has ---- in the last ten years. + 4. It has now ---- that some money was stolen. + +QUITE, VERY. _Quite_ is not in good use in the sense of _very_ or +_to a great degree_. It properly means _entirely_. + + 1. The book is ---- easy to study. + 2. Have you ---- finished your work. + 3. The train ran ---- slowly for most of the distance. + 4. That is ---- easy to do. + 5. We were ---- unable to reach the city any sooner. + +EXERCISE 80 + +_The following list includes some groups of words that are often +confused. Far the proper meaning of the words refer to a good +dictionary. Write sentences using the words in their proper senses:_ + + practical, skilled sensible, sensitive + couple, two access, accession + future, subsequent allusion, illusion, delusion + folk, family conscience, consciousness + evidence, testimony identity, identification + party, person, firm limit, limitation + plenty, many, enough of majority, plurality + portion, part materialize, appear + solicitation, solicitude invent, discover + human, humane prescribe, proscribe + bound, determined some, somewhat, something + fix, mend mutual, common + foot, pay noted, notorious + creditable, credible wait for, wait on + exceptionable, exceptional in, into + +EXERCISE 81 + +_Show how the use of each of the two italicized words in the following +sentences would affect the meaning of the sentence:_ + + 1. We experienced a _succession series_ of hindrances. + 2. That _statement assertion_ was made by an eye witness. + 3. The student has remarkable _ability capacity_. + 4. In my _estimate estimation_ the cost will be higher than fifty dollars. + 5. The _import importance_ of his words is not fully understood. + 6. The _union unity_ of the clubs is remarkable. + 7. The _acts actions_ of the president were closely watched. + 8. The man needed a new _stimulus stimulant_. + 9. He was _captivated captured_ by her unusual charms. + 10. We are quick to _impute impugn_ motives that we think to exist. + 11. He was _convinced convicted_ by John's argument. + 12. The dog's suffering was _alleviated relieved_ by the medicine. + 13. He _persuaded advised_ me to consult a lawyer. + 14. His behavior was _funny odd_. + 15. The plan seems _practical practicable_. + 16. That is the _latest last_ letter. + 17. That certainly was not a _human humane_ action. + 18. He _waited on waited for_ his mother. + 19. The _completeness completion_ of the work brought many congratulations. + +EXERCISE 82 + +_Supply a word which will remedy the italicized impropriety in each +of the following sentences. When in doubt consult a dictionary:_ + + 1. The _majority_ of the illustrations are good. + 2. No one can accurately _predicate_ what the weather will be. + 3. Shall you _except_ the invitation? + 4. They _claim_ that the assertion cannot be proved. + 5. They finally _located_ the criminal in Dravosburg. + 6. I shall _leave_ you go at noon. + 7. The _balance_ of the essay was uninteresting. + 8. By questions they tried to _eliminate_ the true story. + 9. They _impugn_ false motives to me. + 10. He was greatly _effected_ by the news. + 11. Sabbath _observation_ was then very strict. + 12. They _expect_ that she wrote the letter. + 13. The _invention_ of electricity has revolutionized all manufactures. + 14. Who _learned_ her to sing? + 15. Edison _discovered_ the phonograph. + 16. One cannot comprehend the _enormity_ of a billion of dollars. + 17. Many _complements_ were paid to her beauty. + 18. His _consciousness_ pricked him. + 19. How could any one be guilty of such a cruel _action_. + 20. The _advancement_ of the army was very slow. + +195. IDIOMS. There are in English, as in other languages, a number +of expressions that cannot be justified by the rules of grammar or +rhetoric; and yet these expressions are among the most forcible +ones in the language, and are continually used by the best writers. +These expressions that lie outside all rules we call idioms. Compare +the following idiomatic expressions with the unidiomatic expressions +that succeed them. The second expression in each group is in accord +with the strict rules of composition; but the first, the idiomatic, +is far more forceful. + +Idiomatic: The book which I read about. + +Unidiomatic: The book about which I read. + +Idiomatic: More than one life was lost. + +Unidiomatic: More lives than one life were lost. + +Idiomatic: Speak loud. Speak louder. + +Unidiomatic: Speak loudly. Speak more loudly. + +Idiomatic: A ten-foot pole. + +Unidiomatic: A ten-feet pole. + +Idiomatic: He strove with might and main. + +Unidiomatic: He strove with might. (Might and main are two words +of the same meaning.) + +Idiomatic: He lectured on every other day. + +Unidiomatic: He lectured on one day out of every two. + +Idioms are not to be avoided. On the contrary, because they contribute +great ease and force to composition, their use is to be encouraged. +But the distinction between idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions +is a fine one, and rests solely on usage. Care must be taken not +to go beyond the idiomatic. There is probably little danger that +the ordinary writer or speaker will not use idioms enough. + +The following expressions are examples of commonly used idioms: + +He was standing at the door _in his shirt sleeves_. + +I _don't think_ it will rain (I think it will not rain). + +She walked out of the room _on her father's arm_. + +John was a poor _shot_. + +Do you feel _like a little candy_? + +See what my foolishness has brought me _to_. + +What part of the city will they settle _in_? + +What was the house built _for_? + +John needs a match to light his pipe _with_. + +That is all I ask _for_. + +What are you driving _at_? + +_Hard put to it._ + +_By all odds._ + +_Must needs._ + +I must _get up_ by noon. + +_Get rid of._ + +_Get used to._ + +_Never so good._ + +_Whether or no._ + +I can't go _either_. + +_You forget yourself_ when you speak so harshly. + +I can come only _every other_ day. + +If the bell rings _answer the door_. + +_I take it_ that you will be there too. + +_Come and see_ me. + +_Try and_ do it. + +The thief _took to his heels_. + +196. CHOICE OF WORDS. The words in which a thought is expressed may +not offend against good use, and yet still be objectionable because +they do not accurately and appropriately express the thought. One +should choose not merely a word that will approximately express +the thought, but the one word that best expresses it. The following +suggestions are given to aid in the choice of words: + +1. CHOOSE SIMPLE ENGLISH WORDS and avoid what is called "fine writing." +Young writers and newspaper writers are greatly given to this offense +of fine or bombastic writing. Examples: + +FINE WRITING SIMPLE STYLE +Was launched into eternity Was hanged +Disastrous conflagration Great fire +Called into requisition the services Sent for the doctor + of the family physician +Was accorded an ovation Was applauded +Palatial mansion Comfortable house +Acute auricular perceptions Sharp ears +A disciple of Izaak Walton A fisherman + +2. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GENERAL AND SPECIFIC TERMS. In some cases +general words may be used to advantage, but more often specific +words should be used, since they call to the mind a definite image. +Compare these sentences: + +The _high color_ of his face showed his embarrassment. + +His _crimson_ face showed his embarrassment. + +He was a _large_ man. + +He was a _fat_ man. + +He was a man of _large frame_. + +He was a _tall, heavily proportioned_ man. + +He was a man _six feet four inches tall_ and _heavy_ in proportion. + +It was an _impressive_ building. + +It was a building of _impressive size_. + +It was a building of _impressive beauty_. + +His _fault_ was robbery. + +His _crime_ was robbery. + +3. AVOID OVER-STATEMENT OF FACTS. The use of words that are too +strong is a fault especially characteristic of Americans. Examples: + +Poor: The concert was _simply exquisite_. + +Better: The concert was _very good_. + +Poor: She was _wild_ over the mistake. + +Better: She was _much annoyed_ by the mistake. + +4. AVOID HACKNEYED PHRASES; expressions that have been worked to +death. Examples: + +His paternal acres. + +The infuriated beast. + +The gentle zephyrs of springtime. + +Was gathered to his fathers. + +The blushing bride was led to the hymeneal altar. + +Applauded to the echo. + +EXERCISE 83 + +_For each of the following expressions devise the best simple English +expression that you can:_ + + 1. Individual was precipitated. + 2. Tendered him a banquet. + 3. At the witching hour of midnight. + 4. The devouring element was checked. + 5. Piscatorial sport. + 6. Pedal extremities. + 7. Fraught with tremendous possibilities. + 8. Amid the plaudits of the multitude. + 9. Caudal extremity. + 10. Passed to his long home. + 11. Dissected the Thanksgiving bird. + 12. Presided at the organ. + 13. Finger of scorn pointed at him. + 14. Wended his way. + 15. The green eyed monster. + 16. The whole aggregation of knowledge chasers. + 17. Maternal ancestor. + 18. Shuffled off this mortal coil. + 19. Failed to materialize at the banquet. + 20. Tonsorial artist. + 21. Twirler of the sphere. + 22. Pugilistic encounters. + 23. Performed his matutinal ablutions. + 24. Partook of a magnificent collation. + 25. Solemnized the rites of matrimony. + +EXERCISE 84 + +_In the third paragraph of the selection from Cranford (see §186) +observe the use of the following words: HUMAN, WEAKNESS, HANKS, +TWISTED, ANNOYED, and UNDOING. Study the specific nature of these +words by grouping about each of them other words of somewhat similar +meaning, and then comparing the force of the various words in each +group._ + +_This sort of exercise may be continued by choosing passages from +any careful writer and studying the words that he has used._ + +EXERCISE 85 + +_Substitute for each of the following expressions some expression +that will be less general or less exaggerated:_ + + 1. She is _nice_ looking. + 2. We had a _perfectly gorgeous_ time. + 3. John is a _professional_ man. + 4. The play was _simply exquisite_. + 5. To hear his voice makes me feel _funny_. + 6. The opposing team was _completely annihilated_. + 7. A _noise_ caught our attention. + 8. His manners are _horrid_. + 9. We had a _great_ time. + 10. Such arrogance is _unendurable_. + 11. That is a _good_ book. + +197. HOW TO IMPROVE ONE'S VOCABULARY. The few following suggestions +may be found helpful in the acquiring of a good vocabulary: + +1. CULTIVATE THE DICTIONARY HABIT. Learn the meaning, pronunciation, +and spelling of each new word that you meet. Only when these three +things are grasped about each word, does one really know the word. +Some persons have found it an invaluable aid to carry with them a +small note book or card on which they note down to be looked up +at a convenient time words concerning which they are in doubt. + +2. IN YOUR WRITING AND SPEAKING USE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE THE NEW +WORDS THAT YOU ACQUIRE. + +3. CONSTRUCT GOOD ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS for all the slang, fine writing, +and hackneyed phrases that you meet, and then use the good expressions +instead of the bad ones. + +4. STUDY SYNONYMS; words of similar form and meaning. Only by a +knowledge of synonyms can you express fine shades of meaning. _Crabbe's_ +English Synonyms and _Fernald's_ Synonyms and Antonyms are good +books of reference for this purpose. In addition to these books, +lists of synonyms will be found in many books that are designed +for general reference. + +5. TRY TO GET THE ONE WORD that will best express the idea. + +6. READ GOOD BOOKS and good magazines, and read them carefully. + +7. CULTIVATE THE SOCIETY of those who use good language. + +EXERCISE 86 + +_Look up the meaning of each of the words in the following groups of +synonyms. Construct sentences in which each word is used correctly:_ + + 1. Love, like. + 2. Wit, humor. + 3. Discover, invent. + 4. Observe, watch. + 5. Pride, vanity, conceit. + 6. Proof, evidence, testimony. + 7. Balance, rest, remainder. + 8. Word, term, expression. + 9. Bring, fetch, carry. + 10. Abandon, desert, forsake. + 11. Propose, purpose, intend. + 12. Healthful, healthy, wholesome. + 13. Student, pupil, scholar. + 14. Capacity, power, ability. + 15. Blame, censure, criticism. + 16. Accede, agree, yield, acquiesce. + 17. Trickery, cunning, chicane, fraud. + 18. Instruction, education, training, tuition. + 19. Hardship, obstacle, hindrance, difficulty. + 20. Maxim, precept, rule, law + 21. Multitude, crowd, throng, swarm. + 22. Delight, happiness, pleasure, joy. + 23. Work, labor, toil, drudgery, task. + 24. Silent, mute, dumb, speechless. + 25. Kill, murder, assassinate, slay. + 26. Hatred, enmity, dislike, ill-will. + 27. Example, pattern, sample, model. + 28. Obvious, plain, clear, apparent. + 29. Noted, eminent, famous, prominent, notorious. + 30. Old, aged, antique, ancient, antiquated, obsolete. + +SPELLING + +198. The following is a list of words that are frequently misspelled +or confused. Where possible, an effort has been made to arrange +them in groups in order that they may be more easily remembered. +The word with an added ending has been used in most cases in place +of the bare word itself as, _occasional_ instead of _occasion_. +A few rules have been included. + + accede descend pressure + accident fascinate misspelled + accommodate mischievous possession + accordance miscellaneous + accuracy muscle recollection + succeed susceptible dispelled + occasional miscellaneous + occur existence monosyllable + experience intellectual + across sentence parallel + amount embellishment + apart foregoing wholly + arouse forehead woolly + village + already forty villain + all right foreign till + forfeit + amateur formally perpetual + grandeur formerly persuade + perspiration + appal fulfill + apparatus willful police + appetite policies + approximate guardian + opportunity guessing presence + opposite precede + disappoint imminent preceptor + disappearance immediately + accommodation fiend + choose commission siege + chosen grammar friend + inflammation yielding + boundary recommend + elementary summary seize + symmetrical receive + final committee receipt + finally + usual ledger succeed + usually legible proceed + + ascend assassin recede + ascent dissimilar secede + discerning essential accede + discipline messenger intercede + discontent concede + discreet necessary supersede + descent necessity + passport + +199. Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, +if monosyllables, or if the last syllable is accented, double the +final consonant before the ending _-ed_ and _-ing_, but not before +_-ence_; as, + + rob, rob_bed_, rob_bing_, rob_bers_. + confer, confer_red_, confer_ring_, confer_ence_. + transmit, transmit_ted_, transmit_ting_, transmi_ssion_. + impel, impel_led_, impel_ling_, imp_ulsion_. + +Similar to the above are. + +defer, infer, prefer, refer, transfer, occur (occurrence), abhor +(abhorrence), omit, remit, permit, commit, beset, impel, compel, +repel, excel (excellence), mob, sob, rub, skid. + +If these words are not accented on the last syllable, the consonant +is not doubled; as, + +benefit, benefit_ed_, benefit_ing_, benefi_cial_. + +Similar are: + +differ, summon, model. + +200. Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before a suffix beginning +with a vowel; as, + + arrive, arriv_ing_, arriv_ed_, arriv_al_. + precede, preced_ed_, preced_ing_, preced_ence_. + receive, receiv_ed_, receiv_ing_. + +Similar are: + +move, write, blame, tame, come, receive, believe, relieve, grieve, +deceive, conceive, perceive, seize, precede, concede, supersede, +recede, argue, rue, construe, woe, pursue. + +201. Words ending in _-ge, -ce_, or _-se_, retain the _e_ before +endings: as, + +arrange, arrangement; arrange, arranging. + +Similar are: + +gauge, manage, balance, finance, peace, service, amuse, use. + +202. Words in _-dge_ do not retain the _e_ before endings; as, +acknowledge, acknowledg_ment_, acknowledg_ed_, acknowledg_ing_. + +Similar are: + +nudge, judge. + +203. Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ +to _i_ before all endings except-_ing_: + +busy, bus_iness_, bus_ied_, busy_ing_. + +Similar are: + +duty, mercy, penny, pity, vary, weary, study. + +204. WORDS OF SIMILAR SOUND: + +canvas (cloth) principle (rule) +canvass (all meanings except _cloth_) principal (chief) +capitol (a building) stationary (immovable) +capital (all meanings except _building_) stationery (articles) +counsel (advice or an adviser) miner (a workman) +council (a body of persons) minor (under age) +complement (a completing element) angel (a spiritual being) +compliment (praise) angle (geometrical) + +205. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS: + +annual laundry schedule +awkward leisure separate +beneficial lenient Spaniard +decimal license speak +exhilarate mechanical specimen +familiarize mediæval speech +fiber medicine spherical +fibrous militia subtle +genuine motor surely +gluey negotiate technical +height origin tenement +hideous pacified their +hundredths phalanx therefore +hysterical physique thinnest +icicle privilege until +irremediable prodigies vengeance +laboratory rarefy visible +laid rinse wherein +larynx saucer yielding + +PRONUNCIATION + +206. The following list is made up of words that are frequently +mispronounced. An effort has been made to arrange them in groups +according to the most frequent source of error in their pronunciation. + +The only marks regularly used are the signs for the long and short +sounds of the vowel. + + a as in _hate_ i as in _high_ u as in _use_ + a as in _hat_ i as in _hit_ u as in _run_ + + e as in _me_ o as in _old_ oo as in _boot_ + e as in _met_ o as in _hop_ oo as in _foot_ + +When sounds are not otherwise indicated take the sound that comes +most naturally to the tongue. + +207. a AS IN _HATE_: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + alma mater _alma mater_ + apparatus _apparatus_ + apricot _apricot_ + attaché _attasha'_ + audacious _audashus_ + ballet _bal'la_ + blasé _blaza'_ + blatant _blatant_ + chasten _chasen_ + Cleopatra _Cleopatra_ + compatriot _compatriot_ + gratis _gratis_ or _grahtis_ + harem _harem_ or _hahrem_ + heinous _hanous_ + hiatus _hiatus_ + implacable _implakable_ + nape _nap_ + née _na_ + négligé _naglezha'_ + patron _patron_ + protégé _protazha'_ + résumé _razuma'_ + tenacious _tenashus_ + tomato _tomato_ or _tomahto_ + valet _va'la_ or _val'et_ + vase _vas, vahz_, or _vaz_ + veracious _verashus_ + vivacious _vivashus_ + +208. a AS IN _HAT_: + + alternative _alternative_ + Arab _Ar'ab_, not _arab_ + arid _ar'id_ + asphalt _asfalt_, not _fawlt_ + bade _bad_ + catch not _ketch_ + defalcate _defal'kate_, not _fawl_ + dilletante _dilletan'te_ + forbade _forbad_ + granary _granary_ + program _pro'gram_, not _grum_ + rapine _rap'in_ + rational _rational_ + sacrament _sacrament_ + +209. Ä AS IN _ARM_: + + aunt _änt_ + behalf _behäf_ + calf _käf_ + calm _käm_ + half _häf_ + laugh _läf_ + psalm _säm_ + +210. e AS IN _ME_: + + amenable _amenable_ + clique _klek_, not _klick_ + creek _krek_, not _krick_ + either _eether_ (preferable) + mediocre _mediocre_ + naïve _na'eve_ (_a_ as in _arm_) + neither _neether_ (preferable) + precedence _prece'dence_ + precedent _prece'dent_ (when an adjective) + predecessor _predecessor_ + predilection _predilection_ + premature _premature_ + quay _ke_ + resplendent _resplen'dent_ + sacrilegious _sacrilegious_, not -_religious_ + series _serez_ + sleek _slek_, not _slick_ + suite _swet_, not like _boot_ + +211. e AS IN _MET_: + + again _agen_ + against _agenst_ + crematory _krem'atory_ + deaf _def_, not _def_ + heroine _heroin_, not like _hero_ + measure _mezhure_, not _ma_ + metric _metrik_ + precedent _prec'edent_ (noun) + prelate _prel'at_ + presentation _prezentation_ + sesame _ses'ame_ + steady _stedy_, not _stiddy_ + tenet _ten'et_ + weapon _wepon_, not _wepon_ + +212. i AS IN _HIGH_: + + appendicitis _appendicitis_ + biennial _biennial_ + biography _biography_ + bronchitis _bronkitis_ + carbine _carbine_ + decisive _decisive_ + demise _demise_ + dynasty _di'nasty_ + finis _finis_ + grimy _grimy_ + hiatus _hia'tus_ + inquiry _inqui'ry_ + long-lived _long-livd_ + peritonitis _peritonitis_ + privacy _privacy_ + short-lived _short-livd_ + simultaneous _simultaneous_ + tiny _tiny_, not _teny_ + +213. i AS IN _HIT_: + + bicycle _bi'sicle_ + breeches _briches_ + breeching _briching_ + feminine _feminin_ + genuine _genuin_ + hypocrisy _hipok'risy_ + italic _ital'ik_ + Italian _italyan_ + maritime _maritim_ + pretty _pritty_ + puerile _pu'eril_ + respite _res'pit_ + tribune _trib'un_ + +214. o AS IN _OLD_: + + Adonis _Adonis_ + apropos _apropo_ + bowsprit _bowsprit_ + brooch _broch_ not _broosh_ + compromise _compromize_ + jowl _jol_, not like _owl_ + molecular _molecular_ + ogle _ogle_ + trow _tro_ + vocable _vocable_ + zoology _zoology_, not _zoo_ + +215. o AS IN _HOP_: + + choler _koler_ + dolorous _dolorous_ + florid _florid_ + molecule _molecule_ + obelisk _obelisk_ + probity _probity_ + solecism _solesism_ + solstice _solstice_ + stolid _stolid_ + +216. oo AS IN _BOOT_: + + bouquet _booka'_ + canteloupe _can'taloop_ + coup d'état _koo data'_ + coupon _koo'pon_ + ghoul _gool_ + hoof _hoof_ + roof _roof_ + root _root_ + route _root_ + routine _rootine_ + wound _woond_ + +217. u AS IN _USE_: + + accurate _ak'kurat_ + culinary _kulinary_ + gubernatorial _gubernatorial_ + jugular _jugular_ + +218. u AS IN _US_: + + constable _kunstable_ + courtesan _kur'tezan_ + hover _huver_ + iron _iurn_ + monetary _munetary_ + nothing _nuthing_ + wont _wunt_ (different from _won't_) + +219. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS. + + adobe _ado'ba_ + algebra not _bra_ + alien _alyen_, not _alien_ + ameliorate _amelyorate_ + antarctic _antarktik_ + anti not _anti_ + archangel _arkangel_ + archbishop _arch_, not _ark_ + arch fiend _arch_, not _ark_ + architect _arkitect_ + awkward _awkward_, not _ard_ + Beethoven _batoven_ + Bingen _Bing'en_ + blackguard _blag'gard_ + Bowdoin _bodn_ + brougham _broom_ + business _bizness_ + caldron _kawldron_ + calk _kawk_ + Cayenne _kien'_ + courtier _kortyer_ + cuckoo _kookoo_ + dilemma _dilem'ma_ + directly not _directly_ + dishevelled _dishev'ld_ + Don Juan _Don Juan_ or _hooan_ + drought _drowt_ + drouth _drowth_ + extempore _extempore_ (four syllables) + familiarity _familyarity_ + gaol _jal_ + genealogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ + gemus _genyus_ + Gloucester _gloster_ + gooseberry _gooz_, not _goos_ + Hawaiian _Hawi'yan_ (_a_ as in _arm_) + Helena _hel'ena_ (except _St. Hele'na_) + inconvenience _inconvenyence_ + Israel _izrael_, not _issrael_ + jeans _janes_ + joust _just_ or _joost_ + larynx _lar'inx'_ or _la'rinx_, not _larnix_ + literature _literature_, or _choor_ + Messrs. _meshyerz_ or _mesyerz_ + Mineralogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ + nature _nature_, or _choor_ + oleomargarine _g_ is hard, as in _get_ + orchid _orkid_ + oust _owst_, not _oost_ + peculiar _peculyar_ + pecuniary _pekun'yari_ + perspiration not _prespiratian_ + prestige _pres'tij_ or _prestezh'_ + pronunciation _pronunzeashun_ or _pronunsheashun_ + saucy not _sassy_ + schedule _skedyul_ + semi not _semi_ + theater _the'ater_ not _thea'ter_ + turgid _turjid_ + usage _uzage_ + usurp _uzurp_ + vermilion _vermilyun_ + wife's not _wives_ + Xerxes _zerxes_ + +220. WORDS WITH A SILENT LETTER: + + almond _ahmund_ + chasten _chasen_ + chestnut _chesnut_ + glisten _glissen_ + kiln _kill_ + often _ofen_ + ostler _osler_ + poignant _poin'ant_ + psalter _sawlter_ + salmon _samun_ + schism _sism_ + soften _sofen_ + subtle _sutle_ + sword _sord_ + thyme _time_ + toward _tord_ + +221. WORKS CHIEFLY OF FOREIGN PRONUNCIATION: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + bivouac _biv'wak_ + chargé d'affaires _shar zha'daffar'_ + connoisseur _connissur_ + dishabille _dis'abil_ + ennui _onwe_, not _ongwe_ + finale _finah'le_ + foyer _fwaya'_ + massage _masahzh_ + naïve _nah'ev_ + papier maché _papya mahsha_ + piquant _pe'kant_ + prima facie _prima fa'shie_ + pro tempore _pro tem'pore_ + régime _razhem'_ + +222. WORDS OFTEN PRONOUNCED WITH A WRONG NUMBER OF SYLLABLES: + + aerial _aereal_, not _areal_ + athlete two sylables, not _ath e lete_ + attacked _attakt_, two syllables + casualty _kazh'ualte_, not _ality_ + conduit _condit_ or _kundit_, not _dooit_ + different three syllables, not _diffrunt_ + elm not _ellum_ + helm not _hel um_ + history three syllables, not _histry_ + honorable not _honrable_ + hygienic _hy gi en' ic_, four syllables + interest not _intrust_ + interesting not _intrusting_ + ivory not _ivry_ + omelet not _omlet_ + realm not _rellum_ + separable not _seprable_ + ticklish two syllables, not _tickelish_ + valuable _valuable_, not _valuble_ + vaudeville _vodvil_ + Zeus _zus_, not _zeus_ + +223. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE FIRST SYLLABLE: + + admirable _ad'mirable_ + alias _a'lias_ + applicable _ap'plicable_ + bicycle _bi'sikle_ + chastisement _chas'tisement_ + construe _con'strue_ + despicable _des'picable_ + desultory _des'ultory_ + disputant _dis'putant_ + exigency _ex'ijency_ + explicable _ex'plicable_ + exquisite _ex'quisite_ + extant _ex'tant_ + formidable _for'midable_ + Genoa _jen'oa_ + gondola _gon'dola_ + harass _har'ass_ + hospitable _hos'pitable_ + impious _im'pious_, not _imp?ous_ + industry _in'dustry_ + inventory _in'ventory_ + lamentable _lam'entable_ + mischievous _mis'chievous_ + obligatory _ob'ligatory_ + pariah _pa'riah_ + peremptory _per'emptory_ + preferable _pref'erable_ + Romola _Rom'ola_ + vehemence _ve'hemence_ + +224. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE SECOND SYLLABLE: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + abdomen _abdo'men_ + acclimate _accli'mate_ + acumen _acu'men_ + albumen _albu'men_ + artificer _artif'iser_ + bitumen _bitu'men_ + chicanery _shika'nery_ + illustrate _illus'trate_ + incognito _inkog'nito_ + incomparable _incom'parable_ + indisputable _indis'putable_ + inexorable _inex'orable_ + inexplicable _inex'plicable_ + inhospitable _inhos'pitable_ + inquiry _inqui'ry_ + irrevocable _irrev'ocable_ + misconstrue _miscon'strue_ + nitrogenous _nitroj'enous_ + opponent _oppo'nent_ + pianist _pian'ist_ + refutable _refut'able_ + syllabic _syllab'ic_ + telegraphy _teleg'raphy_ + vagary _vaga'ry_ + Yosemite _yo swm' i te_ + +225. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE LAST SYLLABLE: + + address _address'_ + adept _adept'_ + adult _adult'_ + ally _ally'_ + commandant _commandänt' (ä as in arm)_ + contour _contour'_ + dessert _dessert'_ + dilate _dilate'_ + excise _eksiz'_ + finance _finance'_ + grimace _grimace'_ + importune _importune'_ + occult _occult'_ + pretence _pretence'_ + research _research'_ + robust _robust'_ + romance _romance'_ + tirade _tirade'_ + +226. WORDS WHOSE PRONUNCIATION DEPENDS ON MEANING: + + accent _Accent'_ the first syllable. + Place the _ac'cent_ upon the first syllable. + + aged An _a'ged_ man. + Properly _aged_ wine (one syllable). + + blessed The _bless'ed_ saints. + Let them be _blessed_ (one syllable). + + contrast The strange _con'trast_. + _Contrast'_ the two. + + converse Did you _converse'_ with him? + Is the _con'verse_ true? + + desert The sandy _des'ert_. + They _desert'_ their friends. + + learned He _learned_ (one syllable) to sing. + A _learn ed_ man. + + precedent A _prece'dent_ place. + It establishes a _prec'edent_. + + project A new _proj'ect_. + To _project'_ from. + + + + +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS + +ADMIRE. Do not use _admire_ in the sense of _like_. + +Wrong: I should _admire_ to be able to do that. + +Right: I should _like_ to be able to do that. + +AGGRAVATE. Do not use _aggravate_ in the sense of _irritate_ or +_disturb_. _Aggravate_ means _to make worse_. + +Wrong: His impudence _aggravates_ me. + +Right: His impudence _irritates_ me. + +AIN'T. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are never proper as contractions of +_am not, is not_, or _are not_. + +ALLOW. Do not use _allow_ in the sense of _assert, say_, or _intend_. + +Wrong: He _allowed_ that he had better start. I _allow_ to be back +before noon. + +Right: He _said_ that he had better start. I _intend_ to be back +before noon. + +ALLUDE. Do not use _allude_ in the sense of _refer_. To _allude_ +to a thing means to refer to it in an indirect way. + +Wrong: He _alluded_ by name to John Milton. + +Right: He _alluded_ to Milton by the term "Blind Poet." + +ANY. Do not use _any_ in the sense of _at all_ or _to any degree_. + +Wrong: Because of the injury he can not see _any_. + +AS. Do not use _as_ for the relative pronouns _who_ and _that_. + +Wrong: I am the man _as_ digs your garden. Not _as_ I remember. + +Right: I am the man _who_ digs your garden. Not _that_ I remember. + +AS. Do not use _as_ in the sense of _since_ or _because_. + +Wrong: I cannot come _as_ I am sick now. + +Right: I cannot come; I am sick now. + +Right: I cannot come _because_ I am sick now. + +AT. Do not use _at_ for _in_ with the names of large cities + +Wrong: He lives _at_ Philadelphia. + +Right: He lives _in_ Philadelphia. + +ATTACKTED. Do not use this form for _attacked_. + +AWFUL, AWFULLY. These are two very much overworked words. Substitute +other and more accurate expressions. + +Wrong: We have had an _awfully_ good time. That is an _awfully_ +pretty dress. + +Right: We have had an _exceedingly_ nice time. That is a _very_ +pretty dress. + +BADLY. Do not use _badly_ in the sense of _very much_. + +Wrong: She wanted _badly_ to come. + +Right: She wanted _very much_ to come. + +BESIDE, BESIDES. _Beside_ means _next to. Besides_ means _in addition +to_. + +Right: John lives _beside_ his mother. + +Right: _Besides_ the daughters, there are three sons. + +BETWEEN. Do not use _between_ when referring to more than two objects. + +Wrong: There is bad feeling _between_ the members of the class. + +Right: There is bad feeling _among_ the members of the class. + +BLOWED. Do not use _blowed_ for _blew_ or _blown_. There is no such +word. + +BEST. Do not use _best_ when only two objects are referred to. +Use _better_. _Best_ should be used only when more than two are +referred to. + +Wrong: He is the _best_ of the two brothers. + +Right: He is the _better_ of the two brothers. + +Right: He is the _best_ of the three brothers. + +BOUND. Do not use _bound_ for _determined_. + +Wrong: He was _bound_ to go skating. + +Right: He was _determined_ to go skating. + +Right: He _bound_ himself to pay three hundred dollars. + +BUT. Do not use _but_ after a negative in the sense of _only_. See +§46. + +Wrong: There _isn't but_ one apple left. + +Right: There _is but_ one apple left. + +CALCULATE. Do not use _calculate_ in the sense of _think, expect_, +or _intend_. + +CAN. Do not use _can_ to denote permission. It denotes ability or +possibility. _May_ denotes permission. See §69 + +Wrong: _Can_ I speak to you for a minute? + +Right: _May_ I speak to you for a moment? + +CHARACTER, REPUTATION. Do not confuse these two words. _Character_ +means one's moral condition. _Reputation_ means the morality that +others believe one to possess. + +CLUM. There is no such form of the verb _climb_. + +COMPLECTED. Do not use _complected_ for _complexioned_. See §40. + +CONCLUDE. Do not use conclude in the sense of _forming an intention._ + +Right: Finally, I _decided_ to go home. + +Right: I was forced to _conclude_ that I had made an error. + +CONSIDERABLE. Do not use _considerable_ in the sense of _very much_. + +Wrong: This lesson is _considerable_ better than yesterday's. + +CUTE. A much overworked word. Use some expression that is more accurate; +as, _pretty, amusing_, etc. + +DECEASE, DISEASE. Do not confuse _decease_ and _disease_. The first +means _death_, the second _sickness_. _The deceased_ means a person +who is dead. + +Wrong: The _diseased_ will be buried at four o'clock. + +Wrong: The property of the _diseased_ will be sold at auction. + +DECEASE. Do not use _decease_ as a verb in the sense of _die_. + +Wrong: His father _deceased_ last year. + +DEMAND. _Demand_ should not have a person as its object. + +Wrong: He _demanded_ John to pay. + +Right: He _demanded_ payment from John. He _demanded_ that John +pay. + +DIFFERENT. Use the preposition _from_ after _different_, not _than_. + +DON'T. Do not use _don't_ with a subject in the third person singular. +See §64. + +DOWN. Do not use _down_ as a verb in the sense of _defeat_ or +_overthrow_. + +Wrong: Our football team _has downed_ every other team in the state. + +Right: Our football team _has defeated_ every other team in the +state. + +DROWNDED. _Drownded_ is not a proper form of the verb _drown_. Say +_drowned_. (Pronounced _drownd._) + +EACH OTHER. Do not use _each other_ to refer to more than two objects. +See §44. + +Wrong: The members of the regiment helped _each other_. + +Right: The members of the regiment helped _one another_. + +EFFECT, AFFECT. Do not confuse _effect_ and _affect. Effect_ means +_a result_, or _to cause a thing to be done. Affect_ means _to +disturb_ or _have an influence on_. + +Wrong: The news _effected_ him seriously. + +Right: The news _affected_ him seriously. + +Wrong: The _affect_ of this news was to cause war. + +Right: The _effect_ of this news was to cause war. + +EITHER. Do not use _either_ with reference to more than two objects, +nor follow it by a plural verb. See §43. + +Wrong: _Either_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _have_ +done it. + +Right: _Any one_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _has_ +done it. + +EMIGRATE, IMMIGRATE. Do not confuse _emigrate_ and _immigrate_. +_To emigrate_ means _to go out of a place_, to _immigrate_ means +_to come into a place_. + +Right: The Italians _emigrate_ from their country. + +Right: Of those who _immigrate_ to America, a large number are Italians. + +ENOUGH. Do not follow _enough_ by a clause beginning with _that_ +or _so that_. + +Wrong: I studied _enough_ that I could recite the lesson. + +Right: I studied _enough to_ recite the lesson. + +ENTHUSE. Do not use _enthuse_ in the sense of to create enthusiasm. + +Wrong: He tried to _enthuse_ his audience. + +Right: He tried to _arouse_ enthusiasm in his audience. + +ETC. _Etc._ stands for _et cetera_, and means _and so forth_. Do +not spell it _ect_. Do not use it in composition that is intended +to be elegant. + +EVERYBODY. _Everybody_ should not be followed by a plural verb or +a plural pronoun. See §21. + +EXCEPT, ACCEPT. Do not confuse these two words. _Accept_ means _to +acknowledge_. _Except_ means _to exclude_. + +Right: I cannot _accept_ such slovenly work. + +Wrong: I _except_ your apology. + +EXCEPT. Do not use _except_ for _unless_. See §85. + +Wrong: I can not sleep _except_ it is quiet. + +EXPECT. Do not use _expect_ in the sense of _suppose_ or _think_. + +Wrong: I _expect_ you have read that book. + +Right: I _suppose_ you have read that book. + +FINE. Do not use _fine_ in place of some more definite word. _Fine_ +is a much over-worked word. + +Wrong: The book is _fine_ for class-room work. + +Right: The book is _well adapted_ for class-room work. + +FIRSTLY. _Firstly_ should never be used. Say _first_. See §40. + +FIRST-RATE. Do not use _first-rate_ as an adverb in the sense of +_very well_. + +Wrong: That does _first-rate_. + +Right: That does _very well_. + +Right: He is a _first-rate fellow_. + +FORMER. Do not use _former_ when more than two are referred to. +Say _first_. See §41. + +FROM. Do not use _from_ with _whence, hence_ and _thence_. + +Wrong: _From whence_ have you come? + +Right: _Whence_ have you come? _From where_ have you come? + +FUNNY. Do not use _funny_ for _singular_ or _strange_. _Funny_ is +an overworked word. + +Wrong: It is _funny_ that he died. + +Right: It is _singular_ that he died. + +GENT. Do not use the word at all. Say _gentleman_ or _man_. + +GENTLEMAN. Do not use _gentleman_ to denote sex only. Say _man_. +_Gentleman_ is properly used, however, to denote a person of refinement. + +Wrong: Only _gentlemen_ are allowed to vote in Pennsylvania. + +Right: Mr. Lincoln was a _gentleman_ in the true sense of the word. + +GOT. Do not use got with _have_ or _had_ to indicate merely _possession_ +or _obligation. Got_ means acquired through effort. + +Wrong: I _have got_ the measles. You _have got_ to do it. + +Right: I _have_ the measles. You _must_ do it. + +Right: After much study I _have got_ my lesson. + +GRAND. Do not use _grand_ in place of some more definite and accurate +expression. It is another over-worked word. + +Wrong: We have had a _grand time_ this afternoon. + +Right: We have had a _very pleasant_ time this afternoon. + +GUESS. Do not use _guess_ in the sense of _think_ or _suppose_. + +Wrong: I _guess_ the trains are late to-day. + +Right: I _suppose_ the trains are late to-day. + +Right: Can you _guess_ the riddle? + +HAD OUGHT. Do not use _had_ with _ought_. See §54. + +HARDLY. Do not use _hardly_ after a negative. See §46. + +Wrong: I _can not hardly_ believe that. + +Right: I _can hardly_ believe that. + +HAVE. Do not use _have_ after _had_. + +Wrong: If I _had have been_ able to go. + +Right: If I _had been_ able to go. + +HEIGHTH. Do not use _heighth_ for _height_. + +HUNG. Do not confuse _hung_ and _hanged_. _Hanged_ is the proper +word to use in reference to executions. + +Wrong: He was condemned _to be hung_. + +Right: He was condemned _to be hanged_. + +Right: The picture was _hung_ in the parlor. + +HUMBUG. Do not use _humbug_ as a verb. + +Wrong: He has _humbugged_ the people for years. + +ILLY. Do not use _illy_ for the adverb _ill_. See §40. + +IN, INTO. Do not confuse _in_ and _into_. + +Wrong: He went _in_ the house. + +Right: He went _into_ the house. + +Right: He exercised _in_ a gymnasium. + +KIND. Do not precede kind by _those_ or _these_. + +Wrong: I do not like _those kind_ of plays. + +Right: I do not like _that kind_ of play. + +KIND OF A. Do not use _a_ or _an_ after _kind of_. See §47. + +Wrong: It is _one kind of_ a mistake. + +Right: It is _one kind of_ mistake. + +LADY. Do not use _lady_ to designate sex only. It is properly used +to indicate persons of refinement. + +Wrong: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _lady_? + +Right: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _woman_? + +Right: Mrs. Johnson is a colored _woman_, and _a lady_. + +LATTER. Do not use _latter_ to refer to more than two objects. Use +_last_. See §41. + +LAY. Do not confuse _lay_ and _lie_. See §57. + +LEARN. Do not confuse _learn_ and _teach_. _Learn_ means _to acquire +knowledge. Teach_ means _to impart knowledge_. + +Wrong: He can _learn_ you as much as any one can. + +Right: He can _teach_ you as much as any one can. + +LEAVE. Do not confuse _leave_ and _let_. Leave means _to let remain_. +Let means _to give permission_. + +Wrong: Will your mother _leave_ you go? + +Right: Will your mother _let_ you go? + +Right: I shall _leave_ my trunk in my room. + +LIABLE. Do not use _liable_ for _likely_. + +Wrong: It is _liable_ to rain to-day. + +Right: It is _likely_ to rain to-day. + +Right: He is _liable_ for all that he has agreed to pay. + +LIGHTNING. Do not use _lightning_ as a verb in place of _lightens_. + +Wrong: During the storm, it _lightnings_ frequently. + +Right: During the storm, it _lightens_ frequently. + +LIKE. Do not use _like_ for _as_. _Like_ is a preposition. _As_ +is a conjunction. + +Wrong: He doesn't talk _like_ he did yesterday. + +Right: He doesn't talk _as_ he did yesterday. + +Right: It looks _like_ a mahogany chair. + +LIT ON. Do not use _lit on_ in the sense of _met with_ or _discovered_. + +Wrong: I at last _lit on_ this plan. + +LOT. Do not use _lot_ in the sense of _a great number_ or _a great +deal_. + +Wrong: A _lot_ of people were there, She talks _a lot_. + +MOST. Do not use _most_ for _almost_. + +Wrong: I have _most_ completed the book. + +Right: I have _almost_ completed the book. + +Right: He has done _the most_ of the work. + +MRS. Do not use _Mrs._ before titles; as, _Mrs. President, Mrs. +Professor, Mrs. Doctor_. + +MUCH. Do not use _much_ for _many_. _Much_ refers to quantity. _Many_ +refers to number. + +Wrong: As _much as_ five hundred people were present. + +Right: As _many as_ five hundred people were present. + +MUTUAL. Do not confuse _mutual_ and _common_. _Mutual_ means +_interchanged_. + +Wrong: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for Mary. + +Right: John and William had a _common_ liking for Mary. + +Right: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for each other. + +NEAR. Do not use _near_ for _nearly_. + +Wrong: He ran _near_ all the way to the station. I came _nearly_ +making the same mistake. + +Right: He ran _nearly_ all the way to the station. I came _near_ +making the same mistake. + +NERVE. Do not use _nerve_ in the sense of _impudence_. + +NEWSY. Do not use _newsy_ in the sense of _full of news_. + +NEITHER. Do not use _neither_ with reference to more than two objects, +nor follow it by a plural verb. + +Wrong: _Neither_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _are_ +here. + +Right: _No one_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _is_ +here. + +NO GOOD. Do not use _no good_ in the sense of _worthless_ or _not +good_. + +Wrong: The book is _no good_. + +NO PLACE. Do not use _no place_ after a negative. See §46. + +Wrong: I am not going _no place_. + +Right: I am not going _anywhere_. I _am going nowhere_. + +NOTORIOUS. Do not use _notorious_ in the sense of _famous_ or _noted. +Notorious_ means of _evil reputation_. + +Wrong: Gladstone was a _notorious_ statesman of England. + +Right: Several _notorious thieves_ were arrested. + +NOWHERE NEAR. Do not use _nowhere near_ for _not nearly_. See §40. + +Wrong: _Nowhere near_ so many people came as were expected. + +Right: _Not nearly_ so many people came as were expected. + +Right: James was _nowhere near_ the scene of the fire. + +OF. Do not use _of_ for _have_ in such expressions as _could, have, +might have, should have_, etc. + +Wrong: If I _could of_ been there. + +Right: If I _could have_ been there. + +ONLY. Guard against the improper use of _only_ after a negative. +See §46. + +Wrong: There _are not only_ four books on that subject. + +Right: There _are only_ four books on that subject. + +OUTSIDE OF. Do not use _outside of_ for _aside from_. + +Wrong: _Outside of_ James, all had a good time. + +Right: _Aside from_ James, all had a good time. + +OVER WITH. Do not use _over with_ for _over_. + +Wrong: I must write the letter and have it _over with_. + +PANTS. Do not use the word _pants_ for _trousers_. + +PHOTO. Do not use _photo_ for _photograph_. + +PIECE. Do not use _piece_ in the sense of _way_ or _distance_. + +Wrong: I shall walk a _little piece_ with you. + +Right: I shall walk a _little way_ with you. + +PLACE. Do not use _place_ after _any, every, no_, etc., in the sense +of _anywhere, everywhere, nowhere_, etc. + +Wrong: I can not find it _any place_. + +Right: I can not find it _anywhere_. + +PLENTY. Do not use _plenty_ as an adjective or an adverb. + +Wrong: Money is _plenty_. He is _plenty able_ to do it. + +Right: Money is _plentiful_. He is _quite able_ to do it. + +POORLY. Do not use _poorly_ for _ill_ or _bad_. + +Wrong: He feels very _poorly_. + +PRINCIPLE, PRINCIPAL. Do not confuse _principle_ and _principal_. +_Principle_ means a _rule_ or _truth_. _Principal_ means _leader, +chief, the most important_. + +PROPOSE. Do not use _propose_ in the sense of _intend_. + +Wrong: I _propose_ to tell all I know. + +Right: I _intend_ to tell all I know. + +PROVIDING. Do not use _providing_ for _if_ or _on the condition_. + +Wrong: I will go _providing_ you can get tickets for three. + +Right: I will go _on the condition that_ you get the tickets. + +RAISE, RISE. Do not confuse _raise_ with _rise_. See §57. + +RECOMMEND, RECOMMENDATION. Do not use _recommend_ as a noun. +_Recommendation_ is the noun. + +Wrong: Her employer gave her a good _recommend_. + +Right: Her employer gave her a good _recommendation_. + +RIGHT AWAY, RIGHT OFF. Do not use _right away_ or _right off_ in +the sense of _immediately_. + +Wrong: After the play we will come _right off_. + +Right: After the play we will come _at once_. + +SAME. Do not use _same_ as a pronoun. + +Wrong: I will write the letter and mail _same_ at once. + +Right: I will write the letter and mail _it_ at once. + +SAY. Do not use _say_ in the sense of _order_ or _command_. + +Wrong: Your mother _said for_ you to come home at once. + +Right: Your mother _said that_ you should come home at once. + +SCARCELY. Do not use _scarcely_ after a negative. See §46. + +Wrong: There _was not scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. + +Right: There _was scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. + +SELDOM EVER. Do not use _seldom_ with _ever_. Say instead _seldom_ +or _seldom, if ever_. + +Wrong: Fires _seldom ever_ occur. + +Right: Fires _seldom_ occur. Fires _seldom, if ever_ occur. + +SHUT OF. Do not use _shut of_ in the sense of _rid of_. + +Wrong: We are _shut of_ him at last. + +SIGHT. Do not use _sight_ in the sense of _many_ or _much_. + +Wrong: A great _sight of people_ flocked to hear him. + +Right: A great _many people_ flocked to hear him. + +SIT, SET. Do not confuse these two words. See §57. + +SO. Do not use _so_ alone as a conjunction. Say _so that_. + +Wrong: He spoke in the open air, _so_ more could see and hear him. + +Right: He spoke in the open air, _so that_ more could see and hear +him. + +SOME. Do not use _some_ as an adverb in the sense of _somewhat_ +or a _little_. + +Wrong: He plays the violin _some_. + +Right: He plays the violin _a little_. + +SORT OF A. Do not use _a_ after _sort of_. See _Kind of a_. + +SORT. Do not precede _sort_ by _these_ or _those_. See _Kind_. + +SUCH. Do not follow _such_ by _who, which_, or _that_ as relatives. + +Wrong: All _such persons who_ think so will soon see their mistake. + +Right: All _such persons as_ think so will soon see their mistake. + +Right: He spoke with _such_ force _that_ we were compelled to listen. +(_That_ is not a relative here.) + +TASTY. Do not use _tasty_ in the sense of _tasteful_. + +THAT. Do not use _that_ as an adverb. + +Wrong: I did not think the book was _that_ small. + +Right: I did not think that the book was _so_ small. + +THAT THERE, THIS HERE, THESE HERE, THOSE THERE. _There_ and _here_, +in all these expressions are worse than unnecessary. + +THEM THERE. Do not use _them there_ for _those_. + +Wrong: Bring me _them there_ books. + +Right: Bring me _those_ books. + +THREE FIRST, TWO FIRST, ETC. Do not say _three first_, but _first +three_. There can be only one _first_. + +TOO. Do not use _too_ alone before a verb or a participle. + +Wrong: He is _too excited_ to listen to you. + +Right: He is _too much excited_ to listen to you. + +VERY. Do not use _very_ alone before a verb or a participle. + +Wrong: You are _very_ mistaken. + +Right: You are _very much_ mistaken. + +WAIT ON, WAIT FOR. Do not confuse these two expressions. _Wait on_ +means _to serve_. _Wait for_ means _to await_. + +Wrong: Do not _wait on_ me if I do not come at noon. + +Right: Do not _wait for_ me if I do not come at noon. + +WAKE, AWAKE. Do not confuse _wake_ and _awake_. See §57. + + + + +INDEX + +References are to pages. Sections or subdivisions on the pages are +sometimes indicated in parenthesis after the page numbers. + +Since the _EXERCISES_ follow throughout the subjects treated, +exercises on any subject may be found by looking up that subject +in this text index. + +_A_, use of article. +Abbreviated words, rule against. +Abbreviations, punctuation of (§102); use of, in letters. +_Accept_, for _except_, Glossary. +Active voice and passive voice, explained; forms of. +Adjectives, defined; capitalization of proper; confused with adverbs; + distinguished from adverbs; errors in comparison of; improper forms + of; list of irregular; placing of; adjective pronouns; punctuation + of two or more adjectives modifying same noun (§106); singular and + plural. +_Admire_, for _like_, Glossary. +Adverbs, defined; comparison of; conjunctive; confusion with adjectives; + distinguished from adjectives; double negative; errors in comparison; + list of irregularly compared; omission of; punctuation of (§116), (§121). +_Æsop's Fables_, quotation from. +_Affect_, for _effect_, Glossary. +_Aggravate_, for _irritate_, Glossary. +Agreement, of adjective and noun; of pronoun and antecedent; of verb and + subject; of verb in clauses. +Ain't, Glossary. +_Allow_, for _assert_ or _intend_, Glossary. +_Allude_, for _refer_, Glossary. +_Also_, without _and_. +_Among_, for _between_, Glossary. +_An_, use of article. +_And_, use of. +Antecedents, of pronouns, defined; agreement of pronouns and; clearness + of; compound; indefinite; of relative pronouns. +_Any_, for _at all_, Glossary. +Apostrophe, general use of; with plural nouns; with possessive nouns; + with possessive pronouns. +Apposition, explained. +Appositives, punctuation of (§108). +_Argue_, for _augur_. +_Arise_. +Articles, explained; use of. +_As_, as conjunction or adverb; as a relative pronoun, Glossary; for + _like_; for _since_, Glossary; punctuation of (§122). +_At_, for _in_, Glossary. +_Attackted_, mispronunciation of _attacked_, Glossary. +Attribute complement, explained; case of (note 2). +Auxiliary verbs, explained; _shall_ and _will_; _should_ and _would_; + _may, can, might_, and _could_. +_Avocation_, for _vocation_. +_Awake_, for _wake_, Glossary. +_Awful_, for _awfully_, Glossary. + +_Bad_, for _badly_, Glossary. +Balanced sentence. +Barbarisms, defined; rules for avoidance of; when proper. +Beginning of the composition. +_Beside_, for _besides_, Glossary. +_Best_, for _better_, Glossary. +_Between_, for _among_, Glossary. +_Bible_, capitalization of (§100). +_Blowed_, for _blew_, Glossary. +Body, of the letter. +Books for reading, list of. +_Bound_, for _determined_, Glossary. +Brackets, use of. +_But_, as a relative pronoun; with a negative; with a dependent clause; + to introduce two succeeding statements. +_But that_, for _but what_. + +_Calculate_, for _intend_. +_Can_, use of; model conjugation of. +"Cant expressions," in letters. +Capitalization, rules for. +Cases, classified and defined; case forms of pronouns; +case of word in apposition; case forms of relative pronouns; outline + for use of case forms; rules for forming possessive. +_Character_, for _reputation_, Glossary. +_Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing, quotation from. +Choice of words, rules to aid in. +_Christmas_, by Washington Irving, quotation from. +_Claim_, for _assert_. +Clauses, defined; adjective; adverbial; agreement, of verb in; + principal or independent; subordinate or dependent; substantive; + _when_ and _where_ clauses. +Climax in sentences. +Clipped words, rule against. +Close of letter. +_Clum_, for _climbed_, Glossary. +"_In care of_," misuse of _c|o_ for. +Coherence, of paragraph; how to gain in paragraph; illustrations of + in paragraph; of sentence; of whole composition; words of. +Colon. +"Comma blunder". +Comma. +Common gender, defined, of nouns and pronouns. +Comparative degree; misuse of, in reference to more than two things. +Comparison, degrees of; irregular forms in; errors in; manner of comparing. +_Complected_, for _complexioned_, Glossary. +Complex sentence. +Complimentary close, in letters. +Compound nouns, explained; rules for forming plurals of. +Compound pronouns, personal; relative. +Compound sentence. +Compound subject; agreement of verb with. +Compound words, use of hyphen with (§140). +_Concluded_, for _to form an opinion_, Glossary. +Conditional clauses, punctuation of (§114). +Confusion of adjectives and adverbs. +Conjunctions, defined; misuses of; correlatives. +_Considerable_, for _considerably_, Glossary. +_Consul_, for _council_, or _counsel_. +Contractions of _not_, use of, in formal composition. +Co-ordinate clauses, punctuation of (§§112, 113), (§§118, 119, 120). +Copulative verb. +Correctly written letters. +Correlatives, placing of. +_Could_, use of; model conjugations of. +_Council, counsel_ and _consul_ confused. +_Cranford_, by Mrs. Gaskell, selection from. +_Cute_, for _pretty, clever_, etc., Glossary. + +Dash, use of. +_Decease_, Glossary. +Definition, by a _when_ or _where_ clause. +Degrees in comparison, classified. +_Demand_, Glossary. +Dependent and conditional clauses, punctuation of (§114), (§§119, 120). +Dictionary, value of its use. +_Different_, with _than_, Glossary. +_Directly_, misused as a conjunction. +_Disease_, Glossary. +Division of words at ends of lines (§139). +_Don't_, Glossary. +Double negatives. +_Down_, misuse as a verb, Glossary. +_Drownded_, mispronunciation of _drowned_, Glossary. + +_East_, capitalization of (§100). +_Each other_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Effect_, for _affect_, Glossary. +_Either_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Either-or_. +Elements of the sentence: Principal elements, subject; + predicate. Subordinate elements: attribute complement; adjective + modifier; adverbial modifier; object complement. +_Emigration_, for _immigration_, Glossary. +Emphasis, in paragraphs; in sentence. +Ending of whole composition. +_Enough_, Glossary. +_Euthuse_, Glossary. +Enumerations, punctuation before, (§§122, 123). +_Esq._, misuse after Mr.. +_Etc._, misspelling of, Glossary. +Euphony, in sentences. +_Everybody_, followed by a plural form, Glossary. +_Everywheres_, for _everywhere_. +Examples, of beginning of whole composition; of correctly written letters; + of ending of whole composition; of outline of whole composition. +Exclamation point, use of. +_Except_, for _accept_, Glossary. +Explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of (§111). +Expletives. +_Expect_, for _suppose_. + +_Fall_, for _fell_. +_Father_, capitalization of (§99). +_Fell_, for _fall_. +Feminine gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. +Final words, in letters. +"Fine-writing". +_Fine_, Glossary. +_Firstly_, Glossary. +_First-rate_, Glossary. +_For_, used to introduce two succeeding clauses. +Foreign words. +_Former_, Glossary. +Form of letters. +From, Glossary. +_Funny_, for _singular_, Glossary. + +Gender, defined and classified formation of feminine from + masculine; gender of pronouns. +General terms, use of. +_Gent_, Glossary. +_Gentleman_, Glossary. +Geographical names, punctuation of (§108). +Gerunds, explanation of; confusion with participle; with noun or + pronoun modifier; placing of gerund phrase. +Gettysburg speech, by Lincoln. +_Good_, for _well_. +Good use of words; offenses against. +_Got_, Glossary. +_Grand_, Glossary. +Grave forms of personal pronouns, use of. +_Guess_, for _think_, Glossary. + +Hackneyed expressions, general rule against; in letters. +_Had, ought_, Glossary. +_Hain't_, Glossary. +_Hanged_, confused with _hung_, Glossary. +_Hardly_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +_Have_, misuse after _had_, Glossary. +Heading, of letters. +_Heighth_, for _height_, Glossary. +_Here_, misuse with demonstratives, Glossary. +_Her'n_. +_Him_, misuse with gerund. +_Hisself_. +_His'n_. +_Home_, confused with _house_; for _at home_, Glossary. +_Humbug_, Glossary. +_Hung_, confused with _hanged_, Glossary. +Hyphen, use of. + +_I_, capitalization of (§100). Order of. +In the letter. +Idioms. +_i. e._, punctuation of (§122). +_Illy_, Glossary. +_Immigration_, confused with _emigration_, Glossary. +Imperative mode. +Improving one's vocabulary, rules for. +Improprieties. +Indentation, of paragraph; of paragraph, in letters. +Infinitives, explanation of; forms of; cases used with; rules for + sequence of infinitive tenses; split. +Inflection, defined. +_In_, confused with _into_, Glossary. +Inside address of letters. +Interjection. +Interrogation point, use of. +Interrogative pronouns. +Intransitive verbs, see _Transitive_. +Introductory words or phrases, punctuation of (§107). + +_Kind_, with plural modifiers, Glossary. +_Kind of a_. + +_Lady_, Glossary. +_Latter_, confused with _last_, Glossary. +_Lay_, confused with lie. +_Learn_, for _teach_, Glossary. +_Leave_, for _let_, Glossary. +_Lend_, confused with _loan_. +Length, of paragraphs; of sentences. +Letter writing; body of letter; close; heading; illustrations of + correctly written letters; inside address; miscellaneous + directions; notes in third person; outside address; salutation. +_Liable_, for _likely_. +_Lie_, confused with _lay_. +_Lightning_, Glossary. +_Like_, misuse as a conjunction. +_Lit on_, Glossary. +_Loan_, confused with _lend_. +Loose sentences. +_Lot_ for _a great deal_, Glossary. + +_Mad_, for _angry_. +Masculine gender, defined; of pronouns. +_May_; model conjugation of. +_Messrs._, use of. +_Might_; model conjugations of. +Mode, definition of; indicative; infinitive; imperative; obligative, + footnote; participal; potential, of; subjunctive. +Modifiers, placing of. +_Most_ for _almost_. +_Mother_, capitalization of (§99). +_Mrs._, Glossary. +_Much_, for _many_. +_Muchly_. +_Mutual_, confused with _common_, Glossary. + +Name, form of verb. +_Namely_, punctuation of (§122). +_Near_, confused with _nearly_. +_Neither_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Neither-nor_. +_Nerve_, Glossary. +Neuter gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. +Newly coined expressions, rule against. +_Newsy_, Glossary. +Nominative case, defined; when used, note. +_No place_, Glossary. +_No_, punctuation of (§102). +_No good_, for _worthless_. +_North_, capitalization of (§100). +_Not muchly_. +Notes in the third person. +_Not only--but also_. +_Notorious_, confused with _noted_, Glossary. +Nouns, common; proper; case of; gender of; number of. +_Nowhere near_, for _not nearly_, Glossary. +Number, defined; agreement of verb and subject in number; singular; + plural; of relative pronouns; of pronouns; of pronouns with + compounded antecedent; rules for forming plurals of nouns. +_Number_, sign #, used for. + +_O_ and _oh_, capitalization of (§100). +Object complement, explained. +Objective case, defined; when used. +Obligative mode (footnote). +_Observance_, confused with _observation_. +Obsolete words. +_Of_, Glossary. +Omission, of adverb _much_; of important words; of prepositions; + punctuation in case of (§117); (§138); of verbs. +_One another_, use of. +_Only_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +Order of heading in letters. +_Other_, use of in comparison. +_Ought_. +Outline, for composition; illustration of. +Outside address, of letters. +_Outside of_, Glossary. +Over-statement of facts, rule against. +_Over with_, Glossary. + +_Pants_, Glossary. +Paragraphing of letters. +Paragraphs; coherence in; emphasis in; indentation of; in letters; + length of; unity in. +Parenthesis marks, use of; too frequent use of. +Parts of speech, classified. +Passive voice and active voice explained; forms of. +Past participle, explanation and use of. +Past tense, explanation and use of. +Participles, explanation of; confusion with gerunds; dangling; at + beginning of sentence; preceded by _thus_. +Period, use of. +Periodic sentence. +Personal pronouns, defined; classified; compound personal pronouns; + use of common and of grave forms of; unnecessary use of. +_Piece_, Glossary. +_Photo_, Glossary. +Phrases, defined; prepositional; verb; punctuation of adverbial + phrases (§116), (§121). +_Place_, Glossary. +Placing of adjectives and adverbs. +_Plenty_, Glossary. +Plural number, explained; rules for forming plurals of nouns. +Point of view, in paragraph; in sentence; in whole composition. +_Poorly_, for _ill_, Glossary. +Positive degree. +Position, in letters, of complimentary close; of heading; of inside + address; of salutation; of outside address. +Possessive case, defined; rules for forming possessives of nouns; + when used. +Potential mode, explanation and forms of. +Predicate of the sentence; defined; compound, predicate, explained. +Prepositional phrase. +Prepositions, defined; omission of; proper use of; unnecessary use + of; used as conjunctions. +_Principal_, confused with _principle_, Glossary. +Principal parts of verbs, explained; classified; list of; rules for + use of. +Principal verbs, explained. +Professional words. +Pronouns, defined; adjective; antecedent of, defined; agreement with + antecedent; case forms of; compound personal; compound relative; + gender of; interrogative; number of; outline of, use of case forms + of; relative; rules determining gender of; with compound antecedents. +Pronunciation, lists of frequently mispronounced words; words given + wrong sounds; words given wrong accent; words of foreign pronunciation; + words of similar spelling. +Proper adjectives, capitalization of (§95). +Proper nouns, defined; capitalization of (§95). +_Propose_, for _intend_, Glossary. +_Providing_, for _if_, Glossary. +Provincialisms, definition and rule against use of. +Punctuation, rules for; in letters, body; heading; inside address; + outside address; salutation. + +Qualities, essential: Of sentences, unity; emphasis; euphony. Of + paragraphs, unity; coherence; emphasis. Of whole composition, unity; + coherence. +_Quite_, for _very_. +Quotation marks, use of. +Quotations, punctuation of (§115), (§123), (§131), (§§132-137). + +_Raise_, confused with _rise_, Glossary. +_Recommend_, confused with _recommendation_, Glossary. +Relative causes, cases in; explanatory or non-restrictive; introduction + of successive; punctuation of (§111); use of _when_ or _where_ clause. +Relative pronouns, defined and explained; agreement of verb + with; case and number of; compound; explanatory or non-restrictive; + restrictive; use of, with different antecedents. +Repetition of similar words or syllables. +_Reputation_, confused with _character_, Glossary. +_Respectfully_, confused with _respectively_. +_Rev._. +_Right away_, Glossary. +_Right off_, Glossary. +_Rise_, confused with _raise_, Glossary. + +Salutation, in letters. +_Some_, misuse as a pronoun, Glossary. +_Say_, for _order_ or _command_, Glossary. +_Scarcely_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +Scriptures, capitalization, of (§100). +_Seldom ever_, Glossary. +Semi-colon, use of. +Sentence elements out of natural order, (§109). +Sentences: defined; declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory; + essential qualities of; loose, periodic, balanced; simple, complex, + compound; length of; slipshod construction of. +Sequence of tenses, infinitive; in clauses. +Series of words, punctuation of. +_Set_, confused with _sit_, Glossary. +S-form of verb. +_Shut of_, for _rid of_, Glossary. +_Sight_, for _many_, Glossary. +Signature of writer, in letters. +Simple sentence, defined. +Simple words, use of. +Similar expressions of similar thoughts. +Singular form of verb, explanation and use of, after you and they. +Singular number, explained. +_Sit_, confused with _set_, Glossary. +_Shall_ and _will_, use of, in dependent clauses; in principal clauses; + in questions; model conjugations of; past tenses of. +_Should_ and _would_, model conjugations of; use of. +Slang. +_So_, use of. +Solecisms. +_Some_, misuse as an adverb, Glossary. +_Somebody else's_. +_Sort_, with plurals, Glossary. +_Sort of a_, Glossary. +_South_, capitalization of, (§100). +Speech, paragraphing of. +Specific terms, use of. +Spelling, lists of words frequently misspelled; rules for; of words of + similar sound. +"Squinting construction." +_Street_, omission of in letters. +Subject of sentence or clause, defined; agreement of verb and subject; + compound; relative pronoun as, of whole composition; statement of, + in composition. +Subject matter of letters. +Subjunctive mode. +_Such_, Glossary. +Summarizing word, use of; punctuation of, (§127). +Superlative degree; misuse in comparing only two things. +_Suspect_, for _expect_. +Syllables, division of words into, (§139). +Synonyoms, value of. + +_Tasty_, for _tasteful_, Glossary. +Technical words. +"Telegraph style," in letters. +Tense, explained; sequence of. +_Than_, use of. +_That_, with what antecedents used; as a restrictive relative; + misuse of, Glossary. +_That is_, punctuation of, (§122). +_The_, use of article. +_Their'n, theirself, theirselves_. +_Them_, for _those_. +_Then_, use of. +_There_, improper use of after demonstratives, Glossary. +_They_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. +Third person, notes in the. +_Those kind_, and _these sort_. +_Three first_, Glossary. +_Thusly_. +Title of whole composition. +Titles, abbreviations of; capitalization of, (§§ 96, 97). +_To-day, to-morrow, to-night_, hyphens with, (§140). +_Too_, misuse of, Glossary. +Transition, in whole composition. +Transitive and intransitive verbs, confusion of; explanation of. +_Transpire_, for _happen_. +_Try and_, Glossary. +_Two first_, Glossary. + +_Unbeknown_, for _unknown_. +Unity: Of paragraph; how to gain; illustrations of. + Of sentence. Of whole composition. +Unnecessary words, use of. + +Verb phrase, explained. +Verbs, defined; agreement of verb and subject; agreement of verb in + clauses; auxiliary; gerunds; infinitives; mode; model conjugations + of _to-be_ and _to see_; omission of verbs or parts of; participles; + principal; principal parts; principal parts, list of; transitive and + intransitive; use of auxiliaries; voice. +_Very_. +_viz._, punctuation of, (§122). +Vocabulary, rules for improvement of. +_Vocation_, confused with _avocation_. +Vulgarisms. + +_Wake_, confused with _awake_, Glossary. +_Wait on_, confused with _wait for_, Glossary. +_Ways_, Glossary. +Weak beginnings and endings of sentences. +_Well_, confused with _good_. +_West_, capitalization of, (§100). +_What_, with what antecedents. +_When_. +_Where_. +_Which_, with clause or phrase as antecedent; with what antecedents used. +_Who_, with what antecedents used. +Whole composition; beginning of, ending of; paragraph composition or + paragraph theme. +_Will_, use of, see _shall_. +_Without_, misuse as a conjunction. +Words, choice of; clipped or abbreviated; division of at ends of lines, + (§139); foreign; good use of; how to improve vocabulary of, idioms; + in place of figures in letters; newly-coined; of coherence; + professional; pronunciation of, provincialisms; simple English; slang; + spelling of; technical words; vulgarisms. +_Would_, see _should_. + +_Yes_, punctuation of, (102). +_You_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. +_Yours truly_ and _yours respectfully_, wrong abbreviation of. +_Your'n_. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + +***** This file should be named 22577-8.txt or 22577-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/5/7/22577/ + +Produced by Robert J. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Practical Grammar and Composition + +Author: Thomas Wood + +Release Date: September 11, 2007 [EBook #22577] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + + + + +Produced by Robert J. Hall + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>PRACTICAL GRAMMAR<br />AND COMPOSITION</h1> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em;">BY</p> + +<p class="author"> +THOMAS WOOD, A.M., LL.B.<br /> +<span style="font-size: small;">THE BRADDOCK (PENNSYLVANIA) +HIGH SCHOOL</span> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em;"> +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br /> +NEW YORK CHICAGO +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<h2><a name="page_v"><span class="page">Page v</span></a> +PREFACE</h2> + +<hr> + +<p class="indent"> +This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching +some classes in English in the night preparatory department of +the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those +classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would +enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English. +English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar +of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond +the everyday needs of the practical man. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a +text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed +that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar, +and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words, +and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources +of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and, +finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical +work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The +parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from +that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more +sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition +contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary +composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing, +since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for +actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to +the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment +has at times been intentionally rather formal. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_vi"><span class="page">Page vi</span></a> Abundant +and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent intervals +throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises have +been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical points +have been made very extensive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book +and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of +that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement +of principles and in the working out of details great originality +would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore, +for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores +of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of +the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found +in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from +other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as +may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the +books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the +following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and +Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's +Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition, +McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's +Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business +English. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's +Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing +Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is +indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation +of certain parts of their texts. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends +who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript, +and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons +who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers. +Above all, a great debt of <a name="page_vii"><span class="page">Page +vii</span></a> gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris, Superintendent +of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement and +painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript +and in reading the proof of the book. +</p> + +<p class="right">T.W.</p> + +<p class="smallcaps"> +Braddock, Pennsylvania.</p> + +<h2><a name="page_ix"><span class="page">Page ix</span></a> +CONTENTS</h2> + +<table> + <tr><td style="font-size: smaller;">CHAPTER</td></tr> + <tr><td class="right">I.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_1"> + Sentences—Parts of Speech—Elements of + Sentence—Phrases and Clauses</a></td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">II.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_7">Nouns</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Common and Proper<br /> + Inflection Defined<br /> + Number<br /> + <span class="indent1">The Formation of Plurals</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Compound Nouns</span><br /> + Case<br /> + <span class="indent1">The Formation of the Possessive + Case</span><br /> + Gender + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">III.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_13">Pronouns</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Agreement with Antecedents<br /> + Person<br /> + Gender<br /> + <span class="indent1">Rules Governing Gender</span><br /> + Number<br /> + Compound Antecedents<br /> + Relative<br /> + Interrogative<br /> + Case Forms<br /> +<span class="indent1">Rules Governing Use of Cases</span> + Compound Personal<br /> + Compound Relative<br /> + Adjective<br /> + Miscellaneous Cautions + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">IV.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_32">Adjectives and + Adverbs</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Comparison<br /> + Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs<br /> +<a name="#page_x"><span class="page">Page x</span></a> + Improper Forms of Adjectives<br /> + Errors in Comparison<br /> + Singular and Plural Adjectives<br /> + Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives<br /> + Double Negatives<br /> + The Articles + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">V.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_46">Verbs</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Principal Parts<br /> + <span class="indent1">Name-form</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Past Tense</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Past Participle</span><br /> + Transitive and Intransitive Verbs<br /> + Active and Passive Voice<br /> + Mode<br /> + <span class="indent1">Forms of the Subjunctive</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Use of Indicative and + Subjunctive</span><br /> + Agreement of Verb with its Subject<br /> + <span class="indent1">Rules Governing Agreement of the + Verb</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Miscellaneous Cautions</span><br /> + Use of <i>Shall</i> and <i>Will</i><br /> + Use of <i>Should</i> and <i>Would</i><br /> + Use of <i>May</i> and <i>Might</i>, <i>Can</i> and + <i>Could</i><br /> + Participles and Gerunds<br /> + <span class="indent1">Misuses of Participles and + Gerunds</span><br /> + Infinitives<br /> + <span class="indent1">Sequence of Infinitive + Tenses</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Split Infinitives</span><br /> + Agreement of Verb in Clauses<br /> + Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb<br /> + Model Conjugations<br /> + <span class="indent1"><i>To Be</i></span><br /> + <span class="indent1"><i>To See</i></span> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">VI.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_101">Connectives: Relative + Pronouns, Relative Adverbs, Conjunctions, and + Prepositions</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Independent and Dependent Clauses<br /> +<a name="#page_xi"><span class="page">Page xi</span></a> + Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns<br /> + Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs<br /> + Conjunctions<br /> + Placing of Correlatives<br /> + Prepositions + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" colspan="2"><a href="#page_109"> + Questions for the Review of Grammar</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" colspan="2"><a href="#page_112"> + A General Exercise on Grammar</a></td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">VII.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_117">Sentences</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Loose<br /> + Periodic<br /> + Balanced<br /> + Sentence Length<br /> + The Essential Qualities of a Sentence<br /> + <span class="indent1">Unity</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Coherence</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Emphasis</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Euphony</span> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">VIII.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_136"> + Capitalization and Punctuation</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Rules for Capitalization<br /> + Rules for Punctuation + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">IX.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_148"> + The Paragraph</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Length<br /> + Paragraphing of Speech<br /> + Indentation of the Paragraph<br /> + Essential Qualities of the Paragraph<br /> + <span class="indent1">Unity</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Coherence</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Emphasis</span> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">X.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_155"> + Letter-Writing</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Heading<br /> + Inside Address<br /> + Salutation<br /> + Body of the Letter<br /> +<a name="#page_xii"><span class="page">Page xii</span></a> + Close<br /> + Miscellaneous Directions<br /> + Outside Address<br /> + Correctly Written Letters<br /> + Notes in the Third Person + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">XI.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_174"> + The Whole Composition</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Statement of Subject<br /> + The Outline<br /> + The Beginning<br /> + Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition<br /> + <span class="indent1">Unity</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Coherence</span><br /> + The Ending<br /> + Illustrative Examples<br /> + <span class="indent1">Lincoln's <i>Gettysburgx + Speech</i></span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Selection from + <i>Cranford</i></span><br /> + List of Books for Reading + </td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td class="right">XII.—</td> + <td class="smallcaps"><a href="#page_185"> + Words—Spelling—Pronunciation</a><td></tr> + <tr><td></td><td class="indent"> + Words<br /> + <span class="indent1">Good Use</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Offenses Against Good Use</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Solecisms</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Barbarisms</span><br /> + <span class="indent2">Improprieties</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Idioms</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Choice of Words</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">How to Improve One's Vocabulary</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Spelling</span><br /> + <span class="indent1">Pronunciation</span> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" colspan="2"><a href="#page_221"> + Glossary of Miscellaneous Errors</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="bigtitle"> +<a name="page_1"><span class="page">Page 1</span></a> +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION +</p> + +<hr> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="subtitle"> +SENTENCES.—PARTS OF SPEECH.—ELEMENTS OF THE +SENTENCE.—PHRASES AND CLAUSES +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>1.</b> In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects +together. Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. A <b>Sentence</b> +is a group of words that expresses a single complete thought. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>2. Sentences</b> are of four kinds: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Declarative;</b> a sentence that tells or declares something; +as, <i>That book is mine</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. <b>Imperative;</b> a sentence that expresses a command; as, <i>Bring +me that book</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Interrogative;</b> a sentence that asks a question; as, <i>Is +that book mine?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Exclamatory;</b> a declarative, imperative, or interrogative +sentence that expresses violent emotion, such as terror, surprise, +or anger; as, <i>You shall take that book!</i> or, <i>Can that +book be mine?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>3. Parts of Speech.</b> Words have different uses in sentences. +According to their uses, words are divided into classes called +Parts of Speech. The parts of speech are as follows: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Noun;</b> a word used as the name of something; as, <i>man, +box, Pittsburgh, Harry, silence, justice</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_2"><span class="page">Page 2</span></a> 2. <b>Pronoun;</b> +a word used instead of a noun; as, <i>I, he, it, that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nouns, pronouns, or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns, +are called by the general term, <b>Substantives</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Adjective;</b> a word used to limit or qualify the meaning +of a noun or a pronoun; as, <i>good, five, tall, many</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The words <i>a, an</i>, and <i>the</i> are words used to modify +nouns or pronouns. They are adjectives, but are usually called +<b>Articles</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Verb;</b> a word used to state something about some person +or thing; as, <i>do, see, think, make</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. <b>Adverb;</b> a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an +adjective, or another adverb; as, <i>very, slowly, clearly, often</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. <b>Preposition;</b> a word used to join a substantive, as a +modifier, to some other preceding word, and to show the relation of +the substantive to that word; as, <i>by, in, between, beyond</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <b>Conjunction;</b> a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, +and sentences; as, <i>and, but, if, although, or</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. <b>Interjection;</b> a word used to express surprise or emotion; +as, <i>Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah!</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, but +helps to fill out its form or sound, and serves as a device to alter +its natural order. Such a word is called an <b>Expletive.</b> In the +following sentence <i>there</i> is an expletive: <i><b>There</b> +are no such books in print</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>4.</b> A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. +The essential or <b>Principal Elements</b> are the Subject and the +Predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Subject</b> of a sentence is the part which mentions that +about which something is said. The <b>Predicate</b> is the part +which states that which is said about the subject. <i>Man walks</i>. +In this sentence, <i>man</i> is the subject, and <i>walks</i> is +the predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_3"><span class="page">Page 3</span></a> The subject +may be simple or modified; that is, may consist of the subject +alone, or of the subject with its modifiers. The same is true of +the predicate. Thus, in the sentence, <i>Man walks</i>, there is +a simple subject and a simple predicate. In the sentence, <i>The +good man walks very rapidly</i>, there is a modified subject and +a modified predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There may be, also, more than one subject connected with the same +predicate; as, <i><b>The man and the woman</b> walk</i>. This is +called a <b>Compound Subject</b>. A <b>Compound Predicate</b> consists +of more than one predicate used with the same subject; as, <i>The +man <b>both walks and runs</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>5.</b> Besides the principal elements in a sentence, there are +<b>Subordinate Elements.</b> These are the Attribute Complement, +the Object Complement, the Adjective Modifier, and the Adverbial +Modifier. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some verbs, to complete their sense, need to be followed by some +other word or group of words. These words which "complement," or +complete the meanings of verbs are called <b>Complements</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Attribute Complement</b> completes the meaning of the verb +by stating some class, condition, or attribute of the subject; +as, <i>My friend is a <b>student</b>, I am <b>well</b>, The man +is <b>good</b> Student, well</i>, and <i>good</i> complete the +meanings of their respective verbs, by stating some class, condition, +or attribute of the subjects of the verbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The attribute complement usually follows the verb <i>be</i> or its +forms, <i>is, are, was, will be</i>, etc. The attribute complement +is usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective, although it may be a +phrase or clause fulfilling the function of any of these parts +of speech. It must not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial +modifier. In the sentence, <i>He is <b>there</b>, there</i> is +an adverb, not an attribute complement. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The verb used with an attribute complement, because such verb +<i>joins</i> the subject to its attribute, is called the <b>Copula</b> +("to couple") or <b>Copulative Verb</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_4"><span class="page">Page 4</span></a> Some verbs +require an object to complete their meaning. This object is called the +<b>Object Complement</b>. In the sentence, <i>I carry a <b>book</b></i>, +the object, <i>book</i>, is required to complete the meaning of +the transitive verb <i>carry</i>; so, also in the sentences, <i>I +hold the <b>horse</b></i>, and <i>I touch a <b>desk</b></i>, the +objects <i>horse</i> and <i>desk</i> are necessary to complete +the meanings of their respective verbs. These verbs that require +objects to complete their meaning are called Transitive Verbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Adjective</b> and <b>Adverbial Modifiers</b> may consist simply of +adjectives and adverbs, or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives +or adverbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>6.</b> A <b>Phrase</b> is a group of words that is used as a +single part of speech and that does not contain a subject and a +predicate. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A <b>Prepositional Phrase</b>, always used as either an adjective +or an adverbial modifier, consists of a preposition with its object +and the modifiers of the object; as, <i>He lives <b>in Pittsburg</b>, +Mr. Smith <b>of this place</b> is the manager <b>of the mill</b>, +The letter is <b>in the nearest desk</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There are also Verb-phrases. A <b>Verb-phrase</b> is a phrase that +serves as a verb; as, <i>I <b>am coming</b>, He <b>shall be told</b>, +He <b>ought to have been told</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>7.</b> A <b>Clause</b> is a group of words containing a subject +and a predicate; as, <i>The man <b>that I saw</b> was tall</i>. +The clause, <i>that I saw</i>, contains both a subject, <i>I</i>, +and a predicate, <i>saw</i>. This clause, since it merely states +something of minor importance in the sentence, is called the +<b>Subordinate Clause</b>. The <b>Principal Clause</b>, the one +making the most important assertion, is, <i>The man was tall</i>. +Clauses may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, and as nouns. A +clause used as a noun is called a <b>Substantive Clause</b>. Examine +the following examples: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +Adjective Clause: The book <i>that I want</i> is a history.<br /> +Adverbial Clause: He came <i>when he had finished with the + work</i>.<br /> +Noun Clause as subject: <i>That I am here</i> is true.<br /> +Noun Clause as object: He said <i>that I was mistaken</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_5"><span class="page">Page 5</span></a> <b>8.</b> +Sentences, as to their composition, are classified as follows: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Simple;</b> a sentence consisting of a single statement; as, +<i>The man walks</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Complex;</b> a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one +or more subordinate clauses; as, <i>The man that I saw is tall</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Compound;</b> a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of +equal importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood; +as, <i>The man is tall and walks rapidly</i>, and <i>Watch the +little things; they are important</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 1</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In this and in all following exercises, be able to give the +reason for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. +Only intelligent and reasoning work is worth while.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following list of sentences:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(1) Determine the part of speech of every word.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate; +and the modified subject and the modified predicate.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object +complement.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional +phrase or a verb-phrase. If it is a prepositional phrase, determine +whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If they +are subordinate clauses, determine whether they are used as nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>(6) Classify every sentence as simple, complex, or compound.</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Houses are built of wood, brick, stone, and other materials, +and are constructed in various styles.</li> +<li>The path of glory leads but to the grave.</li> +<li>We gladly accepted the offer which he made.</li> +<li>I am nearly ready, and shall soon join you.</li> +<li>There are few men who do not try to be honest.</li> +<li><a name="page_6"><span class="page">Page 6</span></a> +Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever.</li> +<li>He works hard, and rests little.</li> +<li>She is still no better, but we hope that there will be a +change.</li> +<li>Let each speak for himself.</li> +<li>It was I who told him to go.</li> +<li>To live an honest life should be the aim of every one.</li> +<li>Who it really was no one knew, but all believed it to have + been him.</li> +<li>In city and in country people think very differently.</li> +<li>To be or not to be, that is the question.</li> +<li>In truth, I think that I saw a brother of his in that + place.</li> +<li>By a great effort he managed to make headway against the + current.</li> +<li>Beyond this, I have nothing to say.</li> +<li>That we are never too old to learn is a true saying.</li> +<li>Full often wished he that the wind might rage.</li> +<li>Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate.</li> +<li>It is I whom you see.</li> +<li>The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained + memory.</li> +<li>Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they + do here.</li> +<li>Alas! I can travel no more.</li> +<li>A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 2</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(1) <i>Write a list of six examples of every part of speech.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(2) <i>Write eight sentences, each containing an attribute complement. +Use adjectives, nouns, and pronouns.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(3) <i>Write eight sentences, each containing an object complement.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(4) <i>Write five sentences, in each using some form of the verb +<b>to be</b>, followed by an adverbial modifier.</i> +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_7"><span class="page">Page 7</span></a> +CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">NOUNS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>9.</b> A noun has been defined as a word used as the name of +something. It may be the name of a person, a place, a thing, or +of some abstract quality, such as, <i>justice</i> or <i>truth</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>10. Common and Proper Nouns.</b> A <b>Proper Noun</b> is a noun +that names some particular or special place, person, people, or +thing. A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter; +as, <i>English, Rome, Jews, John</i>. A <b>Common Noun</b> is a +general or class name. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>11. Inflection Defined.</b> The variation in the forms of the +different parts of speech to show grammatical relation, is called +<b>Inflection</b>. Though there is some inflection in English, +grammatical relation is usually shown by position rather than by +inflection. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The noun is inflected to show number, case, and gender. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>12. Number</b> is that quality of a word which shows whether it +refers to one or to more than one. <b>Singular Number</b> refers +to one. <b>Plural Number</b> refers to more than one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>13. Plurals of singular nouns are formed according to the following +rules:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Most nouns add <i>s</i> to the singular; as, <i>boy, boys; stove, +stoves</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns ending in <i>s, ch, sh</i>, or <i>x</i>, add <i>es</i> +to the singular; as, <i>fox, foxes; wish, wishes; glass, glasses; +coach, coaches</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Nouns ending in <i>y</i> preceded by a vowel (<i>a, e, i, o, +u</i>) add <i>s</i>; as, <i>valley, valleys</i>, (<i>soliloquy, +soliloquies</i> and <i>colloquy, colloquies</i> are exceptions). +When <i>y</i> is preceded by a consonant (any letter other than +a vowel), <i>y</i> is changed to <i>i</i> and <i>es</i> is added; +as, <i>army, armies; pony, ponies; sty, sties</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Most nouns ending in <i>f</i> or <i>fe</i> add <i>s</i>, as, +<i>scarf, scarfs; safe, safes</i>. <a name="page_8"><span +class="page">Page 8</span></a> A few change <i>f</i> or <i>fe</i> +to <i>v</i> and add <i>es</i>; as, <i>wife, wives; self, selves</i>. +The others are: <i>beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, sheaf, shelf, +staff, thief, wharf, wolf, life</i>. (<i>Wharf</i> has also a plural, +<i>wharfs</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Most nouns ending in <i>o</i> add <i>s</i>; as, <i>cameo, cameos</i>. +A number of nouns ending in <i>o</i> preceded by a consonant add +<i>es</i>; as, <i>volcano, volcanoes</i>. The most important of +the latter class are: <i>buffalo, cargo, calico, echo, embargo, +flamingo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, +torpedo, veto</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. Letters, figures, characters, etc., add the apostrophe and <i>s</i> +(<i>'s</i>); as, <i>6's, c's, t's, that's</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. The following common words always form their plurals in an irregular +way; as, <i>man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, +feet; mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth; louse, lice</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Compound Nouns</b> are those formed by the union of two words, +either two nouns or a noun joined to some descriptive word or phrase. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. The principal noun of a compound noun, whether it precedes or +follows the descriptive part, is in most cases the noun that changes +in forming the plural; as, <i>mothers-in-law, knights-errant, +mouse-traps</i>. In a few compound words, both parts take a plural form; +as, <i>man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +9. Proper names and titles generally form plurals in the same way +as do other nouns; as, <i>Senators Webster and Clay, the three +Henrys</i>. Abbreviations of titles are little used in the plural, +except <i>Messrs.</i> (<i>Mr.</i>), and <i>Drs.</i> (<i>Dr.</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +10. In forming the plurals of proper names where a title is used, +either the title or the name may be put in the plural form. Sometimes +both are made plural; as, <i>Miss Brown, the Misses Brown, the +Miss Browns, the two Mrs. Browns</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +11. Some nouns are the same in both the singular and the plural; +as, <i>deer, series, means, gross</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +12. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. The most +important are the following: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td><b>brother</b></td><td><i>brothers</i> (by blood)</td> + <td><i>brethren</i> (by association)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>cloth</b></td><td><i>cloths</i> (kinds of cloth)</td> + <td><i>clothes</i> (garments)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>die</b></td><td><i>dies</i> (for coinage)</td> + <td><i>dice</i> (for games)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>fish</b></td><td><i>fishes</i> (separately)</td> + <td><i>fish</i> (collectively) + <a name="page_9"><span class="page">Page 9</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td><b>genius</b></td><td><i>geniuses</i> (men of genius)</td> + <td><i>genii</i> (imaginary beings)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>head</b></td><td><i>heads</i> (of the body)</td> + <td><i>head</i> (of cattle)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>index</b></td><td><i>indexes</i> (of books)</td> + <td><i>indices</i> (in algebra)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>pea</b></td><td><i>peas</i> (separately)</td> + <td><i>pease</i> (collectively)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>penny</b></td><td><i>pennies</i> (separately)</td> + <td><i>pence</i> (collectively)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>sail</b></td><td><i>sails</i> (pieces of canvas)</td> + <td><i>sail</i> (number of vessels)</td></tr> + <tr><td><b>shot</b></td><td><i> shots</i> (number of discharges)</td> + <td><i>shot</i> (number of balls)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +13. Nouns from foreign languages frequently retain in the plural +the form that they have in the language from which they are taken; +as, <i>focus, foci; terminus, termini; alumnus, alumni; datum, data; +stratum, strata; formula, formulœ; vortex, vortices; appendix, +appendices; crisis, crises; oasis, oases; axis, axes; phenomenon, +phenomena; automaton, automata; analysis, analyses; hypothesis, +hypotheses; medium, media; vertebra, vertebrœ; ellipsis, ellipses; +genus, genera; fungus, fungi; minimum, minima; thesis, theses</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 3</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write the plural, if any, of every singular noun in the following +list; and the singular, if any, of every plural noun. Note those +having no singular and those having no plural</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +News, goods, thanks, scissors, proceeds, puppy, studio, survey, +attorney, arch, belief, chief, charity, half, hero, negro, majority, +Mary, vortex, memento, joy, lily, knight-templar, knight-errant, why, +4, x, son-in-law, Miss Smith, Mr. Anderson, country-man, hanger-on, +major-general, oxen, geese, man-servant, brethren, strata, sheep, +mathematics, pride, money, pea, head, piano, veto, knives, ratios, +alumni, feet, wolves, president, sailor-boy, spoonful, rope-ladder, +grandmother, attorney-general, cupful, go-between. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>When in doubt respecting the form of any of the above, consult +an unabridged dictionary.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>14. Case.</b> There are three cases in English: the Nominative, +the Possessive, and the Objective. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Nominative Case;</b> the form used in address and as the +subject of a verb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Objective Case;</b> the form used as the object of a verb or +a preposition. It is always the same in form as is the nominative. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_10"><span class="page">Page 10</span></a> Since no +error in grammar can arise in the use of the nominative or the +objective cases of nouns, no further discussion of these cases is +here needed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Possessive Case</b>; the form used to show ownership. In +the forming of this case we have inflection. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>15. The following are the rules for the forming of the possessive +case:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Most nouns form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and +<i>s</i> (<i>'s</i>); as, <i>man, man's; men, men's; pupil, pupil's; +John, John's</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Plural nouns ending in <i>s</i> form the possessive by adding +only the apostrophe ('); as, <i>persons, persons'; writers, +writers'</i>. In stating possession in the plural, then one should +say: <i>Carpenters' tools sharpened here, Odd Fellows' wives are +invited</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Some singular nouns ending in an <i>s</i> sound form the possessive +by adding the apostrophe alone; as, <i>for appearance' sake, for +goodness' sake</i>. But usage inclines to the adding of the apostrophe +and <i>s</i> (<i>'s</i>) even if the singular noun does end in +an <i>s</i> sound; as, <i>Charles's book, Frances's dress, the +mistress's dress</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When a compound noun, or a group of words treated as one name, +is used to denote possession, the sign of the possessive is added +to the last word only; as, <i>Charles and John's mother</i> (the +mother of both Charles and John), <i>Brown and Smith's store</i> +(the store of the firm Brown & Smith). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Where the succession of possessives is unpleasant or confusing, +the substitution of a prepositional phrase should be made; as, +<i>the house of the mother of Charles's partner</i>, instead of, +<i>Charles's partner's mother's house</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. The sign of the possessive should be used with the word immediately +preceding the word naming the thing possessed; as, <i>Father and +mother's house, Smith, the lawyer's, office, The Senator from Utah's +seat</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. Generally, nouns representing inanimate objects should not be +used in the possessive case. It is better to say <i>the hands of +the clock</i> than <i>the clock's hands</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—One +should say <i>somebody else's</i>, not <i>somebody's else</i>. The +expression <i>somebody else</i> always occurs in the one form, and +in such cases the sign of the possessive should be added to the last +word. Similarly, say, <i>no one else's, everybody else's</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_11"><span class="page">Page 11</span></a> +Exercise 4</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write the possessives of the following:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Oxen, ox, brother-in-law, Miss Jones, goose, man, men, men-servants, +man-servant, Maine, dogs, attorneys-at-law, Jackson & Jones, +John the student, my friend John, coat, shoe, boy, boys, Mayor +of Cleveland. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 5</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences illustrating the use of the possessives you have +formed for the first ten words under Exercise 4.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 6</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Change the following expressions from the prepositional phrase +form to the possessive:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The ships of Germany and France.</li> +<li>The garden of his mother and sister.</li> +<li>The credit of Jackson & Jones.</li> +<li>The signature of the president of the firm.</li> +<li>The coming of my grandfather.</li> +<li>The lives of our friends.</li> +<li>The dog of both John and William.</li> +<li>The dog of John and the dog of William.</li> +<li>The act of anybody else.</li> +<li>The shortcomings of Alice.</li> +<li>The poems of Robert Burns.</li> +<li>The wives of Henry the Eighth.</li> +<li>The home of Mary and Martha.</li> +<li>The novels of Dickens and the novels of Scott.</li> +<li>The farm of my mother and of my father.</li> +<li>The recommendation of Superintendent Norris.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 7</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following expressions as need correction. +If apostrophes are omitted, insert them in the proper places:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He walked to the precipices edge.</li> +<li>Both John and William's books were lost.</li> +<li><a name="page_12"><span class="page">Page 12</span></a> +They sell boy's hats and mens' coats.</li> +<li>My friends' umbrella was stolen.</li> +<li>I shall buy a hat at Wanamaker's & Brown's.</li> +<li>This student's lessons.</li> +<li>These students books.</li> +<li>My daughters coming.</li> +<li>John's wife's cousin.</li> +<li>My son's wife's aunt.</li> +<li>Five years imprisonment under Texas's law.</li> +<li>John's books and Williams.</li> +<li>The Democrat's and Republican Convention.</li> +<li>France's and England's interests differ widely.</li> +<li>The moons' face was hidden.</li> +<li>Wine is made from the grape's juice.</li> +<li>Morton, the principals, signature.</li> +<li>Jones & Smith, the lawyers, office.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +16. <b>Gender.</b> Gender in grammar is the quality of nouns or +pronouns that denotes the sex of the person or thing represented. +Those nouns or pronouns meaning males are in the <b>Masculine +Gender</b>. Those meaning females are in the <b>Feminine Gender</b>. +Those referring to things without sex are in the <b>Neuter Gender</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In nouns gender is of little consequence. The only regular inflection +is the addition of the syllable-<i>ess</i> to certain masculine +nouns to denote the change to the feminine gender; as, <i>author, +authoress; poet, poetess</i>. -I<i>x</i> is also sometimes added +for the same purpose; as, <i>administrator, administratrix</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The feminine forms were formerly much used, but their use is now +being discontinued, and the noun of masculine gender used to designate +both sexes. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_13"><span class="page">Page 13</span></a> +CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">PRONOUNS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>17. Pronoun and Antecedent.</b> A <b>Pronoun</b> is a word used +instead of a noun. The noun in whose stead it stands is called its +<b>Antecedent</b>. <i><b>John</b> took Mary's <b>book</b> and gave +<b>it</b> to <b>his</b> friend</i>. In this sentence <i>book</i> +is the antecedent of the pronoun <i>it</i>, and <i>John</i> is the +antecedent of <i>his</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>18. Pronouns should agree with their antecedents in person, gender, +and number.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>19. Personal Pronouns</b> are those that by their form indicate +the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken +about. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pronouns of the <b>First Person</b> indicate the speaker; they are: +<i>I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pronouns of the <b>Second Person</b> indicate the person or thing +spoken to; they are: <i>you, your, yours</i>. There are also the +grave or solemn forms in the second person, which are now little +used; these are: <i>thou, thee, thy, thine</i>, and <i>ye</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Pronouns of the <b>Third Person</b> indicate the person or thing +spoken of; they are: <i>he, his, him, she, her, hers, they, their, +theirs, them, it, its</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Few errors are made in the use of the proper person of the pronoun. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>20. Gender of Pronouns.</b> The following pronouns indicate +sex or gender; Masculine: <i>he, his, him</i>. Feminine: <i>she, +her, hers</i>. Neuter: <i>it, its</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>In order to secure agreement in gender it is necessary to know +the gender of the noun, expressed or understood, to which the pronoun +refers.</b> Gender of nouns is important only so far as it concerns +the use of pronouns. Study carefully the <a name="page_14"><span +class="page">Page 14</span></a> following rules in regard to gender. +These rules apply to the singular number only, since all plurals +of whatever gender are referred to by <i>they, their, theirs</i>, +etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The following rules govern the gender of pronouns:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Masculine;</b> referred to by <b><i>he, his</i></b>, and +<b><i>him</i></b>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Nouns denoting males are always masculine. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns denoting things remarkable for strength, power, sublimity, +or size, when those things are regarded as if they were persons, +are masculine; <i>as, <b>Winter</b>, with <b>his</b> chilly army, +destroyed them all</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Singular nouns denoting persons of both sexes are masculine; +as, <i><b>Every one</b> brought <b>his</b> umbrella</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Feminine;</b> referred to by <b><i>she, her</i></b>, or +<b><i>hers</i></b>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Nouns denoting females are always feminine. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns denoting objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and +peace, when spoken of as if they were persons, are feminine; as, +<i><b>Sleep</b> healed him with <b>her</b> fostering care</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Neuter;</b> referred to by <b><i>it</i></b> and <b><i>its</i></b>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Nouns denoting objects without sex are neuter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Nouns denoting objects whose sex is disregarded are neuter; +as, <i><b>It</b> is a pretty child, The <b>wolf</b> is the most +savage of <b>its</b> race</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Collective nouns referring to a group of individuals as a unit +are neuter; as, <i>The <b>jury</b> gives its <b>verdict</b>, The +<b>committee</b> makes <b>its</b> report</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An animal named may be regarded as masculine; feminine, or neuter, +according to the characteristics the writer fancies it to possess; +as, <i>The <b>wolf</b> seeks <b>his</b> prey, The <b>mouse</b> +nibbled <b>her</b> way into the box, The <b>bird</b> seeks <b>its</b> +nest.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Certain nouns may be applied to persons of either sex. They are +then said to be of <b>Common Gender</b>. There are no pronouns +of common gender; hence those nouns are referred to as follows: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. By masculine pronouns when known to denote males; as, <i><b>My +class-mate</b></i> (known to be Harry) <i>is taking <b>his</b> +examinations</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. By feminine pronouns when known to denote females; as, <i><b>Each +of the pupils</b> of the Girls High School brought <b>her</b> book.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_15"><span class="page">Page 15</span></a> 3. By masculine +pronouns when there is nothing in the connection of the thought to +show the sex of the object; as, <i>Let every <b>person</b> bring +his book</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>21. Number of Pronouns.</b> A more common source of error than +disagreement in gender is disagreement in number. <i>They, their, +theirs</i>, and <i>them</i> are plural, but are often improperly +used when only singular pronouns should be used. The cause of the +error is failure to realize the true antecedent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>If <b>anybody</b> makes that statement, <b>they</b> are +misinformed</i>. This sentence is wrong. <i>Anybody</i> refers +to only one person; both <i>any</i> and <i>body</i>, the parts +of the word, denote the singular. The sentence should read, <i>If +<b>anybody</b> makes that statement, <b>he</b> is misinformed.</i> +Similarly, <i>Let <b>everybody</b> keep <b>their</b> peace</i>, +should read, <i>Let <b>everybody</b> keep <b>his</b> peace.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>22. Compound Antecedents.</b> Two or more antecedents connected +by <i>or</i> or <i>nor</i> are frequently referred to by the plural +when the singular should be used. <i>Neither John nor James brought +<b>their</b> books</i>, should read, <i>Neither John nor James +brought <b>his</b> books</i>. When a pronoun has two or more singular +antecedents connected by <i>or</i> or <i>nor</i>, the pronoun must +be in the singular number; but if one of the antecedents is plural, +the pronoun must, also, be in the plural; as, <i>Neither the Mormon +nor his wives denied <b>their</b> religion</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by <i>and</i>, +the pronoun must be in the plural number; as, <i>John and James +brought <b>their</b> books</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Further treatment of number will be given under verbs. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 8</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the proper +pronouns. See that there is agreement in person, gender, and number:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Has everybody finished —— work.</li> +<li>If any one wishes a longer time, let —— hold up + —— hand.</li> +<li>The panther sprang from —— lurking place.</li> +<li><a name="page_16"><span class="page">Page 16</span></a> + Many a man has (have) lost —— money in speculation.</li> +<li>The cat came each day for —— bit of meat.</li> +<li>Everyone has to prove —— right to a seat.</li> +<li>Let every boy answer for —— self (selves).</li> +<li>The crowd was so great that we could hardly get through + ——.</li> +<li>Let any boy guess this riddle if —— can.</li> +<li>Company H was greatly reduced in —— numbers.</li> +<li>Every animal has some weapon with which —— can defend + ——self (selves).</li> +<li>Nowhere does each dare do as —— pleases (please).</li> +<li>The elephant placed —— great foot on the man's chest.</li> +<li>The child did not know —— mother.</li> +<li>Death gathers —— unfailing harvest.</li> +<li>Every kind of animal has —— natural enemies.</li> +<li>The committee instructed —— chairman to report the + matter.</li> +<li>Two men were present, but neither would tell what —— + saw.</li> +<li>Truth always triumphs over —— enemies.</li> +<li>Nobody did —— duty more readily than I.</li> +<li>The cat never fails to catch —— prey.</li> +<li>I have used both blue crayon and red crayon, but —— + does (do) not write so clearly as white.</li> +<li>If John and Henry whisper (whispers) —— will be + punished.</li> +<li>If John or Henry whisper (whispers) —— will be + punished.</li> +<li>Both Columbus and Cabot failed to realize the importance + of —— discoveries.</li> +<li>Neither the lawyer nor the sheriff liked —— task.</li> +<li>The canary longed to escape from —— cage.</li> +<li>The rat ran to —— hole.</li> +<li>The dog seemed to know —— master was dead.</li> +<li>Everyone should try to gather a host of friends about + ——.</li> +<li>If any one wishes to see me, send —— to the Pierce + Building.</li> +<li>Probably everybody is discouraged at least once in —— + life.</li> +<li>Nobody should deceive ——selves (self).</li> +<li>Let each take —— own seat.</li> +<li>Let each girl in the class bring —— book.</li> +<li>Let each bring —— book.</li> +<li>Let each bring —— sewing.</li> +<li><a name="page_17"><span class="page">Page 17</span></a> + The fox dropped —— meat in the pool.</li> +<li>The rock lay on —— side.</li> +<li>Let sleep enter with —— healing touch.</li> +<li>Each believed that —— had been elected a delegate to the + Mother's Congress.</li> +<li>Consumption demands each year —— thousands of victims.</li> +<li>Summer arrays ——self (selves) with flowers.</li> +<li>Despair seized him in —— powerful grasp.</li> +<li>If any boy or any girl finds the book, let —— bring + it to me.</li> +<li>Let every man and every woman speak ——mind.</li> +<li>Spring set forth —— beauties.</li> +<li>How does the mouse save —— self (selves) from being + caught?</li> +<li>The hen cackled —— loudest.</li> +<li>Some man or boy lost —— hat.</li> +<li>John or James will favor us with —— company.</li> +<li>Neither the captain nor the soldiers showed ——self + (selves) during the fight.</li> +<li>If the boys or their father come we shall be glad to see + ——.</li> +<li>Every man and every boy received —— dinner.</li> +<li>Every man or boy gave —— offering.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 9</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>By what gender of the pronouns would you refer to the following +nouns?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Snake, death, care, mercy, fox, bear, walrus, child, baby, friend +(uncertain sex), friend (known to be Mary), everybody, someone, +artist, flower, moon, sun, sorrow, fate, student, foreigner, Harvard +University, earth, Germany? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>23. Relative Pronouns.</b> Relative Pronouns are pronouns used +to introduce adjective or noun clauses that are not interrogative. +In the sentence, <i>The man <b>that I mentioned</b> has come</i>, +the relative clause, <i>that I mentioned</i>, is an adjective clause +modifying <i>man</i>. In the sentence, <i><b>Whom she means</b>, +I do not know</i>, the relative clause is, <i>whom she means</i>, +and is a noun clause forming the object of the verb <i>know</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_18"><span class="page">Page 18</span></a> The relative +pronouns are <i>who</i> (<i>whose, whom</i>), <i>which, that</i> +and <i>what</i>. <i>But</i> and <i>as</i> are sometimes relative +pronouns. There are, also, compound relative pronouns, which will +be mentioned later. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>24.</b> <i>Who</i> (with its possessive and objective forms, +<i>whose</i> and <i>whom</i>) should be used when the antecedent +denotes persons. When the antecedent denotes things or animals, +<i>which</i> should be used. <i>That</i> may be used with antecedents +denoting persons, animals or things, and is the proper relative +to use when the antecedent includes both persons and things. +<i>What</i>, when used as a relative, seldom properly refers to +persons. It always introduces a substantive clause, and is equivalent +to <i>that which</i>; as, <i>It is <b>what</b> (that which) he +wants</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>25.</b> <i>That</i> is known as the <b>Restrictive Relative</b>, +because it should be used whenever the relative clause limits the +substantive, unless <i>who</i> or <i>which</i> is of more pleasing +sound in the sentence. In the sentence, <i>He is the man <b>that +did the act</b></i>, the relative clause, <i>that did the act</i>, +defines what is meant by man; without the relative clause the sentence +clearly would be incomplete. Similarly, in the sentence, <i>The book +<b>that I want</b> is that red-backed history</i>, the restrictive +relative clause is, <i>that <b>I</b> want</i>, and limits the +application of <i>book</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>26.</b> <i>Who</i> and <i>which</i> are known as the +<b>Explanatory</b> or <b>Non-Restrictive Relatives</b>, and should +be used ordinarily only to introduce relative clauses which add some +new thought to the author's principal thought. <i>Spanish, <b>which +is the least complex language</b>, is the easiest to learn</i>. In +this sentence the principal thought is, <i>Spanish is the easiest +language to learn</i>. The relative clause, <i>which is the least +complex language</i>, is a thought, which, though not fully so +important as the principal thought, is more nearly coördinate +than subordinate in its value. It adds an additional thought of +the speaker explaining the character of the Spanish language. When +<i>who</i> and <i>which</i> are thus used as explanatory relatives, +we see <a name="page_19"><span class="page">Page 19</span></a> that +the relative clause may be omitted without making the sentence +incomplete. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Compare the following sentences: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Explanatory relative clause: That book, <i>which is about history</i>, +has a red cover. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Restrictive relative clause: The book <i>that is about history</i> +has a red cover. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Explanatory relative clause: Lincoln, <i>who was one of the world's +greatest men</i>, was killed by Booth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Restrictive relative clause: The Lincoln <i>that was killed by Booth</i> +was one of the world's greatest men. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—See +§111, for rule as to the punctuation of relative clauses. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>27. Interrogative Pronouns.</b> An Interrogative Pronoun is a +pronoun used to ask a question. The interrogative pronouns are, +<i>who</i> (<i>whose, whom</i>), <i>which</i>, and <i>what</i>. In +respect to antecedents, <i>who</i> should be used only in reference +to persons; <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> may be used with any +antecedent, persons, animals, or things. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 10</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the proper relative or interrogative pronoun to be inserted +in each of the following sentences. Insert commas where they are +needed.</i> (<i>See</i> <b>§111</b>): +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The kindly physician —— was so greatly loved is dead.</li> +<li>This is the man —— all are praising.</li> +<li>John —— is my coachman is sick.</li> +<li>The intelligence —— he displayed was remarkable.</li> +<li>Intelligence —— he had hitherto not manifested now + showed its presence.</li> +<li>He maintains that the book —— you used is now ruined. + (Does <i>which</i> or <i>that</i> have the more pleasing sound + here?)</li> +<li>The pleasure —— education gives the man —— + has it is a sufficient reward for the trouble —— it has + cost.</li> +<li>That man —— wears a cap is a foreigner.</li> +<li>The best hotel is the one —— is nearest the station. + <a name="page_20"><span class="page">Page 20</span></a></li> +<li>Who is it —— is worthy of that honor?</li> +<li>The carriages and the drivers —— you ordered yesterday + have arrived.</li> +<li>—— thing is it —— you want?</li> +<li>He purchased —— he wished.</li> +<li>There is no cloud —— has not its silver lining.</li> +<li>It is the same dog —— I bought.</li> +<li>The man and horse —— you see pass here every + afternoon.</li> +<li>—— did they seek?</li> +<li>They inquired —— he was going to do.</li> +<li>Who was it —— lost the book?</li> +<li>The man —— was a Frenchman was very much excited.</li> +<li>It is neither the party nor its candidate —— gains + support.</li> +<li>That is a characteristic —— makes him seem almost + rude.</li> +<li>It is the same tool —— I used all day.</li> +<li>He is a man —— inspires little confidence.</li> +<li>—— does he expect of us?</li> +<li>It is just such a thing —— I need.</li> +<li>There are few —— will vote for him.</li> +<li>The wagon and children —— you just saw came from our + town.</li> +<li>He —— writes out his lesson does all —— + can be expected.</li> +<li>Was it you or the cat —— made that noise?</li> +<li>It is the same song —— he always sings.</li> +<li>Such —— I have is yours.</li> +<li>All the men and horses —— we had were lost.</li> +<li>That is —— pleased me most and —— + everyone talked about.</li> +<li>The horse was one —— I had never ridden before.</li> +<li>That is —— everyone said.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>28. Case Forms of Pronouns.</b> Some personal, relative, and +interrogative pronouns have distinctive forms for the different +cases, and the failure to use the proper case forms in the sentence +is one of the most frequent sources of error. The case to be used is +to be determined by the use which the pronoun, not its antecedent, +has in the sentence. In the sentence, <i>I name <b>him</b></i>, +note that <i>him</i> is the object of the verb <i>name</i>. In +the sentence, <i><b>Whom</b> do you seek</i>, although coming at +the <a name="page_21"><span class="page">Page 21</span></a> first +of the sentence, <i>whom</i> is grammatically the object of the +verb <i>seek</i>. In the use of pronouns comes the most important +need for a knowledge of when to use the different cases. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Note the following different case forms of pronouns: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Nominative: <i>I, we, you, thou, ye, he, she, they, it, who</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Objective: <i>me, us, you, thee, ye, him, her, it, them, whom</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Possessive: <i>my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, +her, hers, its, their, theirs, whose</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It will be noted that, while some forms are the same in both the +nominative and objective cases, <b><i>I, we, he, she, they, thou</i>, +and <i>who</i> are only proper where the nominative case should be +used. <i>Me, us, him, them, thee, whom</i>, and <i>her</i></b>, +except when <i>her</i> is possessive, <b>are only proper when the +objective case is demanded</b>. These forms must be remembered. +It is only with these pronouns that mistakes are made in the use +of the nominative and objective cases. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>29. The following outline explains the use of the different +case forms of the pronouns.</b> The outline should be mastered. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The Nominative Case should be used:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. When the noun or pronoun is the subject of a finite verb; that +is, a verb other than an infinitive. See 3 under Objective Case. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When it is an attribute complement. An attribute complement, as +explained in Chapter I, is a word used in the predicate explaining or +stating something about the subject. Examples: <i>It is <b>I</b>, The +man was <b>he</b>, The people were <b>they</b> of whom we spoke.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When it is used without relation to any other part of speech, +as in direct address or exclamation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The Objective Case should be used:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. When the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb; as, <i>He +named <b>me</b>, She deceived <b>them</b>, They watch <b>us</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When it is the object of a preposition, expressed or understood: +as, <i>He spoke of <b>me</b>, For <b>whom</b> do you take me, He +told (to) <b>me</b> a story.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When it is the subject of an infinitive; as, <i>I told <b>him</b> +to go, I desire <b>her</b> to hope</i>. The infinitives are the +parts of the verb preceded by <i>to</i>; as, <i>to go, to see, to +be, to have been seen</i>, etc. The sign <a name="page_22"><span +class="page">Page 22</span></a> of the infinitive, to, is not always +expressed. The objective case is, nevertheless, used; as, <i>Let +<b>him</b> (to) go, Have <b>her</b> (to be) told about it.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When it is an attribute complement of an expressed subject of the +infinitive <i>to be</i>; as, <i>They believed her to be <b>me</b>, +He denied it to have been him</i>. (See Note 2 below.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>The Possessive Case should be used:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When the word is used as a possessive modifier; as, <i>They spoke +of <b>her</b> being present, The book is <b>his</b> (book), It +is <b>their</b> fault.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note 1.</span>—When +a substantive is placed by the side of another substantive and is +used to explain it, it is said to be in <b>Apposition</b> with that +other substantive and takes the case of that word; as, <i>It</i> +was given <i>to John Smith, <b>him</b> whom you see there.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note 2.</span>—The +attribute complement should always have the case of that subject +of the verb which is expressed in the sentence. Thus, in the +sentence, <i>I could not wish John to be <b>him</b>, him</i> is +properly in the objective case, since there is an expressed +subject of the infinitive, <i>John</i>, which is in the objective +case. But in the sentence, <i>I should hate to be <b>he</b>, he</i> +is properly in the nominative case, since the only subject that +is expressed in the sentence is <i>I</i>, in the nominative case. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note 3.</span>—Where +the relative pronoun <i>who (whom)</i> is the subject of a clause +that itself is the object clause of a verb or a preposition, it is +always in the nominative case. Thus the following sentences are +both correct: <i>I delivered it to <b>who</b> owned it, Bring home +<b>whoever</b> will come with you.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 11</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences illustrating the correct use of each of the following +pronouns:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I, whom, who, we, me, us, they, whose, theirs, them, she, him, he, +its, mine, our, thee, thou. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 12</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences choose the proper form from the words +in italics:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>My brother and <i>I me</i> drove to the east end of the town.</li> +<li>Between you and <i>I me</i> things are doubtful. + <a name="page_23"><span class="page">Page 23</span></a></li> +<li>May James and <i>I me</i> go to the circus?</li> +<li>Will you permit James and <i>I me</i> to go to the play?</li> +<li>Who made that noise? Only <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>He introduced us all, <i>I me</i> among the rest.</li> +<li>He promised to bring candy to Helen and <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>Was it <i>I me</i> that you asked for?</li> +<li>Who spoke? <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>I am taken to be <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>No, it could not have been <i>me I</i>.</li> +<li>All have gone but you and <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>You suffer more than <i>me I</i>.</li> +<li>Everyone has failed in the examination except you and + <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>He asked you and <i>I me</i> to come to his office.</li> +<li>See if there is any mail for Mary and <i>me I</i>.</li> +<li>Neither you nor <i>I me</i> can teach the class.</li> +<li>They think it to be <i>I me</i>.</li> +<li>This is the student <i>whom who</i> all are praising.</li> +<li>The one that is <i>he him</i> wears a brown hat.</li> +<li>He is a man <i>who whom</i> all admired.</li> +<li>He is one of those men <i>who whom</i> we call snobs.</li> +<li>I did not see that it was <i>her she</i>.</li> +<li>It is in fact <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>He still believes it to be <i>them they</i>.</li> +<li>Between you and <i>I me</i>, it is my opinion that <i>him he</i> + and John will disagree.</li> +<li>We saw John and <i>she her</i>; we know it was <i>them they</i>.</li> +<li>I did not speak of either you or <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>Our cousins and <i>we us</i> are going to the Art Gallery.</li> +<li>Aunt Mary has asked our cousins and <i>us we</i> to take dinner at + her house.</li> +<li>They are more eager than <i>we us</i> since they have not seen her + for a long time.</li> +<li>It could not have been <i>we us who whom</i> you suspected.</li> +<li><i>We us</i> boys are going to the ball game.</li> +<li>They sent letters to all <i>who whom</i> they thought would + contribute.</li> +<li>This money was given by John <i>who whom</i> you know is very + stingy. + <a name="page_24"><span class="page">Page 24</span></a></li> +<li>The superintendent, <i>who whom</i>, I cannot doubt, is + responsible</li> +<li>for this error, must be discharged.</li> +<li>The teacher told you and <i>I me</i> to stay.</li> +<li>The teacher told you and <i>him he</i> to stay.</li> +<li>The teacher told you and <i>she her</i> to stay.</li> +<li>There are many miles between England and <i>we us</i>.</li> +<li>They can't play the game better than <i>we us</i>.</li> +<li>It is unpleasant for such as <i>they them</i> to witness such + things.</li> +<li>Between a teacher and <i>he him who whom</i> he teaches there is + sometimes a strong fellowship.</li> +<li>You are nearly as strong as <i>him he</i>.</li> +<li>All were present but John and <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>Father believed it was <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>Mother knew it to be <i>her she</i>.</li> +<li>It was either <i>he him</i> or <i>she her</i> that called.</li> +<li>Because of <i>his him</i> being young, they tried to shield + him.</li> +<li>It was <i>he him who whom</i> the manager said ought to be + promoted.</li> +<li>The throne was held by a king <i>who whom</i> historians believe + to have been insane.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did he say the man was?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did he say the judge suspected?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you consider to be the brightest man?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you think is the brightest man?</li> +<li>He cannot learn from such as <i>thou thee</i>.</li> +<li>If they only rob such as <i>thou thee</i>, they are honest.</li> +<li>What dost <i>thou thee</i> know?</li> +<li>They do tell <i>thee thou</i> the truth.</li> +<li>She told John and <i>me I</i> to study.</li> +<li>My father allowed my brother and <i>her she</i> to go.</li> +<li>My brother and <i>she her</i> were allowed to go by my father.</li> +<li>Turn not away from <i>him he</i> that is needy.</li> +<li>Neither Frances nor <i>she her</i> was at fault.</li> +<li>The property goes to <i>they them</i>.</li> +<li>He thought it was <i>her she</i>, but it was <i>him he</i> and + William who did it.</li> +<li>It was through <i>she her</i> that word came to <i>me I</i>. + <a name="page_25"><span class="page">Page 25</span></a></li> +<li>I thought it was <i>her she</i>.</li> +<li>I wish you were more like <i>he him</i>.</li> +<li>I thought it to be <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>It seems to be <i>he</i>. I should hate to be <i>he</i>. I should + like to be <i>he</i> or <i>she</i>. (All these sentences are in + the correct form.)</li> +<li>He is a man in <i>whom who</i> I have little faith.</li> +<li>You are as skillful as <i>she her</i>.</li> +<li>We escorted her mother and <i>her she</i> to the station.</li> +<li><i>She her</i> and <i>I me</i> are going on the boat.</li> +<li>If any are late it will not be <i>us we</i>.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> are you going to collect it from?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do men say that he is?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you think <i>him he</i> to be?</li> +<li><i>They them</i> and their children have gone abroad.</li> +<li>It was not <i>they them</i>.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> am I said to be?</li> +<li>I do not know to <i>who whom</i> to direct him.</li> +<li>How can one tell <i>who whom</i> is at home now?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> is that for?</li> +<li>Choose <i>who whom</i> you please.</li> +<li>Do you think <i>I me</i> to be <i>her she who whom</i> you call + Kate?</li> +<li>Some <i>who whom</i> their friends expected were kept away.</li> +<li>Give it to <i>who whom</i> seems to want it most.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you think I saw there?</li> +<li>I hope it was <i>she her who whom</i> we saw.</li> +<li>It could not have been <i>him he</i>.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did you say did it?</li> +<li>Let <i>them they</i> come at once.</li> +<li>The man on <i>who whom</i> I relied was absent.</li> +<li>I know it was <i>they them who whom</i> did it.</li> +<li>Will he let <i>us we</i> go?</li> +<li>It came from <i>they them who whom</i> should not have sent it.</li> +<li>It was not <i>us we</i> from <i>who whom</i> it came.</li> +<li>Can it be <i>she her</i>?</li> +<li><i>Thou thee</i> art mistaken.</li> +<li>Let me tell <i>thee thou, thee thou</i> wilt do wrong.</li> +<li>Send <i>who whom</i> wants the pass to me.</li> +<li>Tell <i>who whom</i> you choose to come. + <a name="page_26"><span class="page">Page 26</span></a></li> +<li>Is he the man for <i>who whom</i> the city is named?</li> +<li>The book is for <i>who whom</i> needs it.</li> +<li>I do not know <i>who whom</i> the book is for.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>30.</b> The <b>Compound Personal Pronouns</b> are formed by +adding <i>self</i> or <i>selves</i> to certain of the objective +and possessive personal pronouns; as, <i>herself, myself, itself, +themselves</i>, etc. They are used to add emphasis to an expression; +as, <i>I, <b>myself</b>, did it, He, <b>himself</b>, said so.</i> +They are also used reflexively after verbs and prepositions; as, +<i>He mentioned <b>himself</b>, He did it for <b>himself</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The compound personal pronouns should generally be confined to +their emphatic and reflexive use. Do not say, <i><b>Myself</b> and +John will come</i>, but, <i>John and <b>I</b> will come</i>. Do +not say, <i>They invited John and <b>myself</b></i>, but, <i>They +invited John and <b>me</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The compound personal pronouns have no possessive forms; but for +the sake of emphasis <i>own</i> with the ordinary possessive form +is used; as, <i>I have my <b>own</b> book, Bring your <b>own</b> +work, He has a home of his <b>own</b>.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>31.</b> There are no such forms as <i>hisself, your'n, his'n, +her'n, theirself, theirselves, their'n</i>. In place of these use +simply <i>his, her, their</i>, or <i>your</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 13</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the following +simple and compound personal pronouns:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Myself, me, I, them, themselves, him, himself, her, herself, itself, +our, ourselves. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 14</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the correct form in the following sentences. Punctuate +properly.</i> (<i>See</i> <b>§108</b>): +</p> + +<ol> +<li><i>Yourself you</i> and John were mentioned</li> +<li>She told Mary and <i>me myself</i> to go with <i>her herself</i>.</li> +<li>The book is for <i>you yourself</i> and <i>I me myself</i>. + <a name="page_27"><span class="page">Page 27</span></a></li> +<li>Henry and <i>I me myself</i> are in the same class.</li> +<li>He thinks <i>you yourself</i> and <i>I me myself</i> should bring + the books.</li> +<li>Our friends and <i>we us ourselves</i> are going out to-night.</li> +<li><i>Herself she</i> and her husband have been sick.</li> +<li><i>They themselves</i> and their children have gone abroad.</li> +<li>You play the violin better than <i>he himself</i>.</li> +<li>The machine failed to work well, because <i>it itself</i> and the + engine were not properly adjusted to each other.</li> +<li>Let them do it <i>theirselves themselves</i>.</li> +<li>He came by <i>hisself himself</i>.</li> +<li>The teacher <i>hisself himself</i> could not have done better.</li> +<li>I'll bring my gun, and you bring <i>your'n yours your</i> own.</li> +<li>That book is <i>his'n his</i>.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 15</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic +or reflexive forms. Punctuate properly.</i> (<i>See</i> +<b>§108</b>): +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He —— said so.</li> +<li>I —— will do it.</li> +<li>We —— will look after her.</li> +<li>That, I tell you, is —— book.</li> +<li>It belongs to me ——.</li> +<li>Those books are my ——.</li> +<li>Let them —— pay for it.</li> +<li>The horse is to be for —— use.</li> +<li>The horse is to be for the use of ——.</li> +<li>He said it to ——.</li> +<li>He deceived ——.</li> +<li>I do not wish —— to be prominent.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>32.</b> The <b>Compound Relative Pronouns</b> are formed by adding +<i>ever, so</i>, or <i>soever</i> to the relative pronouns, <i>who, +which</i>, and <i>what</i>; as, <i>whoever, whatever, whomever, +whosoever, whoso, whosoever</i>, etc. It will be noted that <i>whoever, +whosoever</i>, and <i>whoso</i> have objective forms, <i>whomever, +whomsoever</i>, and <i>whomso</i>; and possessive forms, <i>whosoever, +whosesoever</i>, and <a name="page_28"><span class="page">Page +28</span></a> <i>whoseso</i>. These forms must be used whenever +the objective or possessive case is demanded. Thus, one should +say, <i>I will give it to <b>whomever</b> I find there</i>. (See +<b>§29</b> and Note 3.) +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 16</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound +relatives:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>We will refer the question to —— you may name.</li> +<li>—— it may have been, it was not he.</li> +<li>I shall receive presents from —— I wish.</li> +<li>It was between him and —— was with him.</li> +<li>—— they may choose, I will not vote for him.</li> +<li>Let them name —— they think will win.</li> +<li>Give it to —— you think needs it most.</li> +<li>He may take —— he cares to.</li> +<li>He will take —— property he finds there.</li> +<li>He promised to ask the question of —— he found there.</li> +<li>—— can have done it?</li> +<li>—— else may be said, that is not true.</li> +<li>There are the two chairs; you may take —— you like.</li> +<li>—— you take will suit me.</li> +<li>You may have —— you wish.</li> +<li>—— is nominated, will you vote for him?</li> +<li>—— they nominate, I will vote for him.</li> +<li>—— does that is a partizan.</li> +<li>—— candidate is elected, I will be satisfied.</li> +<li>He may name —— he thinks best.</li> +<li>—— he says is worthy of attention.</li> +<li>—— she takes after, she is honest.</li> +<li>—— follows him will be sorry.</li> +<li>—— he may be, he is no gentleman.</li> +<li>—— they do is praised.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>33.</b> There are certain words, called <b>Adjective Pronouns</b>, +which are regarded as pronouns, because, although they are properly +adjective in their meaning, the nouns which they modify are never +expressed; as, <i>One</i> (there is a possessive form, <a +name="page_29"><span class="page">Page 29</span></a> <i>one's</i>, +and a plural form, <i>ones</i>), <i>none, this, that, these, those, +other, former, some, few, many</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>34. Some miscellaneous cautions in the use of pronouns:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. The pronoun <i>I</i> should always be capitalized, and should, +when used as part of a compound subject, be placed second; as, +<i>James and I were present, not I and James were present</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns in +the same sentence; as, <i><b>Thou</b> wilt do this whether <b>you</b> +wish or not</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary; +as, <i>John, <b>he</b> did it, or Mary, <b>she</b> said</i>. This +is a frequent error in speech. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. Note the +uncertainty in the following sentence; <i>He sent a box of cheese, +and <b>it</b> was made of wood</i>. The antecedent of <i>it</i> is +not clear. Again, <i>A man told his son to take <b>his</b> coat +home</i>. The antecedent of <i>his</i> is very uncertain. Such +errors are frequent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing +the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. +Note the following sentence: <i>A cat was found in the <b>yard +which</b> wore a blue ribbon</i>. The grammatical inference would +be that the yard wore the blue ribbon. The sentence might be changed +to, <i>A <b>cat, which</b> wore a blue ribbon, was found in the +yard</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same +relative pronoun to introduce them; as, <i>The book <b>that</b> +we found and the book <b>that</b> he lost are the same</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. Use <i>but that</i> when <i>but</i> is a conjunction and <i>that</i> +introduces a noun clause; as, <i>There is no doubt <b>but that</b> +he will go</i>. Use <i>but what</i> when <i>but</i> is a preposition +in the sense of <i>except</i>; as, <i>He has no money but (except) +<b>what</b> I gave him</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <i>Them</i> is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. +<i>Those</i> is the adjective which should be used in its place; +as, <i>Those people</i>, not, <i>Them people</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +8. Avoid using <i>you</i> and <i>they</i> indefinitely; as, +<i><b>You</b> seldom hear of such things, <b>They</b> make chairs +there</i>. Instead, say, <i><b>One</b> seldom hears of such things, +Chairs are made there</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +9. <i>Which</i> should not be used with a clause or phrase as its +antecedent. Both the following sentences are wrong: <i>He sent me +to see <a name="page_30"><span class="page">Page 30</span></a> +John, <b>which</b> I did. Their whispering became very loud, which +annoyed the preacher</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +10. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns, <i>its, +yours, theirs, ours</i> and <i>hers</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 17</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the +cautions above stated</i>: +</p> + +<ol> +<li>How can you say that when thou knowest better?</li> +<li>May I and Mary go to the concert?</li> +<li>He asked me to write to him, which I did.</li> +<li>Grant thou to us your blessing.</li> +<li>The train it was twenty minutes late.</li> +<li>Mother she said I might go.</li> +<li>Mary told her mother she was mistaken.</li> +<li>The man cannot leave his friend, for if he should leave him he + would be angry.</li> +<li>Sarah asked her aunt how old she was.</li> +<li>That is the man whom we named and that did it.</li> +<li>Mr. Jones went to Mr. Smith and told him that his dog was lost.</li> +<li>This is the book that we found and which he lost.</li> +<li>She told her sister that if she could not get to the city, she + thought she had better go home.</li> +<li>Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short.</li> +<li>Then Jack and George, they went home.</li> +<li>Bring them books here.</li> +<li>Them are all wrong.</li> +<li>There are no men in the room but that can be bought.</li> +<li>I have no doubt but what it was done.</li> +<li>Them there should be corrected.</li> +<li>I have faith in everything but that he says.</li> +<li>I have no fears but what it can be done.</li> +<li>Napoleon, he threw his armies across the Rhine.</li> +<li>Thou knowest not what you are doing.</li> +<li>It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon, which was done. + <a name="page_31"><span class="page">Page 31</span></a></li> +<li>A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes.</li> +<li>Keep them people out of here.</li> +<li>The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow.</li> +<li>She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like.</li> +<li>You never can tell about foreigners.</li> +<li>They say that is not true.</li> +<li>The cabin needed to be swept, which we did.</li> +<li>They use those methods in some schools.</li> +<li>It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white.</li> +<li>You can easily learn history if you have a good memory.</li> +<li>How can you tell but what it will rain?</li> +<li>He does everything but what he should do.</li> +<li>He has everything but that he needs.</li> +<li>It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen.</li> +<li>Aunt, she said that she didn't know but what she would go.</li> +<li>Tell I and John about it.</li> +<li>He went to his father and told him he had sinned.</li> +<li>Dost thou know what you doest?</li> +<li>It's appearance was deceitful.</li> +<li>The chair was also their's.</li> +<li>There is a slight difference between mine and your's.</li> +<li>Which of the two is her's?</li> +<li>They are both our's.</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_32"><span class="page">Page 32</span></a> +CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>35.</b> An <b>Adjective</b> is a word used to modify a noun +or a pronoun. An <b>Adverb</b> is a word used to modify a verb, +an adjective, or another adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very +closely related in both their forms and their use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>36. Comparison.</b> The variation of adjectives and adverbs +to indicate the degree of modification they express is called +<b>Comparison</b>. There are three degrees of comparison. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Positive Degree</b> indicates the mere possession of a quality; +as, <i>true, good, sweet, fast, lovely</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Comparative Degree</b> indicates a stronger degree of the +quality than the positive; as, <i>truer, sweeter, better, faster, +lovelier</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Superlative Degree</b> indicates the highest degree of quality; +as, <i>truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are +said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative +is formed by adding <i>er</i>, and the superlative by adding <i>est</i>. +If the word ends in <i>y</i>, the <i>y</i> is changed to <i>i</i> +before adding the ending; as, <i>pretty, prettier, prettiest</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most +of them are compared by the use of the adverbs <i>more</i> and +<i>most</i>, or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use +of <i>less</i> and <i>least</i>; as, <i>beautiful, more beautiful, +most beautiful</i>, and <i>less beautiful, least beautiful</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>37.</b> Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing +to entirely different words in the comparative and superlative. +Note the following: +<a name="page_33"><span class="page">Page 33</span></a> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td class="center">POSITIVE</td> + <td class="center">COMPARATIVE</td> + <td class="center">SUPERLATIVE</td></tr> + <tr><td>bad, ill, evil, badly</td> <td>worse</td> + <td>worst</td></tr> + <tr><td>far</td> <td>farther, further</td> + <td>farthest, furthest</td></tr> + <tr><td>forth</td> <td>further</td> <td>furthest</td></tr> + <tr><td>fore</td> <td>former</td> <td>foremost, first</td></tr> + <tr><td>good, well</td> <td>better</td> <td>best</td></tr> + <tr><td>hind</td> <td>hinder</td> <td>hindmost</td></tr> + <tr><td>late</td> <td>later, latter</td> <td>latest, last</td></tr> + <tr><td>little</td> <td>less</td> <td>least</td></tr> + <tr><td>much, many</td> <td>more</td> <td>most</td></tr> + <tr><td>old</td> <td>older, elder</td> <td>oldest, eldest</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—<i>Badly</i> +and <i>forth</i> may be used only as adverbs. <i>Well</i> is usually +an adverb; as, <i>He talks well</i>, but may be used as an adjective; +as, <i>He seems well</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>38. Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs.</b> An adjective is +often used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, +<i>She talks <b>foolish</b></i>, is wrong, because here the word +to be modified is <i>talks</i>, and since <i>talks</i> is a verb, +the adverb <i>foolishly</i> should be used. The sentence, <i>She +looks <b>charmingly</b></i>, means, as it stands, that her manner +of looking at a thing is charming. What is intended to be said is +that she appears as if she was a charming woman. To convey that +meaning, the adjective, <i>charming</i>, should have been used, +and the sentence should read, <i>She looks charming</i>. Wherever +the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, an +adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location +in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should +be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>39.</b> The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in +form. Thus, both the following sentences are correct: <i>He works +<b>hard</b></i> (adverb), and <i>His work is <b>hard</b></i> +(adjective). But, usually, where the adjective and the adverb correspond +at all, the adverb has the additional ending <i>ly</i>; as, <i>The +track is <b>smooth</b></i>, (adjective), and <i>The train runs +<b>smoothly</b></i>, (adverb). +</p> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_34"><span class="page">Page 34</span></a> +Exercise 18</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the +proper word to be used:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The sunset looks <i>beautiful beautifully</i>.</li> +<li>The man acted <i>strange strangely</i>.</li> +<li>Write <i>careful carefully</i> and speak <i>distinct + distinctly</i>.</li> +<li>Speak <i>slow slowly</i>.</li> +<li>He acted <i>bad badly</i>.</li> +<li>He behaved very <i>proper properly</i>.</li> +<li>The boat runs <i>smooth smoothly</i>.</li> +<li>He is a <i>remarkable remarkably</i> poor writer.</li> +<li>I am in <i>extremely extreme</i> good health.</li> +<li>The typewriter works <i>good well</i>.</li> +<li>The bird warbles <i>sweet sweetly</i>.</li> +<li>He was <i>terrible terribly</i> angry.</li> +<li>He was in a <i>terrible terribly</i> dangerous place.</li> +<li>He talks <i>plainer more plainly</i> than he ever did before.</li> +<li>The dead Roman looked <i>fierce fiercely</i>.</li> +<li>The fire burns <i>brilliant brilliantly</i>.</li> +<li>You are <i>exceeding exceedingly</i> generous.</li> +<li>He struggled <i>manful manfully</i> against the opposition.</li> +<li>My health is <i>poor poorly</i>.</li> +<li>He is sure surely a <i>fine fellow</i>.</li> +<li>Have everything <i>suitable suitably</i> decorated.</li> +<li>That can be done <i>easy easily</i>.</li> +<li>I can speak <i>easier more easily</i> than I can write.</li> +<li>The music of the orchestra was <i>decided decidedly</i> poor.</li> +<li>She is a <i>remarkable remarkably</i> beautiful girl.</li> +<li>The wind roared <i>awful awfully</i>.</li> +<li>The roar of the wind was <i>awful awfully</i>.</li> +<li>I have studied grammar <i>previous previously</i> to this year.</li> +<li>I didn't study because I felt too <i>bad badly</i> to read.</li> +<li>The roses smell <i>sweetly sweet</i>.</li> +<li>They felt very <i>bad badly</i> at being beaten.</li> +<li>That violin sounds <i>different differently</i> from this one.</li> +<li>The soldiers fought <i>gallant gallantly</i>. + <a name="page_35"><span class="page">Page 35</span></a></li> +<li>She looks <i>sweet sweetly</i> in that dress.</li> +<li>I can wear this coat <i>easy easily</i>.</li> +<li>Speak <i>gentle gently</i> to him.</li> +<li>He talks <i>warm warmly</i> on that subject.</li> +<li>He works <i>well good</i> and <i>steady steadily</i>.</li> +<li>He stood <i>thoughtful thoughtfully</i> for a moment and then + went <i>quiet quietly</i> to his tent.</li> +<li>He walked down the street <i>slow slowly</i>, but all the time + looked <i>eager eagerly</i> about him.</li> +<li>The music sounds <i>loud loudly</i>.</li> +<li>That coin rings <i>true truly</i>.</li> +<li>He looked <i>angry angrily</i> at his class.</li> +<li>He moved <i>silent silently</i> about in the crowd.</li> +<li>His coat fits <i>nice nicely</i>.</li> +<li>That is <i>easy easily</i> to do.</li> +<li>He went over the work very <i>thorough thoroughly</i>.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 19</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly +used. In every case show what they modify:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The water lay smooth in the lake.</li> +<li>She looked cold.</li> +<li>The train runs smoothly now.</li> +<li>The sun shone bright at the horizon.</li> +<li>The sun shone brightly all day.</li> +<li>She looks coldly about her.</li> +<li>Be careful in your study of these sentences.</li> +<li>Study these sentences carefully.</li> +<li>We found the way easy.</li> +<li>We found the way easily.</li> +<li>He looked good.</li> +<li>He looked well.</li> +<li>We arrived safe.</li> +<li>We arrived safely.</li> +<li>Speak gently.</li> +<li>Let your speech be gentle.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_36"><span class="page">Page 36</span></a> +Exercise 20</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, +cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, +eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>40. Improper Forms of Adjectives.</b> The wrong forms in the +following list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the +right forms: +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="center" style="width: 50%;">RIGHT</td> + <td class="center" style="width: 50%;">WRONG</td></tr> + <tr><td>everywhere</td><td>everywheres</td></tr> + <tr><td>not nearly</td><td>nowhere near</td></tr> + <tr><td>not at all</td><td>not much or not muchly</td></tr> + <tr><td>ill</td><td>illy</td></tr> + <tr><td>first</td><td>firstly</td></tr> + <tr><td>thus</td><td>thusly</td></tr> + <tr><td>much</td><td>muchly</td></tr> + <tr><td>unknown</td><td>unbeknown</td></tr> + <tr><td>complexioned</td><td>complected</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 21</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the errors in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She goes everywheres.</li> +<li>Hers is the most illy behaved child I know.</li> +<li>Not muchly will I go.</li> +<li>Use the lesser quantity first.</li> +<li>He is nowhere near so bright as John.</li> +<li>You do the problem thusly.</li> +<li>The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy.</li> +<li>They came unbeknown to me.</li> +<li>He is a dark complected man.</li> +<li>It all happened unbeknownst to them.</li> +<li>His vote was nowhere near so large as usual.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>41. Errors in comparison</b> are frequently made. Observe carefully +the following rules: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_37"><span class="page">Page 37</span></a> 1. The +superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. One +should say, <i>He is the <b>larger</b> of the two</i>, not <i>He +is the <b>largest</b> of the two</i>. But, <i>He is the largest +of the three</i>, is right. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express +absolute quality—adjectives that cannot be compared; as, +<i>round, perfect, equally, universal</i>. A thing may be <i>round</i> +or <i>perfect</i>, but it cannot be <i>more round</i> or <i>most +round</i>, <i>more perfect</i> or <i>most perfect</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be +included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the +superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to +say, <i>The discovery of America was <b>more important than any</b> +geographical discovery</i>, for that is saying that the discovery of +America was more important than itself—an absurdity. But it +would be right to say, <i>The discovery of America was more important +<b>than any other</b> geographical discovery</i>. One should not +say, <i>He is the most honest <b>of his</b> fellow-workmen</i>, +for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. One should say, <i>He is +more honest <b>than any</b> of his fellow-workmen</i>, or, <i>He +is the most honest <b>of all</b> the workmen</i>. To say, <i>This +machine is <b>better than any</b> machine</i>, is incorrect, but to +say, <i>This machine is better <b>than any other</b> machine</i>, +is correct. To say, <i>This machine is the <b>best of any</b> +machine</i> (or <i>any other machine</i>), is wrong, because all +machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. To say, <i>This +machine is the <b>best of</b> machines</i> (or <i>the best of all +machines</i>), is correct. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Note the following rules in regard to the use of <i>other</i> in +comparisons: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +a. After comparatives followed by <i>than</i> the words <i>any</i> +and <i>all</i> should be followed by <i>other</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +b. After superlatives followed by <i>of, any</i> and <i>other</i> +should not be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Avoid mixed comparisons. <i>John is as good, if not better than +she</i>. If the clause, <i>if not better</i>, were left out, this +<a name="page_38"><span class="page">Page 38</span></a> sentence +would read, <i>John is as good than she</i>. It could be corrected +to read, <i>John is as good <b>as</b>, if not better than she</i>. +Similarly, it is wrong to say, <i>He is one of the greatest, if +not the greatest, man in history</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 22</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the correct word from those italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The <i>older oldest</i> of the three boys was sick.</li> +<li>Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the <i>wealthiest wealthier</i>.</li> +<li>Of two burdens choose the <i>less least</i>.</li> +<li>Which can run the <i>fastest faster</i>, John or Henry?</li> +<li>Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the <i>first former</i> is + the <i>better best</i> known.</li> +<li>Which is the <i>larger largest</i> of the two?</li> +<li>Which is the <i>best better</i> of the six?</li> +<li>Which is the <i>larger largest</i> number, six or seven</li> +<li>Which is the <i>more most</i> desirable, health or wealth?</li> +<li>My mother is the <i>oldest older</i> of four sisters.</li> +<li>The <i>prettier prettiest</i> of the twins is the <i>brighter + brightest</i>.</li> +<li>This is the <i>duller dullest</i> season of the year.</li> +<li>The other is the <i>worse worst</i> behaved of the two.</li> +<li>Which was the <i>hotter hottest</i>, yesterday or to-day?</li> +<li>That is the <i>cleaner cleanest</i> of the three streets.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 23</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give +a valid reason for each correction:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He was the most active of all his friends.</li> +<li>He is the brightest of all his brothers.</li> +<li>Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest.</li> +<li>Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in + Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia.</li> +<li>That theory is more universally adopted.</li> +<li>He was, of all others, the most clever.</li> +<li>This apple is more perfect than that. + <a name="page_39"><span class="page">Page 39</span></a></li> +<li>No fruit is so good as the orange.</li> +<li>The orange is better than any fruit.</li> +<li>Of all other fruits the orange is the best.</li> +<li>The orange is the best of all the fruits.</li> +<li>The orange is better than any other fruit.</li> +<li>That is the most principal thing in the lesson.</li> +<li>Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity?</li> +<li>He was more active than any other of his companions.</li> +<li>This apple is rounder than that.</li> +<li>This apple is more nearly round than that.</li> +<li>Paris is the most famous of any other European city.</li> +<li>Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states.</li> +<li>No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States.</li> +<li>Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states.</li> +<li>New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in + the world.</li> +<li>That book is as good if not better than mine.</li> +<li>John is taller than any other boy in his classes.</li> +<li>John is taller than any boy in his class.</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of all other metals.</li> +<li>Iron is the more useful of the metals.</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of the metals.</li> +<li>Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest.</li> +<li>Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal.</li> +<li>He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in + the Senate.</li> +<li>That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>42. Singular and Plural Adjectives.</b> Some adjectives can +be used only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. +Such adjectives as <i>one, each, every</i>, etc., can be used only +with singular nouns. Such adjectives as <i>several, various, many, +sundry, two</i>, etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many +cases, the noun which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the +adjective thus acquires the force of a pronoun; as, <i><b>Few</b> +are seen, <b>Several</b> have come</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_40"><span class="page">Page 40</span></a> The adjective +pronouns <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> have plural forms, <i>these</i> +and <i>those</i>. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To +say <i>those kind</i> is then incorrect. It should be <i>those +kinds</i>. <i>Those sort of men</i> should be <i>that sort of men</i> +or <i>those sorts of men</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>43. Either and neither</b> are used to designate one of two +objects only. If more than two are referred to, use <i>any, none, +any one, no one</i>. Note the following correct sentences: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i><b>Neither</b> John nor Henry may go.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i><b>Any one</b> of the three boys may go.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>44. Each other</b> should be used when referring to two; <b>one +another</b> when referring to more than two. Note the following +correct sentences: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The two brothers love <b>each other</b>.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The four brothers love <b>one another</b>.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 24</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be +able to give reasons:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He is six foot tall.</li> +<li>I like those kind of fruit.</li> +<li>He lost several pound.</li> +<li>I have not seen him this twenty year.</li> +<li>Have you heard these news?</li> +<li>Are they those kind of people?</li> +<li>He rode ten mile.</li> +<li>There were fifteen car-load of people.</li> +<li>These kind of books are interesting.</li> +<li>Several phenomenon marked his character.</li> +<li>There are a few crisis in every man's career.</li> +<li>Each strata of the rock lies at an angle.</li> +<li>The poem has six verse in it.</li> +<li>Either of the five will do.</li> +<li>Little children should love each other.</li> +<li>Neither of the large cities in the United States is so + large as London.</li> +<li>You will be able to find it in either one of those three books. + <a name="page_41"><span class="page">Page 41</span></a></li> +<li>Those two brothers treat one another very coldly.</li> +<li>Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it.</li> +<li>Either law or medicine is his profession.</li> +<li>Some ten box of shoes were on the train.</li> +<li>Those two statements contradict one another.</li> +<li>The Sahara Desert has several oasis.</li> +<li>How can he associate with those sort of men?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>45. Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives.</b> In the placing of +adjective elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one +should so arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are +intended to modify. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: A man was riding on a <i>horse + wearing gray trousers</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: A <i>man wearing gray trousers</i> + was riding on a horse.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The adverb <i>only</i> requires especial attention. Generally +<i>only</i> should come before the word it is intended to modify. +Compare the following correct sentences, and note the differences +in meaning. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Only</i> he found the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He <i>only</i> found the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He found <i>only</i> the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He found the book <i>only</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The placing of the words, <i>almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely</i>, +and <i>quite</i>, also requires care and thought. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 25</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs +in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I only paid five dollars.</li> +<li>I have only done six problems.</li> +<li>The clothing business is only profitable in large towns.</li> +<li>The school is only open in the evening.</li> +<li>I only need ten minutes in which to do it.</li> +<li>He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke.</li> +<li>I never expect to see the like again.</li> +<li>A black base-ball player's suit was found. + <a name="page_42"><span class="page">Page 42</span></a></li> +<li>Do you ever remember to have seen the man before?</li> +<li>The building was trimmed with granite carved corners.</li> +<li>People ceased to wonder gradually.</li> +<li>The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch.</li> +<li>I never wish to think of it again.</li> +<li>On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia.</li> +<li>Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country.</li> +<li>He only spoke of history, not of art.</li> +<li>I know hardly what to say.</li> +<li>I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature.</li> +<li>The girls were nearly dressed in the same color.</li> +<li>He merely wanted to see you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>46. Double Negatives.</b> <i>I am here</i> is called an affirmative +statement. A denial of that, <i>I am not here</i>, is called a +negative statement. The words, <i>not, neither, never, none, +nothing</i>, etc., are all negative words; that is, they serve to +make denials of statements. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since +the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and an +affirmative is made where a negative is intended. <i>We haven't no +books</i>, means that we have some books. The proper negative form +would be, <i>We have no books</i>, or <i>We haven't any books</i>. +The mistake occurs usually where such forms as <i>isn't, don't, +haven't</i>, etc., are used. Examine the following sentences: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>It isn't no</i> use.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>don't none</i> of them + believe it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We <i>didn't</i> do + <i>nothing</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Hardly, scarcely, only</i>, and <i>but</i> (in the sense of +<i>only</i>) are often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare +the following right and wrong forms: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It was so dark that we <i>couldn't + hardly</i> see.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It was so dark that we <i>could + hardly</i> see.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-top: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>wasn't only</i> one person + present.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>was only</i> one person + present.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_43"><span class="page">Page 43</span></a> +Exercise 26</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Correct the following sentences: +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I can't find it nowhere.</li> +<li>For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was.</li> +<li>They are not allowed to go only on holidays.</li> +<li>There isn't but one person that can make the speech.</li> +<li>They didn't find no treasure.</li> +<li>It won't take but a few minutes to read it all.</li> +<li>I haven't seen but two men there.</li> +<li>There isn't no one here who knows it.</li> +<li>I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire.</li> +<li>I can't hardly prove that statement.</li> +<li>I didn't feel hardly able to go.</li> +<li>She couldn't stay only a week.</li> +<li>I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began.</li> +<li>You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done.</li> +<li>He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife.</li> +<li>There isn't nothing in the story.</li> +<li>He doesn't do nothing.</li> +<li>I can't think of nothing but that.</li> +<li>He can't hardly mean that.</li> +<li>He isn't nowhere near so bright as I.</li> +<li>He can't hardly come to-night.</li> +<li>It is better to not think nothing about it.</li> +<li>She can't only do that.</li> +<li>There isn't no use of his objecting to it.</li> +<li>There shan't none of them go along with us.</li> +<li>Don't never do that again.</li> +<li>We could not find but three specimens of the plant.</li> +<li>He wasn't scarcely able to walk.</li> +<li>He hasn't none of his work prepared.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>47. The Articles</b>. <i>A, an</i>, and <i>the</i>, are called +Articles. <i>A</i> and <i>an</i> are called the <b>Indefinite +Articles</b>, because they are used to limit the noun to any one +thing of a class; as, <i>a book, a chair</i>. But <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> +is not used to denote the whole of that <a name="page_44"><span +class="page">Page 44</span></a> class; as, <i>Silence is golden</i>, +or, <i>He was elected to the office of President</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The</i> is called the <b>Definite Article</b> because it picks +out some one definite individual from a class. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the sentence, <i>On the street are <b>a</b> brick and <b>a</b> +stone house</i>, the article is repeated before each adjective; +the effect of this repetition is to make the sentence mean two +houses. But, in the sentence, <i>On the street is <b>a</b> brick +and stone house</i>, since the article is used only before the +first of the two adjectives, the sentence means that there is only +one house and that it is constructed of brick and stone. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear +only before the first of the two; as, <i>God, the author and creator +of the universe</i>. But where the nouns refer to two different +objects, regarded as distinct from each other, the article should +appear before each; as, <i>He bought a horse and a cow</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>A</i> is used before all words except those beginning with a +vowel sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound <i>an</i> +is used. If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not +be used before all of the words, then the article must be repeated +before each. Thus, one should say, <i><b>An</b> ax, <b>a</b> saw, +and <b>an</b> adze</i> (not <i>An ax, saw and adze</i>), <i>made +up his outfit</i>. Generally it is better to repeat the article +in each case, whether or not it be the same. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not say, <i>kind of <b>a house</b></i>. Since <i>a house</i> +is singular, it can have but one kind. Say instead, a <i>kind of +house, a sort of man</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 27</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following where you think correction is needed:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Where did you get that kind of a notion?</li> +<li>She is an eager and an ambitious girl.</li> +<li>He received the degree of a Master of Arts.</li> +<li>The boy and girl came yesterday.</li> +<li>Neither the man nor woman was here.</li> +<li>He was accompanied by a large and small man. + <a name="page_45"><span class="page">Page 45</span></a></li> +<li>He planted an oak, maple and ash.</li> +<li>The third of the team were hurt.</li> +<li>The noun and verb will be discussed later.</li> +<li>I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper.</li> +<li>Read the third and sixth sentence.</li> +<li>Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical.</li> +<li>He is dying from the typhoid fever.</li> +<li>He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the + association.</li> +<li>What sort of a student are you?</li> +<li>He is a funny kind of a fellow.</li> +<li>Bring me a new and old chair.</li> +<li>That is a sort of a peculiar idea.</li> +<li>He was operated upon for the appendicitis.</li> +<li>Lock the cat and dog up.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>48.</b> No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the +sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when <i>very</i> +or <i>too</i> are used with past participles that are not also +recognized as adjectives; as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Poor: I am <i>very insulted</i>. He was <i>too wrapped</i> in thought +to notice the mistake. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: I am <i>very much insulted</i>. He was <i>too much wrapped</i> +in thought to notice the mistake. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 28</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. +Be sure that they are used correctly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, +charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, +very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, +only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_46"><span class="page">Page 46</span></a> +CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">VERBS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>49.</b> A <b>Verb</b> has already been defined as a word stating +something about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to +indicate the time of the action as past, present, or future; as, +<i>I talk, I talked, I shall talk</i>, etc. Verbs also vary to +indicate completed or incompleted action; as, <i>I have talked, +I shall have talked</i>, etc. To these variations, which indicate +the time of the action, the name <b>Tense</b> is given. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, <i>He +<b>may have gone</b> home</i>. Here the verb is <i>may have gone</i>. +The last word of such a verb phrase is called the <b>Principal +Verb</b>, and the other words the <b>Auxiliaries</b>. In the sentence +above, <i>go (gone)</i> is the principal verb, and <i>may</i> and +<i>have</i> are the auxiliaries. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>50.</b> In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase +there are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. +These are called the <b>Principal Parts</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb +is referred to as a word, may be called the <b>Name-Form</b>. The +following are name-forms: <i>do, see, come, walk, pass</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Second Principal Part is called the <b>Past Tense</b>. It is +formed by adding <i>ed</i> to the name-form; as, <i>walked, pushed, +passed</i>. These verbs that add <i>ed</i> are called Regular Verbs. +The verb form is often entirely changed; as, <i>done (do), saw +(see), came (come)</i>. These verbs are called Irregular Verbs. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Third Principal Part is called the <b>Past Participle</b>. It +is used mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive +voice. In regular verbs the past participle is the same in <a +name="page_47"><span class="page">Page 47</span></a> form as the +past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both +the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both +of them. Examples: <i>done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, +came), set (set, set)</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>51. The name-form</b>, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is +used with all subjects, except those in the third person singular, +to assert action in the present time or present tense; as, <i>I +go, We come, You see, Horses run</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (<i>may, might, +can, must, will, should, shall</i>, etc.) to assert futurity, +determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: <i>I may +go, We shall come, You can see, Horses should run</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By preceding it with the word <i>to</i>, the name-form is used to +form what is called the <b>Present Infinitive</b>; as, <i>I wish +to go, I hope to see</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +What may be called the <b>s-form</b> of the verb, or the <b>singular</b> +form, is usually constructed by adding <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to the +name-form. The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third +person; as, <i>He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present +tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the +auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to form +some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: <i>He has</i> +(present tense), <i>He has gone</i> (perfect tense), <i>He has +been seen</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some verbs have no s-form; as, <i>will, shall, may</i>. The verb +<i>be</i> has two irregular s-forms: <i>Is</i>, in the present +tense, and <i>was</i> in the past tense. The s-form of <i>have</i> +is <i>has</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>52.</b> The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; +i. e., <b>it should never be used with any auxiliaries</b>. To +use it so, however, is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. +The following are past tense forms: <i>went, saw, wore, tore</i>. +To say, therefore, <i>I have saw, I have went, It was tore, They +were wore</i>, would be grossly incorrect. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>53.</b> The third principal part, the past participle, on the +<a name="page_48"><span class="page">Page 48</span></a> other hand, +<b>can never be used as a predicate verb without an auxiliary</b>. +The following are distinctly past participle forms: <i>done, seen, +sung</i>, etc. One could not then properly say, <i>I seen, I done, +I sung</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of +course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense +and past participle are always the same, and so no error could +result from their confusion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The past participle is used to form the <i>Perfect Infinitives</i>; +as, <i>to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>54.</b> The following is a list of the principal parts of the most +important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. +The student should bear in mind always that, <b>the past tense form +should never be used with an auxiliary</b>, and that <b>the past +participle form should never be used as a predicate verb without +an auxiliary</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which +are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and +irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect +forms are often used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Name-form</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Past Tense</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"> + <i>Past Participle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>awake</td><td>awoke or awaked</td><td>awaked</td></tr> + <tr><td>begin</td><td>began</td><td>begun</td></tr> + <tr><td>beseech</td><td>besought</td><td>besought</td></tr> + <tr><td>bid (to order or to greet)</td><td>bade</td> + <td>bidden or bid</td></tr> + <tr><td>bid (at auction)</td><td>bid</td><td>bidden or bid</td></tr> + <tr><td>blow</td><td>blew</td><td>blown</td></tr> + <tr><td>break</td><td>broke</td><td>broken</td></tr> + <tr><td>burst</td><td>burst</td><td>burst</td></tr> + <tr><td>choose</td><td>chose</td><td>chosen</td></tr> + <tr><td>chide</td><td>chid</td><td>chidden or chid</td></tr> + <tr><td>come</td><td>came</td><td>come</td></tr> + <tr><td>deal</td><td>dealt</td><td>dealt</td></tr> + <tr><td>dive</td><td>dived</td><td>dived</td></tr> + <tr><td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Name-form</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Past Tense</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"> + <i>Past Participle</i> + <a name="page_49"><span class="page">Page 49</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td>do</td><td>did</td><td>done</td></tr> + <tr><td>draw</td><td>drew</td><td>drawn</td></tr> + <tr><td>drink</td><td>drank</td><td>drunk or drank</td></tr> + <tr><td>drive</td><td>drove</td><td>driven</td></tr> + <tr><td>eat</td><td>ate</td><td>eaten</td></tr> + <tr><td>fall</td><td>fell</td><td>fallen</td></tr> + <tr><td>flee</td><td>fled</td><td>fled</td></tr> + <tr><td>fly</td><td>flew</td><td>flown</td></tr> + <tr><td>forsake</td><td>forsook</td><td>forsaken</td></tr> + <tr><td>forget</td><td>forgot</td><td>forgot or forgotten</td></tr> + <tr><td>freeze</td><td>froze</td><td>frozen</td></tr> + <tr><td>get</td><td>got</td><td>got (gotten)</td></tr> + <tr><td>give</td><td>gave</td><td>given</td></tr> + <tr><td>go</td><td>went</td><td>gone</td></tr> + <tr><td>hang (clothes)</td><td>hung</td><td>hung</td></tr> + <tr><td>hang (a man)</td><td>hanged</td><td>hanged</td></tr> + <tr><td>know</td><td>knew</td><td>known</td></tr> + <tr><td>lay</td><td>laid</td><td>laid</td></tr> + <tr><td>lie</td><td>lay</td><td>lain</td></tr> + <tr><td>mean</td><td>meant</td><td>meant</td></tr> + <tr><td>plead</td><td>pleaded</td><td>pleaded</td></tr> + <tr><td>prove</td><td>proved</td><td>proved</td></tr> + <tr><td>ride</td><td>rode</td><td>ridden</td></tr> + <tr><td>raise</td><td>raised</td><td>raised</td></tr> + <tr><td>rise</td><td>rose</td><td>risen</td></tr> + <tr><td>run</td><td>ran</td><td>run</td></tr> + <tr><td>see</td><td>saw</td><td>seen</td></tr> + <tr><td>seek</td><td>sought</td><td>sought</td></tr> + <tr><td>set</td><td>set</td><td>set</td></tr> + <tr><td>shake</td><td>shook</td><td>shaken</td></tr> + <tr><td>shed</td><td>shed</td><td>shed</td></tr> + <tr><td>shoe</td><td>shod</td><td>shod</td></tr> + <tr><td>sing</td><td>sang</td><td>sung</td></tr> + <tr><td>sit</td><td>sat</td><td>sat</td></tr> + <tr><td>slay</td><td>slew</td><td>slain</td></tr> + <tr><td>sink</td><td>sank</td><td>sunk</td></tr> + <tr><td>speak</td><td>spoke</td><td>spoken</td></tr> + <tr><td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Name-form</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"><i>Past Tense</i></td> + <td style="text-align: center; width: 33%;"> + <i>Past Participle</i> + <a name="page_50"><span class="page">Page 50</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td>steal</td><td>stole</td><td>stolen</td></tr> + <tr><td>swim</td><td>swam</td><td>swum</td></tr> + <tr><td>take</td><td>took</td><td>taken</td></tr> + <tr><td>teach</td><td>taught</td><td>taught</td></tr> + <tr><td>tear</td><td>tore</td><td>torn</td></tr> + <tr><td>throw</td><td>threw</td><td>thrown</td></tr> + <tr><td>tread</td><td>trod</td><td>trod or trodden</td></tr> + <tr><td>wake</td><td>woke or waked</td><td>woke or waked</td></tr> + <tr><td>wear</td><td>wore</td><td>worn</td></tr> + <tr><td>weave</td><td>wove</td><td>woven</td></tr> + <tr><td>write</td><td>wrote</td><td>written</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Notes.</span>—<i>Ought</i> +has no past participle. It may then never be used with an auxiliary. +<i>I had ought to go</i> is incorrect. The idea would be amply +expressed by <i>I ought to go</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Model conjugations</b> of the verbs <i>to be</i> and <i>to see</i> +in all forms are given under §77 at the end of this chapter. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 29</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to +use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:</i> +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td>Example:</td> + <td>(Original sentence),</td> + <td><i>The guests begin to go home.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>(Changed to past tense),</td> + <td><i>The guests began to go home.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td> + <td>(Changed to past participle),</td> + <td><i>The guests have begun to go home.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<ol> +<li>Our books <i>lie</i> on the mantel.</li> +<li>John <i>comes</i> in and <i>lays</i> his books on the desk.</li> +<li>I <i>see</i> the parade.</li> +<li>He <i>runs</i> up the road.</li> +<li>They <i>set</i> their chairs in a row.</li> +<li>The noise <i>wakes</i> me.</li> +<li>Cæsar <i>bids</i> him enter.</li> +<li>If they <i>prove</i> their innocence, they should be discharged.</li> +<li>His friends <i>plead</i> strongly for him.</li> +<li>Do you know what they <i>mean</i> by that?</li> +<li>I <i>awake</i> early every morning.</li> +<li>He <i>begins</i> to think of strange things. + <a name="page_51"><span class="page">Page 51</span></a></li> +<li>The children <i>beseech</i> me to go with them.</li> +<li>My mother <i>bids</i> me to say that she will be here at six.</li> +<li>Smith <i>bids</i> fifty dollars for the chair.</li> +<li>My servants <i>break</i> many dishes.</li> +<li>They <i>choose</i> their associates.</li> +<li>The box <i>bursts</i> open.</li> +<li>His mother <i>chides</i> him for his misbehavior.</li> +<li>He <i>comes</i> here every day.</li> +<li>I <i>deal</i> there this week.</li> +<li>The boys <i>dive</i> beautifully.</li> +<li>You <i>do</i> so much more than is necessary.</li> +<li>They <i>draw</i> lots for the watch.</li> +<li>Jones <i>drinks</i> this wine very seldom.</li> +<li>They <i>drive</i> over to Milton once a week.</li> +<li>They <i>drive</i> a sorrel horse.</li> +<li>The cows <i>eat</i> grass.</li> +<li>The Gauls <i>flee</i> before Cæsar.</li> +<li>The swallows all <i>fly</i> into the chimney at evening.</li> +<li>They <i>forsake</i> the cause without any reason.</li> +<li>Cæsar <i>gives</i> them no answer.</li> +<li>They <i>get</i> no money for their services.</li> +<li>You <i>forget</i> that we have no right to do that.</li> +<li>Water <i>freezes</i> at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit.</li> +<li>The ball <i>goes</i> to the opposing team.</li> +<li>You <i>hang</i> the rope on the tree.</li> +<li>The sheriff <i>hangs</i> the murderer at noon.</li> +<li>I <i>know</i> of nothing more worrying.</li> +<li>She <i>lays</i> the knife on the table.</li> +<li>They <i>lie</i> in bed until eleven.</li> +<li>Why they <i>rise</i> so late, I do not know.</li> +<li>They <i>raise</i> no objection.</li> +<li>John <i>runs</i> very rapidly.</li> +<li>You <i>sit</i> very quietly.</li> +<li>Cæsar <i>seeks</i> to learn the intention of the enemy.</li> +<li>The politician vigorously <i>shakes</i> all hands.</li> +<li>The roof <i>sheds</i> water in all storms.</li> +<li>The blacksmith <i>shoes</i> horses.</li> +<li>The choir <i>sings</i> for each service. + <a name="page_52"><span class="page">Page 52</span></a></li> +<li>You <i>speak</i> too rapidly to be easily understood.</li> +<li>Few men <i>steal</i> because they want to.</li> +<li>I <i>swim</i> one hundred yards very readily.</li> +<li>They <i>teach</i> all the elementary branches there.</li> +<li>You <i>take</i> all subscriptions for the concert.</li> +<li>Those clothes <i>tear</i> readily.</li> +<li>They <i>tread</i> the grapes in making wine.</li> +<li>Who <i>throws</i> paper on the floor?</li> +<li>I always <i>wear</i> old clothes in which to work.</li> +<li>She <i>writes</i> to her mother daily.</li> +<li>They <i>weave</i> the best rugs in Philadelphia.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 30</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly +used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, +driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, +knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, +swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 31</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. +The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of +each group:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li><b>Begin.</b> He —— to act at once. The reports + —— to disturb him a little. He has —— to + feel hurt over them.</li> +<li><b>Bid.</b> The proprietor —— us a pleasant good + day. No matter how much he —— the auctioneer will not + hear him. We were —— to enter.</li> +<li><b>Blow.</b> The cornetist —— with all his might. + The ship was —— about all day. The wind does + —— terrifically sometimes. It may —— + to-night. The wind —— all last night.</li> +<li><b>Break.</b> He fell and —— his leg. It is well + that his neck was not ——. + <a name="page_53"><span class="page">Page 53</span></a></li> +<li><b>Burst.</b> During the battle the shells frequently + —— right over us. Oaken casks have often + ——.</li> +<li><b>Chide.</b> He —— us frequently about our actions. + He was never —— himself.</li> +<li><b>Choose.</b> They —— him president. They have + —— wisely.</li> +<li><b>Come.</b> He —— at nine to-day. He has always + —— earlier heretofore. Let him —— when he + wishes.</li> +<li><b>Deal.</b> Before explaining the game, he —— out + the cards.</li> +<li><b>Dive.</b> Twice last summer he —— off the + bridge.</li> +<li><b>Do.</b> Thou canst not say I —— it. He often + —— it.</li> +<li><b>Draw.</b> The picture was —— by a famous artist. + He formerly —— very well, but I think that now he + —— very poorly.</li> +<li><b>Drive.</b> The horse was —— twenty miles. He + almost —— it to death.</li> +<li><b>Eat.</b> He —— everything which the others had + not ——. How can he —— that?</li> +<li><b>Flee.</b> Since the cashier has ——, they think + that a warrant would be useless.</li> +<li><b>Fly.</b> The air-ship —— three hundred miles on + its first trip. That it has —— so far is sufficient proof + of its success.</li> +<li><b>Forsake.</b> He —— his new friends just as he + had —— all the others.</li> +<li><b>Freeze.</b> The man was —— stiff. He evidently + —— to death so easily because he had been so long without + food.</li> +<li><b>Give.</b> She was not —— as much as her sisters. + Her father —— her less because of her extravagance. But, + he now —— her enough to make it up.</li> +<li><b>Go.</b> She —— to school to-day. She —— + yesterday. She has —— every day this month.</li> +<li><b>Know.</b> He —— that he cannot live. As long as + I have —— him, this is the first time I ever —— + he was married.</li> +<li><b>Mean.</b> He —— to do right, and has always + —— to do so.</li> +<li><b>Ride.</b> They —— as if they had —— + a long distance. They say that they —— from Larimer this + morning.</li> +<li><b>Plead.</b> The mother —— an hour for her son's + life.</li> +<li><b>Prove.</b> They —— him a thief in the eyes of + the people, even if he was not —— so to the satisfaction + of the jury. + <a name="page_54"><span class="page">Page 54</span></a></li> +<li><b>Run.</b> John —— the race as though he had + —— races all his life. The race was —— very + rapidly. Soon after that race, he —— in another race.</li> +<li><b>See.</b> Smith, who has just arrived, says he —— + two men skulking along the road. He was not —— by them. + That play is the best I ever ——.</li> +<li><b>Seek.</b> The detectives —— all through the slums + for him. Now they —— him in the better parts of the city. + No criminal was ever more eagerly ——.</li> +<li><b>Shake.</b> During the day his hand was —— five + hundred times. He —— hands with all who came.</li> +<li><b>Shoe.</b> The entire army was —— with Blank's + shoes.</li> +<li><b>Sing.</b> The choir —— the anthem as they had + never —— it before. They always —— it well.</li> +<li><b>Sink.</b> The stone —— as soon as it is in the + water. The ship was —— in forty fathoms of water. They + —— the ship in 1861.</li> +<li><b>Speak.</b> Though they claimed that they always —— + to her, she was really never —— to by any member of the + family.</li> +<li><b>Steal.</b> The money was ——; whether or not he + —— it I do not know. Everyone believes that he has + frequently —— goods from the store.</li> +<li><b>Take.</b> I was —— for him several times that + day. No one ever —— me for him before.</li> +<li><b>Teach.</b> John —— school every day. He has + —— for ten years. He first —— when he was + eighteen years old.</li> +<li><b>Tear.</b> The dog —— at the paper until it was + —— entirely to pieces. He —— up everything + he finds.</li> +<li><b>Throw.</b> He was —— by a horse which never + before —— anyone.</li> +<li><b>Wear.</b> The trousers were —— entirely out in + a month, but I —— the coat and vest for six months.</li> +<li><b>Weave.</b> This carpet was —— at Philadelphia. + The manufacturers say they never —— a better one, and + they —— the best in the country.</li> +<li><b>Write.</b> Although he has —— several times, he + has never —— anything about that. He —— to + me just last week. He —— at least once a month.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_55"><span class="page">Page 55</span></a> +Exercise 32</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following +sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He plead all day to be released.</li> +<li>The horse was rode to death.</li> +<li>The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth.</li> +<li>He was immediately threw out of the room.</li> +<li>She run around all day and then was sick the next day.</li> +<li>I never seen anything like it.</li> +<li>He was very much shook by the news.</li> +<li>The matter was took up by the committee.</li> +<li>The horse has been stole from the owner.</li> +<li>Goliath was slew by David.</li> +<li>The words have been spoke in anger.</li> +<li>I have went to church every day.</li> +<li>Was the river froze enough for skating?</li> +<li>He begun to take notice immediately.</li> +<li>The umbrella was blew to pieces.</li> +<li>I have broke my ruler.</li> +<li>Jones was chose as leader of the class.</li> +<li>He said he come as soon as he could.</li> +<li>I done it.</li> +<li>I have never did anything so foolish.</li> +<li>I have ate all that was in the lunch-box.</li> +<li>The horse was drove ten miles.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 33</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly +used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, +drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, +hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, +threw, wore, wrote. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>55. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.</b> A <b>Transitive Verb</b> +is one in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; <a +name="page_56"><span class="page">Page 56</span></a> as, <i>He +<b>killed</b> the horse, I <b>keep</b> my word</i>. In both these +sentences, the verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to +the object or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, +and all similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which +the action does not go to a receiver, are called <b>Intransitive +Verbs</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>56. Active and Passive Voice.</b> The <b>Active Voice</b> represents +the subject as the doer of the action; as, <i>I tell, I see, He +makes chairs</i>. The <b>Passive Voice</b> represents the subject +as the receiver of the action; as, <i>I am told, I am seen, I have +been seen, Chairs are made by me</i>. Since only transitive verbs +can have a receiver of the action, only transitive verbs can have +both active and passive voice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>57.</b> There are a few special verbs in which the failure to +distinguish between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads +to frequent error. The most important of these verbs are the following: +<i>sit, set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell</i>, +and <i>fall</i>. Note again the principal parts of these verbs: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td>wake (to rouse another)</td><td>woke, waked</td> + <td>woke, waked</td></tr> + <tr><td>awake (to cease to sleep)</td><td>awoke, awaked</td> + <td>awaked</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>fell (to strike down)</td><td>felled</td> + <td>felled</td></tr> + <tr><td>fall (to topple over)</td><td>fell</td> + <td>fallen</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>lay (to place)</td><td>laid</td><td>laid</td></tr> + <tr><td>lie (to recline)</td><td>lay</td><td>lain</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>raise (to cause to ascend)</td><td>raised</td> + <td>raised</td></tr> + <tr><td>(a)rise (to ascend)</td><td>(a)rose</td> + <td>(a)risen</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>set (to place)</td><td>set</td><td>set</td></tr> + <tr><td>sit (to rest)</td><td>sat</td><td>sat</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the +second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can +have an object or can be used in the passive voice. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_57"><span class="page">Page 57</span></a> NOTES.—The +following exceptions in the use of <i>sit</i> and <i>set</i> are, +by reason of usage, regarded as correct: <i>The sun sets, The moon +sets, They sat themselves down to rest</i>, and <i>He set out for +Chicago</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Lie</i>, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, <i>lie, +lied, lied. Lie</i>, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with +<i>lie</i> meaning to recline. The present participle of <i>lie</i> +is <i>lying</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second +form in each case is the correct form. +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">WRONG</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">RIGHT</td></tr> + <tr><td>Awake me early to-morrow.</td> + <td>Wake me early to-morrow.</td></tr> + <tr><td>He was awoke by the noise.</td> + <td>He was woke (waked) by the noise.</td></tr> + <tr><td>He has fallen a tree.</td> + <td>He has felled a tree.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I have laid down.</td> + <td>I have lain down.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I lay the book down (past tense).</td> + <td>I laid the book down.</td></tr> + <tr><td>The river has raised.</td> + <td>The river has risen.</td></tr> + <tr><td>He raised in bed.</td> + <td>He rose in bed.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I set there.</td> + <td>I sat there.</td></tr> + <tr><td>I sat the chair there.</td> + <td>I set the chair there.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 34</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the +following words:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), +lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to +topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, +felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 35</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Let sleeping dogs lay.</li> +<li>The sun has sat in the golden west.</li> +<li>He has laid in bed all morning.</li> +<li>He will sit out on his journey this morning.</li> +<li>Let him sit there as long as he wishes.</li> +<li>He sat the chair by the table. + <a name="page_58"><span class="page">Page 58</span></a></li> +<li>He awoke everybody at daylight.</li> +<li>He laid down to sleep.</li> +<li>Let him lie there until he wakes.</li> +<li>The shower has lain the dust.</li> +<li>The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders.</li> +<li>The river has risen four feet.</li> +<li>Falling trees is his amusement.</li> +<li>To have been awaked then would have been sad.</li> +<li>To have waked then would have been sad.</li> +<li>Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey.</li> +<li>He has set there all day.</li> +<li>He lay the papers before the judge.</li> +<li>The judge laid the papers aside.</li> +<li>Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 36</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms +of the verbs indicated:</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +SIT AND SET +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— in that seat all the evening.</li> +<li>Please —— here until I return.</li> +<li>He was still ——ting there on my return.</li> +<li>The sun —— in the west.</li> +<li>He —— out for home yesterday.</li> +<li>—— down and rest awhile.</li> +<li>James —— down and talked to me.</li> +<li>He was engaged in ——ting out flowers.</li> +<li>I —— the bucket on the rock above the bridge.</li> +<li>Last evening we —— at the table for more than an + hour.</li> +<li>—— here until I call my mother.</li> +<li>—— the lamp on the table.</li> +<li>He has —— there all day.</li> +<li>The chair was —— by the desk.</li> +<li>I usually —— up until twelve.</li> +<li>She —— the hen on some eggs and she remained + —— there.</li> +<li>She told me to —— there, and I —— down. + <a name="page_59"><span class="page">Page 59</span></a></li> +<li>By whom has the lamp been —— there?</li> +<li>I —— my chair by the window and —— + there all the afternoon.</li> +<li>How can she —— still for so long?</li> +<li>The moon —— at twelve.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +LAY AND LIE +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— down this afternoon to rest.</li> +<li>I —— in bed until late every morning.</li> +<li>I have frequently —— in bed until eleven.</li> +<li>He always —— his books on the desk.</li> +<li>He just now —— his books on the desk.</li> +<li>He has —— them there every morning.</li> +<li>His books have sometimes —— there all day.</li> +<li>His books have sometimes been ——ing there before I + arrive.</li> +<li>9. After he —— down he remembered that he had left a + letter on his desk.</li> +<li>Will it not be well for you to —— down for a while?</li> +<li>I —— on the grass yesterday for an hour or more.</li> +<li>I have —— down and feel much better.</li> +<li>Now I —— me down to sleep.</li> +<li>The scene of the play is —— in rural Pennsylvania.</li> +<li>The tramps —— behind the barn waiting for dawn.</li> +<li>I had —— down to rest before (set or sit) ting out + on my journey.</li> +<li>The floor was —— by an expert carpenter.</li> +<li>She told me to —— the matter before the teacher.</li> +<li>—— down, Fido.</li> +<li>When we are weary, we —— down.</li> +<li>Who —— that on the table?</li> +<li>He has repeatedly —— about the matter.</li> +<li>He —— without the slightest hesitation.</li> +<li>——ing down is a good way to rest.</li> +<li>——ing is a sin.</li> +<li>He —— to his father, and his father knew it.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +RAISE AND RISE (ARISE) +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I will —— and go unto my father.</li> +<li>He has —— early to-day. + <a name="page_60"><span class="page">Page 60</span></a></li> +<li>I do not know why he —— so early.</li> +<li>—— your hand if you know.</li> +<li>Everyone —— his hand.</li> +<li>They have all —— their hands.</li> +<li>All their hands were —— at once.</li> +<li>The price of meat has ——.</li> +<li>The bread would not ——.</li> +<li>I —— in order that I might see better.</li> +<li>The flag was very carefully ——.</li> +<li>He tried to —— himself from the condition into + which he had fallen.</li> +<li>The curtain is to —— at eight. I myself shall + see to ——ing it then.</li> +<li>The boy —— and answers.</li> +<li>He is —— rapidly to prominence.</li> +<li>Will you please —— the window?</li> +<li>The safe was —— by means of a rope.</li> +<li>It is like trying to —— one's self by one's + boot-straps.</li> +<li>—— and march to the front of the room.</li> +<li>The river —— rapidly.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +FELL AND FALL +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Gladstone, when living, —— a tree each morning for + exercise.</li> +<li>To —— an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of + wonderful strength.</li> +<li>He was —— to the earth by a blow from a club.</li> +<li>To —— often is to be expected in learning to skate.</li> +<li>——ing down is a small matter to the young.</li> +<li>He has often —— from the roof of the porch.</li> +<li>After he —— once, he seemed to try to do so again.</li> +<li>I did not see him——.</li> +<li>Not a shot is fired but a bird ——.</li> +<li>Let the tree be —— across the road.</li> +<li>It is hard to avoid ——ing on the ice.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center"> +AWAKE AND WAKE +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Have them —— me very early.</li> +<li>He went upstairs and —— his brother. + <a name="page_61"><span class="page">Page 61</span></a></li> +<li>His brother did not wish to be —— so early.</li> +<li>This morning I —— at dawn.</li> +<li>It is unpleasant to —— so early.</li> +<li>You say that you have never —— after nine?</li> +<li>Who —— so early, this morning?</li> +<li>He would not say who —— him.</li> +<li>——ing in the dead of night is unpleasant.</li> +<li>——ing everybody up by their noise is an every night + occurrence.</li> +<li>The sun —— me early.</li> +<li>The whole country-side seemed to —— at once.</li> +<li>He had himself —— at six o'clock.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>58. Mode.</b> Mode is that form of the verb which indicates +the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. There +are several modes in English, but only between the indicative and +subjunctive modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, +the <b>Indicative Mode</b> is used when the statement is regarded +as a fact or as truth, and the <b>Subjunctive Mode</b> is used +when the statement expresses uncertainty or implies some degree +of doubt. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>59. Forms of the Subjunctive.</b> The places in which the subjunctive +differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses of +the verb <i>be</i>, and in the present tense of active verbs. The +following outline will show the difference between the indicative +and the subjunctive of <i>be</i>: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td colspan="2">INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE</td> + <td>INDICATIVE PAST OF BE</td></tr> + <tr><td>I am</td><td>we are</td> + <td>I was</td><td>we were</td></tr> + <tr><td>thou art</td><td>you are</td> + <td>thou wert or wast</td><td>you were</td></tr> + <tr><td>he (she, it) is</td><td>they are</td> + <td>he (she, it) was</td><td>they were</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="4"> </td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2">SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE</td> + <td colspan="2">SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE</td></tr> + <tr><td>If I be</td><td>If we be</td> + <td>If I were</td><td>If we were</td></tr> + <tr><td>If thou be</td><td>If you be</td> + <td>If thou were</td><td>If you were</td></tr> + <tr><td>If he (she, it) be</td><td>If they be</td> + <td>If he (she, it) were</td><td>If they were</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_62"><span class="page">Page 62</span></a> <i>If</i> is +used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the subjunctive +depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb may precede +the subject. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—It +will be noticed that <i>thou art</i> and <i>thou wast</i>, etc., +have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, +these are the proper forms to be used here, even though <i>you +are</i> and <i>you were</i>, etc., are customarily used in +addressing a single person. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the subjunctive of <i>be</i>, it will be noted that the form +<i>be</i> is used throughout the present tense; and the form <i>were</i> +throughout the past tense. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in +the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, +or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, +indicative, <i>he runs, she sees, it seems, he has;</i> subjunctive, +<i>if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span>—An +examination of the model conjugations under <b>§77</b> will +give a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>60. Use of Indicative and Subjunctive.</b> The indicative mode +would be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement +is regarded as true: <i>If that evidence is true, then he is a +criminal</i>. Similarly: <i>If he is rich, he ought to be +charitable</i>. Most directly declarative statements are put in +the indicative mode. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's +mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to +fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences +following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: +<i>If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were +I rich, I might be charitable</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, <i>if, +though, lest, although</i>, or the verb precedes the subject. But +it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the +subjunctive mode. <b>The use of the subjunctive depends on <a +name="page_63"><span class="page">Page 63</span></a> whether the +condition is regarded as a fact or as contrary to fact, certain +or uncertain.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of +use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing +of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since +its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 37</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of <b>be</b> +in the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which +illustrate the correct use of <b>were</b> in the third person +singular.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 38</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be +able to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the +sentences either form may be used correctly:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He acts as if it <i>were was</i> possible always to escape death.</li> +<li>If it <i>was were</i> near enough, I should walk.</li> +<li>If I <i>was were</i> only wealthy!</li> +<li>If I <i>were was</i> in his place, I should study medicine.</li> +<li>If you <i>are be</i> right, then the book is wrong.</li> +<li>If he <i>was were</i> I, he would come.</li> +<li>Though he <i>was were</i> very economical, he remained poor.</li> +<li>Though she <i>was were</i> an angel, I should dislike her.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> there, ask him to pay the bill.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> there, he makes no sign of his presence.</li> +<li>If this <i>be is</i> wrong, then all love of country is wrong.</li> +<li>If it <i>rains rain</i>, I stay at school.</li> +<li>Take care lest you <i>are be</i> deceived by appearances.</li> +<li>Would that I <i>was were</i> a bird.</li> +<li>If it <i>snow snows</i>, I can't come.</li> +<li>If your father <i>comes come</i>, bring him to dinner.</li> +<li>If your father <i>was were</i> here, you would act differently.</li> +<li>Though he <i>were was</i> king over all the earth I should despise + him. <a name="page_64"><span class="page">Page 64</span></a></li> +<li>If he <i>come comes</i>, he will find me at home.</li> +<li><i>Was were</i> it necessary, I should jump.</li> +<li>If to-morrow <i>be is</i> pleasant, we shall go driving.</li> +<li>If my mother <i>was were</i> here, she would say I might go.</li> +<li>If she <i>was were</i> at home, I did not hear of it.</li> +<li>If that <i>is be</i> his motive, he is unworthy.</li> +<li>Though this <i>seem seems</i> improbable, it is true.</li> +<li>If a speech <i>is be</i> praised by none but literary men, it is + bad.</li> +<li>If the father <i>pays pay</i> the debt, he will be released.</li> +<li>Though Mary <i>be is</i> young, she is a writer of note.</li> +<li>Unless he <i>takes take</i> better care of his health, he will + die.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> honest, he has not shown it.</li> +<li>If he <i>be is</i> honest, he will insist on paying me.</li> +<li>If he ever <i>tell tells</i> the truth, he conceals the fact.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>61. Agreement of Verb with its Subject. The verb should agree +with its subject in person and number.</b> The most frequent error +is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. +Singular subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects +with singular verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension +of the true number of the subject. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and +occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; as, +<i>He runs, she goes, it moves</i>. <i>Is, was</i>, and <i>has</i> +are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. <i>Am</i> is used only +with a subject in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. +The other auxiliaries have no singular forms. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, +and so can cause little confusion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A barrel of clothes <b>was</b> shipped (not <i>were shipped</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A man and a woman <b>have</b> been here (not <i>has been here</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Boxes <b>are</b> scarce (not <i>is scarce</i>). +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When <b>were</b> the brothers here (not <i>when was</i>)? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_65"><span class="page">Page 65</span></a> <b>62. +Agreement of Subject and Verb in Number.</b> The general rule to +be borne in mind in regard to number, is that <b>it is the meaning +and not the form of the subject that determines whether to use +the singular or the plural form of the verb.</b> This rule also +applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, <i>politics, +measles, news</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; +as, <i>forceps, tongs, trousers</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, +they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, <i>committee, +family, pair, jury, assembly, means</i>. The following sentences are +all correct: <i>The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly +are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The +whole family are sick</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the use of the adjective pronouns, <i>some, each</i>, etc., the +noun is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by +using the wrong number of the verb. <i>Each, either, neither, this, +that</i>, and <i>one</i>, when used alone as subjects, require singular +verbs. <i>All, those, these, few, many</i>, always require plural +verbs. <i>Any, none</i>, and <i>some</i> may take either singular +or plural verbs. In most of these cases, as is true throughout the +subject of agreement in number, reason will determine the form +to be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. +When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. +Examine the following sentences; each is correct: <i>Three drops +of medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by +the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, +Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_66"><span class="page">Page 66</span></a> +Exercise 39</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify +the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the +noun:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The jury have agreed.</li> +<li>The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict.</li> +<li>The committee has presented its report, but they have differed + in regard to one matter.</li> +<li>The whole tribe was destroyed.</li> +<li>The tribe were scattered through the different states.</li> +<li>The regiment were almost all sick.</li> +<li>A variety of persons was there.</li> +<li>The society meets each month.</li> +<li>The society is divided in its opinion.</li> +<li>A number were unable to be present.</li> +<li>A great number was present.</li> +<li>The number present was great.</li> +<li>What means were used to gain his vote?</li> +<li>That means of gaining votes is corrupt.</li> +<li>Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight.</li> +<li>Twenty years of his life was spent in prison.</li> +<li>Two hundred pounds was his weight.</li> +<li>The family are all at home.</li> +<li>The family is large.</li> +<li>A pair of gloves has been lost.</li> +<li>A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway.</li> +<li>The army was defeated.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 40</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is +used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, <b>is, was, +has, have, are, was, have, go, goes, run, runs, come, comes:</b></i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, +latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, +gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, +mumps, <a name="page_67"><span class="page">Page 67</span></a> +flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, herd, +committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, months. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 41</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether <b>it</b> +or <b>they</b> should be used in referring to the subject.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>63. The following rules govern the agreement of the verb with +a compound subject:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to +mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, +<i>French and German literature <b>are</b> studied.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound +subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, <i>John +and Harry <b>are</b> still to come.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, +it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, <i>The +employee, and not the employers, <b>was</b> to blame, The employers, +and not the employee, <b>were</b> to blame, The boy, as well as +his sisters, <b>deserves</b> praise.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in +the singular, the verb should be singular; as, <i>Each book and +each paper <b>was</b> in its place, No help and no hope <b>is</b> +found for him, Either one or the other <b>is</b> he, Neither one +nor the other <b>is</b> he.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of +which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject +nearest to it; as, <i>Neither the boy, nor his sisters <b>deserve</b> +praise, Neither the sisters nor the boy <b>deserves</b> praise.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the +first; as, <i>The leader <b>was</b> slain and all his men, The +men <b>were</b> slain, and also the leader.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 42</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Hard and soft coal <i>is are</i> used.</li> +<li>The boy and the girl <i>have has</i> come.</li> +<li>Neither James nor I <i>are is</i> to go. + <a name="page_68"><span class="page">Page 68</span></a></li> +<li>Neither James nor they <i>are is</i> to go.</li> +<li>Henry, and not his sister, <i>is are</i> sure to be invited.</li> +<li>The children and their father <i>was were</i> on the train.</li> +<li>Each man and each woman <i>was were</i> present.</li> +<li>Either Tennyson or Wordsworth <i>was were</i> the author of + that poem.</li> +<li>Either the man or his children <i>was were</i> lost.</li> +<li>Either the children or their father <i>was were</i> lost.</li> +<li>Bread and milk <i>are is</i> frugal but wholesome fare.</li> +<li>The teacher <i>was were</i> cut off by the fire, and also her + pupils.</li> +<li>The pupils <i>was were</i> cut off by the fire, and also the + teacher.</li> +<li>Dogs and cats <i>is are</i> useless animals.</li> +<li>Neither the daughters nor their mother <i>is are</i> at home.</li> +<li>Either the soldier or his officers <i>is are</i> mistaken.</li> +<li>The cat and all her kittens <i>was were</i> at the door.</li> +<li>Tennyson, not Wordsworth, <i>were was</i> the author.</li> +<li>Each of the trustees <i>has have</i> a vote.</li> +<li>Our success or our failure <i>is are</i> due solely to + ourselves.</li> +<li>Neither sincerity nor cordiality <i>characterize + characterizes</i> him.</li> +<li>Everyone of these chairs <i>is are</i> mine.</li> +<li>Each day and each hour <i>bring brings</i> new questions.</li> +<li>The car and all its passengers <i>was were</i> blown up.</li> +<li>The ambition and activity of the man <i>has have</i> been the + <i>cause causes</i> of his success.</li> +<li>Old and new hay <i>is are</i> equally good for horses.</li> +<li>Matthew or Paul <i>are is</i> responsible for that belief.</li> +<li>A man, a woman, and a child <i>is are</i> comprised in the + group.</li> +<li>The pupils and also the teacher <i>were was</i> embarrassed.</li> +<li>The teacher and also the pupils <i>were was</i> embarrassed.</li> +<li>Neither he nor I <i>are is am</i> going.</li> +<li>Book after book <i>was were</i> taken from the shelves.</li> +<li>Either Aunt Mary or her daughters <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Either the daughters or Aunt Mary <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Both Aunt Mary and her daughter <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>Mary, and not her mother, <i>is are</i> coming.</li> +<li>No preacher and no woman <i>is are</i> allowed to enter. + <a name="page_69"><span class="page">Page 69</span></a></li> +<li>Every adult man and woman <i>has have</i> a vote.</li> +<li>Money, if not culture, <i>gains gain</i> a way.</li> +<li>Brain power, as well as money, <i>talk talks</i>.</li> +<li>Each boy and girl <i>bring brings</i> books.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>64. Some miscellaneous cautions in regard to agreement in number:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by +an adjective phrase; as, <i>The thief, with all his booty, was +captured</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after <i>you</i> and +<i>they</i>. Say: <i>You were, they are, they were</i>, etc., not, +<i>you was, they was,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the +sentence, <i>The <b>sale</b> of boxes was increased, sale</i>, not +<i>boxes</i>, is the subject of the verb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person +of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. +Both of the following sentences are correct: <i>He is the only +one of the men <b>that is</b> to be trusted, He is one of those +men <b>that are</b> to be trusted.</i> It is to be remembered that +the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike +in form; <i>that, who</i>, etc., may refer to one or more than +one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with <i>not</i>. +<i>Don't</i> cannot be used with <i>he</i> or <i>she</i> or <i>it</i>, +or with any other singular subject in the third person. One should +say, <i>He doesn't</i>, not <i>he don't; it doesn't</i>, not <i>it +don't; man doesn't</i>, not <i>man don't</i>. The proper form of +the verb that is being contracted in these instances is <i>does</i>, +not <i>do</i>. <i>Ain't</i> and <i>hain't</i> are always wrong; +no such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions +as <i>don't, can't</i>, etc., should not be used at all in formal +composition. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 43</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The ship, with all her crew, were lost.</li> +<li>You was there, John, was you not?</li> +<li>They was never known to do that before.</li> +<li>A barrel of apples were sold + <a name="page_70"><span class="page">Page 70</span></a></li> +<li>How many were there who was there?</li> +<li>This is one of the books that is always read.</li> +<li>He don't know his own relatives.</li> +<li>I ain't coming to-night.</li> +<li>The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed.</li> +<li>John, when was you in the city?</li> +<li>The book, with all its errors, is valuable.</li> +<li>Who they was, I couldn't tell.</li> +<li>This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets."</li> +<li>This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes.</li> +<li>The hands of the clock is wrong.</li> +<li>The gallery of pictures are splendid.</li> +<li>This is one of those four metals that is valuable.</li> +<li>This is the one of those four metals that are valuable.</li> +<li>That answer, as you will see, hain't right.</li> +<li>The whole box of books were shipped.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 44</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>"Cows" are a common noun.</li> +<li>Such crises seldom occurs.</li> +<li>Fifty dollars were given him as a present.</li> +<li>There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank.</li> +<li>At that time the morals of men were very low.</li> +<li>Mathematics are my most interesting study.</li> +<li>There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower.</li> +<li>The jury is delivering its verdict.</li> +<li>The "Virginians" is a famous book.</li> +<li>Ten minutes were given him in which to answer.</li> +<li>Everyone of these farms are mine.</li> +<li>Lee, with his whole army, surrender.</li> +<li>Farm after farm were passed by the train.</li> +<li>He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president.</li> +<li>Three hundred miles of wires were cut down.</li> +<li>Three fourths of his time are wasted. + <a name="page_71"><span class="page">Page 71</span></a></li> +<li>Three quarts of oats is all that is needed.</li> +<li>A variety of sounds charms the ear.</li> +<li>A variety of recitations were given.</li> +<li>The committee have adjourned.</li> +<li>Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived.</li> +<li>Take one of the books that is lying on the table.</li> +<li>The house is one of those that overlooks the bay.</li> +<li>Question after question were propounded to him.</li> +<li>He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the + school.</li> +<li>He is one of those persons who are quick to learn.</li> +<li>A black and white horse were in the ring.</li> +<li>A black and a white horse was in the ring.</li> +<li>The committee disagree on some points.</li> +<li>Mary, where was you yesterday?</li> +<li>The end and aim of his life are to get money.</li> +<li>All the crop were lost.</li> +<li>One of them are gone.</li> +<li>There comes the children.</li> +<li>Were either of these men elected?</li> +<li>The alumni of this school is not very loyal.</li> +<li>There seem to be few here.</li> +<li>There seems to be a few here.</li> +<li>Neither of the letters were received.</li> +<li>In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm.</li> +<li>The Association of Engineers are still flourishing.</li> +<li>Neither John nor Henry have come.</li> +<li>Either this book or that are wrong.</li> +<li>This book and that is wrong.</li> +<li>This book, not that, is wrong.</li> +<li>Either this book or those students is wrong.</li> +<li>Either those students, or this book is wrong.</li> +<li>This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in + tanning.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>65. Use of Shall and Will.</b> The use of the auxiliaries, +<i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, with their past tenses, is a source +of very many <a name="page_72"><span class="page">Page 72</span></a> +errors. The following outline will show the correct use of <i>shall</i> +and <i>will</i>, except in dependent clauses and questions: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To indicate simple futurity or probability: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +Use <i>shall</i> with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>; use <i>will</i> with +all other subjects. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part +of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control; +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +Use <i>will</i> with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>; use <i>shall</i> with +all other subjects. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following examples of the correct use of <i>shall</i> +and <i>will</i>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Statements as to probable future events: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +<i>We shall</i> probably be there.<br /> +I think <i>you will</i> want to be there.<br /> +<i>It will</i> rain before night. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Statements of determination on the part of the speaker: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +<i>I will</i> come in spite of his command.<br /> +<i>You shall</i> go home.<br /> +<i>It shall</i> not happen again, I promise you. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>66. Shall and Will in Questions.</b> In interrogative sentences +<i>shall</i> should always be used with the first person. In the +second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is +logically expected in the answer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the agreement in the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> +in the following questions and answers: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">QUESTIONS.</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">ANSWERS.</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Shall</i> I miss the car?</td> + <td>You <i>will</i> miss it.</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Shall</i> you be there?</td> + <td>I think I <i>shall</i> (probability).</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Will</i> he do it?</td> + <td>I think he <i>will</i> (assertion).</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Shall</i> your son obey the teacher?</td> + <td>He <i>shall</i> (determination).</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Will</i> you promise to come?</td> + <td>We <i>will</i> come (promise).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_73"><span class="page">Page 73</span></a> <b>67. +Shall and Will in Dependent Clauses.</b> In dependent clauses which +are introduced by <i>that</i>, expressed or understood, the auxiliary +should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were +a principal clause. The sentence, <i>They assure us that they +<b>shall</b> come</i>, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, +<i>We <b>will</b> come</i>. The auxiliary, then, in a principal +clause would be <i>will</i>. <i>Will</i> should, therefore, be the +auxiliary in the dependent construction, and the sentence should +read, <i>They assure us that they <b>will</b> come</i>. Further +examples: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +I suppose <i>we shall</i> have to pay.<br /> +He thinks that <i>you will</i> be able to do it.<br /> +He has decided that <i>John shall</i> replace the book. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use +<i>shall</i> with all subjects. Examples; +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +<i>If he shall</i> go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad.<br /> +<i>If you shall</i> go away, who will run the farm?<br /> +<i>If I shall</i> die, I shall die as an honest man. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 45</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Justify the correct use of <b>shall</b> and <b>will</b> in the +following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I will go if you wish.</li> +<li>I shall probably go if you wish.</li> +<li>I will have it in spite of all you can do.</li> +<li>We shall return by way of Dover.</li> +<li>We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.</li> +<li>I feel that I shall not live long.</li> +<li>We think we shall come to-morrow.</li> +<li>I promise you, the money shall be raised.</li> +<li>You will then go to Philadelphia.</li> +<li>You shall never hear from me again.</li> +<li>He will surely come to-morrow. + <a name="page_74"><span class="page">Page 74</span></a></li> +<li>How shall you answer him?</li> +<li>I think I shall ride.</li> +<li>He is sure they will come.</li> +<li>He is sure that I will come.</li> +<li>Shall you be there?</li> +<li>Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination?</li> +<li>Will you be there?</li> +<li>Will all be there?</li> +<li>He says he shall be there.</li> +<li>He has promised that he will be there.</li> +<li>I fear that he will fail to pass.</li> +<li>We think she will soon be well.</li> +<li>We are determined that they shall pay.</li> +<li>We expect that they will bring their books.</li> +<li>I doubt that he will pay.</li> +<li>We have promised that we will do it.</li> +<li>If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 46</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the blanks in the following sentences with <b>shall</b> +or <b>will</b>:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I think I —— find the work easy.</li> +<li>I —— probably be refused, but I —— go + anyway.</li> +<li>—— you be busy to-night? Yes, I —— be + in class until ten.</li> +<li>I —— probably fail to pass the examination.</li> +<li>If no one assists me, I —— drown.</li> +<li>No. I —— never sell my library.</li> +<li>If I fail I —— be obliged to take an examination.</li> +<li>—— my men begin work to-day?</li> +<li>—— you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I + don't, think I ——.</li> +<li>—— you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? + Yes, I —— sing to-night.</li> +<li>—— I put more wood on the fire?</li> +<li>I —— be lost; no one —— help me.</li> +<li>It —— be there when you need it.</li> +<li>It is demanded that the pupils —— be orderly and + attentive.</li> +<li>I think it —— rain soon. + <a name="page_75"><span class="page">Page 75</span></a></li> +<li>We —— be disappointed.</li> +<li>—— we be permitted to go?</li> +<li>We —— do it for you.</li> +<li>—— I go or remain at home?</li> +<li>I —— be very grateful to you if you —— + do this.</li> +<li>If you —— ask her, she —— go with you.</li> +<li>If you —— stop, I —— go with you.</li> +<li>Where —— we join you?</li> +<li>I think we —— be there in time.</li> +<li>I —— go to the river for a boat ride.</li> +<li>When —— you be twenty years of age?</li> +<li>—— we ever see you again?</li> +<li>Perhaps we —— return next year.</li> +<li>We promise, we —— return.</li> +<li>You —— probably suffer for it.</li> +<li>I —— not impose on you in that way.</li> +<li>—— I ask for your mail?</li> +<li>I hope that we —— be there before the curtain + rises.</li> +<li>—— they probably be there?</li> +<li>—— you please fetch me a paper?</li> +<li>—— we stop for you on our way downtown?</li> +<li>When —— I find you in your office?</li> +<li>They —— never do it if I can help.</li> +<li>You —— do as I say.</li> +<li>I —— never, never, go there again.</li> +<li>We —— decide what to do about that at our next + meeting which —— be in October.</li> +<li>—— it make any difference to you?</li> +<li>—— I go with you?</li> +<li>No, you —— please stay here.</li> +<li>He —— never enter this house again.</li> +<li>It is believed that they —— probably be present.</li> +<li>He fears that he —— die.</li> +<li>He requests that you —— come to-day at seven + o'clock.</li> +<li>She asks that it —— be sent at once.</li> +<li>It is thought that his death —— not seriously + change things.</li> +<li>It is believed that the emperor —— have to + retract.</li> +<li>A story is told that —— gain little credence. + <a name="page_76"><span class="page">Page 76</span></a></li> +<li>I fear that I —— take cold.</li> +<li>She says that I —— take cold.</li> +<li>They say that they —— do it in spite of anything + done to prevent.</li> +<li>He is determined that he —— go away.</li> +<li>She is determined that he —— go to school.</li> +<li>They say they —— probably not go.</li> +<li>John thinks he —— probably live to be past sixty.</li> +<li>He tells me that he thinks that he —— be elected.</li> +<li>They say that they —— meet you.</li> +<li>They assure us that we —— find good stores in + Berlin.</li> +<li>He says he fears he —— miss his train.</li> +<li>Wright says his father —— become famous.</li> +<li>He writes that he —— be here to-day.</li> +<li>Do you say that you —— be present?</li> +<li>The book says that —— be wrong.</li> +<li>Does she say that she —— come?</li> +<li>I told you that I —— not come.</li> +<li>I tell you that she —— not come.</li> +<li>He says that he —— go as a matter of duty.</li> +<li>John says that —— not happen anyway.</li> +<li>Does he say that he —— surely come?</li> +<li>Does John write what he —— promise to do in the + matter?</li> +<li>—— you be sure to be there?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 47</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>shall</b> is used in an independent +clause, and five in which <b>shall</b> is used in a dependent +clause.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>will</b> is used in an independent +clause, and five in which <b>will</b> is used in a dependent clause.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five interrogative sentences in which <b>shall</b> is used +and five in which <b>will</b> is used.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>68. Should and Would.</b> <i>Should</i> and <i>would</i> are the +past tenses of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, and have corresponding +uses. <i>Should</i> <a name="page_77"><span class="page">Page +77</span></a> is used with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>, and <i>would</i> +with other subjects, to express mere futurity or probability. +<i>Would</i> is used with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>, and <i>should</i> +with other subjects, to express conditional promise or determination +on the part of the speaker. Examples: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Futurity: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +I <i>should</i> be sorry to lose this book.<br /> +If we <i>should</i> be afraid of the storm, we <i>should</i> be + foolish.<br /> +It was expected that they <i>would</i> be here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Volition or determination: +</p> + +<p class="bquote"> +If it <i>should</i> occur, we <i>would</i> not come.<br /> +It was promised that it <i>should</i> not occur again.<br /> +He decided that it <i>should</i> be done. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Should</i> is sometimes used in the sense of <i>ought</i>, to +imply duty; as, <i>He should have gone to her aid</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Would</i> is often used to indicate habitual action; as, <i>This +would often occur when he was preaching</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 48</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Justify the correct use of <b>should</b> and <b>would</b> in +the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I feared that they would not come.</li> +<li>He should know his duty better than that.</li> +<li>I should be displeased if he would act that way.</li> +<li>We should be ruined if we did that.</li> +<li>You should have seen his face.</li> +<li>We would often take that road.</li> +<li>He said that he would come at once.</li> +<li>If that should happen, we should not come.</li> +<li>If you were I, what should you do?</li> +<li>I should see the president of the class.</li> +<li>We should have been at the meeting. + <a name="page_78"><span class="page">Page 78</span></a></li> +<li>He said that we should have been at the meeting.</li> +<li>He promised that he would be at the meeting.</li> +<li>If I should say so, he would dislike me.</li> +<li>Should he come, I would go with him.</li> +<li>They would usually stop at the new hotel.</li> +<li>What would they do in the city?</li> +<li>She asked if she should write the letter.</li> +<li>She said they would write the letter.</li> +<li>She agreed that it would be right.</li> +<li>She assured us that she would attend to it.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 49</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill in the blanks with <b>should</b> or <b>would</b> in the +following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I fear I —— be drowned if I —— go + swimming.</li> +<li>I —— be much pleased to meet him.</li> +<li>It was feared that they —— not accept.</li> +<li>If it —— storm, we —— not start.</li> +<li>She —— often come to class with no books.</li> +<li>I believed that he —— come late.</li> +<li>He —— never have been invited.</li> +<li>If that had become known, we —— surely have been + ruined.</li> +<li>To think that he —— do such a thing!</li> +<li>I —— like to see the game.</li> +<li>You —— not enjoy it.</li> +<li>—— you like to see the game?</li> +<li>—— I bring my opera glasses?</li> +<li>Mary —— never have known it.</li> +<li>He —— have easily deceived her.</li> +<li>They were anxious that we —— not miss the train.</li> +<li>If we —— come late, —— it make any + difference?</li> +<li>If they had proposed it, we —— have voted it down.</li> +<li>On what date —— that come?</li> +<li>I suppose I —— have done it; but, it —— + have inconvenienced me.</li> +<li>Had Lee known that, he —— never have surrendered.</li> +<li>I —— never have believed she —— do such + a thing. + <a name="page_79"><span class="page">Page 79</span></a></li> +<li>We —— never have come.</li> +<li>—— you think him capable of such a trick?</li> +<li>I knew I —— not be here on time.</li> +<li>—— they dare to attempt opposition?</li> +<li>How —— you go about it?</li> +<li>Lincoln, under those circumstances, —— probable not + have been elected.</li> +<li>It —— have changed our whole history.</li> +<li>He said that it —— have changed our whole history.</li> +<li>He said he —— come.</li> +<li>She thinks they —— not do it.</li> +<li>We believe that we —— like to go at once.</li> +<li>They say it —— be done now.</li> +<li>I think I —— like to go.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 50</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>should</b> is used independently, +and five in which <b>should</b> is used dependently.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>would</b> is used independently, +and five in which <b>would</b> is used dependently.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Write five sentences in which <b>should</b> is used in questions, +and five in which <b>would</b> is used in questions.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>69. Use of May and Might, Can and Could.</b> <i>May</i>, with +its past tense, <i>might</i>, is properly used to denote permission. +<i>Can</i>, with its past tense, <i>could</i>, refers to the ability +or possibility to do a thing. These two words are often confused. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 51</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Fill the blanks in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>—— I go home?</li> +<li>—— we get tickets at that store?</li> +<li>—— the mountain be climbed?</li> +<li>—— we come into your office? + <a name="page_80"><span class="page">Page 80</span></a></li> +<li>You —— stay as long as you wish.</li> +<li>—— you finish the work in an hour?</li> +<li>How —— you say such a thing?</li> +<li>Several people —— use the same book.</li> +<li>We —— afford to delay a while.</li> +<li>—— John go with me?</li> +<li>You —— often hear the noise.</li> +<li>What —— not be done in a week?</li> +<li>That —— be true, but it —— not be + relied on.</li> +<li>What —— he do to prevent it?</li> +<li>When —— we hand in the work?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>70. Participles and Gerunds.</b> The past participle has already +been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, +the <b>participles</b> are those forms of the verb that <b>are used +adjectively;</b> as, <i>seeing, having seen, being seen, having +been seen, seen, playing, having played</i>, etc. In the following +sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: +<i>He, <b>having been invited to dine</b>, came early, John, <b>being +sick</b>, could not come</i>. The verb form in all these cases is +called a participle, and must be used in connection with either +a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Gerund</b> is the same as the participle in its forms, but +differs in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, +the <b>gerund is always used substantively</b>; as, <i>I told <b>of +his winning</b> the race, <b>After his asserting</b> it, I believe +the statement</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>71. Misuses of Participles and Gerunds.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical +and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the +sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known +as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, <i>The dish was +broken, <b>resulting</b> from its fall</i>, because <i>resulting</i> +does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. +But it would be right to say, <i>The dish was <a name="page_81"><span +class="page">Page 81</span></a> broken as a result of its fall</i>. +Examine, also, the following examples: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, + <i>followed</i> by a week at Atlantic City.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I spent a week in Virginia, + <i>following</i> it by a week at Atlantic City.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I spent a week in Virginia, + <i>and then</i> a week at Atlantic City.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or +principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence +or clause. Compare the following: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to + remain at home.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Having been sick, I decided to + remain at home.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. A participle preceded by <i>thus</i> should not be used unless +it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following: +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, + <i>thus causing</i> him a great deal of trouble.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He had to rewrite several pages, + <i>and was thus caused</i> a great deal of trouble.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He had to rewrite several pages, + <i>thus experiencing</i> a great deal of trouble.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and +frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between +the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that +the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a +modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. +A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive +case. Say, <i>I heard <b>of John's coming</b></i>, not, <i>I heard +<b>of John coming</b></i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should +be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it +modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless +it logically belongs to the subject of that <a name="page_82"><span +class="page">Page 82</span></a> sentence. Exception: When the gerund +phrase denotes a general action, it may be used without grammatical +connection to the sentence; as, <i>In traveling, good drinking water +is essential</i>. Compare the following wrong and right forms: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>After seeing his mistake</i>, a + new start was made.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>After seeing his mistake</i>, he + made a new start.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>By writing rapidly, the work</i> + can be finished.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>By writing rapidly, you</i> can + finish the work.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>In copying the exercise</i>, a + mistake was made.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>In copying the exercise, I</i> + made a mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 52</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive +from those italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He spoke of <i>John John's</i> coming down.</li> +<li>The idea of <i>his him</i> singing is absurd.</li> +<li>Do you remember <i>me my</i> speaking about it?</li> +<li>What is the use of <i>you your</i> reading that?</li> +<li><i>He his him</i> being arrested was a sufficient disgrace.</li> +<li><i>He him his</i> being now of age, sold the farm.</li> +<li><i>He him his</i> selling it was very unexpected.</li> +<li>You should have heard <i>him his</i> telling the story.</li> +<li>You should have heard <i>his him</i> telling of the story.</li> +<li>To think of <i>them they their</i> having been seen there!</li> +<li>What is the object of <i>Mary Mary's</i> studying French?</li> +<li><i>It its</i> being John was a great surprise.</li> +<li>What is the use of <i>them they their</i> talking so much?</li> +<li><i>John John's</i> going to school takes all his evenings.</li> +<li>The beauty of <i>James James's</i> writing got him the + position.</li> +<li>He had heard about <i>me my</i> coming to-day.</li> +<li><i>John John's</i> coming was a surprise.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_83"><span class="page">Page 83</span></a> +Exercise 53</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following +sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. +See <b>§107</b> for rule as to punctuation:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible.</li> +<li>He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an + experienced architect.</li> +<li>It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his + health.</li> +<li>On hearing that, a new plan was made.</li> +<li>Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber.</li> +<li>Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in + town.</li> +<li>He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income.</li> +<li>Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after + class.</li> +<li>No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable + anxiety.</li> +<li>Expecting us to come, we disappointed him.</li> +<li>After telling me the story, I left him.</li> +<li>By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much.</li> +<li>He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him + to lose a great deal of valuable time.</li> +<li>After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome.</li> +<li>We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our + interest.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>72. Infinitives.</b> The Infinitives are formed by the word +<i>to</i> and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. +For <i>see</i> and <i>play</i> as model verbs, the infinitives +are as follows: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> +<tr><td>PRESENT ACTIVE</td> + <td>PRESENT PASSIVE</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to see</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to be seen</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to play</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to be played</td></tr> +<tr><td>PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE</td> + <td>PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have seen</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have been seen</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have played</td> + <td style="padding-left: 2em;">to have been played</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_84"><span class="page">Page 84</span></a> The word +<i>to</i> is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow +the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since +the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>73. Sequence of Infinitive Tenses.</b> The wrong tense of the +infinitive is frequently used. The following rules should be observed: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time +or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the +<b>present infinitive</b> should be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as +completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the <b>perfect +infinitive</b> should be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following examples: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>I should have liked to have + gone.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>I should have liked to go</i> + (same or later time).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>I should like to have gone</i> + (earlier time).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>It was bad to have been + discovered.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>It is bad to have been + discovered</i> (earlier time).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>It was bad to be discovered</i> + (same or later time).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>She did not believe her son to + have committed the crime</i> (earlier time).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>When he died, he believed + himself to have been defeated for the office</i> (earlier + time.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 54</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences choose the proper form from those +italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I was sorry <i>to have heard to hear</i> of John's death.</li> +<li>Should you have been willing <i>to go to have gone</i> with + us?</li> +<li>The game was intended <i>to be played to have been played</i> + yesterday.</li> +<li>I intended <i>to write to have written</i> long ago.</li> +<li>He wished <i>to have met to meet</i> you. + <a name="page_85"><span class="page">Page 85</span></a></li> +<li>I should have liked <i>to meet to have met</i> you.</li> +<li>Mary was eager <i>to have gone to go</i>.</li> +<li>Nero was seen <i>to have fiddled to fiddle</i> while Rome + burned.</li> +<li>Nero is said <i>to have fiddled to fiddle</i> while Rome + burned.</li> +<li>This was <i>to be done to have been done</i> yesterday.</li> +<li>They agreed <i>to finish to have finished</i> it yesterday.</li> +<li>He was willing <i>to sing to have sung</i> alone.</li> +<li>He expected <i>to have spoken to speak</i> here to-morrow.</li> +<li>The Civil War is said <i>to cause to have caused</i> more + loss of life than any other war.</li> +<li>Blackstone is said <i>to have failed to fail</i> at the + practice of law.</li> +<li>It would have been hard <i>to accomplish to have + accomplished</i> that result.</li> +<li>He was foolish enough <i>to have spoiled to spoil</i> six + negatives.</li> +<li>I wanted <i>to have attended to attend</i> the convention.</li> +<li>It would be terrible <i>to be lost to have been lost</i> in + the forest.</li> +<li>We were asked <i>to have waited to wait</i>.</li> +<li>I am eager <i>to have seen to see it</i>.</li> +<li>I am pleased <i>to meet to have met</i> you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>74. Split Infinitives.</b> In the sentence, care should be taken +to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial +modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called +the "split infinitive." Compare the following: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He seemed <i>to easily + learn</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He seemed <i>to learn + easily</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He is said <i>to have rapidly + run</i> along the street.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He is said <i>to have run + rapidly</i> along the street.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 55</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following split infinitives:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She is known to have hurriedly read the note.</li> +<li>Mary tried to quickly call help. + <a name="page_86"><span class="page">Page 86</span></a></li> +<li>He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph.</li> +<li>John attempted to rudely break into the conversation.</li> +<li>The plan was to secretly destroy the documents.</li> +<li>His policy was to never offend.</li> +<li>He wished to in this way gain friends.</li> +<li>He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>75. Agreement of Verb in Clauses.</b> In a compound predicate, +the parts of the predicate should agree in tense; <b>past tense +should follow past tense, and perfect tense follow perfect tense.</b> +Examine the following: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>has tried</i> to do, and really + <i>did</i> everything possible to stop his son.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>has tried</i> to do, and really + <i>has done</i> everything possible to stop his son.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>tried</i> to do, and really + <i>did</i> everything possible to stop his son.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>hoped</i> and <i>have worked</i> + to gain this recognition.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>hoped</i> and <i>worked</i> to + gain this recognition.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>have hoped</i> and <i>have + worked</i> to gain this recognition.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 56</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I went last week and have gone again this week.</li> +<li>I have heard of his being here, but not saw him.</li> +<li>I saw John, but I have not seen Henry.</li> +<li>He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry.</li> +<li>John was sent for, but has not yet arrived.</li> +<li>I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not + succeeded.</li> +<li>I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its + equal.</li> +<li>She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed + in getting his money.</li> +<li>I hoped and have prayed for your coming. + <a name="page_87"><span class="page">Page 87</span></a></li> +<li>I have believed and usually taught that theory.</li> +<li>I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work.</li> +<li>No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the + world as I.</li> +<li>He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy.</li> +<li>We have needed you and did our best to find you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>76. Omission of the Verb or Parts of the Verb.</b> The verb +or some of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes +makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>I like him better than John</i>. This sentence may have the +meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: <i>I +like him better than John <b>does</b></i>, or <i>I like him better +than <b>I like</b> John</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech +should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence +ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>He was told to go where he ought + not</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>He was told to go where he ought + not to go</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>He was told to go where he should + not go</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 57</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I admire Mary more than John.</li> +<li>I think she is older than John.</li> +<li>He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried.</li> +<li>I asked him to do what I should not have.</li> +<li>I did what I ought not.</li> +<li>We wish him better luck than Mary.</li> +<li>We want to see him more than Henry.</li> +<li>I should hate him worse than you.</li> +<li>He wanted me to do what I didn't care to.</li> +<li>You may, as you please, do it or not.</li> +<li>She may go if she wishes or not.</li> +<li>We think of you oftener than mother.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_88"><span class="page">Page 88</span></a> +<b>77. Model Conjugations of the Verbs To Be and To See.</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +CONJUGATION OF <b>TO BE</b> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Principal Parts: <b>AM, WAS, BEEN</b> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +INDICATIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>am</i></td> + <td>We <i>are</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. [*]Thou <i>art</i> (you <i>are</i>)</td> + <td>You <i>are</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is</i></td> + <td>They <i>are</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: The forms, <i>thou art, thou wast, thou hast</i>, +etc., are the proper forms in the second person singular, but +customarily the forms of the second person plural, <i>you are, +you were, you have</i>, etc., are used also in the second person +singular. These distinct second person singular forms will be used +throughout the model conjugations.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was</i></td> + <td>We <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wast</i> or <i>wert</i></td> + <td>You <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was</i></td> + <td>They <i>were</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Have</i> with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>have been</i></td> + <td>We <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>hast been</i></td> + <td>You <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>has been</i></td> + <td>They <i>have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Had</i> with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>had been</i></td> + <td>We <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>hadst been</i></td> + <td>You <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>had been</i></td> + <td>They <i>had been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_89"><span class="page">Page 89</span></a> +Future Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i> with the present infinitive, <i>be</i>.[*]) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>We <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>shalt be</i></td> + <td>You <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>They <i>shall be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: To determine when to use <i>shall</i> and when to +use <i>will</i> in the future and future perfect tenses, see +<b>§§ 65, 66</b>, and <b>67</b>. In these model conjugations +the forms of <i>shall</i> are given with the future and the forms +of <i>will</i> with the future perfect.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i> with the perfect infinitive, <i>have +been</i>.[*]) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>will have been</i></td> + <td>We <i>will have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wilt have been</i></td> + <td>You <i>will have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>will have been</i></td> + <td>They <i>will have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.] +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Generally follows <i>if, though, lest, although</i>, etc. See +<b>§59</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>be</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>be</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>be</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>were</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>were</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>were</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>were</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>were</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Have</i>, unchanged, with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>have been</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>have been</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>have been</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_90"><span class="page">Page 90</span></a> +Past Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Had</i>, unchanged, with the past participle, <i>been</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. (If) I <i>had been</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>had been</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>had been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>had been</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>had been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i>, unchanged, with present infinitive +<i>be</i>.[*]) +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.] +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>shall be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>shall be</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>shall be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Shall</i> or <i>will</i>, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, +<i>have been</i>.*) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>shall have been</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>shall have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>shall have been</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>shall have been</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>shall have been</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>shall have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +POTENTIAL MODE[*] +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many +authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as +of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use +it in these model conjugations. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode +see <b>§§ 68</b> and <b>69</b>. The conjugation with +<i>must</i> (or <i>ought to</i>) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE +MODE. The conjugation with <i>should</i> or <i>would</i> is sometimes +called the CONDITIONAL MODE.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>May, can</i>, or <i>must</i>, with the present infinitive, +<i>be</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must + be</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must + be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>mayst, canst</i>, or <i>must be</i></td> + <td>You <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must be</i></td> + <td>They <i>may, can</i>, or <i>must be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_91"><span class="page">Page 91</span></a> +Past Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Might, could, would</i>, or <i>should</i>, with the present +infinitive, <i>be</i>.) +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>might, could, would</i>, or <i>should be</i></td> + <td>We <i>might, could, would</i>, or <i>should + be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>mightst, couldst,</i> <i>wouldst,</i> or + <i>shouldst be</i></td> + <td>You <i>might, could, would,</i> or <i>should be</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>might, could, would,</i> or <i>should be</i></td> + <td>They <i>might, could, would,</i> or <i>should be</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>May, can</i>, or <i>must</i>, with the perfect infinitive, +<i>have been</i>. For forms substitute <i>have been</i> for <i>be</i> +in the present potential.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(<i>Might, could, would</i>, or <i>should</i>, with the perfect +infinitive <i>have been</i>. For forms substitute <i>have been</i> +for <i>be</i> in the past potential.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +IMPERATIVE MODE[*] +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.] +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Be</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +INFINITIVE MODE +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Present Tense</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Present Perfect Tense</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>To be</i></td> + <td><i>To have been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +PARTICIPLES +</p> + + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Present Tense</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Perfect Tense</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>Being</i></td> + <td><i>Having been</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +GERUNDS +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Same as participles) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +<a name="page_92"><span class="page">Page 92</span></a> +CONJUGATION OF <b>TO SEE</b> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Principal Parts: <b>SEE, SAW, SEEN</b> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +INDICATIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art seeing</i></td> + <td>You <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is seeing</i></td> + <td>They <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>do see</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>dost see</i></td> + <td>You <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>does see</i></td> + <td>They <i>do see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art seeing</i></td> + <td>You <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is seeing</i></td> + <td>They <i>are seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>are seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>are seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>am being seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>are being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>art being seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>are being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>is being seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>are being seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>saw</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>sawest</i></td> + <td>You <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>saw</i></td> + <td>They <i>saw</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_93"><span class="page">Page 93</span></a> <i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. I <i>did see</i></td> + <td>We <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>didst see</i></td> + <td>You <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>did see</i></td> + <td>They <i>did see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wast</i> or <i>wert seeing</i></td> + <td>You <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was seeing</i></td> + <td>They <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wast</i> or <i>wert seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>were seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. I <i>was being seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">We <i>were being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. Thou <i>wert</i> or <i>wast being seen</i></td> + <td>You <i>were being seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. He <i>was being seen</i></td> + <td>They <i>were being seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_94"><span class="page">Page 94</span></a> +Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect indicative +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the future indicative of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the future indicative +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the future indicative +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have seen</i> for <i>have been</i> in the future +perfect indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seeing</i> for <i>have been</i> in the +future perfect indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seen</i> for <i>have been</i> in the future +perfect indicative of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. (If) I <i>see</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>see</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>see</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_95"><span class="page">Page 95</span></a> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;"><i>Person Singular Number</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Plural Number</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>1. (If) I <i>do see</i></td> + <td>(If) we <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>do see</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>do see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>do see</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>do see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>be seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>be seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>be seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>be seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>be seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>be seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>be seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>be seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>be seen</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>be seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>be seen</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>be seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>saw</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>saw</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>saw</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>saw</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>saw</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>did see</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>did see</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>did see</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>did see</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>did see</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>were seeing</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>were seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>were seeing</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>were seeing</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">1. (If) I <i>were seen</i></td> + <td style="width: 50%;">(If) we <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>2. (If) thou <i>were seen</i></td> + <td>(If) you <i>were seen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>3. (If) he <i>were seen</i></td> + <td>(If) they <i>were seen</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_96"><span class="page">Page 96</span></a> +Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the present perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the past perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the future subjunctive of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the future subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the future subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_97"><span class="page">Page 97</span></a> +Future Perfect—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>seen</i> for <i>been</i> in the future perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seeing</i> for <i>been</i> in the future perfect +subjunctive of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Future Perfect—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>been seen</i> for the future perfect subjunctive +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +POTENTIAL MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>see</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential of <i>to +be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>be seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential of +<i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_98"><span class="page">Page 98</span></a> +Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the present +potential of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the present potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seeing</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +(Substitute <i>have been seen</i> for <i>be</i> in the past potential +of <i>to be</i>.) +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +IMPERATIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>see</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Emphatic</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>do see</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>be seeing</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>be seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +<a name="page_99"><span class="page">Page 99</span></a> +INFINITIVE MODE +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to see.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to be seeing.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to be seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to have seen.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to have been seeing.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>to have been seen.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +PARTICIPLES +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>seeing</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>being seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Past Tense—Passive Voice[*] +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="footnote"> +[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.] +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_100"><span class="page">Page 100</span></a> +Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Simple</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Progressive</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having been seeing</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having been seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +GERUNDS +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>seeing</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Present Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>being seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Active Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having seen</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Perfect Tense—Passive Voice +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>having been seen</i> +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_101"><span class="page">Page 101</span></a> +CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, +CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>78. Independent and Dependent Clauses.</b> A sentence may consist +of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal +clause and one or more dependent clauses. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Independent clauses</b> are joined by conjunctions; such as, +<i>hence, but, and, although</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Dependent clauses</b> are joined to the sentence by relative +adverbs; such as, <i>where, when</i>, etc., or by relative pronouns; +as, <i>who, what</i>, etc. These dependent clauses may have the +same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or +adverbs. (See <b>§7</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>79. Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns.</b> +Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns +has already been touched upon (see <b>§29</b>), but a further +mention of this fault may well be made here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that +of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve +as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, <i>I wonder +<b>whom</b> will be chosen</i>, is wrong, because the relative +here is the subject of <i>will be chosen</i>, not the object of +<i>wonder</i>, and should have the nominative form <i>who</i>. +Corrected, it reads, <i>I wonder <b>who</b> will be chosen</i>. +Examine the following sentences: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We know <i>who</i> we mean.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: We know <i>whom</i> we mean.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: You may give it to <i>whoever</i> + you wish. + <a name="page_102"><span class="page">Page 102</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: You may give it to <i>whomever</i> + you wish.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Do you know <i>whom</i> it is?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Do you know <i>who</i> it is? + (Attribute complement.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Everybody <i>who were</i> there were + disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Everybody <i>who was</i> there was + disappointed.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it +introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, +the sentence, <i>He gave it to <b>who</b> had the clearest right</i>, +is correct, because <i>who</i> is the subject of the verb <i>had</i>, +and therefore in the nominative case. <i>Give it to <b>whomever</b> +they name</i>, is right, because <i>whomever</i> is the object of +<i>they name</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same +way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has +other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as +the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, +to use the proper case. Say, <i>Whom are you looking for?</i> not, +<i>Who are you looking for?</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span> Some +writers justify the use of <i>who</i> in sentences like +the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this +book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to +adhere to the strictly grammatical form. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 58</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those +italicized:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li><i>Who whom</i> do you wish to see?</li> +<li>You will please write out the name of <i>whoever whomever</i> + you want.</li> +<li>I saw <i>who whom</i> was there.</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> was it you saw?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> did you see? + <a name="page_103"><span class="page">Page 103</span></a></li> +<li>John did not know <i>whom who</i> to ask.</li> +<li>Why did he not ask <i>whomever whoever</i> was there?</li> +<li><i>Who whom</i> can tell the difference?</li> +<li>Give it to <i>whoever whomever</i> you please.</li> +<li>None of those who <i>were was</i> wanted <i>was were</i> + there.</li> +<li>The one of those who <i>were was</i> wanted was not there.</li> +<li>He is one of those fellows who <i>are is</i> always joking.</li> +<li><i>Whom who</i> was called "The Rail Splitter?"</li> +<li>Do you not know <i>whom who</i> it was?</li> +<li>That is one of the birds that <i>is are</i> very rare.</li> +<li>One of the books which <i>was were</i> brought was one hundred + years old.</li> +<li>I am not among those <i>who whom were was</i> there.</li> +<li>Only one of the men who <i>were was</i> on board survived.</li> +<li>Everyone else who <i>was were</i> there <i>was were</i> lost.</li> +<li>I am the one of the three men who <i>is am are</i> guilty.</li> +<li>He was chosen one of the four speakers who <i>was were</i> to + speak on Commencement Day.</li> +<li>It was one of the books which <i>were was</i> being sought by + the librarian.</li> +<li>Give it to one of the men <i>who whom</i> is found there.</li> +<li>To <i>who whom</i> did you give it?</li> +<li>It was for <i>whomever whoever</i> was present.</li> +<li>Ask <i>whomever whoever</i> is nearest the door.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>80. Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs.</b> It is better to use +a <b><i>when</i> clause</b> only in the subordinate part of the +sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He was turning the corner, when + suddenly he saw a car approaching.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: When he was turning the corner, + he suddenly saw a car approaching.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: When the news of the fire came, + it was still in the early morning.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The news of the fire came when + it was still in the early morning.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_104"><span class="page">Page 104</span></a> <b>81.</b> +Do not use a <i><b>when</b></i> or a <b><i>where</i> clause</b> +in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Commencement is when one formally + completes his school course.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Commencement is the formal + completion of one's school course.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Astronomy is where one studies + about the stars.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Astronomy is the study of the + stars.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>82.</b> <i>So, then</i>, and <i>also</i>, the conjunctive adverbs, +should not be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence +unless <i>and</i> or <i>but</i> be used in addition to the adverb. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The boys' grades are low, <i>so</i> + they indicate lack of application.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The boys' grades are low, <i>and + so</i> indicate lack of application.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He read for a while, <i>then</i> fell + asleep.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He read for a while, <i>and then</i> + fell asleep.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: I'll be down next week; <i>also</i> I + shall bring Jack along.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: I'll be down next week; <i>and + also</i> I shall bring Jack along.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 59</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Anarchism is when one believes in no government.</li> +<li>I am studying German, also French.</li> +<li>The clock had just struck five when the cab came.</li> +<li>I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire.</li> +<li>I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office.</li> +<li>I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones.</li> +<li>Death is when one ceases to live.</li> +<li>Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work.</li> +<li>He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped.</li> +<li>He loves good music, also good pictures.</li> +<li>A restaurant is where meals are served.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_105"><span class="page">Page 105</span></a> +<b>83. Conjunctions.</b> There are certain conjunctions, and also +certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>And</b> or <b>but</b> should not be used to join a dependent +clause to an independent clause; as, <i>It was a new valise <b>and</b> +differing much from his old one</i>. Say instead, <i>It was a new +valise, differing much from his old one</i>, or <i>It was a new +valise, and differed very much from his old one</i>. Similarly, <i>It +was a new book <b>which</b></i> (not <i>and which</i>) <i>interested +him very much</i>. This "and which" construction is a frequent +error; <i>and which</i> should never be used unless there is more +than one relative clause, and then never with the first one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>But</b> or <b>for</b> should not be used to introduce both of +two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad +by reason of this error: <i>He likes geometry, <b>but</b> fails in +algebra, <b>but</b> studies it hard, He read all night, <b>for</b> +the book interested him, <b>for</b> it was along the line of his +ambition</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Than</b> and <b>as</b> should not be followed by objective pronouns +in sentences like this: <i>I am as large <b>as him</b></i>. The +verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error +will be apparent. The sentence would then read, <i>I am as large +as <b>him</b> (is large)</i>. The correct form is, <i><b>I</b> am +as large as he (is large)</i>. Similarly, <i>He is taller than +<b>I</b> (am tall), She is brighter than <b>he</b> (is bright)</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>As</b> may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. <i>He +is <b>as</b> tall <b>as I</b></i>. The first <i>as</i> is an adverb, +the second <i>as</i> is a conjunction. <i>As</i> is properly used +as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality +is denied, <i>so</i> should be used in its place. <i>He is <b>as</b> +old <b>as I</b></i>, is correct, but the denial should be, <i>He is +<b>not so</b> old <b>as I</b></i>. After <i>not</i> do not use <i>as</i> +when <i>as</i> is an adverb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Neither</b>, when used as a conjunction, should be followed +by <b>nor</b>; as, <i>Neither he <b>nor</b> (not or) I can come. +Neither</i> should never be followed by <i>or</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Either</b>, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by +<b>or</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>84. Placing of Correlatives</b>. The correlatives, such as +<i>neither—nor, either—or, not only—but also</i>, +should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or +similar parts <a name="page_106"><span class="page">Page 106</span></a> +of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the +other toward some other part of speech. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He <i>not only</i> brought a book, + <i>but also</i> a pencil.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He brought <i>not only</i> a book + <i>but also</i> a pencil.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He would offer <i>neither</i> + reparation <i>nor</i> would he apologize.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>Neither</i> would he offer + reparation <i>nor</i> would he apologize.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He would offer <i>neither</i> + reparation <i>nor</i> apology.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>85.</b> The prepositions <i>without, except, like</i>, and the +adverb <i>directly</i> should not be used as conjunctions. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Without</i> (<i>unless</i>) you + attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: This she would not do <i>except</i> + (<i>unless</i>) we promised to pay at once.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I acted just <i>like</i> (<i>as</i>) + all the others (did).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Directly</i> (<i>as soon as</i>) + he came, we harnessed the horses.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 60</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Mary is as old as her.</li> +<li>I read as much as him.</li> +<li>He either wore his coat or a sort of vest.</li> +<li>He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed + all night.</li> +<li>We are better players than them.</li> +<li>He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist + and doing many absurd things.</li> +<li>There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very + entertaining.</li> +<li>They work harder than us.</li> +<li>John is not as tall as you.</li> +<li>Neither John or James is as tall as you.</li> +<li>I admire Mary more than she.</li> +<li>That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. + <a name="page_107"><span class="page">Page 107</span></a></li> +<li>He dresses just like I do.</li> +<li>Directly he came we launched the canoes.</li> +<li>This cannot be done except you are a senior.</li> +<li>Neither she nor I was present.</li> +<li>He not only had a trained pig but also a goose.</li> +<li>Mary is not as pretty as Helen.</li> +<li>The men neither interested him nor the places.</li> +<li>He has traveled more than me.</li> +<li>We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has + traveled so much.</li> +<li>It is a good book and which has much valuable information.</li> +<li>It was a rough town and harboring many criminals.</li> +<li>He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for + athletics.</li> +<li>He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 61</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly +used:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +When, where, than, as—as, so—as, neither—nor, +not only—but also, either—or, except, like, without, +directly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>86. Prepositions.</b> Some mistakes are made in the use of +prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the +appropriate prepositions to be used with each: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +agree <i>with</i> a person differ <i>from</i> (person or thing) +agree <i>to</i> a proposition differ <i>from</i> or <i>with</i> an opinion +bestow <i>upon</i> different <i>from</i> +compare <i>with</i> (to determine value) glad <i>of</i> +compare <i>to</i> (because of similarity) need <i>of</i> +comply <i>with</i> part <i>from</i> (a person) +confide <i>in</i> (to trust in) part <i>with</i> (a thing) +confide <i>to</i> (to intrust to) profit <i>by</i> +confer <i>on</i> (to give) prohibit <i>from</i> +confer <i>with</i> (to talk with) reconcile <i>to</i> (a person) +convenient <i>to</i> (a place) reconcile <i>with</i> (a statement) +convenient <i>for</i> (a purpose) scared <i>by</i> +dependent <i>on</i> think <i>of</i> or <i>about</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_108"><span class="page">Page 108</span></a> Do not +use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following +improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td>continue <i>on</i></td><td><i>down</i> until</td></tr> + <tr><td>covered <i>over</i></td><td>inside <i>of</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>off <i>of</i></td><td>outside <i>of</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>started <i>out</i></td><td>where <i>to</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td>wish <i>for</i> to come</td><td>remember <i>of</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>more than you think <i>for</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness +of the sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He is a dealer and shipper <i>of</i> + coal.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He is a dealer <i>in</i> and shipper + <i>of</i> coal.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 62</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions +listed under the first paragraph of</i> <b>§86</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of +each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph +of</i> <b>§86</b>. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_109"><span class="page">Page 109</span></a> +QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR</h2> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sentences, Parts of Speech, and Sentence Elements.</b> What +are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of +speech? Define each. What is the difference between a clause and +a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and +a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. +An adjective clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective +phrase. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an +object complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference +between simple, complex, and compound sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Nouns.</b> What is the difference between singular and plural +number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending +in <i>s, ch, sh, x</i>, or <i>z</i>? In <i>y</i>? In <i>f</i> or +<i>fe</i>? In <i>o</i>? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound +nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of +most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in <i>s</i> or in an <i>s</i> +sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? What is gender? +How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the +difference between common and proper nouns? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Pronouns.</b> What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a +pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by +"person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the +pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What +pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons +of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? +To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are +they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after +<i>everybody</i>? After <i>some one</i>? After <i>some people</i>? +After two nouns connected by <i>or</i>? By <i>nor</i>? By <i>and</i>? +What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of antecedents +may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory +relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. What is an <a +name="page_110"><span class="page">Page 110</span></a> interrogative +pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? +In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? +The objective? The possessive? May <i>thou</i> and <i>you</i> be +used in the same sentence? When should <i>but that</i> be used, +and when <i>but what</i>? May <i>them</i> be used adjectively? +May <i>which</i> be used with a clause as an antecedent? May +<i>which</i> and <i>that</i>, or <i>who</i> and <i>that</i> be used +in the same sentence with the same antecedent? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Adjectives and Adverbs.</b> Distinguish between adjectives and +adverbs. Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, +the comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, +<i>He is the largest of the two?</i> Reason? <i>He is the larger +of the three?</i> Reason? <i>He is the largest of all?</i> Reason? +Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. May one say, <i>Paris +is larger than any city?</i> Reason? <i>Paris is larger than all +cities?</i> Reason? <i>Paris is the largest of any other city?</i> +Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by <i>every</i>? +By <i>two</i>? By <i>various</i>? By <i>each</i>? With how many +objects may <i>either</i> be used? <i>Neither</i>? Where should +the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant +by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the +definite article? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Verbs.</b> What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? +Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. +With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary +be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the +verbs, <i>go, see, begin, come, drink, write</i>. What is a transitive +verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the +difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or +does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive +voice. Distinguish between the use of <i>sit</i> and <i>set</i>. +Of <i>lay</i> and <i>lie</i>. Of <i>rise</i> and <i>raise</i>. +What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In +what way and where does the subjunctive of <i>be</i> differ from +the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form +of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its +subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? +What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or +plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with <i>don't, +can't</i>, etc.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural +verb after <i>who</i>, <a name="page_111"><span class="page">Page +111</span></a> <i>which</i>, and <i>that</i>? What form of the verb +is used after <i>you</i>? After <i>they</i>? When are <i>shall</i> +and <i>should</i> used with <i>I</i> and <i>we</i>? When with other +subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is +used in dependent clauses introduced by <i>that</i>, expressed or +understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of <i>may</i> +and <i>might</i> from <i>can</i> and <i>could</i>. What is a "dangling +participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without +any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the +object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is +used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive +substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb, in +what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect +infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound +predicate agree in tense? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Connectives.</b> By what are independent clauses connected? +Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a <i>when</i> +clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the +sentence? May <i>so, then</i>, or <i>also</i> be used alone as +conjunctive adverbs? May <i>and</i> or <i>but</i> be used to join +a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow +<i>than</i> or <i>as</i>? Should <i>neither</i> be followed by +<i>nor</i> or <i>or</i>? +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_112"><span class="page">Page 112</span></a> +A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR</h2> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 63</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each +sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph +in which is discussed the question involved:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.)</li> +<li>It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.)</li> +<li>He said he should come if he could. (68.)</li> +<li>Can I use your pencil? (69.)</li> +<li>If you were I, what would you do? (68.)</li> +<li>We would like to go. (68.)</li> +<li>Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. + (63-5.)</li> +<li>He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.)</li> +<li>Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.)</li> +<li>This is John's book. (13.)</li> +<li>I feared that they should not come. (68.)</li> +<li>Mother's and father's death. (15-4.)</li> +<li>Mary was eager to have gone. (73.)</li> +<li>The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.)</li> +<li>The members of Congress watch each other. (44.)</li> +<li>I fear that I will take cold. (67.)</li> +<li>Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.)</li> +<li>Neither of the three is well. (43.)</li> +<li>Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.)</li> +<li>He is determined that he shall go away. (67.)</li> +<li>Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.)</li> +<li>Whom did the man say he was? (29.)</li> +<li>His clothes look prettily. (38.) + <a name="page_113"><span class="page">Page 113</span></a></li> +<li>The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.)</li> +<li>Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.)</li> +<li>This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.)</li> +<li>Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.)</li> +<li>I am believed to be him. (29.)</li> +<li>He sings very illy. (40.)</li> +<li>When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep + for them to work. (54.)</li> +<li>She is very discontented. (48.)</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.)</li> +<li>The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.)</li> +<li>Shall my work soon begin? (66.)</li> +<li>He is six foot tall. (42.)</li> +<li>Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.)</li> +<li>Will the dog bite? (66.)</li> +<li>I am believed to be he. (29.)</li> +<li>I am eager to have seen it. (73.)</li> +<li>I think it shall rain soon. (67.)</li> +<li>She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.)</li> +<li>Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.)</li> +<li>Who did the man say he was? (29.)</li> +<li>He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has + been through Oxford University. (83.)</li> +<li>Choose who you please. (29.)</li> +<li>It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.)</li> +<li>The pump was froze fast. (54.)</li> +<li>A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.)</li> +<li>Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.)</li> +<li>It is him. (29.)</li> +<li>He did it hisself. (31.)</li> +<li>He eat all there was on the table. (54.)</li> +<li>He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.)</li> +<li>The murderer was hung at noon. (54.)</li> +<li>It is a queer kind of a book. (47.)</li> +<li>You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.)</li> +<li>Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.)</li> +<li>I think I will find the work easy. (67.)</li> +<li>He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) + <a name="page_114"><span class="page">Page 114</span></a></li> +<li>Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.)</li> +<li>Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.)</li> +<li>Goliath was slew by David. (54.)</li> +<li>Myself and mother are sick. (30.)</li> +<li>John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.)</li> +<li>If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them out. + (21.)</li> +<li>The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.)</li> +<li>John's and William's dog. (15-4.)</li> +<li>Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.)</li> +<li>Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.)</li> +<li>He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper. + (34-6.)</li> +<li>Awake me early in the morning. (57.)</li> +<li>If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.)</li> +<li>Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.)</li> +<li>Washington, the general and the president, was born on February + 22d. (47.)</li> +<li>Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.)</li> +<li>A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.)</li> +<li>I sat my chair by the window. (57.)</li> +<li>I sat myself down to rest. (57.)</li> +<li>I can't hardly see to write. (46.)</li> +<li>John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.)</li> +<li>He laid on the couch all day. (57.)</li> +<li>Death is when one ceases to live. (81.)</li> +<li>I was told to set here. (57.)</li> +<li>Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.)</li> +<li>I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.)</li> +<li>McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.)</li> +<li>It weighs several ton. (42.)</li> +<li>John is not as bright as Henry. (83.)</li> +<li>Germany and France's ships. (15-4.)</li> +<li>John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.)</li> +<li>You had ought to go home. (54.)</li> +<li>This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.)</li> +<li>Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.)</li> +<li>An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) + <a name="page_115"><span class="page">Page 115</span></a></li> +<li>It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.)</li> +<li>The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last + week are the same. (26, 34-5.)</li> +<li>I don't like those kind of people. (42.)</li> +<li>I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.)</li> +<li>Let him lay there. (57.)</li> +<li>My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.)</li> +<li>American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.)</li> +<li>William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.)</li> +<li>The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.)</li> +<li>The price of meat has raised. (57.)</li> +<li>This train runs slow. (38.)</li> +<li>Which is the best of the two? (41-1.)</li> +<li>Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.)</li> +<li>Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be + discharged. (85.)</li> +<li>The family is all at home. (62.)</li> +<li>The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.)</li> +<li>This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.)</li> +<li>The knife has laid there all day. (57.)</li> +<li>The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. + (34-9.)</li> +<li>The jury has agreed. (62.)</li> +<li>Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.)</li> +<li>Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.)</li> +<li>The army were defeated. (62.)</li> +<li>If I was you, I should go at once. (60.)</li> +<li>She may go if she wishes or not. (76.)</li> +<li>Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.)</li> +<li>I like her better than you. (76.)</li> +<li>Who do you want? (79.)</li> +<li>Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.)</li> +<li>By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.)</li> +<li>The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.)</li> +<li>When was you there? (64-2.)</li> +<li>He is as tall as me. (83.)</li> +<li>Neither John nor her will come. (29.)</li> +<li>You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) + <a name="page_116"><span class="page">Page 116</span></a></li> +<li>You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.)</li> +<li>I wish you were more like she. (29.)</li> +<li>Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.)</li> +<li>Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.)</li> +<li>He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.)</li> +<li>Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.)</li> +<li>The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.)</li> +<li>The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.)</li> +<li>He has fell from his chair. (57.)</li> +<li>I will raise and go to my father. (57.)</li> +<li>The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.)</li> +<li>They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.)</li> +<li>Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.)</li> +<li>I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.)</li> +<li>He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.)</li> +<li>Neither German or French is taught there. (83.)</li> +<li>We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.)</li> +<li>He awoke at nine. (57.)</li> +<li>I wish I was a bird. (60.)</li> +<li>If it rains, I stay at school. (60.)</li> +<li>Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.)</li> +<li>The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.)</li> +<li>We started out for the city at noon. (86.)</li> +<li>The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.)</li> +<li>Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.)</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_117"><span class="page">Page 117</span></a> +CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">SENTENCES</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>87.</b> Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences +are considered as loose, periodic, and balanced. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The <b>Loose Sentence</b> is so constructed that it may be closed +at two or more places and yet make complete sense; as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Napoleon felt his <i>weakness</i>, and tried to win back popular +<i>favor</i> by concession after <i>concession</i>, until, at his +fall, he had nearly restored parliamentary <i>government</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. <i>weakness, +favor</i>, and <i>concession</i>, as well as after <i>government</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>88.</b> The <b>Periodic Sentence</b> holds the complete thought +in suspense until the close of the sentence. Compare the following +periodic sentence with the loose sentence under <b>§87:</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor +by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored +parliamentary government. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since +periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the +untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>89.</b> The <b>Balanced Sentence</b> is made up of parts similar +in form, but often contrasted in meaning; as, <i>He is a man; Jones +is a gentleman.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>90. Sentence Length.</b> As to the length of the sentence there is +no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in their +thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if there is +a succession of short sentences, choppiness <a name="page_118"><span +class="page">Page 118</span></a> and roughness are the result. +One should carefully examine sentences which contain more than +thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear in their +meaning and accurate in their construction. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 64</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, +five periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 65</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is +loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the +periodic form:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower +class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because +they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government.</li> + +<li>The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held +office only at his pleasure.</li> + +<li>A society and institutions that had been growing up for years +was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution.</li> + +<li>Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly +to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun.</li> + +<li>He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably.</li> + +<li>Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear.</li> + +<li>He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting +and continuing the ascent on foot.</li> + +<li>They visited the town where their father had lived, and while +there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born.</li> + +<li>His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in +the family.</li> + +<li>There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries +of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy.</li> + +<li><a name="page_119"><span class="page">Page 119</span></a> +Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown merely +as an example.</li> + +<li>Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers +find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder +one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states.</li> + +<li>Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and +woes, after all, worth living?</li> + +<li>He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the +facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment +in his mind.</li> + +<li>His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started +on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would +take longer this time.</li> + +<li>It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon +first became very prominent by defending the convention against +a mob.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 66</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well +constructed long sentence:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford +space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford +it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities +the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate +business.</li> + +<li>History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops +the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. +It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other +study can give it.</li> + +<li>He never desired a higher education. This was possible because +of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no +need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because +of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind.</li> + +<li>New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its +great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw +the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party +New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result.</li> + +<li><a name="page_120"><span class="page">Page 120</span></a> +Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many ways. +However, they permitted many liberties in the application of sermons +to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays be strongly +disapproved or resented.</li> + +<li>Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving +point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from +the future.</li> + +<li>The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. +They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. +They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or +clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and +to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty.</li> + +<li>The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest +of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes +one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers.</li> + +<li>They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This +was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle +was now being transformed into a national museum.</li> + +<li>He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped +slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about +shaking hands right and left.</li> + +<li>They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached +the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang +onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself +by touching the brackets which held the lamps.</li> + +<li>The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the +wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. +At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still +rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere.</li> + +<li>The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. +There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already +scorched by the fire.</li> + +<li>Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get +to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. +The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain +death.</li> + +<li>The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a +long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses +earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than <a +name="page_121"><span class="page">Page 121</span></a> once toward +a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only its +top half shows. The hill is on the east.</li> + +<li>The most important political question has been the tariff question. +This has been most important for ten years. It is important because +it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts.</li> + +<li>The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild +weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem +to flood one's soul with peace and contentment.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>91.</b> The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, +aside from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, +and Euphony. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Unity.</b> Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one +general thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent +and connected manner that the thought is clearly and effectively +presented. Unity demands, also, that closely related thoughts should +not be improperly scattered among several sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should +not be embodied in one sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The house sat well back from the road, + <i>and its owner</i> was a married man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The house sat well back from the road. + <i>Its owner</i> was a married man.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide +into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected +by a conjunction. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Jones lives in the country, <i>he</i> + has a fine library.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Jones lives in the country. <i>He</i> + has a fine library.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Jones lives in the country <i>and + has</i> a fine library.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve +hundred people) that has no school-house. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_122"><span class="page">Page 122</span></a> +2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: That is not an easy problem, <i>I + think</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: That, <i>I think</i>, is not an + easy problem.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>I do not think</i> that is an + easy problem.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He could not be elected mayor again + under any circumstances, <i>at least so I am told</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He could not, <i>I am told</i>, be + elected mayor again under any circumstances.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>I am told</i> that he could not + under any circumstances be elected mayor again.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +b. Avoid long straggling sentences. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the +team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost +all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and +this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the +students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their +interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the +institution. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are +closely and logically connected with one another. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: That it is a good school is not + without proof. Its diploma admits to all colleges.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: That it is a good school is not + without proof, for its diploma admits to all colleges.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: That its diploma admits to all + colleges is proof that it is a good school.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: This fact was true of all of us. + With the exception of John.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: This fact was true of all of us, + with the exception of John.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Edward came. But John never + appeared.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Edward came, but John never + appeared.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The town has two railroads running + through it. Also, three trolley lines. + <a name="page_123"><span class="page">Page 123</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The town has two railroads running + through it, and also three trolley lines.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The town has two railroads and three + trolley lines running through it.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Do not change the point of view. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>We</i> completed our themes, and + <i>they</i> were handed in to the teacher. (In the first part + of the sentence, the subject is <i>we</i>; in the second it is + <i>themes</i>.)</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We completed our themes and handed + them in to the teacher.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Our themes were completed and handed + in to the teacher.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The <i>stage</i> took us to the foot + of the hill, and <i>we</i> walked from there to the top, where + <i>our friends</i> met us.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>We</i> were taken to the foot of + the hill by the stage, and <i>we</i> walked from there to the + top, where <i>we</i> were met by our friends.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 67</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles +of unity:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride + made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards.</li> +<li>Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. + While Smith is thoroughly dishonest.</li> +<li>John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand + why he didn't succeed.</li> +<li>I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school + and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer.</li> +<li>In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they + are radical and progressive.</li> +<li>The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, + and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and + so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a + trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two + months we had ever <a name="page_124"><span class="page">Page + 124</span></a> spent, and gave us an experience that was very valuable + in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall.</li> +<li>The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number + of steel mills.</li> +<li>One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail.</li> +<li>Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade + the customs laws.</li> +<li>My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says.</li> +<li>He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I + am not sure) and then taught for three years.</li> +<li>This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good.</li> +<li>He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all + possible.</li> +<li>Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton + guided its financial policy.</li> +<li>Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps + to write the letters.</li> +<li>The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although + no small amount of trade came from the town.</li> +<li>The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, + would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call + him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing + so, but the dog never lost patience.</li> +<li>He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully + many) who never do what they promise.</li> +<li>He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, + to sleep, and his books were found there the next day.</li> +<li>He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended + for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies + in English.</li> +<li>I can't go, I don't think.</li> +<li>He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made + a great football player.</li> +<li>He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear.</li> +<li>The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not + care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of + the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place.</li> +<li><a name="page_125"><span class="page">Page 125</span></a> +He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, hence + he is an agreeable companion.</li> +<li>He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old.</li> +<li>There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years + of age.</li> +<li>He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters + are concerned.</li> +<li>I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I + was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most + of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a + great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone + over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed + to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry.</li> +<li>He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little + without making him angry.</li> +<li>There are a great number of stations along this short line of + railroad, these, however, do little business.</li> +<li>They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was + discovered that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton + lay south of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north.</li> +<li>He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be.</li> +<li>That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to + spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over + the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so + many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions + to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed.</li> +<li>He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all.</li> +<li>Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam + in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give + us a room and board.</li> +<li>He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think + it over.</li> +<li>He is the most peculiar person I ever met—in the last + few years at least.</li> +<li>I am reading a book, it is very interesting.</li> +<li>They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which + he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps.</li> +<li><a name="page_126"><span class="page">Page 126</span></a> +He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to get a + vast amount of information out of it.</li> +<li>It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When + he was in school.</li> +<li>The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his + performances.</li> +<li>Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and + his father was dead.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>92. Coherence.</b> Coherence in the sentence demands that the +arrangement and the construction of the sentence be clear and free +from ambiguity. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly + troubled with the mange.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly + troubled <i>because they had</i> the mange.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was greatly troubled because + several of <i>his dogs had</i> the mange.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front + <i>foot which</i> has since died.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The <i>dog, which</i> has since + died, was bitten on the front foot.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The dog was bitten on the front + foot and has since died.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word +which it modifies. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading + a <i>book made</i> in the mission style.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was sitting in a <i>chair + made</i> in the mission style and was reading a + book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was sitting reading a book in + a chair made in the mission style.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his + <i>father, containing</i> over fifteen hundred pieces. + <a name="page_127"><span class="page">Page 127</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The <i>table, containing</i> over + fifteen hundred pieces, had been inlaid by his + father.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The table contained over fifteen + hundred pieces and had been inlaid by his father.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the +placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it +refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It would be hard to explain, <i>if + you were to ask me</i>, what the trouble was.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: If you were to ask me what the + trouble was, it would be hard to explain.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their +office. <i>Neither—nor, both—and</i>, etc., are frequently +not placed next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See +<b>§84</b>. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>neither</i> brought a trunk + <i>nor</i> a suit-case.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He brought <i>neither</i> a trunk + <i>nor</i> a suit-case.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>not only</i> received money + from his father, <i>but also</i> his mother.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He received money <i>not only</i> + from his father, <i>but also</i> from his mother.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>not only</i> received money + from his father, <i>but also</i> received it from his + mother.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The man <i>never has</i>, and + <i>never will</i> be successful.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The man <i>never has been</i>, + and <i>never will be</i> successful.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It <i>is no</i> concern to + him.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It <i>is of no</i> concern to + him.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_128"><span class="page">Page 128</span></a> +6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a long +complex sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and +Populists—<i>all</i> were there. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, +in a similar manner. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: I decided <i>on doing</i> the work + that night, and <i>to write</i> it out on the typewriter.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: I decided <i>to do</i> the work + that night and <i>to write</i> it out on the typewriter.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>Textbooks are going</i> out of + use in the modern law schools, but some schools still use + them.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>Textbooks are going</i> out of + use in the modern law schools, but in some <i>they</i> are + still used.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Though <i>textbooks are going</i> + out of use in modern law schools, <i>they are still used</i> + in some of them.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: <i>One</i> should never try to avoid + work in school, for <i>you</i> always increase your trouble by + doing so.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>One</i> should never try to avoid + work in school, for <i>one</i> always increases his trouble by + doing so.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: <i>One</i> usually only increases + <i>his</i> troubles by trying to avoid work in school.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 68</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the +following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state.</li> +<li>The statute requires that one study three years, and that you + pass an examination.</li> +<li>He is home.</li> +<li>Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, + were in the assemblage.</li> +<li>He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in + salary.</li> +<li><a name="page_129"><span class="page">Page 129</span></a> +Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call.</li> +<li>When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside +my paper.</li> +<li>I only knew John.</li> +<li>The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load.</li> +<li>John told his father that his coat was too tight for him.</li> +<li>I not only knew the president but also the whole board of + directors.</li> +<li>The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire.</li> +<li>Mrs. Smith wants washing.</li> +<li>A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away + from home as a result of a druggist's mistake.</li> +<li>He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman.</li> +<li>A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear.</li> +<li>In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making + the result unreliable.</li> +<li>It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature.</li> +<li>The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was + that he used the wrong book.</li> +<li>John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was + not entirely to blame for it.</li> +<li>They said they saw them coming before they saw them.</li> +<li>The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up.</li> +<li>You made the same mistake that you now make last week.</li> +<li>Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the + professor.</li> +<li>It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected.</li> +<li>They are required to report both on their way to work and coming + home.</li> +<li>Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of + composition was taken up.</li> +<li>Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night.</li> +<li>We tried to study, but didn't do any.</li> +<li>I do not care either to see you or Henry.</li> +<li>He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the + farm.</li> +<li>Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly.</li> +<li><a name="page_130"><span class="page">Page 130</span></a> + One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, in this + way limiting what can be done.</li> +<li>The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did.</li> +<li>Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses + are forbidden to trot over them.</li> +<li>John told Henry that he thought he needed help.</li> +<li>He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead.</li> +<li>Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there + than here.</li> +<li>Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages.</li> +<li>After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it + back to the printer.</li> +<li>The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them.</li> +<li>They knew all that was to be learned, including John.</li> +<li>We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara + Falls and Canada.</li> +<li>Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet.</li> +<li>Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started + to school.</li> +<li>He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed.</li> +<li>He built a house for his wife with seven windows.</li> +<li>He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his + business card.</li> +<li>I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front + door step.</li> +<li>Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful + manner.</li> +<li>Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty.</li> +<li>He neither told John nor his father.</li> +<li>Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called.</li> +<li>He bought a horse when ten years old.</li> +<li>The child the parent often rebuked.</li> +<li>Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched.</li> +<li>Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us.</li> +<li>Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually.</li> +<li>I knew him as a physician when a boy.</li> +<li><a name="page_131"><span class="page">Page 131</span></a> +He came leading his dog on a bicycle.</li> +<li>When wanted he sent me a letter.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>93. Emphasis.</b> Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged +that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the +minor details subordinated. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He was a student who did nothing right + <i>as a rule</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He was a student, who, <i>as a + rule</i>, did nothing right.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in +emphasis. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick + tree not far back of our camp.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Changed: From a thick tree not far back of + our camp a lonely owl shrieked.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce +a climax; i. e., have the most important come last. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Human beings, dogs, cats, horses, all + living things were destroyed.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Cats, dogs, horses, human beings, all + living things were destroyed.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: He is universally praised by all + people.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: He is universally praised.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: The darkness was absolutely + impenetrable, and not a thing could be seen.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: The darkness was absolutely + impenetrable.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets + that a slight indisposition in health precludes his granting + himself the pleasure of accepting your invitation to come to + your house to dine.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets + that sickness prevents his accepting your invitation to + dine.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_132"><span class="page">Page 132</span></a> +Exercise 69</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the +principles of emphasis:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Children, women, and men were slain without pity.</li> +<li>I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can.</li> +<li>Most of the students have done good work, although some have + not.</li> +<li>Will you please start up the machine.</li> +<li>Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it + would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom.</li> +<li>A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, + was killed by being run over.</li> +<li>As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since.</li> +<li>All his friends were collected together.</li> +<li>The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except + occasionally.</li> +<li>Few were superior to him as a sculptor.</li> +<li>Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even + hack lines were affected by the change.</li> +<li>Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always.</li> +<li>That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls + upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is known + by the appellation of Maxon Mountain.</li> +<li>The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, + without stopping at all.</li> +<li>He tried to do right so far as we know.</li> +<li>That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>94. Euphony.</b> Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing +sound. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: He <i>commanded</i> his son to obey his <i>commands</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_133"><span class="page">Page 133</span></a> +2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Bad: They went for a <i>walk</i> in order to <i>talk</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 70</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In the problems, he solved one once.</li> +<li>Most of the time he does the most he can.</li> +<li>She worries about what to wear wherever she goes.</li> +<li>It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can + be capable of such work.</li> +<li>Those are our books.</li> +<li>Every time there was a chance for error, error was made.</li> +<li>It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger + than fiction."</li> +<li>The well must have been well made, else it would not have served + so well.</li> +<li>Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium.</li> +<li>He acted very sillily.</li> +<li>He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise.</li> +<li>In his letters there is something fine in every line.</li> +<li>They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 71. A General Exercise on Sentences</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence +is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set +forth:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.)</li> +<li>In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen + in the evenings. (93-1.) + <a name="page_134"><span class="page">Page 134</span></a></li> +<li>There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and it + tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.)</li> +<li>The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.)</li> +<li>Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. + (92-6.)</li> +<li>I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.)</li> +<li>He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.)</li> +<li>He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.)</li> +<li>Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried + to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.)</li> +<li>One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you + fail to exercise. (93-1.)</li> +<li>The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.)</li> +<li>She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing + that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.)</li> +<li>The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. + (92-7.)</li> +<li>People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the + rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.)</li> +<li>There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. + (91-3-a.)</li> +<li>She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. + (92-2.)</li> +<li>By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started + on a career of crime again. (93-1.)</li> +<li>Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.)</li> +<li>No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.)</li> +<li>If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you + will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.)</li> +<li>He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.)</li> +<li>The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not + elevating. (92-3-b.)</li> +<li>John the lion killed. (92-3-b.)</li> +<li>He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.)</li> +<li>Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties + for more than five years. (91-1-a.) + <a name="page_135"><span class="page">Page 135</span></a></li> +<li>Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. + (92-3-a.)</li> +<li>We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not + get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.)</li> +<li>He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. + (92-2).</li> +<li>I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, + we had supper. (91-4.)</li> +<li>Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped + without a scratch. (91-3.)</li> +<li>Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one + his faults. (92-2.)</li> +<li>Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. +(93-1.)</li> +<li>May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. +(92-4.)</li> +<li>Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. +(91-1.)</li> +<li>He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.)</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_136"><span class="page">Page 136</span></a> +CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Rules for Capitalization +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>95.</b> Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from +proper nouns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>96.</b> Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. +Capitalize, also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank +even when used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when +used separately. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, +Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley +Cross Roads. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>97.</b> Capitalize the important words in titles of books. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery +of America. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>98.</b> Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every +line of poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He said, "Is it I whom you seek?" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>99.</b> Capitalize the words, <i>mother, father</i>, etc., when +used with proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive +pronoun to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common +nouns in phrases used as proper nouns. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle +writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_137"><span class="page">Page 137</span></a> <b>100.</b> +Capitalize the names, <i>North, South, East</i>, and <i>West</i>, +when referring to parts of the country; words used to name the +Deity; the words, <i>Bible</i> and <i>Scriptures</i>; and the words +<i>I</i> and <i>O</i>, but not <i>oh</i> unless it is at the beginning +of a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 72</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the +last.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Rules for Punctuation +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>101.</b> Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but +simply to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation +is needed. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Period</i> (<b>.</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>102.</b> Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that +is not interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; +and (3) after <i>Yes</i> and <i>No</i> when used alone. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Interrogation Point</i> (<b>?</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>103.</b> Use the interrogation point after every direct question. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Exclamation Point</i> (<b>!</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>104.</b> Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence +or expression. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Alas! It is too late. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Fire if you dare! +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Comma</i> (<b>,</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>105.</b> Use the comma after each word of a series of words +that all have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the <a +name="page_138"><span class="page">Page 138</span></a> sentence, +unless conjunctions are used between all of those words. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Ours is a red, white, and blue flag. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He talked, smoked, and read. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He talked and smoked and read. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not, however, precede the series by a comma. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>106.</b> Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying +the same noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective +and the noun. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An honest, upright man. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +An old colored man. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A soiled red dress. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>107.</b> Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words +or phrases, and participial phrases. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +John, come here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +By the way, did you see Mary? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +After having done this, Cæsar crossed the Rubicon. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Cæsar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>108.</b> Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see +<b>§29</b>, Note 1), or a geographical name that limits a +preceding name. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>109.</b> Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is +placed out of its natural order. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If it is possible, he will do it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +To most people, this will seem absurd. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_139"><span class="page">Page 139</span></a> <b>110.</b> +Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that are +thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use the +dash or parenthesis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without +permission from the police. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He, himself, said it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>111.</b> Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive +clauses, but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See <b>§§ +25</b> and <b>26</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>112.</b> Use the comma to separate coördinate clauses that +are united by a simple conjunction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>113.</b> Use the comma to separate the members of a compound +sentence when those members are short and closely connected in +their thought. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>114.</b> Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional +clauses introduced by such words as <i>if, when, though,</i> unless +the connection be close. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He did not stop, though I called repeatedly. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake +in the work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But: You are wrong when you say that. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>115.</b> Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, +unless such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the +sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_140"><span class="page">Page 140</span></a> <b>116.</b> +Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such as, +<i>however, then, also, for example, so to speak,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Such a man, however, can seldom be found. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>117.</b> Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any +distinct pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by +punctuation, or whenever something clearly is omitted. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We want students, not boys who simply come to school. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ... +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Semicolon</i> (<b>;</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>118.</b> Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound +sentence that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably +return to college. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>119.</b> Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound +sentence that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable +to indicate a very definite pause. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the +reason for it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>120.</b> Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound +or a complex sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated +by commas. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we +cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, +and for his family he has not a cent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; +and for his family he has not a cent. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_141"><span class="page">Page 141</span></a> <b>121.</b> +Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, when +they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; +such as, <i>accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +John is sick; however, I think he will be here. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>122.</b> Use the semicolon before the expressions, <i>namely, as, +that is</i>, etc., or before their abbreviations, <i>viz., i.e.,</i> +etc., when they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, +simple in form, which are in apposition with a general term. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the +Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Colon</i> (<b>:</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>123.</b> Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal +quotation, before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence +that constitutes an introduction to something that follows. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised +to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing +it to you to-day." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, +consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>124.</b> Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. +(See <b>§161</b>.) +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Dash</i> (<b>—</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>125.</b> Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought +or construction. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am pleased to meet you, Captain—what did you say your name +is? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The man I met—I refer to Captain Jones—was in the naval +service. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_142"><span class="page">Page 142</span></a> <b>126.</b> +Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely +some part of a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I was always lacking what I needed most—money. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>127.</b> Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which +sums up the preceding part of a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and +Populists,—<i>all</i> were there. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>128.</b> Do not use dashes where not required or in place of +some other mark of punctuation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Parenthesis Marks</i> <b>( )</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>129.</b> Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement +that is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent +of it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>130.</b> Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the +parenthesis marks unless it would be required even if there were +no parenthesis. When other punctuation is used it should follow +the parenthesis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been +very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Bracket</i> <b>[ ]</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>131.</b> Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of +the writer that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation +or otherwise. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] +to deliver the address..." +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_143"><span class="page">Page 143</span></a> +<i>The Quotation Marks</i> <b>(" ")</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>132.</b> Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact +language of another. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long." +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>133.</b> Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation +within a quotation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words +than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to +do his duty.'" +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>134.</b> If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation +marks should precede each paragraph and follow the last. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>135.</b> Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate +sentence of a single continuous quotation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>136.</b> Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, +titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary +invention. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>137.</b> Examine the location of quotation marks and other +punctuation in the following sentences: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: "You may do as you wish, he said, + if you only wish to do right."</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: "You may do as you wish," he said, + "if you only wish to do right."</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: "Can you come," she asked?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: "Can you come?" she asked.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"> +<i>The Apostrophe</i> (<b>'</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>138.</b> Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. +See <b>§§ 13</b> and <b>15</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter? +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="page_144"><span class="page">Page 144</span></a> +<i>The Hyphen</i> (<b>-</b>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>139.</b> Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end +of a line. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, <i>though, +through, also, besides, over</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always +put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning +of the second. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong division: <i>int-end, prop-ose, + superint-endent, expre-ssion</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Proper division: <i>in-tend, pro-pose, + superin-tendent, expres-sion</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like <i>expression</i> +by placing <i>ex</i> on one line and the rest of the word on the +next line. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>140.</b> Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No +rule can be given by which to determine when compounded words demand +the hyphen. Only custom determines. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Always use a hyphen with <i>to-day, to-morrow</i>, and <i>to-night</i>. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 73</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions +as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see</i> +<b>§§ 143</b> <i>and</i> <b>144:</b> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>however father had told us not to expect good accommodations + because it is a very small town</li> +<li>tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh</li> +<li>will that be satisfactory was his question</li> +<li>it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not</li> +<li>whats the matter with you john + <a name="page_145"><span class="page">Page 145</span></a></li> +<li>john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the + knell of parting day</li> +<li>and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to + new york city</li> +<li>he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian + church</li> +<li>the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general + of great military training</li> +<li>buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion + was represented</li> +<li>his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so</li> +<li>you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven + and nine</li> +<li>four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore + and taft</li> +<li>the verse to which you refer is as follows +<p class="bquote;"> +the boast of heraldry the pomp of power<br /> +all that beauty all that wealth eer gave<br /> +await alike the inevitable hour<br /> +the paths of glory lead but to the grave +<li>a noun is the name of something as william france book cat +<li>the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at + seven at latest</li> +<li>the different points discussed are these first the history + of the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and + third the result of the theory</li> +<li>in the first problem divide in the second multiply</li> +<li>if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible + use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period</li> +<li>william if you gear me answer</li> +<li>he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she + understood</li> +<li>as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat + failure</li> +<li>that may be true but i still doubt it</li> +<li>separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close</li> +<li>even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved + <a name="page_146"><span class="page">Page 146</span></a></li> +<li>mary said yes but helen said no</li> +<li>he is called the peerless leader</li> +<li>such a man for example was lincoln</li> +<li>if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it</li> +<li>that too is a mistake</li> +<li>that is wool not cotton as you seem to think</li> +<li>the english are stolid the french lively</li> +<li>in that case let us have war</li> +<li>such an opinion i may say is absurd</li> +<li>alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late</li> +<li>the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large + lot</li> +<li>he means the house that has green shutters</li> +<li>those are all good books but none of them will do</li> +<li>dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray + henry esmond</li> +<li>he is a good student and also a great athlete</li> +<li>he gave me a red silk handkerchief</li> +<li>having assigned the lesson he left the room</li> +<li>royers address is danville illinois</li> +<li>you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three</li> +<li>i had classes under the president dr harris</li> +<li>moreover naxon the cashier has fled</li> +<li>oh that is what you mean is it</li> +<li>for this you will need a piece of clean white paper</li> +<li>the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god</li> +<li>the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river</li> +<li>theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history</li> +<li>the north quickly recovered from the civil war</li> +<li>he told mother to write to my uncle about it</li> +<li>he said then why are you here</li> +<li>in that army old young and middle aged men served for their + country could no longer raise a picked army</li> +<li>he was told to ask the principal professor morton</li> +<li>in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man</li> +<li>a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story +needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to +his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable +that day <a name="page_147"><span class="page">Page 147</span></a> +i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis request +but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning to +the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the very +best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word demanded +mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out but at +this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is the donkey +braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you would +rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends no longer +and under no circumstances can i lend you anything.</li> +<li>a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of +an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality +who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you +live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another +shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak +german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father +and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well +said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and +can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note.</span> Further +exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without the marks +of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards inserting +the proper marks. +</p> + +<h2><a name="page_148"><span class="page">Page 148</span></a> +CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE PARAGRAPH</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>141.</b> The <b>Paragraph</b> is a connected series of sentences +all dealing with the development of a single topic. Where the general +subject under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute +the whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of +subtopics, each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. +For each one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be +made. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend +the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way +the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye +of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change +of topic at each new paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>142. Paragraph Length.</b> There is no fixed rule governing the +proper length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need +be more than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition +is not more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will +not often need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, +paragraphing should be more frequent than in other compositions. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too +frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, +it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>143.</b> Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be +set off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. +This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose—to +aid in gaining clearness. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_149"><span class="page">Page 149</span></a> <b>144. +Paragraphing of Speech.</b> In a narrative, each direct quotation, +together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should +constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed +in writing a conversation. Examine the following: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which +Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house +of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. +During the meal the hostess asked: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?" +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs." +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Then have some more," said the woman. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the +remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence +after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the +example just given. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>145. Indentation of the Paragraph.</b> The first sentence of each +new paragraph should be indented. See example under <b>§144</b>. +No other sentence should be so indented. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>146.</b> The essential qualities which each paragraph should +have are: Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Unity.</b> Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with +only one subject, and should include nothing which does not have a +direct bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, +the italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, +very obviously it belongs to some other paragraph: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm +than the Irish. <i>St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to +have banished the snakes from the island</i>. So enthusiastic were +the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, +the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, +and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and +monasteries.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_150"><span class="page">Page 150</span></a> Separate +paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs together. If +the ideas can all be fairly included under one general topic, unity +demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, in describing the +route followed in a certain journey, one should not use a separate +paragraph for each step in the journey. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Wrong: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running +from Cleveland to Detroit. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train +the next morning. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought +out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must +be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point +of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and +manner of expression. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>147. How to Gain Unity.</b> Careful thought before beginning +the paragraph is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of +the paragraph should be determined, and should be clearly indicated +by a topic sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed +near the beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the +clearest and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a +formal statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any +sentence that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. +It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific +instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by +illustration; or by showing cause or effect. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>148.</b> Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the +quality of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<a name="page_151"><span class="page">Page 151</span></a> <i>To rule +was not enough for Bonaparte.</i> He wanted to amaze, to dazzle, +to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, and +unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not have +satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted to +reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his +name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and +make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; +but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should +strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an +earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should +awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency +inspires. +</p> + +<p style="font-size: smaller; text-align: right;"> +From <i>The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte</i>, by Channing. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>There is something in the very season of the year that gives a +charm to the festivity of Christmas.</i> At other times we derive +a great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. +Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny +landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, +the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the +soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with +its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious +blue and its cloudy magnificence—all fill us with mute but +exquisite delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. +But in the depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every +charm, and wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our +gratifications to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of +the landscape, the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they +circumscribe our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling +abroad, and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the +social circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly +sympathies more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each +other's society, and are brought more closely together by dependence +on each other for enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw +our pleasures from the deep wells of living kindness which lie in +the quiet recesses of our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, +furnish forth the pure element of domestic felicity. +</p> + +<p style="font-size: smaller; text-align: right;"> +From <i>Christmas</i>, by Washington Irving. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>149. Coherence.</b> Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be +perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be <a name="page_152"><span +class="page">Page 152</span></a> so constructed that it may be +readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence to sentence, +of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The whole fabric of +the paragraph must be woven together—it must not consist +of disconnected pieces. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>150. How to Gain Coherence.</b> Where vividness or some other +quality does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually +gained by the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to +keep in mind the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show +the bearing of the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may +be of various sorts; as, <i>it, this view, however, in this way</i>, +etc. Sometimes the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the +paragraph, or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the +end of the paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized +words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow +of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind +the paragraph topic. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the <i>two books</i> +you have named. The <i>first</i> is interesting and easy to read. +<i>It</i> is, <i>also</i>, by no means lacking in the value of +the information it presents. <i>But the second</i>, while it is +no less interesting and equally valuable in its contents, seems +to me far more logical and scholarly in its construction. <i>In +addition to this</i> I think you will find it cheaper in price, by +reason of its not being so profusely illustrated. <i>Therefore</i>, +I should advise you to procure the <i>second</i> for your study. +<i>Either, indeed</i>, will do, but since you have a choice, take +the better one. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in +vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily +prevail by an example. <i>So</i> he called his sons and bade them +lay a bundle of sticks before him. <i>Then having tied them</i> +up into a fagot, he told <i>the lads</i>, one after another, to +take it up and break it. <i>They all tried</i>, but tried in vain. +<i>Then</i>, untying <i>the fagot</i>, he gave <i>them</i> the +sticks to break one by one. <i>This</i> they did with the greatest +ease. <i>Then</i> said the father: "<i>Thus</i>, my sons, as long +as you remain united, <a name="page_153"><span class="page">Page +153</span></a> you are a match for all your enemies; but differ +and separate, and you are undone." <i>Æsop's Fables</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine also the selections under <b>§§ 205</b> and +<b>206</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>151. Emphasis.</b> The third quality which a paragraph should +possess is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as +to bring into prominence the topic or the point it is intended +to present. The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the +beginning and at the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs +sufficient emphasis is generally gained by having a topic sentence +at the beginning. In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate +again the topic at the end by way of summary in order to impress +thoroughly on the reader the effect of the paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 74</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction +are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises will +readily suggest themselves to teacher or student.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>These topics are intended to apply only to isolated +paragraphs—"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more +latitude in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief +that more than one paragraph is unnecessary.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Write paragraphs: +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, + and giving your reasons for the refusal.</li> +<li>Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general + appearance and then the details.</li> +<li>Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie.</li> +<li>Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play.</li> +<li>Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance.</li> +<li>To prove that the world is round.</li> +<li>To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.)</li> +<li>Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city life + than in country life. + <a name="page_153"><span class="page">Page 153</span></a></li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +Write paragraphs on the following subjects:</p> + +<ol style="counter-reset: item 9;"> +<li>My Earliest Recollection.</li> +<li>The Sort of Books I Like Best.</li> +<li>Why I Like to Study X Branch.</li> +<li>My Opinion of My Relatives.</li> +<li>The Man I Room With.</li> +<li>Why I Was Late to Class.</li> +<li>What I Do on Sundays.</li> +<li>How to Prevent Taking Cold.</li> +<li>How to Cure a Cold.</li> +<li>My Best Teacher.</li> +<li>My Favorite Town.</li> +<li>Why I Go Fishing.</li> +<li>My Favorite Month.</li> +<li>What Becomes of My Matches.</li> +<li>Baseball is a Better Game than Football.</li> +<li>The View from X Building.</li> +<li>Why I Go to School.</li> +<li>My Opinion of Rainy Days.</li> +<li>My Most Useful Friend.</li> +<li>Why I Dislike Surprise Parties.</li> +<li>Why I Like to Visit at X's.</li> +<li>The Police Service of X Town.</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_155"><span class="page">Page 155</span></a> +CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">LETTER-WRITING</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Note to +Teacher.</span>—For the purpose of training in composition, +in the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the +most feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand +any gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much +latitude for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, +letter-writing is the field in which almost all written composition +will be done after leaving school; and so all training in school +will be thoroughly useful. For this reason, it is suggested that +letter-writing be made one of the chief fields for composition +work. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. +Others will readily occur to the teacher. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Heading +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>152. Position of Heading.</b> In all business letters the writer's +address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be +placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an +inch from the top. This address and date is called the <b>heading</b>. +In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed +at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below +the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at +the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never +write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end of +the letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>153. Order of Heading.</b> The parts of the heading should be +sufficient to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should +be in the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or +the city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on +one line, two or even three lines should be <a name="page_156"><span +class="page">Page 156</span></a> used; but, in no case, should the +above order be varied. Examples: +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910.</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 8em;">March 31, 1910.</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>210 Semple Street,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Red Oaks, Iowa,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">March 31, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first +line and the date on the second. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 8em;">The Hotel Lafayette.</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 8em;">January 19, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>154. Punctuation of Heading.</b> Place a period after each +abbreviation that is used. In addition to this, place commas after +the street address, after the town address, after the state address, +and after the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the +number of the year. Examine the correct address under <b>§153</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>155. Faults to be Avoided in Headings.</b> Avoid the use of +abbreviations in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent +use in the business letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: <i>St.</i> for <i>Street; +Ave.</i> for <i>Avenue; Apart.</i> for <i>Apartments; Chi.</i> for +<i>Chicago; Phila.</i> for <i>Philadelphia</i>. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong: Hardie Apart., Pbg., + Pa.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right: Hardie Apartments, + Pittsburg, Pa.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use the sign # before the street number. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_157"><span class="page">Page 157</span></a> Do not +omit the word <i>Street</i>. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong: 229 Market.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right: 229 Market Street.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not write the date thus: <i>9/10/10</i>. Represent the numbers +by figures, not words. See <b>§§ 75</b> and <b>76</b>. +Do not use <i>st., rd.,</i> etc., after the number of the day. +</p> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>9/8/09.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>September 8, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>September the Ninth, Nineteen Hundred and Nine.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>September 9, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>March 10th, 1910.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>March 10, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Inside Address +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>156. Position of Inside Address.</b> In strictly commercial +letters the name and the address of the person to whom the letter +is being sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should +begin flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a +little below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside +address should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters +under <b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, +the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the +letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters +the inside address may be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>157. Punctuation of Inside Address.</b> In punctuating the inside +address, place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In +addition to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, +a comma after the street address, if one be given, and after the +name of the town or city. Place a period after the name of the +state or country. Examine the correct inside address under +<b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_158"><span class="page">Page 158</span></a> <b>158. +Faults to be Avoided in the Inside Address.</b> Do not omit the +town, city, or state address from the inside address. +</p> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Mr. E. P. Griffith,</td></tr> +<tr><td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. E. P. Griffith.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muskogee, Oklahoma.</td></tr> +<tr><td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="4" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. E. P. Griffith.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">221 Fiji Avenue,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Muskogee, Oklahoma.</td></tr> +<tr><td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not omit proper titles. +</p> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>R. R. Stolz,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muncy, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. R. R. Stolz,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muncy, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title <i>Mr.</i>, +before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute +a partnership or trading name. +</p> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Jones & Smith, (<i>firm name</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">New York City.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (<i>not a firm name</i>)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">New York City.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except <i>Mr., +Mrs., Messrs.</i>, and <i>Dr.</i> Abbreviations of titles placed +after the name, such as, <i>Esq., D.D., A.M.</i>, etc., are proper. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use <i>Mr.</i> and <i>Esq.</i> with the same name. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_159"><span class="page">Page 159</span></a> Avoid +all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a very long +name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but it is better +form to write the name in full. <i>United States of America</i> +may be abbreviated to <i>U. S. A.</i> +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Merch. Mfg. Co.,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">N. Y. C.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>The Merchants' Manufacturing Company.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">New York City.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Gentlemen:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Mr. William Shipp,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Bangor, Me.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="3" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. William Shipp,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Bangor, Maine.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not place a period after the title <i>Miss. Miss</i> is not an +abbreviation. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Salutation +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>159. Position of Salutation.</b> The salutation should begin +flush with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. +See correctly written letters under <b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>160. Form of Salutation.</b> The salutation varies with the form +of the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of the +letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business acquaintances +the most common salutations for individuals are, <i>Dear Sir, Dear +Madam</i>, or <i>My dear Sir, My dear Madam</i>. For a group of +persons, or for a company or a partnership, <i>Gentlemen, Dear +Sirs, Dear Madams</i> or <i>Mesdames</i> are used. In less formal +business letters such salutations as, <i>My dear Mr. Smith</i>, or +<i>Dear Miss Jaekel</i> may be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_160"><span class="page">Page 160</span></a> In the +case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and formal +letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of taste. +The following are illustrations of proper salutations for friendly +letters: <i>My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, Dear +Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, Dear +Friend,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is considered more formal to prefix <i>My</i> to the salutation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is over formal to use simply <i>Sir</i> or <i>Madam</i> in any +letter, or to use <i>Dear Sir</i> or <i>Dear Madam</i> when writing +to a familiar friend. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as <i>Dear Brown, +Dear John,</i> etc., it is better to put the inside address at the +close of the letter, or to omit it. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>161. Punctuation of Salutation.</b> Punctuate the salutation +with a colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>162. Faults to be Avoided in the Salutation.</b> Use no abbreviations +except <i>Dr., Mr., Mrs.</i> Do not use the abbreviation <i>Dr.</i>, +when that title is used as a final word in a salutation. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My dear Maj. Wren:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My dear Major Wren:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My dear Dr.:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My dear Doctor:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use a name alone as a salutation. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Mr. W. W. Braker:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Will you please inform ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td rowspan="4" style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Mr. W. W. Braker,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Muncy, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Will you please inform ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_161"><span class="page">Page 161</span></a> In the +salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first word +of the salutation. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My Dear Sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>My very Dear Friend:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>My very dear Friend:</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Wrong:</td> + <td>Dear sir:</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Right:</td> + <td>Dear Sir:</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Body of the Letter +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>163. The Subject Matter of the Letter.</b> In friendly letters +much latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business +letters should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should +be lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>164. Form of Body.</b> The body of the letter usually begins +on the line below the salutation and is indented the same distance +from the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model +letters under <b>§174</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently +than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the +subject of a separate paragraph. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>165. Faults in Body of the Letter.</b> In letters that are intended +to be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, +and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically +incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should +the "telegraph style" be adopted. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no + chance to look up man. Will do so soon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: I have received your letter of the + tenth. I have had no chance as yet to look up the man, but I will + do so soon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. + Tele.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Address in care of John Smith, + Manager of the Pennsylvania Telegraph.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: In reply will say ... + <a name="page_162"><span class="page">Page 162</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: In reply I wish to say ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: Your letter of the 10th is at + hand.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Your favor received ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We have received your letter ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: Enclose P. O. money order for + $2.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We enclose post office money order + for two dollars, ($2).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Bad: We have read your plan. Same is + satisfactory.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Good: We have read your plan, and it is + satisfactory.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun <i>I</i> +in the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution +to extremes. <i>I</i>, however, should not be omitted when necessary +to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use +by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different +form of sentence. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +There is no objection to beginning a letter with <i>I</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection +to the use of colloquial expressions such as <i>can't, don't,</i> +etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use +of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out +and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones +are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate +and unnecessary. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Your esteemed favor is at hand.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">In reply permit me to say ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We beg leave to advise ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We beg to suggest ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Thanking you for the favor, we are ... + <a name="page_163"><span class="page">Page 163</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Please find enclosed ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">In answer to your favor of the tenth + ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We take pleasure in informing you + ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">In reply would say ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">We beg to acknowledge receipt of your + favor ...</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Awaiting your further orders, we are + ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Close +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>166. Final Words.</b> Business letters frequently close with +some final words, such as, <i>Thanking you again for your kind +assistance, I am ..., A waiting your further orders, we are</i> +..., etc. These expressions are not wrong, but are often used when +not at all necessary. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>167. The Complimentary Close.</b> The complimentary close should +be written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and +should begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only +guide to the choice of a complimentary close. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">Yours respectfully,</td> + <td>Yours very truly,</td></tr> + <tr><td>Yours truly,</td><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">Yours sincerely,</td> + <td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td>Yours very truly,</td><td>Your loving son,</td></tr> + <tr><td>Yours cordially,</td><td>Affectionately yours,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>168. Faults in the Close.</b> Do not use abbreviations, such +as, <i>Yrs. respy., yrs. try.,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>169. The Signature of the Writer.</b> The letter should be so +signed as to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a +reply. The signature should show whether the <a name="page_164"><span +class="page">Page 164</span></a> writer is a man or a woman; and, +if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed as +<i>Miss</i> or <i>Mrs.</i> In formal letters it is customary for +a woman to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name +in the following manner: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Sincerely yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 5em;">Caroline Jones.</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">(Mrs. William Jones).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Very truly yours,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 5em;">(Miss) Matilda Stephens.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and +after it the name of the writer. Example: +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">D. Appleton & Company,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 5em;">per J. W. Miller.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Miscellaneous Directions +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>170.</b> In beginning the letter, place the address and date +an inch and a half or two inches below the top of the page. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of +the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch +or more beyond the margin. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, +2, 3, 4. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the correctly written forms of letters under <b>§174</b> +observe the indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside +address should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set +in. The salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body +of the letter should begin on the line below the salutation, and +some distance in from the margin. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +The Outside Address +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>171. Position of Outside Address.</b> Place the address on the +envelope so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the +top, too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed +envelope under <b>§173</b>. Place the <a name="page_165"><span +class="page">Page 165</span></a> stamp squarely in the upper right-hand +corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>172. Punctuation of Outside Address.</b> Punctuation may be +omitted at the end of the lines of the address. If it is used, +place a period at the end of the last line, and a comma after each +preceding line. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If an abbreviation ends the line, always place a period after it, +whether the other lines are punctuated or not. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>173. Faults in the Outside Address.</b> Avoid the use of +abbreviations except those that would be proper in the inside address +or in the heading. See <b>§§ 155</b> and <b>158</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. No +letters or sign at all should be used there. See <b>§155</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Compare the following forms of addresses: +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td rowspan="3">Bad:</td> + <td>Col. Wm. Point,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">#200 John St.,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Trenton, N. J.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="4">Good:</td> + <td>Colonel William Point,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">200 John Street,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Trenton,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 6em;">New Jersey.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="3">Good:</td> + <td>Colonel William Point</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">200 John Street</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Trenton, New Jersey</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="3">Bad:</td> + <td>Chas. Jones,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">c/o Edward Furrey,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Wilkinsburg, Pa.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td rowspan="4">Good:</td> + <td>Mr. Charles Jones</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">In care of Mr. Edward + Furrey</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Wilkinsburg</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 6em;">Pennsylvania</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Bad:</td> + <td>Rev. Walter Bertin + <a name="page_166"><span class="page">Page 166</span></a> + </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Good:</td> + <td>The Reverend Walter Bertin</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Bad:</td> + <td>Pres. of Bucknell Univ.</td></tr> + + <tr><td>Good:</td> + <td>For the President of Bucknell University.</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + + <tr><td>Bad:</td> + <td>Pres. of Bucknell Univ.</td></tr> + + <tr><td>Good:</td> + <td>For the President of Bucknell University.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +A properly arranged address: +</p> + +<div style="width: 516px;"> + <img src="images/address.jpg" width="516" height="291" alt="Address"> +</div> + +<p class="smallcaps"> +<b>174.</b> Correctly Written Letters +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>200 Mead Avenue,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">January 12, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> +<tr><td>Mr. A. M. Weaver,</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Cambridge, Massachusetts.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Sir: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law +books. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention +of selling them. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +You may, however, be able to secure what you want from H. B. Wassel, +Esquire, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. He has +advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Charles M. Howell.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>Muncy, New York, January 12, 1909. + <a name="page_167"><span class="page">Page 167</span></a> + </td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Professor Morton: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system +of keeping students' records. I have been told that you have worked +out a card method that operates successfully. If you can give me +any information in regard to your method, I shall consider it a +very great favor. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very sincerely yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Harris A. Plotts.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>Professor E. A. Morton,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Braddock, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Braddock, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Mrs. Hagon: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard +to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence +enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very sincerely,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Sylvester D. Dunlop.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>173 State Street, Detroit, Michigan,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">January 23, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +To whom it may concern: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character, ability +and attainments of Mr. E. J. Heidenreich. He has been a trusted +personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. He may be +counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to +undertake. +</p> + +<p class="right"> +Harry B. Hutchins. +</p> + +<p> +My dear Walter: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. +Before I go, I should like to have you come out and take dinner with +me some evening. How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? +If you can come at that time, will you please write or telephone +to me sometime before Tuesday? +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very cordially yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Paul B. Vandine.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>6556 Broad Street,<br /> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">March 30, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td> + <a name="page_168"><span class="page">Page 168</span></a> + The Lafayette, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">March 31, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Paul: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with +you before you take final leave of the city. The time you mention, +next Wednesday evening, is entirely satisfactory to me. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I was more than pleased to receive your invitation, for the prospect +of talking over old times with you is delightful. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 60%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Sincerely yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Walter Powell.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Napoleon, Ohio, February 28, 1908.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>The American Stove Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Alverton, Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Gentlemen: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars, for which please +send me one of your small cook stoves, of the sort listed in your +catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this +stove as much as possible, since it is urgently needed in a summer +cottage that I have for rent. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Ernest Burrows.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>223 Siegel Street, New York City,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">June 5, 1910.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>The Acme Tapestry Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Syracuse, New York.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Dear Sirs: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of +your tapestries and carpets? +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets +that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association +Building, on Arlington Avenue, this city. I understand that institutions +of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. Will you +please tell me if this is true? +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Anna R. Fleegor.</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">(Mrs. C. C. Fleegor.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="right"> +Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, May 10, 1910. +<a name="page_169"><span class="page">Page 169</span></a> +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td>The Merchant's Electric Wiring Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Philadelphia, + Pennsylvania.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Gentlemen: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work +for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. I am at present taking +a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University, and +am in my sophomore year., It is my plan to gain some practical +experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations +occurring in my course. This summer I want to secure practical +experience in electric wiring. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If you wish references as to my character and ability, I would +refer you to Mr. William R. Stevenson, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and +to Mr. Harry E. McCormick, Superintendent of the Street Railways +Company, Danville, Illinois. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Salary is a very slight object to me in this work, and I shall be +willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer +me. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%;"> + <tr><td>Respectfully yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Harvey H. Wilkins.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="right"> +Drawsburg, Ohio, May 21, 1910. +</p> + +<p> +My dear Norman: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you +of my sincere pleasure in the news. May you find happiness and +prosperity in your new location. But do not forget that your old +friends are still living and will always be interested in your +welfare. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Your affectionate cousin,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 6em;">Mary E. Johnston.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>223 Holbrook Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Indiana.</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">November 10, 1908.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>The Jefferson Life Insurance Company,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Norfolk, Virginia.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Gentlemen: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. In that +Policy, which was taken out about ten years ago, my occupation +is stated to be carpenter. Lately I have changed occupations, and +am <a name="page_170"><span class="page">Page 170</span></a> now +engaged in conducting a store. If, in order to maintain the validity +of my policy, the change of occupation should be recorded on your +books, will you please have the proper entry made. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash +surrender value, and if so, what that value is. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 50%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Very truly yours,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Arthur J. Pearse.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Bunnell Building, Scranton, Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">April 20, 1909.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td>Mr. James R. Elliot,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 2em;">Germantown, Colorado.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +My dear Elliot: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Will you please send me, as soon as you conveniently can, the addresses +of George English, Ira S. Shepherd, and G. N. Wilkinson. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding +invitations are to be looked for. Your conclusion, I am happy to +say, is a correct one; I expect to be married sometime in June. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Cordially your friend,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">Charles R. Harris.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%;"> + <tr><td>The Anglo-American Hotel, Vienna, Austria,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 4em;">March 19, 1907.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> +Dear Aunt Emily: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this +letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. We had really intended, +as I wrote to you, to spend the entire months of March and April +in Berlin, but a sudden whim sent us on to this city. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city, +and thought it a place of little interest. I was surprised to find +it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. +Still more was I surprised to find what a festive, stylish place +it is. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity, +but Vienna lacks only the reputation; it certainly does not lack +the fashionable and frivolous air. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The other day in one of the shops here, I discovered, as I thought, +<a name="page_171"><span class="page">Page 171</span></a> a very +fine miniature. I purchased it to present to you, and have already +sent it by post. It ought to reach you as soon as this letter. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +We have not received the usual letter from you this week, but suppose +it is because we so suddenly changed our address. The necessity +of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Father and Mother join in sending their love to you. +</p> + +<table style="margin-left: 40%;"> + <tr><td>Your affectionate niece,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">Mary.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Notes in the Third Person +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>175.</b> It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds +of notes in the third person. Such a note contains nothing but +the body of the note, followed at the left side of the paper, by +the time and the place of writing. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Use no pronoun but that of the third person. Never use any heading, +salutation, or signature. Use no abbreviations except <i>Mr., Mrs.</i>, +or <i>Dr.</i> Spell out all dates. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>176. Correctly Written Notes in the Third Person.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Mrs. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. Leighou's company +at dinner on Sunday, June the first, at two o'clock. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">1020 Highland Street,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 3em;">Washington, + Pennsylvania,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">May the twenty-fifth.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of +Professor and Mrs. Morton's company on Tuesday evening, June the +tenth, at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. Stuart. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">Bucknell University,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">June the fifth.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Mr. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance +of Mrs. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday, June the first. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">110 Braddock Avenue,</td></tr> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 1em;">May the twenty-seventh.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_172"><span class="page">Page 172</span></a> +Exercise 75</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. Have +every letter complete in all its formal parts. Fill in details +according to your own fancy:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>A letter to the X Express Company of your town, complaining of + their delay in delivering a package to you.</li> +<li>A letter to a friend, thanking him for the entertainment afforded + you on a recent visit to his house.</li> +<li>A letter to the X Book Company, inquiring what dictionary they + publish, the prices, etc.</li> +<li>A letter to Mr. X, asking him for a position in his office, and + stating your qualifications.</li> +<li>A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has + befallen him.</li> +<li>A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture + that you are thinking of entering upon. Explain the venture.</li> +<li>A letter to your home, describing to your parents your school.</li> +<li>A letter to a friend, telling him of the chance meeting with + some friend.</li> +<li>A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering + a canoe that you are building. Explain your needs.</li> +<li>A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation.</li> +<li>A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place, time, + etc.</li> +<li>A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway + station. Leave no doubt.</li> +<li>A letter describing some new acquaintance.</li> +<li>A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently + heard.</li> +<li>A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in + your town.</li> +<li>A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year.</li> +<li>A letter describing some play which you have recently attended. + <a name="page_173"><span class="page">Page 173</span></a></li> +<li>A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in an + examination.</li> +<li>A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time.</li> +<li>A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend.</li> +<li>A letter stating your opinions on some public question; as, + prohibition, woman suffrage, etc.</li> +<li>A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school.</li> +<li>A letter to the X school, inquiring about courses of study given, + prices, etc.</li> +<li>A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some + organization to which you belong.</li> +<li>A formal third person acceptance of such invitation.</li> +<li>A travel letter describing your visit to various places of + interest.</li> +<li>A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable + to go with you.</li> +<li>A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it.</li> +<li>A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which + happened at school during his absence.</li> +<li>A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit + he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip.</li> +<li>A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics + of a dog which you have lately bought.</li> +<li>A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place, + your recent visit to the theater, your meeting an old friend, your + work, your new acquaintances. Arrange the topics and make the transition + as smooth as possible.</li> +<li>A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school + of some national holiday.</li> +<li>A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe + the place, occasion, lecturer, address, etc.</li> +<li>A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of + your school.</li> +</ol> + +<h2><a name="page_174"><span class="page">Page 174</span></a> +CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">THE WHOLE COMPOSITION</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>177.</b> By the term <b>Whole Composition</b> or <b>Theme</b> +is meant a composition consisting of a number of related paragraphs +all dealing with one general subject, whether the composition be +a narration, a description, or an exposition. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following general principles applying to the construction of the +whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced +writer. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>178. Statement of Subject.</b> Care should be used in the statement +of the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive +than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is +discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some +limited phase of that subject: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Too broad: <i>College, Photography, Picnics</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Properly limited: <i>A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, +Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How +Picnics Help the Doctor.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>179. The Outline.</b> Just as in the building of a house or of +a machine, if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully +made plan is necessary before entering on the construction; so +in the writing of an essay or theme, there should be made some +plan or outline, which will determine what different things are +to be discussed, and what is to be the method of developing the +discussion. By the inexperienced writer, at least, a composition +should never be begun until an outline has been formed for its +development. As soon as the material for the composition is in +hand, the outline should <a name="page_175"><span class="page">Page +175</span></a> be made. It should be an aid in the construction of +the composition, not a thing to be derived after the composition is +completed. Only by the previous making of an outline can a logical +arrangement be gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable +proportion secured in their discussion. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different +subtopics, were discussed: +</p> + +<table border="0" style="width: 100%;"> +<tr><td style="width: 50%;">Definition of Paragraph.</td> + <td>How to Secure Unity.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Length of Paragraph.</td> + <td>How to Secure Coherence.</td></tr> +<tr><td>The Topic Sentence.</td> + <td>Too Frequent Paragraphing.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Unity in the Paragraph.</td> + <td>Paragraphing of Speech.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Coherence in the Paragraph.</td> + <td>Paragraphing for Emphasis.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Examples of Unity.</td> + <td rowspan="2">Examples showing how Unity is + Destroyed.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Purpose of the Paragraph.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Emphasis in the Paragraph.</td> + <td>The Paragraph Theme.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a +sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of +topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical +outline. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE PARAGRAPH +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Its definition and purpose.</li> +<li>Its length.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Paragraphing of speech.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Paragraphing for emphasis.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Too frequent paragraphing.</td></tr> + </table></li> +<li>Its essential qualities.<br /> + A. Unity.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Definition.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Examples showing how unity is destroyed.</td></tr> + <tr><td>How to secure unity.</td></tr> + <tr><td>The topic sentence.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Development of topic sentence.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Examples showing unity. +<a name="page_176"><span class="page">Page 176</span></a> + </td></tr> + </table> + B. Coherence.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Definition.</td></tr> + <tr><td>How to secure coherence.</td></tr> + <tr><td>Examples showing coherence.</td></tr> + </table> + C. Emphasis.<br /> + <table style="margin-left: 1em;"> + <tr><td>Places of emphasis in the paragraph.</td></tr> + </table> +<li>Practical construction of the paragraph.</li> +<li>The paragraph theme.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>180. Use and Qualities of the Outline.</b> The use of the outline +is not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also +necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, +the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in +which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently +be followed with very good reason. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general +description is given, and then followed by a statement of various +details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe +in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and +the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular +description might be made of its details of arrangement and +peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement +and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline +should present a few main topics to which all others either lead +up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all +bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation +may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by +details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long +as it is a logical and natural one. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be +sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, +and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. <a name="page_177"><span +class="page">Page 177</span></a> A too detailed outline tends to +make the composition stiff and formal. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the +subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be +given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main +topics. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>181. The Beginning of the Composition.</b> To choose a method +of beginning a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, +direct beginning is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph +is necessary in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to +indicate to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. +Examine the following methods of beginning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which +the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all +other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about +it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in +all the literature of American self-praise. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, +than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go +to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that +dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every +clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE USES OF IRON +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as +iron. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand +alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference +to the title. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_178"><span class="page">Page 178</span></a> Bad: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +There is a rapidly growing belief <i>that this study</i> has too +large a place in our high-school courses of study. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Good: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +There is a rapidly growing belief <i>that Latin</i> has too large +a place in our high school courses of study. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>182. Unity in the Composition.</b> Unity is an essential element +of the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands +here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the +composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. +In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed +which properly belongs to some other division of the topic. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted +and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation +of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's +relation to the subject. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. +If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care +must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at +which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual +changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also +be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>183. Coherence in the Composition.</b> A composition must also +be coherent. Its different parts must be closely knit together and +the whole closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, +words of reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, +words, or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order +to bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_179"><span class="page">Page 179</span></a> For this +purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite change +of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. +There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the +change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same +time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition +sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the +beginning of a following one, or at both of these places. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or +phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Last sentence of first paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Second paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>The mischief, however,</i> recoiled on the unhappy people of +this country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked +purposes of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its +best blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense +of the war was enormous—much beyond any former experience. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Third paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>And yet, what has the British nation received in return</i> for +this expense.... +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +... I was now enabled to see the <i>extent and aspect of my prison. +In its size</i> I had been greatly mistaken.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>The second of the essentials of the paragraph</i>, coherence, +demands that.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is +devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe +the following: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Paragraph 7) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly +of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile <a +name="page_180"><span class="page">Page 180</span></a> taxes to +be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the +enumeration of what has already been done toward building good roads. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of +this important result, which are now being seriously discussed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(Paragraph 9) +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +<i>The first of these plans is</i> ... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to +indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: +<i>So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, +An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of +this, By way of exception.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Examine the selection under <b>§187</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>184. The Ending of the Composition.</b> In a longer composition, +the ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, +should it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to +the length of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a +story, it should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary +or inference. In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or +not. The kind of ending depends entirely upon the nature and the +scheme of development of the story. Examine the following endings: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Ending of a theme on <i>The Uses of Iron</i>: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, +have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which +it is constantly put—uses which no other metal could fill. +Gold may once have been called the king of metals, but it has long +since lost its claim to that title. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Ending of a story: +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +"Good-bye," he said. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +And then he was gone, forever. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_181"><span class="page">Page 181</span></a> Suggested +subjects for the making of outlines and compositions. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>How I Spent my Vacation.</li> +<li>Shall Final Examinations be Abolished?</li> +<li>The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools.</li> +<li>My Qualifications for a Position.</li> +<li>The Uses of Iron.</li> +<li>Paul Revere's Ride.</li> +<li>The City Park.</li> +<li>My Town as a Place of Residence.</li> +<li>The Value of Railroads.</li> +<li>Why I Believe in Local Option.</li> +<li>A Winter's Sleigh Ride.</li> +<li>Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted?</li> +<li>My Youthful Business Ventures.</li> +<li>Why I Belong to the X Political Party.</li> +<li>Various Methods of Heating a House.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>185.</b> Below is given in full Lincoln's <i>Gettysburg Speech</i>. +It is perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with +especial reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some +of the words of coherence have been italicized. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this +continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to +the proposition that all men are created equal. <i>Now</i> we are +engaged in a great civil war, testing whether <i>that nation</i>, +or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +We are met on a great battle-field of <i>that war</i>. We have +come to dedicate a portion of <i>that field</i> as the final +resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation +might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do +<i>this. But</i> in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot +consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living +and dead, who <i>struggled here</i> have consecrated it far above +our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long +remember, what we say here; but it can never forget what <i>they +did here</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +It is for us, the living, <i>rather</i>, to be dedicated here to the +unfinished <a name="page_182"><span class="page">Page 182</span></a> +work which <i>they who fought here</i> have thus far so nobly advanced. +<i>It is rather for us</i> to be here dedicated to the great task +remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased +devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure +of devotion; that we here highly resolve that <i>these dead</i> +shall not have died in vain; that <i>this nation</i>, under God, +shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, +by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>186.</b> <i>Small Economies</i>, from Mrs. Gaskell's <i>Cranford</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small +economies—careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in +some one peculiar direction—any disturbance of which annoys +him more than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of +the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was +invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a +long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) +out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the +corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this +little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed +him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his +soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he +could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article +was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, +and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I +see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send +a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines +of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String +is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up +and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously +annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and +faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves +to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, +as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber +band is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new—one +<a name="page_183"><span class="page">Page 183</span></a> that I +picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried +to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the +extravagance. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation +because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people +have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not +seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on +the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out +of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing +it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose +plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which +he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that +this is not waste. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices +to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit +knitting for two or three hours—she could do this in the +dark, or by firelight—and when I asked if I might not ring +for candles to finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep +blind man's holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but +we only burnt one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation +for a friend who might come in any evening (but who never did), +it required some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same +length, ready to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. +The candles took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or +doing, Miss Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, +ready to jump up and extinguish it and to light the other before +they had become too uneven in length to be restored to equality +in the course of the evening. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. +I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday," +especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to +stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could +not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight, +according to my usual custom.... +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>187. A List of Books for Reading.</b> These books are of a varied +character and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in +their English. Most of them are books that, as a matter of general +education, should be read by everyone. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="page_184"><span class="page">Page 184</span></a><br /> +Fiction:<br /> +</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"> +Treasure Island—Stevenson.<br /> +Kidnapped—Stevenson.<br /> +Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde—Stevenson.<br /> +The Scarlet Letter—Hawthorne.<br /> +Twice Told Tales—Hawthorne.<br /> +The Luck of Roaring Camp—Bret Harte.<br /> +Tales of Mystery and Imagination—Poe.<br /> +Silas Marner—Eliot.<br /> +Robinson Crusoe—Defoe.<br /> +Ivanhoe—Scott.<br /> +Henry Esmond—Thackeray.<br /> +Pilgrim's Progress—Bunyan.<br /> +The Spy—Cooper.<br /> +The Man without a Country—Hale.<br /> +Tales of a Traveller—Irving.<br /> +The Legend of Sleepy Hollow—Irving.<br /> +Rip Van Winkle—Irving.<br /> +Lorna Doone—Blackmore.<br /> +Uncle William—Lee.<br /> +The Blue Flower—Van Dyke. +</div> + +<p> +Non-fiction:<br /> +</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"> +Sesame and Lilies—Ruskin.<br /> +Stones of Venice—Ruskin.<br /> +The American Commonwealth—Bryce.<br /> +A History of the English People—Green.<br /> +Views Afoot—Taylor.<br /> +The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table—Holmes.<br /> +Conspiracy of Pontiac—Parkman.<br /> +Autobiography—Franklin.<br /> +Lincoln—Douglas Debates.<br /> +Critical Periods of American History—Fiske.<br /> +Certain Delightful English Towns—Howells.<br /> +The Declaration of Independence.<br /> +Bunker Hill Oration—Webster.<br /> +On Conciliation with America—Burke.<br /> +The Sketch Book—Irving. +</div> + +<h2><a name="page_185"><span class="page">Page 185</span></a> +CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p class="subtitle">WORDS.—SPELLING.—PRONUNCIATION</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>188.</b> To write and to speak good English, one must have a +good working vocabulary. He must know words and be able to use +them correctly; he must employ only words that are in good use; he +must be able to choose words and phrases that accurately express +his meaning; and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly +the words that he uses. +</p> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Words +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>189. Good Use.</b> The first essential that a word should have, +is that it be in good use. A word is in good use when it is used +grammatically and in its true sense, and is also: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(1) <i>Reputable</i>; in use by good authors and writers in general. +The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient to +make a word reputable; the use must be general. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(2) <i>National</i>; not foreign or local in its use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +(3) <i>Present</i>; used by the writers of one's own time. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>190. Offenses against Good Use.</b> The offenses against good +use are usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms, Barbarisms, +and Improprieties. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>191. Solecisms</b> are the violations of the principles of grammar. +Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>192. Barbarisms.</b> The second offense against good use, a +barbarism, is a word not in reputable, present or national use. +The following rules may be given on this subject: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Avoid obsolete words.</b> Obsolete words are words that, +once in good use, have since passed out of general use. <a +name="page_186"><span class="page">Page 186</span></a> This rule +might also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are +at present time passing out of use. Examples of obsolete words: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">methinks</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">yesterwhiles</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">twixt</td></tr> + <tr><td>yclept</td><td>afeard</td><td>shoon</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +2. <b>Avoid newly coined expressions or new uses of old expressions.</b> +There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other +hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at +the present time, though many of these words may in time come into +use. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. +Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">an invite</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">an exposé</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">a try</td></tr> + <tr><td>enthuse</td><td>a combine</td><td>fake</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from +a noun, or a noun from a verb. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">locomote</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">suicided</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">derailment</td></tr> + <tr><td>pluralized</td><td>burglarized</td><td>refereed</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Avoid foreign words.</b> A foreign word should not be used +until it has become naturalized by being in general, reputable use. +Since there are almost always English words just as expressive as +the foreign words, the use of the foreign words usually indicates +affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">billet-doux (love letter)</td> + <td>conversazione (conversation)</td></tr> + <tr><td>ad nauseam (to disgust)</td> + <td>distingué (distinguished)</td></tr> + <tr><td>ad infinitum (infinitely)</td> + <td>entre nous (between us)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Avoid provincialisms.</b> Provincialisms are expressions +current and well understood in one locality, but not current or +differently understood in another locality. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">guess (think)</td> + <td>reckon (suppose)</td></tr> + <tr><td>near (stingy)</td><td>smart (clever)</td></tr> + <tr><td>tuckered (tired out)</td><td>lift (elevator)</td></tr> + <tr><td>tote (carry)</td><td>ruination (ruin)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_187"><span class="page">Page 187</span></a> +5. <b>Avoid vulgarisms.</b> Vulgarisms are words whose use shows +vulgarity or ignorance. Such words as the following are always in +bad taste: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">chaw</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">nigger</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">your'n</td></tr> + <tr><td>gal</td><td>flustrated</td><td>hadn't oughter</td></tr> + <tr><td>haint</td><td>dern</td><td>his'n</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +6. <b>Avoid slang.</b> Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very +prevalent in its use even by educated people. Slang words, it is +true, sometimes come into good repute and usage, but the process +is slow. The safest rule is to avoid slang expressions because +of their general bad taste and because of their weakening effect +on one's vocabulary of good words. Examples of slang: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">grind</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">swipe</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">booze</td></tr> + <tr><td>long green</td><td>on a toot</td><td>dough</td></tr> + <tr><td>pinch</td><td>peach</td><td>dukes</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <b>Avoid clipped or abbreviated words.</b> The use of such words +is another form of vulgarism. Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">pard (partner)</td> + <td style="width: 50%;">rep (reputation)</td></tr> + <tr><td>doc (doctor)</td><td>cal'late (calculate)</td></tr> + <tr><td>musee (museum)</td><td>a comp (complimentary ticket)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +8. <b>Avoid technical or professional words.</b> Such words are +usually clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. +Examples: +</p> + +<table class="indent"> + <tr><td style="width: 33%;">valence</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">hagiology</td> + <td style="width: 33%;">allonge</td></tr> + <tr><td>kilowatt</td><td>sclerosis</td><td>estoppel</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>193. When Barbarisms May be Used.</b> In the foregoing rules +barbarisms have been treated as at all times to be avoided. This +is true of their use in general composition, and in a measure true +of their use in composition of a special nature. But barbarisms may +sometimes be used properly. Obsolete words would be permissible in +poetry or in historical <a name="page_188"><span class="page">Page +188</span></a> novels, technical words permissible in technical +writing, and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in +dialect stories. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 76</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Substitute for each of the barbarisms in the following list +an expression that is in good use. When in doubt consult a good +dictionary:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Chaw, quoth, fake, reckon, dern, forsooth, his'n, an invite, entre +nous, tote, hadn't oughter, yclept, a combine, ain't, dole, a try, +nouveau riche, puny, grub, twain, a boom, alter ego, a poke, cuss, +eld, enthused, mesalliance, tollable, disremember, locomote, a right +smart ways, chink, afeard, orate, nary a one, yore, pluralized, +distingué, ruination, complected, mayhap, burglarized, mal +de mer, tuckered, grind, near, suicided, callate, cracker-jack, +erst, railroaded, chic, down town, deceased (verb), a rig, swipe, +spake, on a toot, knocker, peradventure, guess, prof, classy, booze, +per se, cute, biz, bug-house, swell, opry, rep, photo, cinch, corker, +in cahoot, pants, fess up, exam, bike, incog, zoo, secondhanded, +getable, outclassed, gents, mucker, galoot, dub, up against it, +on tick, to rattle, in hock, busted on the bum, to watch out, get +left. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 77</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Make a list of such barbarisms as you yourself use, and devise +for them as many good substitute expressions as you can. Practice +using the good expressions that you have made.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 78</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Correct the italicized barbarisms in the following sentences:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>They can go <i>everywheres</i>.</li> +<li>He spends all his time <i>grinding</i>.</li> +<li>There <i>ain't</i> a <i>sightlier</i> town in the state.</li> +<li>He ate the whole <i>hunk</i> of cake + <a name="page_189"><span class="page">Page 189</span></a></li +<li>He was treated very <i>illy</i>.</li> +<li>Smith's new house is very <i>showy</i>.</li> +<li>Not <i>muchly</i> will I go.</li> +<li>All were ready for breakfast before <i>sun-up</i>.</li> +<li>Do you like <i>light-complected</i> people?</li> +<li>I had never <i>orated</i> before.</li> +<li>Their clothes are always <i>tasty</i> in appearance.</li> +<li>He has money, but he is very <i>near</i>.</li> +<li>He left the room <i>unbeknown</i> to his mother.</li> +<li>If manners are any indication, she belongs to the <i>nouvea + riche</i>.</li> +<li>I feel pretty <i>tollable</i> today.</li> +<li>I <i>reckon</i> all will be able to get seats.</li> +<li>Do you <i>callate</i> to get there before noon?</li> +<li>If I had as much <i>long green</i> as he has, I wouldn't be such + <i>tight-wad</i>.</li> +<li>He was the <i>beau ideal</i> of soldier.</li> +<li>John is a <i>crazy cuss</i>.</li> +<li>Let me say <i>en passant</i> we did not ask for the tickets.</li> +<li>Even at that time John had a bad <i>rep</i>.</li> +<li>That woman is the Countess of Verdun, <i>née</i> Smith.</li> +<li><i>Methinks</i> you are wrong.</li> +<li>The teacher <i>spake</i> sharply to her.</li> +<li>I <i>didn't go for to do</i> it.</li> +<li>It will be published <i>inside of</i> two months.</li> +<li>The duke and his wife were travelling <i>incog</i>.</li> +<li>I hadn't <i>thought on</i> that.</li> +<li>There is little difference <i>twixt</i> the two.</li> +<li>Come now, <i>fess up</i>.</li> +<li>It's a <i>right smart ways</i> to Williamsport.</li> +<li>You <i>wot</i> not what you say.</li> +<li>He bought a <i>poke</i> of apples for his lunch.</li> +<li>Brown runs a pretty <i>classy</i> store.</li> +<li>I finally <i>got shut</i> of him.</li> +<li>I <i>could of</i> jumped across.</li> +<li>That can't be done <i>nohow</i>.</li> +<li>You make such <i>dumb</i> mistakes.</li> +<li>I never saw such a <i>bum</i> show.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_190"><span class="page">Page 190</span></a> <b>194. +Improprieties.</b> The third offense against good use, an impropriety, +is the use of a proper word in an improper sense. In many cases an +offense against good use may be called a barbarism, an impropriety, +or a solecism, since the fields covered by the three terms somewhat +overlap one another. Many improprieties have their origin in the +similarities in sound, spelling or meaning of words. The following +exercises deal with a number of common improprieties resulting +from the confusion of two similar words. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 79</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Study the proper use of the words given under each of the following +divisions. In each group of sentences fill the blanks with the +proper words:</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Accept, except.</b> See Glossary at end of book, under <i>except</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I cannot —— your gift.</li> +<li>Have you no books —— these?</li> +<li>Cicero was not —— from the list of those condemned.</li> +<li>He —— the invitation.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Affect, effect.</b> See Glossary under <i>effect</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Will your plan —— a reform from the present + condition?</li> +<li>The sad news will seriously —— his mother.</li> +<li>How was the bank —— by the indictment of its + president?</li> +<li>The change of schedule was —— without a hitch.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Aggravate, irritate.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Her manner —— me.</li> +<li>The crime was —— by being committed in cold blood.</li> +<li>The children do everything they can to —— her.</li> +<li>His illness was —— by lack of proper food.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_191"><span class="page">Page 191</span></a> +<b>Allude, mention.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He —— (to) certain events which he dared not name + directly.</li> +<li>The attorney —— (to) no names.</li> +<li>That passage in his book delicately —— (to) his + mother.</li> +<li>In his speech the labor leader boldly —— (to) his + recent arrest.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Argue, augur.</b> <i>To argue</i> is to state reasons for one's +belief. <i>To augur</i> means <i>to foretell, to presage</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The reported quarrel —— ill for the army.</li> +<li>He will —— at length on any subject.</li> +<li>Her darkening looks —— a quarrel.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Avocation, vocation.</b> A <i>vocation</i> is one's principal +work or calling. <i>An avocation</i> is something aside from or +subordinate to that principal calling. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The young physician enthusiastically pursues his ——.</li> +<li>Law is his ——, but politics is his ——.</li> +<li>The ministry should be one's ——, never his + ——.</li> +<li>While preparing for his life work, school teaching was for a time + his ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Besides, beside.</b> <i>Besides</i> means <i>in addition to. +Beside</i> refers to place; as, <i>He sits beside you</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>—— you, who else was there?</li> +<li>Is there nothing —— this to do?</li> +<li>John walked —— me.</li> +<li>—— me was a tree.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Calculate, intend.</b> <i>To calculate</i> means <i>to compute, +to adjust</i> or <i>to adapt. Intend</i> means <i>to have formed +the plan to do something</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He —— to sell books this summer.</li> +<li>He —— that the work will take ten years.</li> +<li>He —— to finish it as soon as he can.</li> +<li>The oil is —— to flow at the rate of a gallon a + minute.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_192"><span class="page">Page 192</span></a> +<b>Character, reputation.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In this community his —— is excellent.</li> +<li>One's friends may endow him with a good ——, but + not with a good ——.</li> +<li>Slander may ruin one's ——, but it will not destroy + his ——.</li> +<li>See that your —— is right, and your —— + will establish itself.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Claim, assert.</b> <i>To claim</i> means to make a demand for +what is one's own. It should not be confused with <i>assert</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— that I am innocent.</li> +<li>John —— the property as his.</li> +<li>They —— their right to the land.</li> +<li>The cashier —— the money in payment of a note.</li> +<li>Do you still —— that you were born in America?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Council, counsel, consul.</b> A <i>council</i> is a group of +persons called in to hold consultation. <i>Counsel</i> means <i>an +adviser</i>, as a lawyer; or <i>advice</i> that is given. <i>Consul</i> +is an officer of the government. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>In the colonies each governor had his ——.</li> +<li>The advisers gave him —— when he desired it.</li> +<li>The United States has a —— in every important + foreign port.</li> +<li>In criminal cases the accused must be provided with + ——.</li> +<li>The president's cabinet constitutes for him a sort of + ——.</li> +<li>In Rome two —— were elected to manage the affairs + of the state.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Emigration, immigration.</b> See Glossary. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Foreign —— into the United States is greatly + restricted.</li> +<li>The —— of the citizens of the United States to Canada is + becoming a matter of concern.</li> +<li>Our —— Bureau enforces the Chinese Exclusion Act.</li> +<li>The treatment of the royalists caused a great —— from + France.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_193"><span class="page">Page 193</span></a> +<b>Good, well.</b> <i>Good</i> is an adjective. <i>Well</i> is usually an +adverb, though sometimes an adjective; as, <i>Are you well to-day?</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She talks very ——.</li> +<li>She prepares a —— paper, even if she does not write + ——.</li> +<li>Do —— what you are doing.</li> +<li>Did you have a —— time?</li> +<li>Recite it as —— as you can.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>House, home.</b> <i>House</i> means only <i>a building. Home</i> +means a place that is one's habitual place of residence. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He thought often of the flowers about the door of his old + ——.</li> +<li>They have recently bought a —— which they intend to + make their ——.</li> +<li>Mr. Heim lives here now, but his —— is in Lewisburg.</li> +<li>He has several miserable —— that he rents.</li> +<li>Such a place is not fit to be called a ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Most, almost.</b> <i>Almost</i> is an adverb meaning <i>nearly. +Most</i> never has this meaning. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I was —— injured when the machine broke.</li> +<li>It is —— time for him to come.</li> +<li>The —— discouraging thing was his indifference.</li> +<li>I —— missed the car.</li> +<li>—— of the books are torn.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Let, leave.</b> See Glossary, under <i>leave</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Will his employer —— him go so early.</li> +<li>I shall —— at noon.</li> +<li>—— me help you with your coat.</li> +<li>—— me here for a while.</li> +<li>This book I —— with you.</li> +<li>Do not —— that danger disturb you.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_194"><span class="page">Page 194</span></a> +<b>Like, as.</b> <i>Like</i> should not be used as a conjunction in +the sense of <i>as</i>. As a preposition it is correct. It is wrong +to say, <i>Do like I do</i>; but right to say, <i>Do as I do</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He looks —— James.</li> +<li>Read —— James does.</li> +<li>Does she look —— me?</li> +<li>She thinks of it —— I thought.</li> +<li>Lincoln could do a thing —— that.</li> +<li>Other men could not do —— Lincoln did.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Likely, liable, probably.</b> It is better to avoid using +<i>likely</i> as an adverb; but it may be used as an adjective; +as, <i>He is likely to come. Probably</i> refers to any sort of +possibility. <i>Liable</i> refers to an unpleasant or unfavorable +possibility; it should not be used as equivalent to <i>likely</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>He is —— to arrest for doing that.</li> +<li>The president's car will —— arrive at noon.</li> +<li>It is —— to rain to-day.</li> +<li>Is he —— to write to us?</li> +<li>Continued exposure makes one more —— to serious + illness.</li> +<li>What will —— come of it?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Loan, lend.</b> <i>Loan</i> should be used only as a noun, and +<i>lend</i> only as a verb. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I wish to obtain a —— of fifty dollars.</li> +<li>Will you —— me your knife?</li> +<li>A —— of money loses both itself and friend.</li> +<li>A —— is something that one —— to another.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Mad, angry.</b> Mad means <i>insane, uncontrollably excited +through fear</i>, etc. It should not be used for <i>angry</i> or +<i>vexed</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>His manner of speaking makes me ——.</li> +<li>It makes one —— to see such behavior.</li> +<li>The noise almost drove me ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_195"><span class="page">Page 195</span></a> +<b>Much, many.</b> <i>Much</i> refers to quantity; <i>many</i> to +number. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Sometimes they have as —— as fifty in a class.</li> +<li>—— of the trouble comes from his weak eyes.</li> +<li>Do you use —— horses on the farm?</li> +<li>How —— marbles did the boy have?</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Near, nearly.</b> <i>Near</i> is an adjective; <i>nearly</i> +an adverb. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Is the work —— finished?</li> +<li>The man was —— the end of the porch.</li> +<li>It was —— noon when Blucher came.</li> +<li>They are —— insane with worry.</li> +<li>Mary is not —— so old as John.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Observation, observance.</b> <i>Observation</i> means to <i>watch, +to look at. Observance</i> means <i>to celebrate, to keep</i>. +<i>Observation</i> applies to a fact or an object; <i>observance</i> +to a festival, a holiday, or a rule. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The —— of the astronomer proved the theory.</li> +<li>Sunday —— is of value to one's bodily as well as to + one's spiritual health.</li> +<li>The —— of the sanitary regulations was insiste + d upon.</li> +<li>The scientist needs highly developed powers of ——.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Respectively, respectfully</b>. <i>Respectively</i> means +<i>particularly, relating to each. Respectfully</i> means +<i>characterized by high regard.</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>These three kinds of architecture were characterized —— + as "severe," "graceful," and "ornate."</li> +<li>Sign your letter "Yours ——," not "yours + ——."</li> +<li>Their shares were —— two hundred dollars and five + hundred dollars,</li> +<li>The class —— informed the faculty of their desire.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_196"><span class="page">Page 196</span></a> +<b>Suspect, expect.</b> <i>Suspect</i> means <i>to mistrust. Expect</i> +means <i>to look forward to</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>I —— that he will come.</li> +<li>He —— his brother of hiding his coat.</li> +<li>When do you —— to finish the work?</li> +<li>The man was never before —— of having done wrong.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Teach, learn.</b> See Glossary under <i>learn</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>You must —— him to be careful.</li> +<li>He must —— to be careful.</li> +<li>To —— a class to study is a difficult task.</li> +<li>Who —— your class to-day.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Transpire, happen.</b> <i>Transpire</i> does not mean <i>to +happen</i>. It means <i>to become gradually known, to leak out</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She knows everything that —— in the village.</li> +<li>It —— that he had secretly sold the farm.</li> +<li>No more important event than this has —— in the last + ten years.</li> +<li>It has now —— that some money was stolen.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Quite, very.</b> <i>Quite</i> is not in good use in the sense +of <i>very</i> or <i>to a great degree</i>. It properly means +<i>entirely</i>. +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The book is —— easy to study.</li> +<li>Have you —— finished your work.</li> +<li>The train ran —— slowly for most of the distance.</li> +<li>That is —— easy to do.</li> +<li>We were —— unable to reach the city any sooner.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 80</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>The following list includes some groups of words that are often +confused. Far the proper meaning of the words refer to a good +dictionary. Write sentences using the words in their proper senses:</i> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">practical, skilled</td> + <td>sensible, sensitive</td></tr> + <tr><td>couple, two</td> + <td>access, accession</td></tr> + <tr><td>future, subsequent</td> + <td>allusion, illusion, delusion + <a name="page_197"><span class="page">Page 197</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>folk, family</td> + <td>conscience, consciousness</td></tr> + <tr><td>evidence, testimony</td> + <td>identity, identification</td></tr> + <tr><td>party, person, firm</td> + <td>limit, limitation</td></tr> + <tr><td>plenty, many, enough of</td> + <td>majority, plurality</td></tr> + <tr><td>portion, part</td> + <td>materialize, appear</td></tr> + <tr><td>solicitation, solicitude</td> + <td>invent, discover</td></tr> + <tr><td>human, humane</td> + <td>prescribe, proscribe</td></tr> + <tr><td>bound, determined</td> + <td>some, somewhat, something</td></tr> + <tr><td>fix, mend</td> + <td>mutual, common</td></tr> + <tr><td>foot, pay</td> + <td>noted, notorious</td></tr> + <tr><td>creditable, credible</td> + <td>wait for, wait on</td></tr> + <tr><td>exceptionable, exceptional</td> + <td>in, into</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 81</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Show how the use of each of the two italicized words in the +following sentences would affect the meaning of the sentence:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>We experienced a <i>succession series</i> of hindrances.</li> +<li>That <i>statement assertion</i> was made by an eye witness.</li> +<li>The student has remarkable <i>ability capacity</i>.</li> +<li>In my <i>estimate estimation</i> the cost will be higher than + fifty dollars.</li> +<li>The <i>import importance</i> of his words is not fully + understood.</li> +<li>The <i>union unity</i> of the clubs is remarkable.</li> +<li>The <i>acts actions</i> of the president were closely watched.</li> +<li>The man needed a new <i>stimulus stimulant</i>.</li> +<li>He was <i>captivated captured</i> by her unusual charms.</li> +<li>We are quick to <i>impute impugn</i> motives that we think to + exist.</li> +<li>He was <i>convinced convicted</i> by John's argument.</li> +<li>The dog's suffering was <i>alleviated relieved</i> by the + medicine.</li> +<li>He <i>persuaded advised</i> me to consult a lawyer.</li> +<li>His behavior was <i>funny odd</i>.</li> +<li>The plan seems <i>practical practicable</i>.</li> +<li>That is the <i>latest last</i> letter.</li> +<li>That certainly was not a <i>human humane</i> action.</li> +<li>He <i>waited on waited for</i> his mother.</li> +<li>The <i>completeness completion</i> of the work brought many + congratulations.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_198"><span class="page">Page 198</span></a> +Exercise 82</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Supply a word which will remedy the italicized impropriety in each +of the following sentences. When in doubt consult a dictionary:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>The <i>majority</i> of the illustrations are good.</li> +<li>No one can accurately <i>predicate</i> what the weather will be.</li> +<li>Shall you <i>except</i> the invitation?</li> +<li>They <i>claim</i> that the assertion cannot be proved.</li> +<li>They finally <i>located</i> the criminal in Dravosburg.</li> +<li>I shall <i>leave</i> you go at noon.</li> +<li>The <i>balance</i> of the essay was uninteresting.</li> +<li>By questions they tried to <i>eliminate</i> the true story.</li> +<li>They <i>impugn</i> false motives to me.</li> +<li>He was greatly <i>effected</i> by the news.</li> +<li>Sabbath <i>observation</i> was then very strict.</li> +<li>They <i>expect</i> that she wrote the letter.</li> +<li>The <i>invention</i> of electricity has revolutionized all + manufactures.</li> +<li>Who <i>learned</i> her to sing?</li> +<li>Edison <i>discovered</i> the phonograph.</li> +<li>One cannot comprehend the <i>enormity</i> of a billion + of dollars.</li> +<li>Many <i>complements</i> were paid to her beauty.</li> +<li>His <i>consciousness</i> pricked him.</li> +<li>How could any one be guilty of such a cruel <i>action</i>.</li> +<li>The <i>advancement</i> of the army was very slow.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>195. Idioms.</b> There are in English, as in other languages, +a number of expressions that cannot be justified by the rules of +grammar or rhetoric; and yet these expressions are among the most +forcible ones in the language, and are continually used by the best +writers. These expressions that lie outside all rules we call idioms. +Compare the following idiomatic expressions with the unidiomatic +expressions that succeed them. The second expression in each group +is in accord with the strict rules of composition; but the first, +the idiomatic, is far more forceful. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: The book which I read about. + <a name="page_199"><span class="page">Page 199</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: The book about which I + read.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: More than one life was + lost.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: More lives than one life + were lost.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: Speak loud. Speak + louder.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: Speak loudly. Speak more + loudly.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: A ten-foot pole.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: A ten-feet pole.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: He strove with might and + main.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: He strove with might. (Might + and main are two words of the same meaning.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Idiomatic: He lectured on every other + day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Unidiomatic: He lectured on one day out + of every two.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Idioms are not to be avoided. On the contrary, because they contribute +great ease and force to composition, their use is to be encouraged. +But the distinction between idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions +is a fine one, and rests solely on usage. Care must be taken not +to go beyond the idiomatic. There is probably little danger that +the ordinary writer or speaker will not use idioms enough. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The following expressions are examples of commonly used idioms: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">He was standing at the door <i>in his + shirt sleeves</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I <i>don't think</i> it will rain (I + think it will not rain).</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">She walked out of the room <i>on her + father's arm</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">John was a poor <i>shot</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Do you feel <i>like a little + candy</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">See what my foolishness has brought me + <i>to</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">What part of the city will they settle + <i>in</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">What was the house built + <i>for</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">John needs a match to light his pipe + <i>with</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">That is all I ask <i>for</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">What are you driving <i>at</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Hard put to it.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>By all odds.</i> + <a name="page_200"><span class="page">Page 200</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Must needs.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I must <i>get up</i> by noon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Get rid of.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Get used to.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Never so good.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Whether or no.</i></td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I can't go <i>either</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>You forget yourself</i> when you speak + so harshly.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">I can come only <i>every other</i> + day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">If the bell rings <i>answer the + door</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>I take it</i> that you will be there + too.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Come and see</i> me.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent"><i>Try and</i> do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The thief <i>took to his + heels</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>196. Choice of Words.</b> The words in which a thought is expressed +may not offend against good use, and yet still be objectionable because +they do not accurately and appropriately express the thought. One +should choose not merely a word that will approximately express +the thought, but the one word that best expresses it. The following +suggestions are given to aid in the choice of words: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Choose simple English words</b> and avoid what is called +"fine writing." Young writers and newspaper writers are greatly +given to this offense of fine or bombastic writing. Examples: +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%; padding-left: 2em;">FINE WRITING</td> + <td style="width: 50%; padding-left: 2em;">SIMPLE STYLE</td></tr> + <tr><td>Was launched into eternity</td><td>Was hanged</td></tr> + <tr><td>Disastrous conflagration</td><td>Great fire</td></tr> + <tr><td>Called into requisition the services of the family + physician</td><td>Sent for the doctor</td></tr> + <tr><td>Was accorded an ovation</td><td>Was applauded</td></tr> + <tr><td>Palatial mansion</td><td>Comfortable house</td></tr> + <tr><td>Acute auricular perceptions</td><td>Sharp ears</td></tr> + <tr><td>A disciple of Izaak Walton</td><td>A fisherman</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_201"><span class="page">Page 201</span></a> +2. <b>Distinguish between general and specific terms.</b> In some cases +general words may be used to advantage, but more often specific +words should be used, since they call to the mind a definite image. +Compare these sentences: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">The <i>high color</i> of his face showed his + embarrassment.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">His <i>crimson</i> face showed his + embarrassment.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a <i>large</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a <i>fat</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a man of <i>large + frame</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a <i>tall, heavily + proportioned</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">He was a man <i>six feet four inches + tall</i> and <i>heavy</i> in proportion.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">It was an <i>impressive</i> + building.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">It was a building of <i>impressive + size</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">It was a building of <i>impressive + beauty</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">His <i>fault</i> was robbery.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">His <i>crime</i> was robbery.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Avoid over-statement of facts.</b> The use of words that +are too strong is a fault especially characteristic of Americans. +Examples: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Poor: The concert was <i>simply + exquisite</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Better: The concert was <i>very + good</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Poor: She was <i>wild</i> over the + mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Better: She was <i>much annoyed</i> + by the mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +4. <b>Avoid hackneyed phrases;</b> expressions that have been worked +to death. Examples: +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">His paternal acres.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The infuriated beast.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The gentle zephyrs of springtime.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Was gathered to his fathers.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">The blushing bride was led to the hymeneal + altar.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Applauded to the echo.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="exercise"> +<a name="page_202"><span class="page">Page 202</span></a> +Exercise 83</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>For each of the following expressions devise the best simple +English expression that you can:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Individual was precipitated.</li> +<li>Tendered him a banquet.</li> +<li>At the witching hour of midnight.</li> +<li>The devouring element was checked.</li> +<li>Piscatorial sport.</li> +<li>Pedal extremities.</li> +<li>Fraught with tremendous possibilities.</li> +<li>Amid the plaudits of the multitude.</li> +<li>Caudal extremity.</li> +<li>Passed to his long home.</li> +<li>Dissected the Thanksgiving bird.</li> +<li>Presided at the organ.</li> +<li>Finger of scorn pointed at him.</li> +<li>Wended his way.</li> +<li>The green eyed monster.</li> +<li>The whole aggregation of knowledge chasers.</li> +<li>Maternal ancestor.</li> +<li>Shuffled off this mortal coil.</li> +<li>Failed to materialize at the banquet.</li> +<li>Tonsorial artist.</li> +<li>Twirler of the sphere.</li> +<li>Pugilistic encounters.</li> +<li>Performed his matutinal ablutions.</li> +<li>Partook of a magnificent collation.</li> +<li>Solemnized the rites of matrimony.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 84</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>In the third paragraph of the selection from Cranford (see +<b>§186</b>) observe the use of the following words: <b>human, +weakness, hanks, twisted, annoyed,</b> and <b>undoing.</b> Study +the specific nature of these words by grouping about each of them +other <a name="page_203"><span class="page">Page 203</span></a> +words of somewhat similar meaning, and then comparing the force +of the various words in each group.</i> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>This sort of exercise may be continued by choosing passages from +any careful writer and studying the words that he has used.</i> +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 85</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Substitute for each of the following expressions some expression +that will be less general or less exaggerated:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>She is <i>nice</i> looking.</li> +<li>We had a <i>perfectly gorgeous</i> time.</li> +<li>John is a <i>professional</i> man.</li> +<li>The play was <i>simply exquisite</i>.</li> +<li>To hear his voice makes me feel <i>funny</i>.</li> +<li>The opposing team was <i>completely annihilated</i>.</li> +<li>A <i>noise</i> caught our attention.</li> +<li>His manners are <i>horrid</i>.</li> +<li>We had a <i>great</i> time.</li> +<li>Such arrogance is <i>unendurable</i>.</li> +<li>That is a <i>good</i> book.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>197. How to Improve One's Vocabulary.</b> The few following +suggestions may be found helpful in the acquiring of a good vocabulary: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +1. <b>Cultivate the dictionary habit.</b> Learn the meaning, +pronunciation, and spelling of each new word that you meet. Only +when these three things are grasped about each word, does one really +know the word. Some persons have found it an invaluable aid to +carry with them a small note book or card on which they note down +to be looked up at a convenient time words concerning which they +are in doubt. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +2. <b>In your writing and speaking use as much as possible the new +words that you acquire.</b> +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +3. <b>Construct good English expressions</b> for all the slang, +fine writing, and hackneyed phrases that you meet, and then use +the good expressions instead of the bad ones. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_204"><span class="page">Page 204</span></a> 4. <b>Study +synonyms</b>; words of similar form and meaning. Only by a knowledge +of synonyms can you express fine shades of meaning. <i>Crabbe's</i> +English Synonyms and <i>Fernald's</i> Synonyms and Antonyms are good +books of reference for this purpose. In addition to these books, +lists of synonyms will be found in many books that are designed +for general reference. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +5. <b>Try to get the one word</b> that will best express the idea. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +6. <b>Read good books</b> and good magazines, and read them carefully. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +7. <b>Cultivate the society</b> of those who use good language. +</p> + +<p class="exercise">Exercise 86</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<i>Look up the meaning of each of the words in the following groups +of synonyms. Construct sentences in which each word is used +correctly:</i> +</p> + +<ol> +<li>Love, like.</li> +<li>Wit, humor.</li> +<li>Discover, invent.</li> +<li>Observe, watch.</li> +<li>Pride, vanity, conceit.</li> +<li>Proof, evidence, testimony.</li> +<li>Balance, rest, remainder.</li> +<li>Word, term, expression.</li> +<li>Bring, fetch, carry.</li> +<li>Abandon, desert, forsake.</li> +<li>Propose, purpose, intend.</li> +<li>Healthful, healthy, wholesome.</li> +<li>Student, pupil, scholar.</li> +<li>Capacity, power, ability.</li> +<li>Blame, censure, criticism.</li> +<li>Accede, agree, yield, acquiesce.</li> +<li>Trickery, cunning, chicane, fraud.</li> +<li>Instruction, education, training, tuition.</li> +<li>Hardship, obstacle, hindrance, difficulty. + <a name="page_205"><span class="page">Page 205</span></a></li> +<li>Maxim, precept, rule, law</li> +<li>Multitude, crowd, throng, swarm.</li> +<li>Delight, happiness, pleasure, joy.</li> +<li>Work, labor, toil, drudgery, task.</li> +<li>Silent, mute, dumb, speechless.</li> +<li>Kill, murder, assassinate, slay.</li> +<li>Hatred, enmity, dislike, ill-will.</li> +<li>Example, pattern, sample, model.</li> +<li>Obvious, plain, clear, apparent.</li> +<li>Noted, eminent, famous, prominent, notorious.</li> +<li>Old, aged, antique, ancient, antiquated, obsolete.</li> +</ol> + +<p class="center_sc"> +Spelling +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>198.</b> The following is a list of words that are frequently +misspelled or confused. Where possible, an effort has been made +to arrange them in groups in order that they may be more easily +remembered. The word with an added ending has been used in most +cases in place of the bare word itself as, <i>occasional</i> instead +of <i>occasion</i>. A few rules have been included. +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td>accede</td><td>descend</td><td>pressure</td></tr> + <tr><td>accident</td><td>fascinate</td><td>misspelled</td></tr> + <tr><td>accommodate</td><td>mischievous</td><td>possession</td></tr> + <tr><td>accordance</td><td>miscellaneous<td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>accuracy</td><td>muscle</td><td>recollection</td></tr> + <tr><td>succeed</td><td>susceptible</td><td>dispelled</td></tr> + <tr><td>occasional</td><td> </td><td>miscellaneous</td></tr> + <tr><td>occur</td><td>existence</td><td>monosyllable</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>experience</td><td>intellectual</td></tr> + <tr><td>across</td><td>sentence</td><td>parallel</td></tr> + <tr><td>amount</td><td> </td><td>embellishment</td></tr> + <tr><td>apart</td><td>foregoing</td><td>wholly</td></tr> + <tr><td>arouse</td><td>forehead</td><td>woolly</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>village</td></tr> + <tr><td>already</td><td>forty</td><td>villain</td></tr> + <tr><td>all right</td><td>foreign</td><td>till</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>forfeit</td><td> + <a name="page_206"><span class="page">Page 206</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>amateur</td><td>formally</td><td>perpetual</td></tr> + <tr><td>grandeur</td><td>formerly</td><td>persuade</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td> </td><td>perspiration</td></tr> + <tr><td>appal</td><td>fulfill</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>apparatus</td><td>willful</td><td>police</td></tr> + <tr><td>appetite</td><td> </td><td>policies</td></tr> + <tr><td>approximate</td><td>guardian</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>opportunity</td><td>guessing</td><td>presence</td></tr> + <tr><td>opposite</td><td> </td><td>precede</td></tr> + <tr><td>disappoint</td><td>imminent</td><td>preceptor</td></tr> + <tr><td>disappearance</td><td>immediately</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>accommodation</td><td>fiend</td></tr> + <tr><td>choose</td><td>commission</td><td>siege</td></tr> + <tr><td>chosen</td><td>grammar</td><td>friend</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>inflammation</td><td>yielding</td></tr> + <tr><td>boundary</td><td>recommend</td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>elementary</td><td>summary</td><td>seize</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>symmetrical</td><td>receive</td></tr> + <tr><td>final</td><td>committee</td><td>receipt</td></tr> + <tr><td>finally</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> + <tr><td>usual</td><td>ledger</td><td>succeed</td></tr> + <tr><td>usually</td><td>legible</td><td>proceed</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>ascend</td><td>assassin</td><td>recede</td></tr> + <tr><td>ascent</td><td>dissimilar</td><td>secede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discerning</td><td>essential</td><td>accede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discipline</td><td>messenger</td><td>intercede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discontent</td><td> </td><td>concede</td></tr> + <tr><td>discreet</td><td>necessary</td><td>supersede</td></tr> + <tr><td>descent</td><td>necessity</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>passport</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>199.</b> Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single +vowel, if monosyllables, or if the last syllable is accented, double +the final consonant before the ending <i>-ed</i> and <i>-ing</i>, +but not before <i>-ence</i>; as, +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">rob, rob<i>bed</i>, rob<i>bing</i>, + rob<i>bers</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">confer, confer<i>red</i>, + confer<i>ring</i>, confer<i>ence</i>. + <a name="page_207"><span class="page">Page 207</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">transmit, transmit<i>ted</i>, + transmit<i>ting</i>, transmi<i>ssion</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">impel, impel<i>led</i>, impel<i>ling</i>, + imp<i>ulsion</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar to the above are. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +defer, infer, prefer, refer, transfer, occur (occurrence), abhor +(abhorrence), omit, remit, permit, commit, beset, impel, compel, +repel, excel (excellence), mob, sob, rub, skid. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +If these words are not accented on the last syllable, the consonant +is not doubled; as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +benefit, benefit<i>ed</i>, benefit<i>ing</i>, benefi<i>cial</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +differ, summon, model. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>200.</b> Words ending in silent <i>e</i> drop the <i>e</i> before +a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">arrive, arriv<i>ing</i>, arriv<i>ed</i>, + arriv<i>al</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">precede, preced<i>ed</i>, preced<i>ing</i>, + preced<i>ence</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">receive, receiv<i>ed</i>, + receiv<i>ing</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +move, write, blame, tame, come, receive, believe, relieve, grieve, +deceive, conceive, perceive, seize, precede, concede, supersede, +recede, argue, rue, construe, woe, pursue. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>201.</b> Words ending in <i>-ge, -ce</i>, or <i>-se</i>, retain +the <i>e</i> before endings: as, +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +arrange, arrangement; arrange, arranging. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +gauge, manage, balance, finance, peace, service, amuse, use. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>202.</b> Words in <i>-dge</i> do not retain the <i>e</i> before +endings; as, acknowledge, acknowledg<i>ment</i>, acknowledg<i>ed</i>, +acknowledg<i>ing</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +nudge, judge. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_208"><span class="page">Page 208</span></a> <b>203.</b> +Most words ending in <i>y</i> preceded by a consonant change <i>y</i> +to <i>i</i> before all endings except-<i>ing</i>: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +busy, bus<i>iness</i>, bus<i>ied</i>, busy<i>ing</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Similar are: +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +duty, mercy, penny, pity, vary, weary, study. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>204. Words of similar sound:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> +<tr><td>canvas (cloth)</td> + <td>principle (rule)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">canvass (all meanings except + <i>cloth</i>)</td> + <td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">principal (chief)</td></tr> +<tr><td>capitol (a building)</td> + <td>stationary (immovable)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">capital (all meanings except + <i>building</i>)</td> + <td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">stationery (articles)</td></tr> +<tr><td>counsel (advice or an adviser)</td> + <td>miner (a workman)</td></tr> +<tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">council (a body of persons)</td> + <td style="padding-bottom: 0.5em;">minor (under age)</td></tr> +<tr><td>complement (a completing element)</td> + <td>angel (a spiritual being)</td></tr> +<tr><td>compliment (praise)</td> + <td>angle (geometrical)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>205. Miscellaneous words:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> + <tr><td>annual</td><td>laundry</td><td>schedule</td></tr> + <tr><td>awkward</td><td>leisure</td><td>separate</td></tr> + <tr><td>beneficial</td><td>lenient</td><td>Spaniard</td></tr> + <tr><td>decimal</td><td>license</td><td>speak</td></tr> + <tr><td>exhilarate</td><td>mechanical</td><td>specimen</td></tr> + <tr><td>familiarize</td><td>mediæval</td><td>speech</td></tr> + <tr><td>fiber</td><td>medicine</td><td>spherical</td></tr> + <tr><td>fibrous</td><td>militia</td><td>subtle</td></tr> + <tr><td>genuine</td><td>motor</td><td>surely</td></tr> + <tr><td>gluey</td><td>negotiate</td><td>technical</td></tr> + <tr><td>height</td><td>origin</td><td>tenement</td></tr> + <tr><td>hideous</td><td>pacified</td><td>their</td></tr> + <tr><td>hundredths</td><td>phalanx</td><td>therefore</td></tr> + <tr><td>hysterical</td><td>physique</td><td>thinnest</td></tr> + <tr><td>icicle</td><td>privilege</td><td>until</td></tr> + <tr><td>irremediable</td><td>prodigies</td><td>vengeance</td></tr> + <tr><td>laboratory</td><td>rarefy</td><td>visible</td></tr> + <tr><td>laid</td><td>rinse</td><td>wherein</td></tr> + <tr><td>larynx</td><td>saucer</td><td>yielding</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center_sc"> +<a name="page_209"><span class="page">Page 209</span></a> +Pronunciation +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>206.</b> The following list is made up of words that are frequently +mispronounced. An effort has been made to arrange them in groups +according to the most frequent source of error in their pronunciation. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +The only marks regularly used are the signs for the long and short +sounds of the vowel. +</p> + +<table style="width: 100%;"> +<tr><td>ā as in <i>hate</i></td> + <td>ī as in <i>high</i></td> + <td>ū as in <i>use</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>ă as in <i>hat</i></td> + <td>ĭ as in <i>hit</i></td> + <td>ŭ as in <i>run</i></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td>ē as in <i>me</i></td> + <td>ō as in <i>old</i></td> + <td>ōō as in <i>boot</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>ĕ as in <i>met</i></td> + <td>ŏ as in <i>hop</i></td> + <td>ŏŏ as in <i>foot</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +When sounds are not otherwise indicated take the sound that comes +most naturally to the tongue. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>207. ā as in <i>hate</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;">Word</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Correct Pronunciation</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>alma mater</td><td><i>alma māter</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>apparatus</td><td><i>apparātus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>apricot</td><td><i>āpricot</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>attaché</td><td><i>ăttashā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>audacious</td><td><i>audāshus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ballet</td><td><i>băl'lā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>blasé</td><td><i>blazā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>blatant</td><td><i>blātant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chasten</td><td><i>chāsen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Cleopatra</td><td><i>Cleopātra</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>compatriot</td><td><i>compātriot</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gratis</td><td><i>grātis</i> or <i>grahtis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>harem</td><td><i>hārem</i> or <i>hahrem</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>heinous</td><td><i>hānous</i> +<a name="page_210"><span class="page">Page 210</span></a> + </td></tr> + <tr><td>hiatus</td><td><i>hīātus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>implacable</td><td><i>implākable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nape</td><td><i>nāp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>née</td><td><i>nā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>négligé</td> + <td><i>nāglēzhā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>patron</td><td><i>pātron</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>protégé</td> + <td><i>prōtāzhā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>résumé</td><td><i>rāzumā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tenacious</td><td><i>tenāshus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tomato</td><td><i>tomāto</i> or <i>tomahto</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>valet</td> + <td><i>vă'lā</i> or <i>văl'et</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vase</td><td><i>vās, vahz</i>, or <i>vāz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>veracious</td><td><i>verāshus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vivacious</td><td><i>vivāshus</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>208. ă as in <i>hat</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">alternative</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>ălternative</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Arab</td><td><i>Ăr'ab</i>, not <i>ārab</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>arid</td><td><i>ăr'id</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>asphalt</td><td><i>asfălt</i>, not <i>fawlt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bade</td><td><i>băd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>catch</td><td>not <i>ketch</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>defalcate</td> + <td><i>defăl'kāte</i>, not <i>fawl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dilletante</td><td><i>dilletăn'te</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>forbade</td><td><i>forbăd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>granary</td><td><i>grănary</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>program</td> + <td><i>pro'grăm</i>, not <i>grum</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>rapine</td><td><i>răp'ĭn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>rational</td><td><i>rătional</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sacrament</td><td><i>săcrament</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>209. ä as in <i>arm</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">aunt</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>änt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>behalf</td><td><i>behäf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>calf</td><td><i>käf</i> + <a name="page_211"><span class="page">Page 211</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>calm</td><td><i>käm</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>half</td><td><i>häf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>laugh</td><td><i>läf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>psalm</td><td><i>säm</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>210. ē as in <i>me</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">amenable</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>amēnable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>clique</td><td><i>klēk</i>, not <i>klick</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>creek</td><td><i>krēk</i>, not <i>krick</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>either</td><td><i>ēēther</i> (preferable)</td></tr> + <tr><td>mediocre</td><td><i>mēdiocre</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>naïve</td> + <td><i>na'ēve</i> (<i>a</i> as in <i>arm</i>)</td></tr> + <tr><td>neither</td><td><i>nēēther</i> (preferable)</td></tr> + <tr><td>precedence</td><td><i>precē'dence</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>precedent</td> + <td><i>prēcē'dent</i> (when an adjective)</td></tr> + <tr><td>predecessor</td><td><i>prēdecessor</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>predilection</td><td><i>prēdilection</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>premature</td><td><i>prēmature</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>quay</td><td><i>kē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>resplendent</td><td><i>rēsplen'dent</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sacrilegious</td> + <td><i>sacrilēgious</i>, not -<i>religious</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>series</td><td><i>sērēz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sleek</td><td><i>slēk</i>, not <i>slick</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>suite</td><td><i>swēt</i>, not like <i>boot</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>211. ĕ as in <i>met</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">again</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>agĕn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>against</td><td><i>agĕnst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>crematory</td> + <td><i>krĕm'atōrў</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>deaf</td><td><i>dĕf</i>, not <i>dēf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>heroine</td> + <td><i>hĕroĭn</i>, not like <i>hero</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>measure</td> + <td><i>mĕzhure</i>, not <i>mā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>metric</td><td><i>mĕtrik</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>precedent</td><td><i>prĕc'edent</i> (noun) + <a name="page_212"><span class="page">Page 212</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>prelate</td><td><i>prĕl'āt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>presentation</td><td><i>prĕzentation</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sesame</td><td><i>sĕs'amē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>steady</td> + <td><i>stĕdy</i>, not <i>stĭddy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tenet</td><td><i>tĕn'ĕt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>weapon</td> + <td><i>wĕpon</i>, not <i>wēpon</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>212. ī as in <i>high</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">appendicitis</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>appendicītis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>biennial</td><td><i>bīennial</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>biography</td><td><i>bīography</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bronchitis</td><td><i>bronkītis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>carbine</td><td><i>carbīne</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>decisive</td><td><i>decīsive</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>demise</td><td><i>demīse</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dynasty</td><td><i>dī'năstў</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>finis</td><td><i>fīnis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>grimy</td><td><i>grīmy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hiatus</td><td><i>hīā'tus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inquiry</td><td><i>inquī'ry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>long-lived</td><td><i>long-līvd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>peritonitis</td><td><i>peritonītis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>privacy</td><td><i>prīvacy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>short-lived</td><td><i>short-līvd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>simultaneous</td><td><i>sīmultaneous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tiny</td><td><i>tīny</i>, not <i>tēny</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>213. ĭ as in <i>hit</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">bicycle</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>bī'sĭcle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>breeches</td><td><i>brĭches</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>breeching</td><td><i>brĭching</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>feminine</td><td><i>femĭnĭn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>genuine</td><td><i>genuĭn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hypocrisy</td><td><i>hĭpŏk'rĭsў</i> + <a name="page_213"><span class="page">Page 213</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>italic</td><td><i>ĭtăl'ĭk</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Italian</td><td><i>ĭtalyan</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>maritime</td><td><i>marĭtĭm</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pretty</td><td><i>prĭtty</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>puerile</td><td><i>pū'erĭl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>respite</td><td><i>rĕs'pĭt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tribune</td><td><i>trĭb'ŭn</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>214. ō as in <i>old</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">Adonis</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>Adōnis</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>apropos</td><td><i>aprōpō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bowsprit</td><td><i>bōwsprit</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>brooch</td> + <td><i>brōch</i> not <i>brōōsh</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>compromise</td><td><i>comprōmize</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>jowl</td><td><i>jōl</i>, not like <i>owl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>molecular</td><td><i>mōlecular</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ogle</td><td><i>ōgle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>trow</td><td><i>trō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vocable</td><td><i>vōcable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>zoology</td> + <td><i>zōology</i>, not <i>zōō</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>215. ŏ as in <i>hop</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">choler</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>kŏler</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dolorous</td><td><i>dŏlorous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>florid</td><td><i>flŏrid</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>molecule</td><td><i>mŏlecule</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>obelisk</td><td><i>ŏbelisk</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>probity</td><td><i>prŏbity</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>solecism</td><td><i>sŏlesism</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>solstice</td><td><i>sŏlstice</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>stolid</td><td><i>stŏlid</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>216. ōō as in <i>boot</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">bouquet</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>bōōkā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>canteloupe</td><td><i>can'talōōp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>coup d'état</td><td><i>kōō data'</i> + <a name="page_214"><span class="page">Page 214</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>coupon</td><td><i>kōō'pŏn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ghoul</td><td><i>gōōl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hoof</td><td><i>hōōf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>roof</td><td><i>rōōf</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>root</td><td><i>rōōt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>route</td><td><i>rōōt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>routine</td><td><i>rōōtine</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>wound</td><td><i>wōōnd</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>217. ū as in <i>use</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">accurate</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>ăk'kūrāt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>culinary</td><td><i>kūlinary</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gubernatorial</td><td><i>gūbernatorial</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>jugular</td><td><i>jūgular</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>218. ŭ as in <i>us</i>:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">constable</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>kŭnstable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>courtesan</td><td><i>kŭr'tezăn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hover</td><td><i>hŭver</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>iron</td><td><i>iŭrn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>monetary</td><td><i>mŭnetary</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nothing</td><td><i>nŭthing</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>wont</td> + <td><i>wŭnt</i> (different from <i>won't</i>)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>219. Miscellaneous words.</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">adobe</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>adō'bā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>algebra</td><td>not <i>brā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>alien</td><td><i>ālyen</i>, not <i>alien</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ameliorate</td><td><i>amēlyorate</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>antarctic</td><td><i>antarktik</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>anti</td><td>not <i>antī</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>archangel</td><td><i>arkangel</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>archbishop</td><td><i>arch</i>, not <i>ark</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>arch fiend</td><td><i>arch</i>, not <i>ark</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>architect</td><td><i>arkitect</i> + <a name="page_215"><span class="page">Page 215</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>awkward</td><td><i>awkward</i>, not <i>ard</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Beethoven</td><td><i>bātōven</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Bingen</td><td><i>Bĭng'en</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>blackguard</td><td><i>blag'gard</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Bowdoin</td><td><i>bōdn</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>brougham</td><td><i>brōōm</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>business</td><td><i>bizness</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>caldron</td><td><i>kawldron</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>calk</td><td><i>kawk</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Cayenne</td><td><i>kīen'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>courtier</td><td><i>kortyer</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>cuckoo</td><td><i>kŏŏkōō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dilemma</td><td><i>dīlĕm'ma</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>directly</td><td>not <i>dīrectly</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dishevelled</td><td><i>dishev'ld</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Don Juan</td> + <td><i>Don Jūan</i> or <i>hōōan</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>drought</td><td><i>drowt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>drouth</td><td><i>drowth</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>extempore</td> + <td><i>extĕmpore</i> (four syllables)</td></tr> + <tr><td>familiarity</td><td><i>familyarity</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gaol</td><td><i>jāl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>genealogy</td> + <td><i>-alogy</i>, not <i>-ology</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gemus</td><td><i>genyus</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Gloucester</td><td><i>gloster</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gooseberry</td> + <td><i>gōōz</i>, not <i>gōōs</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Hawaiian</td> + <td><i>Hawī'yan</i> (<i>a</i> as in <i>arm</i>)</td></tr> + <tr><td>Helena</td> + <td><i>hĕl'ena</i> (except <i>St. + Helē'na</i>)</td></tr> + <tr><td>inconvenience</td><td><i>inconvenyence</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Israel</td> + <td><i>izrael</i>, not <i>issrael</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>jeans</td><td><i>jānes</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>joust</td><td><i>jŭst</i> or + <i>jōōst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>larynx</td> + <td><i>lăr'inx'</i> or <i>lā'rinx</i>, not + <i>larnix</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>literature</td> + <td><i>literatūre</i>, or <i>chōōr</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Messrs.</td> + <td><i>mĕshyerz</i> or <i>mĕsyerz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Mineralogy</td> + <td><i>-alogy</i>, not <i>-ology</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nature</td><td><i>natūre</i>, or <i>chōōr</i> + <a name="page_216"><span class="page">Page 216</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>oleomargarine</td> + <td><i>g</i> is hard, as in <i>get</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>orchid</td><td><i>orkid</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>oust</td><td><i>owst</i>, not + <i>ōōst</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>peculiar</td><td><i>pecūlyar</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pecuniary</td> + <td><i>pēkūn'yārĭ</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>perspiration</td><td>not <i>prespiratian</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>prestige</td> + <td><i>prĕs'tĭj</i> or + <i>prĕstēzh'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pronunciation</td> + <td><i>pronunzēāshun</i> or + <i>pronunshēāshun</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>saucy</td><td>not <i>săssy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>schedule</td><td><i>skedyŭl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>semi</td><td>not <i>semī</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>theater</td> + <td><i>thē'āter</i> not + <i>thēā'ter</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>turgid</td><td><i>turjid</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>usage</td><td><i>uzage</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>usurp</td><td><i>uzurp</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vermilion</td><td><i>vermilyun</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>wife's</td><td>not <i>wives</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Xerxes</td><td><i>zerxes</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>220. Words with a silent letter:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">almond</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>ahmŭnd</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chasten</td><td><i>chāsen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chestnut</td><td><i>chesnut</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>glisten</td><td><i>glissen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>kiln</td><td><i>kill</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>often</td><td><i>ofen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ostler</td><td><i>ŏsler</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>poignant</td><td><i>poin'ant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>psalter</td><td><i>sawlter</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>salmon</td><td><i>samun</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>schism</td><td><i>sism</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>soften</td><td><i>sofen</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>subtle</td><td><i>sutle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>sword</td><td><i>sord</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>thyme</td><td><i>time</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>toward</td><td><i>tord</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_217"><span class="page">Page 217</span></a> +<b>221. Works chiefly of foreign pronunciation:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;">Word</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Correct Pronunciation</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>bivouac</td><td><i>biv'wak</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chargé d'affaires</td> + <td><i>shar zhā'daffār'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>connoisseur</td><td><i>connissur</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dishabille</td><td><i>dis'abil</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ennui</td> + <td><i>onwē</i>, not <i>ongwē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>finale</td><td><i>finah'le</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>foyer</td><td><i>fwayā'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>massage</td><td><i>masahzh</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>naïve</td><td><i>nah'ēv</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>papier maché</td> + <td><i>papyā mahshā</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>piquant</td><td><i>pē'kant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>prima facie</td> + <td><i>prīma fā'shiē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pro tempore</td> + <td><i>prō tĕm'porē</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>régime</td><td><i>rāzhēm'</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>222. Words often pronounced with a wrong number of syllables:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">aerial</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>āēreal</i>, not + <i>ārēal</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>athlete</td> + <td>two sylables, not <i>ath e lete</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>attacked</td><td><i>attakt</i>, two syllables</td></tr> + <tr><td>casualty</td> + <td><i>kazh'ualte</i>, not <i>ality</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>conduit</td><td><i>cŏndit</i> or <i>kŏndit</i>, + not <i>dōōit</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>different</td> + <td>three syllables, not <i>diffrunt</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>elm</td><td>not <i>ellum</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>helm</td><td>not <i>hel um</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>history</td> + <td>three syllables, not <i>histry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>honorable</td><td>not <i>honrable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hygienic</td> + <td><i>hy gi en' ic</i>, four syllables</td></tr> + <tr><td>interest</td><td>not <i>intrust</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>interesting</td><td>not <i>intrusting</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ivory</td><td>not <i>ivry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>omelet</td><td>not <i>omlet</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>realm</td><td>not <i>rellum</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>separable</td><td>not <i>seprable</i> + <a name="page_218"><span class="page">Page 218</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>ticklish</td> + <td>two syllables, not <i>tickelish</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>valuable</td> + <td><i>valuable</i>, not <i>valuble</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vaudeville</td> + <td><i>vŏdvĭl</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Zeus</td> + <td><i>zūs</i>, not <i>zēus</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>223. Words accented on the first syllable:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">admirable</td> + <td style="width: 50%;">ad'mirable</td></tr> + <tr><td>alias</td><td><i>ā'lias</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>applicable</td><td><i>ap'plicable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bicycle</td><td><i>bī'sĭkle</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chastisement</td><td><i>chas'tisement</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>construe</td><td><i>con'strue</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>despicable</td><td><i>des'picable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>desultory</td><td><i>des'ultory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>disputant</td><td><i>dis'putant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>exigency</td><td><i>ex'ijency</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>explicable</td><td><i>ex'plicable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>exquisite</td><td><i>ex'quisite</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>extant</td><td><i>ex'tant</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>formidable</td><td><i>for'midable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Genoa</td><td><i>jen'ōa</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>gondola</td><td><i>gon'dōla</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>harass</td><td><i>har'ass</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>hospitable</td><td><i>hos'pitable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>impious</td><td><i>im'pious</i>, not <i>impīous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>industry</td><td><i>in'dustry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inventory</td><td><i>in'ventory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>lamentable</td><td><i>lam'entable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>mischievous</td><td><i>mis'chievous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>obligatory</td><td><i>ob'ligatory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pariah</td><td><i>pa'riah</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>peremptory</td><td><i>per'emptory</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>preferable</td><td><i>pref'erable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Romola</td><td><i>Rōm'ola</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vehemence</td><td><i>vē'hemence</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_219"><span class="page">Page 219</span></a> <b>224. +Words accented on the second syllable:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;">Word</td> + <td class="smallcaps" style="width: 50%;"> + Correct Pronunciation</td></tr> + <tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + <tr><td>abdomen</td><td><i>abdō'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>acclimate</td><td><i>acclī'mate</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>acumen</td><td><i>acū'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>albumen</td><td><i>albū'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>artificer</td><td><i>artif'iser</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>bitumen</td><td><i>bitū'men</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>chicanery</td><td><i>shikā'nery</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>illustrate</td><td><i>illus'trate</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>incognito</td> + <td><i>ĭnkŏg'nĭtō</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>incomparable</td><td><i>incom'parable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>indisputable</td><td><i>indis'putable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inexorable</td><td><i>inex'orable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inexplicable</td><td><i>inex'plicable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inhospitable</td><td><i>inhos'pitable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>inquiry</td><td><i>inquī'ry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>irrevocable</td><td><i>irrev'ocable</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>misconstrue</td><td><i>miscon'strue</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>nitrogenous</td><td><i>nītroj'enous</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>opponent</td><td><i>oppo'nent</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pianist</td><td><i>pian'ist</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>refutable</td><td><i>refut'able</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>syllabic</td><td><i>syllab'ic</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>telegraphy</td><td><i>teleg'raphy</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>vagary</td><td><i>vagā'ry</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>Yosemite</td> + <td><i>yō sĕm' ĭ te</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>225. Words accented on the last syllable:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 50%;">address</td> + <td style="width: 50%;"><i>address'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>adept</td><td><i>adept'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>adult</td><td><i>adult'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>ally</td><td><i>ally'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>commandant</td> + <td><i>commandänt' (ä as in arm)</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>contour</td><td><i>contour'</i> + <a name="page_220"><span class="page">Page 220</span></a></td></tr> + <tr><td>dessert</td><td><i>dessert'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>dilate</td><td><i>dilate'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>excise</td><td><i>ĕksīz'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>finance</td><td><i>finance'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>grimace</td><td><i>grimāce'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>importune</td><td><i>importūne'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>occult</td><td><i>occult'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>pretence</td><td><i>prētence'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>research</td><td><i>rēsearch'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>robust</td><td><i>rōbust'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>romance</td><td><i>rōmance'</i></td></tr> + <tr><td>tirade</td><td><i>tīrade'</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>226. Words whose pronunciation depends on meaning:</b> +</p> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">accent</td> + <td><i>Accent'</i> the first syllable.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Place the <i>ac'cent</i> upon the first + syllable.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">aged</td> + <td>An <i>a'ged</i> man.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Properly <i>aged</i> wine (one + syllable).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">blessed</td> + <td>The <i>bless'ed</i> saints.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Let them be <i>blessed</i> (one + syllable).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">contrast</td> + <td>The strange <i>con'trast</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td><i>Contrast'</i> the two.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">converse</td> + <td>Did you <i>converse'</i> with him?</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>Is the <i>con'verse</i> true?</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">desert</td> + <td>The sandy <i>des'ert</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>They <i>desert'</i> their friends.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">learned</td> + <td>He <i>learned</i> (one syllable) to sing.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>A <i>learn ed</i> man.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">precedent</td> + <td>A <i>prēcē'dent</i> place.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>It establishes a + <i>prĕc'edent</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table style="width: 80%; margin-left: 10%;"> + <tr><td style="width: 15%;">project</td> + <td>A new <i>proj'ect</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td> </td><td>To <i>project'</i> from.</td></tr> +</table> + +<h2> +<a name="page_221"><span class="page">Page 221</span></a> +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS +</h2> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Admire.</b> Do not use <i>admire</i> in the sense of <i>like</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I should <i>admire</i> to be able + to do that.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I should <i>like</i> to be able to + do that.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Aggravate.</b> Do not use <i>aggravate</i> in the sense of +<i>irritate</i> or <i>disturb</i>. <i>Aggravate</i> means <i>to +make worse</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: His impudence <i>aggravates</i> + me.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: His impudence <i>irritates</i> + me.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Ain't.</b> <i>Ain't</i> and <i>hain't</i> are never proper as +contractions of <i>am not, is not</i>, or <i>are not</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Allow.</b> Do not use <i>allow</i> in the sense of <i>assert, +say</i>, or <i>intend</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>allowed</i> that he had + better start. I <i>allow</i> to be back before noon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>said</i> that he had better + start. I <i>intend</i> to be back before noon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Allude.</b> Do not use <i>allude</i> in the sense of <i>refer</i>. +To <i>allude</i> to a thing means to refer to it in an indirect +way. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>alluded</i> by name to John + Milton.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>alluded</i> to Milton by the + term "Blind Poet."</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Any.</b> Do not use <i>any</i> in the sense of <i>at all</i> +or <i>to any degree</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: Because of the injury he can not see <i>any</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>As.</b> Do not use <i>as</i> for the relative pronouns <i>who</i> +and <i>that</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I am the man <i>as</i> digs your + garden. Not <i>as</i> I remember.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I am the man <i>who</i> digs your + garden. Not <i>that</i> I remember.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_222"><span class="page">Page 222</span></a> <b>As.</b> +Do not use <i>as</i> in the sense of <i>since</i> or <i>because</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I cannot come <i>as</i> I am + sick now.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I cannot come; I am sick + now.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I cannot come <i>because</i> + I am sick now.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>At.</b> Do not use <i>at</i> for <i>in</i> with the names of +large cities +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He lives <i>at</i> + Philadelphia.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He lives <i>in</i> + Philadelphia.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Attackted.</b> Do not use this form for <i>attacked</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Awful, awfully.</b> These are two very much overworked words. +Substitute other and more accurate expressions. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We have had an <i>awfully</i> + good time. That is an <i>awfully</i> pretty dress.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: We have had an <i>exceedingly</i> + nice time. That is a <i>very</i> pretty dress.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Badly.</b> Do not use <i>badly</i> in the sense of <i>very much</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: She wanted <i>badly</i> to + come.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: She wanted <i>very much</i> to + come.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Beside, besides.</b> <i>Beside</i> means <i>next to. Besides</i> +means <i>in addition to</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: John lives <i>beside</i> his + mother.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Besides</i> the daughters, there + are three sons.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Between.</b> Do not use <i>between</i> when referring to more +than two objects. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There is bad feeling <i>between</i> + the members of the class.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There is bad feeling <i>among</i> + the members of the class.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Blowed.</b> Do not use <i>blowed</i> for <i>blew</i> or <i>blown</i>. +There is no such word. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_223"><span class="page">Page 223</span></a> <b>Best.</b> +Do not use <i>best</i> when only two objects are referred to. Use +<i>better</i>. <i>Best</i> should be used only when more than two +are referred to. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He is the <i>best</i> of the two + brothers.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is the <i>better</i> of the two + brothers.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is the <i>best</i> of the three + brothers.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Bound.</b> Do not use <i>bound</i> for <i>determined</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He was <i>bound</i> to go + skating.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was <i>determined</i> to go + skating.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>bound</i> himself to pay + three hundred dollars.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>But.</b> Do not use <i>but</i> after a negative in the sense +of <i>only</i>. See <b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>isn't but</i> one + apple left.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>is but</i> one apple + left.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Calculate.</b> Do not use <i>calculate</i> in the sense of <i>think, +expect</i>, or <i>intend</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Can.</b> Do not use <i>can</i> to denote permission. It denotes +ability or possibility. <i>May</i> denotes permission. See +<b>§69</b> +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Can</i> I speak to you for a + minute?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>May</i> I speak to you for a + moment?</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Character, reputation.</b> Do not confuse these two words. +<i>Character</i> means one's moral condition. <i>Reputation</i> +means the morality that others believe one to possess. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Clum.</b> There is no such form of the verb <i>climb</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Complected.</b> Do not use <i>complected</i> for <i>complexioned</i>. +See <b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Conclude.</b> Do not use conclude in the sense of <i>forming +an intention.</i> +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Finally, I <i>decided</i> to go + home.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I was forced to <i>conclude</i> that + I had made an error.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_224"><span class="page">Page 224</span></a> +<b>Considerable.</b> Do not use <i>considerable</i> in the sense +of <i>very much</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: This lesson is <i>considerable</i> better than yesterday's. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Cute.</b> A much overworked word. Use some expression that is +more accurate; as, <i>pretty, amusing</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Decease, disease.</b> Do not confuse <i>decease</i> and +<i>disease</i>. The first means <i>death</i>, the second +<i>sickness</i>. <i>The deceased</i> means a person who is dead. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The <i>diseased</i> will be buried + at four o'clock.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The property of the <i>diseased</i> + will be sold at auction.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Decease.</b> Do not use <i>decease</i> as a verb in the sense +of <i>die</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: His father <i>deceased</i> last year. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Demand.</b> <i>Demand</i> should not have a person as its object. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He <i>demanded</i> John to + pay.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He <i>demanded</i> payment from John. + He <i>demanded</i> that John pay.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Different.</b> Use the preposition <i>from</i> after +<i>different</i>, not <i>than</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Don't.</b> Do not use <i>don't</i> with a subject in the third +person singular. See <b>§64</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Down.</b> Do not use <i>down</i> as a verb in the sense of +<i>defeat</i> or <i>overthrow</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Our football team <i>has downed</i> + every other team in the state.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Our football team <i>has defeated</i> + every other team in the state.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Drownded.</b> <i>Drownded</i> is not a proper form of the verb +<i>drown</i>. Say <i>drowned</i>. (Pronounced <i>drownd.</i>) +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Each other.</b> Do not use <i>each other</i> to refer to more +than two objects. See <b>§44</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The members of the regiment helped + <i>each other</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The members of the regiment helped + <i>one another</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_225"><span class="page">Page 225</span></a> <b>Effect, +affect.</b> Do not confuse <i>effect</i> and <i>affect. Effect</i> +means <i>a result</i>, or <i>to cause a thing to be done. Affect</i> +means <i>to disturb</i> or <i>have an influence on</i>. +</p> + +<table style="margin-bottom: 1em;"> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The news <i>effected</i> him + seriously.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The news <i>affected</i> him + seriously.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The <i>affect</i> of this news + was to cause war.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The <i>effect</i> of this news + was to cause war.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Either.</b> Do not use <i>either</i> with reference to more than +two objects, nor follow it by a plural verb. See <b>§43</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Either</i> of the three will + do. <i>Either</i> you or John <i>have</i> done it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Any one</i> of the three will + do. <i>Either</i> you or John <i>has</i> done it.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Emigrate, immigrate.</b> Do not confuse <i>emigrate</i> and +<i>immigrate</i>. <i>To emigrate</i> means <i>to go out of a place</i>, +to <i>immigrate</i> means <i>to come into a place</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The Italians <i>emigrate</i> from + their country.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Of those who <i>immigrate</i> to + America, a large number are Italians.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Enough.</b> Do not follow <i>enough</i> by a clause beginning +with <i>that</i> or <i>so that</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I studied <i>enough</i> that I could + recite the lesson.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I studied <i>enough to</i> recite + the lesson.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Enthuse.</b> Do not use <i>enthuse</i> in the sense of to create +enthusiasm. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He tried to <i>enthuse</i> his + audience.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He tried to <i>arouse</i> enthusiasm + in his audience.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Etc.</b> <i>Etc.</i> stands for <i>et cetera</i>, and means +<i>and so forth</i>. Do not spell it <i>ect</i>. Do not use it in +composition that is intended to be elegant. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Everybody.</b> <i>Everybody</i> should not be followed by a plural +verb or a plural pronoun. See <b>§21</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_226"><span class="page">Page 226</span></a> <b>Except, +accept.</b> Do not confuse these two words. <i>Accept</i> means +<i>to acknowledge</i>. <i>Except</i> means <i>to exclude</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I cannot <i>accept</i> such slovenly + work.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>except</i> your apology.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Except.</b> Do not use <i>except</i> for <i>unless</i>. See +<b>§85</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I can not sleep <i>except</i> it is quiet. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Expect.</b> Do not use <i>expect</i> in the sense of <i>suppose</i> +or <i>think</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>expect</i> you have read + that book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>suppose</i> you have read + that book.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Fine.</b> Do not use <i>fine</i> in place of some more definite +word. <i>Fine</i> is a much over-worked word. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: The book is <i>fine</i> for + class-room work.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The book is <i>well adapted</i> + for class-room work.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Firstly.</b> <i>Firstly</i> should never be used. Say <i>first</i>. +See <b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>First-rate.</b> Do not use <i>first-rate</i> as an adverb in +the sense of <i>very well</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: That does + <i>first-rate</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: That does <i>very + well</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is a <i>first-rate + fellow</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Former.</b> Do not use <i>former</i> when more than two are referred +to. Say <i>first</i>. See <b>§41</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>From.</b> Do not use <i>from</i> with <i>whence, hence</i> and +<i>thence</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>From whence</i> have you + come?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Whence</i> have you come? + <i>From where</i> have you come?</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Funny.</b> Do not use <i>funny</i> for <i>singular</i> or +<i>strange</i>. <i>Funny</i> is an overworked word. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It is <i>funny</i> that he + died.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It is <i>singular</i> that he + died.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Gent.</b> Do not use the word at all. Say <i>gentleman</i> or +<i>man</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_227"><span class="page">Page 227</span></a> +<b>Gentleman.</b> Do not use <i>gentleman</i> to denote sex only. +Say <i>man</i>. <i>Gentleman</i> is properly used, however, to +denote a person of refinement. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Only <i>gentlemen</i> are allowed + to vote in Pennsylvania.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Mr. Lincoln was a <i>gentleman</i> + in the true sense of the word.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Got.</b> Do not use got with <i>have</i> or <i>had</i> to indicate +merely <i>possession</i> or <i>obligation. Got</i> means acquired +through effort. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>have got</i> the measles. You + <i>have got</i> to do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>have</i> the measles. You + <i>must</i> do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: After much study I <i>have got</i> + my lesson.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Grand.</b> Do not use <i>grand</i> in place of some more definite +and accurate expression. It is another over-worked word. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: We have had a <i>grand time</i> this + afternoon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: We have had a <i>very pleasant</i> + time this afternoon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Guess.</b> Do not use <i>guess</i> in the sense of <i>think</i> +or <i>suppose</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>guess</i> the trains are late + to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>suppose</i> the trains are + late to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Can you <i>guess</i> the + riddle?</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Had ought.</b> Do not use <i>had</i> with <i>ought</i>. See +<b>§54</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Hardly.</b> Do not use <i>hardly</i> after a negative. See +<b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>can not hardly</i> believe + that.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>can hardly</i> believe + that.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Have.</b> Do not use <i>have</i> after <i>had</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: If I <i>had have been</i> able + to go.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: If I <i>had been</i> able to + go.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Heighth.</b> Do not use <i>heighth</i> for <i>height</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_228"><span class="page">Page 228</span></a> +<b>Hung.</b> Do not confuse <i>hung</i> and <i>hanged</i>. +<i>Hanged</i> is the proper word to use in reference to executions. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He was condemned <i>to be + hung</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He was condemned <i>to be + hanged</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: The picture was <i>hung</i> + in the parlor.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Humbug.</b> Do not use <i>humbug</i> as a verb. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He has <i>humbugged</i> the people for years. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Illy.</b> Do not use <i>illy</i> for the adverb <i>ill</i>. See +<b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>In, into.</b> Do not confuse <i>in</i> and <i>into</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He went <i>in</i> the + house.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He went <i>into</i> the + house.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He exercised <i>in</i> a + gymnasium.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Kind.</b> Do not precede kind by <i>those</i> or <i>these</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I do not like <i>those kind</i> + of plays.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I do not like <i>that kind</i> + of play.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Kind of a.</b> Do not use <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> after <i>kind +of</i>. See <b>§47</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It is <i>one kind of</i> a + mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It is <i>one kind of</i> + mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lady.</b> Do not use <i>lady</i> to designate sex only. It is +properly used to indicate persons of refinement. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored + <i>lady</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored + <i>woman</i>?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Mrs. Johnson is a colored + <i>woman</i>, and <i>a lady</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Latter.</b> Do not use <i>latter</i> to refer to more than two +objects. Use <i>last</i>. See <b>§41</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lay.</b> Do not confuse <i>lay</i> and <i>lie</i>. See +<b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Learn.</b> Do not confuse <i>learn</i> and <i>teach</i>. <i>Learn</i> +means <i>to acquire knowledge. Teach</i> means <i>to impart +knowledge</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He can <i>learn</i> you as much as + any one can.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He can <i>teach</i> you as much as + any one can.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_229"><span class="page">Page 229</span></a> <b>Leave.</b> +Do not confuse <i>leave</i> and <i>let</i>. Leave means <i>to let +remain</i>. Let means <i>to give permission</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Will your mother <i>leave</i> + you go?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Will your mother <i>let</i> you + go?</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I shall <i>leave</i> my trunk in + my room.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Liable.</b> Do not use <i>liable</i> for <i>likely</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: It is <i>liable</i> to rain + to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It is <i>likely</i> to rain + to-day.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is <i>liable</i> for all + that he has agreed to pay.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lightning.</b> Do not use <i>lightning</i> as a verb in place +of <i>lightens</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: During the storm, it + <i>lightnings</i> frequently.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: During the storm, it + <i>lightens</i> frequently.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Like.</b> Do not use <i>like</i> for <i>as</i>. <i>Like</i> is +a preposition. <i>As</i> is a conjunction. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He doesn't talk <i>like</i> he did + yesterday.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He doesn't talk <i>as</i> he did + yesterday.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: It looks <i>like</i> a mahogany + chair.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lit on.</b> Do not use <i>lit on</i> in the sense of <i>met with</i> +or <i>discovered</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I at last <i>lit on</i> this plan. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Lot.</b> Do not use <i>lot</i> in the sense of <i>a great number</i> +or <i>a great deal</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: A <i>lot</i> of people were there, She talks <i>a lot</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Most.</b> Do not use <i>most</i> for <i>almost</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I have <i>most</i> completed + the book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I have <i>almost</i> completed + the book.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He has done <i>the most</i> of + the work.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Mrs.</b> Do not use <i>Mrs.</i> before titles; as, <i>Mrs. President, +Mrs. Professor, Mrs. Doctor</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_230"><span class="page">Page 230</span></a> <b>Much.</b> +Do not use <i>much</i> for <i>many</i>. <i>Much</i> refers to quantity. +<i>Many</i> refers to number. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: As <i>much as</i> five hundred + people were present.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: As <i>many as</i> five hundred + people were present.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Mutual.</b> Do not confuse <i>mutual</i> and <i>common</i>. +<i>Mutual</i> means <i>interchanged</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: John and William had a + <i>mutual</i> liking for Mary.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: John and William had a + <i>common</i> liking for Mary.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: John and William had a + <i>mutual</i> liking for each other. +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Near.</b> Do not use <i>near</i> for <i>nearly</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He ran <i>near</i> all the way + to the station. I came <i>nearly</i> making the same + mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He ran <i>nearly</i> all the way + to the station. I came <i>near</i> making the same + mistake.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Nerve.</b> Do not use <i>nerve</i> in the sense of <i>impudence</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Newsy.</b> Do not use <i>newsy</i> in the sense of <i>full of +news</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Neither.</b> Do not use <i>neither</i> with reference to more +than two objects, nor follow it by a plural verb. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Neither</i> of the three could + come. <i>Neither</i> of the two <i>are</i> here.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>No one</i> of the three could + come. <i>Neither</i> of the two <i>is</i> here.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>No good.</b> Do not use <i>no good</i> in the sense of +<i>worthless</i> or <i>not good</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: The book is <i>no good</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>No place.</b> Do not use <i>no place</i> after a negative. See +<b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I am not going <i>no + place</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I am not going <i>anywhere</i>. + I <i>am going nowhere</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Notorious.</b> Do not use <i>notorious</i> in the sense of +<i>famous</i> or <i>noted. Notorious</i> means of <i>evil +reputation</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Gladstone was a <i>notorious</i> + statesman of England.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Several <i>notorious thieves</i> + were arrested.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_231"><span class="page">Page 231</span></a> <b>Nowhere +near.</b> Do not use <i>nowhere near</i> for <i>not nearly</i>. +See <b>§40</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Nowhere near</i> so many people + came as were expected.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Not nearly</i> so many people + came as were expected.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: James was <i>nowhere near</i> the + scene of the fire.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Of.</b> Do not use <i>of</i> for <i>have</i> in such expressions +as <i>could, have, might have, should have</i>, etc. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: If I <i>could of</i> been + there.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: If I <i>could have</i> been + there.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Only.</b> Guard against the improper use of <i>only</i> after +a negative. See <b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>are not only</i> four + books on that subject.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>are only</i> four books + on that subject.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Outside of.</b> Do not use <i>outside of</i> for <i>aside from</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: <i>Outside of</i> James, all had + a good time.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: <i>Aside from</i> James, all had + a good time.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Over with.</b> Do not use <i>over with</i> for <i>over</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I must write the letter and have it <i>over with</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Pants.</b> Do not use the word <i>pants</i> for <i>trousers</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Photo.</b> Do not use <i>photo</i> for <i>photograph</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Piece.</b> Do not use <i>piece</i> in the sense of <i>way</i> +or <i>distance</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I shall walk a <i>little piece</i> + with you.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I shall walk a <i>little way</i> + with you.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Place.</b> Do not use <i>place</i> after <i>any, every, no</i>, +etc., in the sense of <i>anywhere, everywhere, nowhere</i>, etc. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I can not find it <i>any + place</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I can not find it + <i>anywhere</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Plenty.</b> Do not use <i>plenty</i> as an adjective or an adverb. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Money is <i>plenty</i>. He is + <i>plenty able</i> to do it.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Money is <i>plentiful</i>. He is + <i>quite able</i> to do it.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_232"><span class="page">Page 232</span></a> +<b>Poorly.</b> Do not use <i>poorly</i> for <i>ill</i> or <i>bad</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: He feels very <i>poorly</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Principle, principal.</b> Do not confuse <i>principle</i> and +<i>principal</i>. <i>Principle</i> means a <i>rule</i> or <i>truth</i>. +<i>Principal</i> means <i>leader, chief, the most important</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Propose.</b> Do not use <i>propose</i> in the sense of <i>intend</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I <i>propose</i> to tell all I + know.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I <i>intend</i> to tell all I + know.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Providing.</b> Do not use <i>providing</i> for <i>if</i> or <i>on +the condition</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: I will go <i>providing</i> you can get tickets for three. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Right: I will go <i>on the condition that</i> you get the tickets. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Raise, rise.</b> Do not confuse <i>raise</i> with <i>rise</i>. +See <b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Recommend, recommendation.</b> Do not use <i>recommend</i> as +a noun. <i>Recommendation</i> is the noun. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Her employer gave her a good + <i>recommend</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Her employer gave her a good + <i>recommendation</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Right away, right off.</b> Do not use <i>right away</i> or <i>right +off</i> in the sense of <i>immediately</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: After the play we will come + <i>right off</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: After the play we will come + <i>at once</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Same.</b> Do not use <i>same</i> as a pronoun. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I will write the letter and mail + <i>same</i> at once.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I will write the letter and mail + <i>it</i> at once.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Say.</b> Do not use <i>say</i> in the sense of <i>order</i> or +<i>command</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Your mother <i>said for</i> you to + come home at once.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Your mother <i>said that</i> you + should come home at once.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Scarcely.</b> Do not use <i>scarcely</i> after a negative. See +<b>§46</b>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: There <i>was not scarcely</i> a + pound of meat for us all.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: There <i>was scarcely</i> a pound + of meat for us all.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_233"><span class="page">Page 233</span></a> <b>Seldom +ever.</b> Do not use <i>seldom</i> with <i>ever</i>. Say instead +<i>seldom</i> or <i>seldom, if ever</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Fires <i>seldom ever</i> + occur.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Fires <i>seldom</i> occur. Fires + <i>seldom, if ever</i> occur.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Shut of.</b> Do not use <i>shut of</i> in the sense of <i>rid +of</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +Wrong: We are <i>shut of</i> him at last. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sight.</b> Do not use <i>sight</i> in the sense of <i>many</i> +or <i>much</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: A great <i>sight of people</i> + flocked to hear him.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: A great <i>many people</i> + flocked to hear him.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sit, set.</b> Do not confuse these two words. See <b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>So.</b> Do not use <i>so</i> alone as a conjunction. Say <i>so +that</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He spoke in the open air, <i>so</i> + more could see and hear him.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He spoke in the open air, <i>so + that</i> more could see and hear him.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Some.</b> Do not use <i>some</i> as an adverb in the sense of +<i>somewhat</i> or a <i>little</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He plays the violin + <i>some</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He plays the violin <i>a + little</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sort of a.</b> Do not use <i>a</i> after <i>sort of</i>. See +<i>Kind of a</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Sort.</b> Do not precede <i>sort</i> by <i>these</i> or <i>those</i>. +See <i>Kind</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Such.</b> Do not follow <i>such</i> by <i>who, which</i>, or +<i>that</i> as relatives. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: All <i>such persons who</i> think + so will soon see their mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: All <i>such persons as</i> think + so will soon see their mistake.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He spoke with <i>such</i> force + <i>that</i> we were compelled to listen. (<i>That</i> is + not a relative here.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Tasty.</b> Do not use <i>tasty</i> in the sense of <i>tasteful</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>That.</b> Do not use <i>that</i> as an adverb. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: I did not think the book was + <i>that</i> small.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: I did not think that the book + was <i>so</i> small.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<a name="page_234"><span class="page">Page 234</span></a> <b>That +there, this here, these here, those there.</b> <i>There</i> and +<i>here</i>, in all these expressions are worse than unnecessary. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Them there.</b> Do not use <i>them there</i> for <i>those</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Bring me <i>them there</i> + books.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Bring me <i>those</i> + books.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Three first, two first, etc.</b> Do not say <i>three first</i>, +but <i>first three</i>. There can be only one <i>first</i>. +</p> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Too.</b> Do not use <i>too</i> alone before a verb or a participle. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: He is <i>too excited</i> to listen + to you.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: He is <i>too much excited</i> to + listen to you.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Very.</b> Do not use <i>very</i> alone before a verb or a participle. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: You are <i>very</i> + mistaken.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: You are <i>very much</i> + mistaken.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Wait on, wait for.</b> Do not confuse these two expressions. +<i>Wait on</i> means <i>to serve</i>. <i>Wait for</i> means <i>to +await</i>. +</p> + +<table> + <tr><td class="indent">Wrong: Do not <i>wait on</i> me if I do + not come at noon.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="indent">Right: Do not <i>wait for</i> me if I do + not come at noon.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="indent"> +<b>Wake, awake.</b> Do not confuse <i>wake</i> and <i>awake</i>. +See <b>§57</b>. +</p> + +<h2> +<a name="page_235"><span class="page">Page 235</span></a> +INDEX</h2> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +References are to pages. Sections or subdivisions on the pages are +sometimes indicated in parenthesis after the page numbers. +</p> + +<p class="indent" style="font-size: smaller;"> +Since the <i>EXERCISES</i> follow throughout the subjects treated, +exercises on any subject may be found by looking up that subject in +this text index. +</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>A</i>, use of article, +<a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Abbreviated words, rule against, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Abbreviations, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§102); use of, in letters, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, +<a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Accept</i>, for <i>except</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Active voice and passive voice, explained, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; forms of, <a href="#page_92">92-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Adjectives, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>; capitalization of proper, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (95); confused with adverbs, +<a href="#page_32">32-33</a>; distinguished from adverbs, +<a href="#page_32">32-33</a>; errors in comparison of, +<a href="#page_36">36-37</a>; improper forms of, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>; list of irregular, <a href="#page_33">33</a>; +placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; adjective pronouns, +<a href="#page_28">28</a>; punctuation of two or more adjectives +modifying same noun, <a href="#page_138">138</a> (§106); singular +and plural, <a href="#page_39">39-40</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Admire</i>, for <i>like</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Adverbs, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>; comparison of, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; +conjunctive, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>; confusion with adjectives, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>; distinguished from adjectives, +<a href="#page_32">32-33</a>; double negative, +<a href="#page_42">42</a>; errors in comparison, +<a href="#page_36">36-37</a>; list of irregularly compared, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>; omission of, <a href="#page_45">45</a>; +punctuation of, <a href="#page_140">140</a> (§116), +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§121).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Æsop's Fables</i>, quotation from, +<a href="#page_152">152-153</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Affect</i>, for <i>effect</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Aggravate</i>, for <i>irritate</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Agreement, of adjective and noun, +<a href="#page_39">39-40</a>; of pronoun and antecedent, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>, <a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; of +verb and subject, <a href="#page_64">64-65</a>, +<a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; of verb in +clauses, <a href="#page_86">86</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Ain't, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5), Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Allow</i>, for <i>assert</i> or <i>intend</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Allude</i>, for <i>refer</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Also</i>, without <i>and</i>, +<a href="#page_104">104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Among</i>, for <i>between</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>An</i>, use of article, +<a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>And</i>, use of, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Antecedents, of pronouns, defined, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>; agreement of pronouns and, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>; clearness of, <a href="#page_126">126</a> +(2); compound, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; indefinite, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (4); of relative pronouns, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (4).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Any</i>, for <i>at all</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Apostrophe, general use of, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>; with plural nouns, <a href="#page_8">8</a> +(6); with <a name="page_236"><span class="page">Page 236</span></a> +possessive nouns, <a href="#page_10">10</a>; with possessive pronouns, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (10).</p> + +<p class="index">Apposition, explained, <a href="#page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Appositives, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§108).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Argue</i>, for <i>augur</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Arise</i>, <a href="#page_56">56</a></p> + +<p class="index">Articles, explained, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_43">43</a>; use of, <a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>As</i>, as conjunction or adverb, +<a href="#page_105">105</a>; as a relative pronoun, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>, Glossary; for <i>like</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>; for <i>since</i>, Glossary; punctuation +of, <a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>At</i>, for <i>in</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Attackted</i>, mispronunciation of <i>attacked</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Attribute complement, explained, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>; case of, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, +<a href="#page_22">22</a> (4) (note <a href="#page_2">2</a>).</p> + +<p class="index">Auxiliary verbs, explained, <a href="#page_46">46</a>; +<i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#page_71">71-73</a>; +<i>should</i> and <i>would</i>, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>; <i>may, +can, might</i>, and <i>could</i>, <a href="#page_79">79</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Avocation</i>, for <i>vocation</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Awake</i>, for <i>wake</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Awful</i>, for <i>awfully</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Bad</i>, for <i>badly</i>, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Balanced sentence, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Barbarisms, defined, <a href="#page_185">185</a>; +rules for avoidance of, <a href="#page_185">185-188</a>; when proper, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>. Beginning of the composition, +<a href="#page_177">177</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Beside</i>, for <i>besides</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Best</i>, for <i>better</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Between</i>, for <i>among</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Bible</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Blowed</i>, for <i>blew</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Body, of the letter, +<a href="#page_161">161-162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Books for reading, list of, +<a href="#page_183">183-184</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Bound</i>, for <i>determined</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Brackets, use of, <a href="#page_142">142</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>But</i>, as a relative pronoun, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>; +with a dependent clause, <a href="#page_105">105</a>; to introduce +two succeeding statements, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>But that</i>, for <i>but what</i>, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (6).</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Calculate</i>, for <i>intend</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Can</i>, use of, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; +model conjugation of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Cant expressions," in letters, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Capitalization, rules for, +<a href="#page_136">136-137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Cases, classified and defined, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; +case forms of pronouns, <a href="#page_20">20</a>; case of word +in apposition, <a href="#page_22">22</a>; case forms of relative +pronouns, <a href="#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; +outline for use of case forms, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>; rules +for forming possessive, <a href="#page_10">10</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Character</i>, for <i>reputation</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Character of Napoleon Bonaparte</i>, by Channing, +quotation from, <a href="#page_150">150-151</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Choice of words, rules to aid in, +<a href="#page_200">200-201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Christmas</i>, by Washington Irving, quotation +from, <a href="#page_151">151</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Claim</i>, for <i>assert</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Clauses, defined, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; adjective, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>; adverbial, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; agreement, +of verb in, <a href="#page_87">87</a>; principal or independent, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>; subordinate +or dependent, <a href="#page_4">4</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>; +substantive, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; <i>when</i> and <i>where</i> +clauses, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Climax in sentences, <a href="#page_131">131</a> +(3).</p> + +<p class="index">Clipped words, rule against, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Close of letter, <a href="#page_163">163-164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Clum</i>, for <i>climbed</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">"<i>In care of</i>," misuse of <i>c|o</i> for, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Coherence, of paragraph, +<a href="#page_151">151-153</a>; how to gain in paragraph, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>; illustrations of in paragraph, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>; of sentence, +<a href="#page_126">126-128</a>; of <a name="page_237"><span +class="page">Page 237</span></a> whole composition, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>; words of <a href="#page_152">152</a>, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Colon, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Comma blunder," <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Comma, <a href="#page_137">137-140</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Common gender, defined, <a href="#page_14">14</a>, +of nouns and pronouns, <a href="#page_13">13-14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Comparative degree, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; misuse +of, in reference to more than two things, <a href="#page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Comparison, degrees of, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; +irregular forms in, <a href="#page_33">33</a>; errors in, +<a href="#page_36">36-37</a>; manner of comparing, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Complected</i>, for <i>complexioned</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Complex sentence, <a href="#page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Complimentary close, in letters, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound nouns, explained, <a href="#page_8">8</a>; +rules for forming plurals of, <a href="#page_8">8</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound pronouns, personal, <a href="#page_26">26</a>; +relative, <a href="#page_27">27-28</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound sentence, <a href="#page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound subject, <a href="#page_5">5</a>; agreement +of verb with, <a href="#page_67">67</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Compound words, use of hyphen with, +<a href="#page_144">144</a> (§140).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Concluded</i>, for <i>to form an opinion</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Conditional clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§114).</p> + +<p class="index">Confusion of adjectives and adverbs, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Conjunctions, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>; +misuses of, <a href="#page_105">105-106</a>; correlatives, +<a href="#page_105">105-106</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a> (4).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Considerable</i>, for <i>considerably</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Consul</i>, for <i>council</i>, or <i>counsel</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Contractions of <i>not</i>, use of, in formal +composition, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5).</p> + +<p class="index">Co-ordinate clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§§112, 113), +<a href="#page_140">140</a> (§§118, 119, 120).</p> + +<p class="index">Copulative verb, <a href="#page_3">3</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Correctly written letters, +<a href="#page_166">166-171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Correlatives, placing of, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a> (4).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Could</i>, use of, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; +model conjugations of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Council, counsel</i> and <i>consul</i> confused, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Cranford</i>, by Mrs. Gaskell, selection from, +<a href="#page_182">182-183</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Cute</i>, for <i>pretty, clever</i>, etc., +Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Dash, use of, <a href="#page_141">141-142</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Decease</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Definition, by a <i>when</i> or <i>where</i> clause, +<a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Degrees in comparison, classified, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Demand</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Dependent and conditional clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§114), <a href="#page_140">140</a> +(§§119, 120).</p> + +<p class="index">Dictionary, value of its use, +<a href="#page_203">203</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Different</i>, with <i>than</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Directly</i>, misused as a conjunction, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Disease</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Division of words at ends of lines, +<a href="#page_144">144</a> (§139).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Don't</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5), +<a href="#page_162">162</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Double negatives, <a href="#page_42">42</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Down</i>, misuse as a verb, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Drownded</i>, mispronunciation of <i>drowned</i>, +Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>East</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Each other</i>, misuse with more than two objects, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Effect</i>, for <i>affect</i>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> <p +class="index"><a name="page_238"><span class="page">Page +238</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Either</i>, misuse with more than two objects, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Either-or</i>, <a href="#page_105">105-106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Elements of the sentence, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>: Principal elements, subject, +<a href="#page_2">2</a>; predicate, <a href="#page_2">2</a>. Subordinate +elements: attribute complement, <a href="#page_3">3</a>; adjective +modifier, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; adverbial modifier, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>; object complement, <a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Emigration</i>, for <i>immigration</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Emphasis, in paragraphs, <a href="#page_153">153</a>; +in sentence, <a href="#page_131">131</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Ending of whole composition, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Enough</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Euthuse</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Enumerations, punctuation before, +<a href="#page_141">141</a>, (§§122, 123).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Esq.</i>, misuse after Mr., +<a href="#page_158">158</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Etc.</i>, misspelling of, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Euphony, in sentences, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, +<a href="#page_133">133</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Everybody</i>, followed by a plural form, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Everywheres</i>, for <i>everywhere</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Examples, of beginning of whole composition, +<a href="#page_177">177</a>; of correctly written letters, +<a href="#page_166">166-171</a>; of ending of whole composition, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>; of outline of whole composition, +<a href="#page_175">175</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Exclamation point, use of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Except</i>, for <i>accept</i>, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§111).</p> + +<p class="index">Expletives, <a href="#page_2">2</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Expect</i>, for <i>suppose</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Fall</i>, for <i>fell</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Father</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§99).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Fell</i>, for <i>fall</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Feminine gender, defined, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +of nouns and pronouns, <a href="#page_14">14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Final words, in letters, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Fine-writing," <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Fine</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Firstly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>First-rate</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>For</i>, used to introduce two succeeding clauses, +<a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Foreign words, <a href="#page_186">186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Former</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Form of letters, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_166">166-171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">From, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Funny</i>, for <i>singular</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Gender, defined and classified, +<a href="#page_12">12</a>, <a href="#page_14">14</a>; formation +of feminine from masculine, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; gender of +pronouns, <a href="#page_13">13-14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">General terms, use of, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Gent</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Gentleman</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Geographical names, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§108).</p> + +<p class="index">Gerunds, explanation of, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; +confusion with participle, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; with noun +or pronoun modifier, <a href="#page_81">81</a>; placing of gerund +phrase, <a href="#page_81">81-82</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Gettysburg speech, by Lincoln, +<a href="#page_181">181-182</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Good</i>, for <i>well</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Good use of words, <a href="#page_185">185</a>; +offenses against, <a href="#page_185">185-190</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Got</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Grand</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Grave forms of personal pronouns, use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Guess</i>, for <i>think</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Hackneyed expressions, general rule against, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>; in letters, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Had, ought</i>, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, +Glossary. <a name="page_239"><span class="page">Page 239</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hain't</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (5), +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hanged</i>, confused with <i>hung</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hardly</i>, placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; +with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Have</i>, misuse after <i>had</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Heading, of letters, +<a href="#page_155">155-157</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Heighth</i>, for <i>height</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Here</i>, misuse with demonstratives, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Her'n</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Him</i>, misuse with gerund, +<a href="#page_81">81</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hisself</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>His'n</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Home</i>, confused with <i>house</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>; for <i>at home</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Humbug</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Hung</i>, confused with <i>hanged</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Hyphen, use of, <a href="#page_144">144</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>I</i>, capitalization of, <a href="#page_29">29</a> +(1), <a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100). Order of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (1).</p> + +<p class="index">In the letter, <a href="#page_162">162</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Idioms, <a href="#page_198">198-199</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>i. e.</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Illy</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Immigration</i>, confused with <i>emigration</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Imperative mode, <a href="#page_91">91</a>, +<a href="#page_98">98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Improving one's vocabulary, rules for, +<a href="#page_203">203-204</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Improprieties, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Indentation, of paragraph, <a href="#page_149">149</a>; +of paragraph, in letters, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Infinitives, explanation of, +<a href="#page_83">83-84</a>; forms of <a href="#page_83">83</a>, +<a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_99">99</a>; cases used +with, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>; rules for sequence of infinitive +tenses, <a href="#page_84">84</a>; split, <a href="#page_85">85</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Inflection, defined, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>In</i>, confused with <i>into</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Inside address of letters, +<a href="#page_157">157-159</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Interjection, <a href="#page_2">2</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Interrogation point, use of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Interrogative pronouns, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Intransitive verbs, see <i>Transitive</i>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Introductory words or phrases, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§107).</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Kind</i>, with plural modifiers, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Kind of a</i>, <a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Lady</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Latter</i>, confused with <i>last</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lay</i>, confused with lie, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Learn</i>, for <i>teach</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Leave</i>, for <i>let</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lend</i>, confused with <i>loan</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Length, of paragraphs, <a href="#page_148">148</a>; of +sentences, <a href="#page_117">117-118</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a> +(2-b).</p> + +<p class="index">Letter writing, <a href="#page_155">155-171</a>; +body of letter, <a href="#page_161">161-163</a>; close, +<a href="#page_163">163-164</a>; heading, +<a href="#page_155">155-157</a>; illustrations of correctly written +letters, <a href="#page_166">166-171</a>; inside address, +<a href="#page_157">157-159</a>; miscellaneous directions, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>; notes in third person, +<a href="#page_171">171</a>; outside address, +<a href="#page_164">164-166</a>; salutation, +<a href="#page_159">159-161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Liable</i>, for <i>likely</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lie</i>, confused with <i>lay</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lightning</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Like</i>, misuse as a conjunction, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Lit on</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Loan</i>, confused with <i>lend</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Loose sentences, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Lot</i> for <i>a great deal</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Mad</i>, for <i>angry</i>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Masculine gender, defined, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +of pronouns, <a href="#page_14">14</a>. <a name="page_240"><span +class="page">Page 240</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>May</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; model +conjugation of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Messrs.</i>, use of, +<a href="#page_158">158</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Might</i>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; model +conjugations of, <a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Mode, definition of, <a href="#page_61">61</a>; +indicative <a href="#page_62">62-63</a>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; +infinitive, <a href="#page_80">80</a>, <a href="#page_83">83</a>, +<a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_99">99</a>; imperative, +<a href="#page_91">91</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>; obligative, +<a href="#page_90">90</a>, footnote; participal, +<a href="#page_80">80-82</a>, <a href="#page_91">91</a>, +<a href="#page_99">99-100</a>; potential, of, +<a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, <a href="#page_97">97-98</a>; subjunctive, +<a href="#page_61">61-62</a>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Modifiers, placing of, <a href="#page_126">126</a> +(3-a).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Most</i> for <i>almost</i>, +<a href="#page_193">193</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Mother</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§99).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Mrs.</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Much</i>, for <i>many</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Muchly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Mutual</i>, confused with <i>common</i>, +Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Name, form of verb, <a href="#page_46">46-47</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Namely</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Near</i>, confused with <i>nearly</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Neither</i>, misuse with more than two objects, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Neither-nor</i>, +<a href="#page_105">105-106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Nerve</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Neuter gender, defined, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +of nouns and pronouns, <a href="#page_14">14</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Newly coined expressions, rule against, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Newsy</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Nominative case, defined <a href="#page_9">9</a>; +when used, <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, note <a href="#page_3">3</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>No place</i>, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>No</i>, punctuation of, <a href="#page_137">137</a> +(§102).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>No good</i>, for <i>worthless</i>, +<a href="#page_230">230</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>North</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Not muchly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Notes in the third person, +<a href="#page_171">171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Not only—but also</i>, +<a href="#page_105">105-106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Notorious</i>, confused with <i>noted</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Nouns, common, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, +<a href="#page_7">7</a>; proper, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; case +of, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; gender of, <a href="#page_12">12</a>; +number of, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Nowhere near</i>, for <i>not nearly</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Number, defined, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; agreement +of verb and subject in number, <a href="#page_64">64-69</a>; singular, +<a href="#page_7">7</a>; plural, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; of relative +pronouns, <a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>; +of pronouns, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; of pronouns with compounded +antecedent, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; rules for forming plurals +of nouns, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Number</i>, sign #, used for, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>O</i> and <i>oh</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index">Object complement, explained, +<a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Objective case, defined, <a href="#page_9">9</a>; +when used, <a href="#page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Obligative mode, <a href="#page_90">90</a> +(footnote).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Observance</i>, confused with <i>observation</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Obsolete words, <a href="#page_185">185-186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Of</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Omission, of adverb <i>much</i>, +<a href="#page_45">45</a>; of important words, +<a href="#page_127">127</a> (5); of prepositions, +<a href="#page_108">108</a>; punctuation in case of +<a href="#page_140">140</a> (§117); <a href="#page_143">143</a> +(§138); of verbs, <a href="#page_87">87</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>One another</i>, use of, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Only</i>, placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; +with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Order of heading in letters, +<a href="#page_155">155-156</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Other</i>, use of in comparison, +<a href="#page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Ought</i>, <a href="#page_50">50</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Outline, for composition, +<a href="#page_174">174-177</a>; illustration of, +<a href="#page_175">175</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Outside address, of letters, +<a href="#page_164">164-166</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Outside of</i>, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, +Glossary.</p> <p class="index"><a name="page_241"><span +class="page">Page 241</span></a></p> + +<p class="index">Over-statement of facts, rule against, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Over with</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Pants</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Paragraphing of letters, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Paragraphs, <a href="#page_148">148-153</a>; coherence +in, <a href="#page_151">151-153</a>; emphasis in, +<a href="#page_153">153</a>; indentation of, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>; in letters, <a href="#page_161">161</a>; +length of, <a href="#page_148">148</a>; unity in, +<a href="#page_149">149-151</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Parenthesis marks, use of, <a href="#page_142">142</a>; +too frequent use of, <a href="#page_121">121</a> (1-b).</p> + +<p class="index">Parts of speech, classified, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Passive voice and active voice explained, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; forms of, <a href="#page_92">92-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Past participle, explanation and use of, +<a href="#page_46">46-48</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Past tense, explanation and use of, +<a href="#page_46">46-48</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Participles, explanation of, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; +confusion with gerunds, <a href="#page_80">80</a>; dangling, +<a href="#page_80">80-81</a>; at beginning of sentence, +<a href="#page_81">81</a>; preceded by <i>thus</i>, +<a href="#page_81">81</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Period, use of, <a href="#page_137">137</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Periodic sentence, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Personal pronouns, defined, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; +classified, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; compound personal pronouns, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>; use of common and of grave forms of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (2); unnecessary use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (3).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Piece</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Photo</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Phrases, defined, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; +prepositional, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; verb, <a href="#page_4">4</a>; +punctuation of adverbial phrases, <a href="#page_140">140</a> +(§116), <a href="#page_141">141</a> (§121).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Place</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Placing of adjectives and adverbs, +<a href="#page_41">41</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Plenty</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Plural number, explained, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; +rules for forming plurals of nouns, <a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Point of view, in paragraph, +<a href="#page_150">150</a>; in sentence, <a href="#page_123">123</a>; +in whole composition, <a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Poorly</i>, for <i>ill</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Positive degree, <a href="#page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Position, in letters, of complimentary close, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>; of heading, <a href="#page_155">155</a>; +of inside address, <a href="#page_157">157</a>; of salutation, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>; of outside address, +<a href="#page_164">164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Possessive case, defined, <a href="#page_10">10</a>; +rules for forming possessives of nouns; when used, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Potential mode, explanation and forms of, +<a href="#page_90">90-91</a>, <a href="#page_97">97-98</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Predicate of the sentence; defined, +<a href="#page_2">2</a>; compound, predicate, explained, +<a href="#page_3">3</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Prepositional phrase, <a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Prepositions, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>; +omission of, <a href="#page_108">108</a>; proper use of, +<a href="#page_107">107</a>; unnecessary use of, +<a href="#page_108">108</a>; used as conjunctions, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Principal</i>, confused with <i>principle</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Principal parts of verbs, explained, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>; classified, <a href="#page_46">46-48</a>; +list of, <a href="#page_48">48-50</a>; rules for use of, +<a href="#page_48">48</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Principal verbs, explained, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Professional words, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Pronouns, defined <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>; adjective, <a href="#page_28">28</a>; +antecedent of, defined, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; agreement with +antecedent, <a href="#page_13">13</a>; case forms of, +<a href="#page_20">20-21</a>; compound personal, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>; compound relative, <a href="#page_27">27</a>; +gender of, <a href="#page_13">13-14</a>; interrogative, +<a href="#page_17">17</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>; number +of, <a href="#page_15">15</a>; outline of, use of case forms of, +<a href="#page_21">21</a>; relative, <a href="#page_17">17</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101</a>; rules determining gender of, +<a href="#page_14">14</a>; with compound antecedents, +<a href="#page_15">15</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Pronunciation, lists of frequently mispronounced +words, <a href="#page_209">209-220</a>; <a name="page_242"><span +class="page">Page 242</span></a> words given wrong sounds, +<a href="#page_209">209-217</a>; words given wrong accent, +<a href="#page_217">217-220</a>; words of foreign pronunciation, +<a href="#page_217">217</a>; words of similar spelling, +<a href="#page_220">220</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Proper adjectives, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§95).</p> + +<p class="index">Proper nouns, defined, <a href="#page_7">7</a>; +capitalization of, <a href="#page_136">136</a> (§95).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Propose</i>, for <i>intend</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Providing</i>, for <i>if</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Provincialisms, definition and rule against use +of, <a href="#page_186">186</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Punctuation, rules for, +<a href="#page_137">137-144</a>; in letters, body, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>; heading, <a href="#page_156">156</a>; +inside address, <a href="#page_157">157</a>; outside address, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>; salutation, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index">Qualities, essential: Of sentences, unity, +<a href="#page_126">126-128</a>; emphasis, <a href="#page_131">131</a>; +euphony, <a href="#page_132">132-133</a>. Of paragraphs, unity, +<a href="#page_149">149-151</a>; coherence, +<a href="#page_151">151-153</a>; emphasis, <a href="#page_153">153</a>. +Of whole composition, unity, <a href="#page_178">178</a>; coherence, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Quite</i>, for <i>very</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Quotation marks, use of, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Quotations, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_139">139</a> (§115), +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§123), +<a href="#page_142">142</a> (§131), <a href="#page_143">143</a> +(§§132-137).</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Raise</i>, confused with <i>rise</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Recommend</i>, confused with <i>recommendation</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Relative causes, cases in, +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; explanatory or non-restrictive, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; introduction of successive, +<a href="#page_103">103-104</a>; punctuation of, +<a href="#page_135">135</a> (§111); use of <i>when</i> or +<i>where</i> clause, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Relative pronouns, defined and explained, +<a href="#page_17">17-18</a>; agreement of verb with, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (4); case and number of, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (4), <a href="#page_21">21-22</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>; compound, <a href="#page_27">27-28</a>; +explanatory or non-restrictive, <a href="#page_18">18</a>; restrictive, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; use of, with different antecedents, +<a href="#page_17">17-18</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Repetition of similar words or syllables, +<a href="#page_132">132</a> (1), <a href="#page_133">133</a> (3).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Reputation</i>, confused with <i>character</i>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Respectfully</i>, confused with <i>respectively</i>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Rev.</i>, <a href="#page_166">166</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Right away</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Right off</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Rise</i>, confused with <i>raise</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index">Salutation, in letters, +<a href="#page_159">159-161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Some</i>, misuse as a pronoun, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Say</i>, for <i>order</i> or <i>command</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Scarcely</i>, placing of, <a href="#page_41">41</a>; +with a negative, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Scriptures, capitalization, of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Seldom ever</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Semi-colon, use of, +<a href="#page_140">140-141</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Sentence elements out of natural order, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> (§109).</p> + +<p class="index">Sentences: defined, <a href="#page_1">1</a>; +declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>; essential qualities of, +<a href="#page_121">121-136</a>; loose, periodic, balanced, +<a href="#page_117">117</a>; simple, complex, compound, +<a href="#page_5">5</a>; length of, <a href="#page_117">117</a>; +slipshod construction of, <a href="#page_122">122</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index">Sequence of tenses, infinitive, +<a href="#page_84">84</a>; in clauses, <a href="#page_86">86</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Series of words, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (105). <a name="page_243"><span +class="page">Page 243</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>Set</i>, confused with <i>sit</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">S-form of verb, <a href="#page_47">47</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Shut of</i>, for <i>rid of</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sight</i>, for <i>many</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Signature of writer, in letters, +<a href="#page_163">163-164</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Simple sentence, defined, <a href="#page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Simple words, use of, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Similar expressions of similar thoughts, +<a href="#page_128">128</a> (7).</p> + +<p class="index">Singular form of verb, explanation and use of, +<a href="#page_47">47</a>, after you and they, <a href="#page_69">69</a> +(2).</p> + +<p class="index">Singular number, explained, +<a href="#page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sit</i>, confused with <i>set</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56-57</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i>, use of, in dependent +clauses, <a href="#page_73">73</a>; in principal clauses, +<a href="#page_71">71-72</a>; in questions, <a href="#page_72">72</a>; +model conjugations of, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; past tenses +of, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Should</i> and <i>would</i>, model conjugations of, +<a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; use of, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Slang, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>So</i>, use of, <a href="#page_104">104-105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Solecisms, <a href="#page_185">185</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Some</i>, misuse as an adverb, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Somebody else's</i>, <a href="#page_10">10</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sort</i>, with plurals, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Sort of a</i>, <a href="#page_44">44</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>South</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index">Speech, paragraphing of, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Specific terms, use of, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Spelling, lists of words frequently misspelled, +<a href="#page_205">205-208</a>; rules for, +<a href="#page_206">206-208</a>; of words of similar sound, +<a href="#page_208">208</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Squinting construction," <a href="#page_127">127</a> +(3-b)</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Street</i>, omission of in letters, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Subject of sentence or clause, defined +<a href="#page_2">2</a>; agreement of verb and subject, +<a href="#page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, +<a href="#page_69">69</a>; compound, <a href="#page_3">3</a>; relative +pronoun as, <a href="#page_69">69</a> (4), +<a href="#page_101">101-102</a>, of whole composition, +<a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>; statement +of, in composition, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Subject matter of letters, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Subjunctive mode, <a href="#page_61">61</a>, +<a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Such</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Summarizing word, use of, <a href="#page_128">128</a> +(6); punctuation of, <a href="#page_142">142</a> (§127).</p> + +<p class="index">Superlative degree, <a href="#page_32">32</a>; +misuse in comparing only two things, <a href="#page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Suspect</i>, for <i>expect</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Syllables, division of words into, +<a href="#page_144">144</a>, (§139).</p> + +<p class="index_br">Synonyoms, value of, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Tasty</i>, for <i>tasteful</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Technical words, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">"Telegraph style," in letters, +<a href="#page_161">161</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Tense, explained, <a href="#page_46">46</a>; sequence +of, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href="#page_86">86</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Than</i>, use of, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>That</i>, with what antecedents used, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; as a restrictive relative, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>; misuse of, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>That is</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>The</i>, use of article, +<a href="#page_44">44</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Their'n, theirself, theirselves</i>, +<a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Them</i>, for <i>those</i>, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (7).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Then</i>, use of, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>There</i>, improper use of after demonstratives, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>They</i>, indefinite use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (8); with singular verb, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index">Third person, notes in the, +<a href="#page_171">171</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Those kind</i>, and <i>these sort</i>, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Three first</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Thusly</i>, <a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Title of whole composition, +<a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Titles, abbreviations of, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#page_160">160</a>; capitalization of, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> (§§ 96, 97). +<a name="page_244"><span class="page">Page 244</span></a></p> + +<p class="index"><i>To-day, to-morrow, to-night</i>, hyphens with, +<a href="#page_144">144</a> (§140).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Too</i>, misuse of, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Transition, in whole composition, +<a href="#page_178">178-180</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Transitive and intransitive verbs, confusion of, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>; explanation of, <a href="#page_4">4</a>, +<a href="#page_55">55-56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Transpire</i>, for <i>happen</i>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Try and</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Two first</i>, Glossary.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Unbeknown</i>, for <i>unknown</i>, +<a href="#page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Unity: Of paragraph, <a href="#page_149">149-151</a>; +how to gain, <a href="#page_150">150</a>; illustrations of, +<a href="#page_151">151</a>. Of sentence, +<a href="#page_121">121-123</a>. Of whole composition, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Unnecessary words, use of, +<a href="#page_108">108-131</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index">Verb phrase, explained, <a href="#page_4">4</a>.</p> + +<p class="index">Verbs, defined, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>; agreement of verb and subject, +<a href="#page_64">64-65</a>, <a href="#page_69">69</a>; agreement +of verb in clauses, <a href="#page_86">86</a>; auxiliary, +<a href="#page_46">46</a>; gerunds, <a href="#page_80">80-82</a>; +infinitives, <a href="#page_83">83-84</a>; mode, +<a href="#page_61">61-63</a>; model conjugations of <i>to-be</i> +and <i>to see</i>, <a href="#page_88">88-100</a>; omission of verbs +or parts of, <a href="#page_87">87</a>; participles, +<a href="#page_80">80-82</a>; principal, <a href="#page_46">46</a>; +principal parts, <a href="#page_46">46-47</a>; principal parts, +list of, <a href="#page_48">48-50</a>; transitive and intransitive, +<a href="#page_55">55-56</a>; use of auxiliaries, +<a href="#page_71">71-73</a>, <a href="#page_76">76-77</a>, +<a href="#page_79">79</a>; voice, <a href="#page_56">56</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Very</i>, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>viz.</i>, punctuation of, +<a href="#page_141">141</a> (§122).</p> + +<p class="index">Vocabulary, rules for improvement of, +<a href="#page_203">203-204</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Vocation</i>, confused with <i>avocation</i>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br">Vulgarisms, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Wake</i>, confused with <i>awake</i>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Wait on</i>, confused with <i>wait for</i>, +Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Ways</i>, Glossary.</p> + +<p class="index">Weak beginnings and endings of sentences, +<a href="#page_131">131</a> (1).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Well</i>, confused with <i>good</i>, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>West</i>, capitalization of, +<a href="#page_137">137</a> (§100).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>What</i>, with what antecedents, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>When</i>, <a href="#page_103">103-104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Where</i>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Which</i>, with clause or phrase as antecedent, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (9); with what antecedents used, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Who</i>, with what antecedents used, +<a href="#page_18">18</a>. Whole composition, +<a href="#page_174">174-180</a>; beginning of, +<a href="#page_177">177</a>, ending of, <a href="#page_180">180</a>; +paragraph composition or paragraph theme, +<a href="#page_148">148</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Will</i>, use of, see <i>shall</i>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Without</i>, misuse as a conjunction, +<a href="#page_106">106</a>. Words, choice of, +<a href="#page_200">200-201</a>; clipped or abbreviated, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>; division of at ends of lines, +<a href="#page_144">144</a>, (§139); foreign, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>; good +use of, <a href="#page_185">185-190</a>; how to improve vocabulary +of, <a href="#page_203">203-204</a>, idioms, +<a href="#page_198">198-199</a>; in place of figures in letters, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>; newly-coined, <a href="#page_186">186</a>; +of coherence, <a href="#page_152">152-180</a>; professional, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>; pronunciation of, +<a href="#page_208">208-220</a>, provincialisms, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>; simple English, +<a href="#page_200">200</a>; slang, <a href="#page_187">187</a>; +spelling of, <a href="#page_205">205-208</a>; technical words, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>; vulgarisms, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p class="index_br"><i>Would</i>, see <i>should</i>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><i>Yes</i>, punctuation of, <a href="#page_137">137</a> +(102).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>You</i>, indefinite use of, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> (8); with singular verb, +<a href="#page_69">69</a> (2).</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Yours truly</i> and <i>yours respectfully</i>, +wrong abbreviation of, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.</p> + +<p class="index"><i>Your'n</i>, <a href="#page_26">26</a>.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + +***** This file should be named 22577-h.htm or 22577-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/5/7/22577/ + +Produced by Robert J. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Practical Grammar and Composition + +Author: Thomas Wood + +Release Date: September 11, 2007 [EBook #22577] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + + + + +Produced by Robert J. Hall + + + + +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION + + +BY + +THOMAS WOOD, A.M., LL.B. + +THE BRADDOCK (PENNSYLVANIA) HIGH SCHOOL + + +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY + +NEW YORK CHICAGO + + + + +PREFACE + +This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching +some classes in English in the night preparatory department of +the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those +classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would +enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English. +English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar +of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond +the everyday needs of the practical man. + +Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a +text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed +that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar, +and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words, +and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources +of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and, +finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical +work. + +It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The +parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from +that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more +sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition +contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary +composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing, +since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for +actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to +the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment +has at times been intentionally rather formal. + +Abundant and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent +intervals throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises +have been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical +points have been made very extensive. + +The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book +and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of +that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement +of principles and in the working out of details great originality +would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore, +for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores +of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of +the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found +in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from +other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as +may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the +books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the +following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and +Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's +Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition, +McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's +Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business +English. + +To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's +Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing +Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is +indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation +of certain parts of their texts. + +Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends +who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript, +and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons +who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers. +Above all, a great debt of gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris, +Superintendent of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement +and painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript +and in reading the proof of the book. + +T.W. + +BRADDOCK, PENNSYLVANIA. + + + + +CONTENTS + +CHAPTER + I.--SENTENCES--PARTS OF SPEECH--ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE--PHRASES AND CLAUSES + + II.--NOUNS + Common and Proper + Inflection Defined + Number + The Formation of Plurals + Compound Nouns + Case + The Formation of the Possessive Case + Gender + + III.--PRONOUNS + Agreement with Antecedents + Person + Gender + Rules Governing Gender + Number + Compound Antecedents + Relative + Interrogative + Case Forms + Rules Governing Use of Cases + Compound Personal + Compound Relative + Adjective + Miscellaneous Cautions + + IV.--ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS + Comparison + Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs + Improper Forms of Adjectives + Errors in Comparison + Singular and Plural Adjectives + Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives + Double Negatives + The Articles + + V.--VERBS + Principal Parts + Name-form + Past Tense + Past Participle + Transitive and Intransitive Verbs + Active and Passive Voice + Mode + Forms of the Subjunctive + Use of Indicative and Subjunctive + Agreement of Verb with its Subject + Rules Governing Agreement of the Verb + Miscellaneous Cautions + Use of _Shall_ and _Will_ + Use of _Should_ and _Would_ + Use of _May_ and _Might_, _Can_ and _Could_ + Participles and Gerunds + Misuses of Participles and Gerunds + Infinitives + Sequence of Infinitive Tenses + Split Infinitives + Agreement of Verb in Clauses + Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb + Model Conjugations + _To Be_ + _To See_ + + VI.--CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, + AND PREPOSITIONS + Independent and Dependent Clauses + Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns + Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs + Conjunctions + Placing of Correlatives + Prepositions + QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR + + VII.--SENTENCES + Loose + Periodic + Balanced + Sentence Length + The Essential Qualities of a Sentence + Unity + Coherence + Emphasis + Euphony + + VIII.--CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION + Rules for Capitalization + Rules for Punctuation + + IX.--THE PARAGRAPH + Length + Paragraphing of Speech + Indentation of the Paragraph + Essential Qualities of the Paragraph + Unity + Coherence + Emphasis + + X.--LETTER-WRITING + Heading + Inside Address + Salutation + Body of the Letter + Close + Miscellaneous Directions + Outside Address + Correctly Written Letters + Notes in the Third Person + + XI.--THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + Statement of Subject + The Outline + The Beginning + Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition + Unity + Coherence + The Ending + Illustrative Examples + Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_ + Selection from _Cranford_ + List of Books for Reading + + XII.--WORDS--SPELLING--PRONUNCIATION + Words + Good Use + Offenses Against Good Use + Solecisms + Barbarisms + Improprieties + Idioms + Choice of Words + How to Improve One's Vocabulary + Spelling + Pronunciation +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS + + + + +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION + + * * * * * + +CHAPTER I + +SENTENCES.--PARTS OF SPEECH.--ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.--PHRASES +AND CLAUSES + +1. In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects together. +Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. A SENTENCE is a group +of words that expresses a single complete thought. + +2. SENTENCES are of four kinds: + +1. DECLARATIVE; a sentence that tells or declares something; as, +_That book is mine_. + +2. IMPERATIVE; a sentence that expresses a command; as, _Bring me +that book_. + +3. INTERROGATIVE; a sentence that asks a question; as, _Is that +book mine?_ + +4. EXCLAMATORY; a declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentence +that expresses violent emotion, such as terror, surprise, or anger; +as, _You shall take that book!_ or, _Can that book be mine?_ + +3. PARTS OF SPEECH. Words have different uses in sentences. According +to their uses, words are divided into classes called Parts of Speech. +The parts of speech are as follows: + +1. NOUN; a word used as the name of something; as, _man, box, +Pittsburgh, Harry, silence, justice_. + +2. PRONOUN; a word used instead of a noun; as, _I, he, it, that._ + +Nouns, pronouns, or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns, +are called by the general term, SUBSTANTIVES. + +3. ADJECTIVE; a word used to limit or qualify the meaning of a noun +or a pronoun; as, _good, five, tall, many_. + +The words _a, an_, and _the_ are words used to modify nouns or +pronouns. They are adjectives, but are usually called ARTICLES. + +4. VERB; a word used to state something about some person or thing; +as, _do, see, think, make_. + +5. ADVERB; a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, +or another adverb; as, _very, slowly, clearly, often_. + +6. PREPOSITION; a word used to join a substantive, as a modifier, +to some other preceding word, and to show the relation of the +substantive to that word; as, _by, in, between, beyond_. + +7. CONJUNCTION; a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, +and sentences; as, _and, but, if, although, or_. + +8. INTERJECTION; a word used to express surprise or emotion; as, +_Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah!_ + +Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, but +helps to fill out its form or sound, and serves as a device to +alter its natural order. Such a word is called an EXPLETIVE. In +the following sentence _there_ is an expletive: _THERE are no such +books in print_. + +4. A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. The essential +or PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are the Subject and the Predicate. + +The SUBJECT of a sentence is the part which mentions that about +which something is said. The PREDICATE is the part which states +that which is said about the subject. _Man walks_. In this sentence, +_man_ is the subject, and _walks_ is the predicate. + +The subject may be simple or modified; that is, may consist of +the subject alone, or of the subject with its modifiers. The same +is true of the predicate. Thus, in the sentence, _Man walks_, there +is a simple subject and a simple predicate. In the sentence, _The +good man walks very rapidly_, there is a modified subject and a +modified predicate. + +There may be, also, more than one subject connected with the same +predicate; as, _THE MAN AND THE WOMAN walk_. This is called a COMPOUND +SUBJECT. A COMPOUND PREDICATE consists of more than one predicate +used with the same subject; as, _The man BOTH WALKS AND RUNS_. + +5. Besides the principal elements in a sentence, there are SUBORDINATE +ELEMENTS. These are the Attribute Complement, the Object Complement, +the Adjective Modifier, and the Adverbial Modifier. + +Some verbs, to complete their sense, need to be followed by some +other word or group of words. These words which "complement," or +complete the meanings of verbs are called COMPLEMENTS. + +The ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT completes the meaning of the verb by stating +some class, condition, or attribute of the subject; as, _My friend +is a STUDENT, I am WELL, The man is GOOD Student, well_, and _good_ +complete the meanings of their respective verbs, by stating some +class, condition, or attribute of the subjects of the verbs. + +The attribute complement usually follows the verb _be_ or its forms, +_is, are, was, will be_, etc. The attribute complement is usually a +noun, pronoun, or adjective, although it may be a phrase or clause +fulfilling the function of any of these parts of speech. It must +not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial modifier. In the +sentence, _He is THERE, there_ is an adverb, not an attribute +complement. + +The verb used with an attribute complement, because such verb _joins_ +the subject to its attribute, is called the COPULA ("to couple") +or COPULATIVE VERB. + +Some verbs require an object to complete their meaning. This object +is called the OBJECT COMPLEMENT. In the sentence, _I carry a BOOK_, +the object, _book_, is required to complete the meaning of the +transitive verb _carry_; so, also in the sentences, _I hold the +HORSE_, and _I touch a DESK_, the objects _horse_ and _desk_ are +necessary to complete the meanings of their respective verbs. These +verbs that require objects to complete their meaning are called +Transitive Verbs. + +ADJECTIVE and ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS may consist simply of adjectives +and adverbs, or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives or adverbs. + +6. A PHRASE is a group of words that is used as a single part of +speech and that does not contain a subject and a predicate. + +A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, always used as either an adjective or an +adverbial modifier, consists of a preposition with its object and +the modifiers of the object; as, _He lives IN PITTSBURG, Mr. Smith +OF THIS PLACE is the manager OF THE MILL, The letter is IN THE +NEAREST DESK_. + +There are also Verb-phrases. A VERB-PHRASE is a phrase that serves +as a verb; as, _I AM COMING, He SHALL BE TOLD, He OUGHT TO HAVE +BEEN TOLD_. + +7. A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate; +as, _The man THAT I SAW was tall_. The clause, _that I saw_, contains +both a subject, _I_, and a predicate, _saw_. This clause, since +it merely states something of minor importance in the sentence, +is called the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. The PRINCIPAL CLAUSE, the one +making the most important assertion, is, _The man was tall_. Clauses +may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, and as nouns. A clause used +as a noun is called a SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. Examine the following +examples: + + Adjective Clause: The book _that I want_ is a history. + Adverbial Clause: He came _when he had finished with the work_. + Noun Clause as subject: _That I am here_ is true. + Noun Clause as object: He said _that I was mistaken_. + +8. Sentences, as to their composition, are classified as follows: + +SIMPLE; a sentence consisting of a single statement; as, _The man +walks_. + +COMPLEX; a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or +more subordinate clauses; as, _The man that I saw is tall_. + +COMPOUND; a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of equal +importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood; as, +_The man is tall and walks rapidly_, and _Watch the little things; +they are important_. + +EXERCISE I + +_In this and in all following exercises, be able to give the reason +for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. Only +intelligent and reasoning work is worth while. + +In the following list of sentences: + +(1) Determine the part of speech of every word. + +(2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate; +and the modified subject and the modified predicate. + +(3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object complement. + +(4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional +phrase or a verb-phrase. If it is a prepositional phrase, determine +whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb. + +(5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If they +are subordinate clauses, determine whether they are used as nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs. + +(6) Classify every sentence as simple, complex, or compound._ + + 1. Houses are built of wood, brick, stone, and other materials, + and are constructed in various styles. + 2. The path of glory leads but to the grave. + 3. We gladly accepted the offer which he made. + 4. I am nearly ready, and shall soon join you. + 5. There are few men who do not try to be honest. + 6. Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever. + 7. He works hard, and rests little. + 8. She is still no better, but we hope that there will be a change. + 9. Let each speak for himself. + 10. It was I who told him to go. + 11. To live an honest life should be the aim of every one. + 12. Who it really was no one knew, but all believed it to have been him. + 13. In city and in country people think very differently. + 14. To be or not to be, that is the question. + 15. In truth, I think that I saw a brother of his in that place. + 16. By a great effort he managed to make headway against the current. + 17. Beyond this, I have nothing to say. + 18. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying. + 19. Full often wished he that the wind might rage. + 20. Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate. + 21. It is I whom you see. + 22. The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained memory. + 23. Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they do here. + 24. Alas! I can travel no more. + 25. A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study. + +EXERCISE 2 + +(1) _Write a list of six examples of every part of speech._ + +(2) _Write eight sentences, each containing an attribute complement. +Use adjectives, nouns, and pronouns._ + +(3) _Write eight sentences, each containing an object complement._ + +(4) _Write five sentences, in each using some form of the verb TO +BE, followed by an adverbial modifier._ + + + + +CHAPTER II + +NOUNS + +9. A noun has been defined as a word used as the name of something. +It may be the name of a person, a place, a thing, or of some abstract +quality, such as, _justice_ or _truth_. + +10. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. A PROPER NOUN is a noun that names +some particular or special place, person, people, or thing. A proper +noun should always begin with a capital letter; as, _English, Rome, +Jews, John_. A COMMON NOUN is a general or class name. + +11. INFLECTION DEFINED. The variation in the forms of the different +parts of speech to show grammatical relation, is called INFLECTION. +Though there is some inflection in English, grammatical relation +is usually shown by position rather than by inflection. + +The noun is inflected to show number, case, and gender. + +12. NUMBER is that quality of a word which shows whether it refers +to one or to more than one. SINGULAR NUMBER refers to one. PLURAL +NUMBER refers to more than one. + +13. PLURALS OF SINGULAR NOUNS ARE FORMED ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING +RULES: + +1. Most nouns add _s_ to the singular; as, _boy, boys; stove, stoves_. + +2. Nouns ending in _s, ch, sh_, or _x_, add _es_ to the singular; +as, _fox, foxes; wish, wishes; glass, glasses; coach, coaches_. + +3. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel (_a, e, i, o, u_) add +_s_; as, _valley, valleys_, (_soliloquy, soliloquies_ and _colloquy, +colloquies_ are exceptions). When _y_ is preceded by a consonant +(any letter other than a vowel), _y_ is changed to _i_ and _es_ +is added; as, _army, armies; pony, ponies; sty, sties_. + +4. Most nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ add _s_, as, _scarf, scarfs; +safe, safes_. A few change _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and add _es_; as, +_wife, wives; self, selves_. The others are: _beef, calf, elf, +half, leaf, loaf, sheaf, shelf, staff, thief, wharf, wolf, life_. +(_Wharf_ has also a plural, _wharfs_.) + +5. Most nouns ending in _o_ add _s_; as, _cameo, cameos_. A number +of nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_; as, _volcano, +volcanoes_. The most important of the latter class are: _buffalo, +cargo, calico, echo, embargo, flamingo, hero, motto, mulatto, negro, +potato, tomato, tornado, torpedo, veto_. + +6. Letters, figures, characters, etc., add the apostrophe and _s_ +(_'s_); as, _6's, c's, t's, that's_. + +7. The following common words always form their plurals in an irregular +way; as, _man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, +feet; mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth; louse, lice_. + +COMPOUND NOUNS are those formed by the union of two words, either +two nouns or a noun joined to some descriptive word or phrase. + +8. The principal noun of a compound noun, whether it precedes or +follows the descriptive part, is in most cases the noun that changes +in forming the plural; as, _mothers-in-law, knights-errant, +mouse-traps_. In a few compound words, both parts take a plural form; +as, _man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars_. + +9. Proper names and titles generally form plurals in the same way +as do other nouns; as, _Senators Webster and Clay, the three Henrys_. +Abbreviations of titles are little used in the plural, except _Messrs._ +(_Mr._), and _Drs._ (_Dr._). + +10. In forming the plurals of proper names where a title is used, +either the title or the name may be put in the plural form. Sometimes +both are made plural; as, _Miss Brown, the Misses Brown, the Miss +Browns, the two Mrs. Browns_. + +11. Some nouns are the same in both the singular and the plural; +as, _deer, series, means, gross_, etc. + +12. Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. The most +important are the following: + +BROTHER _brothers_ (by blood) _brethren_ (by association) +CLOTH _cloths_ (kinds of cloth) _clothes_ (garments) +DIE _dies_ (for coinage) _dice_ (for games) +FISH _fishes_ (separately) _fish_ (collectively) +GENIUS _geniuses_ (men of genius) _genii_ (imaginary beings) +HEAD _heads_ (of the body) _head_ (of cattle) +INDEX _indexes_ (of books) _indices_ (in algebra) +PEA _peas_ (separately) _pease_ (collectively) +PENNY _pennies_ (separately) _pence_ (collectively) +SAIL _sails_ (pieces of canvas) _sail_ (number of vessels) +SHOT _ shots_ (number of discharges) _shot_ (number of balls) + +13. Nouns from foreign languages frequently retain in the plural +the form that they have in the language from which they are taken; +as, _focus, foci; terminus, termini; alumnus, alumni; datum, data; +stratum, strata; formula, formuloe; vortex, vortices; appendix, +appendices; crisis, crises; oasis, oases; axis, axes; phenomenon, +phenomena; automaton, automata; analysis, analyses; hypothesis, +hypotheses; medium, media; vertebra, vertebroe; ellipsis, ellipses; +genus, genera; fungus, fungi; minimum, minima; thesis, theses_. + +EXERCISE 3 + +_Write the plural, if any, of every singular noun in the following +list; and the singular, if any, of every plural noun. Note those +having no singular and those having no plural_. + +News, goods, thanks, scissors, proceeds, puppy, studio, survey, +attorney, arch, belief, chief, charity, half, hero, negro, majority, +Mary, vortex, memento, joy, lily, knight-templar, knight-errant, why, +4, x, son-in-law, Miss Smith, Mr. Anderson, country-man, hanger-on, +major-general, oxen, geese, man-servant, brethren, strata, sheep, +mathematics, pride, money, pea, head, piano, veto, knives, ratios, +alumni, feet, wolves, president, sailor-boy, spoonful, rope-ladder, +grandmother, attorney-general, cupful, go-between. + +_When in doubt respecting the form of any of the above, consult +an unabridged dictionary._ + +14. CASE. There are three cases in English: the Nominative, the +Possessive, and the Objective. + +The NOMINATIVE CASE; the form used in address and as the subject +of a verb. + +The OBJECTIVE CASE; the form used as the object of a verb or a +preposition. It is always the same in form as is the nominative. + +Since no error in grammar can arise in the use of the nominative +or the objective cases of nouns, no further discussion of these +cases is here needed. + +The POSSESSIVE CASE; the form used to show ownership. In the forming +of this case we have inflection. + +15. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE RULES FOR THE FORMING OF THE POSSESSIVE +CASE: + +1. Most nouns form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and _s_ +(_'s_); as, _man, man's; men, men's; pupil, pupil's; John, John's_. + +2. Plural nouns ending in _s_ form the possessive by adding only +the apostrophe ('); as, _persons, persons'; writers, writers'_. In +stating possession in the plural, then one should say: _Carpenters' +tools sharpened here, Odd Fellows' wives are invited_, etc. + +3. Some singular nouns ending in an _s_ sound form the possessive +by adding the apostrophe alone; as, _for appearance' sake, for +goodness' sake_. But usage inclines to the adding of the apostrophe +and _s_ (_'s_) even if the singular noun does end in an _s_ sound; +as, _Charles's book, Frances's dress, the mistress's dress_. + +4. When a compound noun, or a group of words treated as one name, +is used to denote possession, the sign of the possessive is added +to the last word only; as, _Charles and John's mother_ (the mother +of both Charles and John), _Brown and Smith's store_ (the store +of the firm Brown & Smith). + +5. Where the succession of possessives is unpleasant or confusing, +the substitution of a prepositional phrase should be made; as, _the +house of the mother of Charles's partner_, instead of, _Charles's +partner's mother's house_. + +6. The sign of the possessive should be used with the word immediately +preceding the word naming the thing possessed; as, _Father and +mother's house, Smith, the lawyer's, office, The Senator from Utah's +seat_. + +7. Generally, nouns representing inanimate objects should not be +used in the possessive case. It is better to say _the hands of +the clock_ than _the clock's hands_. + +NOTE.--One should say _somebody else's_, not _somebody's else_. +The expression _somebody else_ always occurs in the one form, and +in such cases the sign of the possessive should be added to the +last word. Similarly, say, _no one else's, everybody else's_, etc. + +EXERCISE 4 + +_Write the possessives of the following:_ + +Oxen, ox, brother-in-law, Miss Jones, goose, man, men, men-servants, +man-servant, Maine, dogs, attorneys-at-law, Jackson & Jones, John the +student, my friend John, coat, shoe, boy, boys, Mayor of Cleveland. + +EXERCISE 5 + +_Write sentences illustrating the use of the possessives you have +formed for the first ten words under Exercise 4._ + +EXERCISE 6 + +_Change the following expressions from the prepositional phrase +form to the possessive:_ + + 1. The ships of Germany and France. + 2. The garden of his mother and sister. + 3. The credit of Jackson & Jones. + 4. The signature of the president of the firm. + 5. The coming of my grandfather. + 6. The lives of our friends. + 7. The dog of both John and William. + 8. The dog of John and the dog of William. + 9. The act of anybody else. + 10. The shortcomings of Alice. + 11. The poems of Robert Burns. + 12. The wives of Henry the Eighth. + 13. The home of Mary and Martha. + 14. The novels of Dickens and the novels of Scott. + 15. The farm of my mother and of my father. + 16. The recommendation of Superintendent Norris. + +EXERCISE 7 + +_Correct such of the following expressions as need correction. If +apostrophes are omitted, insert them in the proper places:_ + + 1. He walked to the precipices edge. + 2. Both John and William's books were lost. + 3. They sell boy's hats and mens' coats. + 4. My friends' umbrella was stolen. + 5. I shall buy a hat at Wanamaker's & Brown's. + 6. This student's lessons. + 7. These students books. + 8. My daughters coming. + 9. John's wife's cousin. + 10. My son's wife's aunt. + 11. Five years imprisonment under Texas's law. + 12. John's books and Williams. + 13. The Democrat's and Republican Convention. + 14. France's and England's interests differ widely. + 15. The moons' face was hidden. + 16. Wine is made from the grape's juice. + 17. Morton, the principals, signature. + 18. Jones & Smith, the lawyers, office. + +16. GENDER. Gender in grammar is the quality of nouns or pronouns +that denotes the sex of the person or thing represented. Those +nouns or pronouns meaning males are in the MASCULINE GENDER. Those +meaning females are in the FEMININE GENDER. Those referring to +things without sex are in the NEUTER GENDER. + +In nouns gender is of little consequence. The only regular inflection +is the addition of the syllable-_ess_ to certain masculine nouns to +denote the change to the feminine gender; as, _author, authoress; +poet, poetess_. -I_x_ is also sometimes added for the same purpose; +as, _administrator, administratrix_. + +The feminine forms were formerly much used, but their use is now +being discontinued, and the noun of masculine gender used to designate +both sexes. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PRONOUNS + +17. PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a +noun. The noun in whose stead it stands is called its ANTECEDENT. +_JOHN took Mary's BOOK and gave IT to HIS friend_. In this sentence +_book_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _it_, and _John_ is the +antecedent of _his_. + +18. PRONOUNS SHOULD AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS IN PERSON, GENDER, +AND NUMBER. + +19. PERSONAL PRONOUNS are those that by their form indicate the +speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. + +Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON indicate the speaker; they are: _I, +me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours_. + +Pronouns of the SECOND PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken +to; they are: _you, your, yours_. There are also the grave or solemn +forms in the second person, which are now little used; these are: +_thou, thee, thy, thine_, and _ye_. + +Pronouns of the THIRD PERSON indicate the person or thing spoken +of; they are: _he, his, him, she, her, hers, they, their, theirs, +them, it, its_. + +Few errors are made in the use of the proper person of the pronoun. + +20. GENDER OF PRONOUNS. The following pronouns indicate sex or +gender; Masculine: _he, his, him_. Feminine: _she, her, hers_. Neuter: +_it, its_. + +IN ORDER TO SECURE AGREEMENT IN GENDER IT IS NECESSARY TO KNOW THE +GENDER OF THE NOUN, EXPRESSED OR UNDERSTOOD, TO WHICH THE PRONOUN +REFERS. Gender of nouns is important only so far as it concerns +the use of pronouns. Study carefully the following rules in regard +to gender. These rules apply to the singular number only, since +all plurals of whatever gender are referred to by _they, their, +theirs_, etc. + +THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE GENDER OF PRONOUNS: + +MASCULINE; referred to by _HE, HIS_, and _HIM_: + +1. Nouns denoting males are always masculine. + +2. Nouns denoting things remarkable for strength, power, sublimity, +or size, when those things are regarded as if they were persons, +are masculine; _as, WINTER, with HIS chilly army, destroyed them +all_. + +3. Singular nouns denoting persons of both sexes are masculine; +as, _EVERY ONE brought HIS umbrella_. + +FEMININE; referred to by _SHE, HER_, or _HERS_: + +1. Nouns denoting females are always feminine. + +2. Nouns denoting objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and +peace, when spoken of as if they were persons, are feminine; as, +_SLEEP healed him with HER fostering care_. + +NEUTER; referred to by _IT_ and _ITS_: + +1. Nouns denoting objects without sex are neuter. + +2. Nouns denoting objects whose sex is disregarded are neuter; as, +_IT is a pretty child, The WOLF is the most savage of ITS race_. + +3. Collective nouns referring to a group of individuals as a unit +are neuter; as, _The JURY gives its VERDICT, The COMMITTEE makes +ITS report_. + +An animal named may be regarded as masculine; feminine, or neuter, +according to the characteristics the writer fancies it to possess; +as, _The WOLF seeks HIS prey, The MOUSE nibbled HER way into the +box, The BIRD seeks ITS nest. + +Certain nouns may be applied to persons of either sex. They are +then said to be of COMMON GENDER. There are no pronouns of common +gender; hence those nouns are referred to as follows: + +1. By masculine pronouns when known to denote males; as, _MY CLASS-MATE_ +(known to be Harry) _is taking HIS examinations_. + +2. By feminine pronouns when known to denote females; as, _EACH +OF THE PUPILS of the Girls High School brought HER book._ + +3. By masculine pronouns when there is nothing in the connection +of the thought to show the sex of the object; as, _Let every PERSON +bring his book_. + +21. NUMBER OF PRONOUNS. A more common source of error than disagreement +in gender is disagreement in number. _They, their, theirs_, and +_them_ are plural, but are often improperly used when only singular +pronouns should be used. The cause of the error is failure to realize +the true antecedent. + +_If ANYBODY makes that statement, THEY are misinformed_. This sentence +is wrong. _Anybody_ refers to only one person; both _any_ and _body_, +the parts of the word, denote the singular. The sentence should read, +_If ANYBODY makes that statement, HE is misinformed. Similarly, +_Let EVERYBODY keep THEIR peace_, should read, _Let EVERYBODY keep +HIS peace. + +22. COMPOUND ANTECEDENTS. Two or more antecedents connected by +_or_ or _nor_ are frequently referred to by the plural when the +singular should be used. _Neither John nor James brought THEIR +books_, should read, _Neither John nor James brought HIS books_. +When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected by +_or_ or _nor_, the pronoun must be in the singular number; but +if one of the antecedents is plural, the pronoun must, also, be +in the plural; as, _Neither the Mormon nor his wives denied THEIR +religion_. + +When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the +pronoun must be in the plural number; as, _John and James brought +THEIR books_. + +Further treatment of number will be given under verbs. + +EXERCISE 8 + +_Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the proper +pronouns. See that there is agreement in person, gender, and number:_ + + 1. Has everybody finished ---- work. + 2. If any one wishes a longer time, let ---- hold up ---- hand. + 3. The panther sprang from ---- lurking place. + 4. Many a man has (have) lost ---- money in speculation. + 5. The cat came each day for ---- bit of meat. + 6. Everyone has to prove ---- right to a seat. + 7. Let every boy answer for ---- self (selves). + 8. The crowd was so great that we could hardly get through ----. + 9. Let any boy guess this riddle if ---- can. + 10. Company H was greatly reduced in ---- numbers. + 11. Every animal has some weapon with which ---- can defend + ----self (selves). + 12. Nowhere does each dare do as ---- pleases (please). + 13. The elephant placed ---- great foot on the man's chest. + 14. The child did not know ---- mother. + 15. Death gathers ---- unfailing harvest. + 16. Every kind of animal has ---- natural enemies. + 17. The committee instructed ---- chairman to report the matter. + 18. Two men were present, but neither would tell what ---- saw. + 19. Truth always triumphs over ---- enemies. + 20. Nobody did ---- duty more readily than I. + 21. The cat never fails to catch ---- prey. + 22. I have used both blue crayon and red crayon, but ---- does + (do) not write so clearly as white. + 23. If John and Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. + 24. If John or Henry whisper (whispers) ---- will be punished. + 25. Both Columbus and Cabot failed to realize the importance + of ---- discoveries. + 26. Neither the lawyer nor the sheriff liked ---- task. + 27. The canary longed to escape from ---- cage. + 28. The rat ran to ---- hole. + 29. The dog seemed to know ---- master was dead. + 30. Everyone should try to gather a host of friends about ----. + 31. If any one wishes to see me, send ---- to the Pierce Building. + 32. Probably everybody is discouraged at least once in ---- life. + 33. Nobody should deceive ----selves (self). + 34. Let each take ---- own seat. + 35. Let each girl in the class bring ---- book. + 36. Let each bring ---- book. + 37. Let each bring ---- sewing. + 38. The fox dropped ---- meat in the pool. + 39. The rock lay on ---- side. + 40. Let sleep enter with ---- healing touch. + 41. Each believed that ---- had been elected a delegate to the + Mother's Congress. + 42. Consumption demands each year ---- thousands of victims. + 43. Summer arrays ----self (selves) with flowers. + 44. Despair seized him in ---- powerful grasp. + 45. If any boy or any girl finds the book, let ---- bring it to me. + 46. Let every man and every woman speak ----mind. + 47. Spring set forth ---- beauties. + 48. How does the mouse save ---- self (selves) from being caught? + 49. The hen cackled ---- loudest. + 50. Some man or boy lost ---- hat. + 51. John or James will favor us with ---- company. + 52. Neither the captain nor the soldiers showed ----self (selves) + during the fight. + 53. If the boys or their father come we shall be glad to see ----. + 54. Every man and every boy received ---- dinner. + 55. Every man or boy gave ---- offering. + +EXERCISE 9 + +_By what gender of the pronouns would you refer to the following +nouns?_ + +Snake, death, care, mercy, fox, bear, walrus, child, baby, friend +(uncertain sex), friend (known to be Mary), everybody, someone, +artist, flower, moon, sun, sorrow, fate, student, foreigner, Harvard +University, earth, Germany? + +23. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns are pronouns used to introduce +adjective or noun clauses that are not interrogative. In the sentence, +_The man THAT I MENTIONED has come_, the relative clause, _that I +mentioned_, is an adjective clause modifying _man_. In the sentence, +_WHOM SHE MEANS, I do not know_, the relative clause is, _whom +she means_, and is a noun clause forming the object of the verb +_know_. + +The relative pronouns are _who_ (_whose, whom_), _which, that_ +and _what_. _But_ and _as_ are sometimes relative pronouns. There +are, also, compound relative pronouns, which will be mentioned +later. + +24. _Who_ (with its possessive and objective forms, _whose_ and +_whom_) should be used when the antecedent denotes persons. When +the antecedent denotes things or animals, _which_ should be used. +_That_ may be used with antecedents denoting persons, animals or +things, and is the proper relative to use when the antecedent includes +both persons and things. _What_, when used as a relative, seldom +properly refers to persons. It always introduces a substantive +clause, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, _It is WHAT (that +which) he wants_. + +25. _That_ is known as the RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE, because it should +be used whenever the relative clause limits the substantive, unless +_who_ or _which_ is of more pleasing sound in the sentence. In the +sentence, _He is the man THAT DID THE ACT_, the relative clause, +_that did the act_, defines what is meant by man; without the relative +clause the sentence clearly would be incomplete. Similarly, in +the sentence, _The book THAT I WANT is that red-backed history_, +the restrictive relative clause is, _that I want_, and limits the +application of _book_. + +26. _Who_ and _which_ are known as the EXPLANATORY or NON-RESTRICTIVE +RELATIVES, and should be used ordinarily only to introduce relative +clauses which add some new thought to the author's principal thought. +_Spanish, WHICH IS THE LEAST COMPLEX LANGUAGE, is the easiest to +learn_. In this sentence the principal thought is, _Spanish is +the easiest language to learn_. The relative clause, _which is +the least complex language_, is a thought, which, though not fully +so important as the principal thought, is more nearly cooerdinate +than subordinate in its value. It adds an additional thought of +the speaker explaining the character of the Spanish language. When +_who_ and _which_ are thus used as explanatory relatives, we see +that the relative clause may be omitted without making the sentence +incomplete. + +Compare the following sentences: + +Explanatory relative clause: That book, _which is about history_, +has a red cover. + +Restrictive relative clause: The book _that is about history_ has +a red cover. + +Explanatory relative clause: Lincoln, _who was one of the world's +greatest men_, was killed by Booth. + +Restrictive relative clause: The Lincoln _that was killed by Booth_ +was one of the world's greatest men. + +NOTE.--See Sec.111, for rule as to the punctuation of relative clauses. + +27. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun +used to ask a question. The interrogative pronouns are, _who_ (_whose, +whom_), _which_, and _what_. In respect to antecedents, _who_ should +be used only in reference to persons; _which_ and _what_ may be +used with any antecedent, persons, animals, or things. + +EXERCISE 10 + +_Choose the proper relative or interrogative pronoun to be inserted +in each of the following sentences. Insert commas where they are +needed._ (_See_ Sec.111): + + 1. The kindly physician ---- was so greatly loved is dead. + 2. This is the man ---- all are praising. + 3. John ---- is my coachman is sick. + 4. The intelligence ---- he displayed was remarkable. + 5. Intelligence ---- he had hitherto not manifested now showed its + presence. + 6. He maintains that the book ---- you used is now ruined. + (Does _which_ or _that_ have the more pleasing sound here?) + 7. The pleasure ---- education gives the man ---- has it is a + sufficient reward for the trouble ---- it has cost. + 8. That man ---- wears a cap is a foreigner. + 9. The best hotel is the one ---- is nearest the station. + 10. Who is it ---- is worthy of that honor? + 11. The carriages and the drivers ---- you ordered yesterday have arrived. + 12. ---- thing is it ---- you want? + 13. He purchased ---- he wished. + 14. There is no cloud ---- has not its silver lining. + 15. It is the same dog ---- I bought. + 16. The man and horse ---- you see pass here every afternoon. + 17. ---- did they seek? + 18. They inquired ---- he was going to do. + 19. Who was it ---- lost the book? + 20. The man ---- was a Frenchman was very much excited. + 21. It is neither the party nor its candidate ---- gains support. + 22. That is a characteristic ---- makes him seem almost rude. + 23. It is the same tool ---- I used all day. + 24. He is a man ---- inspires little confidence. + 25. ---- does he expect of us? + 26. It is just such a thing ---- I need. + 27. There are few ---- will vote for him. + 28. The wagon and children ---- you just saw came from our town. + 29. He ---- writes out his lesson does all ---- can be expected. + 30. Was it you or the cat ---- made that noise? + 31. It is the same song ---- he always sings. + 32. Such ---- I have is yours. + 33. All the men and horses ---- we had were lost. + 34. That is ---- pleased me most and ---- everyone talked about. + 35. The horse was one ---- I had never ridden before. + 36. That is ---- everyone said. + +28. CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS. Some personal, relative, and interrogative +pronouns have distinctive forms for the different cases, and the +failure to use the proper case forms in the sentence is one of +the most frequent sources of error. The case to be used is to be +determined by the use which the pronoun, not its antecedent, has +in the sentence. In the sentence, _I name HIM_, note that _him_ +is the object of the verb _name_. In the sentence, _WHOM do you +seek_, although coming at the first of the sentence, _whom_ is +grammatically the object of the verb _seek_. In the use of pronouns +comes the most important need for a knowledge of when to use the +different cases. + +Note the following different case forms of pronouns: + +Nominative: _I, we, you, thou, ye, he, she, they, it, who_. + +Objective: _me, us, you, thee, ye, him, her, it, them, whom_. + +Possessive: _my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, +her, hers, its, their, theirs, whose_. + +It will be noted that, while some forms are the same in both the +nominative and objective cases, _I, WE, HE, SHE, THEY, THOU_, AND +_WHO_ ARE ONLY PROPER WHERE THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED. +_ME, US, HIM, THEM, THEE, WHOM_, AND _HER_, except when _her_ is +possessive, ARE ONLY PROPER WHEN THE OBJECTIVE CASE IS DEMANDED. +These forms must be remembered. It is only with these pronouns +that mistakes are made in the use of the nominative and objective +cases. + +29. THE FOLLOWING OUTLINE EXPLAINS THE USE OF THE DIFFERENT CASE +FORMS OF THE PRONOUNS. The outline should be mastered. + +THE NOMINATIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +1. When the noun or pronoun is the subject of a finite verb; that +is, a verb other than an infinitive. See 3 under Objective Case. + +2. When it is an attribute complement. An attribute complement, as +explained in Chapter I, is a word used in the predicate explaining +or stating something about the subject. Examples: _It is I, The +man was HE, The people were THEY of whom we spoke._ + +3. When it is used without relation to any other part of speech, +as in direct address or exclamation. + +THE OBJECTIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +1. When the noun or pronoun is the object of a verb; as, _He named +ME, She deceived THEM, They watch US_. + +2. When it is the object of a preposition, expressed or understood: +as, _He spoke of ME, For WHOM do you take me, He told (to) ME a +story._ + +3. When it is the subject of an infinitive; as, _I told HIM to +go, I desire HER to hope_. The infinitives are the parts of the +verb preceded by _to_; as, _to go, to see, to be, to have been +seen_, etc. The sign of the infinitive, to, is not always expressed. +The objective case is, nevertheless, used; as, _Let HIM (to) go, +Have HER (to be) told about it._ + +4. When it is an attribute complement of an expressed subject of +the infinitive _to be_; as, _They believed her to be ME, He denied +it to have been him_. (See Note 2 below.) + +THE POSSESSIVE CASE SHOULD BE USED: + +When the word is used as a possessive modifier; as, _They spoke +of HER being present, The book is HIS (book), It is THEIR fault._ + +NOTE I.--When a substantive is placed by the side of another substantive +and is used to explain it, it is said to be in APPOSITION with that +other substantive and takes the case of that word; as, _It_ was +given _to John Smith, HIM whom you see there._ + +NOTE 2.--The attribute complement should always have the case of +that subject of the verb which is expressed in the sentence. Thus, +in the sentence, _I could not wish John to be HIM, him_ is properly +in the objective case, since there is an expressed subject of the +infinitive, _John_, which is in the objective case. But in the +sentence, _I should hate to be HE, he_ is properly in the nominative +case, since the only subject that is expressed in the sentence is +_I_, in the nominative case. + +NOTE 3.--Where the relative pronoun _who (whom)_ is the subject of +a clause that itself is the object clause of a verb or a preposition, +it is always in the nominative case. Thus the following sentences are +both correct: _I delivered it to WHO owned it, Bring home WHOEVER +will come with you._ + +EXERCISE 11 + +_Write sentences illustrating the correct use of each of the following +pronouns:_ + +I, whom, who, we, me, us, they, whose, theirs, them, she, him, he, +its, mine, our, thee, thou. + +EXERCISE 12 + +_In the following sentences choose the proper form from the words +in italics:_ + + 1. My brother and _I me_ drove to the east end of the town. + 2. Between you and _I me_ things are doubtful. + 3. May James and _I me_ go to the circus? + 4. Will you permit James and _I me_ to go to the play? + 5. Who made that noise? Only _I me_. + 6. He introduced us all, _I me_ among the rest. + 7. He promised to bring candy to Helen and _I me_. + 8. Was it _I me_ that you asked for? + 9. Who spoke? _I me_. + 10. I am taken to be _he him_. + 11. No, it could not have been _me I_. + 12. All have gone but you and _I me_. + 13. You suffer more than _me I_. + 14. Everyone has failed in the examination except you and _I me_. + 15. He asked you and _I me_ to come to his office. + 16. See if there is any mail for Mary and _me I_. + 17. Neither you nor _I me_ can teach the class. + 18. They think it to be _I me_. + 19. This is the student _whom who_ all are praising. + 20. The one that is _he him_ wears a brown hat. + 21. He is a man _who whom_ all admired. + 22. He is one of those men _who whom_ we call snobs. + 23. I did not see that it was _her she_. + 24. It is in fact _he him_. + 25. He still believes it to be _them they_. + 26. Between you and _I me_, it is my opinion that _him he_ and John + will disagree. + 27. We saw John and _she her_; we know it was _them they_. + 28. I did not speak of either you or _she her_. + 29. Our cousins and _we us_ are going to the Art Gallery. + 30. Aunt Mary has asked our cousins and _us we_ to take dinner at her house. + 31. They are more eager than _we us_ since they have not seen her for + a long time. + 32. It could not have been _we us who whom_ you suspected. + 33. _We us_ boys are going to the ball game. + 34. They sent letters to all _who whom_ they thought would contribute. + 35. This money was given by John _who whom_ you know is very stingy. + 36. The superintendent, _who whom_, I cannot doubt, is responsible + for this error, must be discharged. + 37. The teacher told you and _I me_ to stay. + 38. The teacher told you and _him he_ to stay. + 39. The teacher told you and _she her_ to stay. + 40. There are many miles between England and _we us_. + 41. They can't play the game better than _we us_. + 42. It is unpleasant for such as _they them_ to witness such things. + 43. Between a teacher and _he him who whom_ he teaches there is + sometimes a strong fellowship. + 44. You are nearly as strong as _him he_. + 45. All were present but John and _he him_. + 46. Father believed it was _she her_. + 47. Mother knew it to be _her she_. + 48. It was either _he him_ or _she her_ that called. + 49. Because of _his him_ being young, they tried to shield him. + 50. It was _he him who whom_ the manager said ought to be promoted. + 51. The throne was held by a king _who whom_ historians believe + to have been insane. + 52. _Who whom_ did he say the man was? + 53. _Who whom_ did he say the judge suspected? + 54. _Who whom_ do you consider to be the brightest man? + 55. _Who whom_ do you think is the brightest man? + 56. He cannot learn from such as _thou thee_. + 57. If they only rob such as _thou thee_, they are honest. + 58. What dost _thou thee_ know? + 59. They do tell _thee thou_ the truth. + 60. She told John and _me I_ to study. + 61. My father allowed my brother and _her she_ to go. + 62. My brother and _she her_ were allowed to go by my father. + 63. Turn not away from _him he_ that is needy. + 64. Neither Frances nor _she her_ was at fault. + 65. The property goes to _they them_. + 66. He thought it was _her she_, but it was _him he_ and William +who did it. + 67. It was through _she her_ that word came to _me I_. + 68. I thought it was _her she_. + 69. I wish you were more like _he him_. + 70. I thought it to be _she her_. + 71. It seems to be _he_. I should hate to be _he_. I should like to be + _he_ or _she_. (All these sentences are in the correct form.) + 72. He is a man in _whom who_ I have little faith. + 73. You are as skillful as _she her_. + 74. We escorted her mother and _her she_ to the station. + 75. _She her_ and _I me_ are going on the boat. + 76. If any are late it will not be _us we_. + 77. _Who whom_ are you going to collect it from? + 78. _Who whom_ do men say that he is? + 79. _Who whom_ do you think _him he_ to be? + 80. _They them_ and their children have gone abroad. + 81. It was not _they them_. + 82. _Who whom_ am I said to be? + 83. I do not know to _who whom_ to direct him. + 84. How can one tell _who whom_ is at home now? + 85. _Who whom_ is that for? + 86. Choose _who whom_ you please. + 87. Do you think _I me_ to be _her she who whom_ you call Kate? + 88. Some _who whom_ their friends expected were kept away. + 89. Give it to _who whom_ seems to want it most. + 90. _Who whom_ do you think I saw there? + 91. I hope it was _she her who whom_ we saw. + 92. It could not have been _him he_. + 93. _Who whom_ did you say did it? + 94. Let _them they_ come at once. + 95. The man on _who whom_ I relied was absent. + 96. I know it was _they them who whom_ did it. + 97. Will he let _us we_ go? + 98. It came from _they them who whom_ should not have sent it. + 99. It was not _us we_ from _who whom_ it came. +100. Can it be _she her_? +101. _Thou thee_ art mistaken. +102. Let me tell _thee thou, thee thou_ wilt do wrong. +103. Send _who whom_ wants the pass to me. +104. Tell _who whom_ you choose to come. +105. Is he the man for _who whom_ the city is named? +106. The book is for _who whom_ needs it. +107. I do not know _who whom_ the book is for. + +30. The COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS are formed by adding _self_ +or _selves_ to certain of the objective and possessive personal +pronouns; as, _herself, myself, itself, themselves_, etc. They +are used to add emphasis to an expression; as, _I, MYSELF, did +it, He, HIMSELF, said so._ They are also used reflexively after +verbs and prepositions; as, _He mentioned HIMSELF, He did it for +HIMSELF_. + +The compound personal pronouns should generally be confined to +their emphatic and reflexive use. Do not say, _MYSELF and John +will come_, but, _John and I will come_. Do not say, _They invited +John and MYSELF_, but, _They invited John and ME_. + +The compound personal pronouns have no possessive forms; but for +the sake of emphasis _own_ with the ordinary possessive form is +used; as, _I have my OWN book, Bring your OWN work, He has a home +of his OWN._ + +31. There are no such forms as _hisself, your'n, his'n, her'n, +theirself, theirselves, their'n_. In place of these use simply _his, +her, their_, or _your_. + +EXERCISE 13 + +_Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the following simple +and compound personal pronouns:_ + +Myself, me, I, them, themselves, him, himself, her, herself, itself, +our, ourselves. + +EXERCISE 14 + +_Choose the correct form in the following sentences. Punctuate +properly._ (_See_ Sec.108): + + 1. _Yourself you_ and John were mentioned + 2. She told Mary and _me myself_ to go with _her herself_. + 3. The book is for _you yourself_ and _I me myself_. + 4. Henry and _I me myself_ are in the same class. + 5. He thinks _you yourself_ and _I me myself_ should bring the books. + 6. Our friends and _we us ourselves_ are going out to-night. + 7. _Herself she_ and her husband have been sick. + 8. _They themselves_ and their children have gone abroad. + 9. You play the violin better than _he himself_. + 10. The machine failed to work well, because _it itself_ and the + engine were not properly adjusted to each other. + 11. Let them do it _theirselves themselves_. + 12. He came by _hisself himself_. + 13. The teacher _hisself himself_ could not have done better. + 14. I'll bring my gun, and you bring _your'n yours your_ own. + 15. That book is _his'n his_. + +EXERCISE 15 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper emphatic +or reflexive forms. Punctuate properly._ (_See_ Sec.108): + + 1. He ---- said so. + 2. I ---- will do it. + 3. We ---- will look after her. + 4. That, I tell you, is ---- book. + 5. It belongs to me ----. + 6. Those books are my ----. + 7. Let them ---- pay for it. + 8. The horse is to be for ---- use. + 9. The horse is to be for the use of ----. + 10. He said it to ----. + 11. He deceived ----. + 12. I do not wish ---- to be prominent. + +32. The COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS are formed by adding _ever, so_, +or _soever_ to the relative pronouns, _who, which_, and _what_; +as, _whoever, whatever, whomever, whosoever, whoso, whosoever_, +etc. It will be noted that _whoever, whosoever_, and _whoso_ have +objective forms, _whomever, whomsoever_, and _whomso_; and possessive +forms, _whosoever, whosesoever_, and _whoseso_. These forms must +be used whenever the objective or possessive case is demanded. +Thus, one should say, _I will give it to WHOMEVER I find there_. +(See Sec.29 and Note 3.) + +EXERCISE 16 + +_Fill the following blanks with the proper forms of the compound +relatives:_ + + 1. We will refer the question to ---- you may name. + 2. ---- it may have been, it was not he. + 3. I shall receive presents from ---- I wish. + 4. It was between him and ---- was with him. + 5. ---- they may choose, I will not vote for him. + 6. Let them name ---- they think will win. + 7. Give it to ---- you think needs it most. + 8. He may take ---- he cares to. + 9. He will take ---- property he finds there. + 10. He promised to ask the question of ---- he found there. + 11. ---- can have done it? + 12. ---- else may be said, that is not true. + 13. There are the two chairs; you may take ---- you like. + 14. ---- you take will suit me. + 15. You may have ---- you wish. + 16. ---- is nominated, will you vote for him? + 17. ---- they nominate, I will vote for him. + 18. ---- does that is a partizan. + 19. ---- candidate is elected, I will be satisfied. + 20. He may name ---- he thinks best. + 21. ---- he says is worthy of attention. + 22. ---- she takes after, she is honest. + 23. ---- follows him will be sorry. + 24. ---- he may be, he is no gentleman. + 25. ---- they do is praised. + +33. There are certain words, called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, which are +regarded as pronouns, because, although they are properly adjective +in their meaning, the nouns which they modify are never expressed; +as, _One_ (there is a possessive form, _one's_, and a plural form, +_ones_), _none, this, that, these, those, other, former, some, +few, many_, etc. + +34. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS: + +1. The pronoun _I_ should always be capitalized, and should, when +used as part of a compound subject, be placed second; as, _James +and I were present, not I and James were present_. + +2. Do not use the common and grave forms of the personal pronouns +in the same sentence; as, _THOU wilt do this whether YOU wish or +not_. + +3. Avoid the use of personal pronouns where they are unnecessary; +as, _John, HE did it, or Mary, SHE said_. This is a frequent error +in speech. + +4. Let the antecedent of each pronoun be clearly apparent. Note the +uncertainty in the following sentence; _He sent a box of cheese, +and IT was made of wood_. The antecedent of _it_ is not clear. +Again, _A man told his son to take HIS coat home_. The antecedent +of _his_ is very uncertain. Such errors are frequent. + +In relative clauses this error may sometimes be avoided by placing +the relative clause as near as possible to the noun it limits. +Note the following sentence: _A cat was found in the YARD WHICH +wore a blue ribbon_. The grammatical inference would be that the +yard wore the blue ribbon. The sentence might be changed to, _A +CAT, WHICH wore a blue ribbon, was found in the yard_. + +5. Relative clauses referring to the same thing require the same +relative pronoun to introduce them; as, _The book THAT we found +and the book THAT he lost are the same_. + +6. Use _but that_ when _BUT_ is a conjunction and _that_ introduces +a noun clause; as, _There is no doubt BUT THAT he will go_. Use +_but what_ when _but_ is a preposition in the sense of _except_; +as, _He has no money but (except) WHAT I gave him_. + +7. _Them_ is a pronoun and should never be used as an adjective. +_Those_ is the adjective which should be used in its place; as, +_Those people_, not, _Them people_. + +8. Avoid using _you_ and _they_ indefinitely; as, _YOU seldom hear +of such things, THEY make chairs there_. Instead, say, _ONE seldom +hears of such things, Chairs are made there_. + +9. _Which_ should not be used with a clause or phrase as its antecedent. +Both the following sentences are wrong: _He sent me to see John, +WHICH I did. Their whispering became very loud, which annoyed the +preacher_. + +10. Never use an apostrophe with the possessive pronouns, _its, +yours, theirs, ours_ and _hers_. + +EXERCISE 17 + +_Correct the following sentences so that they do not violate the +cautions above stated_: + + 1. How can you say that when thou knowest better? + 2. May I and Mary go to the concert? + 3. He asked me to write to him, which I did. + 4. Grant thou to us your blessing. + 5. The train it was twenty minutes late. + 6. Mother she said I might go. + 7. Mary told her mother she was mistaken. + 8. The man cannot leave his friend, for if he should leave him he + would be angry. + 9. Sarah asked her aunt how old she was. + 10. That is the man whom we named and that did it. + 11. Mr. Jones went to Mr. Smith and told him that his dog was lost. + 12. This is the book that we found and which he lost. + 13. She told her sister that if she could not get to the city, she + thought she had better go home. + 14. Jack cannot see Henry because he is so short. + 15. Then Jack and George, they went home. + 16. Bring them books here. + 17. Them are all wrong. + 18. There are no men in the room but that can be bought. + 19. I have no doubt but what it was done. + 20. Them there should be corrected. + 21. I have faith in everything but that he says. + 22. I have no fears but what it can be done. + 23. Napoleon, he threw his armies across the Rhine. + 24. Thou knowest not what you are doing. + 25. It was thought advisable to exile Napoleon, which was done. + 26. A grapevine had grown along the fence which was full of grapes. + 27. Keep them people out of here. + 28. The two cars contained horses that were painted yellow. + 29. She is a girl who is always smiling and that all like. + 30. You never can tell about foreigners. + 31. They say that is not true. + 32. The cabin needed to be swept, which we did. + 33. They use those methods in some schools. + 34. It is the house that is on the corner and which is painted white. + 35. You can easily learn history if you have a good memory. + 36. How can you tell but what it will rain? + 37. He does everything but what he should do. + 38. He has everything but that he needs. + 39. It was a collie dog which we had and that was stolen. + 40. Aunt, she said that she didn't know but what she would go. + 41. Tell I and John about it. + 42. He went to his father and told him he had sinned. + 43. Dost thou know what you doest? + 44. It's appearance was deceitful. + 45. The chair was also their's. + 46. There is a slight difference between mine and your's. + 47. Which of the two is her's? + 48. They are both our's. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS + +35. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. An +ADVERB is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another +adverb. Adjectives and adverbs are very closely related in both +their forms and their use. + +36. COMPARISON. The variation of adjectives and adverbs to indicate +the degree of modification they express is called COMPARISON. There +are three degrees of comparison. + +The POSITIVE DEGREE indicates the mere possession of a quality; +as, _true, good, sweet, fast, lovely_. + +The COMPARATIVE DEGREE indicates a stronger degree of the quality +than the positive; as, _truer, sweeter, better, faster, lovelier_. + +The SUPERLATIVE DEGREE indicates the highest degree of quality; +as, _truest, sweetest, best, fastest, loveliest_. + +Where the adjectives and adverbs are compared by inflection they are +said to be compared regularly. In regular comparison the comparative +is formed by adding _er_, and the superlative by adding _est_. If +the word ends in _y_, the _y_ is changed to _i_ before adding the +ending; as, _pretty, prettier, prettiest_. + +Where the adjectives and adverbs have two or more syllables, most +of them are compared by the use of the adverbs _more_ and _most_, +or, if the comparison be a descending one, by the use of _less_ +and _least_; as, _beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful_, and +_less beautiful, least beautiful_. + +37. Some adjectives and adverbs are compared by changing to entirely +different words in the comparative and superlative. Note the following: + +POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE +bad, ill, evil, badly worse worst +far farther, further farthest, furthest +forth further furthest +fore former foremost, first +good, well better best +hind hinder hindmost +late later, latter latest, last +little less least +much, many more most +old older, elder oldest, eldest + +NOTE.--_Badly_ and _forth_ may be used only as adverbs. _Well_ +is usually an adverb; as, _He talks well_, but may be used as an +adjective; as, _He seems well_. + +38. CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. An adjective is often +used where an adverb is required, and vice versa. The sentence, +_She talks FOOLISH_, is wrong, because here the word to be modified +is _talks_, and since _talks_ is a verb, the adverb _foolishly_ +should be used. The sentence, _She looks CHARMINGLY_, means, as +it stands, that her manner of looking at a thing is charming. What +is intended to be said is that she appears as if she was a charming +woman. To convey that meaning, the adjective, _charming_, should +have been used, and the sentence should read, _She looks charming_. +Wherever the word modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb, +an adverb should be used, and wherever the word, whatever its location +in the sentence, modifies a noun or pronoun, an adjective should +be used. + +39. The adjective and the adverb are sometimes alike in form. Thus, +both the following sentences are correct: _He works HARD_ (adverb), +and _His work is HARD_ (adjective). But, usually, where the adjective +and the adverb correspond at all, the adverb has the additional +ending _ly_; as, _The track is SMOOTH_, (adjective), and _The train +runs SMOOTHLY_, (adverb). + +EXERCISE 18 + +_In the following sentences choose from the italicized words the +proper word to be used:_ + + 1. The sunset looks _beautiful beautifully_. + 2. The man acted _strange strangely_. + 3. Write _careful carefully_ and speak _distinct distinctly_. + 4. Speak _slow slowly_. + 5. He acted _bad badly_. + 6. He behaved very _proper properly_. + 7. The boat runs _smooth smoothly_. + 8. He is a _remarkable remarkably_ poor writer. + 9. I am in _extremely extreme_ good health. + 10. The typewriter works _good well_. + 11. The bird warbles _sweet sweetly_. + 12. He was _terrible terribly_ angry. + 13. He was in a _terrible terribly_ dangerous place. + 14. He talks _plainer more plainly_ than he ever did before. + 15. The dead Roman looked _fierce fiercely_. + 16. The fire burns _brilliant brilliantly_. + 17. You are _exceeding exceedingly_ generous. + 18. He struggled _manful manfully_ against the opposition. + 19. My health is _poor poorly_. + 20. He is sure surely a _fine fellow_. + 21. Have everything _suitable suitably_ decorated. + 22. That can be done _easy easily_. + 23. I can speak _easier more easily_ than I can write. + 24. The music of the orchestra was _decided decidedly_ poor. + 25. She is a _remarkable remarkably_ beautiful girl. + 26. The wind roared _awful awfully_. + 27. The roar of the wind was _awful awfully_. + 28. I have studied grammar _previous previously_ to this year. + 29. I didn't study because I felt too _bad badly_ to read. + 30. The roses smell _sweetly sweet_. + 31. They felt very _bad badly_ at being beaten. + 32. That violin sounds _different differently_ from this one. + 33. The soldiers fought _gallant gallantly_. + 34. She looks _sweet sweetly_ in that dress. + 35. I can wear this coat _easy easily_. + 36. Speak _gentle gently_ to him. + 37. He talks _warm warmly_ on that subject. + 38. He works _well good_ and _steady steadily_. + 39. He stood _thoughtful thoughtfully_ for a moment and then went + _quiet quietly_ to his tent. + 40. He walked down the street _slow slowly_, but all the time looked + _eager eagerly_ about him. + 41. The music sounds _loud loudly_. + 42. That coin rings _true truly_. + 43. He looked _angry angrily_ at his class. + 44. He moved _silent silently_ about in the crowd. + 45. His coat fits _nice nicely_. + 46. That is _easy easily_ to do. + 47. He went over the work very _thorough thoroughly_. + +EXERCISE 19 + +_The adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences are correctly +used. In every case show what they modify:_ + + 1. The water lay smooth in the lake. + 2. She looked cold. + 3. The train runs smoothly now. + 4. The sun shone bright at the horizon. + 5. The sun shone brightly all day. + 6. She looks coldly about her. + 7. Be careful in your study of these sentences. + 8. Study these sentences carefully. + 9. We found the way easy. + 10. We found the way easily. + 11. He looked good. + 12. He looked well. + 13. We arrived safe. + 14. We arrived safely. + 15. Speak gently. + 16. Let your speech be gentle. + +EXERCISE 20 + +_Write sentences containing the following words correctly used:_ + +Thoughtful, thoughtfully, masterful, masterfully, hard, hardly, +cool, coolly, rapid, rapidly, ungainly, careful, carefully, eager, +eagerly, sweet, sweetly, gracious, graciously. + +40. IMPROPER FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. The wrong forms in the following +list of adjectives are frequently used in place of the right forms: + + RIGHT WRONG +everywhere everywheres +not nearly nowhere near +not at all not much or not muchly +ill illy +first firstly +thus thusly +much muchly +unknown unbeknown +complexioned complected + +EXERCISE 21 + +_Correct the errors in the following sentences:_ + + 1. She goes everywheres. + 2. Hers is the most illy behaved child I know. + 3. Not muchly will I go. + 4. Use the lesser quantity first. + 5. He is nowhere near so bright as John. + 6. You do the problem thusly. + 7. The causes are firstly, ignorance, and second, lack of energy. + 8. They came unbeknown to me. + 9. He is a dark complected man. + 10. It all happened unbeknownst to them. + 11. His vote was nowhere near so large as usual. + +41. ERRORS IN COMPARISON are frequently made. Observe carefully +the following rules: + +1. The superlative should not be used in comparing only two things. +One should say, _He is the LARGER of the two_, not _He is the LARGEST +of the two_. But, _He is the largest of the three_, is right. + +2. A comparison should not be attempted by adjectives that express +absolute quality--adjectives that cannot be compared; as, _round, +perfect, equally, universal_. A thing may be _round_ or _perfect_, +but it cannot be _more round_ or _most round_, _more perfect_ or +_most perfect_. + +3. When two objects are used in the comparative, one must not be +included in the other; but, when two objects are used in the +superlative, one must be included in the other. It is wrong to say, +_The discovery of America was MORE IMPORTANT THAN ANY geographical +discovery_, for that is saying that the discovery of America was +more important than itself--an absurdity. But it would be right to +say, _The discovery of America was more important THAN ANY OTHER +geographical discovery_. One should not say, _He is the most honest +OF HIS fellow-workmen_, for he is not one of his fellow-workmen. +One should say, _He is more honest THAN ANY of his fellow-workmen_, +or, _He is the most honest OF ALL the workmen_. To say, _This machine +is BETTER THAN ANY machine_, is incorrect, but to say, _This machine +is better THAN ANY OTHER machine_, is correct. To say, _This machine +is the BEST OF ANY machine_ (or _any other machine_), is wrong, +because all machines are meant, not one machine or some machines. +To say, _This machine is the BEST OF machines_ (or _the best of +all machines_), is correct. + +Note the following rules in regard to the use of _other_ in comparisons: + +a. After comparatives followed by _than_ the words _any_ and _all_ +should be followed by _other_. + +b. After superlatives followed by _of, any_ and _other_ should not +be used. + +4. Avoid mixed comparisons. _John is as good, if not better than +she_. If the clause, _if not better_, were left out, this sentence +would read, _John is as good than she_. It could be corrected to +read, _John is as good AS, if not better than she_. Similarly, it +is wrong to say, _He is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, +man in history_. + +EXERCISE 22 + +_Choose the correct word from those italicized:_ + + 1. The _older oldest_ of the three boys was sick. + 2. Of Smith and Jones, Smith is the _wealthiest wealthier_. + 3. Of two burdens choose the _less least_. + 4. Which can run the _fastest faster_, John or Henry? + 5. Of the two men, Smith and Jones, the _first former_ is the + _better best_ known. + 6. Which is the _larger largest_ of the two? + 7. Which is the _best better_ of the six? + 8. Which is the _larger largest_ number, six or seven + 9. Which is the _more most_ desirable, health or wealth? + 10. My mother is the _oldest older_ of four sisters. + 11. The _prettier prettiest_ of the twins is the _brighter brightest_. + 12. This is the _duller dullest_ season of the year. + 13. The other is the _worse worst_ behaved of the two. + 14. Which was the _hotter hottest_, yesterday or to-day? + 15. That is the _cleaner cleanest_ of the three streets. + +EXERCISE 23 + +_Correct any of the following sentences that may be wrong. Give +a valid reason for each correction:_ + + 1. He was the most active of all his friends. + 2. He is the brightest of all his brothers. + 3. Of all the other American Colleges, this is the largest. + 4. Philadelphia is larger than any city in Pennsylvania. + 5. Philadelphia is the largest of all other cities in Pennsylvania. + 6. No city in Pennsylvania is so large as Philadelphia. + 7. That theory is more universally adopted. + 8. He was, of all others, the most clever. + 9. This apple is more perfect than that. + 10. No fruit is so good as the orange. + 11. The orange is better than any fruit. + 12. Of all other fruits the orange is the best. + 13. The orange is the best of all the fruits. + 14. The orange is better than any other fruit. + 15. That is the most principal thing in the lesson. + 16. Which has been of most importance, steam or electricity? + 17. He was more active than any other of his companions. + 18. This apple is rounder than that. + 19. This apple is more nearly round than that. + 20. Paris is the most famous of any other European city. + 21. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of her sister states. + 22. No state is so wealthy as Pennsylvania. + 23. Pennsylvania is the wealthiest of any of the States. + 24. Pennsylvania is wealthier than any of her other sister states. + 25. New York is one of the largest, if not the largest city in the + world. + 26. That book is as good if not better than mine. + 27. John is taller than any other boy in his classes. + 28. John is taller than any boy in his class. + 29. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. + 30. Iron is the more useful of the metals. + 31. Iron is the most useful of the metals. + 32. Of iron and lead, lead is the heaviest. + 33. Iron is among the most useful, if not the most useful metal. + 34. He is among the oldest if not the oldest of the men in the Senate. + 35. That picture is more beautiful than all the pictures. + +42. SINGULAR AND PLURAL ADJECTIVES. Some adjectives can be used +only with singular nouns and some only with plural nouns. Such +adjectives as _one, each, every_, etc., can be used only with singular +nouns. Such adjectives as _several, various, many, sundry, two_, +etc., can be used only with plural nouns. In many cases, the noun +which the adjective modifies is omitted, and the adjective thus +acquires the force of a pronoun; as, _FEW are seen, SEVERAL have +come_. + +The adjective pronouns _this_ and _that_ have plural forms, _these_ +and _those_. The plurals must be used with plural nouns. To say +_those kind_ is then incorrect. It should be _those kinds_. _Those +sort of men_ should be _that sort of men_ or _those sorts of men_. + +43. EITHER AND NEITHER are used to designate one of two objects +only. If more than two are referred to, use _any, none, any one, +no one_. Note the following correct sentences: + +_NEITHER John nor Henry may go._ + +_ANY ONE of the three boys may go._ + +44. EACH OTHER should be used when referring to two; ONE ANOTHER +when referring to more than two. Note the following correct sentences: + +_The two brothers love EACH OTHER._ + +_The four brothers love ONE ANOTHER._ + +EXERCISE 24 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are incorrect. Be able +to give reasons:_ + + 1. He is six foot tall. + 2. I like those kind of fruit. + 3. He lost several pound. + 4. I have not seen him this twenty year. + 5. Have you heard these news? + 6. Are they those kind of people? + 7. He rode ten mile. + 8. There were fifteen car-load of people. + 9. These kind of books are interesting. + 10. Several phenomenon marked his character. + 11. There are a few crisis in every man's career. + 12. Each strata of the rock lies at an angle. + 13. The poem has six verse in it. + 14. Either of the five will do. + 15. Little children should love each other. + 16. Neither of the large cities in the United States is so large as + London. + 17. You will be able to find it in either one of those three books. + 18. Those two brothers treat one another very coldly. + 19. Neither of the many newspapers published an account of it. + 20. Either law or medicine is his profession. + 21. Some ten box of shoes were on the train. + 22. Those two statements contradict one another. + 23. The Sahara Desert has several oasis. + 24. How can he associate with those sort of men? + +45. PLACING OF ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. In the placing of adjective +elements and adverbial elements in the sentence, one should so +arrange them as to leave no doubt as to what they are intended to +modify. + +Wrong: A man was riding on a _horse wearing gray trousers_. + +Right: A _man wearing gray trousers_ was riding on a horse. + +The adverb _only_ requires especial attention. Generally _only_ +should come before the word it is intended to modify. Compare the +following correct sentences, and note the differences in meaning. + +_Only_ he found the book. + +He _only_ found the book. + +He found _only_ the book. + +He found the book _only_. + +The placing of the words, _almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, merely_, +and _quite_, also requires care and thought. + +EXERCISE 25 + +_Correct the errors in the location of adjectives and adverbs in +the following sentences:_ + + 1. I only paid five dollars. + 2. I have only done six problems. + 3. The clothing business is only profitable in large towns. + 4. The school is only open in the evening. + 5. I only need ten minutes in which to do it. + 6. He had almost climbed to the top when the ladder broke. + 7. I never expect to see the like again. + 8. A black base-ball player's suit was found. + 9. Do you ever remember to have seen the man before? + 10. The building was trimmed with granite carved corners. + 11. People ceased to wonder gradually. + 12. The captain only escaped by hiding in a ditch. + 13. I never wish to think of it again. + 14. On the trip in that direction he almost went to Philadelphia. + 15. Acetylene lamps are only used now in the country. + 16. He only spoke of history, not of art. + 17. I know hardly what to say. + 18. I was merely talking of grammar, not of English literature. + 19. The girls were nearly dressed in the same color. + 20. He merely wanted to see you. + +46. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. _I am here_ is called an affirmative statement. +A denial of that, _I am not here_, is called a negative statement. +The words, _not, neither, never, none, nothing_, etc., are all +negative words; that is, they serve to make denials of statements. + +Two negatives should never be used in the same sentence, since +the effect is then to deny the negative you wish to assert, and +an affirmative is made where a negative is intended. _We haven't +no books_, means that we have some books. The proper negative form +would be, _We have no books_, or _We haven't any books_. The mistake +occurs usually where such forms as _isn't, don't, haven't_, etc., +are used. Examine the following sentences: + +Wrong: _It isn't no_ use. + +Wrong: There _don't none_ of them believe it. + +Wrong: We _didn't_ do _nothing_. + +_Hardly, scarcely, only_, and _but_ (in the sense of _only_) are +often incorrectly used with a negative. Compare the following right +and wrong forms: + +Wrong: It was so dark that we _couldn't hardly_ see. + +Right: It was so dark that we _could hardly_ see. + +Wrong: There _wasn't only_ one person present. + +Right: There _was only_ one person present. + +EXERCISE 26 + +Correct the following sentences: + + 1. I can't find it nowhere. + 2. For a time I couldn't scarcely tell where I was. + 3. They are not allowed to go only on holidays. + 4. There isn't but one person that can make the speech. + 5. They didn't find no treasure. + 6. It won't take but a few minutes to read it all. + 7. I haven't seen but two men there. + 8. There isn't no one here who knows it. + 9. I didn't see no fire; my opinion is that there wasn't no fire. + 10. I can't hardly prove that statement. + 11. I didn't feel hardly able to go. + 12. She couldn't stay only a week. + 13. I hadn't scarcely reached shelter when the storm began. + 14. You wouldn't scarcely believe that it could be done. + 15. He said that he wouldn't bring only his wife. + 16. There isn't nothing in the story. + 17. He doesn't do nothing. + 18. I can't think of nothing but that. + 19. He can't hardly mean that. + 20. He isn't nowhere near so bright as I. + 21. He can't hardly come to-night. + 22. It is better to not think nothing about it. + 23. She can't only do that. + 24. There isn't no use of his objecting to it. + 25. There shan't none of them go along with us. + 26. Don't never do that again. + 27. We could not find but three specimens of the plant. + 28. He wasn't scarcely able to walk. + 29. He hasn't none of his work prepared. + +47. THE ARTICLES. _A, an_, and _the_, are called Articles. _A_ and +_an_ are called the INDEFINITE ARTICLES, because they are used to +limit the noun to any one thing of a class; as, _a book, a chair_. +But _a_ or _an_ is not used to denote the whole of that class; +as, _Silence is golden_, or, _He was elected to the office of +President_. + +_The_ is called the DEFINITE ARTICLE because it picks out some one +definite individual from a class. + +In the sentence, _On the street are A brick and A stone house_, +the article is repeated before each adjective; the effect of this +repetition is to make the sentence mean two houses. But, in the +sentence, _On the street is A brick and stone house_, since the +article is used only before the first of the two adjectives, the +sentence means that there is only one house and that it is constructed +of brick and stone. + +Where two nouns refer to the same object, the article need appear +only before the first of the two; as, _God, the author and creator +of the universe_. But where the nouns refer to two different objects, +regarded as distinct from each other, the article should appear +before each; as, _He bought a horse and a cow_. + +_A_ is used before all words except those beginning with a vowel +sound. Before those beginning with a vowel sound _an_ is used. +If, in a succession of words, one of these forms could not be used +before all of the words, then the article must be repeated before +each. Thus, one should say, _AN ax, A saw, and AN adze_ (not _An +ax, saw and adze_), _made up his outfit_. Generally it is better +to repeat the article in each case, whether or not it be the same. + +Do not say, _kind of A HOUSE_. Since _a house_ is singular, it +can have but one kind. Say instead, a _kind of house, a sort of +man_, etc. + +EXERCISE 27 + +_Correct the following where you think correction is needed:_ + + 1. Where did you get that kind of a notion? + 2. She is an eager and an ambitious girl. + 3. He received the degree of a Master of Arts. + 4. The boy and girl came yesterday. + 5. Neither the man nor woman was here. + 6. He was accompanied by a large and small man. + 7. He planted an oak, maple and ash. + 8. The third of the team were hurt. + 9. The noun and verb will be discussed later. + 10. I read a Pittsburg and Philadelphia paper. + 11. Read the third and sixth sentence. + 12. Read the comments in a monthly and weekly periodical. + 13. He is dying from the typhoid fever. + 14. He was elected the secretary and the treasurer of the + association. + 15. What sort of a student are you? + 16. He is a funny kind of a fellow. + 17. Bring me a new and old chair. + 18. That is a sort of a peculiar idea. + 19. He was operated upon for the appendicitis. + 20. Lock the cat and dog up. + +48. No adverb necessary to the sense should be omitted from the +sentence. Such improper omission is frequently made when _very_ or +_too_ are used with past participles that are not also recognized +as adjectives; as, + +Poor: I am _very insulted_. He was _too wrapped_ in thought to notice +the mistake. + +Right: I am _very much insulted_. He was _too much wrapped_ in thought +to notice the mistake. + +EXERCISE 28 + +_Write sentences containing the following adjectives and adverbs. +Be sure that they are used correctly._ + +Both, each, every, only, evidently, hard, latest, awful, terribly, +charming, charmingly, lovely, brave, perfect, straight, extreme, +very, either, neither, larger, oldest, one, none, hardly, scarcely, +only, but, finally, almost, ever, never, new, newly, very. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +VERBS + +49. A VERB has already been defined as a word stating something +about the subject. Verbs are inflected or changed to indicate the +time of the action as past, present, or future; as, _I talk, I +talked, I shall talk_, etc. Verbs also vary to indicate completed +or incompleted action; as, _I have talked, I shall have talked_, +etc. To these variations, which indicate the time of the action, +the name TENSE is given. + +The full verbal statement may consist of several words; as, _He +MAY HAVE GONE home_. Here the verb is _may have gone_. The last +word of such a verb phrase is called the PRINCIPAL VERB, and the +other words the AUXILIARIES. In the sentence above, _go (gone)_ +is the principal verb, and _may_ and _have_ are the auxiliaries. + +50. In constructing the full form of the verb or verb phrase there +are three distinct parts from which all other forms are made. These +are called the PRINCIPAL PARTS. + +The First Principal Part, since it is the part by which the verb is +referred to as a word, may be called the NAME-FORM. The following +are name-forms: _do, see, come, walk, pass_. + +The Second Principal Part is called the PAST TENSE. It is formed +by adding _ed_ to the name-form; as, _walked, pushed, passed_. +These verbs that add _ed_ are called Regular Verbs. The verb form +is often entirely changed; as, _done (do), saw (see), came (come)_. +These verbs are called Irregular Verbs. + +The Third Principal Part is called the PAST PARTICIPLE. It is used +mainly in expressing completed action or in the passive voice. +In regular verbs the past participle is the same in form as the +past tense. In irregular verbs it may differ entirely from both +the name-form and the past tense, or it may resemble one or both +of them. Examples: _done (do, did), seen (see, saw), come (come, +came), set (set, set)_. + +51. THE NAME-FORM, when unaccompanied by auxiliaries, is used with +all subjects, except those in the third person singular, to assert +action in the present time or present tense; as, _I go, We come, +You see, Horses run_. + +The name-form is also used with various auxiliaries (_may, might, +can, must, will, should, shall_, etc.) to assert futurity, +determination, possibility, possession, etc. Examples: _I may go, +We shall come, You can see, Horses should run_. + +By preceding it with the word _to_, the name-form is used to form +what is called the PRESENT INFINITIVE; as, _I wish to go, I hope +to see_. + +What may be called the S-FORM of the verb, or the SINGULAR form, +is usually constructed by adding _s_ or _es_ to the name-form. +The s-form is used with singular subjects in the third person; as, +_He goes, She comes, It runs, The dog trots_. + +The s-form is found in the third personal singular of the present +tense. In other tenses, if present at all, the s-form is in the +auxiliary, where the present tense of the auxiliary is used to +form some other tense of the principal verb. Examples: _He has_ +(present tense), _He has gone_ (perfect tense), _He has been seen_. + +Some verbs have no s-form; as, _will, shall, may_. The verb _be_ +has two irregular s-forms: _Is_, in the present tense, and _was_ +in the past tense. The s-form of _have_ is _has_. + +52. The past tense always stands alone in the predicate; i. e., IT +SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH ANY AUXILIARIES. To use it so, however, +is one of the most frequent errors in grammar. The following are +past tense forms: _went, saw, wore, tore_. To say, therefore, _I +have saw, I have went, It was tore, They were wore_, would be grossly +incorrect. + +53. The third principal part, the past participle, on the other +hand, CAN NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. +The following are distinctly past participle forms: _done, seen, +sung_, etc. One could not then properly say, _I seen, I done, I +sung_, etc. + +The distinction as to use with and without auxiliaries applies, of +course, only to irregular verbs. In regular verbs, the past tense +and past participle are always the same, and so no error could +result from their confusion. + +The past participle is used to form the _Perfect Infinitives_; as, +_to have gone, to have seen, to have been seen_. + +54. The following is a list of the principal parts of the most +important irregular verbs. The list should be mastered thoroughly. +The student should bear in mind always that, THE PAST TENSE FORM +SHOULD NEVER BE USED WITH AN AUXILIARY, and that THE PAST PARTICIPLE +FORM SHOULD NEVER BE USED AS A PREDICATE VERB WITHOUT AN AUXILIARY. + +In some instances verbs have been included in the list below which +are always regular in their forms, or which have both regular and +irregular forms. These are verbs for whose principal parts incorrect +forms are often used. + +PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +awake awoke or awaked awaked +begin began begun +beseech besought besought +bid (to order or to greet) bade bidden or bid +bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid +blow blew blown +break broke broken +burst burst burst +choose chose chosen +chide chid chidden or chid +come came come +deal dealt dealt +dive dived dived + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +do did done +draw drew drawn +drink drank drunk or drank +drive drove driven +eat ate eaten +fall fell fallen +flee fled fled +fly flew flown +forsake forsook forsaken +forget forgot forgot or forgotten +freeze froze frozen +get got got (gotten) +give gave given +go went gone +hang (clothes) hung hung +hang (a man) hanged hanged +know knew known +lay laid laid +lie lay lain +mean meant meant +plead pleaded pleaded +prove proved proved +ride rode ridden +raise raised raised +rise rose risen +run ran run +see saw seen +seek sought sought +set set set +shake shook shaken +shed shed shed +shoe shod shod +sing sang sung +sit sat sat +slay slew slain +sink sank sunk +speak spoke spoken + +_Name-form Past Tense Past Participle_ +steal stole stolen +swim swam swum +take took taken +teach taught taught +tear tore torn +throw threw thrown +tread trod trod or trodden +wake woke or waked woke or waked +wear wore worn +weave wove woven +write wrote written + +NOTES.--_Ought_ has no past participle. It may then never be used +with an auxiliary. _I had ought to go_ is incorrect. The idea would +be amply expressed by _I ought to go_. + +MODEL CONJUGATIONS of the verbs _to be_ and _to see_ in all forms +are given under Sec.77 at the end of this chapter. + +EXERCISE 29 + +_In the following sentences change the italicized verb so as to +use the past tense, and then so as to use the past participle:_ + +Example: (Original sentence), _The guests begin to go home._ + (Changed to past tense), _The guests began to go home._ + (Changed to past participle), _The guests have begun to go home._ + + 1. Our books _lie_ on the mantel. + 2. John _comes_ in and _lays_ his books on the desk. + 3. I _see_ the parade. + 4. He _runs_ up the road. + 5. They _set_ their chairs in a row. + 6. The noise _wakes_ me. + 7. Caesar _bids_ him enter. + 8. If they _prove_ their innocence, they should be discharged. + 9. His friends _plead_ strongly for him. + 10. Do you know what they _mean_ by that? + 11. I _awake_ early every morning. + 12. He _begins_ to think of strange things. + 13. The children _beseech_ me to go with them. + 14. My mother _bids_ me to say that she will be here at six. + 15. Smith _bids_ fifty dollars for the chair. + 16. My servants _break_ many dishes. + 17. They _choose_ their associates. + 18. The box _bursts_ open. + 19. His mother _chides_ him for his misbehavior. + 20. He _comes_ here every day. + 21. I _deal_ there this week. + 22. The boys _dive_ beautifully. + 23. You _do_ so much more than is necessary. + 24. They _draw_ lots for the watch. + 25. Jones _drinks_ this wine very seldom. + 26. They _drive_ over to Milton once a week. + 27. They _drive_ a sorrel horse. + 28. The cows _eat_ grass. + 29. The Gauls _flee_ before Caesar. + 30. The swallows all _fly_ into the chimney at evening. + 31. They _forsake_ the cause without any reason. + 32. Caesar _gives_ them no answer. + 33. They _get_ no money for their services. + 34. You _forget_ that we have no right to do that. + 35. Water _freezes_ at thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit. + 36. The ball _goes_ to the opposing team. + 37. You _hang_ the rope on the tree. + 38. The sheriff _hangs_ the murderer at noon. + 39. I _know_ of nothing more worrying. + 40. She _lays_ the knife on the table. + 41. They _lie_ in bed until eleven. + 42. Why they _rise_ so late, I do not know. + 43. They _raise_ no objection. + 44. John _runs_ very rapidly. + 45. You _sit_ very quietly. + 46. Caesar _seeks_ to learn the intention of the enemy. + 47. The politician vigorously _shakes_ all hands. + 48. The roof _sheds_ water in all storms. + 49. The blacksmith _shoes_ horses. + 50. The choir _sings_ for each service. + 51. You _speak_ too rapidly to be easily understood. + 52. Few men _steal_ because they want to. + 53. I _swim_ one hundred yards very readily. + 54. They _teach_ all the elementary branches there. + 55. You _take_ all subscriptions for the concert. + 56. Those clothes _tear_ readily. + 57. They _tread_ the grapes in making wine. + 58. Who _throws_ paper on the floor? + 59. I always _wear_ old clothes in which to work. + 60. She _writes_ to her mother daily. + 61. They _weave_ the best rugs in Philadelphia. + +EXERCISE 30 + +_Write original sentences containing the following verbs, correctly +used:_ + +Begun, blew, bidden, bad, chose, broke, come, dealt, dived, drew, +driven, flew, forsook, froze, given, give, gave, went, hanged, +knew, rode, pleaded, ran, seen, saw, shook, shod, sung, slew, spoke, +swum, taken, torn, wore, threw, woven, wrote, written. + +EXERCISE 31 + +_Insert the proper form of the verb in the following sentences. +The verb to be used is in black-faced type at the beginning of +each group:_ + + 1. BEGIN. He ---- to act at once. The reports ---- to disturb + him a little. He has ---- to feel hurt over them. + 2. BID. The proprietor ---- us a pleasant good day. No matter + how much he ---- the auctioneer will not hear him. We were + ---- to enter. + 3. BLOW. The cornetist ---- with all his might. The ship was + ---- about all day. The wind does ---- terrifically sometimes. + It may ---- to-night. The wind ---- all last night. + 4. BREAK. He fell and ---- his leg. It is well that his neck + was not ----. + 5. BURST. During the battle the shells frequently ---- right + over us. Oaken casks have often ----. + 6. CHIDE. He ---- us frequently about our actions. He was + never ---- himself. + 7. CHOOSE. They ---- him president. They have ---- wisely. + 8. COME. He ---- at nine to-day. He has always ---- earlier + heretofore. Let him ---- when he wishes. + 9. DEAL. Before explaining the game, he ---- out the cards. + 10. DIVE. Twice last summer he ---- off the bridge. + 11. DO. Thou canst not say I ---- it. He often ---- it. + 12. DRAW. The picture was ---- by a famous artist. He formerly + ---- very well, but I think that now he ---- very poorly. + 13. DRIVE. The horse was ---- twenty miles. He almost ---- + it to death. + 14. EAT. He ---- everything which the others had not ----. + How can he ---- that? + 15. FLEE. Since the cashier has ----, they think that a warrant + would be useless. + 16. FLY. The air-ship ---- three hundred miles on its first trip. + That it has ---- so far is sufficient proof of its success. + 17. FORSAKE. He ---- his new friends just as he had ---- all the + others. + 18. FREEZE. The man was ---- stiff. He evidently ---- to death + so easily because he had been so long without food. + 19. GIVE. She was not ---- as much as her sisters. Her father + ---- her less because of her extravagance. But, he now ---- + her enough to make it up. + 20. GO. She ---- to school to-day. She ---- yesterday. She has + ---- every day this month. + 21. KNOW. He ---- that he cannot live. As long as I have + ---- him, this is the first time I ever ---- he was married. + 22. MEAN. He ---- to do right, and has always ---- to do so. + 23. RIDE. They ---- as if they had ---- a long distance. They + say that they ---- from Larimer this morning. + 24. PLEAD. The mother ---- an hour for her son's life. + 25. PROVE. They ---- him a thief in the eyes of the people, even + if he was not ---- so to the satisfaction of the jury. + 26. RUN. John ---- the race as though he had ---- races all + his life. The race was ---- very rapidly. Soon after that race, + he ---- in another race. + 27. SEE. Smith, who has just arrived, says he ---- two men + skulking along the road. He was not ---- by them. That play + is the best I ever ----. + 28. SEEK. The detectives ---- all through the slums for him. + Now they ---- him in the better parts of the city. No criminal + was ever more eagerly ----. + 29. SHAKE. During the day his hand was ---- five hundred times. He + ---- hands with all who came. + 30. SHOE. The entire army was ---- with Blank's shoes. + 31. SING. The choir ---- the anthem as they had never ---- it before. + They always ---- it well. + 32. SINK. The stone ---- as soon as it is in the water. The + ship was ---- in forty fathoms of water. They ---- the ship in + 1861. + 33. SPEAK. Though they claimed that they always ---- to her, she was + really never ---- to by any member of the family. + 34. STEAL. The money was ----; whether or not he ---- it I + do not know. Everyone believes that he has frequently ---- goods + from the store. + 35. TAKE. I was ---- for him several times that day. No one ever + ---- me for him before. + 36. TEACH. John ---- school every day. He has ---- for ten years. + He first ---- when he was eighteen years old. + 37. TEAR. The dog ---- at the paper until it was ---- entirely + to pieces. He ---- up everything he finds. + 38. THROW. He was ---- by a horse which never before ---- anyone. + 39. WEAR. The trousers were ---- entirely out in a month, but I ---- + the coat and vest for six months. + 40. WEAVE. This carpet was ---- at Philadelphia. The manufacturers + say they never ---- a better one, and they ---- the best in the + country. + 41. WRITE. Although he has ---- several times, he has never ---- + anything about that. He ---- to me just last week. He ---- at + least once a month. + +EXERCISE 32 + +_Correct the errors in the use of verbs in the following sentences:_ + + 1. He plead all day to be released. + 2. The horse was rode to death. + 3. The letter was wrote before he knowed the truth. + 4. He was immediately threw out of the room. + 5. She run around all day and then was sick the next day. + 6. I never seen anything like it. + 7. He was very much shook by the news. + 8. The matter was took up by the committee. + 9. The horse has been stole from the owner. + 10. Goliath was slew by David. + 11. The words have been spoke in anger. + 12. I have went to church every day. + 13. Was the river froze enough for skating? + 14. He begun to take notice immediately. + 15. The umbrella was blew to pieces. + 16. I have broke my ruler. + 17. Jones was chose as leader of the class. + 18. He said he come as soon as he could. + 19. I done it. + 20. I have never did anything so foolish. + 21. I have ate all that was in the lunch-box. + 22. The horse was drove ten miles. + +EXERCISE 33 + +_Write sentences in which the following verb forms are properly +used:_ + +begun, blew, broke, chose, come, came, done, did, drew, drunk, +drove, ate, flew, forsook, froze, forgot, gave, give, went, hang, +hung, knew, rode, run, shook, sung, slew, spoke, stole, took, tore, +threw, wore, wrote. + +55. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. A TRANSITIVE VERB is one +in which the action of the verb goes over to a receiver; as, _He +KILLED the horse, I KEEP my word_. In both these sentences, the +verb serves to transfer the action from the subject to the object +or receiver of the action. The verbs in these sentences, and all +similar verbs, are transitive verbs. All others, in which the action +does not go to a receiver, are called INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +56. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. The ACTIVE VOICE represents the subject +as the doer of the action; as, _I tell, I see, He makes chairs_. +The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as the receiver of the +action; as, _I am told, I am seen, I have been seen, Chairs are +made by me_. Since only transitive verbs can have a receiver of +the action, only transitive verbs can have both active and passive +voice. + +57. There are a few special verbs in which the failure to distinguish +between the transitive and the intransitive verbs leads to frequent +error. The most important of these verbs are the following: _sit, +set, awake, wake, lie, lay, rise, arise, raise, fell_, and _fall_. +Note again the principal parts of these verbs: + +wake (to rouse another) woke, waked woke, waked +awake (to cease to sleep) awoke, awaked awaked + +fell (to strike down) felled felled +fall (to topple over) fell fallen + +lay (to place) laid laid +lie (to recline) lay lain + +raise (to cause to ascend) raised raised +(a)rise (to ascend) (a)rose (a)risen + +set (to place) set set +sit (to rest) sat sat + +The first of each pair of the above verbs is transitive, and the +second is intransitive. Only the first, then, of each pair can +have an object or can be used in the passive voice. + +NOTES.--The following exceptions in the use of _sit_ and _set_ +are, by reason of usage, regarded as correct: _The sun sets, The +moon sets, They sat themselves down to rest_, and _He set out for +Chicago_. + +_Lie_, meaning to deceive, has for its principal parts, _lie, lied, +lied. Lie_, however, with this meaning is seldom confused with _lie_ +meaning to recline. The present participle of _lie_ is _lying_. + +Compare the following sentences, and note the reasons why the second +form in each case is the correct form. + +WRONG RIGHT +Awake me early to-morrow. Wake me early to-morrow. +He was awoke by the noise. He was woke (waked) by the noise. +He has fallen a tree. He has felled a tree. +I have laid down. I have lain down. +I lay the book down (past tense). I laid the book down. +The river has raised. The river has risen. +He raised in bed. He rose in bed. +I set there. I sat there. +I sat the chair there. I set the chair there. + +EXERCISE 34 + +_Form an original sentence showing the proper use of each of the +following words:_ + +Lie, lay (to place), sit, set, sat, sitting, setting, lie (to recline), +lie (to deceive), lying, laying, rise, arose, raised, raise, fell (to +topple over), fallen, felled, awake, wake, awaked, woke, falling, +felling, rising, raising, waking, awaking, lain, laid, lied. + +EXERCISE 35 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ + + 1. Let sleeping dogs lay. + 2. The sun has sat in the golden west. + 3. He has laid in bed all morning. + 4. He will sit out on his journey this morning. + 5. Let him sit there as long as he wishes. + 6. He sat the chair by the table. + 7. He awoke everybody at daylight. + 8. He laid down to sleep. + 9. Let him lie there until he wakes. + 10. The shower has lain the dust. + 11. The curtain raised because it was raised by his orders. + 12. The river has risen four feet. + 13. Falling trees is his amusement. + 14. To have been awaked then would have been sad. + 15. To have waked then would have been sad. + 16. Waking at dawn, they renewed the journey. + 17. He has set there all day. + 18. He lay the papers before the judge. + 19. The judge laid the papers aside. + 20. Lieing in the shade is his most strenuous occupation. + +EXERCISE 36 + +_In the following sentences fill the blanks with the proper forms +of the verbs indicated:_ + +SIT AND SET + + 1. I ---- in that seat all the evening. + 2. Please ---- here until I return. + 3. He was still ----ting there on my return. + 4. The sun ---- in the west. + 5. He ---- out for home yesterday. + 6. ---- down and rest awhile. + 7. James ---- down and talked to me. + 8. He was engaged in ----ting out flowers. + 9. I ---- the bucket on the rock above the bridge. + 10. Last evening we ---- at the table for more than an hour. + 11. ---- here until I call my mother. + 12. ---- the lamp on the table. + 13. He has ---- there all day. + 14. The chair was ---- by the desk. + 15. I usually ---- up until twelve. + 16. She ---- the hen on some eggs and she remained ---- there. + 17. She told me to ---- there, and I ---- down. + 18. By whom has the lamp been ---- there? + 19. I ---- my chair by the window and ---- there all the afternoon. + 20. How can she ---- still for so long? + 21. The moon ---- at twelve. + +LAY AND LIE + + 1. I ---- down this afternoon to rest. + 2. I ---- in bed until late every morning. + 3. I have frequently ---- in bed until eleven. + 4. He always ---- his books on the desk. + 5. He just now ---- his books on the desk. + 6. He has ---- them there every morning. + 7. His books have sometimes ---- there all day. + 8. His books have sometimes been ----ing there before I arrive. + 9. After he ---- down he remembered that he had left a letter + on his desk. + 10. Will it not be well for you to ---- down for a while? + 11. I ---- on the grass yesterday for an hour or more. + 12. I have ---- down and feel much better. + 13. Now I ---- me down to sleep. + 14. The scene of the play is ---- in rural Pennsylvania. + 15. The tramps ---- behind the barn waiting for dawn. + 16. I had ---- down to rest before (set or sit) ting out on my + journey. + 17. The floor was ---- by an expert carpenter. + 18. She told me to ---- the matter before the teacher. + 19. ---- down, Fido. + 20. When we are weary, we ---- down. + 21. Who ---- that on the table? + 22. He has repeatedly ---- about the matter. + 23. He ---- without the slightest hesitation. + 24. ----ing down is a good way to rest. + 25. ----ing is a sin. + 26. He ---- to his father, and his father knew it. + +RAISE AND RISE (ARISE) + + 1. I will ---- and go unto my father. + 2. He has ---- early to-day. + 3. I do not know why he ---- so early. + 4. ---- your hand if you know. + 5. Everyone ---- his hand. + 6. They have all ---- their hands. + 7. All their hands were ---- at once. + 8. The price of meat has ----. + 9. The bread would not ----. + 10. I ---- in order that I might see better. + 11. The flag was very carefully ----. + 12. He tried to ---- himself from the condition into which he had + fallen. + 13. The curtain is to ---- at eight. I myself shall see to ----ing + it then. + 14. The boy ---- and answers. + 15. He is ---- rapidly to prominence. + 16. Will you please ---- the window? + 17. The safe was ---- by means of a rope. + 18. It is like trying to ---- one's self by one's boot-straps. + 19. ---- and march to the front of the room. + 20. The river ---- rapidly. + +FELL AND FALL + + 1. Gladstone, when living, ---- a tree each morning for exercise. + 2. To ---- an ox with one blow of the fist is a feat of wonderful + strength. + 3. He was ---- to the earth by a blow from a club. + 4. To ---- often is to be expected in learning to skate. + 5. ----ing down is a small matter to the young. + 6. He has often ---- from the roof of the porch. + 7. After he ---- once, he seemed to try to do so again. + 8. I did not see him----. + 9. Not a shot is fired but a bird ----. + 10. Let the tree be ---- across the road. + 11. It is hard to avoid ----ing on the ice. + +AWAKE AND WAKE + + 1. Have them ---- me very early. + 2. He went upstairs and ---- his brother. + 3. His brother did not wish to be ---- so early. + 4. This morning I ---- at dawn. + 5. It is unpleasant to ---- so early. + 6. You say that you have never ---- after nine? + 7. Who ---- so early, this morning? + 8. He would not say who ---- him. + 9. ----ing in the dead of night is unpleasant. + 10. ----ing everybody up by their noise is an every night + occurrence. + 11. The sun ---- me early. + 12. The whole country-side seemed to ---- at once. + 13. He had himself ---- at six o'clock. + +58. MODE. Mode is that form of the verb which indicates the manner +in which the action or state is to be regarded. There are several +modes in English, but only between the indicative and subjunctive +modes is the distinction important. Generally speaking, the INDICATIVE +MODE is used when the statement is regarded as a fact or as truth, +and the SUBJUNCTIVE MODE is used when the statement expresses +uncertainty or implies some degree of doubt. + +59. FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The places in which the subjunctive +differs from the indicative are in the present and past tenses +of the verb _be_, and in the present tense of active verbs. The +following outline will show the difference between the indicative +and the subjunctive of _be_: + +INDICATIVE PRESENT OF BE INDICATIVE PAST OF BE +I am we are I was we were +thou art you are thou wert or wast you were +he (she, it) is they are he (she, it) was they were + +SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT OF BE SUBJUNCTIVE PAST OF BE +If I be If we be If I were If we were +If thou be If you be If thou were If you were +If he (she, it) be If they be If he (she, it) were If they were + +_If_ is used only as an example of the conjunctions on which the +subjunctive depends. Other conjunctions may be used, or the verb +may precede the subject. + +NOTE.--It will be noticed that _thou art_ and _thou wast_, etc., +have been used in the second person singular. Strictly speaking, +these are the proper forms to be used here, even though _you are_ +and _you were_, etc., are customarily used in addressing a single +person. + +In the subjunctive of _be_, it will be noted that the form _be_ is +used throughout the present tense; and the form _were_ throughout +the past tense. + +In other verbs the subjunctive, instead of having the s-form in +the third person singular of the present tense, has the name-form, +or the same form as all the other forms of the present tense; as, +indicative, _he runs, she sees, it seems, he has;_ subjunctive, +_if he run, though she see, lest it seem, if he have_. + +NOTE.--An examination of the model conjugations under Sec.77 will give +a further understanding of the forms of the subjunctive. + +60. USE OF INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE. The indicative mode would +be properly used in the following sentence, when the statement is +regarded as true: _If that evidence is true, then he is a criminal_. +Similarly: _If he is rich, he ought to be charitable_. Most directly +declarative statements are put in the indicative mode. + +But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's +mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to +fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences +following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: +_If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were +I rich, I might be charitable_. + +The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, _if, though, +lest, although_, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be +borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive +mode. THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE DEPENDS ON WHETHER THE CONDITION +IS REGARDED AS A FACT OR AS CONTRARY TO FACT, CERTAIN OR UNCERTAIN. + +It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of +use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing +of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since +its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning. + +EXERCISE 37 + +_Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of BE in +the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which +illustrate the correct use of WERE in the third person singular._ + +EXERCISE 38 + +_Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able +to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences +either form may be used correctly:_ + + 1. He acts as if it _were was_ possible always to escape death. + 2. If it _was were_ near enough, I should walk. + 3. If I _was were_ only wealthy! + 4. If I _were was_ in his place, I should study medicine. + 5. If you _are be_ right, then the book is wrong. + 6. If he _was were_ I, he would come. + 7. Though he _was were_ very economical, he remained poor. + 8. Though she _was were_ an angel, I should dislike her. + 9. If he _be is_ there, ask him to pay the bill. + 10. If he _be is_ there, he makes no sign of his presence. + 11. If this _be is_ wrong, then all love of country is wrong. + 12. If it _rains rain_, I stay at school. + 13. Take care lest you _are be_ deceived by appearances. + 14. Would that I _was were_ a bird. + 15. If it _snow snows_, I can't come. + 16. If your father _comes come_, bring him to dinner. + 17. If your father _was were_ here, you would act differently. + 18. Though he _were was_ king over all the earth I should despise + him. + 19. If he _come comes_, he will find me at home. + 20. _Was were_ it necessary, I should jump. + 21. If to-morrow _be is_ pleasant, we shall go driving. + 22. If my mother _was were_ here, she would say I might go. + 23. If she _was were_ at home, I did not hear of it. + 24. If that _is be_ his motive, he is unworthy. + 25. Though this _seem seems_ improbable, it is true. + 26. If a speech _is be_ praised by none but literary men, it is bad. + 27. If the father _pays pay_ the debt, he will be released. + 28. Though Mary _be is_ young, she is a writer of note. + 29. Unless he _takes take_ better care of his health, he will die. + 30. If he _be is_ honest, he has not shown it. + 31. If he _be is_ honest, he will insist on paying me. + 32. If he ever _tell tells_ the truth, he conceals the fact. + +61. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. THE VERB SHOULD AGREE WITH +ITS SUBJECT IN PERSON AND NUMBER. The most frequent error is the +failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular +subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular +verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the +true number of the subject. + +The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and +occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; +as, _He runs, she goes, it moves_. _Is, was_, and _has_ are the +singular forms of the auxiliaries. _Am_ is used only with a subject +in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other +auxiliaries have no singular forms. + +Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, +and so can cause little confusion. + +Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject: + +A barrel of clothes WAS shipped (not _were shipped_). + +A man and a woman HAVE been here (not _has been here_). + +Boxes ARE scarce (not _is scarce_). + +When WERE the brothers here (not _when was_)? + +62. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB IN NUMBER. The general rule to +be borne in mind in regard to number, is that IT IS THE MEANING +AND NOT THE FORM OF THE SUBJECT THAT DETERMINES WHETHER TO USE THE +SINGULAR OR THE PLURAL FORM OF THE VERB. This rule also applies +to the use of singular or plural pronouns. + +Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, _politics, +measles, news_, etc. + +Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; +as, _forceps, tongs, trousers_. + +Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, +they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, _committee, +family, pair, jury, assembly, means_. The following sentences are +all correct: _The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly +are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The +whole family are sick_. + +In the use of the adjective pronouns, _some, each_, etc., the noun +is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using +the wrong number of the verb. _Each, either, neither, this, that_, +and _one_, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. +_All, those, these, few, many_, always require plural verbs. _Any, +none_, and _some_ may take either singular or plural verbs. In most +of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in +number, reason will determine the form to be used. + +Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. +When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. +Examine the following sentences; each is correct: _Three drops of +medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by +the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, +Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection_. + +EXERCISE 39 + +_In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify +the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the +noun:_ + + 1. The jury have agreed. + 2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict. + 3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed + in regard to one matter. + 4. The whole tribe was destroyed. + 5. The tribe were scattered through the different states. + 6. The regiment were almost all sick. + 7. A variety of persons was there. + 8. The society meets each month. + 9. The society is divided in its opinion. + 10. A number were unable to be present. + 11. A great number was present. + 12. The number present was great. + 13. What means were used to gain his vote? + 14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt. + 15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight. + 16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison. + 17. Two hundred pounds was his weight. + 18. The family are all at home. + 19. The family is large. + 20. A pair of gloves has been lost. + 21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway. + 22. The army was defeated. + +EXERCISE 40 + +_Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is +used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, IS, WAS, +HAS, HAVE, ARE, WAS, HAVE, GO, GOES, RUN, RUNS, COME, COMES:_ + +One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, +latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, +gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, +mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, +herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, +months. + +EXERCISE 41 + +_Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether IT or +THEY should be used in referring to the subject._ + +63. THE FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH A +COMPOUND SUBJECT: + +1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to +mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, +_French and German literature ARE studied._ + +2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound +subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, _John +and Harry ARE still to come._ + +3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, +it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, _The +employee, and not the employers, WAS to blame, The employers, and +not the employee, WERE to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, +DESERVES praise._ + +4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in +the singular, the verb should be singular; as, _Each book and each +paper WAS in its place, No help and no hope IS found for him, Either +one or the other IS he, Neither one nor the other IS he._ + +5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of +which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject +nearest to it; as, _Neither the boy, nor his sisters DESERVE praise, +Neither the sisters nor the boy DESERVES praise._ + +6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the +first; as, _The leader WAS slain and all his men, The men WERE +slain, and also the leader._ + +EXERCISE 42 + +_Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:_ + + 1. Hard and soft coal _is are_ used. + 2. The boy and the girl _have has_ come. + 3. Neither James nor I _are is_ to go. + 4. Neither James nor they _are is_ to go. + 5. Henry, and not his sister, _is are_ sure to be invited. + 6. The children and their father _was were_ on the train. + 7. Each man and each woman _was were_ present. + 8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth _was were_ the author of that poem. + 9. Either the man or his children _was were_ lost. + 10. Either the children or their father _was were_ lost. + 11. Bread and milk _are is_ frugal but wholesome fare. + 12. The teacher _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also her pupils. + 13. The pupils _was were_ cut off by the fire, and also the teacher. + 14. Dogs and cats _is are_ useless animals. + 15. Neither the daughters nor their mother _is are_ at home. + 16. Either the soldier or his officers _is are_ mistaken. + 17. The cat and all her kittens _was were_ at the door. + 18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, _were was_ the author. + 19. Each of the trustees _has have_ a vote. + 20. Our success or our failure _is are_ due solely to ourselves. + 21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality _characterize characterizes_ him. + 22. Everyone of these chairs _is are_ mine. + 23. Each day and each hour _bring brings_ new questions. + 24. The car and all its passengers _was were_ blown up. + 25. The ambition and activity of the man _has have_ been the + _cause causes_ of his success. + 26. Old and new hay _is are_ equally good for horses. + 27. Matthew or Paul _are is_ responsible for that belief. + 28. A man, a woman, and a child _is are_ comprised in the group. + 29. The pupils and also the teacher _were was_ embarrassed. + 30. The teacher and also the pupils _were was_ embarrassed. + 31. Neither he nor I _are is am_ going. + 32. Book after book _was were_ taken from the shelves. + 33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters _is are_ coming. + 34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary _is are_ coming. + 35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, _is are_ coming. + 36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, _is are_ coming. + 37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter _is are_ coming. + 38. Mary, and not her mother, _is are_ coming. + 39. No preacher and no woman _is are_ allowed to enter. + 40. Every adult man and woman _has have_ a vote. + 41. Money, if not culture, _gains gain_ a way. + 42. Brain power, as well as money, _talk talks_. + 43. Each boy and girl _bring brings_ books. + +64. SOME MISCELLANEOUS CAUTIONS IN REGARD TO AGREEMENT IN NUMBER: + +1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an +adjective phrase; as, _The thief, with all his booty, was captured_. + +2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after _you_ and _they_. +Say: _You were, they are, they were_, etc., not, _you was, they +was,_ etc. + +3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the +sentence, _The SALE of boxes was increased, sale_, not _boxes_, +is the subject of the verb. + +4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person +of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. +Both of the following sentences are correct: _He is the only one +of the men THAT IS to be trusted, He is one of those men THAT ARE +to be trusted._ It is to be remembered that the singulars and the +plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; _that, who_, +etc., may refer to one or more than one. + +5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with _not_. _Don't_ +cannot be used with _he_ or _she_ or _it_, or with any other singular +subject in the third person. One should say, _He doesn't_, not _he +don't; it doesn't_, not _it don't; man doesn't_, not _man don't_. The +proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances +is _does_, not _do_. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are always wrong; no +such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions +as _don't, can't_, etc., should not be used at all in formal +composition. + +EXERCISE 43 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:_ + + 1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost. + 2. You was there, John, was you not? + 3. They was never known to do that before. + 4. A barrel of apples were sold. + 5. How many were there who was there? + 6. This is one of the books that is always read. + 7. He don't know his own relatives. + 8. I ain't coming to-night. + 9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed. + 10. John, when was you in the city? + 11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable. + 12. Who they was, I couldn't tell. + 13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets." + 14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes. + 15. The hands of the clock is wrong. + 16. The gallery of pictures are splendid. + 17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable. + 18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable. + 19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right. + 20. The whole box of books were shipped. + +EXERCISE 44 + +_In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:_ + + 1. "Cows" are a common noun. + 2. Such crises seldom occurs. + 3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present. + 4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank. + 5. At that time the morals of men were very low. + 6. Mathematics are my most interesting study. + 7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower. + 8. The jury is delivering its verdict. + 9. The "Virginians" is a famous book. + 10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer. + 11. Everyone of these farms are mine. + 12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender. + 13. Farm after farm were passed by the train. + 14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president. + 15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down. + 16. Three fourths of his time are wasted. + 17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed. + 18. A variety of sounds charms the ear. + 19. A variety of recitations were given. + 20. The committee have adjourned. + 21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived. + 22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table. + 23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay. + 24. Question after question were propounded to him. + 25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the + school. + 26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn. + 27. A black and white horse were in the ring. + 28. A black and a white horse was in the ring. + 29. The committee disagree on some points. + 30. Mary, where was you yesterday? + 31. The end and aim of his life are to get money. + 32. All the crop were lost. + 33. One of them are gone. + 34. There comes the children. + 35. Were either of these men elected? + 36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal. + 37. There seem to be few here. + 38. There seems to be a few here. + 39. Neither of the letters were received. + 40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm. + 41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing. + 42. Neither John nor Henry have come. + 43. Either this book or that are wrong. + 44. This book and that is wrong. + 45. This book, not that, is wrong. + 46. Either this book or those students is wrong. + 47. Either those students, or this book is wrong. + 48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning. + +65. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. The use of the auxiliaries, _shall_ and +_will_, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. +The following outline will show the correct use of _shall_ and +_will_, except in dependent clauses and questions: + +To indicate simple futurity or probability: + + Use _shall_ with _I_ and _we_; use _will_ with + all other subjects. + +To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part +of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control; + + Use _will_ with _I_ and _we_; use _shall_ with + all other subjects. + +Examine the following examples of the correct use of _shall_ and +_will_: + +Statements as to probable future events: + + _We shall_ probably be there. + I think _you will_ want to be there. + _It will_ rain before night. + +Statements of determination on the part of the speaker: + + _I will_ come in spite of his command. + _You shall_ go home. + _It shall_ not happen again, I promise you. + +66. SHALL AND WILL IN QUESTIONS. In interrogative sentences _shall_ +should always be used with the first person. In the second and third +persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected +in the answer. + +Examine the agreement in the use of _shall_ and _will_ in the following +questions and answers: + + QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. +_Shall_ I miss the car? You _will_ miss it. +_Shall_ you be there? I think I _shall_ (probability). +_Will_ he do it? I think he _will_ (assertion). +_Shall_ your son obey the teacher? He _shall_ (determination). +_Will_ you promise to come? We _will_ come (promise). + +67. SHALL AND WILL IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. In dependent clauses which +are introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, the auxiliary +should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were +a principal clause. The sentence, _They assure us that they SHALL +come_, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, _We WILL come_. +The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be _will_. _Will_ +should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, +and the sentence should read, _They assure us that they WILL come_. +Further examples: + + I suppose _we shall_ have to pay. + He thinks that _you will_ be able to do it. + He has decided that _John shall_ replace the book. + +In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use +_shall_ with all subjects. Examples; + + _If he shall_ go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad. + _If you shall_ go away, who will run the farm? + _If I shall_ die, I shall die as an honest man. + +EXERCISE 45 + +_Justify the correct use of SHALL and WILL in the following sentences:_ + + 1. I will go if you wish. + 2. I shall probably go if you wish. + 3. I will have it in spite of all you can do. + 4. We shall return by way of Dover. + 5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. + 6. I feel that I shall not live long. + 7. We think we shall come to-morrow. + 8. I promise you, the money shall be raised. + 9. You will then go to Philadelphia. + 10. You shall never hear from me again. + 11. He will surely come to-morrow. + 12. How shall you answer him? + 13. I think I shall ride. + 14. He is sure they will come. + 15. He is sure that I will come. + 16. Shall you be there? + 17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination? + 18. Will you be there? + 19. Will all be there? + 20. He says he shall be there. + 21. He has promised that he will be there. + 22. I fear that he will fail to pass. + 23. We think she will soon be well. + 24. We are determined that they shall pay. + 25. We expect that they will bring their books. + 26. I doubt that he will pay. + 27. We have promised that we will do it. + 28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you? + +EXERCISE 46 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences with SHALL or WILL:_ + + 1. I think I ---- find the work easy. + 2. I ---- probably be refused, but I ---- go anyway. + 3. ---- you be busy to-night? Yes, I ---- be in class until ten. + 4. I ---- probably fail to pass the examination. + 5. If no one assists me, I ---- drown. + 6. No. I ---- never sell my library. + 7. If I fail I ---- be obliged to take an examination. + 8. ---- my men begin work to-day? + 9. ---- you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think + I ----. + 10. ---- you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I + ---- sing to-night. + 11. ---- I put more wood on the fire? + 12. I ---- be lost; no one ---- help me. + 13. It ---- be there when you need it. + 14. It is demanded that the pupils ---- be orderly and attentive. + 15. I think it ---- rain soon. + 16. We ---- be disappointed. + 17. ---- we be permitted to go? + 18. We ---- do it for you. + 19. ---- I go or remain at home? + 20. I ---- be very grateful to you if you ---- do this. + 21. If you ---- ask her, she ---- go with you. + 22. If you ---- stop, I ---- go with you. + 23. Where ---- we join you? + 24. I think we ---- be there in time. + 25. I ---- go to the river for a boat ride. + 26. When ---- you be twenty years of age? + 27. ---- we ever see you again? + 28. Perhaps we ---- return next year. + 29. We promise, we ---- return. + 30. You ---- probably suffer for it. + 31. I ---- not impose on you in that way. + 32. ---- I ask for your mail? + 33. I hope that we ---- be there before the curtain rises. + 34. ---- they probably be there? + 35. ---- you please fetch me a paper? + 36. ---- we stop for you on our way downtown? + 37. When ---- I find you in your office? + 38. They ---- never do it if I can help. + 39. You ---- do as I say. + 40. I ---- never, never, go there again. + 41. We ---- decide what to do about that at our next meeting which + ---- be in October. + 42. ---- it make any difference to you? + 43. ---- I go with you? + 44. No, you ---- please stay here. + 45. He ---- never enter this house again. + 46. It is believed that they ---- probably be present. + 47. He fears that he ---- die. + 48. He requests that you ---- come to-day at seven o'clock. + 49. She asks that it ---- be sent at once. + 50. It is thought that his death ---- not seriously change things. + 51. It is believed that the emperor ---- have to retract. + 52. A story is told that ---- gain little credence. + 53. I fear that I ---- take cold. + 54. She says that I ---- take cold. + 55. They say that they ---- do it in spite of anything done to prevent. + 56. He is determined that he ---- go away. + 57. She is determined that he ---- go to school. + 58. They say they ---- probably not go. + 59. John thinks he ---- probably live to be past sixty. + 60. He tells me that he thinks that he ---- be elected. + 61. They say that they ---- meet you. + 62. They assure us that we ---- find good stores in Berlin. + 63. He says he fears he ---- miss his train. + 64. Wright says his father ---- become famous. + 65. He writes that he ---- be here to-day. + 66. Do you say that you ---- be present? + 67. The book says that ---- be wrong. + 68. Does she say that she ---- come? + 69. I told you that I ---- not come. + 70. I tell you that she ---- not come. + 71. He says that he ---- go as a matter of duty. + 72. John says that ---- not happen anyway. + 73. Does he say that he ---- surely come? + 74. Does John write what he ---- promise to do in the matter? + 75. ---- you be sure to be there? + +EXERCISE 47 + +_Write five sentences in which SHALL is used in an independent +clause, and five in which SHALL is used in a dependent clause._ + +_Write five sentences in which WILL is used in an independent clause, +and five in which WILL is used in a dependent clause._ + +_Write five interrogative sentences in which SHALL is used and five +in which WILL is used._ + +68. SHOULD AND WOULD. _Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses +of _shall_ and _will_, and have corresponding uses. _Should_ is +used with _I_ and _we_, and _would_ with other subjects, to express +mere futurity or probability. _Would_ is used with _I_ and _we_, +and _should_ with other subjects, to express conditional promise +or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples: + +Futurity: + + I _should_ be sorry to lose this book. + If we _should_ be afraid of the storm, we _should_ be foolish. + It was expected that they _would_ be here. + +Volition or determination: + + If it _should_ occur, we _would_ not come. + It was promised that it _should_ not occur again. + He decided that it _should_ be done. + +_Should_ is sometimes used in the sense of _ought_, to imply duty; +as, _He should have gone to her aid_. + +_Would_ is often used to indicate habitual action; as, _This would +often occur when he was preaching_. + +EXERCISE 48 + +_Justify the correct use of SHOULD and WOULD in the following +sentences:_ + + 1. I feared that they would not come. + 2. He should know his duty better than that. + 3. I should be displeased if he would act that way. + 4. We should be ruined if we did that. + 5. You should have seen his face. + 6. We would often take that road. + 7. He said that he would come at once. + 8. If that should happen, we should not come. + 9. If you were I, what should you do? + 10. I should see the president of the class. + 11. We should have been at the meeting. + 12. He said that we should have been at the meeting. + 13. He promised that he would be at the meeting. + 14. If I should say so, he would dislike me. + 15. Should he come, I would go with him. + 16. They would usually stop at the new hotel. + 17. What would they do in the city? + 18. She asked if she should write the letter. + 19. She said they would write the letter. + 20. She agreed that it would be right. + 21. She assured us that she would attend to it. + +EXERCISE 49 + +_Fill in the blanks with SHOULD or WOULD in the following sentences:_ + + 1. I fear I ---- be drowned if I ---- go swimming. + 2. I ---- be much pleased to meet him. + 3. It was feared that they ---- not accept. + 4. If it ---- storm, we ---- not start. + 5. She ---- often come to class with no books. + 6. I believed that he ---- come late. + 7. He ---- never have been invited. + 8. If that had become known, we ---- surely have been ruined. + 9. To think that he ---- do such a thing! + 10. I ---- like to see the game. + 11. You ---- not enjoy it. + 12. ---- you like to see the game? + 13. ---- I bring my opera glasses? + 14. Mary ---- never have known it. + 15. He ---- have easily deceived her. + 16. They were anxious that we ---- not miss the train. + 17. If we ---- come late, ---- it make any difference? + 18. If they had proposed it, we ---- have voted it down. + 19. On what date ---- that come? + 20. I suppose I ---- have done it; but, it ---- have inconvenienced me. + 21. Had Lee known that, he ---- never have surrendered. + 22. I ---- never have believed she ---- do such a thing. + 23. We ---- never have come. + 24. ---- you think him capable of such a trick? + 25. I knew I ---- not be here on time. + 26. ---- they dare to attempt opposition? + 27. How ---- you go about it? + 28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, ---- probable not have been + elected. + 29. It ---- have changed our whole history. + 30. He said that it ---- have changed our whole history. + 31. He said he ---- come. + 32. She thinks they ---- not do it. + 33. We believe that we ---- like to go at once. + 34. They say it ---- be done now. + 35. I think I ---- like to go. + +EXERCISE 50 + +_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used independently, and +five in which SHOULD is used dependently._ + +_Write five sentences in which WOULD is used independently, and +five in which WOULD is used dependently._ + +_Write five sentences in which SHOULD is used in questions, and +five in which WOULD is used in questions._ + +69. USE OF MAY AND MIGHT, CAN AND COULD. _May_, with its past tense, +_might_, is properly used to denote permission. _Can_, with its +past tense, _could_, refers to the ability or possibility to do +a thing. These two words are often confused. + +EXERCISE 51 + +_Fill the blanks in the following sentences:_ + + 1. ---- I go home? + 2. ---- we get tickets at that store? + 3. ---- the mountain be climbed? + 4. ---- we come into your office? + 5. You ---- stay as long as you wish. + 6. ---- you finish the work in an hour? + 7. How ---- you say such a thing? + 8. Several people ---- use the same book. + 9. We ---- afford to delay a while. + 10. ---- John go with me? + 11. You ---- often hear the noise. + 12. What ---- not be done in a week? + 13. That ---- be true, but it ---- not be relied on. + 14. What ---- he do to prevent it? + 15. When ---- we hand in the work? + +70. PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. The past participle has already been +mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the +PARTICIPLES are those forms of the verb that ARE USED ADJECTIVELY; +as, _seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, +having played_, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb +form in each case modifies a substantive: _He, HAVING BEEN INVITED +TO DINE, came early, John, BEING SICK, could not come_. The verb +form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used +in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun +or pronoun. + +The GERUND is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs +in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the GERUND +IS ALWAYS USED SUBSTANTIVELY; as, _I told OF HIS WINNING the race, +AFTER HIS ASSERTING it, I believe the statement_. + +71. MISUSES OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. + +1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical +and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the +sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known +as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, _The dish was +broken, RESULTING from its fall_, because _resulting_ does not +stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But +it would be right to say, _The dish was broken as a result of its +fall_. Examine, also, the following examples: + +Wrong: I spent a week in Virginia, _followed_ by a week at Atlantic +City. + +Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _following_ it by a week at Atlantic +City. + +Right: I spent a week in Virginia, _and then_ a week at Atlantic +City. + +2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or +principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence +or clause. Compare the following: + +Wrong: Having been sick, it was decided to remain at home. + +Right: Having been sick, I decided to remain at home. + +3. A participle preceded by _thus_ should not be used unless it +modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following: + +Wrong: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus causing_ him a great +deal of trouble. + +Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _and was thus caused_ a +great deal of trouble. + +Right: He had to rewrite several pages, _thus experiencing_ a great +deal of trouble. + +4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and +frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between +the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that +the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a +modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. +A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive +case. Say, _I heard OF JOHN'S COMING_, not, _I heard OF JOHN COMING_. + +5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should +be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it +modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless +it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: +When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used +without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, _In traveling, +good drinking water is essential_. Compare the following wrong +and right forms: + +Wrong: _After seeing his mistake_, a new start was made. + +Right: _After seeing his mistake_, he made a new start. + +Wrong: _By writing rapidly, the work_ can be finished. + +Right: _By writing rapidly, you_ can finish the work. + +Wrong: _In copying the exercise_, a mistake was made. + +Right: _In copying the exercise, I_ made a mistake. + +EXERCISE 52 + +_In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive +from those italicized:_ + + 1. He spoke of _John John's_ coming down. + 2. The idea of _his him_ singing is absurd. + 3. Do you remember _me my_ speaking about it? + 4. What is the use of _you your_ reading that? + 5. _He his him_ being arrested was a sufficient disgrace. + 6. _He him his_ being now of age, sold the farm. + 7. _He him his_ selling it was very unexpected. + 8. You should have heard _him his_ telling the story. + 9. You should have heard _his him_ telling of the story. + 10. To think of _them they their_ having been seen there! + 11. What is the object of _Mary Mary's_ studying French? + 12. _It its_ being John was a great surprise. + 13. What is the use of _them they their_ talking so much? + 14. _John John's_ going to school takes all his evenings. + 15. The beauty of _James James's_ writing got him the position. + 16. He had heard about _me my_ coming to-day. + 17. _John John's_ coming was a surprise. + +EXERCISE 53 + +_Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following +sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. +See Sec.107 for rule as to punctuation:_ + + 1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible. + 2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced + architect. + 3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health. + 4. On hearing that, a new plan was made. + 5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber. + 6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in + town. + 7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income. + 8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class. + 9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable + anxiety. + 10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him. + 11. After telling me the story, I left him. + 12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much. + 13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to + lose a great deal of valuable time. + 14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome. + 15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest. + +72. INFINITIVES. The Infinitives are formed by the word _to_ and +some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For _see_ and +_play_ as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows: + +PRESENT ACTIVE PRESENT PASSIVE + to see to be seen + to play to be played + +PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE + to have seen to have been seen + to have played to have been played + +The word _to_ is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow +the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above. + +It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since +the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors. + +73. SEQUENCE OF INFINITIVE TENSES. The wrong tense of the infinitive +is frequently used. The following rules should be observed: + +1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time +or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the +PRESENT INFINITIVE should be used. + +2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as +completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the PERFECT +INFINITIVE should be used. + +Examine the following examples: + +Wrong: _I should have liked to have gone._ + +Right: _I should have liked to go_ (same or later time). + +Right: _I should like to have gone_ (earlier time). + +Wrong: _It was bad to have been discovered._ + +Right: _It is bad to have been discovered_ (earlier time). + +Right: _It was bad to be discovered_ (same or later time). + +Right: _She did not believe her son to have committed the crime_ +(earlier time). + +Right: _When he died, he believed himself to have been defeated +for the office_ (earlier time.) + +EXERCISE 54 + +_In the following sentences choose the proper form from those +italicized:_ + + 1. I was sorry _to have heard to hear_ of John's death. + 2. Should you have been willing _to go to have gone_ with us? + 3. The game was intended _to be played to have been played_ + yesterday. + 4. I intended _to write to have written_ long ago. + 5. He wished _to have met to meet_ you. + 6. I should have liked _to meet to have met_ you. + 7. Mary was eager _to have gone to go_. + 8. Nero was seen _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. + 9. Nero is said _to have fiddled to fiddle_ while Rome burned. + 10. This was _to be done to have been done_ yesterday. + 11. They agreed _to finish to have finished_ it yesterday. + 12. He was willing _to sing to have sung_ alone. + 13. He expected _to have spoken to speak_ here to-morrow. + 14. The Civil War is said _to cause to have caused_ more loss of life + than any other war. + 15. Blackstone is said _to have failed to fail_ at the practice of law. + 16. It would have been hard _to accomplish to have accomplished_ + that result. + 17. He was foolish enough _to have spoiled to spoil_ six negatives. + 18. I wanted _to have attended to attend_ the convention. + 19. It would be terrible _to be lost to have been lost_ in the forest. + 20. We were asked _to have waited to wait_. + 21. I am eager _to have seen to see it_. + 22. I am pleased _to meet to have met_ you. + +74. SPLIT INFINITIVES. In the sentence, care should be taken to +avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial +modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called +the "split infinitive." Compare the following: + +Bad: He seemed _to easily learn_. +Good: He seemed _to learn easily_. + +Bad: He is said _to have rapidly run_ along the street. +Good: He is said _to have run rapidly_ along the street. + +EXERCISE 55 + +_Correct the following split infinitives:_ + + 1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note. + 2. Mary tried to quickly call help. + 3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph. + 4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation. + 5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents. + 6. His policy was to never offend. + 7. He wished to in this way gain friends. + 8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance. + +75. AGREEMENT OF VERB IN CLAUSES. In a compound predicate, the +parts of the predicate should agree in tense; PAST TENSE SHOULD +FOLLOW PAST TENSE, AND PERFECT TENSE FOLLOW PERFECT TENSE. Examine +the following: + +Wrong: He _has tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible +to stop his son. + +Right: He _has tried_ to do, and really _has done_ everything possible +to stop his son. + +Right: He _tried_ to do, and really _did_ everything possible to +stop his son. + +Wrong: I _hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. + +Right: I _hoped_ and _worked_ to gain this recognition. + +Right: I _have hoped_ and _have worked_ to gain this recognition. + +EXERCISE 56 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. I went last week and have gone again this week. + 2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him. + 3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry. + 4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry. + 5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived. + 6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded. + 7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal. + 8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed + in getting his money. + 9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming. + 10. I have believed and usually taught that theory. + 11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. + 12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world + as I. + 13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy. + 14. We have needed you and did our best to find you. + +76. OMISSION OF THE VERB OR PARTS OF THE VERB. The verb or some +of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the +sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning. + +_I like him better than John_. This sentence may have the meaning +shown in either of its following corrected forms: _I like him better +than John DOES_, or _I like him better than I LIKE John_. + +As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech +should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence +ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound. + +Bad: _He was told to go where he ought not_. +Good: _He was told to go where he ought not to go_. +Good: _He was told to go where he should not go_. + +EXERCISE 57 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. I admire Mary more than John. + 2. I think she is older than John. + 3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried. + 4. I asked him to do what I should not have. + 5. I did what I ought not. + 6. We wish him better luck than Mary. + 7. We want to see him more than Henry. + 8. I should hate him worse than you. + 9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to. + 10. You may, as you please, do it or not. + 11. She may go if she wishes or not. + 12. We think of you oftener than mother. + +77. MODEL CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS TO BE AND TO SEE. + +CONJUGATION OF TO BE + +PRINCIPAL PARTS: AM, WAS, BEEN + +INDICATIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _am_ We _are_ +2. [*]Thou _art_ (you _are_) You _are_ +3. He _is_ They _are_ + +[Footnote *: The forms, _thou art, thou wast, thou hast_, etc., +are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily +the forms of the second person plural, _you are, you were, you +have_, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These +distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the +model conjugations.] + +PAST TENSE + +1. I _was_ We _were_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert_ You _were_ +3. He _was_ They _were_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_Have_ with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. I _have been_ We _have been_ +2. Thou _hast been_ You _have been_ +3. He _has been_ They _have been_ + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Had_ with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. I _had been_ We _had been_ +2. Thou _hadst been_ You _had been_ +3. He _had been_ They _had been_ + +FUTURE TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_ with the present infinitive, _be_.[*]) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _shall be_ We _shall be_ +2. Thou _shalt be_ You _shall be_ +3. He _shall be_ They _shall be_ + +[Footnote *: To determine when to use _shall_ and when to use _will_ +in the future and future perfect tenses, see Sec.Sec. 65, 66, and 67. +In these model conjugations the forms of _shall_ are given with +the future and the forms of _will_ with the future perfect.] + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_ with the perfect infinitive, _have been_.[*]) + +1. I _will have been_ We _will have been_ +2. Thou _wilt have been_ You _will have been_ +3. He _will have been_ They _will have been_ + +[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.] + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + +(Generally follows _if, though, lest, although_, etc. See Sec.59.) + +PRESENT TENSE + +1. (If) I _be_ (If) we _be_ +2. (If) thou _be_ (If) you _be_ +3. (If) he _be_ (If) they _be_ + +PAST TENSE + +1. (If) I _were_ (If) we _were_ +2. (If) thou _were_ (If) you _were_ +3. (If) he _were_ (If) they _were_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_Have_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) + +1. (If) I _have been_ (If) we _have been_ +2. (If) thou _have been_ (If) you _have been_ +3. (If) he _have been_ (If) they _have been_ + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Had_, unchanged, with the past participle, _been_.) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _had been_ (If) we _had been_ +2. (If) thou _had been_ (If) you _had been_ +3. (If) he _had been_ (If) they _had been_ + +FUTURE TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with present infinitive _be_.[*]) + +[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.] + +1. (If) I _shall be_ (If) we _shall be_ +2. (If) thou _shall be_ (If) you _shall be_ +3. (If) he _shall be_ (If) they _shall be_ + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + +(_Shall_ or _will_, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, _have +been_.*) + +1. (If) I _shall have been_ (If) we _shall have been_ +2. (If) thou _shall have been_ (If) you _shall have been_ +3. (If) he _shall have been_ (If) they _shall have been_ + +POTENTIAL MODE[*] + +[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many +authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as +of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use +it in these model conjugations. + +As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode +see Sec.Sec. 68 and 69. The conjugation with _must_ (or _ought to_) is +sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with _should_ +or _would_ is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.] + +PRESENT TENSE + +(_May, can_, or _must_, with the present infinitive, _be_.) + +1. I _may, can_, or _must be_ We _may, can_, or _must be_ +2. Thou _mayst, canst_, or _must be_ You _may, can_, or _must be_ +3. He _may, can_, or _must be_ They _may, can_, or _must be_ + +PAST TENSE + +(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the present infinitive, +_be_.) + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _might, could, would_, or We _might, could, would_, or + _should be_ _should be_ +2. Thou _mightst, couldst,_ You _might, could, would,_ or + _wouldst,_ or _shouldst be_ _should be_ +3. He _might, could, would,_ They _might, could, would,_ or + or _should be_ _should be_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + +(_May, can_, or _must_, with the perfect infinitive, _have been_. +For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the present potential.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE + +(_Might, could, would_, or _should_, with the perfect infinitive +_have been_. For forms substitute _have been_ for _be_ in the past +potential.) + +IMPERATIVE MODE[*] + +[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.] + +_Be_ + +INFINITIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE +_To be To have been_ + +PARTICIPLES + +PRESENT TENSE PERFECT TENSE +_Being Having been_ + +GERUNDS + +(Same as participles) + +CONJUGATION OF TO SEE + +PRINCIPAL PARTS: SEE, SAW, SEEN + +INDICATIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _see_ We _see_ +2. Thou _seest_ You _see_ +3. He _sees_ They _see_ + +_Emphatic_ + +1. I _do see_ We _do see_ +2. Thou _dost see_ You _do see_ +3. He _does see_ They _do see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _am seeing_ We _are seeing_ +2. Thou _art seeing_ You _are seeing_ +3. He _is seeing_ They _are seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _am seen_ We _are seen_ +2. Thou _art seen_ You _are seen_ +3. He _is seen_ They _are seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _am being seen_ We _are being seen_ +2. Thou _art being seen_ You _are being seen_ +3. He _is being seen_ They _are being seen_ + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _saw_ We _saw_ +2. Thou _sawest_ You _saw_ +3. He _saw_ They _saw_ + +_Emphatic_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. I _did see_ We _did see_ +2. Thou _didst see_ You _did see_ +3. He _did see_ They _did see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _was seeing_ We _were seeing_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seeing_ You _were seeing_ +3. He _was seeing_ They _were seeing_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. I _was seen_ We _were seen_ +2. Thou _wast_ or _wert seen_ You _were seen_ +3. He _was seen_ They _were seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. I _was being seen_ We _were being seen_ +2. Thou _wert_ or _wast being seen_ You _were being seen_ +3. He _was being seen_ They _were being seen_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative of +_to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future indicative of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect indicative +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _have been_ in the future perfect +indicative of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _have been_ in the future perfect +indicative of _to be_.) + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _see_ (If) we _see_ +2. (If) thou _see_ (If) you _see_ +3. (If) he _see_ (If) they _see_ + +_Emphatic_ + +_Person Singular Number Plural Number_ +1. (If) I _do see_ (If) we _do see_ +2. (If) thou _do see_ (If) you _do see_ +3. (If) he _do see_ (If) they _do see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. (If) I _be seeing_ (If) we _be seeing_ +2. (If) thou _be seeing_ (If) you _be seeing_ +3. (If) he _be seeing_ (If) they _be seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +1. (If) I _be seen_ (If) we _be seen_ +2. (If) thou _be seen_ (If) you _be seen_ +3. (If) he _be seen_ (If) they _be seen_ + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +1. (If) I _saw_ (If) we _saw_ +2. (If) thou _saw_ (If) you _saw_ +3. (If) he _saw_ (If) they _saw_ + +_Emphatic_ + +1. (If) I _did see_ (If) we _did see_ +2. (If) thou _did see_ (If) you _did see_ +3. (If) he _did see_ (If) they _did see_ + +_Progressive_ + +1. (If) I _were seeing_ (If) we _were seeing_ +2. (If) thou _were seeing_ (If) you _were seeing_ +3. (If) he _were seeing_ (If) they _were seeing_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +1. (If) I _were seen_ (If) we _were seen_ +2. (If) thou _were seen_ (If) you _were seen_ +3. (If) he _were seen_ (If) they _were seen_ + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the present perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive of +_to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for _been_ in the past perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the future subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _seen_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _been seeing_ for _been_ in the future perfect subjunctive +of _to be_.) + +FUTURE PERFECT--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _been seen_ for the future perfect subjunctive of _to +be_.) + +POTENTIAL MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to +be_.) + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to be_.) + +PAST TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _see_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _be seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _be seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of _to +be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the present potential +of _to be_.) + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the present potential of +_to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +(Substitute _have seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to be_.) + +_Progressive_ + +(Substitute _have been seeing_ for _be_ in the past potential of +_to be_.) + +PAST PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +(Substitute _have been seen_ for _be_ in the past potential of _to +be_.) + +IMPERATIVE MODE + +ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_see_. + +_Emphatic_ + +_do see_. + +_Progressive_ + +_be seeing_. + +PASSIVE VOICE + +_be seen_ + +INFINITIVE MODE + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to see._ + +_Progressive_ + +_to be seeing._ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to be seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to have seen._ + +_Progressive_ + +_to have been seeing._ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_to have been seen._ + +PARTICIPLES + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_being seen_ + +PAST TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE[*] + +_seen_ + +[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.] + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_Simple_ + +_having seen_ + +_Progressive_ + +_having been seeing_ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_having been seen_ + +GERUNDS + +PRESENT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_seeing_ + +PRESENT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_being seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--ACTIVE VOICE + +_having seen_ + +PERFECT TENSE--PASSIVE VOICE + +_having been seen_ + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, +AND PREPOSITIONS + +78. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. A sentence may consist of +two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal +clause and one or more dependent clauses. + +INDEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined by conjunctions; such as, _hence, +but, and, although_, etc. + +DEPENDENT CLAUSES are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; +such as, _where, when_, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, _who, +what_, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in +the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See Sec.7.) + +79. CASE AND NUMBER OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Failure +to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has +already been touched upon (see Sec.29), but a further mention of this +fault may well be made here. + +The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that +of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve +as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, _I wonder +WHOM will be chosen_, is wrong, because the relative here is the +subject of _will be chosen_, not the object of _wonder_, and should +have the nominative form _who_. Corrected, it reads, _I wonder +WHO will be chosen_. Examine the following sentences: + +Wrong: We know _who_ we mean. + +Right: We know _whom_ we mean. + +Wrong: You may give it to _whoever_ you wish. + +Right: You may give it to _whomever_ you wish. + +Wrong: Do you know _whom_ it is? + +Right: Do you know _who_ it is? (Attribute complement.) + +Wrong: Everybody _who were_ there were disappointed. (Disagreement +in number.) + +Right: Everybody _who was_ there was disappointed. + +The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it +introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, +the sentence, _He gave it to WHO had the clearest right_, is correct, +because _who_ is the subject of the verb _had_, and therefore in +the nominative case. _Give it to WHOMEVER they name_, is right, +because _whomever_ is the object of _they name_. + +Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same +way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has +other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as +the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, +to use the proper case. Say, _Whom are you looking for?_ not, _Who +are you looking for?_ + +NOTE. Some writers justify the use of _who_ in sentences like the +last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, +the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere +to the strictly grammatical form. + +EXERCISE 58 + +_In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those +italicized:_ + + 1. _Who whom_ do you wish to see? + 2. You will please write out the name of _whoever whomever_ you want. + 3. I saw _who whom_ was there. + 4. _Who whom_ was it you saw? + 5. _Who whom_ did you see? + 6. John did not know _whom who_ to ask. + 7. Why did he not ask _whomever whoever_ was there? + 8. _Who whom_ can tell the difference? + 9. Give it to _whoever whomever_ you please. + 10. None of those who _were was_ wanted _was were_ there. + 11. The one of those who _were was_ wanted was not there. + 12. He is one of those fellows who _are is_ always joking. + 13. _Whom who_ was called "The Rail Splitter?" + 14. Do you not know _whom who_ it was? + 15. That is one of the birds that _is are_ very rare. + 16. One of the books which _was were_ brought was one hundred years old. + 17. I am not among those _who whom were was_ there. + 18. Only one of the men who _were was_ on board survived. + 19. Everyone else who _was were_ there _was were_ lost. + 20. I am the one of the three men who _is am are_ guilty. + 21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who _was were_ to speak + on Commencement Day. + 22. It was one of the books which _were was_ being sought by the + librarian. + 23. Give it to one of the men _who whom_ is found there. + 24. To _who whom_ did you give it? + 25. It was for _whomever whoever_ was present. + 26. Ask _whomever whoever_ is nearest the door. + +80. CONJUNCTIVE OR RELATIVE ADVERBS. It is better to use a _WHEN_ +CLAUSE only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the +time of an event. Compare the following: + +Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching. +Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching. + +Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning. +Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning. + +81. Do not use a _WHEN_ or a _WHERE_ CLAUSE in defining a subject +or in place of a predicate noun. + +Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course. +Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course. + +Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars. +Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars. + +82. _So, then_, and _also_, the conjunctive adverbs, should not +be used to unite cooerdinate verbs in a sentence unless _and_ or +_but_ be used in addition to the adverb. + +Bad: The boys' grades are low, _so_ they indicate lack of application. +Good: The boys' grades are low, _and so_ indicate lack of application. + +Bad: He read for a while, _then_ fell asleep. +Good: He read for a while, _and then_ fell asleep. + +Bad: I'll be down next week; _also_ I shall bring Jack along. +Good: I'll be down next week; _and also_ I shall bring Jack along. + +EXERCISE 59 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government. + 2. I am studying German, also French. + 3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. + 4. I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire. + 5. I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office. + 6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones. + 7. Death is when one ceases to live. + 8. Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work. + 9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped. + 10. He loves good music, also good pictures. + 11. A restaurant is where meals are served. + +83. CONJUNCTIONS. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain +pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble. + +AND or BUT should not be used to join a dependent clause to an +independent clause; as, _It was a new valise AND differing much +from his old one_. Say instead, _It was a new valise, differing +much from his old one_, or _It was a new valise, and differed very +much from his old one_. Similarly, _It was a new book WHICH_ (not +_and which_) _interested him very much_. This "and which" construction +is a frequent error; _and which_ should never be used unless there +is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first +one. + +BUT or FOR should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding +statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of +this error: _He likes geometry, BUT fails in algebra, BUT studies +it hard, He read all night, FOR the book interested him, FOR it +was along the line of his ambition_. + +THAN and AS should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences +like this: _I am as large AS HIM_. The verb in these sentences +is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The +sentence would then read, _I am as large as HIM (is large)_. The +correct form is, _I am as large as he (is large)_. Similarly, _He +is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than HE (is bright)_. + +AS may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. _He is AS +tall AS I_. The first _as_ is an adverb, the second _as_ is a +conjunction. _As_ is properly used as an adverb when the equality +is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, _so_ should be used +in its place. _He is AS old AS I_, is correct, but the denial should +be, _He is NOT SO old AS I_. After _not_ do not use _as_ when _as_ +is an adverb. + +NEITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by NOR; +as, _Neither he NOR (not or) I can come. Neither_ should never +be followed by _or_. + +EITHER, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by OR. + +84. PLACING OF CORRELATIVES. The correlatives, such as _neither--nor, +either--or, not only--but also_, should be placed in clear relation +to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One +should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some +other part of speech. + +Bad: He _not only_ brought a book, _but also_ a pencil. +Good: He brought _not only_ a book _but also_ a pencil. + +Bad: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ would he apologize. +Good: _Neither_ would he offer reparation _nor_ would he apologize. +Good: He would offer _neither_ reparation _nor_ apology. + +85. The prepositions _without, except, like_, and the adverb _directly_ +should not be used as conjunctions. + +Wrong: _Without_ (_unless_) you attend to class-room work, you cannot +pass. + +Wrong: This she would not do _except_ (_unless_) we promised to +pay at once. + +Wrong: I acted just _like_ (_as_) all the others (did). + +Wrong: _Directly_ (_as soon as_) he came, we harnessed the horses. + +EXERCISE 60 + +_Correct the following sentences:_ + + 1. Mary is as old as her. + 2. I read as much as him. + 3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest. + 4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed + all night. + 5. We are better players than them. + 6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and + doing many absurd things. + 7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very + entertaining. + 8. They work harder than us. + 9. John is not as tall as you. + 10. Neither John or James is as tall as you. + 11. I admire Mary more than she. + 12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal. + 13. He dresses just like I do. + 14. Directly he came we launched the canoes. + 15. This cannot be done except you are a senior. + 16. Neither she nor I was present. + 17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose. + 18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen. + 19. The men neither interested him nor the places. + 20. He has traveled more than me. + 21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has + traveled so much. + 22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information. + 23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals. + 24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for + athletics. + 25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics. + +EXERCISE 61 + +_Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly +used:_ + +When, where, than, as--as, so--as, neither--nor, not only--but also, +either--or, except, like, without, directly. + +86. PREPOSITIONS. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. +Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions +to be used with each: + +agree _with_ a person differ _from_ (person or thing) +agree _to_ a proposition differ _from_ or _with_ an opinion +bestow _upon_ different _from_ +compare _with_ (to determine value) glad _of_ +compare _to_ (because of similarity) need _of_ +comply _with_ part _from_ (a person) +confide _in_ (to trust in) part _with_ (a thing) +confide _to_ (to intrust to) profit _by_ +confer _on_ (to give) prohibit _from_ +confer _with_ (to talk with) reconcile _to_ (a person) +convenient _to_ (a place) reconcile _with_ (a statement) +convenient _for_ (a purpose) scared _by_ +dependent _on_ think _of_ or _about_ + +Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following +improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted: + +continue _on_ _down_ until +covered _over_ inside _of_ +off _of_ outside _of_ +started _out_ where _to_? +wish _for_ to come remember _of_ +more than you think _for_ + +Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness +of the sentence. + +Bad: He is a dealer and shipper _of_ coal. + +Good: He is a dealer _in_ and shipper _of_ coal. + +EXERCISE 62 + +_Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions +listed under the first paragraph of_ Sec.86. + +_Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of +each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph +of_ Sec.86. + + + + +QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + +SENTENCES, PARTS OF SPEECH, AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS. What are the +four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? +Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? +What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate +clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective +clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is +an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? +Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, +complex, and compound sentences. + +NOUNS. What is the difference between singular and plural number? +How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in _s, +ch, sh, x_, or _z_? In _y_? In _f_ or _fe_? In _o_? Of letters, +figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How +is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in +_s_ or in an _s_ sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? +What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? +What is the difference between common and proper nouns? + +PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? +What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" +in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns +that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may +be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either +sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? +What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred +to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after _everybody_? +After _some one_? After _some people_? After two nouns connected by +_or_? By _nor_? By _and_? What are relative pronouns? Name them. +With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference +between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? +Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may +be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When +should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? +May _thou_ and _you_ be used in the same sentence? When should _but +that_ be used, and when _but what_? May _them_ be used adjectively? +May _which_ be used with a clause as an antecedent? May _which_ and +_that_, or _who_ and _that_ be used in the same sentence with the +same antecedent? + +ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. +Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the +comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, _He is +the largest of the two?_ Reason? _He is the larger of the three?_ +Reason? _He is the largest of all?_ Reason? Name three adjectives +which cannot be compared. May one say, _Paris is larger than any +city?_ Reason? _Paris is larger than all cities?_ Reason? _Paris +is the largest of any other city?_ Reason? Is a singular or plural +noun demanded by _every_? By _two_? By _various_? By _each_? With +how many objects may _either_ be used? _Neither_? Where should +the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant +by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the +definite article? + +VERBS. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? +Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. +With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary +be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the +verbs, _go, see, begin, come, drink, write_. What is a transitive +verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the +difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or +does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive +voice. Distinguish between the use of _sit_ and _set_. Of _lay_ and +_lie_. Of _rise_ and _raise_. What is the general rule for the use +of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive +of _be_ differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs +differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a +verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always +determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether +to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be +used with _don't, can't_, etc.? What determines whether to use +a singular or a plural verb after _who_, _which_, and _that_? What +form of the verb is used after _you_? After _they_? When are _shall_ +and _should_ used with _I_ and _we_? When with other subjects? +What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in +dependent clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood? In +contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of _may_ and _might_ from +_can_ and _could_. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? +May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection +to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a +participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may +be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? +When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present +infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split +infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense? + +CONNECTIVES. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent +clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a _when_ clause be +used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? +May _so, then_, or _also_ be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May +_and_ or _but_ be used to join a dependent clause to a principal +clause? What case should follow _than_ or _as_? Should _neither_ +be followed by _nor_ or _or_? + + + + +A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR + +EXERCISE 63 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each +sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph +in which is discussed the question involved:_ + + 1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.) + 2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.) + 3. He said he should come if he could. (68.) + 4. Can I use your pencil? (69.) + 5. If you were I, what would you do? (68.) + 6. We would like to go. (68.) + 7. Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is + present. (63-5.) + 8. He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.) + 9. Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.) + 10. This is John's book. (13.) + 11. I feared that they should not come. (68.) + 12. Mother's and father's death. (15-4.) + 13. Mary was eager to have gone. (73.) + 14. The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.) + 15. The members of Congress watch each other. (44.) + 16. I fear that I will take cold. (67.) + 17. Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.) + 18. Neither of the three is well. (43.) + 19. Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? + (29) (41.) + 20. He is determined that he shall go away. (67.) + 21. Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.) + 22. Whom did the man say he was? (29.) + 23. His clothes look prettily. (38.) + 24. The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.) + 25. Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.) + 26. This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.) + 27. Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.) + 28. I am believed to be him. (29.) + 29. He sings very illy. (40.) + 30. When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep + for them to work. (54.) + 31. She is very discontented. (48.) + 32. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) + 33. The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.) + 34. Shall my work soon begin? (66.) + 35. He is six foot tall. (42.) + 36. Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.) + 37. Will the dog bite? (66.) + 38. I am believed to be he. (29.) + 39. I am eager to have seen it. (73.) + 40. I think it shall rain soon. (67.) + 41. She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.) + 42. Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.) + 43. Who did the man say he was? (29.) + 44. He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has + been through Oxford University. (83.) + 45. Choose who you please. (29.) + 46. It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.) + 47. The pump was froze fast. (54.) + 48. A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.) + 49. Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.) + 50. It is him. (29.) + 51. He did it hisself. (31.) + 52. He eat all there was on the table. (54.) + 53. He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.) + 54. The murderer was hung at noon. (54.) + 55. It is a queer kind of a book. (47.) + 56. You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.) + 57. Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.) + 58. I think I will find the work easy. (67.) + 59. He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.) + 60. Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.) + 61. Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.) + 62. Goliath was slew by David. (54.) + 63. Myself and mother are sick. (30.) + 64. John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.) + 65. If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them + out. (21.) + 66. The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.) + 67. John's and William's dog. (15-4.) + 68. Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.) + 69. Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.) + 70. He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the + paper. (34-6.) + 71. Awake me early in the morning. (57.) + 72. If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.) + 73. Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.) + 74. Washington, the general and the president, was born on + February 22d. (47.) + 75. Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.) + 76. A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.) + 77. I sat my chair by the window. (57.) + 78. I sat myself down to rest. (57.) + 79. I can't hardly see to write. (46.) + 80. John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.) + 81. He laid on the couch all day. (57.) + 82. Death is when one ceases to live. (81.) + 83. I was told to set here. (57.) + 84. Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.) + 85. I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.) + 86. McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.) + 87. It weighs several ton. (42.) + 88. John is not as bright as Henry. (83.) + 89. Germany and France's ships. (15-4.) + 90. John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.) + 91. You had ought to go home. (54.) + 92. This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.) + 93. Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.) + 94. An axe is the tool which they use. (26.) + 95. It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.) + 96. The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last + week are the same. (26, 34-5.) + 97. I don't like those kind of people. (42.) + 98. I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.) + 99. Let him lay there. (57.) + 100. My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.) + 101. American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.) + 102. William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.) + 103. The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.) + 104. The price of meat has raised. (57.) + 105. This train runs slow. (38.) + 106. Which is the best of the two? (41-1.) + 107. Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.) + 108. Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be + discharged. (85.) + 109. The family is all at home. (62.) + 110. The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.) + 111. This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.) + 112. The knife has laid there all day. (57.) + 113. The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.) + 114. The jury has agreed. (62.) + 115. Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.) + 116. Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.) + 117. The army were defeated. (62.) + 118. If I was you, I should go at once. (60.) + 119. She may go if she wishes or not. (76.) + 120. Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.) + 121. I like her better than you. (76.) + 122. Who do you want? (79.) + 123. Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.) + 124. By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.) + 125. The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.) + 126. When was you there? (64-2.) + 127. He is as tall as me. (83.) + 128. Neither John nor her will come. (29.) + 129. You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.) + 130. You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.) + 131. I wish you were more like she. (29.) + 132. Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.) + 133. Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.) + 134. He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.) + 135. Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.) + 136. The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.) + 137. The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.) + 138. He has fell from his chair. (57.) + 139. I will raise and go to my father. (57.) + 140. The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.) + 141. They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.) + 142. Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.) + 143. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.) + 144. He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.) + 145. Neither German or French is taught there. (83.) + 146. We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.) + 147. He awoke at nine. (57.) + 148. I wish I was a bird. (60.) + 149. If it rains, I stay at school. (60.) + 150. Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.) + 151. The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.) + 152. We started out for the city at noon. (86.) + 153. The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.) + 154. Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.) + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +SENTENCES + +87. Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences are +considered as loose, periodic, and balanced. + +The LOOSE SENTENCE is so constructed that it may be closed at two +or more places and yet make complete sense; as, + +Napoleon felt his _weakness_, and tried to win back popular _favor_ +by concession after _concession_, until, at his fall, he had nearly +restored parliamentary _government_. + +Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. _weakness, +favor_, and _concession_, as well as after _government_. + +88. The PERIODIC SENTENCE holds the complete thought in suspense +until the close of the sentence. Compare the following periodic +sentence with the loose sentence under Sec.87: + +Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor +by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored +parliamentary government. + +Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since +periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the +untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible. + +89. The BALANCED SENTENCE is made up of parts similar in form, +but often contrasted in meaning; as, _He is a man; Jones is a +gentleman._ + +90. SENTENCE LENGTH. As to the length of the sentence there is +no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in +their thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if +there is a succession of short sentences, choppiness and roughness +are the result. One should carefully examine sentences which contain +more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear +in their meaning and accurate in their construction. + +EXERCISE 64 + +_Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, five +periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences._ + +EXERCISE 65 + +_In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is +loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the +periodic form:_ + +1. At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower +class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because +they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government. + +2. The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held +office only at his pleasure. + +3. A society and institutions that had been growing up for years +was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution. + +4. Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly +to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun. + +5. He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably. + +6. Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear. + +7. He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting +and continuing the ascent on foot. + +8. They visited the town where their father had lived, and while +there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born. + +9. His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in +the family. + +10. There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries +of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy. + +11. Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown +merely as an example. + +12. Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers +find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder +one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states. + +13. Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and +woes, after all, worth living? + +14. He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the +facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment +in his mind. + +15. His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started +on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would +take longer this time. + +16. It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon +first became very prominent by defending the convention against +a mob. + +EXERCISE 66 + +_Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well +constructed long sentence:_ + +1. In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford +space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford +it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities +the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate +business. + +2. History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops +the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. +It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other +study can give it. + +3. He never desired a higher education. This was possible because +of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no +need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because +of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind. + +4. New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its +great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw +the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party +New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result. + +5. Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many +ways. However, they permitted many liberties in the application +of sermons to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays +be strongly disapproved or resented. + +6. Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving +point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from +the future. + +7. The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. +They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. +They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or +clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and +to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty. + +8. The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest +of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes +one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers. + +9. They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This +was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle +was now being transformed into a national museum. + +10. He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped +slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about +shaking hands right and left. + +11. They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached +the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang +onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself +by touching the brackets which held the lamps. + +12. The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the +wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. +At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still +rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere. + +13. The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. +There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already +scorched by the fire. + +14. Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get +to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. +The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain +death. + +15. The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a +long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses +earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than once +toward a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only +its top half shows. The hill is on the east. + +16. The most important political question has been the tariff question. +This has been most important for ten years. It is important because +it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts. + +17. The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild +weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem +to flood one's soul with peace and contentment. + +91. The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, aside +from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, and +Euphony. + +UNITY. Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one general +thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent and connected +manner that the thought is clearly and effectively presented. Unity +demands, also, that closely related thoughts should not be improperly +scattered among several sentences. + +1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should +not be embodied in one sentence. + +Bad: The house sat well back from the road, _and its owner_ was +a married man. +Good: The house sat well back from the road. _Its owner_ was a +married man. + +a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide +into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected +by a conjunction. + +Bad: Jones lives in the country, _he_ has a fine library. +Good: Jones lives in the country. _He_ has a fine library. +Good: Jones lives in the country _and has_ a fine library. + +b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence. + +Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve +hundred people) that has no school-house. + +2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences. + +a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought. + +Bad: That is not an easy problem, _I think_. +Good: That, _I think_, is not an easy problem. +Good: _I do not think_ that is an easy problem. + +Bad: He could not be elected mayor again under any circumstances, +_at least so I am told_. +Good: He could not, _I am told_, be elected mayor again under any +circumstances. +Good: _I am told_ that he could not under any circumstances be elected +mayor again. + +b. Avoid long straggling sentences. + +Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the +team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost +all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and +this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the +students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their +interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the +institution. + +3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are +closely and logically connected with one another. + +Bad: That it is a good school is not without proof. Its diploma +admits to all colleges. +Good: That it is a good school is not without proof, for its diploma +admits to all colleges. +Good: That its diploma admits to all colleges is proof that it is +a good school. + +Bad: This fact was true of all of us. With the exception of John. +Good: This fact was true of all of us, with the exception of John. + +Bad: Edward came. But John never appeared. +Good: Edward came, but John never appeared. + +Bad: The town has two railroads running through it. Also, three +trolley lines. +Good: The town has two railroads running through it, and also three +trolley lines. +Good: The town has two railroads and three trolley lines running +through it. + +4. Do not change the point of view. + +Bad: _We_ completed our themes, and _they_ were handed in to the +teacher. (In the first part of the sentence, the subject is _we_; +in the second it is _themes_.) +Good: We completed our themes and handed them in to the teacher. +Good: Our themes were completed and handed in to the teacher. + +Bad: The _stage_ took us to the foot of the hill, and _we_ walked +from there to the top, where _our friends_ met us. +Good: _We_ were taken to the foot of the hill by the stage, and _we_ +walked from there to the top, where _we_ were met by our friends. + +EXERCISE 67 + +_Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles +of unity:_ + +1. I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride +made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards. + +2. Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. While +Smith is thoroughly dishonest. + +3. John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand +why he didn't succeed. + +4. I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school +and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer. + +5. In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they +are radical and progressive. + +6. The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, +and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and +so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a +trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two +months we had ever spent, and gave us an experience that was very +valuable in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall. + +7. The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number +of steel mills. + +8. One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail. + +9. Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade +the customs laws. + +10. My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says. + +11. He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I +am not sure) and then taught for three years. + +12. This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good. + +13. He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all possible. + +14. Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton +guided its financial policy. + +15. Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps +to write the letters. + +16. The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although +no small amount of trade came from the town. + +17. The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, +would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call +him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing +so, but the dog never lost patience. + +18. He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully +many) who never do what they promise. + +19. He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, +to sleep, and his books were found there the next day. + +20. He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended +for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies +in English. + +21. I can't go, I don't think. + +22. He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made +a great football player. + +23. He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear. + +24. The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not +care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of +the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place. + +25. He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, +hence he is an agreeable companion. + +26. He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old. + +27. There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years +of age. + +28. He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters +are concerned. + +29. I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I +was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most +of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a +great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone +over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed +to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry. + +30. He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little +without making him angry. + +31. There are a great number of stations along this short line of +railroad, these, however, do little business. + +32. They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was discovered +that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton lay south +of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north. + +33. He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be. + +34. That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to +spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over +the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so +many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions +to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed. + +35. He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all. + +36. Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam +in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give +us a room and board. + +37. He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think +it over. + +38. He is the most peculiar person I ever met--in the last few years +at least. + +39. I am reading a book, it is very interesting. + +40. They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which +he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps. + +41. He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to +get a vast amount of information out of it. + +42. It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When +he was in school. + +43. The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his +performances. + +44. Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and +his father was dead. + +92. COHERENCE. Coherence in the sentence demands that the arrangement +and the construction of the sentence be clear and free from ambiguity. + +1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning. + +Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled with the mange. + +Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled _because they +had_ the mange. + +Right: He was greatly troubled because several of _his dogs had_ +the mange. + +2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit. + +Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front _foot which_ has since died. + +Right: The _dog, which_ has since died, was bitten on the front foot. + +Right: The dog was bitten on the front foot and has since died. + +3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable. + +a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word +which it modifies. + +Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading a _book made_ in the mission +style. + +Right: He was sitting in a _chair made_ in the mission style and +was reading a book. + +Right: He was sitting reading a book in a chair made in the mission +style. + +Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his _father, containing_ over +fifteen hundred pieces. + +Right: The _table, containing_ over fifteen hundred pieces, had +been inlaid by his father. + +Right: The table contained over fifteen hundred pieces and had been +inlaid by his father. + +b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the +placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it +refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence. + +Wrong: It would be hard to explain, _if you were to ask me_, what +the trouble was. + +Right: If you were to ask me what the trouble was, it would be hard +to explain. + +4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their +office. _Neither--nor, both--and_, etc., are frequently not placed +next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See Sec.84. + +Wrong: He _neither_ brought a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. + +Right: He brought _neither_ a trunk _nor_ a suit-case. + +Wrong: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ +his mother. + +Right: He received money _not only_ from his father, _but also_ +from his mother. + +Right: He _not only_ received money from his father, _but also_ +received it from his mother. + +5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence. + +Wrong: The man _never has_, and _never will_ be successful. + +Right: The man _never has been_, and _never will be_ successful. + +Wrong: It _is no_ concern to him. + +Right: It _is of no_ concern to him. + +6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a +long complex sentence. + +Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and +Populists--_all_ were there. + +7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, +in a similar manner. + +Bad: I decided _on doing_ the work that night, and _to write_ it +out on the typewriter. +Good: I decided _to do_ the work that night and _to write_ it out +on the typewriter. + +Bad: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, +but some schools still use them. +Good: _Textbooks are going_ out of use in the modern law schools, +but in some _they_ are still used. +Good: Though _textbooks are going_ out of use in modern law schools, +_they are still used_ in some of them. + +Bad: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _you_ always +increase your trouble by doing so. +Good: _One_ should never try to avoid work in school, for _one_ +always increases his trouble by doing so. +Good: _One_ usually only increases _his_ troubles by trying to avoid +work in school. + +EXERCISE 68 + +_Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the +following sentences:_ + + 1. Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state. + + 2. The statute requires that one study three years, and that you + pass an examination. + + 3. He is home. + + 4. Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, + were in the assemblage. + + 5. He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in salary. + + 6. Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call. + + 7. When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside + my paper. + + 8. I only knew John. + + 9. The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load. + +10. John told his father that his coat was too tight for him. + +11. I not only knew the president but also the whole board of directors. + +12. The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire. + +13. Mrs. Smith wants washing. + +14. A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away + from home as a result of a druggist's mistake. + +15. He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman. + +16. A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear. + +17. In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making + the result unreliable. + +18. It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature. + +19. The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was + that he used the wrong book. + +20. John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was + not entirely to blame for it. + +21. They said they saw them coming before they saw them. + +22. The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up. + +23. You made the same mistake that you now make last week. + +24. Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the + professor. + +25. It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected. + +26. They are required to report both on their way to work and coming + home. + +27. Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of + composition was taken up. + +28. Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night. + +29. We tried to study, but didn't do any. + +30. I do not care either to see you or Henry. + +31. He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the + farm. + +32. Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly. + +33. One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, + in this way limiting what can be done. + +34. The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did. + +35. Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses + are forbidden to trot over them. + +36. John told Henry that he thought he needed help. + +37. He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead. + +38. Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there + than here. + +39. Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages. + +40. After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it + back to the printer. + +41. The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them. + +42. They knew all that was to be learned, including John. + +43. We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara + Falls and Canada. + +44. Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet. + +45. Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started + to school. + +46. He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed. + +47. He built a house for his wife with seven windows. + +48. He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his + business card. + +49. I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front + door step. + +50. Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful + manner. + +51. Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty. + +52. He neither told John nor his father. + +53. Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called. + +54. He bought a horse when ten years old. + +55. The child the parent often rebuked. + +56. Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched. + +57. Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us. + +58. Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually. + +59. I knew him as a physician when a boy. + +60. He came leading his dog on a bicycle. + +61. When wanted he sent me a letter. + +93. EMPHASIS. Emphasis demands that the sentence be so arranged +that the principal idea shall be brought into prominence and the +minor details subordinated. + +1. Avoid weak beginnings and weak endings in the sentence. + +Bad: He was a student who did nothing right _as a rule_. +Good: He was a student, who, _as a rule_, did nothing right. + +2. A change from the normal order often makes a great change in +emphasis. + +Normal: A lonely owl shrieked from a thick tree not far back of +our camp. + +Changed: From a thick tree not far back of our camp a lonely owl +shrieked. + +3. Where it is suitable, arrange words and clauses so as to produce +a climax; i. e., have the most important come last. + +Bad: Human beings, dogs, cats, horses, all living things were destroyed. +Good: Cats, dogs, horses, human beings, all living things were +destroyed. + +4. Avoid all words which add nothing to the thought. + +Bad: He is universally praised by all people. +Good: He is universally praised. + +Bad: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable, and not a thing could +be seen. +Good: The darkness was absolutely impenetrable. + +Bad: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that a slight indisposition +in health precludes his granting himself the pleasure of accepting +your invitation to come to your house to dine. +Good: Mr. Smith bids me say that he regrets that sickness prevents +his accepting your invitation to dine. + +EXERCISE 69 + +_Reconstruct all of the following sentences that violate the principles +of emphasis:_ + + 1. Children, women, and men were slain without pity. + + 2. I'll prove his guilt by means of marked money, if I can. + + 3. Most of the students have done good work, although some have not. + + 4. Will you please start up the machine. + + 5. Where ignorance leads to a condition of blissful happiness, it + would be folly to seek a condition of great wisdom. + + 6. A man having foolishly tried to board a moving train yesterday, + was killed by being run over. + + 7. As a maker of violins he has never had an equal before nor since. + + 8. All his friends were collected together. + + 9. The field was so wet that we could not play on it, except + occasionally. + +10. Few were superior to him as a sculptor. + +11. Railway companies, trolley companies, cable companies, and even + hack lines were affected by the change. + +12. Books were his constant companions, and he was with them always. + +13. That great, gaunt mass of stones, rock, and earth, which falls + upon your vision at the edge of the horizon of your view, is + known by the appellation of Maxon Mountain. + +14. The noise of trains is heard ceaselessly from morning till night, + without stopping at all. + +15. He tried to do right so far as we know. + +16. That knowledge is the important thing to gain beyond all else. + +94. EUPHONY. Euphony demands that the sentence be of pleasing sound. + +1. Avoid repeating the same word in a sentence. + +Bad: He _commanded_ his son to obey his _commands_. + +2. Avoid words and combinations of words that are hard to pronounce. + +Bad: He seized quickly a thick stick. + +3. Avoid a rhyme and the repetition of a similar syllable. + +Bad: They went for a _walk_ in order to _talk_. + +EXERCISE 70 + +_Correct such of the following sentences as lack euphony:_ + + 1. In the problems, he solved one once. + + 2. Most of the time he does the most he can. + + 3. She worries about what to wear wherever she goes. + + 4. It is impossible for one to believe that one so changeable can + be capable of such work. + + 5. Those are our books. + + 6. Every time there was a chance for error, error was made. + + 7. It is true that the man spoke truly when he said, "Truth is stranger + than fiction." + + 8. The well must have been well made, else it would not have served + so well. + + 9. Everything he said was audible throughout the auditorium. + +10. He acted very sillily. + +11. He is still worried over the ill fulfillment of John's promise. + +12. In his letters there is something fine in every line. + +13. They ordered the members of the order to pay their dues. + +EXERCISE 71. A GENERAL EXERCISE ON SENTENCES + +_Revise the following sentences. In parentheses after each sentence +is the number of the paragraph in which the error involved is set +forth:_ + + 1. Not only should we go to church, but also prayer-meeting. (92-4.) + + 2. In the East, just above the horizon, Mars may be readily seen + in the evenings. (93-1.) + + 3. There is nothing distinctive about the style of the book, and + it tells the story of a young Russian couple. (91-1.) + + 4. The nasal noise in his enunciation was displeasing. (94-2.) + + 5. Books, papers, records, money, checks, and receipts, were burned. + (92-6.) + + 6. I tried to learn to write plainly, and have failed. (92-7.) + + 7. He has not and never will succeed in doing that. (92-5.) + + 8. He is sick as a result of the picnic, it may be. (91-2.) + + 9. Finally they stepped from the boat into the water, and tried + to move it by all of them pushing. (92-2.) + +10. One is sure to become dull in mind, and ill in health, if you + fail to exercise. (93-1.) + +11. The trip was comparatively quickly and easily made. (94-1.) + +12. She was of ordinary family, but he didn't think of criticizing + that, since his own parents were of the German peasantry. (91-4.) + +13. The man was sentenced to either be hanged or life-imprisonment. + (92-7.) + +14. People of wealth (and it is by no means an exception to the + rule) fail to notice the misery about them. (91-1-b.) + +15. There one can see miles and miles. For there are no mountains. + (91-3-a.) + +16. She told her that she thought that she had come too soon. (92-2.) + +17. By the judge's mistake, he was made a free man, and started + on a career of crime again. (93-1.) + +18. Flora Macdonald was a genuine heroine. (94-3.) + +19. No criticism was made of the object, but of the means. (92-5.) + +20. If you observe the relation of spelling to pronunciation, you + will have little trouble in pronunciation. (94-1.) + +21. He threw the stone at the window. And then he ran. (91-3.) + +22. The reading of Poe's stories at least is entertaining, if not + elevating. (92-3-b.) + +23. John the lion killed. (92-3-b.) + +24. He arose suddenly upsetting the table. (92-3-b.) + +25. Bridget was a faithful servant, she never failed in her duties + for more than five years. (91-1-a.) + +26. Instead of six, now four years only are to be spent in college. + (92-3-a.) + +27. We started down the river toward Harrisburg. But we did not + get very far. For a storm soon came upon us. (91-3.) + +28. He says that he has the book at his home which belongs to Anderson. + (92-2). + +29. I secured a horse and went for a ride, and after my return, + we had supper. (91-4.) + +30. Two of the company were killed in the battle. The others escaped + without a scratch. (91-3.) + +31. Different from most persons, he will not mention to any one + his faults. (92-2.) + +32. Not only is the book interesting, but it is instructive also. + (93-1.) + +33. May not only he be satisfied with the result, but delighted. + (92-4.) + +34. Main Street is very long, and the hotels are on Market Street. + (91-1.) + +35. He saw the money passing the store which had been lost. (92-2.) + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION + +RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION + +95. Capitalize all proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper +nouns. + +France, French, Paris, Parisian, John, etc. + +96. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. Capitalize, +also, the titles of governmental officers of high rank even when +used separately. Do not capitalize other titles when used separately. + +Uncle Sam, Bishop Anselm, Professor Morton, the Postmaster General, +Postmaster Smith of Kelley Cross Roads, the postmaster of Kelley +Cross Roads. + +97. Capitalize the important words in titles of books. + +The Master of Ballantrae, The Trail of the Lonesome Pine, The Discovery +of America. + +98. Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every line of +poetry, and of every complete sentence that is quoted. + +He said, "Is it I whom you seek?" + +He said she was a "perfect woman, nobly planned." + +99. Capitalize the words, _mother, father_, etc., when used with +proper names of persons, or when used without a possessive pronoun +to refer to some definite person. Capitalize also, common nouns +in phrases used as proper nouns. + +Father John, my Uncle John, my uncle, if Uncle writes, if my uncle +writes, along the river, along the Hudson River, Madison Square. + +100. Capitalize the names, _North, South, East_, and _West_, when +referring to parts of the country; words used to name the Deity; +the words, _Bible_ and _Scriptures_; and the words _I_ and _O_, +but not _oh_ unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. + +EXERCISE 72 + +_Secure five examples under each of the above rules, except the +last._ + +RULES FOR PUNCTUATION + +101. Punctuation should not be done for its own sake, but simply +to make the meaning clearer; never punctuate where no punctuation +is needed. + +The following rules of punctuation are generally accepted: + +_The Period_ (.) + +102. Use the period after (1) every complete sentence that is not +interrogative nor exclamatory; (2) after every abbreviation; and +(3) after _Yes_ and _No_ when used alone. + +_The Interrogation Point_ (?) + +103. Use the interrogation point after every direct question. + +_The Exclamation Point_ (!) + +104. Use the exclamation point after every exclamatory sentence +or expression. + +Alas! It is too late. + +Fire if you dare! + +_The Comma_ (,) + +105. Use the comma after each word of a series of words that all +have the same grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence, +unless conjunctions are used between all of those words. + +Ours is a red, white, and blue flag. + +He talked, smoked, and read. + +He talked and smoked and read. + +Do not, however, precede the series by a comma. + +Wrong: He lectures on, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. + +Right: He lectures on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays. + +106. Use the comma to separate two adjectives modifying the same +noun, but not if one modifies both the other adjective and the +noun. + +An honest, upright man. + +An old colored man. + +A soiled red dress. + +107. Use the comma to set off non-emphatic introductory words or +phrases, and participial phrases. + +John, come here. + +By the way, did you see Mary? + +After having done this, Caesar crossed the Rubicon. + +Caesar crossed the Rubicon, thus taking a decisive step. + +108. Use the comma to set off appositive expression (see Sec.29, Note +1), or a geographical name that limits a preceding name. + +He was told to see Dr. Morton, the principal of the school. + +Muncy, Pennsylvania, is not spelled the same as Muncie, Indiana. + +109. Use the comma to set off any sentence element that is placed +out of its natural order. + +If it is possible, he will do it. + +To most people, this will seem absurd. + +110. Use the comma to set off slightly parenthetical remarks that +are thrown into the sentence. If the break is very marked, use +the dash or parenthesis. + +That, if you will permit me to explain, cannot be done without +permission from the police. + +Two men, Chase and Arnold, were injured. + +He, himself, said it. + +111. Use the comma to set off explanatory or non-restrictive clauses, +but not to set off restrictive clauses. (See Sec.Sec. 25 and 26.) + +Mr. Gardner, who has been working in the bank, sang at the church. + +But: The Mr. Gardner whom you know is his brother. + +112. Use the comma to separate cooerdinate clauses that are united +by a simple conjunction. + +He can sing well, but he seldom will sing in public. + +He doesn't wish to sing, and I do not like to urge him. + +113. Use the comma to separate the members of a compound sentence +when those members are short and closely connected in their thought. + +John carried the suit-case, I the hat box, and William the umbrella. + +114. Use the comma to separate dependent and conditional clauses +introduced by such words as _if, when, though,_ unless the connection +be close. + +He did not stop, though I called repeatedly. + +Your solution is right in method, even if you have made a mistake +in the work. + +But: You are wrong when you say that. + +115. Use the comma to set off short, informal quotations, unless +such quotation is a word or phrase closely woven into the sentence. + +William said, "Good morning"; but, "Hello," was Henry's greeting. + +But: He introduced the man as "my distinguished friend." + +116. Use the comma to set off adverbs and adverbial phrases; such +as, _however, then, also, for example, so to speak,_ etc. + +Such a man, however, can seldom be found. + +This sentence, for example, can be improved by changing the order. + +117. Use the comma whenever for any reason there is any distinct +pause in the sentence that is not otherwise indicated by punctuation, +or whenever something clearly is omitted. + +We want students, not boys who simply come to school. + +Caesar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; ... + +_The Semicolon_ (;) + +118. Use the semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence +that are long or that are not joined by conjunctions. + +He says that he shall teach for two more years; then he shall probably +return to college. + +119. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses of a compound sentence +that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable to +indicate a very definite pause. + +I have told you of the theft; but I have yet to tell you of the +reason for it. + +120. Use a semicolon to separate the parts of a compound or a complex +sentence, when some of those parts are punctuated by commas. + +As men, we admire the man that succeeds; but, as honest men, we +cannot admire the man that succeeds by dishonesty. + +Wrong: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine, +and for his family he has not a cent. + +Right: He spends his money for theatres, and dinners, and wine; +and for his family he has not a cent. + +121. Use a semicolon before certain adverbs and adverbial expressions, +when they occur in the body of the sentence and are used conjunctively; +such as, _accordingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore_, etc. + +I do not care to see the game; besides, it is too cold. + +John is sick; however, I think he will be here. + +122. Use the semicolon before the expressions, _namely, as, that +is_, etc., or before their abbreviations, _viz., i.e.,_ etc., when +they are used to introduce a series of particular terms, simple +in form, which are in apposition with a general term. + +At present there are four prominent political parties; namely, the +Republican, the Democratic, the Prohibition, and the Socialist. + +_The Colon_ (:) + +123. Use the colon after an introduction to a long or formal quotation, +before an enumeration, or after a word, phrase, or sentence that +constitutes an introduction to something that follows. + +Mr. Royer says in his letter: "You will remember that I promised +to send you a copy of my latest musical composition. I am mailing +it to you to-day." + +There are four essentials of a legal contract: competent parties, +consideration, agreement, and legal subject matter. + +124. Use the colon after the salutation of a formal letter. (See +Sec.161.) + +_The Dash_ (--) + +125. Use the dash to indicate any sudden break in thought or +construction. + +I am pleased to meet you, Captain--what did you say your name is? + +The man I met--I refer to Captain Jones--was in the naval service. + +126. Use the dash in the place of the comma to set off more definitely +some part of a sentence. + +I was always lacking what I needed most--money. + +127. Use the dash preceded by a comma before a word which sums up +the preceding part of a sentence. + +Democrats, Republicans, Prohibitionists, Socialists, and +Populists,--_all_ were there. + +128. Do not use dashes where not required or in place of some other +mark of punctuation. + +_The Parenthesis Marks_ ( ) + +129. Use the parenthesis marks only to enclose a statement that +is thrown into the sentence, but is grammatically independent of +it. + +He belongs (at least so it is said) to every secret society in town. + +130. Do not use a comma or other punctuation mark with the parenthesis +marks unless it would be required even if there were no parenthesis. +When other punctuation is used it should follow the parenthesis. + +They sent us (as they had agreed to do) all the papers in the case. + +We expect John to bring his roommate home with him (he has been +very anxious to do so); but we expect no one else. + +Modern usage is to avoid entirely the use of the parentheses. + +_The Bracket_ [ ] + +131. Use the bracket to enclose some statement or word of the writer +that is thrown into a quotation by way of explanation or otherwise. + +His letter reads: "We have decided to get Mr. Howard [his cousin] +to deliver the address..." + +_The Quotation Marks_ (" ") + +132. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact language +of another. + +The Bible says, "Charity suffereth long." + +133. Use single quotation marks (' ') to enclose a quotation within +a quotation. + +The speaker in closing said: "I can imagine no more inspiring words +than those of Nelson at Trafalgar, 'England expects every man to +do his duty.'" + +134. If a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks +should precede each paragraph and follow the last. + +135. Do not use quotation marks to enclose each separate sentence +of a single continuous quotation. + +136. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, +titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indicate one's own literary +invention. + +137. Examine the location of quotation marks and other punctuation +in the following sentences: + +Wrong: "You may do as you wish, he said, if you only wish to do +right." + +Right: "You may do as you wish," he said, "if you only wish to do +right." + +Wrong: "Can you come," she asked? + +Right: "Can you come?" she asked. + +_The Apostrophe_ (') + +138. Use the apostrophe to mark certain plurals and possessives. +See Sec.Sec. 13 and 15. + +Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters. + +Doesn't, Can't, What's the matter? + +_The Hyphen_ (-) + +139. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a +line. + +Never divide words of one syllable, nor short words; such as, _though, +through, also, besides, over_, etc. + +Never divide words except at the end of a syllable, and always +put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning +of the second. + +Wrong division: _int-end, prop-ose, superint-endent, expre-ssion_. + +Proper division: _in-tend, pro-pose, superin-tendent, expres-sion_. + +In writing it is good usage not to divide a word like _expression_ +by placing _ex_ on one line and the rest of the word on the next +line. + +140. Use the hyphen to divide certain compound words. No rule can +be given by which to determine when compounded words demand the +hyphen. Only custom determines. + +Always use a hyphen with _to-day, to-morrow_, and _to-night_. + +EXERCISE 73 + +_Punctuate and capitalize the following selections. For instructions +as to paragraphing and the arrangement of conversation, see_ Sec.Sec. +143 _and_ 144: + + 1. however father had told us not to expect good accommodations + because it is a very small town + + 2. tomorrow if it is a clear day we will go to pittsburgh + + 3. will that be satisfactory was his question + + 4. it doesnt make any difference said she whether you come or not + + 5. whats the matter with you john + + 6. john replied i mean that poem that begins the curfew tolls the + knell of parting day + + 7. and that day i was only a child then I travelled all alone to + new york city + + 8. he is a member at least he claims to be of the presbyterian church + + 9. the author says that the hero of waterloo wellington was a general + of great military training + +10. buddhist brahmin mohammedan christian jewish every religion + was represented + +11. his letter will tell what he wants or will attempt to do so + +12. you will please hand in the following sentences one three seven + and nine + +13. four presidents have been unitarians namely the two adams fillmore + and taft + +14. the verse to which you refer is as follows + the boast of heraldry the pomp of power + all that beauty all that wealth eer gave + await alike the inevitable hour + the paths of glory lead but to the grave + +15. a noun is the name of something as william france book cat + +16. the train leaves at eight therefore we shall have to rise at + seven at latest + +17. the different points discussed are these first the history of + the divine right theory second the exponents of the theory and + third the result of the theory + +18. in the first problem divide in the second multiply + +19. if the break is slight use a comma if it is more perceptible + use a semicolon if it is very sharp use a period + +20. william if you gear me answer + +21. he told mother that he must go home at least that is what she + understood + +22. as noise it is an undoubted success as music it is a flat failure + +23. that may be true but i still doubt it + +24. separate the clauses by a comma unless the connection be close + +25. even though that be true it does not prove what we want proved + +26. mary said yes but helen said no + +27. he is called the peerless leader + +28. such a man for example was lincoln + +29. if as you say it ought to be done why dont you do it + +30. that too is a mistake + +31. that is wool not cotton as you seem to think + +32. the english are stolid the french lively + +33. in that case let us have war + +34. such an opinion i may say is absurd + +35. alas when i had noticed my mistake it was too late + +36. the house which was built by smith is on the corner of a large lot + +37. he means the house that has green shutters + +38. those are all good books but none of them will do + +39. dickens wrote nicholas nickleby hugo les miserables thackeray + henry esmond + +40. he is a good student and also a great athlete + +41. he gave me a red silk handkerchief + +42. having assigned the lesson he left the room + +43. royers address is danville illinois + +44. you will find it discussed in paragraphs one two and three + +45. i had classes under the president dr harris + +46. moreover naxon the cashier has fled + +47. oh that is what you mean is it + +48. for this you will need a piece of clean white paper + +49. the bible says the lord thy god is a jealous god + +50. the boundary of uncle sams lands is the rio grande river + +51. theodore roosevelt is not the only strenuous man in history + +52. the north quickly recovered from the civil war + +53. he told mother to write to my uncle about it + +54. he said then why are you here + +55. in that army old young and middle aged men served for their + country could no longer raise a picked army +56. he was told to ask the principal professor morton + +57. in the same town muncy lives smith now a respected man + +58. a peasant named ali according to a good old oriental story + needing badly a donkey for some urgent work decided to apply to + his neighbor mehmed whose donkey ali knew to be idle in the stable + that day i am sorry my dear neighbor said mehmed in reply to alis + request but i cannot please you my son took the donkey this morning + to the next village i assure you insisted ali i shall take the + very best care of him my dear neighbor can you not take my word + demanded mehmed with a show of anger i tell you the donkey is out + but at this point the donkey began to bray loudly there that is + the donkey braying now well said the justly indignant mehmed if you + would rather take my donkeys word than my word we can be friends + no longer and under no circumstances can i lend you anything. + +59. a coroner was called upon to hold an inquest over the body of + an italian the only witness was a small boy of the same nationality + who spoke no english the examination proceeded thus where do you + live my boy the boy shook his head do you speak english another + shake of the head do you speak french another shake do you speak + german still no answer how old are you no reply have you father + and mother no reply do you speak italian the boy gave no sign well + said the coroner i have questioned the witness in four languages and + can get no answer it is useless to proceed the court is adjourned. + +NOTE. Further exercise in punctuation may be had by copying without +the marks of punctuation selections from books, and afterwards +inserting the proper marks. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE PARAGRAPH + +141. The PARAGRAPH is a connected series of sentences all dealing +with the development of a single topic. Where the general subject +under discussion is very narrow, the paragraph may constitute the +whole composition; but usually, it forms one of a number of subtopics, +each dealing with some subdivision of the general subject. For each +one of these subtopics a separate paragraph should be made. + +The purpose of the paragraph is to aid the reader to comprehend +the thought to be expressed. The paragraph groups in a logical way +the different ideas to be communicated. It gives rest to the eye +of the reader, and makes clearer the fact that there is a change +of topic at each new paragraph. + +142. PARAGRAPH LENGTH. There is no fixed rule governing the proper +length of the paragraph, but, probably, no paragraph need be more +than three hundred words in length. If the whole composition is not +more than two hundred and fifty words in length, it will not often +need to be subdivided into paragraphs. In a letter, paragraphing +should be more frequent than in other compositions. + +Paragraphing should not be too frequent. If paragraphing is too +frequent, by making each minute subdivision of equal importance, +it defeats its purpose of grouping ideas about some general topic. + +143. Sometimes a sentence or even a part of a sentence may be set +off as a separate paragraph in order to secure greater emphasis. +This, however, is only using the paragraph for a proper purpose--to +aid in gaining clearness. + +144. PARAGRAPHING OF SPEECH. In a narrative, each direct quotation, +together with the rest of the sentence of which it is a part, should +constitute a separate paragraph. This rule should be always followed +in writing a conversation. Examine the following: + +A certain Scotch family cherishes this anecdote of a trip which +Dr. Samuel Johnson made to Scotland. He had stopped at the house +of this family for a meal, and was helped to the national dish. +During the meal the hostess asked: + +"Dr. Johnson, what do you think of our Scotch broth?" + +"Madam," was the answer, "in my opinion it is fit only for pigs." + +"Then have some more," said the woman. + +The only case in which the quoted words can be detached from the +remainder of the sentence is where they form the end of the sentence +after some introductory words, as in the second paragraph of the +example just given. + +145. INDENTATION OF THE PARAGRAPH. The first sentence of each new +paragraph should be indented. See example under Sec.144. No other +sentence should be so indented. + +146. The essential qualities which each paragraph should have are: +Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. + +UNITY. Unity requires that the paragraph should deal with only one +subject, and should include nothing which does not have a direct +bearing on that subject. Thus, in the following paragraph, the +italicized sentence violates the principle of Unity, because, very +obviously it belongs to some other paragraph: + +Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm +than the Irish. _St. Patrick, a zealous priest, was thought to +have banished the snakes from the island_. So enthusiastic were +the Irish, that, not content with the religious work in Ireland, +the Irish Church sent out its missionaries to Scotland, to Germany, +and to the Alps and Apennines. It founded religious houses and +monasteries.... + +Separate paragraphs should not be made of matter which belongs +together. If the ideas can all be fairly included under one general +topic, unity demands that they be grouped in one paragraph. Thus, +in describing the route followed in a certain journey, one should +not use a separate paragraph for each step in the journey. + +Wrong: + +In returning to the University, I went from Pittsburgh to Cleveland. + +Then I took a berth for the night on one of the lake steamers running +from Cleveland to Detroit. + +From Detroit I completed the journey to Ann Arbor on an early train +the next morning. + +If unity is to be secured, not only must all the ideas brought +out in the paragraph deal with the same topic, but also, they must +be developed in some consistent, systematic order. A certain point +of view should be generally maintained as to tense, subject, and +manner of expression. + +147. HOW TO GAIN UNITY. Careful thought before beginning the paragraph +is necessary if unity is to be gained. The topic of the paragraph +should be determined, and should be clearly indicated by a topic +sentence. Usually this topic sentence should be placed near the +beginning of the paragraph. The first sentence is the clearest +and best place for it. The topic sentence need not be a formal +statement of the subject to be discussed, but may be any sentence +that shows what is to be the central idea of the paragraph. + +With the topic determined, there are various ways of developing it. +It may be developed by repetition; by adding details and specific +instances to the general statement; by presenting proof; by +illustration; or by showing cause or effect. + +148. Examine the following paragraphs. Each possesses the quality +of unity. The topic sentence in each case is italicized. + +_To rule was not enough for Bonaparte._ He wanted to amaze, to +dazzle, to overpower men's souls, by striking, bold, magnificent, +and unanticipated results. To govern ever so absolutely would not +have satisfied him, if he must have governed silently. He wanted +to reign through wonder and awe, by the grandeur and terror of his +name, by displays of power which would rivet on him every eye, and +make him the theme of every tongue. Power was his supreme object; +but power which should be gazed at as well as felt, which should +strike men as a prodigy, which should shake old thrones as an +earthquake, and, by the suddenness of its new creations, should +awaken something of the submissive wonder which miraculous agency +inspires. + +From _The Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing. + +_There is something in the very season of the year that gives a +charm to the festivity of Christmas._ At other times we derive a +great portion of our pleasures from the mere beauties of Nature. +Our feelings sally forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny +landscape and we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of the bird, +the murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the +soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn; earth with +its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its deep delicious +blue and its cloudy magnificence--all fill us with mute but exquisite +delight, and we revel in the luxury of mere sensation. But in the +depth of winter, when Nature lies despoiled of every charm, and +wrapped in her shroud of sheeted snow, we turn our gratifications +to moral sources. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape, +the short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they circumscribe +our wanderings, shut in also our feelings from rambling abroad, +and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures of the social +circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated; our friendly sympathies +more aroused. We feel more sensibly the charm of each other's society, +and are brought more closely together by dependence on each other for +enjoyment. Heart calleth unto heart, and we draw our pleasures from +the deep wells of living kindness which lie in the quiet recesses of +our bosoms; and which, where resorted to, furnish forth the pure +element of domestic felicity. + +From _Christmas_, by Washington Irving. + +149. COHERENCE. Coherence demands that each paragraph shall be +perfectly clear in its meaning, and that it be so constructed that +it may be readily grasped by the reader. The relation of sentence +to sentence, of idea to idea, must be clearly brought out. The +whole fabric of the paragraph must be woven together--it must not +consist of disconnected pieces. + +150. HOW TO GAIN COHERENCE. Where vividness or some other quality +does not gain coherence in the sentence, it is usually gained by +the use of words or phrases which refer to or help to keep in mind +the effect of the preceding sentences, or which show the bearing of +the sentence on the paragraph topic. These words may be of various +sorts; as, _it, this view, however, in this way_, etc. Sometimes +the subject is repeated occasionally throughout the paragraph, +or is directly or indirectly indicated again at the end of the +paragraph. + +Examine carefully the following selections. Note the italicized +words of coherence, and note in each case how they aid the flow +of thought from sentence to sentence, and help to keep in mind +the paragraph topic. + +I will give you my opinion and advice in regard to the _two books_ +you have named. The _first_ is interesting and easy to read. _It_ +is, _also_, by no means lacking in the value of the information +it presents. _But the second_, while it is no less interesting +and equally valuable in its contents, seems to me far more logical +and scholarly in its construction. _In addition to this_ I think +you will find it cheaper in price, by reason of its not being so +profusely illustrated. _Therefore_, I should advise you to procure +the _second_ for your study. _Either, indeed_, will do, but since +you have a choice, take the better one. + +A Husbandman who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in +vain to reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily +prevail by an example. _So_ he called his sons and bade them lay +a bundle of sticks before him. _Then having tied them_ up into a +fagot, he told _the lads_, one after another, to take it up and +break it. _They all tried_, but tried in vain. _Then_, untying +_the fagot_, he gave _them_ the sticks to break one by one. _This_ +they did with the greatest ease. _Then_ said the father: "_Thus_, +my sons, as long as you remain united, you are a match for all your +enemies; but differ and separate, and you are undone." _AEsop's +Fables_. + +Examine also the selections under Sec.Sec. 205 and 206. + +151. EMPHASIS. The third quality which a paragraph should possess +is emphasis. The paragraph should be so constituted as to bring +into prominence the topic or the point it is intended to present. +The places of greatest emphasis are usually at the beginning and at +the end of the paragraph. In short paragraphs sufficient emphasis +is generally gained by having a topic sentence at the beginning. +In longer paragraphs it is often well to indicate again the topic +at the end by way of summary in order to impress thoroughly on +the reader the effect of the paragraph. + +EXERCISE 74 + +_The few following suggestions for practice in paragraph construction +are given by way of outline. Additional subjects and exercises +will readily suggest themselves to teacher or student._ + +_These topics are intended to apply only to isolated +paragraphs--"paragraph themes." As has been suggested, more latitude +in the matter of unity is allowed in compositions so brief that +more than one paragraph is unnecessary._ + +Write paragraphs: + + 1. Stating the refusal of a position that has been offered to you, + and giving your reasons for the refusal. + + 2. Describing the appearance of some building. Give the general + appearance and then the details. + + 3. Explaining how to tie a four-in-hand necktie. + + 4. Stating your reasons for liking or not liking some book or play. + + 5. Describing the personal appearance of some one of your acquaintance. + + 6. To prove that the world is round. + + 7. To prove that it pays to buy good shoes. (Develop by illustration.) + + 8. Showing by comparison that there are more advantages in city + life than in country life. + +Write paragraphs on the following subjects: + + 9. My Earliest Recollection. + +10. The Sort of Books I Like Best. + +11. Why I Like to Study X Branch. + +12. My Opinion of My Relatives. + +13. The Man I Room With. + +14. Why I Was Late to Class. + +15. What I Do on Sundays. + +16. How to Prevent Taking Cold. + +17. How to Cure a Cold. + +18. My Best Teacher. + +19. My Favorite Town. + +20. Why I Go Fishing. + +21. My Favorite Month. + +22. What Becomes of My Matches. + +23. Baseball is a Better Game than Football. + +24. The View from X Building. + +25. Why I Go to School. + +26. My Opinion of Rainy Days. + +27. My Most Useful Friend. + +28. Why I Dislike Surprise Parties. + +29. Why I Like to Visit at X's. + +30. The Police Service of X Town. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +LETTER-WRITING + +NOTE TO TEACHER.--For the purpose of training in composition, in +the more elementary work, letter-writing affords probably the most +feasible and successful means. Letter-writing does not demand any +gathering of material, gains much interest, and affords much latitude +for individual tastes in topics and expression. Besides, letter-writing +is the field in which almost all written composition will be done +after leaving school; and so all training in school will be thoroughly +useful. For this reason, it is suggested that letter-writing be +made one of the chief fields for composition work. + +In Exercise 75, are given a number of suggestions for letter-writing. +Others will readily occur to the teacher. + +THE HEADING + +152. POSITION OF HEADING. In all business letters the writer's +address and the date of writing should precede the letter and be +placed at the upper right hand side of the sheet not less than an +inch from the top. This address and date is called the HEADING. +In friendly letters the parts of the heading are sometimes placed +at the end of the letter on the left side a short distance below +the body of the letter. This is permissible, but to place it at +the beginning in all letters is more logical and customary. Never +write part of the heading at the beginning and part at the end +of the letter. + +153. ORDER OF HEADING. The parts of the heading should be sufficient +to enable the accurate addressing of a reply, and should be in +the following order: (1) the street address, (2) the town or the +city address, (3) the date. If all cannot be easily placed on one +line, two or even three lines should be used; but, in no case, +should the above order be varied. Examples: + +Wrong: March 31, 1910, Red Oaks, Iowa, 210 Semple Street. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, March 31, 1910. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, Red Oaks, Iowa, + March 31, 1910. + +Right: 210 Semple Street, + Red Oaks, Iowa, + March 31, 1910. + +If only two lines are used, put the writer's address on the first +line and the date on the second. + +Wrong: January 19, 1910, Sharon, Pennsylvania, + The Hotel Lafayette. + +Right: The Hotel Lafayette, Sharon, Pennsylvania, + January 19, 1910. + +154. PUNCTUATION OF HEADING. Place a period after each abbreviation +that is used. In addition to this, place commas after the street +address, after the town address, after the state address, and after +the number of the day of the month. Place a period after the number +of the year. Examine the correct address under Sec.153. + +155. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN HEADINGS. Avoid the use of abbreviations +in the friendly letter, and avoid their too frequent use in the +business letter. + +It is better to avoid abbreviating any but the longer names of states. + +Avoid all such abbreviations as the following: _St._ for _Street; +Ave._ for _Avenue; Apart._ for _Apartments; Chi._ for _Chicago; +Phila._ for _Philadelphia_. + +Wrong: Hardie Apart., Pbg., Pa. + +Right: Hardie Apartments, Pittsburg, Pa. + +Do not use the sign # before the street number. + +Do not omit the word _Street_. + +Wrong: 229 Market. + +Right: 229 Market Street. + +Do not write the date thus: _9/10/10_. Represent the numbers by +figures, not words. See Sec.Sec. 75 and 76. Do not use _st., rd.,_ etc., +after the number of the day. + +Wrong: 9/8/09. + +Right: September 8, 1909. + +Wrong: September the Ninth, Nineteen Hundred and Nine. + +Right: September 9, 1909. + +Wrong: March 10th, 1910. + +Right: March 10, 1910. + +THE INSIDE ADDRESS + +156. POSITION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In strictly commercial letters +the name and the address of the person to whom the letter is being +sent should come at the beginning of the letter, and should begin +flush with the margin at the left side of the page, and a little +below the level of the heading. The second line of the inside address +should be set in a little from the margin. See model letters under +Sec.174. + +In formal friendly letters and in letters of a non-commercial nature, +the inside address should stand a little below the bottom of the +letter at the left side of the page. In informal friendly letters +the inside address may be omitted. + +157. PUNCTUATION OF INSIDE ADDRESS. In punctuating the inside address, +place a period after each abbreviation that is used. In addition +to this, place a comma after the name of the addressee, a comma +after the street address, if one be given, and after the name of +the town or city. Place a period after the name of the state or +country. Examine the correct inside address under Sec.174. + +158. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE INSIDE ADDRESS. Do not omit the +town, city, or state address from the inside address. + +Wrong: Mr. E. P. Griffith, + My dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith. + Muskogee, Oklahoma. + My dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. E. P. Griffith, + 221 Fiji Avenue, + Muskogee, Oklahoma. + My dear Sir: + +Do not omit proper titles. + +Wrong: R. R. Stolz, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + +Right: Mr. R. R. Stolz, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + +When two or more men are addressed, do not omit the title _Mr._, +before the name of each of the men, unless their names constitute +a partnership or trading name. + +Right: Jones & Smith, (_firm name_) + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Right: Mr. Jones and Mr. Smith, (_not a firm name_) + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Avoid all abbreviations of titles preceding the name except _Mr., +Mrs., Messrs._, and _Dr._ Abbreviations of titles placed after +the name, such as, _Esq., D.D., A.M._, etc., are proper. + +Do not use _Mr._ and _Esq._ with the same name. + +Avoid all other abbreviations except in case of a state with a +very long name. In this case it is permissible to abbreviate, but +it is better form to write the name in full. _United States of +America_ may be abbreviated to _U. S. A._ + +Wrong: Merch. Mfg. Co., + N. Y. C. + Gentlemen: + +Right: The Merchants' Manufacturing Company. + New York City. + Gentlemen: + +Wrong: Mr. William Shipp, + Bangor, Me. + Dear Sir: + +Right: Mr. William Shipp, + Bangor, Maine. + Dear Sir: + +Do not place a period after the title _Miss. Miss_ is not an +abbreviation. + +THE SALUTATION + +159. POSITION OF SALUTATION. The salutation should begin flush +with the margin and on the line next below the inside address. See +correctly written letters under Sec.174. + +160. FORM OF SALUTATION. The salutation varies with the form of +the letter and the relations between the writer and receiver of +the letter. Where the parties are strangers or mere business +acquaintances the most common salutations for individuals are, +_Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, or _My dear Sir, My dear Madam_. For a +group of persons, or for a company or a partnership, _Gentlemen, +Dear Sirs, Dear Madams_ or _Mesdames_ are used. In less formal +business letters such salutations as, _My dear Mr. Smith_, or _Dear +Miss Jaekel_ may be used. + +In the case of informal and friendly letters, as in business and +formal letters, the salutation to be used is largely a matter of +taste. The following are illustrations of proper salutations for +friendly letters: _My dear Doctor, Dear Cousin, Dear Cousin Albert, +Dear Miss Jaekel, Dear Major, My dear Miss Smith, Dear William, +Dear Friend,_ etc. + +It is considered more formal to prefix _My_ to the salutation. + +It is over formal to use simply _Sir_ or _Madam_ in any letter, +or to use _Dear Sir_ or _Dear Madam_ when writing to a familiar +friend. + +If one uses a very familiar salutation, such as _Dear Brown, Dear +John,_ etc., it is better to put the inside address at the close +of the letter, or to omit it. + +161. PUNCTUATION OF SALUTATION. Punctuate the salutation with a +colon, except in informal letters, when a comma may be used. + +162. FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN THE SALUTATION. Use no abbreviations +except _Dr., Mr., Mrs._ Do not use the abbreviation _Dr._, when +that title is used as a final word in a salutation. + +Wrong: My dear Maj. Wren: + +Right: My dear Major Wren: + +Wrong: My dear Dr.: + +Right: My dear Doctor: + +Do not use a name alone as a salutation. + +Wrong: Mr. W. W. Braker: + Will you please inform ... + +Right: Mr. W. W. Braker, + Muncy, Pennsylvania. + Dear Sir: + Will you please inform ... + +In the salutation capitalize only the important nouns and the first +word of the salutation. + +Wrong: My Dear Sir: + +Right: My dear Sir: + +Wrong: My very Dear Friend: + +Right: My very dear Friend: + +Wrong: Dear sir: + +Right: Dear Sir: + +THE BODY OF THE LETTER + +163. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THE LETTER. In friendly letters much +latitude is allowed in the body of the letter, but business letters +should be brief and to the point. No letter, however, should be +lacking in the courteous forms or in completeness. + +164. FORM OF BODY. The body of the letter usually begins on the +line below the salutation and is indented the same distance from +the margin as any other paragraph would be indented. See model +letters under Sec.174. + +In commercial letters paragraph divisions are made more frequently +than in other composition. Each separate point should be made the +subject of a separate paragraph. + +165. FAULTS IN BODY OF THE LETTER. In letters that are intended to +be complete and formal, avoid the omission of articles, pronouns, +and prepositions. Avoid also expressions that are grammatically +incomplete. Only in extremely familiar and hasty letters should +the "telegraph style" be adopted. + +Bad: Received yours of the 10th. Have had no chance to look up man. +Will do so soon. + +Good: I have received your letter of the tenth. I have had no chance +as yet to look up the man, but I will do so soon. + +Bad: Address c/o John Smith, Mgr. Penna. Tele. + +Good: Address in care of John Smith, Manager of the Pennsylvania +Telegraph. + +Bad: In reply will say ... + +Good: In reply I wish to say ... + +Bad: Yours of the 10th at hand. + +Good: Your letter of the 10th is at hand. + +Bad: Your favor received ... + +Good: We have received your letter ... + +Bad: Enclose P. O. money order for $2. + +Good: We enclose post office money order for two dollars, ($2). + +Bad: We have read your plan. Same is satisfactory. + +Good: We have read your plan, and it is satisfactory. + +Avoid the use of abbreviations in the letter. + +It is well to avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun _I_ in +the letter, though care must be taken not to carry this caution +to extremes. _I_, however, should not be omitted when necessary +to the completeness of the sentence. Do not try to avoid its use +by omitting it from the sentence, but by substituting a different +form of sentence. + +There is no objection to beginning a letter with _I_. + +Punctuate the letter just as carefully as any other composition. + +Excepting in letters of a formal nature, there is no objection +to the use of colloquial expressions such as _can't, don't,_ etc. + +Unless you have some clear reason to the contrary, avoid the use +of expressions that have been used so much that they are worn out +and often almost meaningless. Such expressions as the following ones +are not wrong, but are often used when they are both inappropriate +and unnecessary. + +Your esteemed favor is at hand. + +In reply permit me to say ... + +We beg leave to advise ... + +We beg to suggest ... + +Thanking you for the favor, we are ... + +Please find enclosed ... + +In answer to your favor of the tenth ... + +We take pleasure in informing you ... + +In reply would say ... + +We beg to acknowledge receipt of your favor ... + +Awaiting your further orders, we are ... + +THE CLOSE + +166. FINAL WORDS. Business letters frequently close with some final +words, such as, _Thanking you again for your kind assistance, I am +..., A waiting your further orders, we are_ ..., etc. These expressions +are not wrong, but are often used when not at all necessary. + +167. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE. The complimentary close should be +written on a separate line near the middle of the page, and should +begin with a capital letter. Appropriateness is the only guide +to the choice of a complimentary close. + +The following complimentary closes are proper for business letters: + + Yours respectfully, Yours very truly, + Yours truly, Very truly yours, + +The following complimentary closes are proper for friendly letters: + + Yours sincerely, Very truly yours, + Yours very truly, Your loving son, + Yours cordially, Affectionately yours, + +168. FAULTS IN THE CLOSE. Do not use abbreviations, such as, _Yrs. +respy., yrs. try.,_ etc. + +169. THE SIGNATURE OF THE WRITER. The letter should be so signed as +to cause no doubt or embarrassment to any one addressing a reply. +The signature should show whether the writer is a man or a woman; +and, if a woman, it should indicate whether she is to be addressed +as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In formal letters it is customary for a woman +to indicate how she is to be addressed by signing her name in the +following manner: + + Sincerely yours, + Caroline Jones. + (Mrs. William Jones). + + Very truly yours, + (Miss) Matilda Stephens. + +In signing a company name write first the name of the company, and +after it the name of the writer. Example: + +D. Appleton & Company, + per J. W. Miller. + +MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS + +170. In beginning the letter, place the address and date an inch +and a half or two inches below the top of the page. + +Leave a margin of about a half inch or more on the left side of +the page. Indent the beginning of each paragraph about an inch +or more beyond the margin. + +In using a four-page sheet, write on the pages in their order, 1, +2, 3, 4. + +In the correctly written forms of letters under Sec.174 observe the +indentation of the lines. The first line of the inside address +should be flush with the margin, the second somewhat set in. The +salutation should begin flush with the margin. The body of the letter +should begin on the line below the salutation, and some distance +in from the margin. + +THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS + +171. POSITION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Place the address on the envelope +so that it balances well. Do not have it too far toward the top, +too close to the bottom, nor too far to one side. See addressed +envelope under Sec.173. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand +corner, not obliquely to the sides of the envelope. + +172. PUNCTUATION OF OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Punctuation may be omitted +at the end of the lines of the address. If it is used, place a +period at the end of the last line, and a comma after each preceding +line. + +Within the lines punctuate just as you would in the inside address. + +If an abbreviation ends the line, always place a period after it, +whether the other lines are punctuated or not. + +173. FAULTS IN THE OUTSIDE ADDRESS. Avoid the use of abbreviations +except those that would be proper in the inside address or in the +heading. See Sec.Sec. 155 and 158. + +Do not use the sign # before the number of the street address. No +letters or sign at all should be used there. See Sec.155. + +Compare the following forms of addresses: + +Bad: Col. Wm. Point, + #200 John St., + Trenton, N. J. + +Good: Colonel William Point, + 200 John Street, + Trenton, + New Jersey. + +Good: Colonel William Point + 200 John Street + Trenton, New Jersey + +Bad: Chas. Jones, + c/o Edward Furrey, + Wilkinsburg, Pa. + +Good: Mr. Charles Jones + In care of Mr. Edward Furrey + Wilkinsburg + Pennsylvania + +Bad: Rev. Walter Bertin + +Good: The Reverend Walter Bertin + +Bad: Pres. of Bucknell Univ. + +Good: For the President of Bucknell University. + +A properly arranged address: + +[Illustration: Mr. Robert D. Royer, + 201 Tenth Street, + Danville, + Illinois.] + +174. CORRECTLY WRITTEN LETTERS + + 200 Mead Avenue, + Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania, + January 12, 1909. +Mr. A. M. Weaver, + Cambridge, Massachusetts. + +My dear Sir: + +I have received your letter of inquiry about the sale of my law +books. I will say in answer that at present I have no intention +of selling them. + +You may, however, be able to secure what you want from H. B. Wassel, +Esquire, Commonwealth Building, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. He has +advertised the sale of a rather extensive list of books. + + Very truly yours, + Charles M. Howell. + + Muncy, New York, January 12, 1909. +My dear Professor Morton: + +We are trying to establish in the school here some permanent system +of keeping students' records. I have been told that you have worked +out a card method that operates successfully. If you can give me +any information in regard to your method, I shall consider it a +very great favor. I enclose a stamped envelope for your reply. + + Very sincerely yours, + Harris A. Plotts. + +Professor E. A. Morton, + Braddock, Pennsylvania. + + Braddock, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1909. +My dear Mrs. Hagon: + +I wish to thank you for your kind aid in securing Captain Howard +to deliver one of the lectures in our course. Only your influence +enabled us to get so good a man at so Iowa price. + + Very sincerely, + Sylvester D. Dunlop. + + 173 State Street, Detroit, Michigan, + January 23, 1910. +To whom it may concern: + +It gives me great pleasure to testify to the character, ability +and attainments of Mr. E. J. Heidenreich. He has been a trusted +personal associate of mine for more than twenty years. He may be +counted upon to do successfully anything that he is willing to +undertake. + + Harry B. Hutchins. + +My dear Walter: + +I am to be in the city only a few more weeks before leaving permanently. +Before I go, I should like to have you come out and take dinner with +me some evening. How would next Wednesday at six o'clock suit you? +If you can come at that time, will you please write or telephone +to me sometime before Tuesday? + + Very cordially yours, + Paul B. Vandine. + +6556 Broad Street, + Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, + March 30, 1909. + + The Lafayette, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, + March 31, 1909. +My dear Paul: + +I shall be very glad to accept your invitation to take dinner with +you before you take final leave of the city. The time you mention, +next Wednesday evening, is entirely satisfactory to me. + +I was more than pleased to receive your invitation, for the prospect +of talking over old times with you is delightful. + + Sincerely yours, + Walter Powell. + + Napoleon, Ohio, February 28, 1908. +The American Stove Company, + Alverton, Pennsylvania. + +Gentlemen: + +With this letter I enclose a check for ten dollars, for which please +send me one of your small cook stoves, of the sort listed in your +catalogue on page two hundred thirty-eight. + +It will be a great favor if you will hasten the shipment of this +stove as much as possible, since it is urgently needed in a summer +cottage that I have for rent. + + Very truly yours, + Ernest Burrows. + + 223 Siegel Street, New York City, + June 5, 1910. +The Acme Tapestry Company, + Syracuse, New York. + +Dear Sirs: + +Will you please send me a price list and descriptive catalogue of +your tapestries and carpets? + +I have been commissioned to purchase all the tapestries and carpets +that may be needed for the new Young Women's Christian Association +Building, on Arlington Avenue, this city. I understand that institutions +of this sort are allowed a ten per cent discount by you. Will you +please tell me if this is true? + + Very truly yours, + Anna R. Fleegor. + (Mrs. C. C. Fleegor.) + + Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, May 10, 1910. +The Merchant's Electric Wiring Company, + Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. + +Gentlemen: + +I am writing to ask if you can give me employment in your work +for about ten weeks beginning June 15th. I am at present taking +a course in electrical engineering at Bucknell University, and +am in my sophomore year., It is my plan to gain some practical +experience in various sorts of electrical work during the vacations +occurring in my course. This summer I want to secure practical +experience in electric wiring. + +If you wish references as to my character and ability, I would +refer you to Mr. William R. Stevenson, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and +to Mr. Harry E. McCormick, Superintendent of the Street Railways +Company, Danville, Illinois. + +Salary is a very slight object to me in this work, and I shall be +willing to accept whatever compensation you may see fit to offer +me. + + Respectfully yours, + Harvey H. Wilkins. + + Drawsburg, Ohio, May 21, 1910. +My dear Norman: + +I have just heard of your good fortune and hasten to assure you +of my sincere pleasure in the news. May you find happiness and +prosperity in your new location. But do not forget that your old +friends are still living and will always be interested in your +welfare. + + Your affectionate cousin, + Mary E. Johnston. + + 223 Holbrook Avenue, Wilkinsburg, Indiana. + November 10, 1908. +The Jefferson Life Insurance Company, + Norfolk, Virginia. + +Gentlemen: + +I am the holder of Policy Number 2919 in your company. In that +Policy, which was taken out about ten years ago, my occupation +is stated to be carpenter. Lately I have changed occupations, and +am now engaged in conducting a store. If, in order to maintain the +validity of my policy, the change of occupation should be recorded +on your books, will you please have the proper entry made. + +I should like to know if at the present time my policy has any cash +surrender value, and if so, what that value is. + + Very truly yours, + Arthur J. Pearse. + + Bunnell Building, Scranton, Pennsylvania, + April 20, 1909. +Mr. James R. Elliot, + Germantown, Colorado. + +My dear Elliot: + +Will you please send me, as soon as you conveniently can, the addresses +of George English, Ira S. Shepherd, and G. N. Wilkinson. + +This request for addresses may lead you to think that wedding +invitations are to be looked for. Your conclusion, I am happy to +say, is a correct one; I expect to be married sometime in June. + + Cordially your friend, + Charles R. Harris. + + The Anglo-American Hotel, Vienna, Austria, + March 19, 1907. +Dear Aunt Emily: + +You will no doubt be surprised when you read the heading of this +letter and learn that we are now in Vienna. We had really intended, +as I wrote to you, to spend the entire months of March and April +in Berlin, but a sudden whim sent us on to this city. + +Until we came to Vienna I had but a very vague idea of the city, +and thought it a place of little interest. I was surprised to find +it a place of so many beautiful buildings and beautiful streets. +Still more was I surprised to find what a festive, stylish place +it is. Paris may have the reputation for fashion and frivolity, +but Vienna lacks only the reputation; it certainly does not lack +the fashionable and frivolous air. + +The other day in one of the shops here, I discovered, as I thought, +a very fine miniature. I purchased it to present to you, and have +already sent it by post. It ought to reach you as soon as this +letter. + +We have not received the usual letter from you this week, but suppose +it is because we so suddenly changed our address. The necessity +of forwarding it from Berlin has probably caused the delay. + +Father and Mother join in sending their love to you. + + Your affectionate niece, + Mary. + +NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON + +175. It is customary and desirable to write certain kinds of notes +in the third person. Such a note contains nothing but the body +of the note, followed at the left side of the paper, by the time +and the place of writing. + +Use no pronoun but that of the third person. Never use any heading, +salutation, or signature. Use no abbreviations except _Mr., Mrs._, +or _Dr._ Spell out all dates. + +176. CORRECTLY WRITTEN NOTES IN THE THIRD PERSON. + +Mrs. Harry Moore requests the pleasure of Mr. Leighou's company +at dinner on Sunday, June the first, at two o'clock. + +1020 Highland Street, + Washington, Pennsylvania, +May the twenty-fifth. + +The Senior Class of Bucknell University requests the pleasure of +Professor and Mrs. Morton's company on Tuesday evening, June the +tenth, at a reception in honor of Governor Edwin S. Stuart. + + Bucknell University, + June the fifth. + +Mr. Leighou regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance +of Mrs. Moore's kind invitation for Sunday, June the first. + + 110 Braddock Avenue, + May the twenty-seventh. + +EXERCISE 75 + +_Make use of some of the following suggestions for letters. Have +every letter complete in all its formal parts. Fill in details +according to your own fancy:_ + + 1. A letter to the X Express Company of your town, complaining of + their delay in delivering a package to you. + + 2. A letter to a friend, thanking him for the entertainment afforded + you on a recent visit to his house. + + 3. A letter to the X Book Company, inquiring what dictionary they + publish, the prices, etc. + + 4. A letter to Mr. X, asking him for a position in his office, and + stating your qualifications. + + 5. A letter congratulating a friend on some good fortune that has + befallen him. + + 6. A letter asking a friend his opinion of some business venture + that you are thinking of entering upon. Explain the venture. + + 7. A letter to your home, describing to your parents your school. + + 8. A letter to a friend, telling him of the chance meeting with + some friend. + + 9. A letter to the X store ordering from them material for covering + a canoe that you are building. Explain your needs. + +10. A letter describing experiences which you had on your vacation. + +11. A letter arranging to meet a friend at a certain place, time, etc. + +12. A letter explaining how to reach your home from the railway + station. Leave no doubt. + +13. A letter describing some new acquaintance. + +14. A letter telling some humorous story that you have recently heard. + +15. A letter to a relative telling him the recent occurrences in + your town. + +16. A letter detailing your plans for the succeeding year. + +17. A letter describing some play which you have recently attended. + +18. A letter to your parents explaining to them why you failed in + an examination. + +19. A letter inviting a friend to visit you at a certain time. + +20. A letter accepting an invitation to visit a friend. + +21. A letter stating your opinions on some public question; as, + prohibition, woman suffrage, etc. + +22. A letter discussing the baseball prospects in your town or school. + +23. A letter to the X school, inquiring about courses of study given, + prices, etc. + +24. A formal third person invitation to a reception given to some + organization to which you belong. + +25. A formal third person acceptance of such invitation. + +26. A travel letter describing your visit to various places of interest. + +27. A letter describing a day's outing to a friend who was unable + to go with you. + +28. A letter describing a house to a man who wishes to purchase it. + +29. A letter to a schoolmate describing to him various events which + happened at school during his absence. + +30. A letter in reply to an inquiry from a friend as to what outfit + he will need to take along on a prospective camping trip. + +31. A letter describing to a friend the appearance and characteristics + of a dog which you have lately bought. + +32. A letter to your parents telling them of your boarding place, + your recent visit to the theater, your meeting an old friend, your + work, your new acquaintances. Arrange the topics and make the + transition as smooth as possible. + +33. A letter telling about an intended celebration by the school + of some national holiday. + +34. A letter about a lecture that you recently attended. Describe + the place, occasion, lecturer, address, etc. + +35. A letter telling a friend the first impression you formed of + your school. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + +177. By the term WHOLE COMPOSITION or THEME is meant a composition +consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one +general subject, whether the composition be a narration, a description, +or an exposition. + +The following general principles applying to the construction of the +whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced +writer. + +178. STATEMENT OF SUBJECT. Care should be used in the statement of +the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive +than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is +discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some +limited phase of that subject: + +Too broad: _College, Photography, Picnics_. + +Properly limited: _A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, +Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How +Picnics Help the Doctor._ + +179. THE OUTLINE. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine, +if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully made plan is +necessary before entering on the construction; so in the writing +of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline, +which will determine what different things are to be discussed, +and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. By the +inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never be begun +until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as +the material for the composition is in hand, the outline should be +made. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition, +not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only +by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be +gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable proportion +secured in their discussion. + +In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different +subtopics, were discussed: + +Definition of Paragraph. How to Secure Unity. +Length of Paragraph. How to Secure Coherence. +The Topic Sentence. Too Frequent Paragraphing. +Unity in the Paragraph. Paragraphing of Speech. +Coherence in the Paragraph. Paragraphing for Emphasis. +Examples of Unity. Examples showing how Unity is +Purpose of the Paragraph. Destroyed. +Emphasis in the Paragraph. The Paragraph Theme. + +If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a +sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of +topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical +outline. + +THE PARAGRAPH + +1. Its definition and purpose. +2. Its length. + Paragraphing of speech. + Paragraphing for emphasis. + Too frequent paragraphing. +3. Its essential qualities. + A. Unity. + Definition. + Examples showing how unity is destroyed. + How to secure unity. + The topic sentence. + Development of topic sentence. + Examples showing unity. + B. Coherence. + Definition. + How to secure coherence. + Examples showing coherence. + C. Emphasis. + Places of emphasis in the paragraph. +4. Practical construction of the paragraph. +5. The paragraph theme. + +180. USE AND QUALITIES OF THE OUTLINE. The use of the outline is +not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also +necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration, +the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in +which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently +be followed with very good reason. + +In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general +description is given, and then followed by a statement of various +details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe +in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and +the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular +description might be made of its details of arrangement and +peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation. + +The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement +and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline +should present a few main topics to which all others either lead +up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all +bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation +may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by +details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long +as it is a logical and natural one. + +The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be +sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter, +and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. A too detailed outline +tends to make the composition stiff and formal. + +The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the +subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be +given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main +topics. + +181. THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPOSITION. To choose a method of beginning +a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning +is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary +in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate +to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine +the following methods of beginning. + +THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER + +Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which +the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all +other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about +it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in +all the literature of American self-praise. + +MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS + +Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, +than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go +to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that +dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every +clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed. + +THE USES OF IRON + +No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as +iron. + +The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand +alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference +to the title. + +Bad: + +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL + +There is a rapidly growing belief _that this study_ has too large +a place in our high-school courses of study. + +Good: + +THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL + +There is a rapidly growing belief _that Latin_ has too large a place +in our high school courses of study. + +182. UNITY IN THE COMPOSITION. Unity is an essential element of +the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands +here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the +composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject. +In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed +which properly belongs to some other division of the topic. + +As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted +and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation +of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's +relation to the subject. + +A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative. +If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care +must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at +which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual +changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also +be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently. + +183. COHERENCE IN THE COMPOSITION. A composition must also be coherent. +Its different parts must be closely knit together and the whole +closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, words of +reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words, +or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to +bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts. + +For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite +change of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. +There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the +change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same +time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition +sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the +beginning of a following one, or at both of these places. + +Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or +phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized: + +(Last sentence of first paragraph) + +... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind. + +(Second paragraph) + +_The mischief, however,_ recoiled on the unhappy people of this +country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked purposes +of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its best +blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense +of the war was enormous--much beyond any former experience. + +(Third paragraph) + +_And yet, what has the British nation received in return_ for this +expense.... + +... I was now enabled to see the _extent and aspect of my prison. +In its size_ I had been greatly mistaken.... + +(Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph) + +_The second of the essentials of the paragraph_, coherence, demands +that.... + +Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is +devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe +the following: + +(Paragraph 7) + +... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly +of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile taxes +to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the +enumeration of what has already been done toward building good +roads. + +(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph) + +_There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of +this important result, which are now being seriously discussed._ + +(Paragraph 9) + +_The first of these plans is_ ... + +The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to +indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs: +_So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again, +An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of +this, By way of exception._ + +Examine the selection under Sec.187. + +184. THE ENDING OF THE COMPOSITION. In a longer composition, the +ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should +it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to the length +of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a story, it +should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference. +In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of +ending depends entirely upon the nature and the scheme of development +of the story. Examine the following endings: + +Ending of a theme on _The Uses of Iron_: + +Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, +have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which it +is constantly put--uses which no other metal could fill. Gold may +once have been called the king of metals, but it has long since +lost its claim to that title. + +Ending of a story: + +John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate. + +"Good-bye," he said. + +And then he was gone, forever. + +Suggested subjects for the making of outlines and compositions. + + 1. How I Spent my Vacation. + 2. Shall Final Examinations be Abolished? + 3. The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools. + 4. My Qualifications for a Position. + 5. The Uses of Iron. + 6. Paul Revere's Ride. + 7. The City Park. + 8. My Town as a Place of Residence. + 9. The Value of Railroads. + 10. Why I Believe in Local Option. + 11. A Winter's Sleigh Ride. + 12. Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted? + 13. My Youthful Business Ventures. + 14. Why I Belong to the X Political Party. + 15. Various Methods of Heating a House. + +185. Below is given in full Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_. It is +perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with especial +reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some of the words +of coherence have been italicized. + +Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this +continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the +proposition that all men are created equal. _Now_ we are engaged +in a great civil war, testing whether _that nation_, or any nation +so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. + +We are met on a great battle-field of _that war_. We have come +to dedicate a portion of _that field_ as the final resting-place +for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. +It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do _this. But_ +in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we +cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who +_struggled here_ have consecrated it far above our power to add +or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what +we say here; but it can never forget what _they did here_. + +It is for us, the living, _rather_, to be dedicated here to the +unfinished work which _they who fought here_ have thus far so nobly +advanced. _It is rather for us_ to be here dedicated to the great +task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take +increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last +full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that _these +dead_ shall not have died in vain; that _this nation_, under God, +shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, +by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. + +186. _Small Economies_, from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_. + +I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small +economies--careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in some +one peculiar direction--any disturbance of which annoys him more +than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. + +An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of +the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was +invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a +long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) +out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the +corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this +little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed +him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his +soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he +could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article +was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him, +and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I +see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send +a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines +of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides. + +I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String +is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up +and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously +annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and +faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves +to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, +as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber band +is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new--one that I +picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried +to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the +extravagance. + +Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation +because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people +have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not +seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on +the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out +of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing +it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose +plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which +he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that +this is not waste. + +Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices +to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit +knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in the dark, or +by firelight--and when I asked if I might not ring for candles to +finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's +holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but we only burnt +one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation for a friend +who might come in any evening (but who never did), it required +some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same length, ready +to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The candles +took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or doing, Miss +Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump +up and extinguish it and to light the other before they had become +too uneven in length to be restored to equality in the course of +the evening. + +One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. +I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday," +especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to +stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could +not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight, +according to my usual custom.... + +187. A LIST OF BOOKS FOR READING. These books are of a varied character +and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in their English. +Most of them are books that, as a matter of general education, +should be read by everyone. + +Fiction: + Treasure Island--Stevenson. + Kidnapped--Stevenson. + Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde--Stevenson. + The Scarlet Letter--Hawthorne. + Twice Told Tales--Hawthorne. + The Luck of Roaring Camp--Bret Harte. + Tales of Mystery and Imagination--Poe. + Silas Marner--Eliot. + Robinson Crusoe--Defoe. + Ivanhoe--Scott. + Henry Esmond--Thackeray. + Pilgrim's Progress--Bunyan. + The Spy--Cooper. + The Man without a Country--Hale. + Tales of a Traveller--Irving. + The Legend of Sleepy Hollow--Irving. + Rip Van Winkle--Irving. + Lorna Doone--Blackmore. + Uncle William--Lee. + The Blue Flower--Van Dyke. + +Non-fiction: + Sesame and Lilies--Ruskin. + Stones of Venice--Ruskin. + The American Commonwealth--Bryce. + A History of the English People--Green. + Views Afoot--Taylor. + The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table--Holmes. + Conspiracy of Pontiac--Parkman. + Autobiography--Franklin. + Lincoln--Douglas Debates. + Critical Periods of American History--Fiske. + Certain Delightful English Towns--Howells. + The Declaration of Independence. + Bunker Hill Oration--Webster. + On Conciliation with America--Burke. + The Sketch Book--Irving. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +WORDS.--SPELLING.--PRONUNCIATION + +188. To write and to speak good English, one must have a good working +vocabulary. He must know words and be able to use them correctly; +he must employ only words that are in good use; he must be able +to choose words and phrases that accurately express his meaning; +and he must be able to spell and pronounce correctly the words +that he uses. + +WORDS + +189. GOOD USE. The first essential that a word should have, is +that it be in good use. A word is in good use when it is used +grammatically and in its true sense, and is also: + +(1) _Reputable_; in use by good authors and writers in general. +The use of a word by one or two good writers is not sufficient +to make a word reputable; the use must be general. + +(2) _National_; not foreign or local in its use. + +(3) _Present_; used by the writers of one's own time. + +190. OFFENSES AGAINST GOOD USE. The offenses against good use are +usually said to be of three classes: Solecisms, Barbarisms, and +Improprieties. + +191. SOLECISMS are the violations of the principles of grammar. +Solecisms have been treated under the earlier chapters on grammar. + +192. BARBARISMS. The second offense against good use, a barbarism, +is a word not in reputable, present or national use. The following +rules may be given on this subject: + +1. AVOID OBSOLETE WORDS. Obsolete words are words that, once in +good use, have since passed out of general use. This rule might +also be made to include obsolescent words: words that are at present +time passing out of use. Examples of obsolete words: + + methinks yesterwhiles twixt + yclept afeard shoon + +2. AVOID NEWLY COINED EXPRESSIONS OR NEW USES OF OLD EXPRESSIONS. +There are a great many words current in the newspapers and in other +hasty writing that have not the sanction of general good use at +the present time, though many of these words may in time come into +use. A safe rule is to avoid all words that are at all doubtful. +Examples: + + an invite an expose a try + enthuse a combine fake + +A common newspaper fault is the coining of a verb or adjective from +a noun, or a noun from a verb. Examples: + + locomote suicided derailment + pluralized burglarized refereed + +3. AVOID FOREIGN WORDS. A foreign word should not be used until it +has become naturalized by being in general, reputable use. Since +there are almost always English words just as expressive as the +foreign words, the use of the foreign words usually indicates +affectation on the part of the one using them. Examples: + + billet-doux (love letter) conversazione (conversation) + ad nauseam (to disgust) distingue (distinguished) + ad infinitum (infinitely) entre nous (between us) + +4. AVOID PROVINCIALISMS. Provincialisms are expressions current +and well understood in one locality, but not current or differently +understood in another locality. Examples: + + guess (think) reckon (suppose) + near (stingy) smart (clever) + tuckered (tired out) lift (elevator) + tote (carry) ruination (ruin) + +5. AVOID VULGARISMS. Vulgarisms are words whose use shows vulgarity +or ignorance. Such words as the following are always in bad taste: + + chaw nigger your'n + gal flustrated hadn't oughter + haint dern his'n + +6. AVOID SLANG. Slang is a form of vulgarism that is very prevalent +in its use even by educated people. Slang words, it is true, sometimes +come into good repute and usage, but the process is slow. The safest +rule is to avoid slang expressions because of their general bad +taste and because of their weakening effect on one's vocabulary +of good words. Examples of slang: + + grind swipe booze + long green on a toot dough + pinch peach dukes + +7. AVOID CLIPPED OR ABBREVIATED WORDS. The use of such words is +another form of vulgarism. Examples: + + pard (partner) rep (reputation) + doc (doctor) cal'late (calculate) + musee (museum) a comp (complimentary ticket) + +8. AVOID TECHNICAL OR PROFESSIONAL WORDS. Such words are usually +clearly understood only by persons of one class or profession. +Examples: + + valence hagiology allonge + kilowatt sclerosis estoppel + +193. WHEN BARBARISMS MAY BE USED. In the foregoing rules barbarisms +have been treated as at all times to be avoided. This is true of +their use in general composition, and in a measure true of their +use in composition of a special nature. But barbarisms may sometimes +be used properly. Obsolete words would be permissible in poetry +or in historical novels, technical words permissible in technical +writing, and even vulgarisms and provincialisms permissible in +dialect stories. + +EXERCISE 76 + +_Substitute for each of the barbarisms in the following list an +expression that is in good use. When in doubt consult a good +dictionary:_ + +Chaw, quoth, fake, reckon, dern, forsooth, his'n, an invite, entre +nous, tote, hadn't oughter, yclept, a combine, ain't, dole, a try, +nouveau riche, puny, grub, twain, a boom, alter ego, a poke, cuss, +eld, enthused, mesalliance, tollable, disremember, locomote, a right +smart ways, chink, afeard, orate, nary a one, yore, pluralized, +distingue, ruination, complected, mayhap, burglarized, mal de mer, +tuckered, grind, near, suicided, callate, cracker-jack, erst, +railroaded, chic, down town, deceased (verb), a rig, swipe, spake, +on a toot, knocker, peradventure, guess, prof, classy, booze, per +se, cute, biz, bug-house, swell, opry, rep, photo, cinch, corker, +in cahoot, pants, fess up, exam, bike, incog, zoo, secondhanded, +getable, outclassed, gents, mucker, galoot, dub, up against it, +on tick, to rattle, in hock, busted on the bum, to watch out, get +left. + +EXERCISE 77 + +_Make a list of such barbarisms as you yourself use, and devise +for them as many good substitute expressions as you can. Practice +using the good expressions that you have made._ + +EXERCISE 78 + +_Correct the italicized barbarisms in the following sentences:_ + + 1. They can go _everywheres_. + 2. He spends all his time _grinding_. + 3. There _ain't_ a _sightlier_ town in the state. + 4. He ate the whole _hunk_ of cake. + 5. He was treated very _illy_. + 6. Smith's new house is very _showy_. + 7. Not _muchly_ will I go. + 8. All were ready for breakfast before _sun-up_. + 9. Do you like _light-complected_ people? + 10. I had never _orated_ before. + 11. Their clothes are always _tasty_ in appearance. + 12. He has money, but he is very _near_. + 13. He left the room _unbeknown_ to his mother. + 14. If manners are any indication, she belongs to the _nouveau riche_. + 15. I feel pretty _tollable_ today. + 16. I _reckon_ all will be able to get seats. + 17. Do you _callate_ to get there before noon? + 18. If I had as much _long green_ as he has, I wouldn't be such a +_tight-wad_. + 19. He was the _beau ideal_ of soldier. + 20. John is a _crazy cuss_. + 21. Let me say _en passant_ we did not ask for the tickets. + 22. Even at that time John had a bad _rep_. + 23. That woman is the Countess of Verdun, _nee_ Smith. + 24. _Methinks_ you are wrong. + 25. The teacher _spake_ sharply to her. + 26. I _didn't go for to do_ it. + 27. It will be published _inside of_ two months. + 28. The duke and his wife were travelling _incog_. + 29. I hadn't _thought on_ that. + 30. There is little difference _twixt_ the two. + 31. Come now, _fess up_. + 32. It's a _right smart ways_ to Williamsport. + 33. You _wot_ not what you say. + 34. He bought a _poke_ of apples for his lunch. + 35. Brown runs a pretty _classy_ store. + 36. I finally _got shut_ of him. + 37. I _could of_ jumped across. + 38. That can't be done _nohow_. + 39. You make such _dumb_ mistakes. + 40. I never saw such a _bum_ show. + +194. IMPROPRIETIES. The third offense against good use, an impropriety, +is the use of a proper word in an improper sense. In many cases an +offense against good use may be called a barbarism, an impropriety, +or a solecism, since the fields covered by the three terms somewhat +overlap one another. Many improprieties have their origin in the +similarities in sound, spelling or meaning of words. The following +exercises deal with a number of common improprieties resulting +from the confusion of two similar words. + +EXERCISE 79 + +_Study the proper use of the words given under each of the following +divisions. In each group of sentences fill the blanks with the +proper words:_ + +ACCEPT, EXCEPT. See Glossary at end of book, under _except_. + + 1. I cannot ---- your gift. + 2. Have you no books ---- these? + 3. Cicero was not ---- from the list of those condemned. + 4. He ---- the invitation. + +AFFECT, EFFECT. See Glossary under _effect_. + + 1. Will your plan ---- a reform from the present condition? + 2. The sad news will seriously ---- his mother. + 3. How was the bank ---- by the indictment of its president? + 4. The change of schedule was ---- without a hitch. + +AGGRAVATE, IRRITATE. See Glossary. + + 1. Her manner ---- me. + 2. The crime was ---- by being committed in cold blood. + 3. The children do everything they can to ---- her. + 4. His illness was ---- by lack of proper food. + +ALLUDE, MENTION. See Glossary. + + 1. He ---- (to) certain events which he dared not name directly. + 2. The attorney ---- (to) no names. + 3. That passage in his book delicately ---- (to) his mother. + 4. In his speech the labor leader boldly ---- (to) his recent arrest. + +ARGUE, AUGUR. _To argue_ is to state reasons for one's belief. _To +augur_ means _to foretell, to presage_. + + 1. The reported quarrel ---- ill for the army. + 2. He will ---- at length on any subject. + 3. Her darkening looks ---- a quarrel. + +AVOCATION, VOCATION. A _vocation_ is one's principal work or calling. +_An avocation_ is something aside from or subordinate to that principal +calling. + + 1. The young physician enthusiastically pursues his ----. + 2. Law is his ----, but politics is his ----. + 3. The ministry should be one's ----, never his ----. + 4. While preparing for his life work, school teaching was for a +time his ----. + +BESIDES, BESIDE. _Besides_ means _in addition to. Beside_ refers +to place; as, _He sits beside you_. + + 1. ---- you, who else was there? + 2. Is there nothing ---- this to do? + 3. John walked ---- me. + 4. ---- me was a tree. + +CALCULATE, INTEND. _To calculate_ means _to compute, to adjust_ or +_to adapt. Intend_ means _to have formed the plan to do something_. + + 1. He ---- to sell books this summer. + 2. He ---- that the work will take ten years. + 3. He ---- to finish it as soon as he can. + 4. The oil is ---- to flow at the rate of a gallon a minute. + +CHARACTER, REPUTATION. See Glossary. + + 1. In this community his ---- is excellent. + 2. One's friends may endow him with a good ----, but not with a good ----. + 3. Slander may ruin one's ----, but it will not destroy his ----. + 4. See that your ---- is right, and your ---- will establish itself. + +CLAIM, ASSERT. _To claim_ means to make a demand for what is one's +own. It should not be confused with _assert_. + + 1. I ---- that I am innocent. + 2. John ---- the property as his. + 3. They ---- their right to the land. + 4. The cashier ---- the money in payment of a note. + 5. Do you still ---- that you were born in America? + +COUNCIL, COUNSEL, CONSUL. A _council_ is a group of persons called +in to hold consultation. _Counsel_ means _an adviser_, as a lawyer; +or _advice_ that is given. _Consul_ is an officer of the government. + + 1. In the colonies each governor had his ----. + 2. The advisers gave him ---- when he desired it. + 3. The United States has a ---- in every important foreign port. + 4. In criminal cases the accused must be provided with ----. + 5. The president's cabinet constitutes for him a sort of ----. + 6. In Rome two ---- were elected to manage the affairs of the state. + +EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION. See Glossary. + + 1. Foreign ---- into the United States is greatly restricted. + 2. The ---- of the citizens of the United States to Canada is +becoming a matter of concern. + 3. Our ---- Bureau enforces the Chinese Exclusion Act. + 4. The treatment of the royalists caused a great ---- from France. + +GOOD, WELL. _Good_ is an adjective. _Well_ is usually an adverb, +though sometimes an adjective; as, _Are you well to-day?_ + + 1. She talks very ----. + 2. She prepares a ---- paper, even if she does not write ----. + 3. Do ---- what you are doing. + 4. Did you have a ---- time? + 5. Recite it as ---- as you can. + +HOUSE, HOME. _House_ means only _a building. Home_ means a place +that is one's habitual place of residence. + + 1. He thought often of the flowers about the door of his old ----. + 2. They have recently bought a ---- which they intend to make their ----. + 3. Mr. Heim lives here now, but his ---- is in Lewisburg. + 4. He has several miserable ---- that he rents. + 5. Such a place is not fit to be called a ----. + +MOST, ALMOST. _Almost_ is an adverb meaning _nearly. Most_ never +has this meaning. + + 1. I was ---- injured when the machine broke. + 2. It is ---- time for him to come. + 3. The ---- discouraging thing was his indifference. + 4. I ---- missed the car. + 5. ---- of the books are torn. + +LET, LEAVE. See Glossary, under _leave_. + + 1. Will his employer ---- him go so early. + 2. I shall ---- at noon. + 3. ---- me help you with your coat. + 4. ---- me here for a while. + 5. This book I ---- with you. + 6. Do not ---- that danger disturb you. + +LIKE, AS. _Like_ should not be used as a conjunction in the sense +of _as_. As a preposition it is correct. It is wrong to say, _Do +like I do_; but right to say, _Do as I do_. + + 1. He looks ---- James. + 2. Read ---- James does. + 3. Does she look ---- me? + 4. She thinks of it ---- I thought. + 5. Lincoln could do a thing ---- that. + 6. Other men could not do ---- Lincoln did. + +LIKELY, LIABLE, PROBABLY. It is better to avoid using _likely_ as +an adverb; but it may be used as an adjective; as, _He is likely +to come. Probably_ refers to any sort of possibility. _Liable_ +refers to an unpleasant or unfavorable possibility; it should not +be used as equivalent to _likely_. + + 1. He is ---- to arrest for doing that. + 2. The president's car will ---- arrive at noon. + 3. It is ---- to rain to-day. + 4. Is he ---- to write to us? + 5. Continued exposure makes one more ---- to serious illness. + 6. What will ---- come of it? + +LOAN, LEND. _Loan_ should be used only as a noun, and _lend_ only +as a verb. + + 1. I wish to obtain a ---- of fifty dollars. + 2. Will you ---- me your knife? + 3. A ---- of money loses both itself and friend. + 4. A ---- is something that one ---- to another. + +MAD, ANGRY. Mad means _insane, uncontrollably excited through fear_, +etc. It should not be used for _angry_ or _vexed_. + + 1. His manner of speaking makes me ----. + 2. It makes one ---- to see such behavior. + 3. The noise almost drove me ----. + +MUCH, MANY. _Much_ refers to quantity; _many_ to number. + + 1. Sometimes they have as ---- as fifty in a class. + 2. ---- of the trouble comes from his weak eyes. + 3. Do you use ---- horses on the farm? + 4. How ---- marbles did the boy have? + +NEAR, NEARLY. _Near_ is an adjective; _nearly_ an adverb. + + 1. Is the work ---- finished? + 2. The man was ---- the end of the porch. + 3. It was ---- noon when Blucher came. + 4. They are ---- insane with worry. + 5. Mary is not ---- so old as John. + +OBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE. _Observation_ means to _watch, to look at. +Observance_ means _to celebrate, to keep_. _Observation_ applies +to a fact or an object; _observance_ to a festival, a holiday, or +a rule. + + 1. The ---- of the astronomer proved the theory. + 2. Sunday ---- is of value to one's bodily as well as to one's spiritual health. + 3. The ---- of the sanitary regulations was insisted upon. + 4. The scientist needs highly developed powers of ----. + +RESPECTIVELY, RESPECTFULLY. _Respectively_ means _particularly, +relating to each. Respectfully_ means _characterized by high regard._ + + 1. These three kinds of architecture were characterized ---- as +"severe," "graceful," and "ornate." + 2. Sign your letter "Yours ----," not "yours ----." + 3. Their shares were ---- two hundred dollars and five hundred dollars, + 4. The class ---- informed the faculty of their desire. + +SUSPECT, EXPECT. _Suspect_ means _to mistrust. Expect_ means _to +look forward to_. + + 1. I ---- that he will come. + 2. He ---- his brother of hiding his coat. + 3. When do you ---- to finish the work? + 4. The man was never before ---- of having done wrong. + +TEACH, LEARN. See Glossary under _learn_. + + 1. You must ---- him to be careful. + 2. He must ---- to be careful. + 3. To ---- a class to study is a difficult task. + 4. Who ---- your class to-day. + +TRANSPIRE, HAPPEN. _Transpire_ does not mean _to happen_. It means +_to become gradually known, to leak out_. + + 1. She knows everything that ---- in the village. + 2. It ---- that he had secretly sold the farm. + 3. No more important event than this has ---- in the last ten years. + 4. It has now ---- that some money was stolen. + +QUITE, VERY. _Quite_ is not in good use in the sense of _very_ or +_to a great degree_. It properly means _entirely_. + + 1. The book is ---- easy to study. + 2. Have you ---- finished your work. + 3. The train ran ---- slowly for most of the distance. + 4. That is ---- easy to do. + 5. We were ---- unable to reach the city any sooner. + +EXERCISE 80 + +_The following list includes some groups of words that are often +confused. Far the proper meaning of the words refer to a good +dictionary. Write sentences using the words in their proper senses:_ + + practical, skilled sensible, sensitive + couple, two access, accession + future, subsequent allusion, illusion, delusion + folk, family conscience, consciousness + evidence, testimony identity, identification + party, person, firm limit, limitation + plenty, many, enough of majority, plurality + portion, part materialize, appear + solicitation, solicitude invent, discover + human, humane prescribe, proscribe + bound, determined some, somewhat, something + fix, mend mutual, common + foot, pay noted, notorious + creditable, credible wait for, wait on + exceptionable, exceptional in, into + +EXERCISE 81 + +_Show how the use of each of the two italicized words in the following +sentences would affect the meaning of the sentence:_ + + 1. We experienced a _succession series_ of hindrances. + 2. That _statement assertion_ was made by an eye witness. + 3. The student has remarkable _ability capacity_. + 4. In my _estimate estimation_ the cost will be higher than fifty dollars. + 5. The _import importance_ of his words is not fully understood. + 6. The _union unity_ of the clubs is remarkable. + 7. The _acts actions_ of the president were closely watched. + 8. The man needed a new _stimulus stimulant_. + 9. He was _captivated captured_ by her unusual charms. + 10. We are quick to _impute impugn_ motives that we think to exist. + 11. He was _convinced convicted_ by John's argument. + 12. The dog's suffering was _alleviated relieved_ by the medicine. + 13. He _persuaded advised_ me to consult a lawyer. + 14. His behavior was _funny odd_. + 15. The plan seems _practical practicable_. + 16. That is the _latest last_ letter. + 17. That certainly was not a _human humane_ action. + 18. He _waited on waited for_ his mother. + 19. The _completeness completion_ of the work brought many congratulations. + +EXERCISE 82 + +_Supply a word which will remedy the italicized impropriety in each +of the following sentences. When in doubt consult a dictionary:_ + + 1. The _majority_ of the illustrations are good. + 2. No one can accurately _predicate_ what the weather will be. + 3. Shall you _except_ the invitation? + 4. They _claim_ that the assertion cannot be proved. + 5. They finally _located_ the criminal in Dravosburg. + 6. I shall _leave_ you go at noon. + 7. The _balance_ of the essay was uninteresting. + 8. By questions they tried to _eliminate_ the true story. + 9. They _impugn_ false motives to me. + 10. He was greatly _effected_ by the news. + 11. Sabbath _observation_ was then very strict. + 12. They _expect_ that she wrote the letter. + 13. The _invention_ of electricity has revolutionized all manufactures. + 14. Who _learned_ her to sing? + 15. Edison _discovered_ the phonograph. + 16. One cannot comprehend the _enormity_ of a billion of dollars. + 17. Many _complements_ were paid to her beauty. + 18. His _consciousness_ pricked him. + 19. How could any one be guilty of such a cruel _action_. + 20. The _advancement_ of the army was very slow. + +195. IDIOMS. There are in English, as in other languages, a number +of expressions that cannot be justified by the rules of grammar or +rhetoric; and yet these expressions are among the most forcible +ones in the language, and are continually used by the best writers. +These expressions that lie outside all rules we call idioms. Compare +the following idiomatic expressions with the unidiomatic expressions +that succeed them. The second expression in each group is in accord +with the strict rules of composition; but the first, the idiomatic, +is far more forceful. + +Idiomatic: The book which I read about. + +Unidiomatic: The book about which I read. + +Idiomatic: More than one life was lost. + +Unidiomatic: More lives than one life were lost. + +Idiomatic: Speak loud. Speak louder. + +Unidiomatic: Speak loudly. Speak more loudly. + +Idiomatic: A ten-foot pole. + +Unidiomatic: A ten-feet pole. + +Idiomatic: He strove with might and main. + +Unidiomatic: He strove with might. (Might and main are two words +of the same meaning.) + +Idiomatic: He lectured on every other day. + +Unidiomatic: He lectured on one day out of every two. + +Idioms are not to be avoided. On the contrary, because they contribute +great ease and force to composition, their use is to be encouraged. +But the distinction between idiomatic and unidiomatic expressions +is a fine one, and rests solely on usage. Care must be taken not +to go beyond the idiomatic. There is probably little danger that +the ordinary writer or speaker will not use idioms enough. + +The following expressions are examples of commonly used idioms: + +He was standing at the door _in his shirt sleeves_. + +I _don't think_ it will rain (I think it will not rain). + +She walked out of the room _on her father's arm_. + +John was a poor _shot_. + +Do you feel _like a little candy_? + +See what my foolishness has brought me _to_. + +What part of the city will they settle _in_? + +What was the house built _for_? + +John needs a match to light his pipe _with_. + +That is all I ask _for_. + +What are you driving _at_? + +_Hard put to it._ + +_By all odds._ + +_Must needs._ + +I must _get up_ by noon. + +_Get rid of._ + +_Get used to._ + +_Never so good._ + +_Whether or no._ + +I can't go _either_. + +_You forget yourself_ when you speak so harshly. + +I can come only _every other_ day. + +If the bell rings _answer the door_. + +_I take it_ that you will be there too. + +_Come and see_ me. + +_Try and_ do it. + +The thief _took to his heels_. + +196. CHOICE OF WORDS. The words in which a thought is expressed may +not offend against good use, and yet still be objectionable because +they do not accurately and appropriately express the thought. One +should choose not merely a word that will approximately express +the thought, but the one word that best expresses it. The following +suggestions are given to aid in the choice of words: + +1. CHOOSE SIMPLE ENGLISH WORDS and avoid what is called "fine writing." +Young writers and newspaper writers are greatly given to this offense +of fine or bombastic writing. Examples: + +FINE WRITING SIMPLE STYLE +Was launched into eternity Was hanged +Disastrous conflagration Great fire +Called into requisition the services Sent for the doctor + of the family physician +Was accorded an ovation Was applauded +Palatial mansion Comfortable house +Acute auricular perceptions Sharp ears +A disciple of Izaak Walton A fisherman + +2. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GENERAL AND SPECIFIC TERMS. In some cases +general words may be used to advantage, but more often specific +words should be used, since they call to the mind a definite image. +Compare these sentences: + +The _high color_ of his face showed his embarrassment. + +His _crimson_ face showed his embarrassment. + +He was a _large_ man. + +He was a _fat_ man. + +He was a man of _large frame_. + +He was a _tall, heavily proportioned_ man. + +He was a man _six feet four inches tall_ and _heavy_ in proportion. + +It was an _impressive_ building. + +It was a building of _impressive size_. + +It was a building of _impressive beauty_. + +His _fault_ was robbery. + +His _crime_ was robbery. + +3. AVOID OVER-STATEMENT OF FACTS. The use of words that are too +strong is a fault especially characteristic of Americans. Examples: + +Poor: The concert was _simply exquisite_. + +Better: The concert was _very good_. + +Poor: She was _wild_ over the mistake. + +Better: She was _much annoyed_ by the mistake. + +4. AVOID HACKNEYED PHRASES; expressions that have been worked to +death. Examples: + +His paternal acres. + +The infuriated beast. + +The gentle zephyrs of springtime. + +Was gathered to his fathers. + +The blushing bride was led to the hymeneal altar. + +Applauded to the echo. + +EXERCISE 83 + +_For each of the following expressions devise the best simple English +expression that you can:_ + + 1. Individual was precipitated. + 2. Tendered him a banquet. + 3. At the witching hour of midnight. + 4. The devouring element was checked. + 5. Piscatorial sport. + 6. Pedal extremities. + 7. Fraught with tremendous possibilities. + 8. Amid the plaudits of the multitude. + 9. Caudal extremity. + 10. Passed to his long home. + 11. Dissected the Thanksgiving bird. + 12. Presided at the organ. + 13. Finger of scorn pointed at him. + 14. Wended his way. + 15. The green eyed monster. + 16. The whole aggregation of knowledge chasers. + 17. Maternal ancestor. + 18. Shuffled off this mortal coil. + 19. Failed to materialize at the banquet. + 20. Tonsorial artist. + 21. Twirler of the sphere. + 22. Pugilistic encounters. + 23. Performed his matutinal ablutions. + 24. Partook of a magnificent collation. + 25. Solemnized the rites of matrimony. + +EXERCISE 84 + +_In the third paragraph of the selection from Cranford (see Sec.186) +observe the use of the following words: HUMAN, WEAKNESS, HANKS, +TWISTED, ANNOYED, and UNDOING. Study the specific nature of these +words by grouping about each of them other words of somewhat similar +meaning, and then comparing the force of the various words in each +group._ + +_This sort of exercise may be continued by choosing passages from +any careful writer and studying the words that he has used._ + +EXERCISE 85 + +_Substitute for each of the following expressions some expression +that will be less general or less exaggerated:_ + + 1. She is _nice_ looking. + 2. We had a _perfectly gorgeous_ time. + 3. John is a _professional_ man. + 4. The play was _simply exquisite_. + 5. To hear his voice makes me feel _funny_. + 6. The opposing team was _completely annihilated_. + 7. A _noise_ caught our attention. + 8. His manners are _horrid_. + 9. We had a _great_ time. + 10. Such arrogance is _unendurable_. + 11. That is a _good_ book. + +197. HOW TO IMPROVE ONE'S VOCABULARY. The few following suggestions +may be found helpful in the acquiring of a good vocabulary: + +1. CULTIVATE THE DICTIONARY HABIT. Learn the meaning, pronunciation, +and spelling of each new word that you meet. Only when these three +things are grasped about each word, does one really know the word. +Some persons have found it an invaluable aid to carry with them a +small note book or card on which they note down to be looked up +at a convenient time words concerning which they are in doubt. + +2. IN YOUR WRITING AND SPEAKING USE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE THE NEW +WORDS THAT YOU ACQUIRE. + +3. CONSTRUCT GOOD ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS for all the slang, fine writing, +and hackneyed phrases that you meet, and then use the good expressions +instead of the bad ones. + +4. STUDY SYNONYMS; words of similar form and meaning. Only by a +knowledge of synonyms can you express fine shades of meaning. _Crabbe's_ +English Synonyms and _Fernald's_ Synonyms and Antonyms are good +books of reference for this purpose. In addition to these books, +lists of synonyms will be found in many books that are designed +for general reference. + +5. TRY TO GET THE ONE WORD that will best express the idea. + +6. READ GOOD BOOKS and good magazines, and read them carefully. + +7. CULTIVATE THE SOCIETY of those who use good language. + +EXERCISE 86 + +_Look up the meaning of each of the words in the following groups of +synonyms. Construct sentences in which each word is used correctly:_ + + 1. Love, like. + 2. Wit, humor. + 3. Discover, invent. + 4. Observe, watch. + 5. Pride, vanity, conceit. + 6. Proof, evidence, testimony. + 7. Balance, rest, remainder. + 8. Word, term, expression. + 9. Bring, fetch, carry. + 10. Abandon, desert, forsake. + 11. Propose, purpose, intend. + 12. Healthful, healthy, wholesome. + 13. Student, pupil, scholar. + 14. Capacity, power, ability. + 15. Blame, censure, criticism. + 16. Accede, agree, yield, acquiesce. + 17. Trickery, cunning, chicane, fraud. + 18. Instruction, education, training, tuition. + 19. Hardship, obstacle, hindrance, difficulty. + 20. Maxim, precept, rule, law + 21. Multitude, crowd, throng, swarm. + 22. Delight, happiness, pleasure, joy. + 23. Work, labor, toil, drudgery, task. + 24. Silent, mute, dumb, speechless. + 25. Kill, murder, assassinate, slay. + 26. Hatred, enmity, dislike, ill-will. + 27. Example, pattern, sample, model. + 28. Obvious, plain, clear, apparent. + 29. Noted, eminent, famous, prominent, notorious. + 30. Old, aged, antique, ancient, antiquated, obsolete. + +SPELLING + +198. The following is a list of words that are frequently misspelled +or confused. Where possible, an effort has been made to arrange +them in groups in order that they may be more easily remembered. +The word with an added ending has been used in most cases in place +of the bare word itself as, _occasional_ instead of _occasion_. +A few rules have been included. + + accede descend pressure + accident fascinate misspelled + accommodate mischievous possession + accordance miscellaneous + accuracy muscle recollection + succeed susceptible dispelled + occasional miscellaneous + occur existence monosyllable + experience intellectual + across sentence parallel + amount embellishment + apart foregoing wholly + arouse forehead woolly + village + already forty villain + all right foreign till + forfeit + amateur formally perpetual + grandeur formerly persuade + perspiration + appal fulfill + apparatus willful police + appetite policies + approximate guardian + opportunity guessing presence + opposite precede + disappoint imminent preceptor + disappearance immediately + accommodation fiend + choose commission siege + chosen grammar friend + inflammation yielding + boundary recommend + elementary summary seize + symmetrical receive + final committee receipt + finally + usual ledger succeed + usually legible proceed + + ascend assassin recede + ascent dissimilar secede + discerning essential accede + discipline messenger intercede + discontent concede + discreet necessary supersede + descent necessity + passport + +199. Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, +if monosyllables, or if the last syllable is accented, double the +final consonant before the ending _-ed_ and _-ing_, but not before +_-ence_; as, + + rob, rob_bed_, rob_bing_, rob_bers_. + confer, confer_red_, confer_ring_, confer_ence_. + transmit, transmit_ted_, transmit_ting_, transmi_ssion_. + impel, impel_led_, impel_ling_, imp_ulsion_. + +Similar to the above are. + +defer, infer, prefer, refer, transfer, occur (occurrence), abhor +(abhorrence), omit, remit, permit, commit, beset, impel, compel, +repel, excel (excellence), mob, sob, rub, skid. + +If these words are not accented on the last syllable, the consonant +is not doubled; as, + +benefit, benefit_ed_, benefit_ing_, benefi_cial_. + +Similar are: + +differ, summon, model. + +200. Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before a suffix beginning +with a vowel; as, + + arrive, arriv_ing_, arriv_ed_, arriv_al_. + precede, preced_ed_, preced_ing_, preced_ence_. + receive, receiv_ed_, receiv_ing_. + +Similar are: + +move, write, blame, tame, come, receive, believe, relieve, grieve, +deceive, conceive, perceive, seize, precede, concede, supersede, +recede, argue, rue, construe, woe, pursue. + +201. Words ending in _-ge, -ce_, or _-se_, retain the _e_ before +endings: as, + +arrange, arrangement; arrange, arranging. + +Similar are: + +gauge, manage, balance, finance, peace, service, amuse, use. + +202. Words in _-dge_ do not retain the _e_ before endings; as, +acknowledge, acknowledg_ment_, acknowledg_ed_, acknowledg_ing_. + +Similar are: + +nudge, judge. + +203. Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ +to _i_ before all endings except-_ing_: + +busy, bus_iness_, bus_ied_, busy_ing_. + +Similar are: + +duty, mercy, penny, pity, vary, weary, study. + +204. WORDS OF SIMILAR SOUND: + +canvas (cloth) principle (rule) +canvass (all meanings except _cloth_) principal (chief) +capitol (a building) stationary (immovable) +capital (all meanings except _building_) stationery (articles) +counsel (advice or an adviser) miner (a workman) +council (a body of persons) minor (under age) +complement (a completing element) angel (a spiritual being) +compliment (praise) angle (geometrical) + +205. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS: + +annual laundry schedule +awkward leisure separate +beneficial lenient Spaniard +decimal license speak +exhilarate mechanical specimen +familiarize mediaeval speech +fiber medicine spherical +fibrous militia subtle +genuine motor surely +gluey negotiate technical +height origin tenement +hideous pacified their +hundredths phalanx therefore +hysterical physique thinnest +icicle privilege until +irremediable prodigies vengeance +laboratory rarefy visible +laid rinse wherein +larynx saucer yielding + +PRONUNCIATION + +206. The following list is made up of words that are frequently +mispronounced. An effort has been made to arrange them in groups +according to the most frequent source of error in their pronunciation. + +The only marks regularly used are the signs for the long and short +sounds of the vowel. + + a as in _hate_ i as in _high_ u as in _use_ + a as in _hat_ i as in _hit_ u as in _run_ + + e as in _me_ o as in _old_ oo as in _boot_ + e as in _met_ o as in _hop_ oo as in _foot_ + +When sounds are not otherwise indicated take the sound that comes +most naturally to the tongue. + +207. a AS IN _HATE_: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + alma mater _alma mater_ + apparatus _apparatus_ + apricot _apricot_ + attache _attasha'_ + audacious _audashus_ + ballet _bal'la_ + blase _blaza'_ + blatant _blatant_ + chasten _chasen_ + Cleopatra _Cleopatra_ + compatriot _compatriot_ + gratis _gratis_ or _grahtis_ + harem _harem_ or _hahrem_ + heinous _hanous_ + hiatus _hiatus_ + implacable _implakable_ + nape _nap_ + nee _na_ + neglige _naglezha'_ + patron _patron_ + protege _protazha'_ + resume _razuma'_ + tenacious _tenashus_ + tomato _tomato_ or _tomahto_ + valet _va'la_ or _val'et_ + vase _vas, vahz_, or _vaz_ + veracious _verashus_ + vivacious _vivashus_ + +208. a AS IN _HAT_: + + alternative _alternative_ + Arab _Ar'ab_, not _arab_ + arid _ar'id_ + asphalt _asfalt_, not _fawlt_ + bade _bad_ + catch not _ketch_ + defalcate _defal'kate_, not _fawl_ + dilletante _dilletan'te_ + forbade _forbad_ + granary _granary_ + program _pro'gram_, not _grum_ + rapine _rap'in_ + rational _rational_ + sacrament _sacrament_ + +209. Ae AS IN _ARM_: + + aunt _aent_ + behalf _behaef_ + calf _kaef_ + calm _kaem_ + half _haef_ + laugh _laef_ + psalm _saem_ + +210. e AS IN _ME_: + + amenable _amenable_ + clique _klek_, not _klick_ + creek _krek_, not _krick_ + either _eether_ (preferable) + mediocre _mediocre_ + naive _na'eve_ (_a_ as in _arm_) + neither _neether_ (preferable) + precedence _prece'dence_ + precedent _prece'dent_ (when an adjective) + predecessor _predecessor_ + predilection _predilection_ + premature _premature_ + quay _ke_ + resplendent _resplen'dent_ + sacrilegious _sacrilegious_, not -_religious_ + series _serez_ + sleek _slek_, not _slick_ + suite _swet_, not like _boot_ + +211. e AS IN _MET_: + + again _agen_ + against _agenst_ + crematory _krem'atory_ + deaf _def_, not _def_ + heroine _heroin_, not like _hero_ + measure _mezhure_, not _ma_ + metric _metrik_ + precedent _prec'edent_ (noun) + prelate _prel'at_ + presentation _prezentation_ + sesame _ses'ame_ + steady _stedy_, not _stiddy_ + tenet _ten'et_ + weapon _wepon_, not _wepon_ + +212. i AS IN _HIGH_: + + appendicitis _appendicitis_ + biennial _biennial_ + biography _biography_ + bronchitis _bronkitis_ + carbine _carbine_ + decisive _decisive_ + demise _demise_ + dynasty _di'nasty_ + finis _finis_ + grimy _grimy_ + hiatus _hia'tus_ + inquiry _inqui'ry_ + long-lived _long-livd_ + peritonitis _peritonitis_ + privacy _privacy_ + short-lived _short-livd_ + simultaneous _simultaneous_ + tiny _tiny_, not _teny_ + +213. i AS IN _HIT_: + + bicycle _bi'sicle_ + breeches _briches_ + breeching _briching_ + feminine _feminin_ + genuine _genuin_ + hypocrisy _hipok'risy_ + italic _ital'ik_ + Italian _italyan_ + maritime _maritim_ + pretty _pritty_ + puerile _pu'eril_ + respite _res'pit_ + tribune _trib'un_ + +214. o AS IN _OLD_: + + Adonis _Adonis_ + apropos _apropo_ + bowsprit _bowsprit_ + brooch _broch_ not _broosh_ + compromise _compromize_ + jowl _jol_, not like _owl_ + molecular _molecular_ + ogle _ogle_ + trow _tro_ + vocable _vocable_ + zoology _zoology_, not _zoo_ + +215. o AS IN _HOP_: + + choler _koler_ + dolorous _dolorous_ + florid _florid_ + molecule _molecule_ + obelisk _obelisk_ + probity _probity_ + solecism _solesism_ + solstice _solstice_ + stolid _stolid_ + +216. oo AS IN _BOOT_: + + bouquet _booka'_ + canteloupe _can'taloop_ + coup d'etat _koo data'_ + coupon _koo'pon_ + ghoul _gool_ + hoof _hoof_ + roof _roof_ + root _root_ + route _root_ + routine _rootine_ + wound _woond_ + +217. u AS IN _USE_: + + accurate _ak'kurat_ + culinary _kulinary_ + gubernatorial _gubernatorial_ + jugular _jugular_ + +218. u AS IN _US_: + + constable _kunstable_ + courtesan _kur'tezan_ + hover _huver_ + iron _iurn_ + monetary _munetary_ + nothing _nuthing_ + wont _wunt_ (different from _won't_) + +219. MISCELLANEOUS WORDS. + + adobe _ado'ba_ + algebra not _bra_ + alien _alyen_, not _alien_ + ameliorate _amelyorate_ + antarctic _antarktik_ + anti not _anti_ + archangel _arkangel_ + archbishop _arch_, not _ark_ + arch fiend _arch_, not _ark_ + architect _arkitect_ + awkward _awkward_, not _ard_ + Beethoven _batoven_ + Bingen _Bing'en_ + blackguard _blag'gard_ + Bowdoin _bodn_ + brougham _broom_ + business _bizness_ + caldron _kawldron_ + calk _kawk_ + Cayenne _kien'_ + courtier _kortyer_ + cuckoo _kookoo_ + dilemma _dilem'ma_ + directly not _directly_ + dishevelled _dishev'ld_ + Don Juan _Don Juan_ or _hooan_ + drought _drowt_ + drouth _drowth_ + extempore _extempore_ (four syllables) + familiarity _familyarity_ + gaol _jal_ + genealogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ + gemus _genyus_ + Gloucester _gloster_ + gooseberry _gooz_, not _goos_ + Hawaiian _Hawi'yan_ (_a_ as in _arm_) + Helena _hel'ena_ (except _St. Hele'na_) + inconvenience _inconvenyence_ + Israel _izrael_, not _issrael_ + jeans _janes_ + joust _just_ or _joost_ + larynx _lar'inx'_ or _la'rinx_, not _larnix_ + literature _literature_, or _choor_ + Messrs. _meshyerz_ or _mesyerz_ + Mineralogy _-alogy_, not _-ology_ + nature _nature_, or _choor_ + oleomargarine _g_ is hard, as in _get_ + orchid _orkid_ + oust _owst_, not _oost_ + peculiar _peculyar_ + pecuniary _pekun'yari_ + perspiration not _prespiratian_ + prestige _pres'tij_ or _prestezh'_ + pronunciation _pronunzeashun_ or _pronunsheashun_ + saucy not _sassy_ + schedule _skedyul_ + semi not _semi_ + theater _the'ater_ not _thea'ter_ + turgid _turjid_ + usage _uzage_ + usurp _uzurp_ + vermilion _vermilyun_ + wife's not _wives_ + Xerxes _zerxes_ + +220. WORDS WITH A SILENT LETTER: + + almond _ahmund_ + chasten _chasen_ + chestnut _chesnut_ + glisten _glissen_ + kiln _kill_ + often _ofen_ + ostler _osler_ + poignant _poin'ant_ + psalter _sawlter_ + salmon _samun_ + schism _sism_ + soften _sofen_ + subtle _sutle_ + sword _sord_ + thyme _time_ + toward _tord_ + +221. WORKS CHIEFLY OF FOREIGN PRONUNCIATION: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + bivouac _biv'wak_ + charge d'affaires _shar zha'daffar'_ + connoisseur _connissur_ + dishabille _dis'abil_ + ennui _onwe_, not _ongwe_ + finale _finah'le_ + foyer _fwaya'_ + massage _masahzh_ + naive _nah'ev_ + papier mache _papya mahsha_ + piquant _pe'kant_ + prima facie _prima fa'shie_ + pro tempore _pro tem'pore_ + regime _razhem'_ + +222. WORDS OFTEN PRONOUNCED WITH A WRONG NUMBER OF SYLLABLES: + + aerial _aereal_, not _areal_ + athlete two sylables, not _ath e lete_ + attacked _attakt_, two syllables + casualty _kazh'ualte_, not _ality_ + conduit _condit_ or _kundit_, not _dooit_ + different three syllables, not _diffrunt_ + elm not _ellum_ + helm not _hel um_ + history three syllables, not _histry_ + honorable not _honrable_ + hygienic _hy gi en' ic_, four syllables + interest not _intrust_ + interesting not _intrusting_ + ivory not _ivry_ + omelet not _omlet_ + realm not _rellum_ + separable not _seprable_ + ticklish two syllables, not _tickelish_ + valuable _valuable_, not _valuble_ + vaudeville _vodvil_ + Zeus _zus_, not _zeus_ + +223. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE FIRST SYLLABLE: + + admirable _ad'mirable_ + alias _a'lias_ + applicable _ap'plicable_ + bicycle _bi'sikle_ + chastisement _chas'tisement_ + construe _con'strue_ + despicable _des'picable_ + desultory _des'ultory_ + disputant _dis'putant_ + exigency _ex'ijency_ + explicable _ex'plicable_ + exquisite _ex'quisite_ + extant _ex'tant_ + formidable _for'midable_ + Genoa _jen'oa_ + gondola _gon'dola_ + harass _har'ass_ + hospitable _hos'pitable_ + impious _im'pious_, not _imp?ous_ + industry _in'dustry_ + inventory _in'ventory_ + lamentable _lam'entable_ + mischievous _mis'chievous_ + obligatory _ob'ligatory_ + pariah _pa'riah_ + peremptory _per'emptory_ + preferable _pref'erable_ + Romola _Rom'ola_ + vehemence _ve'hemence_ + +224. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE SECOND SYLLABLE: + + WORD CORRECT PRONUNCIATION + abdomen _abdo'men_ + acclimate _accli'mate_ + acumen _acu'men_ + albumen _albu'men_ + artificer _artif'iser_ + bitumen _bitu'men_ + chicanery _shika'nery_ + illustrate _illus'trate_ + incognito _inkog'nito_ + incomparable _incom'parable_ + indisputable _indis'putable_ + inexorable _inex'orable_ + inexplicable _inex'plicable_ + inhospitable _inhos'pitable_ + inquiry _inqui'ry_ + irrevocable _irrev'ocable_ + misconstrue _miscon'strue_ + nitrogenous _nitroj'enous_ + opponent _oppo'nent_ + pianist _pian'ist_ + refutable _refut'able_ + syllabic _syllab'ic_ + telegraphy _teleg'raphy_ + vagary _vaga'ry_ + Yosemite _yo swm' i te_ + +225. WORDS ACCENTED ON THE LAST SYLLABLE: + + address _address'_ + adept _adept'_ + adult _adult'_ + ally _ally'_ + commandant _commandaent' (ae as in arm)_ + contour _contour'_ + dessert _dessert'_ + dilate _dilate'_ + excise _eksiz'_ + finance _finance'_ + grimace _grimace'_ + importune _importune'_ + occult _occult'_ + pretence _pretence'_ + research _research'_ + robust _robust'_ + romance _romance'_ + tirade _tirade'_ + +226. WORDS WHOSE PRONUNCIATION DEPENDS ON MEANING: + + accent _Accent'_ the first syllable. + Place the _ac'cent_ upon the first syllable. + + aged An _a'ged_ man. + Properly _aged_ wine (one syllable). + + blessed The _bless'ed_ saints. + Let them be _blessed_ (one syllable). + + contrast The strange _con'trast_. + _Contrast'_ the two. + + converse Did you _converse'_ with him? + Is the _con'verse_ true? + + desert The sandy _des'ert_. + They _desert'_ their friends. + + learned He _learned_ (one syllable) to sing. + A _learn ed_ man. + + precedent A _prece'dent_ place. + It establishes a _prec'edent_. + + project A new _proj'ect_. + To _project'_ from. + + + + +GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS + +ADMIRE. Do not use _admire_ in the sense of _like_. + +Wrong: I should _admire_ to be able to do that. + +Right: I should _like_ to be able to do that. + +AGGRAVATE. Do not use _aggravate_ in the sense of _irritate_ or +_disturb_. _Aggravate_ means _to make worse_. + +Wrong: His impudence _aggravates_ me. + +Right: His impudence _irritates_ me. + +AIN'T. _Ain't_ and _hain't_ are never proper as contractions of +_am not, is not_, or _are not_. + +ALLOW. Do not use _allow_ in the sense of _assert, say_, or _intend_. + +Wrong: He _allowed_ that he had better start. I _allow_ to be back +before noon. + +Right: He _said_ that he had better start. I _intend_ to be back +before noon. + +ALLUDE. Do not use _allude_ in the sense of _refer_. To _allude_ +to a thing means to refer to it in an indirect way. + +Wrong: He _alluded_ by name to John Milton. + +Right: He _alluded_ to Milton by the term "Blind Poet." + +ANY. Do not use _any_ in the sense of _at all_ or _to any degree_. + +Wrong: Because of the injury he can not see _any_. + +AS. Do not use _as_ for the relative pronouns _who_ and _that_. + +Wrong: I am the man _as_ digs your garden. Not _as_ I remember. + +Right: I am the man _who_ digs your garden. Not _that_ I remember. + +AS. Do not use _as_ in the sense of _since_ or _because_. + +Wrong: I cannot come _as_ I am sick now. + +Right: I cannot come; I am sick now. + +Right: I cannot come _because_ I am sick now. + +AT. Do not use _at_ for _in_ with the names of large cities + +Wrong: He lives _at_ Philadelphia. + +Right: He lives _in_ Philadelphia. + +ATTACKTED. Do not use this form for _attacked_. + +AWFUL, AWFULLY. These are two very much overworked words. Substitute +other and more accurate expressions. + +Wrong: We have had an _awfully_ good time. That is an _awfully_ +pretty dress. + +Right: We have had an _exceedingly_ nice time. That is a _very_ +pretty dress. + +BADLY. Do not use _badly_ in the sense of _very much_. + +Wrong: She wanted _badly_ to come. + +Right: She wanted _very much_ to come. + +BESIDE, BESIDES. _Beside_ means _next to. Besides_ means _in addition +to_. + +Right: John lives _beside_ his mother. + +Right: _Besides_ the daughters, there are three sons. + +BETWEEN. Do not use _between_ when referring to more than two objects. + +Wrong: There is bad feeling _between_ the members of the class. + +Right: There is bad feeling _among_ the members of the class. + +BLOWED. Do not use _blowed_ for _blew_ or _blown_. There is no such +word. + +BEST. Do not use _best_ when only two objects are referred to. +Use _better_. _Best_ should be used only when more than two are +referred to. + +Wrong: He is the _best_ of the two brothers. + +Right: He is the _better_ of the two brothers. + +Right: He is the _best_ of the three brothers. + +BOUND. Do not use _bound_ for _determined_. + +Wrong: He was _bound_ to go skating. + +Right: He was _determined_ to go skating. + +Right: He _bound_ himself to pay three hundred dollars. + +BUT. Do not use _but_ after a negative in the sense of _only_. See +Sec.46. + +Wrong: There _isn't but_ one apple left. + +Right: There _is but_ one apple left. + +CALCULATE. Do not use _calculate_ in the sense of _think, expect_, +or _intend_. + +CAN. Do not use _can_ to denote permission. It denotes ability or +possibility. _May_ denotes permission. See Sec.69 + +Wrong: _Can_ I speak to you for a minute? + +Right: _May_ I speak to you for a moment? + +CHARACTER, REPUTATION. Do not confuse these two words. _Character_ +means one's moral condition. _Reputation_ means the morality that +others believe one to possess. + +CLUM. There is no such form of the verb _climb_. + +COMPLECTED. Do not use _complected_ for _complexioned_. See Sec.40. + +CONCLUDE. Do not use conclude in the sense of _forming an intention._ + +Right: Finally, I _decided_ to go home. + +Right: I was forced to _conclude_ that I had made an error. + +CONSIDERABLE. Do not use _considerable_ in the sense of _very much_. + +Wrong: This lesson is _considerable_ better than yesterday's. + +CUTE. A much overworked word. Use some expression that is more accurate; +as, _pretty, amusing_, etc. + +DECEASE, DISEASE. Do not confuse _decease_ and _disease_. The first +means _death_, the second _sickness_. _The deceased_ means a person +who is dead. + +Wrong: The _diseased_ will be buried at four o'clock. + +Wrong: The property of the _diseased_ will be sold at auction. + +DECEASE. Do not use _decease_ as a verb in the sense of _die_. + +Wrong: His father _deceased_ last year. + +DEMAND. _Demand_ should not have a person as its object. + +Wrong: He _demanded_ John to pay. + +Right: He _demanded_ payment from John. He _demanded_ that John +pay. + +DIFFERENT. Use the preposition _from_ after _different_, not _than_. + +DON'T. Do not use _don't_ with a subject in the third person singular. +See Sec.64. + +DOWN. Do not use _down_ as a verb in the sense of _defeat_ or +_overthrow_. + +Wrong: Our football team _has downed_ every other team in the state. + +Right: Our football team _has defeated_ every other team in the +state. + +DROWNDED. _Drownded_ is not a proper form of the verb _drown_. Say +_drowned_. (Pronounced _drownd._) + +EACH OTHER. Do not use _each other_ to refer to more than two objects. +See Sec.44. + +Wrong: The members of the regiment helped _each other_. + +Right: The members of the regiment helped _one another_. + +EFFECT, AFFECT. Do not confuse _effect_ and _affect. Effect_ means +_a result_, or _to cause a thing to be done. Affect_ means _to +disturb_ or _have an influence on_. + +Wrong: The news _effected_ him seriously. + +Right: The news _affected_ him seriously. + +Wrong: The _affect_ of this news was to cause war. + +Right: The _effect_ of this news was to cause war. + +EITHER. Do not use _either_ with reference to more than two objects, +nor follow it by a plural verb. See Sec.43. + +Wrong: _Either_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _have_ +done it. + +Right: _Any one_ of the three will do. _Either_ you or John _has_ +done it. + +EMIGRATE, IMMIGRATE. Do not confuse _emigrate_ and _immigrate_. +_To emigrate_ means _to go out of a place_, to _immigrate_ means +_to come into a place_. + +Right: The Italians _emigrate_ from their country. + +Right: Of those who _immigrate_ to America, a large number are Italians. + +ENOUGH. Do not follow _enough_ by a clause beginning with _that_ +or _so that_. + +Wrong: I studied _enough_ that I could recite the lesson. + +Right: I studied _enough to_ recite the lesson. + +ENTHUSE. Do not use _enthuse_ in the sense of to create enthusiasm. + +Wrong: He tried to _enthuse_ his audience. + +Right: He tried to _arouse_ enthusiasm in his audience. + +ETC. _Etc._ stands for _et cetera_, and means _and so forth_. Do +not spell it _ect_. Do not use it in composition that is intended +to be elegant. + +EVERYBODY. _Everybody_ should not be followed by a plural verb or +a plural pronoun. See Sec.21. + +EXCEPT, ACCEPT. Do not confuse these two words. _Accept_ means _to +acknowledge_. _Except_ means _to exclude_. + +Right: I cannot _accept_ such slovenly work. + +Wrong: I _except_ your apology. + +EXCEPT. Do not use _except_ for _unless_. See Sec.85. + +Wrong: I can not sleep _except_ it is quiet. + +EXPECT. Do not use _expect_ in the sense of _suppose_ or _think_. + +Wrong: I _expect_ you have read that book. + +Right: I _suppose_ you have read that book. + +FINE. Do not use _fine_ in place of some more definite word. _Fine_ +is a much over-worked word. + +Wrong: The book is _fine_ for class-room work. + +Right: The book is _well adapted_ for class-room work. + +FIRSTLY. _Firstly_ should never be used. Say _first_. See Sec.40. + +FIRST-RATE. Do not use _first-rate_ as an adverb in the sense of +_very well_. + +Wrong: That does _first-rate_. + +Right: That does _very well_. + +Right: He is a _first-rate fellow_. + +FORMER. Do not use _former_ when more than two are referred to. +Say _first_. See Sec.41. + +FROM. Do not use _from_ with _whence, hence_ and _thence_. + +Wrong: _From whence_ have you come? + +Right: _Whence_ have you come? _From where_ have you come? + +FUNNY. Do not use _funny_ for _singular_ or _strange_. _Funny_ is +an overworked word. + +Wrong: It is _funny_ that he died. + +Right: It is _singular_ that he died. + +GENT. Do not use the word at all. Say _gentleman_ or _man_. + +GENTLEMAN. Do not use _gentleman_ to denote sex only. Say _man_. +_Gentleman_ is properly used, however, to denote a person of refinement. + +Wrong: Only _gentlemen_ are allowed to vote in Pennsylvania. + +Right: Mr. Lincoln was a _gentleman_ in the true sense of the word. + +GOT. Do not use got with _have_ or _had_ to indicate merely _possession_ +or _obligation. Got_ means acquired through effort. + +Wrong: I _have got_ the measles. You _have got_ to do it. + +Right: I _have_ the measles. You _must_ do it. + +Right: After much study I _have got_ my lesson. + +GRAND. Do not use _grand_ in place of some more definite and accurate +expression. It is another over-worked word. + +Wrong: We have had a _grand time_ this afternoon. + +Right: We have had a _very pleasant_ time this afternoon. + +GUESS. Do not use _guess_ in the sense of _think_ or _suppose_. + +Wrong: I _guess_ the trains are late to-day. + +Right: I _suppose_ the trains are late to-day. + +Right: Can you _guess_ the riddle? + +HAD OUGHT. Do not use _had_ with _ought_. See Sec.54. + +HARDLY. Do not use _hardly_ after a negative. See Sec.46. + +Wrong: I _can not hardly_ believe that. + +Right: I _can hardly_ believe that. + +HAVE. Do not use _have_ after _had_. + +Wrong: If I _had have been_ able to go. + +Right: If I _had been_ able to go. + +HEIGHTH. Do not use _heighth_ for _height_. + +HUNG. Do not confuse _hung_ and _hanged_. _Hanged_ is the proper +word to use in reference to executions. + +Wrong: He was condemned _to be hung_. + +Right: He was condemned _to be hanged_. + +Right: The picture was _hung_ in the parlor. + +HUMBUG. Do not use _humbug_ as a verb. + +Wrong: He has _humbugged_ the people for years. + +ILLY. Do not use _illy_ for the adverb _ill_. See Sec.40. + +IN, INTO. Do not confuse _in_ and _into_. + +Wrong: He went _in_ the house. + +Right: He went _into_ the house. + +Right: He exercised _in_ a gymnasium. + +KIND. Do not precede kind by _those_ or _these_. + +Wrong: I do not like _those kind_ of plays. + +Right: I do not like _that kind_ of play. + +KIND OF A. Do not use _a_ or _an_ after _kind of_. See Sec.47. + +Wrong: It is _one kind of_ a mistake. + +Right: It is _one kind of_ mistake. + +LADY. Do not use _lady_ to designate sex only. It is properly used +to indicate persons of refinement. + +Wrong: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _lady_? + +Right: Is Mrs. Johnson a colored _woman_? + +Right: Mrs. Johnson is a colored _woman_, and _a lady_. + +LATTER. Do not use _latter_ to refer to more than two objects. Use +_last_. See Sec.41. + +LAY. Do not confuse _lay_ and _lie_. See Sec.57. + +LEARN. Do not confuse _learn_ and _teach_. _Learn_ means _to acquire +knowledge. Teach_ means _to impart knowledge_. + +Wrong: He can _learn_ you as much as any one can. + +Right: He can _teach_ you as much as any one can. + +LEAVE. Do not confuse _leave_ and _let_. Leave means _to let remain_. +Let means _to give permission_. + +Wrong: Will your mother _leave_ you go? + +Right: Will your mother _let_ you go? + +Right: I shall _leave_ my trunk in my room. + +LIABLE. Do not use _liable_ for _likely_. + +Wrong: It is _liable_ to rain to-day. + +Right: It is _likely_ to rain to-day. + +Right: He is _liable_ for all that he has agreed to pay. + +LIGHTNING. Do not use _lightning_ as a verb in place of _lightens_. + +Wrong: During the storm, it _lightnings_ frequently. + +Right: During the storm, it _lightens_ frequently. + +LIKE. Do not use _like_ for _as_. _Like_ is a preposition. _As_ +is a conjunction. + +Wrong: He doesn't talk _like_ he did yesterday. + +Right: He doesn't talk _as_ he did yesterday. + +Right: It looks _like_ a mahogany chair. + +LIT ON. Do not use _lit on_ in the sense of _met with_ or _discovered_. + +Wrong: I at last _lit on_ this plan. + +LOT. Do not use _lot_ in the sense of _a great number_ or _a great +deal_. + +Wrong: A _lot_ of people were there, She talks _a lot_. + +MOST. Do not use _most_ for _almost_. + +Wrong: I have _most_ completed the book. + +Right: I have _almost_ completed the book. + +Right: He has done _the most_ of the work. + +MRS. Do not use _Mrs._ before titles; as, _Mrs. President, Mrs. +Professor, Mrs. Doctor_. + +MUCH. Do not use _much_ for _many_. _Much_ refers to quantity. _Many_ +refers to number. + +Wrong: As _much as_ five hundred people were present. + +Right: As _many as_ five hundred people were present. + +MUTUAL. Do not confuse _mutual_ and _common_. _Mutual_ means +_interchanged_. + +Wrong: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for Mary. + +Right: John and William had a _common_ liking for Mary. + +Right: John and William had a _mutual_ liking for each other. + +NEAR. Do not use _near_ for _nearly_. + +Wrong: He ran _near_ all the way to the station. I came _nearly_ +making the same mistake. + +Right: He ran _nearly_ all the way to the station. I came _near_ +making the same mistake. + +NERVE. Do not use _nerve_ in the sense of _impudence_. + +NEWSY. Do not use _newsy_ in the sense of _full of news_. + +NEITHER. Do not use _neither_ with reference to more than two objects, +nor follow it by a plural verb. + +Wrong: _Neither_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _are_ +here. + +Right: _No one_ of the three could come. _Neither_ of the two _is_ +here. + +NO GOOD. Do not use _no good_ in the sense of _worthless_ or _not +good_. + +Wrong: The book is _no good_. + +NO PLACE. Do not use _no place_ after a negative. See Sec.46. + +Wrong: I am not going _no place_. + +Right: I am not going _anywhere_. I _am going nowhere_. + +NOTORIOUS. Do not use _notorious_ in the sense of _famous_ or _noted. +Notorious_ means of _evil reputation_. + +Wrong: Gladstone was a _notorious_ statesman of England. + +Right: Several _notorious thieves_ were arrested. + +NOWHERE NEAR. Do not use _nowhere near_ for _not nearly_. See Sec.40. + +Wrong: _Nowhere near_ so many people came as were expected. + +Right: _Not nearly_ so many people came as were expected. + +Right: James was _nowhere near_ the scene of the fire. + +OF. Do not use _of_ for _have_ in such expressions as _could, have, +might have, should have_, etc. + +Wrong: If I _could of_ been there. + +Right: If I _could have_ been there. + +ONLY. Guard against the improper use of _only_ after a negative. +See Sec.46. + +Wrong: There _are not only_ four books on that subject. + +Right: There _are only_ four books on that subject. + +OUTSIDE OF. Do not use _outside of_ for _aside from_. + +Wrong: _Outside of_ James, all had a good time. + +Right: _Aside from_ James, all had a good time. + +OVER WITH. Do not use _over with_ for _over_. + +Wrong: I must write the letter and have it _over with_. + +PANTS. Do not use the word _pants_ for _trousers_. + +PHOTO. Do not use _photo_ for _photograph_. + +PIECE. Do not use _piece_ in the sense of _way_ or _distance_. + +Wrong: I shall walk a _little piece_ with you. + +Right: I shall walk a _little way_ with you. + +PLACE. Do not use _place_ after _any, every, no_, etc., in the sense +of _anywhere, everywhere, nowhere_, etc. + +Wrong: I can not find it _any place_. + +Right: I can not find it _anywhere_. + +PLENTY. Do not use _plenty_ as an adjective or an adverb. + +Wrong: Money is _plenty_. He is _plenty able_ to do it. + +Right: Money is _plentiful_. He is _quite able_ to do it. + +POORLY. Do not use _poorly_ for _ill_ or _bad_. + +Wrong: He feels very _poorly_. + +PRINCIPLE, PRINCIPAL. Do not confuse _principle_ and _principal_. +_Principle_ means a _rule_ or _truth_. _Principal_ means _leader, +chief, the most important_. + +PROPOSE. Do not use _propose_ in the sense of _intend_. + +Wrong: I _propose_ to tell all I know. + +Right: I _intend_ to tell all I know. + +PROVIDING. Do not use _providing_ for _if_ or _on the condition_. + +Wrong: I will go _providing_ you can get tickets for three. + +Right: I will go _on the condition that_ you get the tickets. + +RAISE, RISE. Do not confuse _raise_ with _rise_. See Sec.57. + +RECOMMEND, RECOMMENDATION. Do not use _recommend_ as a noun. +_Recommendation_ is the noun. + +Wrong: Her employer gave her a good _recommend_. + +Right: Her employer gave her a good _recommendation_. + +RIGHT AWAY, RIGHT OFF. Do not use _right away_ or _right off_ in +the sense of _immediately_. + +Wrong: After the play we will come _right off_. + +Right: After the play we will come _at once_. + +SAME. Do not use _same_ as a pronoun. + +Wrong: I will write the letter and mail _same_ at once. + +Right: I will write the letter and mail _it_ at once. + +SAY. Do not use _say_ in the sense of _order_ or _command_. + +Wrong: Your mother _said for_ you to come home at once. + +Right: Your mother _said that_ you should come home at once. + +SCARCELY. Do not use _scarcely_ after a negative. See Sec.46. + +Wrong: There _was not scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. + +Right: There _was scarcely_ a pound of meat for us all. + +SELDOM EVER. Do not use _seldom_ with _ever_. Say instead _seldom_ +or _seldom, if ever_. + +Wrong: Fires _seldom ever_ occur. + +Right: Fires _seldom_ occur. Fires _seldom, if ever_ occur. + +SHUT OF. Do not use _shut of_ in the sense of _rid of_. + +Wrong: We are _shut of_ him at last. + +SIGHT. Do not use _sight_ in the sense of _many_ or _much_. + +Wrong: A great _sight of people_ flocked to hear him. + +Right: A great _many people_ flocked to hear him. + +SIT, SET. Do not confuse these two words. See Sec.57. + +SO. Do not use _so_ alone as a conjunction. Say _so that_. + +Wrong: He spoke in the open air, _so_ more could see and hear him. + +Right: He spoke in the open air, _so that_ more could see and hear +him. + +SOME. Do not use _some_ as an adverb in the sense of _somewhat_ +or a _little_. + +Wrong: He plays the violin _some_. + +Right: He plays the violin _a little_. + +SORT OF A. Do not use _a_ after _sort of_. See _Kind of a_. + +SORT. Do not precede _sort_ by _these_ or _those_. See _Kind_. + +SUCH. Do not follow _such_ by _who, which_, or _that_ as relatives. + +Wrong: All _such persons who_ think so will soon see their mistake. + +Right: All _such persons as_ think so will soon see their mistake. + +Right: He spoke with _such_ force _that_ we were compelled to listen. +(_That_ is not a relative here.) + +TASTY. Do not use _tasty_ in the sense of _tasteful_. + +THAT. Do not use _that_ as an adverb. + +Wrong: I did not think the book was _that_ small. + +Right: I did not think that the book was _so_ small. + +THAT THERE, THIS HERE, THESE HERE, THOSE THERE. _There_ and _here_, +in all these expressions are worse than unnecessary. + +THEM THERE. Do not use _them there_ for _those_. + +Wrong: Bring me _them there_ books. + +Right: Bring me _those_ books. + +THREE FIRST, TWO FIRST, ETC. Do not say _three first_, but _first +three_. There can be only one _first_. + +TOO. Do not use _too_ alone before a verb or a participle. + +Wrong: He is _too excited_ to listen to you. + +Right: He is _too much excited_ to listen to you. + +VERY. Do not use _very_ alone before a verb or a participle. + +Wrong: You are _very_ mistaken. + +Right: You are _very much_ mistaken. + +WAIT ON, WAIT FOR. Do not confuse these two expressions. _Wait on_ +means _to serve_. _Wait for_ means _to await_. + +Wrong: Do not _wait on_ me if I do not come at noon. + +Right: Do not _wait for_ me if I do not come at noon. + +WAKE, AWAKE. Do not confuse _wake_ and _awake_. See Sec.57. + + + + +INDEX + +References are to pages. Sections or subdivisions on the pages are +sometimes indicated in parenthesis after the page numbers. + +Since the _EXERCISES_ follow throughout the subjects treated, +exercises on any subject may be found by looking up that subject +in this text index. + +_A_, use of article. +Abbreviated words, rule against. +Abbreviations, punctuation of (Sec.102); use of, in letters. +_Accept_, for _except_, Glossary. +Active voice and passive voice, explained; forms of. +Adjectives, defined; capitalization of proper; confused with adverbs; + distinguished from adverbs; errors in comparison of; improper forms + of; list of irregular; placing of; adjective pronouns; punctuation + of two or more adjectives modifying same noun (Sec.106); singular and + plural. +_Admire_, for _like_, Glossary. +Adverbs, defined; comparison of; conjunctive; confusion with adjectives; + distinguished from adjectives; double negative; errors in comparison; + list of irregularly compared; omission of; punctuation of (Sec.116), (Sec.121). +_AEsop's Fables_, quotation from. +_Affect_, for _effect_, Glossary. +_Aggravate_, for _irritate_, Glossary. +Agreement, of adjective and noun; of pronoun and antecedent; of verb and + subject; of verb in clauses. +Ain't, Glossary. +_Allow_, for _assert_ or _intend_, Glossary. +_Allude_, for _refer_, Glossary. +_Also_, without _and_. +_Among_, for _between_, Glossary. +_An_, use of article. +_And_, use of. +Antecedents, of pronouns, defined; agreement of pronouns and; clearness + of; compound; indefinite; of relative pronouns. +_Any_, for _at all_, Glossary. +Apostrophe, general use of; with plural nouns; with possessive nouns; + with possessive pronouns. +Apposition, explained. +Appositives, punctuation of (Sec.108). +_Argue_, for _augur_. +_Arise_. +Articles, explained; use of. +_As_, as conjunction or adverb; as a relative pronoun, Glossary; for + _like_; for _since_, Glossary; punctuation of (Sec.122). +_At_, for _in_, Glossary. +_Attackted_, mispronunciation of _attacked_, Glossary. +Attribute complement, explained; case of (note 2). +Auxiliary verbs, explained; _shall_ and _will_; _should_ and _would_; + _may, can, might_, and _could_. +_Avocation_, for _vocation_. +_Awake_, for _wake_, Glossary. +_Awful_, for _awfully_, Glossary. + +_Bad_, for _badly_, Glossary. +Balanced sentence. +Barbarisms, defined; rules for avoidance of; when proper. +Beginning of the composition. +_Beside_, for _besides_, Glossary. +_Best_, for _better_, Glossary. +_Between_, for _among_, Glossary. +_Bible_, capitalization of (Sec.100). +_Blowed_, for _blew_, Glossary. +Body, of the letter. +Books for reading, list of. +_Bound_, for _determined_, Glossary. +Brackets, use of. +_But_, as a relative pronoun; with a negative; with a dependent clause; + to introduce two succeeding statements. +_But that_, for _but what_. + +_Calculate_, for _intend_. +_Can_, use of; model conjugation of. +"Cant expressions," in letters. +Capitalization, rules for. +Cases, classified and defined; case forms of pronouns; +case of word in apposition; case forms of relative pronouns; outline + for use of case forms; rules for forming possessive. +_Character_, for _reputation_, Glossary. +_Character of Napoleon Bonaparte_, by Channing, quotation from. +Choice of words, rules to aid in. +_Christmas_, by Washington Irving, quotation from. +_Claim_, for _assert_. +Clauses, defined; adjective; adverbial; agreement, of verb in; + principal or independent; subordinate or dependent; substantive; + _when_ and _where_ clauses. +Climax in sentences. +Clipped words, rule against. +Close of letter. +_Clum_, for _climbed_, Glossary. +"_In care of_," misuse of _c|o_ for. +Coherence, of paragraph; how to gain in paragraph; illustrations of + in paragraph; of sentence; of whole composition; words of. +Colon. +"Comma blunder". +Comma. +Common gender, defined, of nouns and pronouns. +Comparative degree; misuse of, in reference to more than two things. +Comparison, degrees of; irregular forms in; errors in; manner of comparing. +_Complected_, for _complexioned_, Glossary. +Complex sentence. +Complimentary close, in letters. +Compound nouns, explained; rules for forming plurals of. +Compound pronouns, personal; relative. +Compound sentence. +Compound subject; agreement of verb with. +Compound words, use of hyphen with (Sec.140). +_Concluded_, for _to form an opinion_, Glossary. +Conditional clauses, punctuation of (Sec.114). +Confusion of adjectives and adverbs. +Conjunctions, defined; misuses of; correlatives. +_Considerable_, for _considerably_, Glossary. +_Consul_, for _council_, or _counsel_. +Contractions of _not_, use of, in formal composition. +Co-ordinate clauses, punctuation of (Sec.Sec.112, 113), (Sec.Sec.118, 119, 120). +Copulative verb. +Correctly written letters. +Correlatives, placing of. +_Could_, use of; model conjugations of. +_Council, counsel_ and _consul_ confused. +_Cranford_, by Mrs. Gaskell, selection from. +_Cute_, for _pretty, clever_, etc., Glossary. + +Dash, use of. +_Decease_, Glossary. +Definition, by a _when_ or _where_ clause. +Degrees in comparison, classified. +_Demand_, Glossary. +Dependent and conditional clauses, punctuation of (Sec.114), (Sec.Sec.119, 120). +Dictionary, value of its use. +_Different_, with _than_, Glossary. +_Directly_, misused as a conjunction. +_Disease_, Glossary. +Division of words at ends of lines (Sec.139). +_Don't_, Glossary. +Double negatives. +_Down_, misuse as a verb, Glossary. +_Drownded_, mispronunciation of _drowned_, Glossary. + +_East_, capitalization of (Sec.100). +_Each other_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Effect_, for _affect_, Glossary. +_Either_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Either-or_. +Elements of the sentence: Principal elements, subject; + predicate. Subordinate elements: attribute complement; adjective + modifier; adverbial modifier; object complement. +_Emigration_, for _immigration_, Glossary. +Emphasis, in paragraphs; in sentence. +Ending of whole composition. +_Enough_, Glossary. +_Euthuse_, Glossary. +Enumerations, punctuation before, (Sec.Sec.122, 123). +_Esq._, misuse after Mr.. +_Etc._, misspelling of, Glossary. +Euphony, in sentences. +_Everybody_, followed by a plural form, Glossary. +_Everywheres_, for _everywhere_. +Examples, of beginning of whole composition; of correctly written letters; + of ending of whole composition; of outline of whole composition. +Exclamation point, use of. +_Except_, for _accept_, Glossary. +Explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of (Sec.111). +Expletives. +_Expect_, for _suppose_. + +_Fall_, for _fell_. +_Father_, capitalization of (Sec.99). +_Fell_, for _fall_. +Feminine gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. +Final words, in letters. +"Fine-writing". +_Fine_, Glossary. +_Firstly_, Glossary. +_First-rate_, Glossary. +_For_, used to introduce two succeeding clauses. +Foreign words. +_Former_, Glossary. +Form of letters. +From, Glossary. +_Funny_, for _singular_, Glossary. + +Gender, defined and classified formation of feminine from + masculine; gender of pronouns. +General terms, use of. +_Gent_, Glossary. +_Gentleman_, Glossary. +Geographical names, punctuation of (Sec.108). +Gerunds, explanation of; confusion with participle; with noun or + pronoun modifier; placing of gerund phrase. +Gettysburg speech, by Lincoln. +_Good_, for _well_. +Good use of words; offenses against. +_Got_, Glossary. +_Grand_, Glossary. +Grave forms of personal pronouns, use of. +_Guess_, for _think_, Glossary. + +Hackneyed expressions, general rule against; in letters. +_Had, ought_, Glossary. +_Hain't_, Glossary. +_Hanged_, confused with _hung_, Glossary. +_Hardly_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +_Have_, misuse after _had_, Glossary. +Heading, of letters. +_Heighth_, for _height_, Glossary. +_Here_, misuse with demonstratives, Glossary. +_Her'n_. +_Him_, misuse with gerund. +_Hisself_. +_His'n_. +_Home_, confused with _house_; for _at home_, Glossary. +_Humbug_, Glossary. +_Hung_, confused with _hanged_, Glossary. +Hyphen, use of. + +_I_, capitalization of (Sec.100). Order of. +In the letter. +Idioms. +_i. e._, punctuation of (Sec.122). +_Illy_, Glossary. +_Immigration_, confused with _emigration_, Glossary. +Imperative mode. +Improving one's vocabulary, rules for. +Improprieties. +Indentation, of paragraph; of paragraph, in letters. +Infinitives, explanation of; forms of; cases used with; rules for + sequence of infinitive tenses; split. +Inflection, defined. +_In_, confused with _into_, Glossary. +Inside address of letters. +Interjection. +Interrogation point, use of. +Interrogative pronouns. +Intransitive verbs, see _Transitive_. +Introductory words or phrases, punctuation of (Sec.107). + +_Kind_, with plural modifiers, Glossary. +_Kind of a_. + +_Lady_, Glossary. +_Latter_, confused with _last_, Glossary. +_Lay_, confused with lie. +_Learn_, for _teach_, Glossary. +_Leave_, for _let_, Glossary. +_Lend_, confused with _loan_. +Length, of paragraphs; of sentences. +Letter writing; body of letter; close; heading; illustrations of + correctly written letters; inside address; miscellaneous + directions; notes in third person; outside address; salutation. +_Liable_, for _likely_. +_Lie_, confused with _lay_. +_Lightning_, Glossary. +_Like_, misuse as a conjunction. +_Lit on_, Glossary. +_Loan_, confused with _lend_. +Loose sentences. +_Lot_ for _a great deal_, Glossary. + +_Mad_, for _angry_. +Masculine gender, defined; of pronouns. +_May_; model conjugation of. +_Messrs._, use of. +_Might_; model conjugations of. +Mode, definition of; indicative; infinitive; imperative; obligative, + footnote; participal; potential, of; subjunctive. +Modifiers, placing of. +_Most_ for _almost_. +_Mother_, capitalization of (Sec.99). +_Mrs._, Glossary. +_Much_, for _many_. +_Muchly_. +_Mutual_, confused with _common_, Glossary. + +Name, form of verb. +_Namely_, punctuation of (Sec.122). +_Near_, confused with _nearly_. +_Neither_, misuse with more than two objects, Glossary. +_Neither-nor_. +_Nerve_, Glossary. +Neuter gender, defined; of nouns and pronouns. +Newly coined expressions, rule against. +_Newsy_, Glossary. +Nominative case, defined; when used, note. +_No place_, Glossary. +_No_, punctuation of (Sec.102). +_No good_, for _worthless_. +_North_, capitalization of (Sec.100). +_Not muchly_. +Notes in the third person. +_Not only--but also_. +_Notorious_, confused with _noted_, Glossary. +Nouns, common; proper; case of; gender of; number of. +_Nowhere near_, for _not nearly_, Glossary. +Number, defined; agreement of verb and subject in number; singular; + plural; of relative pronouns; of pronouns; of pronouns with + compounded antecedent; rules for forming plurals of nouns. +_Number_, sign #, used for. + +_O_ and _oh_, capitalization of (Sec.100). +Object complement, explained. +Objective case, defined; when used. +Obligative mode (footnote). +_Observance_, confused with _observation_. +Obsolete words. +_Of_, Glossary. +Omission, of adverb _much_; of important words; of prepositions; + punctuation in case of (Sec.117); (Sec.138); of verbs. +_One another_, use of. +_Only_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +Order of heading in letters. +_Other_, use of in comparison. +_Ought_. +Outline, for composition; illustration of. +Outside address, of letters. +_Outside of_, Glossary. +Over-statement of facts, rule against. +_Over with_, Glossary. + +_Pants_, Glossary. +Paragraphing of letters. +Paragraphs; coherence in; emphasis in; indentation of; in letters; + length of; unity in. +Parenthesis marks, use of; too frequent use of. +Parts of speech, classified. +Passive voice and active voice explained; forms of. +Past participle, explanation and use of. +Past tense, explanation and use of. +Participles, explanation of; confusion with gerunds; dangling; at + beginning of sentence; preceded by _thus_. +Period, use of. +Periodic sentence. +Personal pronouns, defined; classified; compound personal pronouns; + use of common and of grave forms of; unnecessary use of. +_Piece_, Glossary. +_Photo_, Glossary. +Phrases, defined; prepositional; verb; punctuation of adverbial + phrases (Sec.116), (Sec.121). +_Place_, Glossary. +Placing of adjectives and adverbs. +_Plenty_, Glossary. +Plural number, explained; rules for forming plurals of nouns. +Point of view, in paragraph; in sentence; in whole composition. +_Poorly_, for _ill_, Glossary. +Positive degree. +Position, in letters, of complimentary close; of heading; of inside + address; of salutation; of outside address. +Possessive case, defined; rules for forming possessives of nouns; + when used. +Potential mode, explanation and forms of. +Predicate of the sentence; defined; compound, predicate, explained. +Prepositional phrase. +Prepositions, defined; omission of; proper use of; unnecessary use + of; used as conjunctions. +_Principal_, confused with _principle_, Glossary. +Principal parts of verbs, explained; classified; list of; rules for + use of. +Principal verbs, explained. +Professional words. +Pronouns, defined; adjective; antecedent of, defined; agreement with + antecedent; case forms of; compound personal; compound relative; + gender of; interrogative; number of; outline of, use of case forms + of; relative; rules determining gender of; with compound antecedents. +Pronunciation, lists of frequently mispronounced words; words given + wrong sounds; words given wrong accent; words of foreign pronunciation; + words of similar spelling. +Proper adjectives, capitalization of (Sec.95). +Proper nouns, defined; capitalization of (Sec.95). +_Propose_, for _intend_, Glossary. +_Providing_, for _if_, Glossary. +Provincialisms, definition and rule against use of. +Punctuation, rules for; in letters, body; heading; inside address; + outside address; salutation. + +Qualities, essential: Of sentences, unity; emphasis; euphony. Of + paragraphs, unity; coherence; emphasis. Of whole composition, unity; + coherence. +_Quite_, for _very_. +Quotation marks, use of. +Quotations, punctuation of (Sec.115), (Sec.123), (Sec.131), (Sec.Sec.132-137). + +_Raise_, confused with _rise_, Glossary. +_Recommend_, confused with _recommendation_, Glossary. +Relative causes, cases in; explanatory or non-restrictive; introduction + of successive; punctuation of (Sec.111); use of _when_ or _where_ clause. +Relative pronouns, defined and explained; agreement of verb + with; case and number of; compound; explanatory or non-restrictive; + restrictive; use of, with different antecedents. +Repetition of similar words or syllables. +_Reputation_, confused with _character_, Glossary. +_Respectfully_, confused with _respectively_. +_Rev._. +_Right away_, Glossary. +_Right off_, Glossary. +_Rise_, confused with _raise_, Glossary. + +Salutation, in letters. +_Some_, misuse as a pronoun, Glossary. +_Say_, for _order_ or _command_, Glossary. +_Scarcely_, placing of; with a negative, Glossary. +Scriptures, capitalization, of (Sec.100). +_Seldom ever_, Glossary. +Semi-colon, use of. +Sentence elements out of natural order, (Sec.109). +Sentences: defined; declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory; + essential qualities of; loose, periodic, balanced; simple, complex, + compound; length of; slipshod construction of. +Sequence of tenses, infinitive; in clauses. +Series of words, punctuation of. +_Set_, confused with _sit_, Glossary. +S-form of verb. +_Shut of_, for _rid of_, Glossary. +_Sight_, for _many_, Glossary. +Signature of writer, in letters. +Simple sentence, defined. +Simple words, use of. +Similar expressions of similar thoughts. +Singular form of verb, explanation and use of, after you and they. +Singular number, explained. +_Sit_, confused with _set_, Glossary. +_Shall_ and _will_, use of, in dependent clauses; in principal clauses; + in questions; model conjugations of; past tenses of. +_Should_ and _would_, model conjugations of; use of. +Slang. +_So_, use of. +Solecisms. +_Some_, misuse as an adverb, Glossary. +_Somebody else's_. +_Sort_, with plurals, Glossary. +_Sort of a_, Glossary. +_South_, capitalization of, (Sec.100). +Speech, paragraphing of. +Specific terms, use of. +Spelling, lists of words frequently misspelled; rules for; of words of + similar sound. +"Squinting construction." +_Street_, omission of in letters. +Subject of sentence or clause, defined; agreement of verb and subject; + compound; relative pronoun as, of whole composition; statement of, + in composition. +Subject matter of letters. +Subjunctive mode. +_Such_, Glossary. +Summarizing word, use of; punctuation of, (Sec.127). +Superlative degree; misuse in comparing only two things. +_Suspect_, for _expect_. +Syllables, division of words into, (Sec.139). +Synonyoms, value of. + +_Tasty_, for _tasteful_, Glossary. +Technical words. +"Telegraph style," in letters. +Tense, explained; sequence of. +_Than_, use of. +_That_, with what antecedents used; as a restrictive relative; + misuse of, Glossary. +_That is_, punctuation of, (Sec.122). +_The_, use of article. +_Their'n, theirself, theirselves_. +_Them_, for _those_. +_Then_, use of. +_There_, improper use of after demonstratives, Glossary. +_They_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. +Third person, notes in the. +_Those kind_, and _these sort_. +_Three first_, Glossary. +_Thusly_. +Title of whole composition. +Titles, abbreviations of; capitalization of, (Sec.Sec. 96, 97). +_To-day, to-morrow, to-night_, hyphens with, (Sec.140). +_Too_, misuse of, Glossary. +Transition, in whole composition. +Transitive and intransitive verbs, confusion of; explanation of. +_Transpire_, for _happen_. +_Try and_, Glossary. +_Two first_, Glossary. + +_Unbeknown_, for _unknown_. +Unity: Of paragraph; how to gain; illustrations of. + Of sentence. Of whole composition. +Unnecessary words, use of. + +Verb phrase, explained. +Verbs, defined; agreement of verb and subject; agreement of verb in + clauses; auxiliary; gerunds; infinitives; mode; model conjugations + of _to-be_ and _to see_; omission of verbs or parts of; participles; + principal; principal parts; principal parts, list of; transitive and + intransitive; use of auxiliaries; voice. +_Very_. +_viz._, punctuation of, (Sec.122). +Vocabulary, rules for improvement of. +_Vocation_, confused with _avocation_. +Vulgarisms. + +_Wake_, confused with _awake_, Glossary. +_Wait on_, confused with _wait for_, Glossary. +_Ways_, Glossary. +Weak beginnings and endings of sentences. +_Well_, confused with _good_. +_West_, capitalization of, (Sec.100). +_What_, with what antecedents. +_When_. +_Where_. +_Which_, with clause or phrase as antecedent; with what antecedents used. +_Who_, with what antecedents used. +Whole composition; beginning of, ending of; paragraph composition or + paragraph theme. +_Will_, use of, see _shall_. +_Without_, misuse as a conjunction. +Words, choice of; clipped or abbreviated; division of at ends of lines, + (Sec.139); foreign; good use of; how to improve vocabulary of, idioms; + in place of figures in letters; newly-coined; of coherence; + professional; pronunciation of, provincialisms; simple English; slang; + spelling of; technical words; vulgarisms. +_Would_, see _should_. + +_Yes_, punctuation of, (102). +_You_, indefinite use of; with singular verb. +_Yours truly_ and _yours respectfully_, wrong abbreviation of. +_Your'n_. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Practical Grammar and Composition, by Thomas Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION *** + +***** This file should be named 22577.txt or 22577.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/5/7/22577/ + +Produced by Robert J. 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